Historical Context

1000s-1493

Fig. 01

Fig. 02 Fig. 03

Although there were multiple indigenous groups throughout the Caribbean islands before Columbus’ “accidental passage” through the region, it was not until they arrive in 1492 that we have a better understanding of how life was. From the 1000s through the 1500s the Taínos occupied much of the Greater Antilles, with the greatest concentration found in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (current Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Scholars speculate that the origin of the Taínos can be traced back to South America. They migrated through the Lesser Antilles until settling throughout the Greater Antilles.2

The Taíno lineage discovered in Puerto Rico is considered to be the most organized in terms of sociopolitical development in the Caribbean based on their sophisticated settlements when compared to others of the same time. Spanish documentation demonstrates that Taínos had established different social roles within their community. Based on the organization of the settlements, it is understood that a chief or Cacique ruled over the cacicazgo or yucayeque and decided where to locate the bateys and bohíos. Each yucayeque, or village, had a central batey where ceremonial activities, ball games, and disputes would take place. This central plaza was then surrounded by bohíos, which were the typical Taíno dwelling, with the caney, the dwelling for the cacique, strategically placed in the front.3

With the settlement and creation of the cacicazgos, Taínos became sedentary people that created agricultural fields and went fishing for their food. One of the agricultural techniques that they practiced was the use of conucos which involved building “… mounds of earth in more permanent fields to cultivate root crops in the soft alluvial soils.”4 Their diet mostly consisted of yuca, sweet potato, zamia, and a variety of fruits, in addition to fish and shellfish.5 Many of the root vegetable Taínos consumed are still grown on the island and are a staple of Puerto Rican cuisine.

It is believed that the Taino society was characterized by “… the highest level of

2 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 30-35. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 3 Reid, Basil A., and Gilmore, R. Grant, eds. 2014. Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology, 7-8. Florida: University Press of Florida. Accessed May 20, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central. 4 Ibid. 7-8. 5 Ibid. 8. sociopolitical development …” of the time.6 Each yucayeque was divided into classes: the cacique has the leader of the group; a noble class existed known as the Nitainos; the witch doctors and medicine men were known as the Behiques or Bohike; the common people were referred to as the Nabuirias. 7 Researchers have suggested that at some point during Columbus’ travel, there may have been around 19 caciques and yucayeques on the island. Among the caciques were Agueybana, Aymanon, Loiza, Urayoan, Guarionex, and Mabodamaca. 8

The Taino culture is still strong in Puerto Rico. Many of the names of the municipalities originate from Taino words or caciques, such as Loiza, Luquillo, and Caguas to name a few. It is also believed that around 500 Spanish and colloquial words used in Puerto Rico originated from the Taino vocabulary, such as hamaca, eñagotado, and others. Even the way we Puerto Ricans refer to ourselves as Boricuas is thanks to the Taino word of Borike, the name they gave to the island. That is why we proudly state: “Yo soy Boricua, pa’ que tú lo sepas.” “I am Boricua, so that you know.”

6 Ibid. 8. 7 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 30-35. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 8 Reid, Basil A., and Gilmore, R. Grant, eds. 2014. Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology, 258-260. Florida: University Press of Florida. Accessed May 20, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central.

1493

Christopher Columbus lands in “Boriké”

1508

Island is colonized as “San Juan Bautista”

1513

King Ferdinand II gives Com. Pedrarias Dávila first set of guidelines on how to establish colonies in the “New World”

1523

Fig. 05

1521

Island’s capital is moved from Caparra to San Juan Islet. The city of San German is founded

King Charles V makes modifications to “Las Leyes de la India”

1540

Taíno population diminishes, arrival of African slaves to work the land

1540s-1590s

“Castillo San Felipe del Morro” and “La Fortaleza” are built

Fig. 06

1634 -1638

Fig. 07 1573

King Phillip II issues the most comprehensive set of guidelines for The Laws of the Indies

Fortification of the city of “Old San Juan” with the famous wall system

As many already know, Christopher Columbus’ venture to India led him to encounter lands that no other European had ever come across. On November 19, 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus landed on the southern coast of Boriquén and named it San Juan Bautista in the name of the Spanish Crown.9 With the first voyage and subsequent ones, Columbus and other conquistadors would start claiming the Americas as new territories for what would become the Spanish Empire.

