A correct version of people of conversation

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PEOPLE

OF CONVERSATION VOL.1 WILLIAM ANDERSON GITTENS MEDIA ARTS SPECIALIST

ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9

Honouring My Mother Ira Louise Gittens 1

ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9




PEOPLE OF CONVERSATION VOL.I WILLIAM ANDERSON GITTENS MEDIA ARTS SPECIALIST

HONOURING MY MOTHER IRA LOUISE GITTENS

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PEOPLE OF CONVERSATION VOL.I WILLIAM ANDERSON GITTENS MEDIA ARTS SPECIALIST

HONOURING MY MOTHER IRA LOUISE GITTENS

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of William Anderson Gittens the copyright owner.

Typesetting, Layout Design, Illustrations, and Digital Photography

by William Anderson Gittens Edited by Magnola Gittens and William Anderson Gittens Published by Devgro Media Arts Services Printed by Massy Technologies InfoCom (Barbados) Ltd. Email address devgro@ hotmail.com Twitter account William Gittens@lisalaron https://www.facebook.com/wgittens2 www.linkedin.com/pub/william-gittens/95/575/35b/

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Foreword

In accepting Issac Newton’s theory that every action creates a reaction, I have also come to acknowledge the fact, that on this journey of life, People will always be the topic of Conversation especially when we take Mother Teresa’s philosophy (1),(2): “I can do things you cannot do, you can do things I cannot do, together we can do great things” into account William Anderson Gittens Author, Publisher, Media Arts Specialist

1 http://life-changing-inspirational-quotes.com/mother-teresa-quotes.html 2 http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newton3laws.html

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Acknowledgements 


Honouring my mother Ira Louise Gittens

who has had a profound

influence on my life.

Special thanks to the Creator for his guidance and for choosing me as a conduit to express the creative gifts he has given me, so I may share them with others.

Thanks also to my wife Magnola, my family, friends, and well-wishers who contributed to the developmental process of this text which can be categorized as a work in progress.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

PAGE

Foreword…………….. ........................................................................................................4

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................5

Overview ............................................................................................................................7

Chapter 1 Mother Teresa, Maya Angelou, .........................................................................8

Chapter 2 Jesse Owens, Usain St.Leo Bolt OJ CD .........................................................24

Chapter 3 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz, Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev .........................48

Chapter 4 Sir Winston Churchill , Pres. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy .......................68

Chapter 5 Dr. Eric Eustace Williams TC, Pres.Franklin Delano Roosevelt………………84

Chapter 6 Comparative Features......................................................................................97

Chapter 7 Personal Reflections .....................................................................................110

Chapter 8 Honouring My Mother Ira Louise Gittens .......................................................111

About the Author. ...........................................................................................................117

Works Cited....................................................................................................................119

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Overview

This text highlights the journey of ten international icons namely, Dr. Maya Angelou, Usain Bolt, Fidel Castro, Winston Churchill, Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, John F Kennedy, Jesse Owens, Franklin Roosevelt, Mother Teresa, and Dr. Eric Williams. It focuses on the periods 1874 to 2015, time span of 141 years Cultural identities such as class, colour, gender, hierarchy, were used to profile these icons. When these identities harmonize with Mother Teresa’s and Newton’s ideologies, they form the framework for the discussion in this text.

The global village has perceived these ten international icons as activists, controversial, electable, extraordinary, legendary, passionate, popular, political, statesmen and writers.

Research has also shown that although Mother Teresa and Newton are the authors of these ideologies “I can do things you cannot, you can do things I cannot; together we can do great things”3 and that 4 “Every action creates a reaction” respectively, evidence has shown that the said ideologies have always been practiced by humankind unknowingly/knowingly from time in memorial and is also a way of life.

William Anderson Gittens Author, Media Specialist, and Publisher

3 http://life-changing-inspirational-quotes.com/mother-teresa-quotes.html

Newton's law4 "every action is attended by an equal and opposite reaction”

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Chapter 1 Mother Teresa- Given name- Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu5 August 26, 1910 – September 5, 1997 Dr. Maya Angelou- Given name- Marguerite Annie Johnson April 4, 1928 – May 28, 2014 Mother Teresa - was a Roman Catholic Religious Sister and Missionary of Albanian origin who lived most of her life in India.

August 26, 1910 was the date on which at least two significant events took place, which would have a great impact on the world’s stage.

Thomas Edison gave the first demonstration of the kinetophone, synchronizing the sound from a phonographic record to a kinetoscope motion picture.

5 http://www.geteasyway.com/Article/ViewArticle.aspx%3Fde0RnTIa58w%3D

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The press conference, at West Orange ,New Jersey, showed a man walking "and as his lips moved, the sound of his voice issued from the concealed phonograph". The New York Times added "This was all that Mr. Edison would show."6 This piece of

technology has influenced all subsequent motion pictures to the extent that the improved technological version is now being used globally to present documentaries on icons such as Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu,7 familiarly known as Mother Teresa.

Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was one of five siblings.8 She was born in Skopje Yugoslavia9,(called Macedonia today) to parents Nukola and Dronda Bojaxhui on August 26, 1910. She was the youngest of their children.

To bring some perspective to the highlights of her life, let’s look at some of the factors which helped to shape Agnes’ development.

Her parents were of Albanian descent and were devout Catholics Agnes’ father was an entrepreneur He was deeply involved in the local church especially in city politics A vocal proponent of Albanian Independence Her mother extended an open invitation to the city's destitute to dine with her family.

Her father suddenly fell ill and died, when she was only eight (8) years old.

The passing of Agnes’ father no doubt may have created an extraordinary bond between her mother and herself. It was reported that Agnes’ mother was quoted as saying "My child, never eat a single mouthful unless you are sharing it with others…"

In Agnes’ formative years she attended a convent-run primary school and then a state-run secondary school. At the age of 12, Agnes first felt a calling to a religious life, but it was not until 1928, that she decided to pursue the life of a nun. At the age of 18, she left home in pursuit of her calling, and never saw her mother or sister again.

It was at this stage of her life, that two significant things happened.

6"Motion

Pictures Are Made to Talk", New York Times, August 27, 1910, p8

7 http://www.geteasyway.com/Article/ViewArticle.aspx%3Fde0RnTIa58w%3D 8 http://www.writework.com/tag/agnes-gonxha-bojaxhiu 9 (2002) "Mother Teresa of Calcutta (1910–1997)". Vatican News Service. Retrieved 30 May 2007. Agnes_Gonxha_Bojaxhiu

"The Nobel Peace Prize 1979: Mother Teresa". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 11 August 2012.

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Agnes Bojaxhiu travelled to Ireland and joined the Loreto Sisters of Dublin to learn English.

Agnes Bojaxhiu’s name was changed to Sister Mary Teresa after Saint Thérèse of Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries but she chose the Spanish spelling of Teresa, because another nun had already chosen Thérèse.

The name would later be changed to Mother Teresa.

From 1929 to 2012 over a period of 83 years a number of significant events happened post Agnes’ religious calling. Some of the major events are highlighted below: In 1929, Agnes travelled on to Darjeeling, India for the novitiate10 period. Here she taught at St. Teresa's School, a school close to her convent.

On May 1931, Agnes made her First Profession of Vows,11 choosing to be called Sister Teresa.

May 24, 1937, while teaching at St. Mary’s school east of Calcutta, India she took her Final Profession of Vows to a ‘Life of Poverty, Chastity and Obedience’, a tradition adopted by Loreto nuns.

Upon making her final vows she accepted the title of ‘Mother’ and thus became known as Mother Teresa.

In 1944 Mother Teresa became the Principal at Saint Mary's school.

September 10, 1946 after teaching for about 15 years in India she received what she called ‘the call within the call’ to devote herself to caring for the sick and poor.

This second calling impacted her life to the extent that her life would be forever transformed.

To prepare herself for the task at hand, she spent a few months at the Holy Family Hospital in Patna India where she received basic medical training She began her missionary work with the poor in 1948.12 10 Novitiate, alt. noviciate, is the period of training and preparation that a novice (or prospective) monastic, apostolic, or member of a religious institute undergoes . en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novitiate

Afterward she was sent to Calcutta, where she was assigned to teach at Saint Mary's High School for Girls, schools run by the Loreto Sisters and dedicated to teaching girls from the city's poorest Bengali families. Mother Teresa learned to speak both Bengali and Hindi fluently as she taught geography and history and dedicated herself to alleviating the girls' poverty through education.

11 http://www.biography.com/people/mother-teresa-9504160#death-and-legacy&awesm=~oGAxsepzfLlixu During this period she exhibited humanitarian characteristics because of the fact that she set up a hospice; centers for the blind, aged, and disabled; and a leper colony.

12 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Teresa

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On 7 October 1950 Mother Teresa received permission from the Vatican to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity.

She founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation with only 12 members—most of them former teachers and pupils from St. Mary's School.

It’s mission was to care for – to use Mother Teresa’s words "the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone.”

There are specific regulations which govern this organization.

Members of the order must adhere to the vows of Chastity, Poverty and Obedience, and the fourth vow, to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor” In 1952, Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the city of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. Those brought to the home received medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of their faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus received water from the Ganges, and Catholics received the Last Rites. "A beautiful death," she said, "is for people who lived like animals to die like angels—loved and wanted”.

Mother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food.

In 1955, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for the increasing numbers of lost children they were taking in. She opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth.

The congregation soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s she had opened hospices, orphanages and leper houses all over India.

The Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963 Mother Teresa then expanded the congregation throughout the globe.

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Its first house outside India was opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters. Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968.

During the 1970s the congregation opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and the United States.13 This organization spans the globe and is still active in 133 countries which up until 2012 consisted of over 4,500 sisters.14 They still manage hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis; soup kitchens; dispensaries and mobile clinics; children's and family counselling programmes; orphanages; schools; and care for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine.

In 1982 in the midst of the Siege of Beirut, Mother Teresa was able to broker a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and the Palestinian guerrillas, to rescue 37 children trapped in a front line hospital. Along with some Red Cross workers, she travelled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients.

In the late 1980’s when Eastern Europe was becoming more open, she visited Communist countries and started many projects to assist the needy.

Mother Teresa travelled to assist and minister to the hungry in Ethiopia, radiation victims at Chernobyl, and earthquake victims in Armenia.

In 1991, Mother Teresa returned to her homeland for the first time and opened a Missionaries of Charity Brothers home in Tirana, Albania.

Amidst some controversy she remained committed and focused for her tireless and effective service to humanity in the form of her charity work, Mother Teresa received numerous awards and honors including: Canonical recognition for a new congregation in October 1950.

On Jan 6, 1971, the Catholic church honoured her publicly. In recognition of her apostolate, she was honoured by Pope Paul, who awarded her the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize, commending her for her work with the poor, display of Christian charity and efforts for peace.

13 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mother_Teresa 14 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mother_Teresa#Recognition_and_reception

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In 1979, the Nobel Peace Prize15 was awarded to Mother Teresa in recognition of her missionary and humanitarian work because she “brought help to suffering humanity, and for the work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitute a threat to peace”16.

Among other awards from India, she received their highest in 198017 when she was awarded, the Bharat Ratna.

In 1994 her Albanian homeland granted her the ‘Golden Honour of the Nation’.18 In 1996 November 17,she became an Honorary U.S. Citizen.

In 2003, she was consecrated as "Blessed Teresa of Calcutta".

On 28 August 2010, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of her birth, the Government of India issued a special 5 Rupee coin, being the sum she first arrived in India with. President Pratibha Patil said of Mother Teresa, "Clad in a white sari with a blue border, she and the sisters of Missionaries of Charity became a symbol of hope to many – the aged, the destitute, the unemployed, the diseased, the terminally ill, and those abandoned by their families."

It has been reported, that during Mother Teresa’s life and work she received widespread praise as well as criticism.

When we take into account all of the events that occurred pre and post Mother Teresa’s life perhaps it is for the reasons highlighted earlier that she was deemed a controversial figure.

A case in point, she has drawn criticism for her vocal endorsement of some of the Catholic Church's more controversial doctrines, such as opposition to contraception and abortion. Mother Teresa said in her 1979 Nobel lecture "I feel the greatest destroyer of peace today is abortion, because if a mother can kill her own child – what is left for me to kill you and you kill me – there is nothing between”.

15 the highest honor 16 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Teresa

17 She received major Indian awards, including India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna, in 1980.[73] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Teresa

18 Parvathi Menon Cover story: A life of selfless

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In 1995, she publicly advocated a "no" vote in the Irish referendum to end the country's constitutional ban on divorce and remarriage. The most scathing criticism of Mother Teresa’s can be found in Christopher Hitchens' book The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, in which Hitchens argued that Mother Teresa glorified poverty for her own ends and provided a justification for the preservation of institutions and beliefs that sustained widespread poverty.

Although Mother Teresa was widely admired by many for her charitable works she was widely criticized for her campaigns against contraception for substandard conditions in the hospices for which she was responsible In response to her critics, she is reported to have said, "No matter who says what, you should accept it with a smile and do your own work." 19 A series of incidences beginning in 1983, led to her declining health.

While visiting Pope John Paul II in Rome in 1983, Mother Teresa suffered a heart attack. After a second attack in 1989, she received an artificial pacemaker. In 1991, after a battle with pneumonia while in Mexico, she suffered further heart complications.

In April 1996, Mother Teresa fell and broke her collar bone. In August she suffered from malaria and failure of the left heart ventricle causing her to have further heart surgery; but it was clear that her health was declining.

On 13 March 1997, she stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity.

This diminutive, strong, fearless, Roman Catholic Religious Sister/ Mother and Missionary of Albanian origin who lived for most of her life in India ,having touched many lives, having cared for so many, died on 5 September 1997.

In summary of her life, this quote from her says it all. "By blood, I am Albanian. By citizenship, I am Indian. By faith, I am a Catholic nun. As to my

19 Smoker (1980); Hitchens (1995, pp. 11, 28, 31f., 53, 55-57, 59), (2003, "ultra-reactionary and fundamentalist even in orthodox Catholic terms").

Loudon, Mary. (1996)The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Book Review, BMJ vol.312, no.7022, 6 January 2006, pp.64–5. Retrieved 2 August 2007. See also Fox, Robin (1994). "Mother Theresa's care for the dying". The Lancet 344 (8925): 807. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(94)92353-1.

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calling, I belong to the world. As to my heart, I belong entirely to the Heart of Jesus."20 Since her death, Mother Teresa has remained in the public spotlight.

In particular, the 2003 publication of her private correspondence of the last 50 years of her life which revealed in part, the crisis of her personal struggles with her faith, her spiritual dry seasons, her temptations she faced to give up the charity work, and return to the safety and comfort of teaching at the convent, caused some to question her life and her sincerity.

She will also be remembered for one of her many famous quotes: “I can do things you cannot, you can do things I cannot; together we can do great things.”

This was reflective in her earthly journey.

Dr. Maya Angelou – Famous American iconic Poet, Writer, Dancer, Film and Television Producer, Director, Playwright and Trained Actor April 4, 1928 – May 28, 2014 It was on April 4, 1928 when Marguerite Ann Johnson was born in St. Louis, Missouri, U.S. to parents Bailey and Vivian (Baxter) Johnson. Her only sibling was an older brother Bailey Jr. who nicknamed her Maya.

This famous multi-talented iconic poet, writer, dancer, film and television producer, director, playwright, actor and professor from the United States of America would later change her name to Maya Angelou21. Interestingly she was one of many other celebrities who have changed their names22- Namely; Marilyn Monroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson Jamie Foxx was born Eric Marlon Bishop Whoopi Goldberg was born Caryn Elaine Johnson Doris Day was born Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff

20 21 http://fixquotes.com/authors/maya-angelou.htm 22 http://www.imdb.com/list/ls003280390/?start=1&view=detail&sort=listorian:asc

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Dean Martin was born Dino Paul Crocetti John Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison Charles Bronson was born Charles Buchinsky, Tom Jones was born Thomas Jones Woodward Sir Elton John was born as Reginald Kenneth Dwight.

Tina Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock Stevie Wonder Born Stevland Hardaway Judkins.

Born Marguerite Annie Johnson, Angelou had a difficult childhood.

Her parents separated when she was three years old. She and her older brother, Bailey, were sent to live with their father's mother, Anne Henderson, in Stamps, Arkansas.

Her brother Bailey with whom she was very close, would call her “My”, for ‘my sister’ because of a stutter, it was difficult for him to pronounce her name. Later in reading about the Maya Indians, he started to call her Maya. The name stuck.

As an African American, Angelou experienced firsthand racial prejudices and discrimination in Arkansas.

Around the age of 7, during a visit to her mother, Angelou was sexually assaulted, by her mother's boyfriend. He was later found dead.It was believed, That , as vengeance for the sexual assault, Angelou's uncles killed the boyfriend. She felt because she had told her brother who had assaulted her, she caused his death. So traumatized by the experience, Angelou stopped talking believing, as she stated, "I thought, my voice killed him; I killed that man, because I told his name. And then I thought I would never speak again, because my voice would kill anyone. She returned to Arkansas and spent the next five years as a virtual mute.23 24 Angelou credits a teacher and friend of her family, Mrs. Bertha Flowers, with helping her speak again. Flowers introduced her to authors such as Charles Dickens, William Shakespeare, Edgar Allan Poe, Douglas Johnson, and James Weldon Johnson, authors who would affect her life and career.

Maya began to speak again.

23 http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/ang0bio-1 24 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou#Early_years

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Around age 13, when she and her brother rejoined their mother in San Francisco. Maya attended Mission High School and won a scholarship to study dance and drama at San Francisco's Labor School.

She became pregnant in her senior year and graduated a few weeks before giving birth to her son, Guy. Before graduating, she worked as the first black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco.

She left home at 16 and took on the difficult life of a single mother, supporting herself and her son by working as a waitress and cook, but she had not given up on her talents for music, dance, performance and poetry.

In 1951 Maya married a Greek electrician and aspiring musician by the name of Anastasios Angelopulos. After this marriage ended in 1954, she danced professionally in nightclubs around San Francisco, singing and dancing to calypso music and was known as Marguerite Johnson or Rita. Encouraged by her managers to change her name to a more appealing stage name, she changed her professional name to Maya Angelo.(a combination of her nick name, and a little twist to her marital surname). This set her apart and captured the feel of the calypso dance performances she became associated with.25 Between 1954 and 1955 a young Maya Angelou toured Europe playing the small part of Carla, in the George Gershwin’s English-language opera, Porgy and Bess.26 She studied modern dance with Martha Graham, danced with Alvin Ailey on television variety shows, and recorded her first record album, Calypso Lady in 1957.27 After meeting Martin Luther King Jr. in 1960 and hearing him speak, she became involved in his organization Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), making her contribution to the Civil Rights movement by being an organizer with SCLC, and assisting with its fund raising efforts. It was at this time, she started her pro-Castro and anti-apartheid activism.

25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou#Early_years 26 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess 27 http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/ang0bio-1

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In 1961, Angelo met and started a romantic relationship with South African Civil Rights activist and lawyer28 Vusimuzi Make. (Vusumzi L. Make -1931 – 15 April 2006).29 She, along with her son moved to Cairo, Egypt with Make, where she worked as an Associate Editor at the weekly English-language newspaper30. In 1962 when their relationship ended, Maya and her son moved to Ghana. Here her journalistic skills came to the fore. She accepted the post of an administrator and instructor at the University of Ghana's School of Music and Drama. She became an administrator at the University of Ghana, and was active in the African-American expatriate community.[39] She was a feature editor for The African Review, a free-lance writer for the Ghanaian Times, wrote and broadcast for Radio Ghana, and worked and performed for Ghana's National Theatre.

Maya developed the practice of learning the language of every country she visited, and within a few years, became proficient in speaking French, Italian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Arabic and Fanti, a dialect in Ghana bringing her quadlingual skills into focus.

When Malcolm31X visited Accra Ghana in the early 1960’s, she became close friends with him, and returned to US in 1965 to assist him in building his Civil Rights organization.

Between 1965 and 1968, two tragic events occurred which caused Maya to experience much pain and depression. The deaths of two of her dear friends.

In 1965, soon after she returned to the US to assist Malcom X with his organization called Organization of Afro-American Unity, he was assassinated.

28 Kondlo, Kwandiwe Merriman (2004-01-01). "The generation of strained intra-PAC relations in exile 1962-1990". In the twilight of the Azanian Revolution: the exile history of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa): (1960-1990). University of Johannesburg. pp. Chapter 4, pp 146–246. Retrieved 2006-12-27 29 "Vus'umuzi Make". sahistory.org.za. South African History Online. Retrieved 2007-01-06 30 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou#Early_years 31 Malcolm X (/ˈmælkəәm ˈɛks/; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz[A] (Arabic:

‫)ﺍاﻟﺣﺎ ّﺝج ﻣﺎﻟﻙك ﺍاﻟﺷﺑﺎﺯز‬, was an African-American Muslim minister and a human rights activist. To his admirers he was a courageous advocate for the rights of blacks, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans; detractors accused him of preaching racism and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.

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In 1968, Dr. King had asked Maya to organize a march, which she had agreed to, but had later postponed.

On April 04th 1968 (Maya’s 40th birthday), Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis .

Dr. King’s assassination had a tremendous impact on Dr. Angelou, and to help her through this depressing period of her life, as encouraged by friends James Baldwin and others, she concentrated her efforts on her writing.

Out of this tragedy came her first autobiography32 entitled ‘I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings’. This work chronicles her life up until age 17, and was published in 1969. This autobiography brought her much international recognition.

The book was her breakthrough, and her most acclaimed work, which has since been followed by a series of autobiographies. In the following years, books of her verse and the subsequent volumes of her autobiographical narrative continued to win her a huge international audience. She became increasingly in demand as a teacher and lecturer as she continued to explore dramatic forms as well.

In 1972 she wrote the screenplay and composed the score for the film ‘Georgia, Georgia’. Her screenplay, the first by an African American woman ever to be filmed, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize.

Angelou has also had supporting roles in TV series and movies such as Roots from 1977. She also held a lifetime professorship at Wake Forest University in Winston-Salem, North Carolina.

Angelou was invited by successive Presidents of the United States to serve in various capacities. President Ford appointed her to the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission and President Carter invited her to serve on the Presidential Commission for the International Year of the Woman.33 In 1993, President Bill Clinton requested Angelou to compose a poem to be recited at his inauguration. She performed "On the Pulse of Morning" becoming the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at President John F. Kennedy's inauguration in 1961. Her recitation resulted in more

32 http://fixquotes.com/authors/maya-angelou.htm 33 http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/ang0bio-1

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fame and recognition for her previous works, and broadened her appeal "across racial, economic, and educational boundaries".34 Dr. Maya Angelou has been controversial From the information researched it appears that Maya Angelou’s journey has been a controversial one, especially since "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings." It has been criticized by many parents; as a result the book was removed from the school curricula and library shelves.

According to the National Coalition Against Censorship35, parents and schools objected to Caged Bird's depictions of lesbianism, premarital cohabitation, pornography, and violence. Some have been critical of the book's sexually explicit scenes, use of language, and irreverent religious depictions.

Caged Bird appeared third on the American Library Association’s (ALA) list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990–200036. Fifth on their list of the ten most challenged books of the 21st century (2000–2005), and was one of the ten books most frequently banned from high school and junior high school libraries and classrooms.

34 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou#Early_years 35http://www.ala.org/ala/newspresscenter/n...

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se...

36 Harry Potter tops list of most challenged books of 21st Century

(CHICAGO) In anticipation of the 25th anniversary of Banned Books Week (September 23-30), the American Library Association (ALA) today announced the top 10 most challenged books from 2000-2005, with the Harry Potter series of books leading the pack. The 10 most challenged books of the 21st Century (2000-2005) are: 1. Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling 2. "The Chocolate War" by Robert Cormier 3. Alice series by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor 4. "Of Mice and Men" by John Steinbeck 5. "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" by Maya Angelou 6. "Fallen Angels" by Walter Dean Myers 7. "It's Perfectly Normal" by Robie Harris 8. Scary Stories series by Alvin Schwartz 9. Captain Underpants series by Dav Pilkey 10. "Forever" by Judy Blume

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Angelou’s critic Joanne M. Braxton stated that Caged Bird was "perhaps the most aesthetically pleasing" autobiography written by an AfricanAmerican woman in its era.[131] Much of Maya’s works have been used by teachers, psychologists, musicians, authors among others.

