Sigma Volume 6

CoverdesignbyVanessaGonzalez-Rychener’24.

"WhenIwasinmiddleschool,IwasreallyinterestedinanartformcalledZentangle,whichisbasicallyupscaled doodling.Once,whenIwasZentanglinginclass,someonetoldmeIshoulddesigncovers.Istowedthatsuggestion awayuntiltheSigmacontestcamearoundafewyearslater,andIdecidedtogiveitatry.WhileZentanglesarenot innatelyscientific,andIcannotpointtoaspecificpartoftheartworkandsay"thatlittleswirlinthetopleftcorner representsNewton’sthirdlawofmotion,"theycanbeinsomewaysametaphorforempiricismandSTEM.JustasI tookmycreativityandgaveitastructureonwhichtobasethisdesign,researchisawayoftakinglife’sbigquestions andgivingyourselfaframeworktobreakthemupintosolvableproblems."

Copyright©SigmaJournal,VolumeVI.AllRightsReserved.

byVanessaGonzalez-Rychener’24.

1.1 MeettheEditors

TommyGordon

Co-Editor-in-Chief

Polo-WearingSigma

Favoritesubjects:Diff.Eq.andChinese

Favoritebook: OracleBones

VivianLoh

Co-Editor-in-Chief GeometryEnthusiast

Favoritesubjects:MathandPhysics

Favoritebook: TheGreatGatsby

HannahHammons

ExecutiveArtisticEditor WheelofTimeKid

Favoritesubject:Biology

Favoritebook: ThereThere

FavoriteTVseries: Andor

MarcoCardenes

JazzScientist

Favoritesubject:ComputerScience

Favoritebook: TheOrderofTime

DanielKochupura

PaulKaufman

Favoritesubject:History

Favoritebook: APrayerforOwenMeany

FavoriteTVshow: TheWestWing

AlexSayette

"I’llbebackrealquickIjusthavetofillupmywaterbottle"

Favoritesubjects:EnglishandMath

Favoritebook: TheGreatExpectations

FavoriteTVshow: WeAreWhoWeAre

Jayanthi(Jay)Simhan

BobaAficionado

Favoritesubjects:EnglishandScience

FavoriteTVshow: Sherlock

FelixGamper

JohnnyStern

Favoritesubject:Chemistry

Favoritebook: TheWayThingsWork(WithWoolyMammoths)

Favoritesubject:History

Favoritebook: TheBellJar

Favoritesubject:Mathematics

FavoriteTVshows: FutureBoyConan

Favoritesubject:MathandComputerScience

FavoriteTVshow:BritishPeriodDramas

Favoritesubject:Can’tchoosejustone!

FavoriteTVshow: TheGoodPlace

BrynneMcSorley ClubJoiner

TadaoTomokiyo PierogiEater

DeliaBrown ChocolateConnoisseur

NoraFaraci NoratheExplorer

Jiayi(Jenny)Zhang

AwakenedPolarBear

Favoritesubjects:Mathematics,Physics,andCS

Favoritebook: TheGreatExpectations

FavoriteTVshow: TheBigBangTheory

You Sigma’sSecretAdmirer

Favoritesubject:Anything!

Favoritebook: SumthingwrittenbytheSigmaEditors

FavoriteTVshow: SumthingCool

1.2 LetterfromtheEditors

Welcometothesixthvolumeof Sigma!

Ourname, Sigma,isbydefinitionthe18thletteroftheGreekalphabetandisusedasthemathematicalnotationfor asum.AtWT, Sigma hastraditionallyrepresentedthesumofdiversestudentworkinthefieldofSTEM.Thisyear, inordertorecognizeourstudents’impressiveworkinawiderrangeofdisciplinesanddemonstratetheadvancing practiceofinterconnectionbetweenSTEMandthesocialsciences,weareexcitedtoextend Sigma toencompass academicwritingfromallfieldsofstudy.Furthermore,thistimeweincorporatedtheblindpeerreviewprocessto assessthequalityofalloursubmissionsthoroughlyandobjectively,andhaveincludedtheverybestoneshere.