Even though Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico in 1493, the official colonization of the island and the new territories would not begin until 1508. Juan Ponce de León was named as the first governor of San Juan Bautista (now Puerto Rico) with the task of creating a settlement and exploiting the land and the native Taínos of its natural resources. Taínos were forced into labor to mine for gold and grow crops that would then be sent to Spain. Ponce de León establishes the city of Caparra as the first capital of Puerto Rico.10

In 1521, the capital of Puerto Rico was moved from Caparra to its current location, the islet of Old San Juan. The decision to move the capital to the islet was due to the proximity to the bay and port for ships to dock and offered a better defensive stance. This was necessary because, by the 1530s, other European countries such as France, England, and Holland were beginning to have interested in these “new lands” that Spain was capturing. The new location for the capital provided better visibility toward incoming enemy ships while protecting the city. As attacks from neighboring European countries became a common thing, Spain decided to build “El Castillo San Felipe del Morro” and “La Fortaleza” as the primary structures for the defense system of the island from the 1540s through the 1590s.11

By 1540, the native population of the island was decreasing due to strenuous working conditions and exposure to European diseases, the Spaniards [sought] after African slaves to do the work. At the same time, the gold mines of the island were beginning to dry up. To overcome this situation, the conquistadors ramped up the agricultural

9 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 37. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 10 Ibid. P 37-39. 11 Ibid. P 43, 48 production of the island, creating a monocultural industry of sugar cane. They decided to buy African slaves from the Portuguese (as they were the ones controlling the slave trade), especially the ones that originated from the Gulf of Guinea because they were already accustomed to torrid zone environmental conditions. [With their forceful arrival, the African culture was embedded on the island and the three main races of the Puerto Rican miscegenation were formed.12

As the city of San Juan continued to prosper, the rest of the island was mostly considered an uninhabitable and impenetrable jungle. By the 1600s some small villages started to form around the island. The current municipality of San German on the south of the island was founded at around the same time as San Juan, with smaller villages forming slowly after, such as Arecibo, Aguada, Ponce, Coamo, and Loíza. While most of the formal villages of the time were being built by white and criollo Europeans, smaller ones were also formed in more remote areas by escaped slaves and neglected Taíno populations.13

San Juan, while being protected by the recent forts, was still under constant attack by the other European powers of the time and pirates that frequented the Caribbean. After massive attacks in 1595, 1598, and 1625, Spain decides to invest in the fortification of San Juan with the construction of the wall system that surrounded the entire islet. The construction of the rampart began in 1634 and was finished by 1638. This defensive system, along with other buildings, is still a key characteristic of Old San Juan and Puerto Rico.14

By the 1700s, Spain’s power in the Americas was decreasing. Its dominance in the territory was diminishing by France, England, and Holland as these were capturing and controlling most of the islands in the Caribbean. Sugar cane production was substituted by cattle farming. Puerto Rico’s population was decreasing and its strategic location in the Caribbean was being used more as a “door” to America rather than a productive land. Spain still saw potential and reassured its commitment to the island. To increase the population and incentivize people to settle in Puerto Rico, they decided to tackle the uncontrollable land that was the central mountain range.15

12 Ibid. P 40-42. 13 Ibid. P 51-52. 14 Ibid. P 48. 15 Ibid. P 58.

Spain’s power is decreasing. France, England, and Holland are expanding their empires

1730 - 1750

Utuado, Manatí, Mayagüez,Calvache (Rincón), Yauco, Añasco, and La Tuna (Isabela) are founded

Fig. 09 Fig. 10

1777

United States of America gains its independence from England

Late 1700s

Fig. 11

Spains builds “Castillo San Critobal” and “Fortin San Geronimo” to demonstrate power 1804

Colony of Haiti gains independence from France

1873

Slavery is abolished in Puerto Rico

1789 - 1815

French Civil War

Feb. 1898

USS Maine sinks of the coast of Cuba, ingniting the Spanish-American War

Puerto Rico’s main economic source frequently changed, depending on the necessities of Spain or the international commerce demands. By the end of the 1700s, sugar cane production was again the main economic source. Several plantations were also established such as “Compañia Aguirre Aristegui”, creating an agricultural monopoly on the island. Because of the monopolization, the slave trade in America was still a large factor.16 Many of the pueblos that were already established began to subdivide into agricultural sectors, which ultimately led to the foundation of municipalities such as Utuado, Manatí, Calvache (Rincón), Mayaüez, Yauco, Añaco, and La Tuna (Isabela) between 1730-1750.17