Educator Daniel Challener, in his 1997 book Stories of Resilience in Childhood, analyzed the events in Caged Bird to illustrate resiliency in children. Challener argued that Angelou's book has provided a "useful framework" for exploring the obstacles many children like Maya have faced and how their communities have helped them succeed.

Psychologist Chris Boyatzis has reported using Caged Bird to supplement scientific theory and research in the instruction of child development topics such as the development of self-concept and self-esteem, ego resilience, industry versus inferiority, effects of abuse, parenting styles, sibling and friendship relations, gender issues, cognitive development, puberty, and identity formation in adolescence. He found Caged Bird a "highly effective" tool for providing real-life examples of these psychological concepts Her poetry has influenced the modern hip-hop music community, including artists such as Kanye West, Common, Tupac Shakur, Nicki Minaj.

Although all her books have been best-sellers, writer Julian Mayfield, who called Caged Bird "a work of art that eludes description", argued that Angelou's autobiographies set a precedent for not only other black women writers, but also African-American autobiography as a whole.37 Angelou was honored by universities, literary organizations, government agencies, and special interest groups.

Her honors include a Pulitzer Prize nomination for her book of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water 'fore I Diiie.

37 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou#Early_years

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A Tony Award nomination for her role in the 1973 play Look Away.

Three Grammys for her spoken word albums.

She served on two presidential committees.

The National Medal of Arts in 2000.

The Lincoln Medal in 2008.

The Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011.

Angelou was awarded over fifty honorary degrees.

Her seventh and final autobiography was in 2013 at age 85, entitled Mom & Me & Mom, which focuses on her relationship with her mother.

Apparently, at the time of her death Maya Angelou though in poor health, was in the process of writing yet another autobiography which was highlighting her experiences with National and World leaders.

Through the lens of a Media Arts Specialist it is my opinion that Maya was a very talented individual.

Maya Angelou died on the morning of May 28 2014 at age 86, she was found by her nurse.

During her memorial service at Wake Forest University, her son Guy Johnson stated that despite being in constant pain due to her dancing career and respiratory failure, she wrote four books during the last ten years of her life. He said, "She left this mortal plane with no loss of acuity and no loss in comprehension." Showing right up until death, she did not let her declining health defeat her in her thoughts. Living by her own words, right up to the end.

“While one may encounter many defeats, one must not be defeated”.

In April 2015 the United States Postal Service (USPS) issued a Special-Edition stamp commemorating Maya Angelou. USPS has put the late poet Maya Angelou's face and name, together with a choice quotation, on a special edition stamp using the quote "A bird doesn’t sing because it has an answer, it sings because it has a song". An error was made however, in attributing the quote to Angelou. It is in fact a quote from Joan Walsh Anglund’s book of poems - A Cup of Sun (1967).

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From the information researched there is evidence which suggests that Mother Teresa and Maya Angelou were truly world renowned icons who, though they occupied different geographical locations and had different experiences, represented different diaspora and ethnicity, gave of their best as they influenced and shared their personalities and gifts selflessly with the world.

Similarities Both of their names were changed38 and they published autobiographies39, books and documents, plays, movies, and television. 40 Mother Teresa and Maya Angelou were conduits expressing their gifts that instituted several progressive social programs which furthered the advancement of life to the people of the World.

Both died in their 80s.

39 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelou 40 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Teresa#Commemoration

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Chapter 2 Jesse Owens (September 12, 1913 – March 31, 1980) Usain St.Leo Bolt OJ CD (August 21 1986) Jesse Owens an African-American track and field athlete and four-time Olympic gold medalist. His stunning victories and achievement of four gold medals at the 1936 Olympic games in Berlin has made him the best remembered of all Olympic athletes.

Henry Cleveland Owens, and Mary Emma Owens gave birth to the last of their ten children on September 12, 1913, in Oakville Alabama. This son was given the name James Cleveland Owens.

In the Oakville, Alabama setting the Owens’ family hadn’t a clue that their son “JC” would have: Another nick name - "The Buckeye Bullet," because of his speed Equaled one world record in high school, won three track and field events at the 1933 National Interscholastic Championships and would break three others and Won four gold medals at the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936.

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As part of the Great Migration when many African Americans left the segregated South, looking for better opportunities, the Owens family relocated to Cleveland Ohio when “JC” as he was called, was 9 years old. When his teacher at the new school asked him his name, to enter him into her roll book, he told her “JC”, because of his heavy Southern accent, she thought he said Jesse. The name stuck and he was known as Jesse Owens for the rest of his life. 41 Despite being a frail child, who was often sick as he battled chronic bronchial congestion and pneumonia, Jesse would later become an Olympic legend breaking and setting records in the athletic world and becoming the world’s fastest man of his time.

As a young boy Jesse took different jobs in his spare time such as, delivering groceries, and loading freight cars. He also worked in a shoe repair shop. During this time he realized he had a passion for running.

Owens attributed his athletic success to his Fairmount Junior High School track coach Mr. Charles Riley, who encouraged him, and allowed him to practice on mornings, since he worked at the shoe shop in the evenings.

During the great depression, his father was crippled , due to a car accident. This caused tremendous setbacks for the Owens family financially.

Believing that a vocational education would have guaranteed future employment for him to help his struggling family, Jesse enrolled at East Technical High School in 1930.42 It was in 1933 as a student at East Technical High School, that Jesse came to national recognition. At the National High School Championship in Chicago he equalled the world record of 9.4 seconds in the 100-yard (91 m) dash and set a record when he long-jumped 24 feet 9 1⁄2 inches (7.56 metres).43 “JC” quickly discovered that he made a name for himself as a nationally recognized sprinter, setting records in the 100 and 200-yard dashes as well as the long jump.

After his high school years, he enrolled at the Ohio State University where he had the opportunity to further hone his skills as an athlete.

His greatest achievement came in May 1935 when within 45 minutes, Jesse set three world records and tied a fourth.

41 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens 42 http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1259 43 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens

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On May 25 1935 during the ‘Big Ten Championships’, Owens created history and tied a world record in the 100-yard dash of 9.4 seconds, and within less than an hour, set world records: In the long jump, with a leap of 26 ft-8 ¼ in, a record that would stand for 25 years (finally broken by Ralph Boston in 1960); In the 220-yard (201.2m) dash at 20.3 seconds, In the 220-yard (201.2m) low hurdles at 22.6 seconds becoming the first to break 23 seconds.44 These feats were accomplished despite having a painful tailbone injury at the time.

In his junior year at Ohio State University, Owens won all 42 events in which he competed, including four events at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championships in 1935, another four in 1936, two events at the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) Championships and three others at the Olympic trials.

While breaking records for the Ohio State Buckeye track team, this young promising athlete affectionately became known as the “Buckeye Bullet”.

Destined for greatness, he stamped his authority on the ‘Big Ten’ games in 1935 and 1936.

Owens and Minnie Ruth Solomon had met at Fairmount Junior High School Cleveland in 1930 when he was fifteen and she was thirteen. They dated steadily throughout high school.

After the birth of their first daughter Gloria, who was born on Aug. 8, 1932, they were married in 1935. Marlene, the couple's second daughter, was born in 1939, and Beverly, the youngest daughter, was born in 1940.

Interestingly enough Gloria and Marlene later attended Ohio State University. Marlene no doubt had to live up the Owens legacy especially when she became OSU’s first African-American Homecoming Queen in 1960.

It was the 1936 Summer Olympic Games in Berlin Germany which further highlighted Jesse Owens’ athletic prowess and made him even more famous.

On August 3, he won the 100m sprint with a time of 10.3 seconds, defeating teammate college friend Ralph Metcalfe by a tenth of a second and defeating Tinus Osendarp of the Netherlands by two tenths of a second.

44 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens

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On August 4, he won the long jump with a leap of 26ft 5in (later crediting his achievement to the technical advice he received from Luz Long, the German competitor whom he defeated).

On August 5, he won the 200m sprint with a time of 20.7seconds, defeating Mack Robinson (the older brother of Jackie Robinson).

On August 9, Owens won his fourth gold medal, when he teamed up with Ralph Metcalfe, Frank Wykoff and Foy Draper in the 4x100 sprint relay setting a world record of 39.8seconds in the event.

This performance was not equaled until Carl Lewis won gold medals in the same events at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.

The long jump record of 26ft. 8in which Jesse Owens had set in 1935 (the year before the Berlin Olympics), stood for 25 years until it was broken

by Ralph Boston in August 1960 jumping at 27ft. Boston further went on to improve on the jump during the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, jumping 26ft.

71/2in and winning the Gold medal, with Owens at the games witnessing the event.45 Adolph Hitler and the Nazis, wanted the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games to be a German showcase and a statement for German supremacy. Believing the Germans to be superior to the African Americans, Hitler was hopeful that the German athletes would dominate the games with victories. He even criticized America for including black athletes on its Olympic roster.

There have been some conflicting stories as to whether or not Hitler shook Jesse’s hand at the Berlin Olympics.

History records Hitler as shaking the hands of only the German medalists on the first day of the games. The committee officials insisted he should shake hands with all of the medalists or none at all. He chose the latter and avoided further medal presentations.

After Owens won the 100-meter event, it is recorded that Hitler stomped out of the stadium, even though he later congratulated Jesse on his success.46 In total, the United States won 11 gold medals at the games, six of them were secured by black athletes, with Jesse securing 4 gold medals. The

45 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 46 http://www.biography.com/people/jesse-owens-9431142#1936-olympic-games

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African-American participants made America's success stronger at the Olympic Games.

The annals of history have recorded that Owens was easily the most dominant athlete to compete, and the most successful at the games, with him single-handedly proving Hitler’s white supremacy and Aryan theory wrong.

Jesse Owens has certainly experienced many challenges. One such challenge that stands out in my opinion was when he met Adolph Hitler and the Nazis’s in Germany. However, he staying focused, he was not detracted by Hitler’s expectations, but accomplished what he was gifted to do.

Jesse faced much discrimination: His family was refused accommodation at a number of New York hotels when they travelled there to welcome him home from the Berlin Olympics.47 Upon his return from the Olympics games, there was a New-York city ticker-tape parade in his honour, to be followed by a reception at the WaldorfAstoriato hotel. Jesse had to ride the freight elevator of the hotel, to get to the reception.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) never invited Jesse Owens to the White House following his triumphs at the Olympics games, he failed to meet with Owens to congratulate him on his success at the Olympics. Jesse would be recorded as saying "Hitler didn't snub me – it was our president who snubbed me. The president didn't even send me a telegram."

Racism at home had denied Owens the financial fruits of his victories after the 1936 games.

When Jesse returned from the 1936 Olympic Games he found it difficult to support his family financially, as the endorsements were not worth coming. Among other small jobs, he worked using his physical talents playing with the Harlem Globetrotters for a time, racing against dogs, motorcycles and horses during half time of some soccer matches and between doubleheaders of Negro League baseball games. When some people said this activity was

47 http://library.osu.edu/projects/jesse-owens/story_legacy.html

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degrading for an Olympian champion, Jesse is recorded as making the statement; “ I had four gold medals, but I can’t eat four gold medals”.

He started his own business in 1938. Within a year the company was in debt, and Jesse filed for personal bankruptcy.

He was also the Playground Director in Cleveland. This job allowed him to work with underprivileged children. After relocating to Chicago, we continued to work in this area, as it gave him much satisfaction working with the underprivileged children.

Owens eventually found financial stability when he became involved in public relations and marketing. He became a public relations representative and consultant to many corporations.48 He also made many appearances for various nonprofit causes and government programs.49 As an inspirational speaker he addressed many youth groups, high school and college students, PTA’s, church and professional organizations, and sports banquets.

This niche provided the opportunity for him to establish his own business in Chicago, Illinois where he travelled frequently around the country speaking at conventions and other business gatherings.

In the 1970s Owens moved his business from Chicago to Phoenix, Arizona, but as time progressed, his health deteriorated.

On March 31, 1980 Jesse died in Tucson, Arizona of complications due to lung cancer after being diagnosed with the disease three months earlier.

He was buried in Chicago several days later.

The United States of America had lost a great athletic icon in Jesse Owens.50 At his death, President Carter said it best when he stated: "Perhaps no athlete better symbolized the human struggle against tyranny, poverty and racial bigotry. His personal triumphs as a world-class athlete and record holder 48

http://www.jesse-owens.org/about4.html

49 http://library.osu.edu/projects/jesse-owens/story_legacy.html 50 After Jesse's death, Ruth carried on his philanthropic work through the Jesse Owens Memorial Foundation, and watched over the family's

interests when commercial enterprises arose, such as the production of The Jesse Owens Story, a four-hour television movie that coincided with the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. She traveled extensively to numerous dedications, ground-breakings, and other honorary events held in Jesse's memory. Memorial events included the renaming of the road leading to the Berlin Olympic Stadium and the creation of a sculpture garden outside Ohio Stadium at The Ohio State University. Ruth died in 2001 at the age of 86. In 2009, Owens’ three daughters returned to OSU to testify at a field hearing before state lawmakers who were considering the Olympic athlete to be chosen for a statue to be placed in the National Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol. At the hearing, Marlene said her father was “a husband, father, son, grandfather, friend, athlete, humanitarian, motivator, American and role model. He was loyal to each of these roles beyond expectation.”

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were the prelude to a career devoted to helping others. His work with young athletes, as an unofficial ambassador overseas, and a spokesman for freedom are a rich legacy to his fellow Americans."51 Jesse has been awarded many awards and honours some include: In 1970, Owens was inducted to the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame.52 In 1971 the Government of the Ivory Coast in Africa named the street on which the U.S. embassy is located "Rue Jesse Owens". He attended the dedication ceremony.53 In 1976, forty years after Owens won his gold medals, he was awarded the highest civilian honor in the United States when President Gerald Ford presented him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.54 In February, 1979 President Jimmy Carter honored Owens with a Living Legend Award. On that occasion, President Carter said this about Jesse, "A young man who possibly didn't even realize the superb nature of his own capabilities went to the Olympics and performed in a way that I don't believe has ever been equaled since...and since this superb achievement, he has continued in his own dedicated but modest way to inspire others to reach for greatness".55 In 1981, the Jesse Owens International Trophy for amateur athletes was established.

51 http://www.jesseowens.com/about/ 52 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 53 http://www.jesse-owens.org/about4.html 54 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 55 http://www.jesseowens.com/about/

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In Berlin, Germany a street leading to the Olympic stadium is named Jesse Owens Allee. The Owens family attended the dedication ceremony as guests of the German Government in 1982.56 In 1990, President George Bush posthumously awarded Owens the Congressional Gold Medal award presenting it to his widow Ruth Owens . During the ceremony, President Bush called Owens "an Olympic hero and an American hero every day of his life."57 In 1996, Owens' hometown of Oakville, Alabama, dedicated Jesse Owens Memorial Park and Museum in his honor.58 Two U.S. postage stamps have been issued to honor Owens, one in 1990 and another in 1998.59 In 2001, The Ohio State University dedicated Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium for track and field events.60 Despite his many set-backs, his triumph in what has been called the most important sports story of the 20th century continued to be an inspiration for modern day Olympians like track stars Michael Johnson (1967–) and Carl Lewis (1961–).

In Jet magazine (August 1996), Johnson credited Owens for paving the way for his and other black athletes' victories.

56 http://www.jesse-owens.org/about4.html 57 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 58 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 59 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 60 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors

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Having faced many personal challenges in his lifetime, one can understand why James Cleveland “JC” “Jesse” “The Buckeye Bullet” Owens would make the below quote: “The battles that count aren't the ones for gold medals. The struggles within yourself—the invisible, inevitable battles inside all of us—that's where it's at.”61 Owens was quoted as saying the secret behind his success was "I let my feet spend as little time on the ground as possible. From the air, fast down, and from the ground, fast up”62.

Our other featured athletic icon Jamaican Usain Bolt may possibly have been inspired by James Cleveland “JC” “Jesse” “The Buckeye Bullet” Owens the African-American track and field athlete and four-time Olympic gold medalist.

Usain St.Leo Bolt OJ CD63 born 21 August 1986 Usain St.Leo Bolt a Jamaican sprinter. Wildly regarded as the fastest person ever. sports”.64

"When I was young, I didn’t really think about anything other than The words of Usain St. Leo Bolt. He further stated that the first sport to

61 http://www.biography.com/people/jesse-owens-9431142#synopsis 62 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens#Awards_and_honors 63 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_bolt 64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt

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interest him was cricket and if he was not a sprinter he would be a fast bowler instead.65 The aforementioned statements set the tone for this conversation of Bolt’s journey as an athlete, and they give some insight into the young mind of one of the most successful iconic athletic legends, whose achievements in sprinting since Jesse Owens in the 30-year history of the athletics world championships, have brought him much world recognition and acclaim.

Usain Bolt who would later be also called "Lightning Bolt",66 was born in Sherwood Content67, in a small town in Trelawny, Jamaica, West Indies, to Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt on 21 August, 1986. He has two siblings one sister Sherine68and a brother Sadiki,69 with whom he spent his time playing cricket and football in the street70.

His parents managed the local grocery store in the rural small town in Trelawny, Jamaica.

At this juncture let me publicly commend Bolts’ parents for their initiative, foresight, and the decision to approve the athletics program as part of their son’s extra curricula activity. The pertinent question must be asked if his parent’s did not approve the athletics program as part of their son’s extra curricula activity what would Usain Bolt’s outcome would have been?

Usain St.Leo Bolt’s chronicled athletic journey as recorded in history has shown how raw talent combined with a burning drive to succeed, catapulted this young athlete into stardom and awards. These awards include the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Athlete of the Year, Track & Field Athlete of the Year, Laureus Sportsman of the Year (three times) Olympic gold and silver among others.

65 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 66 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 67 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwood_Content 68 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt

· Layden, Tim (16 August 2008). "The Phenom". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

69 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 70 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt

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I wish to advance a number of signifiers that ultimately contributed to Usain’s success: Raw talent Burning drive to succeed Encouragement from his coach Dwayne Jarrett71 who coached him to focus his energy on improving his athletic abilities While a student at Waldensia Primary his sprinting ability became very noticeable72 Despite his love for cricket and other sports his cricket coach, noticing his speed on the cricket pitch, urged him to try track and field events73.

Pablo McNeil, a former Olympic sprint athlete74 became his primary coach75. 76 Former Jamaica Prime Minister P. J. Patterson recognised77 Bolt's talent and arranged for him to relocate to Kingston, along with Jermaine Gonzales, so he could train with the Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) at the University of Technology, Jamaica.78

71 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 72 Frater, Adrian (5 August 2008). "Bolt's Sherwood on 'gold alert'". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 28 August 2008.

73 Williams, Ollie (5 August 2008). "Ten to watch: Usain Bolt". BBC Sport. Retrieved 18 August 2008.

74 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

75 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

76 the two enjoyed a positive partnership, although McNeil was occasionally frustrated by Bolt's lack of dedication to his training and his penchant for practical jokes.[26] 77 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

78 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

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Early Victories: At the young age of twelve he became Waldensia Primary school’s fastest runner over the 100 meters distance.79 In 2001 he won his first annual high school championships medal, winning the silver medal in the 200 metres @22.04 seconds,80 creating the feeling of accomplishment, and would no doubt have been a motivator for him.

In his first Caribbean regional event at the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) games, in 2001 he won two silver medals; While performing in his first Caribbean regional event for his country Jamaica at the 2001 CARIFTA games, Bolt won two silver medals, one in the 400 metres clocking a personal best of 48.28 s and the other in the 200 metres finishing at 21.81 s.81

By age 20, on his journey to success, Bolt would have had some set-backs and disappointments such as: In 2003 conjunctivitis ruined his training schedule.82 Despite Bolt's hamstring injury in May which ruined his chances of competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships, he was still chosen for the Jamaican Olympic squad83.

79 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Early_competitions 80 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 81

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Early_competitions

82 Lawrence, Hubert; Samuels, Garfield (20 August 2007). "Focus on Jamaica – Usain Bolt". Focus on Athletes (International Association of Athletics Federations). Retrieved 1 June 2008.

83 Jamaica names Bolt, Fenton to Olympic athletics team". Caribbean Net News. 4 July 2004. Retrieved 26 August 2008.[dead link]

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Due to a leg injury at the 2004 Athens Olympics however, he was eliminated in the first round of the 200 metres with a disappointing time of 21.05 s.8485 During the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki he suffered an injury in the final, finishing last with a time of 26.27 s8687.

In November he was involved in an accident, suffering only minor facial lacerations which further affected his training schedule.88 His manager, Norman Peart, made Bolt's training less intensive, and he had fully recuperated the following week.89 In March 2006, he suffered another hamstring injury, forcing him to withdraw from the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. He did not return to track events until May .90 With his recovery came new training exercises to help develop his flexibility. This caused his management team to put plans to move him up to the 400 m event on hold.91 It is commendable that at this young age and despite the many challenges, Bolt became more focused and dedicated to his training, which prepared him to go on to set and break records in the athletic

84 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_life 85 "Usain Bolt IAAF profile". IAAF. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

86 Rowbottom, Mike (4 August 2008). "Bolt from the blue". The Independent (UK). Retrieved 12 August 2012.

87 "200 metres final". IAAF. 11 August 2005. Retrieved 17 August 2008.[dead link] 88 Smith, Gary (24 November 2005). "A cautious Bolt back on the track". Caribbean Net News. Retrieved 26 August 2008.[dead link]

Smith, Gary (21 November 2005). "Jamaica's Bolt recovers from motor vehicle accident". Caribbean Net News. Retrieved 26 August 2008.[dead link]

89 Smith, Gary (24 November 2005). "A cautious Bolt back on the track". Caribbean Net News. Retrieved 26 August 2008.[dead link] 90 Smith, Gary (3 May 2006). "Bolt runs world leading 200m at Martinique Permit Meet". Caribbean Net News. Retrieved 26 August 2008.[dead link]

91 Smith, Gary (18 May 2006). "Bolt preparing to complete a full season, says manager". Caribbean Net News. Retrieved 28 August 2008.[dead link]

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world showing the whole world the true mettle of this young Jamaican athlete.

Upon his return to competition, the 200 m remained Bolt's primary event, beating American Justin Gatlin’s record in Ostrava, Czech Republic, and setting a new personal best of 19.88 s at the 2006 Athletissima Grand Prix in Lausanne, Switzerland, earning himself a bronze medal, finishing after Americans Xavier Carter and Tyson Gay. Two months later, Bolt claimed his first major world medal at the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Athletics Final in Stuttgart, Germany gaining a bronze medal with a time of 20.10s.

The race at the IAAF World Cup in Athens, Greece earned him his first senior international silver medal with a time of 19.96s behind Wallace Pearson who set a record time of 19.87s.

In 2007 proving to be a true champion, he won the 200m National record In the Jamaican Championships at a time of 19.75 s breaking the 36 year old record held by Don Quarrie by 0.11 s.

He further went on to win the gold medal in the 100m at his debut tournament at the 23rd Vardinoyiannia meeting in Rethymno, Crete setting a personal best of 10.03s.

Building on this momentum, he won a silver medal at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, Japan, clocking 19.91 s with a headwind of 0.8 m/s behind Tyson Gay whose time was 19.76 s.

Along with team mates Asafa Powell, Marvin Anderson, and Nesta Carter In the 4×100 metres relay, they broke a Jamaican national record finishing in 37.89 s. This time was not enough however, to beat the Americans' time of 37.78 s.

Though not winning any gold medals in the major tournaments in 2007, Bolt’s coach Glen Mills noted there was much improvement in his technique, highlighting Bolt's balance at the turns over 200 m and an increase in his stride frequency, giving him more driving power on the track.92

92 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_life

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The silver medals from the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, Japan, bolstered Bolt’s spirit, and he committed himself further to his training as he took a more serious approach to the career ahead of him. Preferring the 100m race, he continued to develop in this area, entering to run this event at the Jamaica Invitational in Kingston.

On 3 May 2008, Bolt ran a time of 9.76 s, aided by a tail wind of 1.8 m/s, remarkably improving on his previous personal best of 10.03 s. Some were shocked at how he had improved so quickly, but his coach was confident Bolt had more to give. Tyson Gay, who placed second in this race is recorded to have said "It looked like his knees were going past my face."93 The 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China saw Bolt breaking new ground, when he won the100 m final, in 9.69 s, an improvement of his own world record. In this race Bolt visibly slowed down while beating his chest, as he celebrated his victory, even before he reached the finish line.