FromtheWorldCuptothesocialjusticeissuesthatpermeateeverynewssite,toadvancementsintheburgeoning fieldofartificialintelligence,thisyearhasbeenparticularlyeventful.AsweemergefromtheCovid-19pandemic,it isbecomingevidentthatanincreasingamountofdailytasksareautomatedbycomputers.Recently,distinguishing whetherapieceofwritingoriginatesinthehumanmindorChatGPThasproveddifficult.Nothingisblackorwhite; everythingcontainsalayerofuncertaintyandnuance,whileatthesametimerevealinganintriguingstorybeneath.In themidstoftheever-evolvinggloballandscape,wefindourselvesreadingdeeperintotheeventsandissuesaround us,analyzingandquestioningviewpoints,andproposingpossiblesolutions.Thiseditionof Sigma containsawide varietyofthoughtfulanalyses,notonlyquantitativebutonallaspectsoftheworld.

InthelegacyofDr.KeithBemer–adoctorofphilosophyandaconnoisseurofallbranchesofacademia,we chosetohonorthebroaderrangeofsocial,cultural,andquantitativesciencesinoursixthpublication’stheme.Asyou readthisdiversearrayofprofessionallyreviewedstudentwork–fromcomplexmathproofstoanalysesofpoetry,to criticalessaysontheimplicationsofA.I.–wehopethatyou,too,willlearnsomethingthatwillinspireyoutochange theworldthroughscholarship.FromourLaTeXfilestoyourhands,wehopeyouenjoythesixthissueof Sigma

1.3 MissionStatement

InDr.KeithBemer’svision, Sigma isWinchesterThurston’sstudent-runacademicjournal.Thegoalofourannual publicationistoshowcaseexceptionalstudentworkatallacademic-experiencelevelstoabroadanddiverseaudience whilealsoprovidingWTcommunitymemberswiththeexperienceofpublishinginaprofessional-stylejournal. Staffmembersandeditorsdiligentlyworkedyear-roundencouragingsubmissions,selectingworkforpublication, peer-reviewing,aidingintherevisionprocess,aswellastypesettingandformattingarticlestopresentyouwiththis editionof Sigma

1.4 Acknowledgements

Wewouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplewhohelpedmakethisissueof Sigma successful:

• Mr.NassarandDr.Olshefski,ourfacultyadvisors,forprovidinguswithallofthesupport,knowledge,and motivationwecouldhaveeveraskedforincreatingthisissueof Sigma.

• Studentsubmitters,forhavingthedrivetoconductresearch,thecouragetosubmittheirworktobepublished, andtheperseverancetoworkwithstaffandeditorstoperfectlypolishthearticlesyouseetoday.

• TheWTFaculty,fortirelesslysupportingourpublication.

• Sigma’sdedicatedstaff(TommyGordon,VivianLoh,HannahHammons,MarcoCardenes,DanielKochupura, AlexSayette,JaySimhan,BrynneMcSorley,TadaoTomokiyo,DeliaBrown,NoraFaraci,JennyZhang, TiagoAlfonso-Wells,andFelixGamper)foraidinggreatlyinthesubmission,peerreviewing,formatting,and publicationprocesses.

• Theincredibleleading Sigma editorsofyearspast(HannahChang’22,AnnaNesbitt’21,ChristopherPorco’20, AriaEppinger’20,andHarrisonGrodin’18)forprovidinguswiththefoundationforanincrediblysuccessful sixthedition.

• TheWTFund,forsupportingourjournalandthe Sigma clubasawhole.

• DavidGilbreathandKnepperPress,foraidinginprintingoursixthvolumeof Sigma

• Dr.KeithBemer,forconceivingtheideafor Sigma andenablingourpublicationtobecomeareality.

-The Sigma EditorialTeam

Sadashiv,Sidharth.,et.al.Dose-ResponseConfirmation ofSmallMoleculesThatStabilizeMutantTriosePhosphate Isomerase(TPI)asTreatmentsforTPIDeficiency

5.2 Gamper,Felix.VaccineCrisisResponse:SmallpoxLessons AppliedtoCovid-19

5.3 Gonzalez-Rychener,Vanessa.PenaltyKick:FoulPlayby FIFAandQatar,andWhatNeedstoBeDone 5.4Gordon,Tommy.EnvisioninganEthicalA.I. 5.5 Haider,Najih.AretheStereotypesThatHaveBeenCreatedforMuslimsFair?

5.6Peris,Alex.TheChannelCrisis

5.7Simhan,Jay.TheEthicalConsiderationsofA.I.

2.QuantitativeAnalysis

SectionHeaderbyHannahHammons’25.