During the end of the 18th century, several incidents began to shape the international scope of the time and the future of many countries. In 1777, the United States of America obtained its independence from England.18 Between 1789 and 1815, France fought in its civil war and became a democratic country following the footsteps of the USA.19 From 1791-1804, Haiti achieved its independence from France and became the first country to abolish slavery.20 All these events fueled many revolutions throughout the world, including Puerto Rico, which made Spain reaffirm its strength over its colonies. To ensure this on the island, they decide to build “Castillo San Cristóbal”, “Fortin San Geronimo”, the continuation of the ramparts, and addition to San Felipe del Morro Fort.21

While many neighboring colonies began to revolt and abolish slavery, the sugar plantation’s monopoly over the island still reigned supreme. Sugar claimed back its position as the most demanded product internationally. Puerto Rico’s biggest sugar consumer was the United States. Sugar production on the island increased from an average of 10 thousand to 55 thousand tons.22 In 1812, various ports were established in Ponce, Mayagüez, and Arecibo to export all the sugar production. Many of these ports were built in cities where big plantations were located.

By the end of the 18th century, the islet of San Juan has been built with the same characteristics that distinguish it today. Its narrow cobbled streets, its distinctive architecture, and massive wall system were all being defined. Other municipali-

16 Ibid. P 63. 17 Ibid. P 58. 18 Ibid. P 60. 19 Ibid. P 59. 20 Ibid. P 60. 21 Ibid. P 61. 22 Ibid. P 67. ties around the island also started to materialize/ form themselves into the towns we still see today. The distinctive main plaza with the church at one end and the city hall on the other, merchant stores surrounding the plaza, and the residential dwellings expanded throughout.23

In 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico and sugar was losing its value on the market. These events affected the Centrales that dominated the island, but only briefly. Sugar was again substituted as the main agricultural product in favor of coffee beans. The sugar plantations established coffee company towns to combat the loss of laborers with the abolition of slavery.24 Residential buildings as well as supporting facilities for the employees such as plazas, markets, schools, churches, post offices, and movie houses were built. Even though these facilities provided benefits to the employees, they were mostly built to force laborers to live in the company town. For example, some company towns used their form of currency to pay their employees which forced them to use the markets owned by the company.25 They exploited Puerto Ricans with a new form of slavery.

The end of the 19 century was again marked by international events that affected Puerto Rico both directly and indirectly. In Cuba, the independence movement was gaining strength. The United States has an interest in helping Cuba achieve its independence from Spain. Spain fears that Puerto Rico and the rest of its colonies will follow the same path. In February 1898, the USS Maine is hit and sinks to the cost of Cuba, igniting the Spanish-American War. Puerto Rico entered into that mix: Spain wanted to maintain its colony; the USA has other interests. In December 1898, the Treaty of Paris is signed, putting an end to the war.

With the end of the War, Cuba gained its independence and the United States gained possession of Puerto Rico, as well as the Philippines and Guam. With the signing of the treaty, Spain ultimately lost its imperial dominance while the USA began to position itself as a world power. In the end, Puerto Rico was simply swapped over to a new colonizer. After more than 400 years of Spanish control, the island had a new “owner”.26

23 Mundigo, Axel I., and Dora P. Crouch. “The City Planning Ordinances of the Laws of the Indies Revisited. Part I: Their Philosophy and Implications.” Town planning review 48, no. 3 (1977): 247–268. 24 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 67-68, 78. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 25 Insert Footnote Here. 26 History.com Editors. 2020. “Puerto Rico.” HISTORY. A&E Television Networks. September 15, 2020. https://www.history.com/topics/us-states/puerto-rico-history. 29

DEC. 1898

Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Spanish-American War. A military goverment is established.

1900

The Foraker Act is signed by Pres. McKinley, establishes civil goverment in Puerto Rico

1917

The Jones Act is signed, granted US citizenship to Puerto Ricans, but they are still treated as inferiors.

Fig. 13

1921

Fig. 14

“Puerta de Tierra” is settled by informal housing by new industry employees. Some formal apartments where available, but lacked proper infrastrucutre 1920s-1930s

Housing project “Barrio Obrero” is built. Provided working families with better living conditions

1929

The Great Depression creates one of the worst economic downturns in modern history.