His coach said, based on his speed of his opening 60m, had he not slowed down, he could have improved on his time and win at 9.52s. Scientific analysis of Bolt's run by the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University of Olso, the oldest and largest university in Norway also confirmed, based on certain factors, he could have won at a time of 9.55±0.04 s had he not slowed down.

On August 20th he went on to win the fourth gold for Jamaica in the 200m event, setting a new world and Olympic record of 19.30 s breaking Michael Johnson’s 19.32s set at 1996 Summer Olympics at Atlanta. This victory made him the first sprinter since Jamaican Quarrie to hold both 100 m and 200 m world records simultaneously and the first since the introduction of electronic timing.

Furthermore, Bolt became the first sprinter to break both records at the same Olympics.94 In the midst of these victories, Usain Bolt celebrated his 22nd birthday. The ‘Happy Birthday’ song was played for him over the stadium's sound system at the end of the 200m race, as his birthday would begin by midnight that night.

Two days later, along with teammates Nesta Carter, Michael Frater, and Asafa Powell, and Bolt running as the third leg in the 4x100 metres relay 93 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#World-record_breaker 94 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_life

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race, the Jamaicans won the race, increasing his gold medal total to three. Bolt broke another world and Olympic record, their 37.10seconds finish breaking the previous record by three-tenths of a second.

Following his victories, Bolt donated US$50,000 to the children of the Sichuan province of China to help those harmed by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.95 With Usain St. Leo Bolt OJ CD raising to stardom and world recognition as the world’s fastest man, and in light of the history of previous Olympian medalists being guilty of drug use, some commentators including Victor Conte,96 raised suspicion and speculation about Bolt, and the lack of an independent Caribbean anti-doping federation raised more concerns.97 However, these allegations of drug use were intensely rejected by Bolt's coach, Glen Mills and the Jamaican athletics team doctor Herb Elliott.

Elliott, being a member of the IAAF anti-doping commission, urged those concerned about the issue to "come down and see Jamaica’s programme, come down and see our testing, we have nothing to hide". 98 Mills had been equally ardent that Bolt was a clean athlete, declaring to the Jamaica Gleaner. "We will test any time, any day, and any part of the body... [he] doesn't even like to take vitamins".99 Bolt also reported that he had been tested four times prior to the Olympics for banned substances, and all had tested negative.

95 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_life 96 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#World-record_breaker 97 Maese, Rick (24 August 2008). "A cleaner Olympics? Despite drug test numbers, don't count on it". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 August 2008.[dead link]

Conte, Victor (18 August 2008). "Conte: World Anti-Doping Agency needs to beef up offseason steroid testing". Daily News (New York).

Retrieved 27 August 2008 98 Broadbent, Rick (18 August 2008). "Usain Bolt: a Jamaican miracle". The Times (UK). Retrieved 27 August 2008.

99 Flynn, LeVaughn (3 June 2008). "Usain Bolt and Glen Mills: Long, winding journey to a world record". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 27 August

2008.

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He also welcomed anti-doping authorities to test him to prove that he was clean, stating, "We work hard and we perform well and we know we're clean". 100 At the 2009 World Championships in Berlin, Germany Bolt improved his world record with a time of 9.58s in the 100m to win his first World Championship gold medal..

The 200 metres would prove to be another record breaking event for the Jamaican. He won the race breaking his own record by 0.11 seconds, finishing with a time of 19.19 seconds, and winning the race by the biggest margin in World Championships history.

In the 4x100 relay race the Jamaican team fell short of breaking their record of 37.10s set at the 2008 Summer Olympics by finishing at 37.31. This however was still a record for the World Championships and the second fastest time in history at that date.

During the early part of 2010, during the outdoor season, in Jamaica, Bolt won the 200m race in 19.56 seconds, making it the fourth fastest run of all time.

On the international scene, Bolt comfortably won races at the Colorful Daegu Pre-Champions Meeting and at IAAF Diamond League debut at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix.

2011 World Championships having been eliminated from the 100m because of a false start, the race was eventually won by fellow team mate Yohan Blake in his season’s best of 9.92. Bolt easily won the 200m in a time of 19.40s.

He also won gold in the 4x100m relay, with the Jamaican team setting a world record time of 37.04.

In June 2012, Usain Bolt won the 100m race in Diamond League in 9.79 seconds.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Bolt defending his gold medal from the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics, set a new Olympic record for the 100 metres when he won the race with a time of 9.63 seconds.

With his 2012 win, Bolt became the first man to defend an Olympic sprint title since Carl Lewis in 1988.

100 "Bolt ok with tests". Jamaica Gleaner. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 27 August 2008.

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On June 06, 2013 at the Golden Gala meet in Rome, Italy Justin Gatlin won the 100 metres beating Bolt by one-hundredth of a second. Two months later, in August, Bolt would regain the title as the world’s fastest man by winning the World Championships 100m in Moscow, with a time of 9.77s. Justin Gatlin came in second at 9.85s.

August 17, was the day Bolt picked up his 2nd gold medal having won the 200m race, clocking a time of 19.66s. When he won a third gold medal in the 400x100m relay race, he became the most successful athlete in the 30 year history of the World Championships.

Due to a hamstring injury and surgery in March 2014, Bolt was unable to train for nine weeks. Having recovered, he competed in the 400x100m relay at the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, Scotland. Team Jamaica won the race in 37.58 seconds, a record for the Commonwealth Games record.

Before ending the 2014 season early to prepare for the 2015 season, Bolt set the indoor 100m world record in Warsaw in August with a time of 9.98s.

Records This very talented athlete continued to set and break records in the following: The first man to hold both the 100 metres and 200 metres world records since fully automatic time measurements became mandatory in 1977.

He set championship records in the 200 m and 400 m with times of 21.12 s and 47.33 s, respectively101.

He set records with 20.61 s and 47.12 s finishes at the Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships102.

101 "Carifta Games (Under 17 boys)". GBR Athletics. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

102 "Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships". GBR Athletics. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

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He also took two silver medals and set national junior records in the 4×100 metres and 4×400 metres relay, running times of 39.15 s and 3:04.06 minutes respectively103.

In 2003, he broke both the 200 m and 400 m records with times of 20.25 s and 45.35 s, respectively in his final Jamaican High School Championships.

He also set championship records at the CARIFTA Games in the 200 m and 400 m with times of 21.12 s and 47.33 s, respectively104.

He continued to set records with 20.61 s and 47.12 s finishes at the Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships105.

He won Jamaica's fourth gold of the Games, setting a new world and Olympic record106 of 19.30 s107.

Achievements His 2009 record breaking margin for 100 m, from 9.69 seconds (his own previous world record) to 9.58,at the World Championships is the highest since the start of fully automatic time measurements108.

At the 2013 World Championships in Moscow, Bolt completed a hattrick of 200 m world titles by winning his 3rd straight gold in the event.

103 "Official Results – 4x100 metres – Men – Final". IAAF. 22 July 2002. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

"4x400 metres – Men – Final". IAAF. 22 July 2002. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

104 "Carifta Games (Under 17 boys)". GBR Athletics. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

105 "Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships". GBR Athletics. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

Johnson's record fell despite the fact that Bolt was impeded by a 0.9 m/s headwind. The feat made him the first sprinter since Quarrie to hold both 100 m and 200 m world records simultaneously and the first since the introduction of electronic timing106 107 Bolt claims 200m gold with record". BBC Sport. 20 August 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.

108 Farhi, Paul (21 August 2009). "Jamaican Sprinters Such as Usain Bolt Quickly Reshape Nation's Identity". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23

August 2009.

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On August 11, 2013, Bolt regained the title as the world's fastest man when he won World Championships 100m in Moscow, with a time of 9.77s (−0.3 m/s wind), ahead of Justin Gatlin who had a time of 9.85s109 On August 17, Bolt won the 200-meter race for his 2nd gold medal of the world championships with a time of 19.66s110.

Bolt won a third gold in the 4x100 m relay, which made him the most successful athlete in the 30-year history of the World Championships111.

He has become one of the most successful athletes in the 30-year history of the Athletics World Championships.

He has been called the world's most marketable athlete by winning 3 gold medals at the 2013 World Championships.

He is the most naturally gifted athlete the world has ever seen at this point in time.

He created history again and again, and became a legend at the 2012 Olympic Games in London by defending all three Olympic titles with 100m, 200m and 4x100m victories, the latter in a new world record time of 36.84s Bolt’s achievements have definitely caused his isolationist critics to fade away.

Bolt's autobiography; ‘My Story: 9.58: Being the World's Fastest Man’, was released in 2010.112 109 "Usain Bolt regains 100-meter gold at worlds". Associated Press. Retrieved 12 August 2013.

"100 Metres Result - 14th IAAF World Championships". iaaf.org. Retrieved 2014-05-18.

110 "Usain Bolt Wins Men's 200 Meters at Worlds". ABC News. Retrieved 17 August 2013.

111 "JAMAICA SWEEPS 6 SPRINT EVENTS WITH RELAY GOLDS". Associated Press. Retrieved 18 August 2013.[dead link] 112 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_appearances

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Humanitarian: Usain St. Leo Bolt OJ CD donated US$50,000 to the children of the Sichuan province of China to help those harmed by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake113 Awards and Recognition: For five times in six years, Usain Bolt was named International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013.

Track & Field Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009 Laureus World Sportsman of the Year: 2009, 2010, 2013114 BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2012 L'Équipe Champion of Champions: 2008, 2009, 2012 Jamaica Sportsman of the year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012 Marca Leyenda (2009) (Marca legend - an award given by the Spanish sports newspaper Marca to the best sport professionals in history).

He is one of only eight athletes, (along with Valerie Adams, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Jacques Freitag, Yelena Isinbayeva, Jana Pittman, Dani Samuels) to win world championships at the youth, junior, and senior levels of an athletic event.115 In recognition of his achievements at the 2008 Olympics, his country Jamaica honoured him when he was made a Commander of the

113 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_bolt 114 "Can Usain Bolt Create an Olympic-Sized Brand?".

"Fastest man on Earth Usain Bolt wins Laureus World Sportsman of the Year Award". Retrieved 6 November 2009.

"2010 Laureus World Sports Awards Winners are Announced". Retrieved 10 March 2010.

115 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt

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Order of Distinction,116 which entitles him to use the post nominal letters CD.117 In 2009 at age 23, Usain Bolt became the youngest member so far,118 of the Order of Jamaica.119 This award was presented 'for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level', and entitles him to be formally styled "The Honourable", and to use the post nominal letters OJ.120 On the last day of the 2009 Berlin Championships, the Governing Mayor of Berlin Klaus Wowereit, presented Bolt with 12 foot section of the Berlin Wall saying Bolt had shown that “one can tear down walls that had been considered as insurmountable” The nearly threeton piece of wall was to be delivered to Bolt’s training camp in Jamaica.121 2014 10th March – Bolt added another award to his growing collection as he was awarded the Jesse Owens122 International Trophy Award at a ceremony in New York.

In 2015, while on a visit to Jamaica, Sports-fanatic President Obama met the man regarded as the fastest on the planet – Jamaican speedster Usain Bolt123 -

116 "Usain Bolt, Jessica Ennis win top Laureus awards".The Australian. 12 March 2013.

117 "Welcoming home our Olympians", The Jamaica Gleaner, 5 October 2008.

118 National Awards of Jamaica[dead link] Official Jamaican Government website 119 National Awards of Jamaica[dead link] Official Jamaican Government website. Quote: 'So far, the youngest member is Ambassador the Hon. Usain Bolt. He was awarded at age 23 for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level.'

"World's fastest man Bolt gets Order of Jamaica", The Associated Press, 19 October 2009.

120 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt 121 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#World-record_breaker 122 http://usainbolt.com/2014/03/usain-wins-jesse-owens-award/

123 President Obama Meets Usain Bolt: 'Nobody's Ever Been Faster' Apr 11, 2015, 6:57 AM ET By Arlette Saenz Arlette Saenzmore From Arlette »Digital Journalistvia GOOD MORNING AMERICA http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/president-obama-meets-usain-bolt-nobodys-faster/ story?id=30244283

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Usain Bolt has recorded in the annals of history that he is definitely the fastest man on earth and the most successful athlete in the 30year history of the Athletics World Championships to date, and is arguably the most naturally gifted athlete the world has ever seen.

Of note, Seventy –seven years ago Jesse Owens was one of the world’s most famous athletes. Likewise to date LeBron James, Usain Bolt and Sir Garfield St Auburn Sobers are placed in the same category in their respective games of basketball, track and field and cricket.

Trivia He’s described as laid-back and relaxed.

In describing himself, and in reference to his autobiography he said,"...should be exciting, it's my life, and I'm a cool and exciting guy."

He’s also a showman: After winning the 200m at the 2012 Olympics in London dropping to the track to do five pushups, one for each gold medal; putting his finger to his lips in a shushing gesture as if to hush those skeptics who said he could not win 100 and 200-meter titles in successive Olympics.

He is now noted for his customary ‘left hand outstretched and right arm bent with fingers pointing towards left hand’ lightning bolt pose after each victory.

Bolt loves dancing and music.

In 2013, Bolt played basketball in the NBA All-Star Weekend Celebrity Game Usain Bolt Net Worth 2013 – 2014: $50 Million. Usain Bolt is already one of the world’s highest paid athletes ever in track and field .

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He likes to play practical jokes.

Once hiding in the back of a van, when he should have been practicing.

In March 2012, Bolt starred in an advert for Visa and the 2012 Summer Olympics.124 At the 2012 London Olympic games, he was cheeky enough to give a stiff-wristed royal wave as he was introduced to the Olympic Stadium crowd.125 According to the Catholic News Agency, Bolt is Catholic and is known for making the sign of the cross before racing competitively.

These two great athletic icons achieved great feats: Comparisons/Similarities James Cleveland Owens was given nicknames “JC,” "Buckeye Bullet," and “Jesse” 126 Likewise, Usain was affectionately called "Lightning Bolt" , by the media after his world record breaking run in New York City, which was preceded by a lightning storm. The press frequently made puns on the Jamaican's name, nicknaming him " Bolt from the blue" and "Lightning Bolt"127 They were destined to be great although they occupied different geographical spaces at different times.

They did not allow the many challenges they faced to prevent them from becoming the world’s fastest men of their time.

These great sprinters were of African Diaspora, They broke and set records, They suffered physical setbacks, They are considered to be the most naturally gifted athletes of their era.

124 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain_Bolt#Personal_appearances 125 http://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/09/sports/la-sp-oly-track-20120810 126 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens 127 "NEWS FLASH – Bolt does the double with 19.30 seconds WORLD RECORD!". IAAF. 20 August

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They are Legends in their time.

Now at age 28 the world will watch to see what Usain St. Leo, ‘Lighting Bolt’ has left to offer.

Chapter 3 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev-March 2,1931 and Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz It was on March 2, 1931 in Privolnoye, in a rural town, in the Stavropol region of Southern Russia that a baby boy was born to Sergei

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Andreyevich Gorbachev and Maria Panteleyevna Gorbacheva. The baby was named Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev.128 Years later, he would become a Statesman and first President of the Soviet Union, and also be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership role in ending the Cold War and promoting peaceful international relations.129 His father, Sergei, operated a combine harvester for a living and passed on his experience and knowledge of operating a combine harvester to his young son, Mikhail. Mikhail Gorbachev was a quick learner and showed an aptitude for mechanics. As a teenager, he contributed to the family’s income by driving tractors at a local machine station. As a child, Gorbachev had a passion for learning. When he graduated from high school with a silver medal in 1950, his father persuaded him to continue on to university. Gorbachev’s academic record was stellar, and he was accepted into Moscow University, the premier school in the Soviet Union.130 Let us examine the life of Mikhail over a forty year period 1950 thru 1990’s.

Having been a candidate member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and being part of the Young Communist League during high school, he joined as a full member while at university in 1952, and became active in the Komsomol, the party's youth organization. In 1954 he married fellow student, Raisa Maximovna Titorenko. They had one daughter Irina Mihailovna Virganskaya. His wife Raisa died of leukemia in 1999.

Gorbachev graduated from Moscow University cum laude with a law degree in 1955.

Returning to his home town Stavropol with his new wife after graduation, he started to work at the Stavropol Territorial Prosecutor’s Office.

Within days of starting his new job, he left it to accept the position of the Assistant Director of Propaganda for the Territorial Committee of the local Communist Youth League, a position he was offered by some former acquaintances, who

128 http://www.deseretnews.com/article/178756/THE-MAJOR-EVENTS-IN-GORBACHEVS-LIFE.html?pg=all 129 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721 130 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721#early-political-involvement

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remembered his zeal and enthusiasm as a member of the Youth League, while he was in high school.

Gorbachev steadily rose through the ranks of the Communist League.

In 1956, he was made first Secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee.131 Throughout the 1960s, Gorbachev continued to advance his political position eventually becoming the Regional Agricultural Administrator and Party Leader.

In 1961, he was appointed as a delegate to the party congress.

In 1963 he was promoted to Head of the Department of Party Organs in the Stavropol Regional Committee.132 In 1967 in an effort to increase his knowledge of agriculture and economics, he became qualified as an Agricultural Economist via a correspondence Master's degree at the Stavropol Institute of Agriculture, and eventually becoming the regional Agricultural Administrator.

In 1969 he was later elevated to full membership in the National Communist Party Central Committee.

In 1970, he was appointed First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee, a body of the CPSU, becoming one of the youngest provincial party chiefs in the nation. In this position he helped re-organize the collective farms, improve workers living conditions, expand the size of their private plots, and gave them a greater voice in planning.

In 1971 Mikhail became Deputy of the nation's nominal parliament, the Supreme Soviet.

He was soon made a member of the Communist Party Central Committee in 1971. Three years later, in 1974, he was made a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and Chairman of the Standing Commission 131 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721#early-political-involvement 132 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev

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on Youth Affairs. He was subsequently appointed to the Central Committee's Secretariat for Agriculture in 1978. In 1979, Gorbachev was elected a candidate (non-voting) member of the Politburo, the highest authority in the country, headed

by President Leonid Brezhnev and received full membership in 1980.

Following the death of Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party on March 11, 1985.133 As leader of the Soviet Union at age 54, his main goal was to reform the Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), demokratizatsiya ("democratization"), and uskoreniye ("acceleration" of economic development).This was launched at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in February 1986.134 The world paid close attention to Mikhail’s actions as well as his style of leadership.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev had gained more attention and respect in the global arena and was largely hailed in the West for his 'new thinking' in foreign affairs. During his tenure, he sought to improve relations and trade with the West by reducing Cold War tensions. He established close relationships with several Western leaders, such as West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher—who famously remarked: "I like Mr. Gorbachev; we can do business together".135 He started his foreign engagements in 1985. He went to France on his first trip abroad as Soviet leader in October. The Geneva Summit between Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States was in November. Though no concrete agreement was made, Gorbachev and Reagan struck a personal relationship and decided to hold further meetings.136

133 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev 134 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life 135 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life 136 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life

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In January 1986 he announced his proposal to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe and his strategy for eliminating all nuclear weapons by the year 2000. He also began the process of withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and Mongolia on 28 July.

In 1987 he travelled to Washington and met with President Ronald Reagan which was prior to the signing of a treaty to eliminate both sides of the medium-range nuclear missiles.

At this stage, I hastened to state that it appears that Gorbachev in creating his reform policies, was satisfying the criteria to become a Nobel Peace Prize Recipient Let us look at how he goes about achieving the same: 1988 would see Gorbachev's introduction of glasnost, which gave the Soviet people freedoms that they had never known previously, including greater freedom of speech. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. During this period he freed Andrei Sakharov the Nobel Prize-winning dissident from exile in the city of Gorky137.

In 1988 he called the first Communist Party conference since the days of Josef Stalin to press for more radical reform.

In December, he presided over the dissolution of the old Supreme Soviet, to be replaced by the Congress of People's Deputies and a smaller, full-time legislature, the new Supreme Soviet.

In 1989 he withdrew the Soviet troops from Afghanistan and presided over new parliament that elected him President.

Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989. This was the first free election in the Soviet Union since 1917.138 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold in 1989.

In 1990 he ended the Communist Party's constitutional monopoly on power. This decision invariably made his Presidency stronger. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life 137 138 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life

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Gorbachev also endorsed a strategy which created a free market economy in Soviet Union. On 15 March 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive President of the Soviet Union with 59% of the Deputies' votes. He was the sole candidate on the ballot.139 In October 1990 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership role in the peace process, arms treaties, in ending the Cold War, promoting peaceful international relations and his contributions to the overall betterment of world development.

The Cold War: was a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact).

In 1991 Gorbachev and the leaders of several republics agreed on a new Union Treaty to hold the country together. In the midst of these nuances many encounters were also lurking: Such as, different ethnic groups within the USSR had begun to wage war against one another, while other groups, such as Ukrainians and Lithuanians, demanded that they become independent nations. As Gorbachev was grappling with these fractures, along with a flailing Soviet economy, a new rival leader came on the scene.

Boris Yeltsin, a former Communist Party member, emphasized radical changes to the economy.

In the summer of 1991, Yeltsin was voted president of the Russian Republic. Gorbachev now faced the problem of how to balance the shared power between him and the opposing leader.140 In August 1991, while Gorbachev was vacationing in the Crimea, Communist conservatives, in an effort to seize power captured him in a coup.

Ironically, among the Communist Party conservatives who organized the coup

139 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Foreign_engagements 140 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721#presidency-

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was Prime Minister Pavlov, whom Gorbachev had hired to help him balance power with Yeltsin.141 Despite his opposing leadership, Yeltsin manned a resistance against the coup, and the coup ultimately failed.

Under the pretense that Gorbachev was ill, his vice president, Yanayev, took over as president.

Gorbachev spent three days, August 19-21 under house arrest.142 Upon his return home, rumors circulated that he may have been in cahoots with the coup leaders. The public grew distrustful of Gorbachev and was increasingly supportive of Yeltsin, whom they now viewed as a hero.

For all intents and purposes, the coup destroyed Gorbachev politically. The Soviet Union collapsed with dramatic speed during the latter part of 1991, as one republic after another declared independence. By the autumn, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow.

By Christmas 1991, the Soviet Union had crumbled. Gorbachev inevitably stepped down from his position as President of the Soviet Union, handing over complete power to Yeltsin.143 On the night of 25 December, in a nationally televised speech, Gorbachev announced his resignation as President—stating, "I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." He declared the office extinct and handed over its functions— including control of the Soviet nuclear codes—to Yeltsin. The Soviet Union was formally dissolved the following day. Two days after Gorbachev left office, on 27 December, Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev's old office.144 Since his resignation, Gorbachev has remained involved in world affairs. Following his resignation and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, he remained active in Russian politics. He founded the Gorbachev Foundation in 1992.

141 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721#presidency142 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev#Presidency_of_the_USSR 143 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721#presidency144 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev#Presidency_of_the_USSR

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During the early years of the post-Soviet era, he expressed criticism at the reforms carried out by Russian president Boris Yeltsin. When Yeltsin called a referendum for 25 April 1993 in an attempt to achieve even greater powers as President, Gorbachev did not vote and instead called for new presidential elections.145 In June 2004, he represented Russia at the funeral of President Ronald Reagan.

Following Boris Yeltsin's death on 23 April 2007, Gorbachev released a eulogy for him, stating that Yeltsin was to be commended for assuming the "difficult task of leading the nation into the post-Soviet era", and "on whose shoulders are both great deeds for the country and serious errors".146 On 20 March 2009, Gorbachev met with United States President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden in efforts to "reset" strained relations between Russia and the United States.

In a political lecture delivered to the RIA-Novosti news agency in April 2013, Gorbachev decried Putin's retreat from democracy, noting that in Russia "politics is increasingly turning into imitation democracy" with "all power in the hands of the executive branch". Gorbachev addressed Putin directly, stating that "to go further on the path of tightening the screws, having laws that limit the rights and freedoms of people, attacking the news media and organizations of civil society, is a destructive path with no future" 147 Gorbachev is also a member of the Club of Madrid, a group of more than 80 former leaders of democratic countries, working to strengthen democratic governance and leadership.

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz- August 13, 1926

145 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev#Presidency_of_the_USSR 146 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev#Presidency_of_the_USSR 147 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mikhail_Gorbachev#Further_reading

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It was August 13, 1926 that Fidel Alejandro Vittore Castro Ruz was born to parents Ángel Castro y Argiz and Ángela María Castro Ruz.148 149 Other siblings: Raúl, Ramón, Juanita, Angelita , Enma and Agustina on a sugar plantation in Birán, near Mayarí, in the modern-day province of Holguín.