2.1 ASimpleInductionProof

ByDeliaBrown

Abstract

Factsinmathematicsneedtobeproven.Therearemany differentwaysthatpeopleproveordisprovemathematicalstatements,includingdirectproofs,proofbycontradictionorcounter-example,andproofbyinduction. Thisarticleexplainsandprovidesanexampleofan inductionproof.

Mathematicalinductionisanelegantmethodforprovingmathematicalstatements.Proofbyinductionisused whentryingtoprovethatamathematicalstatementholds trueforallofthenaturalnumbers.Itisinfeasibletocheck ifsomethingispossibleforeverynaturalnumberbecause

thereareinfinitelymanyofthem,butproofbyinduction usesasimpletechniquethatallowsyoutoprovethata statementholdsforthisinfinitesetofnumbersinonly twosteps.

Inproofbyinductionyoustartwithabasecasewhere youshowthatwhatyouaretryingtoproveistruefor somesmallinteger,typically0or1.Thesecondstepina proofbyinductionistheinductivestepwhereyoushow thatifthestatementholdstrueforanyn,thenitalsoholds truefor n + 1.Togetherwiththebasecasethisshows thatthestatementwillholdtrueforallnaturalnumbers startingwiththeintegerusedinthebasecase.

Inthisproblemwewanttoprovethatforanynonnegativeinteger n,thevalue n5 n,isamultipleof5.To dothiswecanuseproofbyinduction.

Inthisproblemwebeginwiththebasecaseof n = 1 wherewehave n5 n = 1 1 = 0,whereweknowthat 0 isamultipleof5asitequals5 0.

Then,supposethat n5 n = 5k where k issomeconstant.Wewillshowthatthisistruefor n + 1.Wehave

Sinceweknowthat n5 n isamultipleof 5 andwecan write 5n4 + 10n3 + 10n2 + 5n as 5(n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + n) wherewecanseethatitisamultipleof 5 weknowthat (n + 1)5 (n + 1) isamultipleof 5 andthusourproof iscomplete;wehaveshownthatforanynon-negative integern,thevalue n5 n,isamultipleof5.

2.2 ShouldSoccerBeAsDrivenByAnalyticsLikeManyAmericanSports?

ByOliverDaboo

Abstract

InthisarticleIwillshowwhyanalyticsanddataneed tobeusedmoreinsoccer,becausedatacanpredictthe outcomeofanentireseason.Ilooktosolvetheproblem thatmanypeoplebelieveanalyticsarenotnecessary inevaluatingplayersandteamsintheworldofsoccer.Theoldergenerationofsoccerfanstendtobelieve thatyoucantellhowgoodplayersareandhowwell ateamplaysjustbywatchingagame,butstatistics canhelpusevaluatesoccerevenbetterthanthe“eye test.”Ianalyzeddatafromfiveseasonsinfivedifferent soccerleaguestoseehowwelldatacouldpredictthe winningpercentagesofteamsusinganequationpreviouslyappliedtobaseball.Ithenadjustedthisequation tomakeitmoreaccurateforsoccer.Myresultsshow thatanalyticsdoesnotpredictsoccerseasonsaswell asbaseballandotherAmericansports,assoccerhas alotmoreluckinvolved.Instead,thisdatawasreally accurateinfindingateam’struewinningpercentage. Thismeansthatdatainsoccerisactuallyveryuseful andcangetveryclosetotellingustrueoutcomesinthe sport.Analyticsdoneedtobeusedmoreinthesportin orderforteamstogainasmuchofanedgeovertheir opponentsaspossible.

Introduction

Thesportofsoccer,orfootballasitiscalledoutside theUS,isundoubtedlythemostpopularsportintheworld. ItsglobalfandomoutmatcheswhatAmericansportscould onlydreamofachieving.Butthereisoneaspectofsports hereintheUSthatseemstohaveanedgeoversoccer: analysisthroughtheuseofdataratherthaneyesandopinions.Americansportshaveexcelledinnotonlygathering andusingdatatoimprovein-gameperformance,butalso inpresentingittothepublic.Recently,soccerhasbeen slowlycatchinguptobaseball,Americanfootball,etc., butitisstillfarbehind.Thereareafewreasonsforthis.

First,thesport’scontinuedgrowthisclearlynotbecause ofstatisticsbecause“statistics”wasnotreallyatermin soccer’smetaphoricaldictionaryuntilthe21stcentury.