1933

The Puerto Rico Emergency Relief Administration is created

1935 - 1937

The multi-family public housing project “El Falasterio” is built Hurricane San Felipe hits the Island 1928

Hurricane San Ciprián hits Puerto Rico. Pres. Roosvelt signs New Deal, extends benefits from federal funding

1932

1935

The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration is created

1937

The “Partido Popular Democratico” (Popular Democratic Party) is created, giving Puerto Ricans limited voting rights and power to elect their officials

The Spanish-American War ended in December 1898 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The United States gained control of Puerto Rico and quickly established a military government. Puerto Ricans thought that with the arrival of the USA the island would be closer to gaining its independence, but they quickly established a military government and aggressive policies to “Americanize” the uncultured natives. A new education system was implemented, making English the primary language and depriving Puerto Ricans of their identity.27

The USA brought with them modernization in the form of religious freedom, better infrastructure, and transportation; they also fomented the abysmal living conditions that Puerto Ricans were already living in.28 The Spanish company towns were substituted by American ones, which meant that Puerto Ricans were still being treated as modern slaves. The monopoly that these corporations had over the island symbolized the lack of control that the natives had and how they were still being controlled by an outside power.

In April 1900, President McKinley signed the Foraker Act into Law, which established a civil government in Puerto Rico. The law stated that the new government would be composed of a governor appointed by the President, a House of Representatives comprised of 35 members, a judicial system, and a non-voting representative in Congress.29

A few years later, in 1917, the Jones Act was signed. This law gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans and “… separated the Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branches of Puerto Rican government, provided civil rights to the individual, and created a locally elected bicameral legislature.”30 This law stated that the governor would still be appointed by the President, but it gave a little more democratic power to Puerto Ricans by having the right to vote for at least some

27 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 80-81. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 28 Ibid. 81. 29 “Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900) - the World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress).” 2011. Loc.gov. 2011. https://www.loc.gov/rr/ hispanic/1898/foraker.html. 30 “Jones Act - the World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress).” n.d. Www.loc.gov.https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/jonesact.html#:~:text=On%20March%202%2C%201917%2C%20President. of the members of the two local houses. This law also requires Puerto Rico to use American ports and ships to import and export products between the island and the US mainland.31 Numerous political parties started to form after this law. The two main political ideologies of the time were sympathizers of the United States and those who favored independence.

By 1899, a census tabulated the population of Puerto Rico to be 953,243, with 90% of them being illiterate. Almost all Puerto Ricans worked in the agricultural sector. That same year, Hurricane San Ciriaco hit the island, destroying the coffee and tobacco field. The big US agricultural corporation on the island decided to convert all fertile land back to harvesting sugar cane. The four biggest corporations at the time were: Fajardo Sugar Company, South Porto Rico Sugar, Central Aguirre, and the United Porto Rico Sugar Company. Many of the population worked and lived in these company towns under improper structures and oppressive wages.32

The 1920s and 1930s were marked by hardship for Puerto Rico and the United States. In 1928, Hurricane San Felipe destroyed the entire island. In 1929, the Great Depression created the worst economic downturn in modern history. In 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián caused around $33 million in damages.33 To combat all these issues, President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the New Deal and extended the benefits to include Puerto Rico after Elanor Roosevelt visited the island and saw firsthand all the problems the island was facing.34 In 1933, the Puerto Rico Emergency Relief Administration was created to manage all the federal funds that were being distributed. In 1935, the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was formed, creating health and infrastructure programs to better the living conditions of the island.35

It was not until 1937 and beyond that Puerto Rico’s economy changed for the better. During that year, the “Partido Popular Democratico” (Popular Democratic Party/PPD) was established. This party quickly established itself as a force on the local government with a campaign centered around

31 “Domestic Shipping | MARAD.” n.d. Www.maritime.dot.gov. https://www.maritime. dot.gov/ports/domestic-shipping/domestic-shipping. 32 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 84-85. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes 33 Ibid. 89-90. 34 Luz Marie Rodríguez, “Suppressing the Slum! Architecture and Social Change in San Juan’s Public Housing,” in Ever New San Juan: Architecture and Modernization in the Twentieth Century, ed. Enrique Vivoni Farage (San Juan, Archivo de Arquitectura y Construcción de la Universidad de Puerto Rico (AACUPR), 2000), 76.

“Elanor Roosevelt” community is built. Became DNA for single-family middle-class housing

1936

“Ocean Park” is built as a private development for wealthier families.

1937

“Mirapalmeras” project is built on the outskirts of “Barrio Obrero”. Duplex-style homes were built with reinforced conrete.

Late 1930s

Private development project such as University Gardens, Hyde Park, Baldrich, and Santa Rita are built.