His father Angel, being a wealthy sugar plantation owner originally from Spain afforded Fidel the privilege to grow up in wealthy circumstances amid the poverty of Cuba's people and to be educated in private Jesuit boarding schools. After graduation in late 1945 he studied law at the University of Havana, and became involved in the political culture at the university.

In 1947, Castro joined the Partido Ortodoxo an anticommunist political party which had been newly formed by Cuban presidential candidate Eduardo Chibás to reform government corruption in Cuba. Its goals were nationalism, economic independence, and social reforms. Chibás, a charismatic figure who attracted many Cubans lost the 1948 election, but inspired Castro to be an ardent disciple. Chibás considered another run for President again in 1951.

He hoped to expose the Government's corruption and warn the people about General Fulgencio Batista, a former President who was planning a return to power.150 When supposed allies refused to provide evidence to Chibás, of Government wrongdoing he shot himself because of his inability to keep his promise of exposing the Government.

On October 11 1948 Fidel Castro married his first wife Mirta DíazBalart who was from a wealthy family. The marriage exposed Castro to a wealthier lifestyle and political connections. This union produced a son. Born in 1950 he was named Fidel Ángel "Fidelito" Castro Díaz-Balart.

Castro pursued his political ambitions as a candidate for a seat in the Cuban Parliament, but a coup led by General Fulgencio Batista successfully overthrew the government and cancelled the election. Castro found himself without a legitimate political platform and little income with which to support the family. His marriage to Mirta eventually ended in divorce in 1955.

After General Fulgencio Batista set himself up as dictator, solidified his power with the military and Cuba's economic elite, and got his Government recognized by the United States, Castro along with the members of the Ortodoxo party who had expected to win in the 1952 election, organized an insurrection. It 148 http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/fidel-castro-14.php 149 http://worldhistoryproject.org/topics/fidel-castro 150 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#early-life

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was on July 26, 1953, when Castro and approximately 150 supporters attacked the Moncada military barracks in an attempt to overthrow General Batista. The attack failed and Castro was captured, tried, convicted and sentenced to 15 years in prison. However, the incident fostered an ongoing opposition to the Government and made Castro famous throughout Cuba.151 He was released from prison in 1955 and went to Mexico where he met with Ernesto "Che" Guevara. There, they devised a new strategy to overthrow the Batista regime based on guerrilla warfare. "Che" Guevara joined Castro's group and became an important confidante, shaping Castro's political beliefs.

On December 2, 1956, Castro returned to Cuba with a boatload of 81 insurgents near the eastern city of Manzanillo in an attack against Batista. In short order, Batista's forces defeated the attackers, killing and capturing most of them. Castro, his brother Raul, and Guevara however, were able to escape into the Sierra Maestra mountain range along the island's southeastern coast.

Over the course of the next two years, Castro's forces waged a guerrilla war against the Batista government, organizing resistance groups in cities and small towns across Cuba. He was also able to organize a parallel Government, carry out some agrarian reform, and control provinces with agricultural and manufacturing production.152 May 1958, Batista launched Operation Verano with a view to crush Castro and other anti-government groups. It was called La Ofensiva ("The Offensive"). Batista’s army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants, while 10,000 soldiers commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra.

Despite their numerical and technological superiority, the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare, and Castro halted their offensive, using land mines and ambushes, using his organized columns to surround Batista's main army concentration in Santiago, and also pushing the Batista’s army out of the mountains. Many of Batista's soldiers defected to Castro's rebels.

Along with the loss of popular support and massive desertions in the military, Batista's Government collapsed.

151 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#early-political-insurrections-and-arrests 152 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#guerilla-war-against-batista

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Fearing Castro was a socialist, the U.S. instructed Cantillo to oust Batista.

After Batista was warned that General Cantillo had secretly agreed to a ceasefire with Castro, promising Castro that Batista would be tried as a war criminal, sometime between December 31, 1958 and January 1959, he fled into exile with over US$300,000,000.

At the age of 32, Castro successfully concluded a classic guerrilla campaign to take control of Cuba.

A new Government was created, with Jose Miro Cardona as Prime Minister, and it quickly gained the recognition of the United States.

Castro arrived in Havana to cheering crowds and assumed the post of Commander-in-Chief of the military.

At Castro's command, the politically moderate lawyer Manuel Urrutia LleĂł was proclaimed Provisional President.

Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia's regime, now ruling by decree. He ensured that they implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and attempted to remove those who were in Batista’s Government from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office. He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties.

Although repeatedly denying to the press that he was a Communist , he began clandestinely meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party to discuss the creation of a socialist state.153 In suppressing the revolution, Batista's Government had killed thousands of Cubans. In response to popular uproar, which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice, Castro helped set up many trials, resulting in hundreds of executions. In defending the mass executions, when criticized that many were not fair trials- in particular by the U.S. press, Castro responded by proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on

153 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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moral conviction”….” We are not executing innocent people or political opponents executions, we are executing murderers”.

After returning from Venezuela where he met with President-elect Rómulo Betancourt, where he unsuccessfully requested a loan and a new deal for Venezuelan oil, Castro was infuriated that the government had left thousands unemployed by closing down casinos and brothels. This caused arguments between him and senior government figures. As a result, Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned, going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti-Castro movement.

On February 16, 1959, Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba.154 In March 1959, Castro declared rents for those who paid less than $100 a month to be reduce by half.

In May 1959 Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform, setting a cap for landholdings to 993 acres (402 ha) per owner and prohibiting foreigners from obtaining Cuban land ownership.

Around 200,000 peasants received title deeds as large land holdings were divided. Popular among the working class, it alienated the richer landowners.

Castro appointed himself President of the National Tourist Industry, introducing albeit unsuccessful measures to encourage AfricanAmerican tourists to visit, advertising Cuba as a tropical paradise free of racial discrimination.

Judges and politicians had their pay reduced while low-level civil servants saw theirs raised.

By the end of 1959, Castro's revolution had become radicalized, with purges of military leaders and the suppression of any media critical of Castro's policies.

Castro's Government focused on social projects to improve Cuba's standard of living, often to the detriment of economic development.

Within the first six months of Castro's government: 154 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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600 miles of road had been built across the island, while $300 million was spent on water and sanitation schemes.

Major emphasis was placed on education, and within the first 30 months of Castro's Government: More classrooms were opened than in the previous 30 years.

The Cuban primary education system offered a work-study program, with half of the time spent in the classroom, and the other half in a productive activity.

Health care was nationalized and expanded, with rural health centers and urban polyclinics opening up across the island, offering free medical aid.

Universal vaccination against childhood diseases was implemented, and infant mortality rates were reduced dramatically.

Over 800 houses were constructed every month in the early years of the administration in a measure to cut homelessness.

Nurseries and day-care centers were opened for children.

Centers opened for the disabled and elderly.

Further, it was also reported that the said laws relating to land reform were implemented in a series of laws passed between 1959 and 1963 after the Cuban Revolution. Che Guevara was named head of the INRA as minister of industries and oversaw the land reform policies .

His regime remained popular with workers, peasants, and students, who constituted the majority of the country's population, while opposition came primarily from the middle class. Thousands of doctors, engineers and other professionals emigrated to Florida in the U.S, causing an economic brain drain.

Productivity decreased and the country's financial reserves were drained within two years.155

155 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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Castro's Government also began to establish relations with the Soviet Union. The USSR sent more than 100 Spanish-speaking advisers to help organize Cuba's defense committee. In February 1960, Cuba signed a trade agreement to buy oil from the Soviet Union and established diplomatic relations.

U.S.-owned refineries in Cuba refused to process the oil, so Castro expropriated the refineries.

The United States retaliated by cutting Cuba's import quota on sugar. This began a decades-long contentious relationship between the two countries.156 In June 1960 U.S President Eisenhower reduced Cuba's sugar import quota by 7,000,000 tons.

The year 1961 proved to be pivotal in Castro's relationship with the United States. On January 3, 1961, outgoing President Dwight Eisenhower broke off diplomatic relations with the Cuban Government.

On April 16 Castro formally declared Cuba to be a Socialist State.

The following day April 17, some 1400 Cuban exiles invaded Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, in an attempt to overthrow the Castro regime. Hundreds of the insurgents were killed and nearly 1000 were captured.

Though the United States denied any involvement, it was revealed that the Cubans exiles were trained by the Central Intelligence Agency, and the weapons and landing craft used in the overthrow attempt were U.S.A weapons and equipment.157 After bombing the invader's ships and bringing in reinforcements, Castro forced the Brigade to surrender which they did on April 20. Some 14 captured rebels were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution, while others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at U.S. $25 million.158 On May 1, 1961, Castro declared Cuba a Socialist State, officially abolished multiparty elections and denounced American Imperialism. By year's end, Castro declared himself a Marxist-Leninist and announced the Cuban Government was adopting Communist economic and political policies.

156 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#turn-to-communism 157 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#cuban-missle-crisis 158 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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On February 7, 1962, the United States imposed a full economic embargo on Cuba, a policy that continues to this day.

President Eisenhower’s action certainly created a reaction by the Cuban Government, because they took control of the country and implemented measures of nationalizing industry, redistributing property, collectivizing159 agriculture and creating policies that would benefit the poor.160 Facing many economic issues, Castro intensified his relations with the Soviet Union by accepting further economic and military aid.161 Seeking Soviet help, from 1970–72 Soviet economists re-organized Cuba's economy, founding the Cuban-Soviet Commission of Economic, Scientific and Technical Collaboration, while Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin visited in 1971.162 Cuba's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina, Canada, and parts of Western Europe.163 By the 1980s, Cuba's economy was again in trouble, following a decline in the market price of sugar and 1979's decimated harvest. For the first time, unemployment became a serious problem in Cuba, with the government sending unemployed youth to other countries, primarily East Germany, to work there. Desperate for money, Cuba's government secretly sold off paintings from national collections and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama.164 159 Collectivization in the Soviet Union was enforced under Stalin between 1928 and 1940. The goal of this policy was to consolidate individual

land and labour into collective farms: mainly kolkhozy and sovkhozy. The Soviet leadership was confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones would immediately increase the food supply for urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927.[1] This problem became more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program.[2] 160 While popular among the poor, these policies alienated many former supporters of the revolution among the Cuban middle and upperclasses. Over one million Cubans later migrated to the U.S., forming a vocal anti-Castro community in Miami, Florida, actively supported and funded by successive U.S. administrations.

161 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#cuban-missle-crisis 162 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 163 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 164 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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While social reform was noted under Castro’s regime with major improvements made in the educational and health-care systems, housing, and road construction, civil liberties had been eroded; As labor unions lost the right to strike Independent newspapers were shut down Religious institutions were harassed.

Opposition to Castro’s rule resulted in executions and imprisonments, There was forced emigration.165 Hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled Castro's rule, many settling just across the Florida Straits in Miami. The largest of these occurred in 1980, when Castro opened up the port of Mariel to allow exiled Cubans living in Miami to come in to claim their relatives. Castro also loaded the ships with Cuban prison inmates, mental patients and other ‘social undesirables’. In all, nearly 120,000 Cubans left their homeland in 1980 to find sanctuary in the United States.166 Castro's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals, the mentally ill, and suspected homosexuals onto the boats destined for Florida.167 President Mikhail Gorbachev visited President Fidel Castro in Cuba April 2, 1989.

It was during this visit that the two Presidents made an effort to mend the strained relations which existed between the two countries. However, it was reported that President Castro seemed to have his suspicions168 regarding Gorbachev's economic and political reform measures in the Soviet Union. Further it should be noted that Castro’s suspicions were validated regarding Russia's economy due to the fact (a) it was ailing and (b) it could no longer provide the economic assistance to Cuba that it previously did.

165 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#cuba-under-castro 166 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#cuba-under-castro 167 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 168 http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/gorbachev-begins-visit-to-cuba

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The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union sent Cuba's economy into a tailspin. Castro's Government began to lose momentum. Without cheap oil imports from Soviet Union, and the Soviet buying Cuban sugar and some other goods, unemployment and inflation grew. The decline of the economy resulted in a loss of 85 percent of its import/export markets.

Castro publicly declared that Cuba was entering a "Special Period in Time of Peace."

Petrol rations were dramatically reduced, Chinese bicycles were imported to replace cars, and factories performing non-essential tasks were shut down. Oxen began to replace tractors, firewood was used for cooking and electricity cuts were introduced that lasted 16 hours a day.

Castro admitted that Cuba faced the worst situation short of open war, and that the country might have to resort to subsistence farming. By 1992, Cuba's economy had declined by over 40% in under two years, with major food shortages, widespread malnutrition and a lack of basic goods.169 Fidel Castro had been very adept, at keeping control of the Government during dire economic times. To this end, he pressed the United States to lift the economic embargo, but it refused. Castro then adopted a quasifree market economy and encouraged international investment. He legalized the U.S. dollar and encouraged tourism. Visiting the United States in 1996, he invited Cuban exiles living there to return to Cuba to start businesses.170 A number of economic changes were proposed, and subsequently put to a national referendum. Free farmers' markets and small-scale private enterprises would be legalized in an attempt to stimulate economic growth.

Castro's Government diversified its economy into biotechnology and tourism, with tourism outstripping Cuba's sugar industry as its primary source of revenue in 1995 with the arrival of thousands of Mexican and Spanish tourists.

Castro softened his approach to religious institutions and religious people were permitted for the first time to join the Communist Party. Although he viewed the Roman Catholic Church as a reactionary, pro-capitalist institution, he

169 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 170 http://www.biography.com/people/fidel-castro-9241487#collapse-of-the-soviet-union

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organized a visit to Cuba by Pope John Paul II in January 1998; it strengthened the position of both the Cuban Church and Castro's Government.171 In 1999, when Hugo Chávez was elected to the Venezuelan Presidency, a close friendship developed between him and Castro. Still battling with economic problems, they signed an agreement in 2000, through which Cuba would send 20,000 medics to Venezuela, in return receiving 53,000 barrels of oil per day at preferential rates; in 2004, this trade was stepped up, with Cuba sending 40,000 medics and Venezuela providing 90,000 barrels a day. Castro also initiated Misión Milagro, a joint medical project which aimed to provide free eye operations on 300,000 individuals from each nation.

The alliance between the two nations boosted the Cuban economy, and in May 2005 Castro doubled the minimum wage for 1.6 million workers, raised pensions, and delivered new kitchen appliances to Cuba's poorest residents. Even with this boost, some economic problems still remained. To compensate for the crisis of fuel shortages, Castro shut down 118 factories, including steel plants, sugar mills and paper processors.172 In 2006, at the age of 79 years, Castro underwent an operation due to intestinal bleeding. On July 31 2006, he officially transferred his Presidential duties to the First Vice President, his brother Raúl Castro. Even though Raul performed the duties of the State, Fidel retained the title of President of Cuba, formally the President of the Council of State of Cuba, during this period.173 On February 19, 2008 81-year-old Fidel Castro permanently gave up the Cuban Presidency due to his deteriorating physical condition announcing that he would not stand for re-election as President at the next meeting of the National Assembly of People's Power. At 76 years old, Raúl Castro was elected President of Cuba by the National Assembly on February 24, 2008.174 On April 19, 2011, Castro resigned from the Communist Party Central Committee, thus stepping down as party leader. Raúl was selected as his successor. Now without any official role in the country's Government, he took on the role of an Elder Statesman.175 171 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 172 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro 173

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9308_Cuban_transfer_of_presidential_duties

174 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9308_Cuban_transfer_of_presidential_duties 175 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Fidel_Castro

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The U.S. agreement not to invade Cuba didn't preclude toppling the Castro regime in other ways. Castro was the target of CIA assassination attempts (an estimated 638 in all, according to Cuban intelligence) over the years. These ranged from exploding cigars, to a fungus-infected scuba-diving suit, to a mafiastyle shooting. He took great delight in the fact that none of the attempts ever succeeded. Castro was reported as saying that if avoiding assassination attempts was an Olympic sport, he would have won gold medals.

Listed below are some of Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz’s noted achievements He was a Cuban communist revolutionary and politician.

He was Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 President of Cuba from 1976 to 2008.

He also served as the Commander in Chief of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces from 1959 to 2008 The First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011.

Nelson Mandela176 awarded him South Africa's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope.177 Similarities between Castro & Gorbachev Both were Statesmen Presidents and Leaders of their Party Promoted Communism Received Tertiary Education

176 Sampson 1999, p. 192. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Alejandro_Castro_Ruz#Reception_and_legacy 177 Castro ends state-visit to South Africa". BBC News. September 6, 1998. Retrieved May 21, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Fidel_Alejandro_Castro_Ruz#Reception_and_legacy

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Studied law Married and have children Great oratory skills Although both Presidents pursued similar ideologies yet history has shown that the Soviet Union was thrown into upheaval by political and economic instability, and abortive coup which led to Gorbachev’s resignation in December 1991; However in Cuba, Castro stepped down in 2006 due to serious health issues.

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Chapter 4 The Right Honourable Sir Winston Churchill178 KG OM CH TD DL FRS RA 30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965 John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy179(May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), April 15th, 1874 the stage was set when Lord Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill and Jennie Jerome an American heiress180 got married.

178 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill 179 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 180 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relationship

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From this union Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill was born November 30, 1874 in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire and his brother John Strange "Jack" Spencer-Churchill was born in Ireland 4 February 1880.

Winston lived in Dublin from age two to six, with his aristocratic grandfather who was appointed Viceroy. He employed Winston’s father to be his Private Secretary.

Churchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a Governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic.

He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot, Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps.181 This elite school had an illustrious reputation because of its long line of famous alumni including eight former Prime Ministers (including Churchill, Baldwin, Peel, and Palmerston), numerous foreign statesmen, former and current members of both houses of the UK Parliament, two Kings and several other members of various royal families, 20 Victoria Cross and one George Cross holders, and a great many notable figures in both the arts and the sciences.

According to the Churchill’s182 Centre he was widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century.

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA was a British politician who became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955.183 Churchill became a Knight of the Garter in spring of 1953.

Now that the framework has been established let us examine the series of events which took place and propelled him on to a successful journey.

Career in the British army 181 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill#Marriage_and_children 182 http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/biography/biography/churchill-leader-and-statesman

[2] Ibid., 18.

183 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill

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Churchill joined the Harrow Rifle Corps, which put him on a path to a military career.184 Followed by brief but an eventful enjoyable career in the British army.185 During his brief stint in the British army he wrote186 several military reports for newspapers The Pioneer and the Daily Telegraph, and two books on his experiences, The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898) and The River War (1899). The London Morning Post sent Churchill to cover the Boer War in South Africa in 1899, but he was captured by enemy soldiers. It was reported that he made a daring escape out of a bathroom window and became a minor celebrity back home.187 Examining Churchill’s life experiences it appears that he was prepared as far back as 1899, to function in the capacity of a war correspondent.

A case in point, he was a journalist for the Morning Post; a conservative daily newspaper although he had described himself as having a "speech impediment" which he overcame.188 In 1900, Churchill became a Member of Parliament in the Conservative Party for Oldham, a town in Manchester. It appears that he emulated his father during this period by becoming a politician and entered Parliament.

At this juncture he did not receive a salary because Members of Parliament only began to receive salaries 1911189.

184 http://www.biography.com/people/winston-churchill-9248164#video-gallery&awesm=~oFWxYd6ByYJt6S 185 at a zenith of British military power. He joined the Fourth Hussars in 1895 and served in the Indian northwest frontier and the Sudan, where he saw action in the Battle of Omdurman in 1898.

186 In 1899, Churchill left the army and worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post, a conservative daily newspaper. While reporting

on the Boer War in South Africa, he was taken prisoner by the Boers while on a scouting expedition. He made headlines when he escaped, traveling almost 300 miles to Portuguese territory in Mozambique. Upon his return to Britain, he wrote about his experiences in the book London to Ladysmith (1900).

187 http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/Winston-Churchill-106469.html 188 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill#Family_and_early_life 189 http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/myths/churchill-trivia/539-personal-life

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He was an avid supporter of social reform190. Along this path, it seems that he was unconvinced that the Conservative Party was committed to social justice, therefore Churchill switched to the Liberal Party in 1904 and became a Liberal.

Churchill’s decision earned him the label traitor191 to his class when he started working on behalf of progressive-social reforms such as labor issues.

He was elected a Member of Parliament in 1908, and was appointed to the Prime Minister's192 Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade.

He married Clementine Ogilvy Hozier that same year, after meeting her at a ball, and following a short courtship. This union produced five children.

Diana, born in 1909, Randolph in 1911, Sarah in 1914, Marigold in 1918, and Mary in 1922.

Marigold had a cold which got progressively worse, and led to her death on 23 August 1921. She was subsequently buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later .

In January 1911, Churchill showed his tougher side when he made a controversial visit to a police siege193 in London. Police had surrounded a house where two robbers had been caught. Churchill's degree of participation is still in some dispute. Some accounts have him going to the scene only to see for himself what was going on; others state that he allegedly gave directions to police on how to best storm the building. What is known is that the house caught fire during the siege and Churchill prevented the fire brigade from extinguishing the flames, stating that he thought it better to "let the house burn down," rather than risk lives rescuing the occupants. The bodies of the two robbers were found inside the charred ruins.

190 After the passage of the Great Reform Bill, the nature of the position changed; Prime Ministers had to go out among the people. The Bill

increased the electorate to 717,000. Subsequent legislation (and population growth) raised it to 2 million in 1867, 5.5 million in 1884 and 21.4 million in 1918. As the franchise increased, power shifted to the people and Prime Ministers assumed more responsibilities with respect to party leadership. It naturally fell on them to motivate and organise their followers, explain party policies, and deliver its "message". Successful leaders had to have a new set of skills: to give a good speech, present a favourable image, and interact with a crowd. They became the "voice", the “face� and the "image" of the party and ministry.

191 http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/Winston-Churchill-106469.html

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill also emphasized the fact that a special relationship existed between the United Kingdom and the United States192 since the 19th century.

193 http://www.biography.com/people/winston-churchill-9248164#early-careers-government-and-military

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Churchill was widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century During World War I, Churchill194 served on the frontlines in France as a Major with the 2nd Battalion of the Grenadier Guards.17 Eventually, he became the commander of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers, a battalion of the 9th Division.18 Winston Churchill was reported to have made prank calls to Adolf Hitler claiming he was Mussolini and encouraging the German leader to invade Russia. This led to speculation that the only reason why Hitler started the blitzkrieg195 was to destroy the phone lines between England and Nazi occupied Europe. But it seems Churchill's influence did finally persuade Hitler to sneak attack Stalin. When Germany invaded Russia, Churchill is said to have explained 'I have always preferred Vodka to Schnapps. Hurrah for Joe!'.196 It is events such as this one identified above that may have created the environment for Churchill to earn the nickname “The British Bulldog, Winnie197 Churchill’s Legacy Winston Churchill entered the Royal Military College of Sandhurst, and graduated with honors in December of 18941.

He later saw action in Cuba, India, Egypt, Sudan, and the front lines of World War I, and even took part in one of the last British cavalry charges2.

At age twenty-five, Churchill was elected to Parliament, and began his career as a statesman in the House of Commons.

He served as First Lord of the Admiralty, Minister of Munitions, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Prime Minster.

194 http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/biography/biography/churchill-leader-and-statesman 195A

German term for “lightning war,” blitzkrieg is a military tactic designed to create disorganization among enemy forces through the use of mobile forces and locally concentrated firepower. Its successful execution results in short military campaigns, which preserves human lives and limits the expenditure of artillery.

196 http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Winston_Churchill 197 http://www.worldtop.org/Culture/People/Most+influential+people+ever/Winston+Churchill/#

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He was an officer in the British Army, an avid reader and scholar, painter, renowned writer, journalist, and war correspondent.

He was considered the greatest statesman and one of the greatest leaders of the 20th century because of his exemplary leadership during World War II. 198 He is the only British Prime Minister to have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, which he did in 1953.

He was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.199 He was an orator.

His speeches were a great inspiration to the British people despite his "speech impediment" which he worked to overcome.200 He was also the first person to speak of the Iron Curtain, referring to the USSR and the creation of the Eastern Bloc.

Part of aristocratic family.

Churchill devoted his life to public service, serving in the army, and then as a statesman.