Newwaystoplaythegamewereconstantlypoppingup withoutthehelpofdata,andfansnevergrewfrustrated thatthesportwasbecomingboringorrepetitive.Asa result,noonesawaneedtostartusinganalytics.Second, Iwilluseaquotefromthebook TheExpectedGoals Philosophy,whichisoneofthreebooksthatgreatlyinfluencedmydesiretodotheresearchyouwillseelater:“It isincrediblyhardtopromotechangewithinthebeautiful game.Thoselobbyingforanalyticstobecomemoremainstreamhavebeenmetwithstiffopposition.Itseemsthat theaveragefootballfanistoodisinterested,lazyor,dare Isay,ignorant,toacceptamoreanalyticalphilosophy [2].”Third,whichpeoplewouldn’thaveknownabout withoutthehelpofstatistics,isthatsoccerinvolvesalot ofluck.Buttofullyunderstandthis,Ifirstneedtoexplain avariablecalledExpectedGoalsorxG.

ExpectedGoalsandLuck

Eachshotaplayertakeshasaprobability,orthexG value,itwillgointhenetbasedonavarietyoffactors: wheretheshotistakenfrom(howfarawayandwhatsort ofangle),wheredefendersaresituated(lowerprobability iftherearealotofdefendersinthepathwayoftheshot), andmore.Statisticscompanieshavecompileddataof thousandsofshotstakenfromawiderangeofdifferent scenariosinamatch,andtheyusethistothendetermine theprobabilitythattheshotwillbescored.Sosayaplayer tookashotabout 20 yardsfromgoalanddeadcenterof thefield.Ananalystwouldlookatthousandsofshots takenfromthissameposition,andfindouthowmany resultedinagoal.Say 10% wentinthenet,thexGvalue forthisshotwouldbe 0 10.Thisisdoneforeveryshot inthegame,andattheendofamatchthexGvaluefor everyshotisaddedforeachteamtoshowhowmanygoals thatteamwasexpectedtoscoreinthatmatch.Youcould sayateamwithahigherxGvalueinthematchcreated morechances,likelyplayedbetter,andthereforedeserved towinthegameaccordingtothestatistics.Butsoccer

2.2Daboo,Oliver.ShouldSoccerBeAsDrivenByAnalyticsLikeManyAmericanSports?13

isafunnysport,andquiteoftentheteamthatappeared toplaybetterdoesn’twinthegame.Manypeoplealso saytheteamwiththemostshotsprobablyplaysbetter. ButMartinLames,ProfessorofTrainingScienceand ComputerScienceinSportattheTechnicalUniversity Munich,researchedhowoftenthe“betterteam”actually wonthegame.Hefirstdiscovered,aftermanyhoursof watchingafewthousandgoals,thataround 44 4 percent ofthegoalswere“fortunate,asowingmorethanalittle toluck”(AndersonandSally).Healsofoundthatfrom 2005-2011,inthetopdivisionofsoccerinEngland(PremierLeague),Spain(LaLiga),Germany(Bundesliga), andItaly(SerieA),theteamwiththemostshotsina matchwononlyabout 47 percentofthetime[1].This meansthatinsoccer,thereisonly 50 percentyoucan control.Soyouneedtouseallpossibletoolsinorderto fullymaximizethat 50 percent,anddataandanalyticsare oneofthosetools.Mostpeoplewillsay,“Footballisincrediblysteepedintradition.Thesporthassurvivedover acenturywithouttheExpectedGoalsmethod,sowhy doweneeditnow?”[2].AlthoughTippettspecifically mentionstheExpectedGoalsmethod,heisreallyasking whysoccerneedsanalyticsasawhole.Well,I’lltellyou why.