Fig. 15

1947

Puerto Rico’s granted power to elect officials. Gov. Luis Muñoz Marín is first Puerto Rican elected.

Fig. 16

“Operación Manos a la Obra”/Operation Bootstraps is enacted. New corporations enter the island, offering employment to Puerto Ricans

1952

“Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico”. Puerto Rico’s constitution is approved, granting minimal sovereignty

1973

Fig. 17

International Oil Crisis hits. Unemployment jumped 20% on the Island

Mid-1940s

1950s - 1970s

The Island is prospering from Operation Bootstraps. This led to migration from the mountains to the city.

1990s-200s

economic programs designed to help the people from misery. In 1947, Puerto Ricans are granted the power to vote for their own governor without the direct involvement of the US government. Luis Muñoz Marín (PPD) was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico. Muñoz Marín and the PPD were committed to helping the “jíbaros”, or local farmers, by promoting a minimum wage, adequate food and water, and the creation of more industrial alternatives to provide workers with more options rather than just agriculture.36

One of the most important strategies that Muñoz Marín developed during his term in office was “Operación Manos a la Obra”, or “Operation Bootstraps”. The main attractor for this reform was to provide tax exemptions to corporations that were willing to move their factories to the island and provide modern industrial employment to Puerto Ricans. By providing easy and reliable employment, Puerto Ricans could be able to overcome poverty at a faster rate.37 With this initiative, many moved from the mountainous region to the metropolitan area where the new factories were located. Unfortunately, the living conditions in the city were the same or even worse than in the countryside.

Many Puerto Ricans relocated to slums around the city because either there wasn’t sufficient housing for the number of people or they were so poor that they could only afford to build their homes in the slums.38 The local government decided to create a housing authority to address the issue and provide affordable public housing to the workers and their families. As more Puerto Ricans overcame poverty, others fell deeper into it, creating a drastic distinction between the new middle class and the lower class. A big migration wave took place during the 1950s as many Puerto Ricans moved to New York mainly in search of better living conditions.39

On July 1952, the new constitution of Puerto Rico is approved and the “Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico” is created. Also known as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, this officially eliminated the Jones Act of 1917 and formerly recognized the minimal sovereignty that the island now has. It established the current relationship we

36 Ibid. 91-92. 37 Ibid. 92. 38 Luz Marie Rodríguez, “Suppressing the Slum! Architecture and Social Change in San Juan’s Public Housing,” in Ever New San Juan: Architecture and Modernization in the Twentieth Century, ed. Enrique Vivoni Farage (San Juan, Archivo de Arquitectura y Construcción de la Universidad de Puerto Rico (AACUPR), 2000), 80. 39 Cancel, Mario R. and Mayra Rosario, “Un Compendio de Historia de Puerto Rico,” in El libro de Puerto Rico, edited by Andrés Palomares, 93. Puerto Rico: Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, Inc, 2001. Translated by Rafael G. Lloveras-Fuentes. The period from the 1950s to the 1970s was one with few meaningful events. The island continued to prosper under the Operation Bootstraps initiative. Most of the slums around the city were eliminated and the people relocated to new public housing. Many of the suburbs that are seen today on the island were built. By 1973 things changed. The economic and oil crisis of the time affected the island. Many of the industrial companies decided to leave Puerto Rico because they couldn’t afford to stay. Unemployment jumped to 20%, the gross national product was declining, and many labor strikes were occurring. A big migratory wave of Puerto Ricans back to the island happened during the 70s because of the economic crisis, and the island wasn’t prepared for more people.41

To combat the crisis, the government decided to enact Section 936 of the Internal Revenue Code. The purpose of it was to “… stimulate the economy by guaranteeing that the contribution exemptions from the profits derived from the investments in Puerto Rico stayed intact”. This new incentive attracted many pharmaceutical companies to the island and created a prosperous era for Puerto Rico. Unfortunately, by the 1990s, the incentive was eradicated and the island suffered a big blow to its economy. Many Puerto Ricans were laid off and a newer and slower wave of migration to the United States began.42

While the USA’s recession started with the housing crash in 2007-2008, Puerto Rico’s recession started when Section 936 was phased out. Unemployment slowly raised and the economy hasn’t fully recovered ever since. The amount of people leaving the island has only increased as the years go by. Currently, there are more Puerto Ricans living in the United States than there are people on the island.

40 Ibid. 93. 41 Ibid. 95-96. 42 Ibid. 96.

34