He boasted the morale of his nation when it seemed on the brink of losing the war.

He believed201 that “Men occasionally stumble over the truth, but most of them pick themselves up and hurry off as if nothing ever happened”.

What was significant about the date of Winston Churchill’s death: his father died January 24, 1895

198 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/great-leaders-in-history.html 199 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill 200 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill#Family_and_early_life 201 http://www.powerfulwords.info/churchill_winston/1.htm

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Winston Churchill died exactly seventy years later to the date January 24, 1965, Queen Elizabeth II honored his memory with a state funeral which was attended by Statesmen from across the globe.

John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy202 Of note all four of John F. Kennedy’s grandparents were the children of immigrants from Ireland.203 John F. Kennedy, nicknamed "Jack," was the second oldest of nine children born to Joseph Kennedy Sr. and Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald.

May 29, 1917 was significant for the Kennedy’s family and by extension the United States of America.

It was the birth date of John F. Kennedy. He would years later become the 35th President of the United States.

Kennedy204was born in Brookline, Massachusetts into a wealthy suburb Boston. Family.

Kennedy's mother, Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald, was a Boston debutante, and his father, Joseph Kennedy205 Sr., a successful banker and chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission after World War I. His brothers and sisters206 included Eunice Kennedy, the founder of the Special Olympics; Robert Kennedy, a U.S. Attorney General; and Ted Kennedy, one of the most powerful senators in American history.

Throughout Kennedy’s formative years he experienced health challenges. On February 20, 1920 when Jack was not yet three years old, he contracted Scarlet Fever. He also suffered from whooping cough, measles, chicken pox." Once he and his brother Joe raced on their bicycles, they collided 202 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 203 "John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Retrieved February 22, 2012.

204 http://www.shmoop.com/john-f-kennedy/timeline.html 205 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#early-life 206 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#early-life

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head-on. Joe emerged unscathed while Jack had to have twenty-eight stitches. and because he was always suffering from one ailment or another his family used to joke about the great risk a mosquito took in biting him – with some of his blood the mosquito was almost sure to die. One day while playing football he ruptured a disk in his spine. Jack never really recovered from this accident and his back continued to bother him for the rest of his life.207 Addison's disease as well.208 In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy. In 1934, what the doctors first thought was leukemia was later diagnosed as Colitis. (inflammation of the colon).209 In 1943 as Lieutenant (Lt.) and assigned to the South Pacific as commander of a patrol torpedo boat, the PT-109, it was rammed by a Japanese warship. He was thrown against the cockpit, once again injuring his weak back.210 Between 1953 and 1956, Kennedy underwent several spinal It was reported that he submitted himself to risky back surgery.212

operations.211

JFK’s High School Years and Adolescence In his early years, Kennedy attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, the Dexter School, the River Campus of Riverdale Country School and the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut.

In 1931, Kennedy was sent away to Choate School (now known as the Choate Rosemary Hall), a boarding school in Connecticut for his high school

207 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=2 208 He was prescribed a strict regimen of medications so as to deal with the illness 209 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy#Early_life_and_education 210 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=3 211 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy#Early_life_and_education 212 It is believed that his excruciating and constant back pain was as a result of the injuries he experienced when PT 109 was sunk during World War II. During his recovery, he begins work on Profiles in Courage.

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years. While at boarding school, Kennedy frequently got into trouble with authority. In fact, he exploded a toilet seat using a firecracker.213 He graduated Choate Elite Preparatory Boarding School in the fall214 of 1934 and spent one semester at Princeton.

He graduated215 from Harvard216 University217 with a degree in International Affairs in 1940,218 having enrolled there in September 1936.

JFK was enlisted into the Navy on the eve of America's entry into World War II219, and was assigned to take command of a patrol boat stationed in the South Pacific220.

His heroic action in the war gained him a Navy and Marine Corps Medal and Purple Heart Medal, 1944.

213 http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/11/jfk-facts/jfk-was-a-prankster-in-high-school 214 From all reports Jack excelled at the subjects he enjoyed namely English and history, but nearly flunked Latin, in which he had no interest.

He demonstrated intelligence and academic potential even though He was considered a mediocre student with mediocre grades, preferring sports, girls and practical jokes to coursework.

215 Eight US Presidents graduated from Five of the eight got their undergraduate degrees at Harvard while the other three received graduate level

degrees in either business or law.

216 Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/3695541 By Rick Smits | Submitted On February 03, 2010

Eight US Presidents graduated from Harvard217. Five of the eight got their undergraduate degrees at Harvard while the other three received graduate level degrees in either business or law.The eight US Presidents that went to school at Harvard are: John Adams - 2nd President of the United States (Harvard class of 1755) John Quincy Adams - 6th President of the United States (Harvard class of 1788) Rutherford B. Hayes - 19th President of the United States (Harvard Law class of 1845) Theodore Roosevelt - 26th President of the United States (Harvard class of 1880) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) - 32nd President of the United States (Harvard class of 1904) John F. Kennedy (JFK) - 35th President of the United States (Harvard class of 1940) George Walker Bush - 43rd President of the United States (Harvard Business class of 1973) Barack Obama - 44th President of the United States (Harvard Law class of 1991)

218 Importantly Kennedy’s thesis, a critique of Britain's preparedness for World War II, will later serve as the foundation for his first book, Why

England Slept.

219 following of the heels of his older brother, Joe Jr., who was already training to be a navy pilot.

220 He sails west from San Francisco, but does not arrive at his final destination—the Solomon Islands—for another month and a half.

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JFK’s oldest brother Joseph Kennedy Jr. died fighting in Europe and his sister Kathleen died in a plane crash.

As a result of this he became "next in line" for political leadership within the powerful Kennedy family.

Subsequent to the JFK’s oldest brother’s death a cadre of significant events unfolded for him.

November 1946 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts' 11th District.

1951 Kennedy met a beautiful young journalist from a wealthy New England family named Jacqueline Bouvier 221 and the couple got married September 12, 1953222.

This union produced three children namely Caroline Bouvier Kennedy born November 27, 1957, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. born November 25, 1960, and their last child, Patrick223 Bouvier Kennedy, was born on August 7, 1963224.

June 1952, JFK’s younger brother Bobby Kennedy became Campaign Manager as he prepared to enter the Senate race.

August 1956 JFK failed to win the Vice Presidential nomination spot on Adlai Stevenson's ticket at the Democratic National Convention. As a result, another senator namely Estes Kefauver, earned the VP nomination. It appears that JFK was embolden by this setback because when we examine his approach it reflected someone who seemed inspired, and his personality reflected greater fervor and dedication in the pursuance of his political career.

The events highlighted, especially during the 1943 and 1956 period of his life seemed to have sensitized JFK to the fact that he was still a mortal.

221 http://marriage.about.com/od/20thcentury/a/jfkennedy.htm 222 In an election year in which Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress, Kennedy nevertheless won a narrow victory, giving him

considerable clout within the Democratic Party.

223 Patrick was born five weeks premature at the Otis Air Force Base on Cape Cod. His small frame weighed only four pounds, ten ounces. As

was common for premature babies, Patrick was born with respiratory distress syndrome. His condition was untreatable, and he died on August 9, 1963.

224 http://www.netplaces.com/john-f-kennedy/the-personal-side-of-john-f-kennedy/kennedys-children.htm

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Admittedly, from my perspective it appears that all of the previous events identified above set the framework and validated the defining moment in Kennedy’s career especially in 1960.

His lived experiences obviously gave him the enthusiasm regarding his decision to pursue the office of the President.

On January 2, 1960, Kennedy initiated his campaign for President in the Democratic Primary election. Eliminating all his opponents in the race, the Democratic Convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate on July 13.

Choosing Lyndon B Johnson as his running mate, this combination defeated his Republican opponent, Richard M. Nixon, by a slim margin of only 118,000 votes nationwide and caused him to create history as being the first Roman Catholic President of the United States225 and the first President of the U.S to be born in the 20th century.

On November 8, 1960 he was elected the 35th President of the United States. Kennedy’s victory was verbalized in a statement made by one of his aides, “the decisive factor226 in Kennedy's victory227 was his personality, he was the new kind of political figure that people were looking for that year, dignified and gentlemanly and well-educated and intelligent, without the air of superior condescension."

John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself".

He added: "All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days.

Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin."

In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally,

225 http://www.historyrocket.com/American-History/political-history/john-kennedy/John-F-Kennedy-Biography.html 226 Robert Kennedy put together what one journalist called "the most methodical, the most scientific, the most thoroughly detailed, the most intricate, the most disciplined and smoothly working state-wide campaign in Massachusetts history 227 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#congressman-and-senator

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whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."228 Examining critical events surrounding JFK’s short life as President of U.S.A Subsequent to John F. Kennedy’s ascendency to the office of presidency the world witnessed his legacy being established.

March 1, 1961 John F. Kennedy established the Peace Corps by executive order. Through this programme, Americans can volunteer to work anywhere in the world to assist underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and construction.229 September 12, 1962 he announced his goal of putting a man on the moon. President Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in exploring space. The Soviet Union was ahead of the United States in its space program and President Kennedy was determined to catch up. He said, "No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space." Kennedy was the first President to ask Congress to approve more than 22 billion dollars for Project Apollo, which had the goal of landing an American man on the moon before the end of the 230 decade.

Of Note a number of countries around the world including Trinidad and Tobago created history by congratulating the USA for sending people to the moon and participated in sending a Goodwill Message to NASA on 73 Apollo 11.

These countries included "On behalf of the British people I salute the skill and courage which have brought man to the moon. May this endeavour increase the knowledge and wellbeing of mankind." The Queen

228https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 229 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=4 230 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=4

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"In rejoicing together with the government and the people of the United States of America for the event of the century, I pray God that this brilliant achievement of science remain always at the service of peace and of mankind." Artur da Costa e Silva, president of Brazil "This is a message from black militants. It is a message of human solidarity, a message of peace. In this first visit to the Moon, rather than a victory of technology we salute a victory of human will: research and progress, but also brotherhood." LÊopold SÊdar Senghor, president of Senegal "On this unique occasion when man traverses outer space to set foot on Earth’s nearest neighbour, Moon, I send my greetings and good wishes to the brave astronauts who have launched on this great venture. I fervently hope that this event will usher in an era of peaceful endeavour for all mankind." Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India "Although we are not suggesting any message from the Polish Head of State, please be assured that the achievements of the U.S. astronauts are followed by us with great interest, appreciation and best wishes for the success in their endeavour." Jerzy Michalowski, Polish ambassador "Man has reached out and touched the tranquil moon. May that high accomplishment allow man to rediscover the Earth and find peace there." Pierre Elliott Trudeau, prime minister of Canada "On this occasion when Mr. Neil Armstrong and Colonel Edwin Aldrin set foot for the first time on the surface of the Moon from the Earth, we pray the Almighty God to guide mankind towards ever increasing success in the establishment of peace and the progress of culture, knowledge and human civilisation." Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Aryamehr, Shahanshah of Iran "May He whose glory the heavens declare grant that mankind may grow in the knowledge of His purposes as we probe into the secrets of His universe." Hugh Lawson Shearer, prime minister of Jamaica "The age-old dream of man to cut his bonds to planet Earth and reach for the stars has given him not only wings, but also the intellect and the intrepid spirit which has enabled him to overcome formidable barriers and accomplish extraordinary feats in the 80

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exploration of the unknown, culminating in this epochal landing on the Moon."Ferdinand Marcos, president of the Philippines.

October 1962 he was praised for his negotiations in the diffusion of an imminently pending nuclear war, in what has been called the Cuban missile crisis.

Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.

October 14, 1962, would be the start of a testing period for the President. CIA Spy planes discovered long-range nuclear missiles sites and other associated weaponry in Cuba by the Soviets. On October 16 the photos were shown to the President. It was decided that the missiles did pose a nuclear threat and had to be removed.

Kennedy was faced with the dilemma; if the US should attack, it could start a nuclear war with USSR, but if they did nothing, the US would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons, and from a global level, the world would see the US as not committed to the defense of the hemisphere.231 President Kennedy held meetings with his top advisers, and they decided on a naval blockaded of the island of Cuba. Imposing a quarantine on all offensive weapons bound for Cuba backed up by the threat of imminent military action.

On October 22 1962, on national television, Kennedy announced his decision, and warned that the purpose of the Soviet missiles in Cuba could be "none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere" and that he would protect the United States from such a threat no matter what the cost. After several of history’s most tense days, with no compromise coming from either side, and with each day seeming to bring the world closer to the brink of nuclear war, the Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba and to remove American missiles from Turkey which were targeting the Soviet Union placed there during President Eisenhower’s tenure.

231 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy

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President Kennedy agreed to the terms and after further weeks of difficult negotiations, the deal was finalized. On November 20 1962, Kennedy finally lifted the naval blockade on Cuba, and the world would breathe again.

Eight months later, in June 1963, Kennedy successfully negotiated the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty with Great Britain and the Soviet Union, helping to ease Cold War tensions. It was one of his proudest accomplishments.232

By June 11, 1963, however, President Kennedy decided that the time had come to take stronger action to help the civil rights struggle. He proposed a new Civil Rights bill to the Congress, and he went on television asking Americans to end racism. "One hundred years of delay have passed since President Lincoln freed the slaves, yet their heirs, their grandsons, are not fully free," he said. "This Nation was founded by men of many nations and backgrounds‌[and] on the principle that all men are created equal." President Kennedy made it clear that all Americans, regardless of their skin color, should enjoy a good and happy life in the United States.233 August 5, 1963 negotiated the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty June 11, 1963 Kennedy proposed the enactment of civil rights legislation, marking his first decisive action on civil rights.

November 22, 1963 while visiting Dallas Texas for a campaign appearance, Kennedy along with his wife and Texas Governor John Connally, were riding through downtown Dallas in a Lincoln Continental convertible amidst the cheering crowds. In the midst of the merriment, shots were fired, the President was hit by two bullets. President Kennedy died at Parkland Memorial Hospital shortly thereafter, at the age of 46, assassinated234 by a 24 year-old warehouse worker named Lee Harvey Oswald.235

232 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#presidential-candidate-and-president 233 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=5 234 Tricia Escobedo, CNN makes the point that As the nation marks this tragic anniversary, here are five things you may not know about the assassination of the 35th president of the United States: Oswald wasn't arrested for JFK killing Assassinating the president wasn't a federal crime in 1963 TV networks suspended shows for four days It led to the first and only time a woman has sworn in a U.S. president Oswald had tried to assassinate Kennedy foe http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_embargo_against_Cuba 235 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#assassination

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Kennedy is referred to as the Camelot Era because of his popularity, charisma, and courage.236 He also subscribed to the view that “Our problems are man-made, therefore they may be solved by man. No problem of human destiny is beyond human beings�. 237 Generally, what was very remarkable about these two icons is the fact that they were born into wealthy aristocratic large families with Irish ancestry, married after being elected to serve, were parents in their twenties.

They were considered as charismatic statesmen with great oratory skills, and visionary world leaders who experienced mixed bag of blunders.

In this setting the stage was set for major social, cultural, and political changes in the global village. In this conversation the journeys of the late Right Honourable Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the late John F. Kennedy, 35th President of U.S. seemed to embrace a similar ideology.

Similarities between these two icons: Caucasian men from the upper class society.

Attended elite schools, Served in the army, Went to war, Became President/Prime Minister.

Were authors and journalists Devoted their lives to public service, Were statesmen JKF like Churchill became a member of parliament.

JKF like Churchill met his wife at an even

236 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/great-leaders-in-history.html 237 http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/John_F._Kennedy

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Chapter 5 The Honourable Dr. Eric Eustace Williams TC 23825 Sept. 1911 – 29 March 1981 President Franklin Delano Roosevelt239Jan. 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945,

Dr. Eric Williams was Trinidad and Tobago’s first Prime Minister.

He has been characterized240 by former US Secretary of State Colin Powell as “a tireless warrior in the battle against colonialism, and for his many other achievements as a scholar, politician and international statesman241’ 238

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams

239

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt

240 The Former 65th Secretary of State Colin L. Powell 241 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams

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In 1962, he became Trinidad and Tobago’s first Prime Minister.

He was successively re-elected and served as Prime Minister until 242 his death on 29 March 1981243.

He was also a noted Caribbean historian, and is widely regarded as "The Father of The Nation."

Eric Eustace Williams born to parents Thomas Henry Williams and Eliza Frances Boissiere on 25 September 1911, was destined to be a scholar, politician, international statesman and the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.244 Williams’ father was employed as a minor civil servant, while his mother Eliza Frances Boissiere was a descendant of the French Creole elite.245 Williams’ parents represented an urban and Catholic coloured, lower middle-class family in Port of Spain, Trinidad. Eric246 was raised along with seven sisters and five brothers. Eric excelled at academics during his tenure at the Queen's Royal College in Port of Spain. Williams247 had three children, two daughters, Pamela and Erica; and one son, Alastair.

An excerpt outlined in William’s autobiography has stated that, his father's ambition forced him to use education as a means of social advancement248. When we examine this excerpt it can be interpreted that William’s father may have embraced President Nelson Mandela’s ideology regarding Education. President Nelson Mandela said that “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.” 249

242 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/644344/Eric-Williams 243 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 244 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 245 http://www.search.ask.com/web?q=French+Creole+elite+&apn_ Mulattoes, Mixed Race, and Creoles ... It was the elite of the free mulattoes

who touched most intimately the skin of white society 246 http://atlas-caraibe.certic.unicaen.fr/en/page-103.html 247 http://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/31/obituaries/eric-williamsleader-of-trinidad-and-tobago-is-dead.html 248 http://atlas-caraibe.certic.unicaen.fr/en/page-103.html 249 http://www.ineedmotivation.com/blog/2008/10/my-favorite-nelson-mandela-quotes/

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It is logical to assume therefore that Mr. Williams’ success was facilitated by his father’s encouragement to use education .

He was educated at Queen's Royal College in Port of Spain, and excelled in his academic studies as well as football.

In 1932 he won an island scholarship which afforded him the opportunity to attend St Catherine's Society, Oxford250 where he also participated in athletics251.

In 1935, he received first-class honours for his B.A in history, and was ranked in first place among University of Oxford students graduating in History that same year. He also represented the university at football.252 He continued his advanced research in history at Oxford, and completed the D.Phil (Doctor of Philosophy-PhD) in 1938.

In his autobiography entitled ‘Inward Hunger’ Dr Williams makes mention of the difficulty he faced before he could complete his doctorate. He records, "I was severely handicapped in my research by my lack of money.... I was turned down everywhere I tried ... and could not ignore the racial factor involved."

Finally and thankfully so, in 1936, Sir Alfred Claud Hollis, (Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, 1930–36) made a recommendation on his behalf, and Leathersellers' Company awarded Williams a grant of £50 to continue his studies.253 In 1939, Williams migrated to the United States to teach at Howard University. He became an assistant professor of social and political sciences.

While at Howard, Williams began to work as a consultant to the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission, a body set up after the war to study the future of the region. In 1948, he returned to Trinidad to head the Research Branch of the Caribbean Commission. .

While back at home, he presented a series of educational lectures, for which he became famous. He used Woodford Square in Port of Spain, calling 250 (which subsequently became St Catherine's College, Oxford) 251 He also represented the university at football.

252 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Eric_Williams 253 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Eric_Williams

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it "The University of Woodford Square", as his platform to give a series of public lectures on world history, Greek democracy and philosophy, the history of slavery, and the history of the Caribbean, to large audiences drawn from every social class.254 Later in 1955, due to differences between Williams and the commission, he left the organization.

He became more involved in politics, and by January 15 1956, the party which he founded and called People's National Movement (PNM) was inaugurated.

The PNM unlike the other political parties of the time, was a highly organized, hierarchical body. Its first document was its Constitution. Its second document was ‘The People’s Charter’, in which the party strove to separate itself from the transitory political assemblages which had thus far been the norm in Trinidadian politics.255 Federation and Independence The Montego Bay conference of 1948 had declared the common aim to be the achievement by the West Indies of "Dominion Status" (which meant constitutional independence from Britain) as a Federation. In 1958, a West Indies Federation emerged from the British West Indies, British Guiana (now Guyana) and British Honduras (now Belize) opted out of the Federation, leaving Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago as the dominant players. Two Federal political parties were formed – the West Indies Federal Labour Party led by Grantley Adams of Barbados and Norman Manley of Jamaica, and the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) - led by Manley's cousin, Sir Alexander Bustamante. With most of the political parties in the various territories aligning themselves with one of the two parties, the PNM joined with the former. Opposition parties - The People's Democratic Party, The Trinidad Labour Party and The Party of Political Progress Groups aligned themselves with the DLP, and soon merged to form the Democratic Labour Party of Trinidad and Tobago.

254 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Eric_Williams 255 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Eric_Williams subsequent poor showing by subsequent poor showing by

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With the DLP winning the 1958 Federal Elections, and the PNM’s poor results in the 1959 County Council Elections, and Lord Hailes (GovernorGeneral of the Federation) overruling two PNM nominations to the Federal Senate in order to balance a disproportionately WIFLP-dominated Senate, seemed to have discouraged Williams about the Federation. Bustamante withdrew Jamaica from the Federation, leaving Trinidad and Tobago in the untenable position of having to provide 75% of the Federal budget while having less than half the seats in the Federal government. In a famous speech, Williams declared that "one from ten leaves nought". Following the adoption of a resolution to that effect by the PNM General Council on 15 January 1962, Williams withdrew Trinidad and Tobago from the West Indies Federation. This action led the British Government to dissolve the Federation.256 In September the PNM party won the National elections and Williams became the Chief Minister of the country from 1956 to 1959. With the achievement of Internal Self-Government in 1959, he served as Premier. When the PNM won the December 1961 elections by a landslide, Williams became Prime Minister of the colony. Having led the nation to Independence in August 1962 and dominating its post-colonial politics, he retained the title of Prime Minister. Under his leadership, the nation was made a Republic in 1976.

As Prime Minister, Williams practiced what was called “pragmatic socialism,” which stressed social services, improved education, and economic development through the cautious attraction of foreign investment capital, a call for an end to government corruption, aid for sugar cane workers, universal, secular and compulsory education, birth control and economic and industrial development.

This policy was fruitful in making Trinidad and Tobago the wealthiest Commonwealth Caribbean nation.

With location of oil reserves in his country. This gave his nation one of the highest per capita incomes in Latin America region. Although his Government had been faced with high unemployment and social unrest. Oil income also gave Mr. Williams' Government the opportunity to lend substantial amounts to its poorer Caribbean neighbors.257

256 https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Eric_Williams 257 http://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/31/obituaries/eric-williamsleader-of-trinidad-and-tobago-is-dead.html

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Of note a number of countries around the world including Trinidad and Tobago created history258 by congratulating the USA for sending Astronauts to the moon in 1969 and participated in sending a Goodwill Message to NASA on 73 Apollo 11.

Dr Williams’ message read: ‘The Government and the people of Trinidad and Tobago acclaim this historic triumph of science and the human will. It is our earnest hope for mankind that while we gain the moon, we shall not lose the world.

Eric Williams- Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago.

The Eric Williams Memorial Collection Main article: In 1998 The Eric Williams Memorial Collection (EWMC)259 was inaugurated by Former United States of America Secretary of State Colin L. Powell. Colin L. Powell at the University of the West Indies in Trinidad and Tobago.

In 1999, it was named to UNESCO’s prestigious Memory of the World Register.

Film In 2011, to mark the centenary of Williams' birth, Mariel Brown directed the documentary film entitled Inward Hunger: the Story of Eric Williams, scripted by Alake Pilgrim. 260

258 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/space/5844543/Apollo-11-Moon-landing-messages-of-peace-from-world-leaders-left-on-Moon.html 259 The Collection consists of the late Dr. Williams' Library and Archives. Available for consultation by researchers, the Collection amply reflects its owner’s eclectic interests, comprising some 7,000 volumes, as well as correspondence, speeches, manuscripts, historical writings, research notes, conference documents and a miscellany of reports. The Museum contains a wealth of emotive memorabilia of the period and copies of the seven translations of Williams’ major work, Capitalism and Slavery (into Russian, Chinese and Japanese [1968, 2004] among them, and a Korean translation was released in 2006). Photographs depicting various aspects of his life and contribution to the development of Trinidad and Tobago complete this extraordinarily rich archive, as does a three-dimensional re-creation of Williams’ study.Dr. Colin Palmer, Dodge Professor of History at Princeton University, has said: “as a model for similar archival collections in the Caribbean...I remain very impressed by its breadth.... [It] is a national treasure.” Palmer’s biography of Williams up to 1970, Eric Williams and the Making of the Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 2008), is dedicated to the Collection.