TheExpression

Todecidewhethersoccerneedstobelookedat throughamoreanalyticallens,ithelpstoknowhowwell basicstatisticscanpredictwhathappensonasoccerpitch. Inthefirstchapterofabookcalled Mathletics,where WayneWinstonlooksathowmathisbeingusedinbaseball,football,andbasketball,hediscusseswhatiscalled “Baseball’sPythagoreanTheorem.”ItwascreatedbyBill James,oneofthemostinfluentialstatisticiansinAmericansportshistorywhosephilosophyguidedBillyBeane, thefamousgeneralmanageroftheOaklandAthleticswho takescenterstageinMichaelLewis’ Moneyball.Hesaid thattheapproximatewinningpercentageofabaseball teamcouldbefoundusingthisformula:

runsscored2

runsscored2 + runsallowed2

BillJamescalledthis“Baseball’sPythagoreanTheorem”becauseinarighttrianglewherewecallthehypotenuse c,andthetwosmallersides a and b,wegetthe famouspythagoreantheorem: a 2 +

BillJames’equationalsoaddsuptothesquaresof twonumbers,runsscoredandrunsallowed,whichiswhy hecoinedtheterm“Baseball’sPythagoreanTheorem” forthisequation.Healsosimplifiedthisfurther.Hedefinedthescoringratio(R)foreachteamas runsscored runsallowed .He

dividedthenumeratoranddenominatorofhisoriginal expressionbythesquareofrunsallowedandinthree steps,yougetaverynicesimpleexpression:

ThisisthefinalexpressionthatWinstonusesonthe 2006MajorLeagueBaseballseason,wherehehada MAD(MeanAverageDifference)ofabsoluteerrorbetweentheequationandtheteamsactualwinpercentageof 0 02,or 2%,meaningtheaverageabsoluteerrorbetween James’equationandtheteamsactualwinpercentage,was 0 02.Iwouldnotsay 2% becauseJames’equationgets usadecimalbetween 0 1,thatyes,canbeconverted intoapercentage,butit’seasiertojustfindateamswinningpercentagebydividingtheirwinsbytotalgames, andthatalsogetsyouadecimalbetween 0 1.Sothe MADisalsodefinedasadecimalbetween 0 1,rather thanapercentage.Iwasamazedabouthowaccuratethis equationwas,soIwonderedifitcouldbejustasaccurate forsoccer,andthiswouldhelptellmewhetherstatistics canactuallydoagoodjobatpredictingtheoutcomeofa soccerseason.

Soccer’sPythagoreanTheorem BillJamesStudy

Forthefirstpartofmystudy,IusedtheBillJames modeltopredictthewinningpercentagesofthetopfive leaguesinEurope:PremierLeague,LaLiga,Bundesliga, SerieA,andFrenchLigue1.However,Ialsolookedat howwellxGandxGAcanpredictthewinningpercentage oftheseteams.ThereisalsoanotherstatthatFootball Reference,whereallmydataforthisstudycomesfrom, recordscalledNon-PenaltyExpectedGoals(npxG)which isjustxGwiththeexpectedvalueofallthepenaltykicks ateamtooktakenoutfromthetotalxG.Apenaltykickin soccerhasanexpectedgoalvalueofabout 0.8.Dependingonhowmanypenaltiesateamhadduringaseason, theirnpxGcouldbesignificantlylessthantheirxGifthey hadalotofpenalties,oritcouldbethesameastheirxG iftheyhadnopenaltykicks.Sousinggoals(G),goals against(GA)expectedgoals(xG),expectedgoalsallowed (xGA),andnonpenaltyexpectedgoals(npxG),mythree expressionsare

notoutliers,soIdecidednotremovethisoutlierwhen runningthetestsbecauseIwasn’tremovingdatafrom thatentireseasonastheothertwoMAD’sforthatsame seasonwerenotoutliers.

Figure1:BoxPlotsofMADofG,xG,andnpxG

Iusedthesethreeexpressionsondatafromthepast fiveseasonstocomparetheteamsactualwinningpercentagesvs.thewinningpercentagespredictedbythese expressions.TheresultsareinTable1.RecallMeanAverageDifference,MAD,istheaveragedifferencebetween theactualwinningpercentageandthewinningpercentage predictedbytheexpressionsaboveforeveryteamineach league,throughoutfiveseasons.ThesmallertheMAD, theclosertheexpressionandtheteamstruewinpercentagewas.IwassurprisedtofindthatnpxGproducedthe smallestaverageMAD, 0 089.Thereisabiggaptothe averageMADofGoals(0 118),butamuchsmallergap fromGtoxG(0.112).Butistherestatisticallysignificant differenceinthemeansbetweenthesethreegroups?

