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Translanguaging and the journey to effective bilingualism
Peter Daignault examines the real objective of EAL/ELL
This article presents the context of, the rationale for, and the progress towards the development of effective bilingualism in international schools. Here, effective bilingualism refers to a high-level development of first language (L1) and a high-level acquisition of second language (L2). This bilingual proficiency allows for a student’s cognitive and competitive productivity, such as in learning and in demonstrating learning (adapted from Cummins, 1979).
This article is also based on three core understandings of L2 acquisition and learning: 1. That mother tongue learning is best (UNESCO, 2017). 2. That a time period of 5-7 years is required for an EAL student to develop enough academic language, after which L2 English speakers may achieve competitive parity to native English peers in schools (adapted from
Cummins, 1979) 3. That the stronger a student’s L1, the more effective the acquisition of an additional language (L2). Finally, the article chronicles a four and a half year learning journey, from grade 8.5 to 12.5, of a Japanese male student with a beginner level proficiency (WIDA, 2020) in English. An examination of the student’s learning disposition and context is presented.
The context of the student
Hiro (not his real name) arrived from Japan at our international school in eighth grade at the age of 13. It was already February and Hiro had missed a month and a half of school. With nearly 2/3 of the school year completed, a successful transition seemed daunting to conceive in so little time. 9 th grade, therefore, would be decisive. Among the critical novelties and challenges of Hiro’s transition were:
The English Medium of Instruction (EMI) school and the international school culture
Academic standards and expectations
A ‘western’ learning style
• A computer as learning companion • Most importantly, a new language of learning and community
It was Hiro’s and his family’s first time living outside of their home culture, Japan. His proficiency score in the latter half of 8th grade placed him at the intermediate range on the middle school proficiency test (WIDA) – although later he confessed that he did not even understand the questions on the test! Hiro enrolled into an EAL support class and remained there for the rest of the short year. Other factors which would determine Hiro’s success in learning at an EMI school relate to his character. What kind of a student and boy is Hiro? His disposition matters. • Is he academic or sporty? • Is he extroverted or reserved? • Will he make friends? • Will he join clubs and teams? • How strong is he in his L1? • Did he begin developing formal academic language at school back in Japan?
CALP Academic language development
Of special note is the timing of Hiro’s arrival. Across cultures, the ages 12-14 generally herald a significant shift in academic rigor, from a ‘middle school’ and/or ‘lower form’ to a ‘high school’ and/or ‘upper form’ stage of learning. Even a light examination of these phrases, ‘upper’ vs ‘lower’, imply a significant cognitive shift. The success of this language development depends largely on the entirety of previous academic L1 development.
Among English L1 speakers in 9th grade, teachers observe a variety in the success rates of developing formal academic language. It is typical that many 9th graders spend a year, or longer, attempting to raise the language register to the level of formal, academic. Hence the challenge to develop academic language, for a beginner speaker of English as an L2 in 9th grade, seems insurmountable. In addition, the learning culture at international schools sometimes does not help. It is unfortunate but still common to witness teachers who stress that English language development is required before learning takes place.
Translanguaging and the emergent bilingual
Hiro’s 9 th grade proficiency level (WIDA) was an overall 1.9; an ‘entering’, beginner, level. According to the accompanying ‘can-do’ descriptors, Hiro could ‘provide basic information about self’, ‘read everyday signs’, ‘label images’, and ‘point out objects when named orally’. Therefore, translanguaging (learning across languages) was the only option if Hiro were to learn anything. In a meeting to discuss Hiro’s linguistic context and strategies, teachers were advised to engage in translanguaging as much as possible to afford him the opportunity to access learning in Japanese, his L1. Thus, all learning activities became immersed in English, in Japanese, and through both a western cultural context and Hiro’s home-culture context. The translanguaging activities began simply and became more complex as Hiro’s bilingualism emerged. Below, some of the activities are listed in increasing complexity. They were:
Translation of content terminology as a primary activity
Creating 2 column lists of vocabulary for science, mathematics, social studies and English (see Figure 1)
Figure 1 Translations of key vocabulary
Writing in Japanese and producing a translation in English with Google translate Finding texts such as ‘Romeo and Juliet’, and ‘The Old Man and the Sea’ in Japanese (see Figure 2)
Figure 2 A translation of ‘The Old Man and the Sea’
Allowing Hiro to read a Japanese short story for English short story unit Accessing Japanese culture for learning • In the social studies colonialism unit, Hiro researches
Japanese colonial history in Korea and China • For the journalism unit, Hiro writes a news article (see Figure 3) based on a classic children’s story, ‘Momotaro’
Figure 3 News article based on Japanese children’s hero Momotaro
For the unit on political systems, he researches various political parties in Japan. The Works Cited page (see Figure 4) of his research looks like this:
Figure 4 Works Cited page reveals research carried out in L1
Accessing learning videos on YouTube Accessing learning materials in Japanese (see Figure 5) through Japanese language searches of key concepts, skills, and knowledge • Parent-supported self-study in mathematics and chemistry using Japanese textbooks • Analyzing political cartoons’ conventions and techniques
These are just several of the translanguaging bilingual learning experiences that Hiro has had throughout his high school experience. Through translanguaging, Hiro now effectively learns bilingually. Moreover, having nearly completed the first half of grade 12, Hiro has thus far written a bilingual college application essay for a Japanese and a US university, engaged in a bilingual research project, and delivered a bilingual TED Student Talk.
Concluding thoughts
There are many ‘Hiros’ in international schools. They leave their home languages and cultures at a relatively late age (11-14), and face the immense challenge of learning in a language in which their proficiency levels impede learning. Hiro is an international student success story because of translanguaging, which has allowed him to maintain and develop his L1 and, most importantly, to learn. He deserves much of the credit for this success. His work ethic and levels of maturity have enabled him to develop a high degree of bilingualism.
When questioned about his ‘type of bilingualism’ using Cummins’ model, Hiro replies that he still needs to develop his formal academic Japanese. He says that he is in between the first and second levels of bilingualism, A and B. That said, Hiro will return to Japan to continue his tertiary learning in Japanese. And while he knows he will also have to work hard to re-integrate into learning in his L1, he feels confident and sufficiently prepared to do so.
According to Hiro, effective bilingualism was not easy at first. However, as his translanguaging practice normalized, so did his efficiency and efficacy. This refutes the argument that bilingual learning is too time-consuming and requires too much effort. Indeed, effective bilingualism is simply another approach to learning that is appropriate for all students who are bi/multilingual. After all, why should students who are bilingual learn monolingually? Hiro commented that by his last two years in high school he did not notice the extra effort or extra time involved. Bilingualism, to him, had become the standard method of learning. Finally, Hiro’s linguistic and cultural identity were maintained, developed, and dignified throughout his 4.5 years at an English medium international school.
References
Cummins J (1979) Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism. 19: 121–129. UNESCO (2017) Mother tongue-based multilingual education: the key to unlocking SDG 4: quality Education for All, Available via https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247333 WIDA (2020) https://wida.wisc.edu/