260 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams#cite_note-2

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It was noted that Williams was Trinidad and Tobago’s first Prime Minister from 1962 until his death in 1981.

Of note, history has also recorded that Williams was renowned as the Caribbean historian, and author and has joined the distinguished list of iconic Fathers of their Nation’s Independence such as the late Prime Minister of Barbados the Rt. Excellent Errol Walton Barrow, former leader of India Mohandas Gandhi and former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela.

As a noted historian, Mr. Williams was the author of great writings, including ''Capitalism and Slavery,'' written in 1944, is a classic in the field. This work, which he called ''a study of the contribution of slavery to the development of British capitalism,'' was his doctoral dissertation at Oxford, where he graduated with first class honors in modern history His other works include: The Negro in the Caribbean (1942) ''History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago,-1962'' ''Documents of West Indian History,'' ''British Historians and the West Indies''-1964 and his autobiography, Inward Hunger: The Education of a Prime Minister (1969).''261 From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean, 1492–1969 (1970). It was noted that Williams wore a hearing aid yet this impediment did not prevent him from being successful.

Given his lived experiences, his character, his academia, his intellect and his spirituality he was able to draw from these attributes to function successfully as a politician in Trinidad and Tobago.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), Franklin Delano Roosevelt was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from March 1933 to his death in April 1945.

On retrospect Roosevelt's presidency, was one of determination and focus.

FDR's biographer Jean Edward Smith in 2007 described him as one “which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees." 262 This in my view was a profound statement which epitomized Franklin Roosevelt.

Let us look at the events that shaped his character.

261 http://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/31/obituaries/eric-williamsleader-of-trinidad-and-tobago-is-dead.html 262 Smith 2007, p. ix.

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On January 30, 1882, Franklin Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York to James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt. FDR as he became familiarly known was his parents only child.

In 1900, Roosevelt graduated from Groton School, in Groton, Massachusetts and entered Harvard University263. There he study History and Law. On March 17, 1905 during his last year at Harvard, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, his fifth cousin, with his cousin President Theodore Roosevelt who had been president in 1901, in attendance. The couple had a daughter, Anna, followed by five sons, one of whom died in infancy.

In 1907 having exited Harvard, Roosevelt went on to study law at Columbia University Law School.264 He failed to continue with the law degree and left in 1907, though he had passed state exams allowing him to practice law.

Joining a law firm in New York City, he practiced Corporate law for the next three years, living the typical upper-class life. But he found law practice boring and restrictive. As a consequence he set his sights on greater accomplishments.

He entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson.

He held this position for the next seven years. Roosevelt proved his worth when America entered the war in 1917 – the navy was in good shape and the excellent administration in the department was shown when the navy played its part in the complex issue of getting American troops over to Europe.

1913 Roosevelt’s career began to flourish having been elected to the New York State Senate. In 1920 Roosevelt run as the Democratic candidate for Vi c e - P r e s i d e n t , a l o n g s i d e J a m e s M . C o x b u t w a s d e f e a t e d b y Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge.

In 1921 Roosevelt was stricken with polio, which left him paralyzed in his legs. This halted his political career for a few years. He was treated at a polio centre, and was able to walk using leg braces and walking canes.

263 http://www.biography.com/people/franklin-d-roosevelt-9463381#early-life 264 http://www.biography.com/people/franklin-d-roosevelt-9463381#early-life

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In 1928 when Al Smith gave up his position of Governor of New York to run as Presidential candidate, he urged Roosevelt265 to run for Governor of New York. He was elected Governor in 1928, but took up office as Reform Governor from January 1929-1932.

November 6, 1928 he had established a polio treatment center in Warm Springs, Georgia.

Roosevelt made a name for himself by introducing tax relief for farmers in the state, He had a natural gift for speaking to people over the radio – he seemed to be the normal man in the street who kept himself in contact with the people rather than a remote politician who hid behind his position and power.266 When ‘The Wall Street Crash’ - one of a series of events leading to the Great Depression in the United States hit in October 1929, Franklin found himself Governor of a state where unemployment grew at an unprecedented rate. Bread lines were a common site, and card board boxes were being used as homes, as people were evicted because they could not pay the rent or mortgage.

New York State was the most populated in America and the impact of the Crash hit the city hard. Roosevelt promoted the enactment of programs to combat the Great Depression that occurred during his governorship.267 He set up the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA), which aimed at finding jobs for the unemployed, and by 1932 TERA was helping nearly one out of every 10 families in New York.268 1932 was election year, Roosevelt defeated Hoover becoming the 32nd President of the United States, after receiving 57.4% of the popular vote269.

265 http://www.biography.com/people/franklin-d-roosevelt-9463381#polio-diagnosis 266//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/political-leaders-of-world-war-two/f-d-roosevelt/ 267 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/political-leaders-of-world-war-two/f-d-roosevelt/ 268 http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/franklin-d-roosevelt 269 http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/, accessed 11/23/08

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He took office on March 04, 1933, and immediately launched his “New Deal” to the American people. A variety of programs designed to produce relief (government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (economic growth), and reform (through regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation). He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance,270 thereby providing relief to the Americans from the previous years of hardship due to the recession. November 3, 1936 the federal government provided a Second New Deal, established additional agencies and programs including the WPA, Social Security, and the National Labor Relations Board.

September 1, 1939 Roosevelt was re-elected for a second term. He won by a landslide in the popular vote (60.8%) and trounces Landon in the Electoral College 523 to 8. 271 At this juncture, his presidency was further tested from the perspective that during his272 campaigning273 he promised274 not to send American troops into foreign wars. On November 5, 1940 Hitler invaded Poland, triggering World War II. But on December 7, 1941 Under President Roosevelt, Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act, authorising the US to aid the Allied Powers without entering into the war.

He would later be re-elected for a further third and fourth term.

When France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all possible aid short of actual military involvement.275

270 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt 271 52 http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/, accessed 11/23/08 272 http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/, accessed 11/23/08 273 Franklin Roosevelt is re-elected to a third term with 54.7% of the vote,

Similarly, in 2014 Iraq’s civil war President Obama said “that ground forces are off the table but his national security team will present him with other options 'in the days ahead' "In light of the security274 situation in Baghdad, I have ordered up to approximately 200 additional U.S. Armed Forces personnel to Iraq to reinforce security at the U.S. Embassy, its support facilities, and the Baghdad International Airport," Mr. Obama said in a letter to lawmakers.

275 https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/franklindroosevelt

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When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the Nation's manpower and resources for global war.276 As the war drew to a close, Roosevelt's health deteriorated, and on April 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.277 Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Legacy Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented four terms, serving longer than any other president. He led America through both the Great Depression and World War II. The majority of polls ranked Roosevelt as the second or third greatest president, consistent with other surveys.278 The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.279 Roosevelt firmly established that the United States leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.280 FDR strategy worked when he created a liberal political alliance made up of labor unions, blacks and other ethnic and religious minorities, intellectuals, the poor, and some farmers because these groups eventually supported the Democratic Party for decades following the Depression.

His legacy still continued after his death because his widow continued to be a forceful presence in the United States of America and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism.

276 https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/franklindroosevelt 277 https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/franklindroosevelt 278 · "Performance", Historians (survey), American Presidents. · Opinion Journal.

279 Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1962), "Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans", The Politics of Hope, Riverside Press.

280 Black, Conrad (2005), Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, pp. 1126–27.

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Many members of his administration played leading roles in the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and Johnson, each of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy.281 He received many accolades to name a few: Landmarks in his memoryFDR bust at Roosevelt Island, New York, Roosevelt's home in Hyde Park is now a National Historic Site and home to his Presidential library, Roosevelt Campobello International Park, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge, The 7.50-acre Roosevelt Memorial, Three public sculptures of Roosevelt sitting in a wheelchair are known to exist; The Roosevelt dime, United States Postal Service with a Prominent Americans series 6¢ postage stamp, issue of 1966.282 The airport of the Dutch Caribbean island of St. Eustatius is named F.D. Roosevelt Airport after Roosevelt, whose ancestors lived on the island in the 18th century.283 In summary, F.D. Roosevelt served three full terms, died on the 83rd day (2 months and 24 days) of his fourth term284.

Likewise, Dr. Eric Williams was Trinidad and Tobago’s first prime minister from 1962 until his death in 1981285.

These great iconic leaders Roosevelt and Williams died in office; They were determined and focused despite their impediments. They also represented the hierarchy structure.

281 Leuchtenburg, William E (2001), In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush.

282 Gunther 1950, pp. 87–89, 337–38.

283 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Biographical 284 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States_by_time_in_office His first term in office (1933–1937) was the shortest term for an elected President (after Washington’s) who neither died in office nor resigned. The Twentieth Amendment moved Inauguration Day from March 4 to January 20 beginning in 1937; therefore, Roosevelt's first term was 43 days (1 month and 13 days) short of a full four years: from March 4, 1933 through January 20, 1937, a period of 1,418 days.

285 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams

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They had a vested interest because they were citizens and Commanders in Chief.

They functioned in the different geographical space among people of diverse colour, culture, hierarchy and ownership.

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Chapter 6 Comparative Features Affectionate Names Sir Winston Churchill, the British Bulldog, Winnie286 President Roosevelt universally known by his initials “FDR”.

John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy287 “Jack” Usain Bolt is affectionately called "Lightning Bolt"288, Jesse Ownes called The Buckeye Bullet 289 “JC” Same Alma mater In 1904 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) - 32nd President of the United States attended Harvard In 1940 John F. Kennedy (JFK) - 35th President of the United States attended Harvard Born the same Month Mother Teresa290 Born August 26, 1910.

Fidel Castro Ruz291 August 13 1926 Usain St.Leo Bolt OJ CD292born 21 August 1986 Dr. Eric Eustace Williams TC 293 25 September 1911 James Cleveland "Jesse" Owens September 12, 1913294

286 http://www.worldtop.org/Culture/People/Most+influential+people+ever/Winston+Churchill/# 287 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 288 Lawrence, Hubert; Samuels, Garfield (20 August 2007). "Focus on Jamaica – Usain Bolt". Focus on Athletes (International Association of Athletics Federations). Retrieved 1 June 2008.

289 http://www.jesseowens.com/ 290 http://www.geteasyway.com/Article/ViewArticle.aspx%3Fde0RnTIa58w%3D 291 http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/fidel-castro-14.php 292 "NEWS FLASH – Bolt does the double with 19.30 seconds WORLD RECORD!". IAAF. 20 August 293 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 294 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Owens

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Served in the army John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy295 Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz296 Born into Wealthy Families John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy297 Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill Franklin D. Roosevelt298, Children of Immigrants Winston299-Churchill born in Dublin300, Ireland and England JFK four grandparents were the children of immigrants from Ireland.

[1]

Franklin 301Roosevelt’s father James Franklin302 was a wealthy New York land owner and descendent from Nicholas Roosevelt whose father had emigrated from Holland to New Amsterdam in 1960.

295 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 296 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Does_Fidel_Castro_have_children 297 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 298 http://histclo.com/pres/Ind20/fdr/fam/fdr-fam.html 299 Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family,[2] 300 Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Churchill first

developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland).[6][7] 301 Yet Roosevelt was also a study in contradictions. A scion of one of the most elite families in the country, he became a hero to the common

man and enacted policies that created the foundations of our social welfare system. A polished orator who inspired millions with his stirring speeches and intimate fireside chats, he was also a crafty (and sometimes shady) wheeler-dealer who knew how to pull the strings of Washington politics as well as anyone. And though he was known for his optimism and vigor, he was crippled from the waist down for most of his political career. What made Franklin D. Roosevelt tick, and how did he become one of the most influential leaders in American history? and why should you still care about FDR today? Well, along with Washington and Lincoln, he's often ranked as one of the three greatest American presidents. Of course, "great" is pretty subjective, and like most larger-than-life figures he has both ardent admirers and fierce critics.

No one, however, can deny that FDR was one of our most influential presidents. Roosevelt led the nation through two of the greatest crises in its history, dramatically expanded the power of the presidency, and created new agencies that fundamentally transformed the federal government.

Love him or leave him, his place in the history books is assured. Jan 30, 1882 302 http://histclo.com/pres/Ind20/fdr/fam/fdr-fam.html

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Died In Office303 John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy304 was assassinated with two rifle shots on November 22, 1963305, in Dallas, Texas Franklin D. Roosevelt306 On April 12, 1945307, collapsed and died as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage.

Dr. Eric Williams 29 March 1981308 Donations Usain Bolt “Father of Independence” Dr. Eric Williams

First Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was the first lord of Admiralty Minister of Munitions Chancellor of Exchequer and Prime Minister and First person to speak of Iron Curtain.

At the 2008 Olympic Games, Bolt became the first man309 since American Carl Lewis in 1984 to win the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 4 × 100-metre relay in a single Olympics. At the 2008 Olympic Games, Bolt became the first ever310 to set world records (9.69 sec, 19.30 sec, and 37.10 sec, respectively) in all three events.

303 During the history of the United States, eight presidents have died in office.[1] Of those eight, four were assassinated and four died of natural

causes.[2] In all eight cases, the Vice President of the United States took over the office of presidency as part of the United States presidential line of succession.[3] 304 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States_who_died_in_office 305 The President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection". National Archives. Retrieved December 15, 2008.

306 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States_who_died_in_office 307 · · "Franklin D. Roosevelt". White House. Retrieved December 15, 2008.

308 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 309 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1488267/Usain-Bolt 310 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1488267/Usain-Bolt

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Kennedy was also the first311 Catholic President and the first President born in the 20th century.

FDR Rides a Dirigible, 1918. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first sitting president to ride in an airplane, an occasion marked by a very long overseas flight...312 Dr. Eric Eustace Williams (25 September 1911 – 29 March 1981) served as the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago313 Jesse Ownes was the first African-American Olympian. he proved Hitler wrong.

He went to OSU & Was Born in 1913 Died in 1980314 Honorary Citizenship of the United States315 Sir Winston Churchill April 6, 1963 Mother Teresa Honorary U.S. Citizen November 17, 1996316 Honours and Awards Dr. Maya Angelou317 Usain St Leo Bolt Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill.318 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev President John Fitzgerald Kennedy319 320 Jesse Owens 311 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#presidential-candidate-and-president 312 fdrlibrary.tumblr.com 313 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams

314 wiki.answers.com/Q/Was_Jesse_Owens_the_first_African-American_Olympian 315 http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/125-united-states-citizen 316 http://articles.latimes.com/1996-11-17/news/mn-175_1_mother-teresa 317 http://www.withautodesk.com/html/an-analysis-of-maya-angelous-poem-passing-time.html 318 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honours_of_Winston_Churchill 319 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorials_to_John_F._Kennedy#Schools 320 http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-f-kennedy-receives-medals

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President Theodore Roosevelt.321 Mother Teresa Dr. Eric Williams, Icons Quotations Dr. Maya Angelou: “Listen to yourself and in that quietude you might hear the voice of God”.322 Usain St Leo Bolt: “when people see your personality come out, they feel so good, like they actually know who you are”323.

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz: “I warn you, I am just beginning! If there is, in your hearts, a vestige of love for your country, humanity, justice listen carefully…condemn me. History will absolve me.” these words were said during his trial in 1953 defending his actions and fearlessly declaring his political views.324 Winston Churchill said that “Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities because it is the quality which guarantees all others”325.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev: "What we need is Star Peace and not Star Wars."326 John Fitzgerald Kennedy: "It is insane that two men, sitting on opposite sides of the world, should be able to decide to bring an end to civilization." 327

321 http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/2010/December/10-Roosevelt-is-Awarded-the-Nobel-Peace-Prize.aspx 322 http://www.searchquotes.com/quotes/author/Maya_Angelou/ 323 http://quotesofday.com/quotesfromauthor/5792/1.html 324 http://theviewspaper.net/fidel_castro_retires/ 325 http://www.famousquotesandauthors.com/authors/winston_churchill_quotes.html 326 http://www.quoteworld.org/authors/mikhail_sergeyevich_gorbachev#ixzz39QMZpF7q 327 http://www.shmoop.com/john-f-kennedy/quotes.html

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Jesse Owens: “ Friendships born on the field of athletic strife are the real gold of competition. Awards become corroded, friends gather no dust”.328 Franklin D. Roosevelt: “it is common sense to take a method and try it. If it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something”329.

Mother Teresa: “I can do things you cannot, you can do things I cannot; together we can do great things.”330 Dr. Eric Williams: “Democracy, finally, rests on a higher power than Parliament. It rests on an informed and cultivated and alert public opinion. The Members of Parliament are only representatives of the citizens. They cannot represent apathy and indifference. They can play the part allotted to them only if they represent intelligence and public spiritedness”.331 Interesting Facts James C Owens was given the nick name “Jesse” because his elementary teacher misinterpreted his name when he told her his name was "J.C" (Initials for James Cleveland) because of his heavy Alabama accent made it sound like "Jesse". From then on, he was known as Jesse Owens 332 Winston Churchill’s father died January 24, 1895 Winston Churchill died January 24, 1965.(the same date of his father, exactly seventy years later)

328 http://www.searchquotes.com/quotes/author/Jesse_Owens/ 329 http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Franklin_D._Roosevelt 330 http://life-changing-inspirational-quotes.com/mother-teresa-quotes.html 331 http://www.quoteland.com/author/Dr-Eric-Eustace-Williams-Quotes/1312/ 332 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_was_Jesse_Owens_called_the_buckeye_bullet

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Former Prime Minister P. J. Patterson recognised333 Bolt's talent and arranged for him to move to Kingston, along with Jermaine Gonzales, so that he could train with the Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) at the University of Technology, Jamaica.334 Mr. Kennedy335 had announced to everyone when John Fitzgerald Kennedy was a young boy that he would be the first Catholic to become President.

Maya Angelou worked as the first black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco.

Imprisoned On July 26, 1953 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz, was sentenced to 15 years in prison336.

Like Practical Jokes Winston Churchill was reported to have made prank calls to Adolf Hitler claiming he was Mussolini and encouraging the German leader to invade Russia. This led to speculation that the only reason why Hitler started the blitzkrieg was to destroy the phone lines between England and Nazi occupied Europe. But it seems Churchill's influence did finally persuade Hitler to sneak attack Stalin.

When Germany invaded Russia Churchill is said to have explained 'I have always preferred Vodka to Schnapps. Hurrah for Joe!'.337 John Fitzgerald Kennedy.338 In 1931, Kennedy was sent away to Choate School (now known as the Choate Rosemary Hall), a boarding school in Connecticut for his high school years. While at 333 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

334 Luton, Daraine (18 August 2008). "Pablo McNeil – the man who put the charge in Bolt". Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 26 August 2008.

335 http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx?p=2 336 http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1766.html 337 http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Winston_Churchill 338 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#early-life

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boarding school, Kennedy frequently got into trouble with authority.

In fact, he exploded a toilet seat using a firecracker.339 Usain Bolt often played practical jokes340 on his coach McNeil. On one occasion he hid from his coach shortly before a race341 Lawyers Fidel Castro entered law school at the University of Havana 1945. 342 Roosevelt entered Columbia Law School in 1905 but existed in 1907, after passing the bar exam.343.

John F. Kennedy Jr. entered law school at New York University Law School, and graduated in 1989.344 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev entered Moscow State University in 1952, to pursue his law345 degree.

Leaders of their Political Party Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Dr. Eric Williams Met Presidents 1976 Jessie Owens 346 met President Gerald Ford and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

339 http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/11/jfk-facts/jfk-was-a-prankster-in-high-school 340 http://en.espn.co.uk/london-olympics-2012/sport/player/1626.html 341 http://msongo.blogspot.com/2012/08/lightning-bolt-strikes-again.html 342 worldhistoryproject.org/1945/fidel-castro-studies-law-at-havana-university 343 http://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/remarkable_columbians/franklin_delano_roosevelt.html 344 www.john-f-kennedy-jr.com/bio.htm 345 www.sapiencekb.com/perstud/biog/gorbachev.htm 346 Owens athlete wouldn't be properly recognized although he helped the U.S. triumph at the games, his return home was not met with the

kind of fanfare one might expect. President Franklin D. Roosevelt failed to meet with Owens and congratulate him, as was typical for champions. The mild-mannered Owens seemed not the least bit surprised by his home country's hypocrisy. "When I came back to my native country, after all the stories about Hitler, I couldn't ride in the front of the bus," he said. "I had to go to the back door. I couldn't live where I wanted. I wasn't invited to shake hands with Hitler, but I wasn't invited to the White House to shake hands with the president, either."

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President Reagan Presents Mother Teresa with the Medal of Freedom at the White House 6/20/1985347 April 9, 2015 Usain Bolt met President Obama348 in Jamaica Name Change Agnes Bojaxhiu changed to Sister Mary Teresa349.

Marguerite Ann Johnson changed to Maya Angelou.350 Name and Meaning Eric351 “Eternal ruler” Fidel352 Faithful.

Franklin353 "Free man"...

Jessie354 - Gift; oblation; John355 - God is gracious or God is generous.

Maya356 - Is a feminine name with multiple meanings Mikhail357 - Who resembles God? Teresa358 - Late summer" Usain359 - Beautiful

347https://research.archives.gov/id/6728672

348 President Obama Meets Usain Bolt: 'Nobody's Ever Been Faster' Apr 11, 2015, 6:57 AM ET By Arlette Saenz Arlette Saenzmore From Arlette »Digital Journalistvia GOOD MORNING AMERICA http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/president-obama-meets-usain-bolt-nobodysfaster/story?id=30244283 349 www.motherteresaandme.com/mother-teresas-bio 350 http://fixquotes.com/authors/maya-angelou.htm 351 http://www.ourbabynamer.com/meaning-of-Eric.html 352 http://www.meaning-of-names.com/spanish-names/fidel.asp 353 http://www.thinkbabynames.com/meaning/1/Franklin 354 http://www.sheknows.com/baby-names/name/jesse 355 http://www.meaningofjohn.com/ 356 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%28given_name%29 357 http://babynamesworld.parentsconnect.com/meaning_of_Mikhail.html 358 http://www.thinkbabynames.com/meaning/0/Teresa 359 http://nameberry.com/babyname/Usain

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Winston360 -Friendly town.

Parents 361 Dr. Maya Angelou362 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz363 Winston Churchill364 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev365.

John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy 366 Jesse Owens367 Franklin D. Roosevelt368 Dr. Eric Williams369 Presidents Franklin Delano Roosevelt November 1932 - 1945370 John Fitzgerald Kennedy 1961-1963371 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz372 1976 - 2008.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev373 1990 – 1991

360 http://www.ourbabynamer.com/meaning-of-Winston.html 361Psalm27:3http://www.bing.com/search?q=children+are+a+heritage+from+the+LORD&qs=n&form=QBRE&pq=children+are+a+heritage

+from+the+lord&sc=5-37&sp=-1&sk= 362 http://allafrica.com/stories/201408040013.html 363 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Does_Fidel_Castro_have_children 364 http://www.ask.com/question/how-many-children-did-winston-churchill-have 365 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev#Early_and_personal_life 366 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis 367 http://library.osu.edu/projects/jesse-owens/story_family.html 368 www.archives.com/genealogy/president-fdr.html 369 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 370 http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/franklindroosevelt 371 wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_terms_did_john_f_kennedy_serve 372 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro 373 www.encyclopedia.com/utility/printtopic.aspx?id=14334

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Prime Ministers Sir Winston Churchill374 Dr. Eric Williams 1962–81 375 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz376 1959 to 1976, Regarded As Dr. Maya Angelou – A Highly regarded377 and honored American writer and activist.

Usain St Leo Bolt378 A legend at the 2012 Olympic Games in London by defending all three Olympic titles with 100m, 200m and 4x100m victories, the latter in a new world record time of 36.84 secs thus created history.

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz379 "One of the most extraordinary political figures of the twentieth century", noting that he had become a "world hero in the mold of Garibaldi" to people throughout the developing world for his antiimperialist efforts.