StatisticalTests

Theanswertothatisyes,andthereareafewreasonswhy.IusedtwoANOVA(AnalysisofVariance, whichtellsyouwhetherthereisastatisticallysignificant differencebetweenmultiplemeans)Post-Hocmethods. Althoughmydatadoesnotcomefromasample,Ican stilluseANOVAbecauseIbelievethese5seasonsineach oftheleaguesarerepresentativeofwhatfutureseasons willlooklike.Inordertousethesemethodshowever, itisimportanttomakesurethedataisapproximately symmetricandtherearenooutliers.Figure1showsthree boxplotsthatIconstructedusingR(astatisticalprogramminglanguage).Lookingattheseboxplots,allthedata appearsapproximatelysymmetric,themedianappearsto beappropriatelycentered,andthereisnoclearskewness (meaningthereismoredataoneithersideofthemedian), butthereisoneoutlier,intheboxplotfornpxG.Thisdata pointcamefromthe2018/2019PremierLeagueseason, whichishighlightedingreeninTable2.Itiscleartosee whythisisanoutlierwhenthedatafromthisseasonwas belowanythingelseinthePremierLeague,aswellasthe overallaveragewhichyoucanseeinTable1,meaning thiswasjustanoddseasonwhereitwasverypredictable. Interestingly,theMADforGandxGforthisseasonwere

NowthatIhaveestablishedthattheconditionsfor thetestsaresatisfied,Isetupmynullandalternative hypothesis

H0 = ThereisnodifferenceinthemeansofG,xG,andnpxG

HA = ThereisadifferenceinthemeansofG,xG,andnpxG

Nowwithmytwohypotheses,Icanperformthestatisticaltests,thefirstbeingtheBonferroniCorrection.This testwilltellmethep-valuebetweenallthreegroups,and Iuseda 0.05 significancelevel,soifthep-valueisgreater than 0 05 wefailtorejectthenullhypothesis,meaning wedohaveevidencetosupportthenullhypothesis.Ifthe p-valuebetweentwogroupsislessthan 0.05,wereject thenullhypothesismeaningwehaveevidencetosupport thealternatehypothesis.Thep-valuesfromrunningthe testinRareshowninTable3.

Thereisaverysmallp-value,almost 0,betweennpxG andGoals,aswellasnpxGandxG,whichmeansthereis

Table1:WinMADofG,xG,andnpxGinEurope’s TopFiveLeagues

Table2:WinMADofG,xG,andnpxGintheEnglish PremierLeague

2.2Daboo,Oliver.ShouldSoccerBeAsDrivenByAnalyticsLikeManyAmericanSports?15

astatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenthemeanof npxGandthemeansofGandxG.SincethemeanofnpxG waslessthanGoalsandxG,ittellsusthereisstatistical evidencethatnpxGbetterpredictswinningpercentages thanGoalsandxG.However,thep-valuebetweenGoals andxGoalsismuchgreaterthan 0.05 sothereisnota statisticallysignificantdifferencetoconcludeGandxG betterpredictwinningpercentagesthantheother.

forGoals,xG,andnpxG.Inabaseballseason, 162 games areplayedsoforthe 2006 MLBseason,theexpression predictingwinningpercentageswasoffby

0 02 × 162 = 3 24games

ThesecondtestIranistheTukeyHSD(HonestlySignificantDifference).Thistestshowsusadjustedp-values, aswellasaconfidenceintervalshowinguspossiblevaluesofthedifferencebetweentwomeans.Youcanseethe resultsofthetestfromR,usinga 95% confidencelevel, inTable4.TheconfidencelevelbetweennpxG-Goals andxG-npxGdoesnotcontain0ontheirinterval’s,meaningIam 95% confidentthereisastatisticallysignificant differenceintheirmeans.So,justlikewefoundinthe BonferroniCorrection,thereisstatisticalevidencethat npxGbetterpredictswinningpercentagesthanGoalsand xG.However,theconfidenceintervalbetweenxGoalsGoalsdoescontain 0,meaningIam 95% confidentthat 0 isapossiblevalueforthedifferencebetweentheirmeans, sotherecouldbenodifferenceatall.Thistellsusthereis statisticallysignificantevidencethatthereisnodifference betweentheirmeansandthatonegroupdoesnotbetter predictwinningpercentagesthantheother.Thep-values showustheexactsamethingastheBonferroniCorrection,so,toconclude, npxGcanbetterpredictthewinning percentagesofsoccerteamsinEurope’stopfiveleagues thanGoalsandxG