Winston Churchill380 One of the greatest leaders of the 20th century2.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev –

374 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/great-leaders-in-history.html 375 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/644344/Eric-Williams 376 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro 377 http://www.withautodesk.com/html/an-analysis-of-maya-angelous-poem-passing-time.html 378 http://usainbolt.com/bio/ 379 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Alejandro_Castro_Ruz#Reception_and_legacy 380 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/great-leaders-in-history.html

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A skilled technocrat and a reformer,381 and in the West for having ended the Cold War382.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy – One of the most popular American leaders. 383 Jesse Owens-, The greatest and most famous athlete in track and field history, Franklin Delano Roosevelt-384 The only U.S. President as a Democrat, to be elected four times385 Mother Teresa – The greatest mother of all mothers.386 Dr. Eric Williams – A tireless warrior in the battle against colonialism, and for his many other achievements as a scholar, politician and international statesman387.

Statesmen John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy388 Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill389 Franklin D. Roosevelt390

381 http://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/russia-and-the-soviet-union/soviet-union/mikhail-gorbachev 382 http://nlp.cs.nyu.edu/meyers/controversial-wikipedia-corpus/english-html/main/main_0501.html 383 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/great-leaders-in-history.html 384 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt 385 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt 386 http://mothersday.fundootimes.com/mother-teresa.html 387 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 388 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy 389 http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/winston_churchill 390 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt

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Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev391 Dr. Eric Williams392 Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz 393 The Nobel Peace Prize Recipients 1979 Mother Teresa - India Founder of Missionaries of Charity394 1990 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Soviet Union President of the Soviet Union,- for his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community395 Youngest Kennedy's election was historic in several respects.

At the age of 43, he was the second youngest396 American president in history, second only to Theodore Roosevelt.

Theodore Roosevelt, assumed the office of President at age 42.

In 2009, at age 23, Usain Bolt became the youngest member to date, to be awarded the Order of Jamaica.397 Gorbachev at age 17, was the youngest ever to win the Order of the Red Banner of Labor for his active role in bringing in that year’s bumper crop. 398

391 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev 392 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Williams 393 http://prominentpeople.co.za/castro-fidel.aspx 394 "The Nobel Peace Prize 1979". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-11-12.

395 "The Nobel Peace Prize 1990". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-20.

396 http://www.biography.com/people/john-f-kennedy-9362930#presidential-candidate-and-president 397 National Awards of Jamaica[dead link] Official Jamaican Government website. Quote: 'So far, the youngest member is Ambassador the Hon. Usain Bolt. He was awarded at age 23 for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level.'

"World's fastest man Bolt gets Order of Jamaica", The Associated Press, 19 October 2009.

398 http://www.biography.com/people/mikhail-sergeyevich-gorbachev-9315721?page=2#early-political-involvement

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Chapter 7 Personal Reflections Finally, I would like to bring this meaningful conversation to a close by underscoring a number of insights. Dr. Maya Angelou, Usain Bolt, Fidel Castro, Winston Churchill, Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, John F Kennedy, Jesse Owens, Franklin Roosevelt, Mother Teresa, and Dr. Eric Williams will always be the subject of conversation because of the great feats they have accomplished to help improve the world.

Cultural identities such as class, colour, gender, hierarchy, together with Mother Teresa’s and Newton’s ideologies were used to profile these icons, and form the framework for the discussion in this text. Research has also shown that although Mother Teresa and Newton are the authors of these ideologies “I can do things you cannot, you can do things I cannot; together we can do great things”399 and that 400 “Every action creates a reaction” respectively evidence has shown that the said ideologies have always been practiced by humankind unknowingly/knowingly from time in memorial and is also a way of life.

Overall, I am of the view that they were perceived as activists, controversial, electable, extraordinary, legendary, passionate, popular, political, statesmen and writers. They were persistent in the face of adversity which helped to define their character. This teaches us that we must continuously fight against all odds in order to succeed.

399 http://life-changing-inspirational-quotes.com/mother-teresa-quotes.html

Newton's law400 "every action is attended by an equal and opposite reaction”

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Chapter 8 Honouring My Mother Ira Louise Gittens It is a fact that easterly, somewhere off the beaten track is a Caribbean Island called Barbados.

On this island resides Ira Louise who was born September 19, 1934 to proud parents the late Grafton and Louise Mayers.

This union produced 5 other siblings, Clifford, David, Ira, Leonard, Michael, and Myrtle. Ira attended Westbury Girls School which is opposite St. Leonard’s Anglican Church in the parish of St. Michael.

During our discussion she made the salient point that she has fond memories of the St. Leonard’s Anglican Church because her father the late Grafton Mayers functioned as the sexton there, and as a watchman at 111

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Needingham’s Point Lighthouse located in the vicinity of the Hilton Barbados Resort in the parish of Saint Michael.

My Mom tells the story of breaking her collar bone at age 4. This injury she received was attended to by the late Dr. Sir Arleigh Winston Scott GCMG, GCVO Barbados’ first native Governor General.

Although the injury my mother received was very traumatic it never prevented her from following and achieving her goals.

October 18, 1955 was a defining moment her life. It was the day she became the wife of her sweetheart the late Charles Alderson Gittens.

My parents were married for 59 years and through this union together Charles & Ira provided parental guidance to their 7 children namely: Shurland, Arnott, William, Emerald, Mark, Stephen and Cheryl, and 5 grandchildren namely: Kevin, Lisa, Laron, John and Ramon.

As the perfect help meet for her husband Charles, she assisted in supporting the family financially, by using her talents as an Entrepreneur selling items such as coffee, milk, biscuits, drinks, ice cream blocks, sugar cakes, sardines, corn beef; as a seamstress, and a Cake Icing Expert.

My dad peacefully entered into his eternal rest on September 21, 2012 at age 84.

It must be underscored that Ira shared her talents and time locally, regionally, and internationally as an Artist, Author, and Poet & Song Writer.

In this context her pastor Reverend Clayton Springer, the Board and the members of the Carrington’s Wesleyan Holiness Church along with my siblings and myself, have characterized my mother Ira Louise Gittens as a devoted Christian who has been serving God through the years as…..

Choir Member at Carrington’s Wesleyan Holiness Church Cottage Band Leader providing physical and spiritual support to the parishioners Counsellor to members of her assembly Prayer Partner with members of her assembly Sunday School Teacher Member of the Hospital Christian Fellowship - Ministry assisting with sick children at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital Member of the Women’s Missionary.

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It must be noted that her strong faith in God, motivated her to prayer and trust God continuously for her grandson Ramon’s healing.

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Ira has always been very community oriented. In the 1960’s when her family had the only television in the district, she opened her home to allow neighbours to watch television. She also taught bible lessons to the children in the community, and would often provide a meal to the less fortunate in the village.

Always one to be on the move and looking to improve herself, she became a graduate of Rosemary Branker’s Cake Icing Class in the 70’s and of The Barbados Community College in Art and Fashion Design in the 90’s.

In this environment, given her perception, wisdom, and a woman of honour and substance, I was motivated to write the following poem.

“Whenever the name Mother Is Echoed or Thought of, A sweet aroma fills the atmosphere.

Why? Because she is Kind and Thoughtful Always Promoting Affection with That Special Touch which Comes from Trust That Underscores Her Strength and Vision Which Allows Her to Produce So Much from So Little.

This Attribute Qualifies Her As The Perfect Gift From Heaven.

Let’s Honour Her Is Jesus’ Command this is why she’s in demand.

To be a mother is an art, this of course validates our start.

Mother explained the purpose of her pain that we would gain, Irrespective of race or space, time or rhyme, she will always be mine.

Mother thought it necessary to explain the rapture, Since it is part of the Christian culture.

It’s only fitting that I honour my mother Ira Louise Gittens because she has had a great influence on my life.

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It is because of her that I have learnt Biblical principles, discipline, how to stay focused and balanced, and to always strive for excellence and professionalism among other attributes.

Bless you Mom.

Listed below are some pieces of my mother’s artwork

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About The Author William Anderson Gittens Ideology: Quality, Excellence and Professionalism are key players in outstanding production.

Marital Status: Married Children: Two EDUCATION: 2015 CEO Devgro Media Arts Services 2002 Management Course Barbados Institute Management and Productivity 1995 Bachelors of Arts in Media Arts – New Jersey City State University1992 General Education Diploma (U.S.A.) 1992 Pursued the Diploma Video Production at the Barbados Community College.

1991 Diploma in Communication Arts - University of the West Indies School of Continuing StudiesPROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Retired Administrative Officer II Barbados Government 2012,November 26-29 Health (OIE) Regional

Coordinator the 21st Conference of the world Organisation for Animal Commission for the Americas held in Barbados Ministry of Agriculture

2011, July 4-8 Coordinator 47th Caribbean Food Crops Society Conference Ministry of Agriculture 2006-2010- HIV and AIDS Coordinator for the Ministry of Home Affairs AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER: October 2000 -2015 Author and Publisher of 12 Educational/Historical Children’s Books Yesteryear in Barbados Vol 1, Yesteryear In Barbados Vol 2 Colour Me Vol 1, Landmarks Vol 1, Technique Demonstration Vol 1, Focus Vol 1, People Vol 1,

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Building for the Future, Vol.1, Established in Barbados Vol 1, Mise-en-scene Vol 1, Monuments Vol 1, Established In Barbados Vol 2, People Vol.2, Editor in Chief 1992-1994 New Jersey City State University – 1988 ~ 2006 Technical Assistant/Graphic Artist -Audio Visual Aids 1990 ~ 1991 Seconded to the Faculty of Education, University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus.

1980-1990 Member of Kiwanis Club South 1983-1988 First Designated Composite Artist- The Royal Barbados Police Force 1989 –2005 Freelance Photo journalist –Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation 1978-1979 Supervisor at Barbados Knitting and Spinning 1972-1979 Member of the Barbados Regiment 1972-1979 Member of the Barbados Boys Scouts Association HONORS AND AWARDS 1976-Recipient of the 12th International Prestigious Scout Award Arco Italy 1977-Received Special accreditation from Hackney England International Art Exhibition.

1982-Designer of postage stamps commemorating 60 years of scouting in Barbados 1988-Presented to His Excellency Governor General Sir Hugh Springer for outstanding contributions in the field of art and Scouting in Barbados 1989-Presented to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of England for outstanding contributions in the field of Art.

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Knowles, Elizabeth. The Oxford Dictionary of Twentieth Century Quotations. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-860103-4. ISBN 978-0-19-860103-6. ISBN 0-19-866250-5. ISBN 978-0-19-866250-1.

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Best, Geoffrey (2003) [First published 2001]. Churchill: A Study in Greatness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-85285-253-5. OCLC 50339762.

Blake, Robert (1997). Winston Churchill. Pocket Biographies. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-1507-6. OCLC 59586004.

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Hitchens, Christopher. "The Medals of His Defeats", The Atlantic Monthly (April 2002) James, Robert Rhodes. Churchill: A Study in Failure, 1900–1939 (1970) Jenkins, Roy. Churchill: A Biography (2001); ISBN 978-0-374-12354-3/ISBN 978-0-452-28352-7 Jordan, Anthony J. Churchill: A Founder of Modern Ireland. Westport Books (1995); ISBN 978-0-9524447-0-1 Julius, Anthony, The Trials of the Diaspora, A History of Anti-Semitism in England. Oxford University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-929705-4 Kersaudy, François. Churchill and De Gaulle (1981); ISBN 0-00-216328-4 Krockow, Christian. Churchill: Man of the Century. [1900–1999]; ISBN 1-902809-43-2 Lukacs, John. Churchill: Visionary, Statesman, Historian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002 Manchester, William. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Alone, 1932–1940 (1988); ISBN 0-316-54512-0 Manchester, William. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Defender of the Realm, 1940–1965 (2010) Manchester, William. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Visions of Glory, 1874–1932 (1983); ISBN 0-316-54503-1 Massie, Robert. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War; ISBN 1-84413-528-4 [chapters 40–41 concern Churchill at Admiralty.]

Pelling, Henry. Winston Churchill (1974); ISBN 1-84022-218-2. [Comprehensive biography] Rasor, Eugene L. Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press, 2000; ISBN 0-313-30546-3 [Entries include several thousand books and scholarly articles] Soames, Mary (ed.) Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (1998) Stansky, Peter, ed. Churchill: A Profile (1973) [Perspectives on Churchill by leading scholars] Storr, Anthony. Churchill's Black Dog and Other Phenomena of the Human Mind. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. New Edition ed. (1997); ISBN 978-0-00-637566-1 Toye, Richard. Churchill's Empire: The World that Made Him and the World He Made. Macmillan. 2010; ISBN 978-0-230-70384-1 Trukhanovskiĭ, Vladimir Grigor'evich. Winston Churchill. Moscow: Progress Publishers (1978; revised edition) Olivier Weber, War Correspondent, Preface of The Malakand War, Belles Lettres (2012)

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Theodore Roosevelt was nine months younger when he first assumed the presidency on September 14, 1901, but he was not elected to the presidency until 1904, when he was 46.Jewell 2005, p. 207.

Two hundred thousand gallons of defoliant were shipped, in violation of the Geneva Accords. By the end of 1962, American military personnel had increased from 2,600 to 11,500; 109 men were killed compared to 14 the previous year. During 1962, Viet Cong troops increased from 15,000 to 24,000. Depending on which assessment Kennedy accepted (Department of Defense or State) there had been zero or modest progress in countering the increase in communist aggression in return for an expanded U.S. involvement. Reeves 1993, p. 283.

Kennedy reversed the Defense Department rulings that prohibited the Special Forces wearing of the Green Beret. Reeves 1993, p. 116.

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Kennedy, John F. (August 11, 1961). "320—Letter to the President of the Seneca Nation of Indians Concerning the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved 2012-02-25.

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Kennedy, John F. (1961). "Apollo Expeditions to the Moon: Chapter 2". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2012-02-26.

Kennedy, John F. (September 12, 1962). "President John F. Kennedy: The Space Effort". Rice University. Retrieved 2012-02-25.

Selverstone, Marc. "JFK and the Space Race". White House Tapes–Presidential Recordings Program, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia.

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 "John F. Kennedy Fast Facts: Favorite Poems, 'I Have a Rendezvous with Death' (Seeger)" Cover story, Time magazine, January 20, 1961 Specious allegations in 1997 by UK journalist Terry O'Hanlon Golden, Andrew (July 27, 1997). "JFK The Bigamist..... The Truth At Last; Kennedy was already married when he got wed to Jackie.....". Sunday Mirror. Retrieved 2010-10-31. and by author Seymour Hersh Reingold, Joyce (March 26, 2008). "JFK 'Secret Marriage' A Story With Legs". Palm Beach Daily News. Retrieved 2010-10-31. that Kennedy had married previously have been soundly disproven. Reeves states that Ben Bradlee, then at Newsweek, inspected FBI files on it, and confirmed the falsehood. Reeves 1993, p. 348; for further refutation, see O'Brien 2005, p. 706.

Reeves 1993, p. 29.

Raymond, Emilie (2006). From my cold, dead hands: Charlton Heston and American politics. University Press of Kentucky. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-8131-2408-7.

"Books for Lawyers". American Bar Association Journal: 556. 1975.

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"Greatest of the Century". Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll. December 20–21, 1999. Retrieved 2007-01-05.

Rouse, Robert (March 15, 2006). "Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference—93 years young!". American Chronicle.

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The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (1915–1986): Series 11. Camelot Documents, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum quotation: The 1963 LIFE article represented the first use of the term “Camelot” in print and is attributed with having played a major role in establishing and fixing this image of the Kennedy Administration and period in the popular mind.

An Epilogue, in LIFE, 6 Dec. 1963, pp.158-9 Mandel, Lee R. (2009). "Endocrine and Autoimmune Aspects of the Health History of John F. Kennedy". Annals of Internal Medicine 151 (151(5)): 350–354. doi: 10.1059/0003-4819-151-5-200909010-00011. PMID 19721023.

Kempe 2011, p. 213.

New York Sun September 20, 2005: "Dr. Feelgood" Retrieved 2011-07-11 Reeves 1993, pp. 42, 158-159.

Reeves 1993, p. 244.

Online NewsHour with Senior Correspondent Ray Suarez and physician Jeffrey Kelman, "Pres. Kennedy's Health Secrets", The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript, November 18, 2002 "Kennedy Plane Found to Be Fully Functional". The Washington Post. July 31, 1999. Retrieved 2010-01-02.

Dallek 2003, pp. 83-85.

Osborne 2006, p. 195.

Reeves 1993, pp. 315–316.

Bone, James (February 17, 2010), "How JFK's Riviera romance led to years of longing", The Times, London. Retrieved 2010-04-02.

Reeves 1993, p. 289.

Dallek 2003, p. 475.

Dallek 2003, p. 58.

Garrow, David J. (May 28, 2003). "Substance Over Sex In Kennedy Biography". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-01-20.

Dallek 2003, pp. 475, 476.

Leaming 2006, pp. 379-380.

Dallek 2003, p. 581.

Dallek 2003, p. 376.

Barnes 2007, p. 116.

Reeves 1993, p. 291.

Dallek 2003, p. 478.

Roberts, Patrick (December 13, 2009). "Kennedy Ancestral Home in Ireland to Be Landmarked". ABCNews.com. ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved 2010-09-30.

Maier2004, p. 25.

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Maier2004, p. 33.

Cronkite, Walter (1996). A Reporter's Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-57879-1.

Carter, Bill (September 15, 2001). "Viewers Again Return To Traditional Networks". The New York Times. p. A14.

"Presidents Who Served in the U.S. Navy". Frequently Asked Questions. Naval History & Heritage Command. January 11, 2007. Retrieved 2011-05-12.

"Navy SEALs Were Launched in the JFK 'Man on the Moon' Speech". 11 Facts About Navy SEALs. Time Inc. Retrieved 2011-05-12.

Salinger, Pierre (1997). John F. Kennedy: Commander in Chief: A Profile in Leadership. New York: Penguin Studio. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-670-86310-5. Retrieved 2012-02-22.

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Dallek 2003, pp. 594-606, 644.

Dallek 2003, p. 708.

"50 years after win, Kennedy's legacy endures". USA Today. September 26, 2010. Retrieved 2013-04-04.

Hanes, Jr. 2000, p. 205.

Page, Susan (October 4, 2011). "50 years after win, Kennedy's legacy endures". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-12-25.

Douthat, Ross (November 26, 2011). "The Enduring Cult of Kennedy". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-12-03.

Hanks, Patrick; Hardcastle, Kate; Hodges, Flavia (2006). A Dictionary of First Names. Oxford Paperback Reference (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-861060-1.

"John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States". American Heraldry Society. Retrieved 2009-10-27.

Bibliography Alford, Mimi; Newman, Judith (2011). Once Upon A Secret: My Affair with President John F. Kennedy and its Aftermath. London: Hutchinson.

ISBN 978-0-09-193175-9.

Ballard, Robert D. (2002). Collision With History: The Search for John F. Kennedy's PT 109. Washington, DC: National Geographic. ISBN 978-0-7922-6876-5.

Barnes, John (2007). John F. Kennedy on Leadership.

Bilharz, Joy Ann (2002) [1998]. The Allegany Senecas and Kinzua Dam: Forced Relocation Through Two Generations. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

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Blight, James G.; Lang, Janet M. (2005). The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.

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Bryant, Nick (Autumn 2006). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (53).

Bugliosi, Vincent (2007). Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04525-3.

Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 978-0-316-17238-7.

Donovan, Robert J. (2001) [1961]. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II (40th Anniversary ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-137643-3.

Dunnigan, James; Nofi, Albert (1999). Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. St. Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-19857-2.

Dudley, Robert L.; Shiraev, Eric (2008). Counting Every Vote: The Most Contentious Elections in American History. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books.

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Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04196-1.

Gleijeses, Piero. "Ships in the Night: The CIA, the White House and the Bay of Pigs". Journal of Latin American Studies, Feb., 1995, Vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 1–42 (via JSTOR) ISSN 0022-216X Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edgar: The Historic Face-Off Between the Kennedys and J. Edgar Hoover That Transformed America. Basic Books.

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Jewell, Elizabeth (2005). U.S. Presidents Factbook. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-72073-4.

Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0-399-15729-5.

Kenney, Charles (2000). John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-36-2.

Leaming, Barbara (2006). Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393051-61-2.

Maier, Thomas (2004). The Kennedys: America's Emerald Kings.

McNamara, Robert S. (2000). Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy.

Matthews, Chris (2011). Jack Kennedy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-3508-9.

O'Brien, Michael (2005). John F. Kennedy: A Biography. Thomas Dunne. ISBN 978-0-312-28129-8.

Osborne, Robert (2006). Leading Ladies: The 50 Most Unforgettable Actresses of the Studio Era. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0811852487.

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Reeves, Richard (1993). President Kennedy: Profile of Power. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-64879-4.

Salt, Jermey (2008). The Unmaking of the Middle East: A History of Western Disorder in Arab lands. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

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Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (2002) [1965]. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-21927-8.

Sorensen, Theodore (1966) [1965]. Kennedy (paperback). New York: Bantam. OCLC 2746832.

Tucker, Spencer (2011) [1998]. The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851099603.

Walton Jr., Hanes; Smith, Robert C. (2000). American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. Addison, Wesley, Longman.

ISBN 0-321-07038-0.

Further reading Brauer, Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (1977) Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation (1988) Casey, Shaun. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (2009) Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. The Kennedys (1984) Cottrell, John. Assassination! The World Stood Still (1964) Douglass, James W. (2008). JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why It Matters. Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-1-57075-755-6.

Fay, Paul B., Jr. The Pleasure of His Company (1966) Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000) Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997) Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991) Hamilton, Nigel. JFK: Reckless Youth (1992) Harper, Paul, and Krieg, Joann P. eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1988) Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962) Heath, Jim F. Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years (1976) Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997) Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (1994) Lynch, Grayston L. Decision for Disaster Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (2000) Manchester, William. Portrait of a President: John F. Kennedy in Profile (1967) Manchester, William (1967). The Death of a President: November 20-November 25, 1963. New York: Harper & Row. LCCN 67010496.

Newman, John M. JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (1992) Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980) Parmet, Herbert. JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983) Parmet, Herbert. "The Kennedy Myth". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) (1997) Piper, Michael Collins. Final Judgment (2004: sixth edition). American Free Press Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991); hostile biography Sabato, Larry J. The Kennedy Half-Century: The Lasting Legacy of John F. Kennedy (forthcoming, 2013) Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002) [1978] Smith, Jean E. The Defense of Berlin (1963) Smith, Jean E. The Wall as Watershed (1966) Walsh, Kenneth T. Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes (2003) Wyden, Peter, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story (1979) Primary sources Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy (1995) Kennedy, Jacqueline. Jacqueline Kennedy: Historic Conversations on Life with John F. Kennedy (2011). Hyperion Books. ISBN 1401324258.

Historiography Abramson, Jill. "Kennedy, the Elusive President", The New York Times Book Review October 22, 2013, notes that 40,000 books have been published about JFK Hellmann, John. The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK (1997) John F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress JFK Original Personal Correspondence and Documents Shapell Manuscript Foundation John F. Kennedy discography at Discogs 1963 ATC Audio—(Air Traffic Control) Unedited Video of Vincent Bugliosi discussing JFK assassination Kennedy's secret White House recordings, the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia Video, audio, text of John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address Kennedy discusses Cuban Missile Crisis with former President Eisenhower on YouTube John F. Kennedy Library The White House Biography The Kennedys museum in Berlin, Germany with special exhibit on Kennedy's visit Birthplace of John F. Kennedy: Home of the Boy Who Would Be President, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan Essay on JFK with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Kennedy Administration from Office of the Historian, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Six hours of coverage of the assassination of President Kennedy as broadcast on WCCO-AM Radio (Minneapolis) and CBS Radio The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story an early film made for his 1958 reelection campaign by his then-press secretary Bob Thompson.

Video report from 1963: John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev in Berlin from public broadcasting station RBB (Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg) "John F. Kennedy". Find a Grave. Retrieved 2013-11-17. [show] Offices distinctions

and

References Notes Footnotes Bourne 1986, p. 14; Coltman 2003, p. 3; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 23–24.

Bourne 1986, pp. 14–15; Quirk 1993, pp. 7–8; Coltman 2003, pp. 1–2; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 24–29.

Bourne 1986, pp. 14–15; Quirk 1993, p. 4; Coltman 2003, p. 3; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 24–29.

Bourne 1986, pp. 16–17; Coltman 2003, p. 3; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 31–32.

Quirk 1993, p. 6; Coltman 2003, pp. 5–6; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 45–48, 52–57.

Bourne 1986, pp. 29–30; Coltman 2003, pp. 5–6; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 59–60.

Quirk 1993, p. 13; Coltman 2003, pp. 6–7; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 64–67.

Bourne 1986, pp. 14–15; Quirk 1993, p. 14; Coltman 2003, pp. 8–9.

Quirk 1993, pp. 12–13,16–19; Coltman 2003, p. 9; Castro and Ramonet 2009, p. 68.

Bourne 1986, p. 13; Quirk 1993, p. 19; Coltman 2003, p. 16; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 91–92.

Bourne 1986, pp. 9–10; Quirk 1993, pp. 20, 22; Coltman 2003, pp. 16–17; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 91–93.

Bourne 1986, pp. 34–35; Quirk 1993, p. 23; Coltman 2003, p. 18.

Coltman 2003, p. 20.

Bourne 1986, pp. 32–33; Coltman 2003, pp. 18–19.

Bourne 1986, pp. 34–37,63; Coltman 2003, pp. 21–24.

Bourne 1986, pp. 39–40; Quirk 1993, pp. 28–29; Coltman 2003, pp. 23–27; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 83–85.

Coltman 2003, pp. 27–28; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 95–97.

Bourne 1986, pp. 35–36, 54; Quirk 1993, pp. 25, 27; Coltman 2003, pp. 23–24,37–38, 46; Von Tunzelmann 2011, p. 39.

Castro and Ramonet 2009, p. 98.

Coltman 2003, p. 30; Von Tunzelmann 2011, pp. 30–33.

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Bourne 1986, pp. 40–41; Quirk 1993, p. 23; Coltman 2003, p. 31.

Bourne 1986, pp. 41–42; Quirk 1993, p. 24; Coltman 2003, pp. 32–34.

Bourne 1986, p. 42; Coltman 2003, pp. 34–35.

Coltman 2003, pp. 36–37.

Bourne 1986, pp. 46–52; Quirk 1993, pp. 25–26; Coltman 2003, pp. 40–45; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 98–99.

Bourne 1986, pp. 54, 56; Coltman 2003, pp. 46–49.

Bourne 1986, p. 55; Quirk 1993, p. 27; Coltman 2003, pp. 47–48; Von Tunzelmann 2011, p. 41.

Castro and Ramonet 2009, p. 100.

Bourne 1986, pp. 54–55; Coltman 2003, p. 46.

Coltman 2003, p. 49.

Bourne 1986, p. 57; Coltman 2003, p. 50.

Quirk 1993, p. 29; Coltman 2003, p. 50.

Bourne 1986, p. 39; Coltman 2003, p. 51.

Coltman 2003, p. 51.

Bourne 1986, p. 57; Coltman 2003, p. 51; Castro and Ramonet 2009, p. 89.

Bourne 1986, pp. 57–58; Quirk 1993, p. 318; Coltman 2003, pp. 51–52.

Quirk 1993, p. 31; Coltman 2003, pp. 52–53.

Coltman 2003, p. 53.

Bourne 1986, pp. 58–59; Coltman 2003, pp. 46, 53–55; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 85–87; Von Tunzelmann 2011, p. 44.

Bourne 1986, pp. 56–57, 62–63; Quirk 1993, p. 36; Coltman 2003, pp. 55–56.

Quirk 1993, pp. 33–34; Coltman 2003, p. 57.

Quirk 1993, p. 29; Coltman 2003, pp. 55–56.

Bourne 1986, pp. 64–65; Quirk 1993, pp. 37–39; Coltman 2003, pp. 57–62; Von Tunzelmann 2011, p. 44.

Coltman 2003, p. 64; Von Tunzelmann 2011, p. 44.

Quirk 1993, pp. 41, 45; Coltman 2003, p. 63.

Coltman 2003, p. 79.

Bourne 1986, pp. 68–69; Quirk 1993, pp. 50–52; Coltman 2003, p. 65.

Bourne 1986, p. 69; Coltman 2003, p. 66; Castro and Ramonet 2009, p. 107.

Bourne 1986, p. 73; Coltman 2003, pp. 66–67.

Coltman 2003, pp. 69–70, 73.

Coltman 2003, p. 74.

Bourne 1986, p. 76; Coltman 2003, pp. 71, 74.

Coltman 2003, pp. 75–76.

Coltman 2003, p. 78.

Bourne 1986, pp. 80–84; Quirk 1993, pp. 52–55; Coltman 2003, pp. 80–81.

Coltman 2003, p. 82.

Quirk 1993, p. 55; Coltman 2003, p. 82.

Bourne 1986, p. 83; Quirk 1993, pp. 55; Coltman 2003, p. 83.

Bourne 1986, pp. 87–88; Quirk 1993, pp. 55–56; Coltman 2003, p. 84.

Bourne 1986, p. 86; Coltman 2003, p. 86.

Bourne 1986, p. 91; Quirk 1993, p. 57; Coltman 2003, p. 87.

Bourne 1986, pp. 91–92; Quirk 1993, pp. 57–59; Coltman 2003, p. 88.

Quirk 1993, p. 58; Coltman 2003, pp. 88–89.

Bourne 1986, p. 93; Quirk 1993, p. 59; Coltman 2003, p. 90.

Bourne 1986, p. 93; Quirk 1993, pp. 58–60; Coltman 2003, pp. 91–92.

Quirk 1993, p. 66; Coltman 2003, p. 97.

Bourne 1986, pp. 94–95; Quirk 1993, p. 61; Coltman 2003, p. 93.

Bourne 1986, pp. 95–96; Quirk 1993, pp. 63–65; Coltman 2003, pp. 93–94.

Bourne 1986, pp. 98–100; Quirk 1993, p. 71; Coltman 2003, pp. 94–95.

Bourne 1986, pp. 97–98; Quirk 1993, pp. 67–71; Coltman 2003, pp. 95–96.

Bourne 1986, pp. 102–103; Quirk 1993, pp. 76–79; Coltman 2003, pp. 97–99.

Bourne 1986, pp. 103–105; Quirk 1993, pp. 80–82; Coltman 2003, pp. 99–100.

Bourne 1986, p. 105; Quirk 1993, pp. 83–85; Coltman 2003, p. 100.

Bourne 1986, p. 110; Coltman 2003, p. 100.

Bourne 1986, pp. 106–107; Coltman 2003, pp. 100–101.

Bourne 1986, pp. 109–111; Quirk 1993, p. 85; Coltman 2003, p. 101.

Bourne 1986, p. 111; Quirk 1993, p. 86.

Bourne 1986, p. 112; Quirk 1993, p. 88; Coltman 2003, p. 102.

Bourne 1986, pp. 115–117; Quirk 1993, pp. 96–98; Coltman 2003, pp. 102–103; Castro and Ramonet 2009, pp. 172–173.

Bourne 1986, p. 114; Quirk 1993, pp. 105–106; Coltman 2003, pp. 104–105.

Bourne 1986, pp. 117–118, 124; Quirk 1993, pp. 101–102, 108–114; Coltman 2003, pp. 105–110.

Bourne 1986, pp. 111–124;Coltman 2003, p. 104.

Bourne 1986, pp. 122, 12–130; Quirk 1993, pp. 102–104, 114–116; Coltman 2003, p. 109.

Bourne 1986, pp. 132–133; Quirk 1993, p. 115; Coltman 2003, pp. 110–112.

Bourne 1986, p. 134; Coltman 2003, p. 113.

Bourne 1986, pp. 134–135; Quirk 1993, pp. 119–126; Coltman 2003, p. 113.

Quirk 1993, p. 126.

Bourne 1986, pp. 135–136; Quirk 1993, pp. 122–125; Coltman 2003, pp. 114–115.

Bourne 1986, pp. 125–126; Coltman 2003, pp. 114–117.

Bourne 1986, p. 137.

Coltman 2003, pp. 116–117.

Bourne 1986, p. 139; Quirk 1993, p. 127; Coltman 2003, pp. 118–119.

Bourne 1986, p. 114; Quirk 1993, p. 129; Coltman 2003, p. 114.

Coltman 2003, p. 122.

Bourne 1986, p. 138; Quirk 1993, p. 130; Coltman 2003, p. 119.

Bourne 1986, pp. 142–143; Quirk 1993, pp. 128, 134–136; Coltman 2003, pp. 121–122.

Quirk 1993, pp. 145, 148.

Bourne 1986, pp. 148–150; Quirk 1993, pp. 141–143; Coltman 2003, pp. 122–123. The text of the Sierra Maestra Manifesto can be found online at "Raul Antonio Chibás: Manifiesto Sierra Maestra". Chibas.org. Retrieved 9 August 2012.

Bourne 1986, pp. 140–142; Quirk 1993, pp. 131–134; Coltman 2003, p. 120.

Bourne 1986, p. 143; Quirk 1993, p. 159; Coltman 2003, pp. 127–128.

Bourne 1986, p. 155; Coltman 2003, pp. 122, 129.

Coltman 2003, pp. 129–130, 134.

Bourne 1986, pp. 152–154; Coltman 2003, pp. 130–131.

Quirk 1993, pp. 181–183; Coltman 2003, pp. 131–133.

Bourne 1986, p. 158.

Bourne 1986, p. 158; Quirk 1993, pp. 194–196; Coltman 2003, p. 135.

Bourne 1986, pp. 158–159; Quirk 1993, pp. 196, 202–207; Coltman 2003, pp. 136–137.

Bourne 1986, pp. 158–159; Quirk 1993, pp. 203, 207–208; Coltman 2003, p. 137.

Quirk 1993, p. 212; Coltman 2003, p. 137.

Bourne 1986, p. 160; Quirk 1993, p. 211; Coltman 2003, p. 137.

Bourne 1986, p. 160; Quirk 1993, p. 212; Coltman 2003, p. 137.

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Bourne 1986, pp. 161–162; Quirk 1993, p. 211; Coltman 2003, pp. 137–138.

Bourne 1986, pp. 142–143; Quirk 1993, p. 214; Coltman 2003, pp. 138–139.

Bourne 1986, pp. 162–163; Quirk 1993, p. 219; Coltman 2003, pp. 140–141.

Bourne 1986, pp. 153, 161; Quirk 1993, p. 216; Coltman 2003, pp. 126, 141–142.

Bourne 1986, p. 164; Coltman 2003, p. 144.

Bourne 1986, pp. 171–172; Quirk 1993, pp. 217, 222; Coltman 2003, pp. 150–154.

Bourne 1986, pp. 166, 170; Quirk 1993, p. 251; Coltman 2003, p. 145.

Bourne 1986, p. 168; Coltman 2003, p. 149.

Bourne 1986, pp. 163, 167–169; Quirk 1993, pp. 224–230; Coltman 2003, pp. 147–149.

Bourne 1986, pp. 169–170; Quirk 1993, pp. 225–226.

Bourne 1986, p. 173; Quirk 1993, p. 277; Coltman 2003, p. 154.

Bourne 1986, p. 173; Quirk 1993, p. 228.

Bourne 1986, pp. 174–177; Quirk 1993, pp. 236–242; Coltman 2003, pp. 155–157.

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Bourne 1986, pp. 177–178; Quirk 1993, p. 280; Coltman 2003, pp. 159–160, "First Agrarian Reform Law (1959)". Retrieved August 29, 2006..

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Bourne 1986, pp. 181–183; Quirk 1993, pp. 248–252; Coltman 2003, p. 162.

Bourne 1986, pp. 275–276.

Bourne 1986, pp. 275–276; Quirk 1993, p. 324.

Bourne 1986, p. 179.

Quirk 1993, p. 280; Coltman 2003, p. 168.

Bourne 1986, pp. 195–197; Coltman 2003, p. 167.

Quirk 1993, p. 197; Coltman 2003, pp. 165–166.

Bourne 1986, pp. 181, 197; Coltman 2003, p. 168.

Coltman 2003, pp. 176–177.

Coltman 2003, p. 167; Ros 2006, pp. 159–201; Franqui 1984, pp. 111–115.

Bourne 1986, p. 202; Quirk 1993, p. 296.

Bourne 1986, pp. 189–190, 198–199; Quirk 1993, pp. 292–296; Coltman 2003, pp. 170–172.

Bourne 1986, pp. 205–206; Quirk 1993, pp. 316–319; Coltman 2003, p. 173.

Bourne 1986, pp. 201–202; Quirk 1993, p. 302; Coltman 2003, p. 172.

Bourne 1986, pp. 202, 211–213; Quirk 1993, pp. 272–273; Coltman 2003, pp. 172–173.

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Bourne 1986, p. 215.

Bourne 1986, pp. 206–209; Quirk 1993, pp. 333–338; Coltman 2003, pp. 174–176.

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Geyer 1991, p. 277 Quirk 1993, p. 313.

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Coltman 2003, pp. 185–186.

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Geyer 1991, pp. 274–275, Quirk 1993, pp. 385–386.

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Bourne 1986, p. 231, Coltman 2003, p. 188.

Quirk 1993, p. 405.

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"Castro admits 'injustice' for gays and lesbians during revolution", CNN, Shasta Darlington, August 31, 2010.

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Moore, Malcolm (19 March 2008). "Mikhail Gorbachev admits he is a Christian". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 24 March 2008.

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Further reading Gorbachev, Mikhail. Memoirs. Doubleday (1995). ISBN 0-385-40668-1 Cline, Ray S. Behind the Smile Are Teeth of Iron: 86 Photos and Illustrations [which] Few People in America Have Ever Seen. Washington, D.C.: United States Global Strategy Council, 1989. Without ISBN Wilson, James Graham (2014). The Triumph of Improvisation: Gorbachev's Adaptability, Reagan's Engagement, and the End of the Cold War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801452295.

Gorby80 Gorbachev 80th Birthday Gala Celebration at the Royal Albert Hall London The Gorbachev Foundation Green Cross International Column and op-ed archives at Journalisted Column and op-ed archives at Project Syndicate Column and op-ed archives at The Guardian Appearances on C-SPAN Booknotes interview with Gorbachev on Memoirs, 24 November 1996.

Mikhail Gorbachev at the Internet Movie Database Mikhail Gorbachev collected news and commentary at The Guardian Mikhail Gorbachev collected news and commentary at The New York Times Works by or about Mikhail Gorbachev in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Interviews and articles Public Opinion about Gorbachev The Encyclopaedia of Marxism, from which parts of this article have been taken.

Out in the Cold Guardian interview 8 March 2005 TIME 100 for 2004: Mikhail Gorbachev Biography, talks, tributes and quotes Ubben Lecture at DePauw University Commanding Heights: Mikhail Gorbachev (PBS interview), April 2001.

USSR – USA: Summit Documents and Materials, Washington 30 May – 3 June 1990 Gorbachev on 1989 – 2009 interview by The Nation Gorbachev's Legacy Examined, 25 Years After His Rise To Power article by Brian Whitmore Chernobyl 25 years later: Many lessons learned free article by Mikhail Gorbachev published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 2011 Selected bibliography Capitalism and Slavery, 1944.

Documents of West Indian History: 1492-1655 from the Spanish discovery to the British conquest of Jamaica, Volume 1, 1963.

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The Leathersellers' Company Court Minutes, 1 July 1936, ref. GOV/1/25, pp. 136-37.

Raymond Ramcharitar, "Inward Hunger: The Movie", Guardian Media, 5 October 2011.

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Eric Williams. 1964. History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain ISBN 1-881316-65-3 Eric Williams. 1964. British Historians and the West Indies, Port of Spain.

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Bibliography Biographical Black, Conrad (2005) [2003], Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom (interpretive detailed biography), ISBN 978-1-58648-282-4.

Brands, HW (2009), Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, ISBN 978-0-385-51958-8: despite the title, a highly favorable biography by scholar. Plus Author Webcast Interview at the Pritzker Military Library on January 22, 2009 Burns, James MacGregor (1956). Roosevelt 1. Easton Press. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0.

——— (1970). Roosevelt: the soldier of freedom 2. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0..

Cook, Blanche Wiesen (1992). Eleanor Roosevelt 1. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-009460-1.

Davis, Kenneth S (1972), FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1882–1928 (popular biography), ISBN 978-0-399-10998-0.

Freidel, Frank (1952–73), Franklin D. Roosevelt (4 vol), OCLC 459748221: the most detailed scholarly biography; ends in 1934.

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Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1995), No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II, ISBN 978-0-684-80448-4; popular joint biography Gunther, John (1950), Roosevelt in Retrospect, Harper & Brothers Hawley, Ellis (1995). The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly. Fordham University Press. ISBN 0-8232-1609-8.

Jenkins, Roy (2003), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (short bio from British perspective), ISBN 978-0-8050-6959-4.

Lash, Joseph P (1971), Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers (history of a marriage), ISBN 978-0-393-07459-8.

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Pederson, William D (2011), A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Companions to American History, Blackwell; 35 essays by scholars.

Rowley, Hazel (2010). Franklin and Eleanor: An Extraordinary Marriage. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-15857-6.

Siracusa, Joseph M.; Coleman, David G. (2002). Depression to Cold War: a history of America from Herbert Hoover to Ronald Reagan. Greenwood Publishing.

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Smith, Jean Edward (2007). FDR. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1.

Tully, Grace (2005). Franklin Delano Roosevelt, My Boss. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-8926-3.

Ward, Geoffrey C (1985), Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882–1905, ISBN 978-0-06-015451-6 ——— (1992), A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (popular biography), ISBN 978-0-06-016066-1: covers 1905–32.

Winkler, Allan M. (2006). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America. Longman. ISBN 0-321-41285-0.

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——— (Summer 2009), "What the New Deal Did", Political Science Quarterly 124 (2): 251–68.

Leuchtenburg, William E. (1963). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940. Harpers. ISBN 978-0-06-133025-4.

——— (2005), "Showdown on the Court", Smithsonian (fulltext) (Ebsco) 36 (2): 106–13, ISSN 0037-7333.

——— (2009), In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to Barack Obama, his long-term influence McCullough, David (1992). Truman. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-86920-5.

McMahon, Kevin J (2004), Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown, ISBN 978-0-226-50088-1.

Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86244-2.

Parmet, Herbert S; Hecht, Marie B (1968), Never Again: A President Runs for a Third Term, Questia, on 1940 election.

Pederson, William D (2011), A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 768 pages; essays by scholars covering major historiographical themes.

Rauchway, Eric (2008), The Great Depression and The New Deal; A Very Short Introduction, ISBN 978-0-19-532634-5, balanced summary Ritchie, Donald A (2007), Electing FDR: The New Deal Campaign of 1932, ISBN 978-0-7006-1687-9.

Rosen, Elliot A (2005), Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery, ISBN 978-0-8139-2368-0.

Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1957–60), The Age of Roosevelt (3 vols), OCLC 466716, the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR. Schweikart, Larry; Allen, Michael (2004). A Patriot's History of the United States. Easton Press.

Shaw, Stephen K; Pederson, William D; Frank J, eds. (2004), Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court, ISBN 978-0-7656-1033-1.

Sitkoff, Harvard (1978). A New Deal for Blacks. ISBN 0-19-502418-4.

Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. (1985), Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated (essays by scholars), ISBN 978-0-394-33548-3.

Foreign policy and World War II Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81538-9.

Beschloss, Michael (2002). The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman, and the destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945. New York: Simon & Schuster.

ISBN 978-0-684-81027-0.

Burns, James MacGregor (1970). Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-178871-2.

Caputi, Robert (2000). Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement. Associated University Press.

Churchill, Winston (1977). The Grand Alliance. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-395-41057-6.

Cole, Wayne S (Mar 1957), "American Entry into World War II: A Historiographical Appraisal", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review (JStor) 43 (4): 595–617.

Dallek, Robert (1995). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. Oxford University. ISBN 0-19-509732-7.

Glantz, Mary E (2005), FDR and the Soviet Union: The President's Battles over Foreign Policy, U. Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-1365-6, 253 pp.

Heinrichs, Waldo (1988), Threshold of War. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II, ISBN 978-0-19-504424-9.

Keylor, William (1998), The French Defeat of 1940; Reassessments, Berghahn Books Kimball, Warren (1991), The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as World Statesman, ISBN 978-0-691-04787-4.

Langer, William; Gleason, S Everett (1952), The Challenge to Isolation, 1937–1940, OCLC 1448535. The Undeclared War, 1940–1941 (1953) OCLC 404227. highly influential two-volume semi-official history Larrabee, Eric, Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War, ISBN 978-0-06-039050-1. Detailed history of how FDR handled the war.

Reynolds, David (2006), From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s, ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 Sainsbury, Keith (1994). Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make. New York University Press.

ISBN 0-8147-7991-3.

Sherwood, Robert E (1949) [1950], Roosevelt and Hopkins: an Intimate History, Pulitzer Prize.

Smiley, Gene (June 1983), "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s", Journal of Economic History 43: 487–93.

Watt, DC (1989), How War Came The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, New York: Pantheon Books.

Weinberg, Gerhard L (1994), A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, ISBN 978-0-521-44317-3. Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders.

Woods, Randall Bennett (1990), A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946, ISBN 978-0-8078-1877-0.

Criticism Barnes, Harry Elmer (1953), Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath. A revisionist blames FDR for inciting Japan to attack.

Best, Gary Dean (1991), Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938, Praeger; summarizes newspaper editorials.

Best, Gary Dean (2002), The Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years criticizes intellectuals who supported FDR. Breitman, Richard; Lichtman, Allan J (2013), FDR and the Jews, Harvard University Press, 433 pp.

Conkin, Paul K (1975), New Deal, critique from the left.

Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945, Rowman & Littlefield. 248 pp.

Feingold, Henry L (1970), The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938–1945.

Flynn, John T (1948), The Roosevelt Myth, former FDR supporter condemns all aspects of FDR. Moley, Raymond (1939), After Seven Years (insider memoir by Brain Truster who became conservative).

Russett, Bruce M (1997), No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II (2nd ed.), says US should have let USSR and Germany destroy each other.

Plaud, Joseph J (2005), Historical Perspectives on Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Foreign Policy, and the Holocaust, The FDR American Heritage Center Museum.

Powell, Jim (2003), FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression, ISBN 0-7615-0165-7.

Robinson, Greg (2001), By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans says FDR's racism was primarily to blame.

Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (2006), Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939, compares populist and paternalist features.

Smiley, Gene (1993), Rethinking the Great Depression (short essay) by libertarian economist who blames both Hoover and FDR. Wyman, David S (1984), The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945, Pantheon Books. Attacks Roosevelt for passive complicity in allowing Holocaust to happen.

FDR's rhetoric Braden, Waldo W; Brandenburg, Earnest, eds. (1955), "Roosevelt's Fireside Chats", Communication Monographs 22: 290–302.

Buhite, Russell D; Levy, David W, eds. (1993), FDR's Fireside Chats.

Craig, Douglas B (2005), Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940.

Crowell, Laura (1952), "Building the ‘Four Freedoms’ Speech", Communication Monographs 22: 266–83.

——— (1950), "Franklin D. Roosevelt's Audience Persuasion in the 1936 Campaign", Communication Monographs 17: 48–64.

Houck, Davis W (2002), FDR and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address, Texas A&M UP. ——— (2001), Rhetoric as Currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression, Texas A&M UP. Roosevelt, Franklin D. (2005), My Friends, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4179-9610-2 Ryan, Halford Ross (1979), "Roosevelt's First Inaugural: A Study of Technique", Quarterly Journal of Speech 65: 137–49.

——— (1988), Franklin D. Roosevelt's Rhetorical Presidency, Greenwood Press.

Stelzner, Hermann G (1966), "'War Message,' December 8, 1941: An Approach to Language", Communication Monographs 33: 419–37.

Primary sources Statistical Abstract of the United States (PDF), Bureau of the Census, 1951; full of useful data Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Bureau of the Census, 1976.

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ISBN 978-976-95731-0-9 Cantril, Hadley; Strunk, Mildred, eds. (1951), Public Opinion, 1935–1946, massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the USA. Gallup, George Horace, ed. (1972), The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971, 3 vol, summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.

Loewenheim, Francis L; Langley, Harold D, eds. (1975), Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence.

Moley, Raymond (1939), After Seven Years (memoir) by key Brain Truster Nixon, Edgar B, ed. (1969), Franklin D Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1945) [1938], The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (13 vol) (public material only (no letters); covers 1928– 1945).

——— (1946), Zevin, BD, ed., Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945 (selected speeches).

——— (2005) [1947], Taylor, Myron C, ed., Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII (reprint), Prefaces by Pius XII and Harry Truman, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4191-6654-9.

Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration, 20 vol. available in some large academic libraries.

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