Table4:TukeyHSDResults

WhySoccerisDifferent

DespitetheMAD’sforsoccerbeingmuchgreater comparedtothe 2006 MLBseason,itcanbeinterpreted differentlyifyoulookathowmanywinsbywhichthe modelwasactuallyoff.Tofindthis,youcanmultiplythe MAD’sfromeachleaguebythenumberofgamesthat wereplayedthatseasonintheleague.Fouroftheleagues play 38 games,exceptfortheBundesligawhichplays 34 games.Intable5,youcanseehowmanygamesthis modelwasoffbyineachleague,aswellastheaverage

YoucanseethatnpxGwasonlyoffbymarginally moregamescomparedtobaseball,butGoalsandxG wereoffbymorethan1game.Thismightshowthatthe modelisprettyclosetopredictingwinningpercentages forsoccerjustasaccuratelyasitdoesforbaseball.But, allthisreallytellsusisthatonegameinsoccerthroughoutthecourseofaleagueseasonisworthmorethanone MLBregularseasongame.Insoccer,teamsareawarded threepointsforawin,onepointforadraw(something Americansportsfansmayfindalarming),andnopoints foraloss.IntheEnglishPremierLeaguethereare 20 teams,andeachteamplayseachothertwice,oncehome andonceaway,foratotalof 38 gamesplayedbyeach team.Attheendoftheseason,thethreeteamswiththe lowestpointsarerelegated,meaningtheydropdowna leaguetotheEnglishChampionship.Withthiscomes hugefinanciallossduetotheincredibleviewershipand popularityofthePremierLeague.Clubslosemillionsin TVviewership,shirtsales,tickets,andavarietyofother merchandise.Inthe2018/2019season,the18thplaced team,CardiffCity,thelastteamtogetrelegated,finished with 34 points.The15thplacedteam,Burnley,finished on 40 points.ThenpxGmodelwasoffbyabout 3 games. Insoccer,havingadifferentresultinthreeofyourgames couldcostyouamaximumof 9 points.Inthecaseofthe 2018/2019PremierLeagueseason,that’sthedifference betweenfinishing15thandgettingrelegated.Soalthough theexpressionappearsmoreaccuratelookingatthisway ratherthantheMAD,that’sonlybecauseasoccergame carriesmuchmoreweightthanaMLBgame.Saythe PremierLeaguehad 162 games,meaningeachMLBand PremierLeaguegamematteredequally.IfthePremier Leaguepannedoutsimilarlyforanother 124 games,we couldexpectnpxGtobeoffbyabout 14 games,whichis 11moregamesthantheMLBmodel.

Winningpercentagesinsoccerarealsomuchless accurateintellinguswheretheteamactuallyfinished becauseamatchcanendinadraw.Inbaseball,theteam withthebetterwinningpercentagefinishedhigherinthe

Table3:BonferroniCorrectionResults

Table5:HowManyWinstheExpressionisOffBy

standings.GoingbacktothePremierLeague2018/2019 season,itwasveryinteresting,notonlyforthefactthis modeldidaverygoodjobofpredictingtheseason,but theraceforthetitlecamedowntothelastmatchday, whereManchesterCityeventuallybeatoutLiverpoolby asinglepoint.Itwasalsoincrediblyclosebetweenthe teamsdirectlybelowthetoptwo.Chelseahad21wins,8 draws,and9lossesforatotalof72pointsgoodenough forthirdthatseason.Tottenhamhad23wins,2draws, and13lossesfor71points,whichputthemfourth.Arsenalhad21wins,7draws,and10lossesfor70points whichagonizinglyputthemfifth,justonepointaway fromqualifyingfortheChampionsLeague,acompetition tofindthebestteaminEurope.Despitehavingfewer winsthanTottenham,andthesamenumberofwinsas Arsenal,Chelseastillfinishedabovebothofthembecause theyhadfewerlossesandmoredraws.Thisproveswinningpercentagedoesnottellusthefullstoryinsoccer, andwhythisexpressionisn’tsoaccurate.Idecidedto dosomethingaboutitandtrytofindawaytomakethis expressionbettersuitedtosoccer.

AdjustedWinPercentModel

Herenowisthepythagoreantheoremforsoccer.Becausethewinpercentagesinsoccerdonottrulyreflecta team’sperformance,Ilookedtochangethatareaofthe BillJamesmodel.IcreatedsomethingcalledAdjusted Win %.Itooktheteam’sactualwinpercentage,andmultiplieditbythenumberofdrawstheyhadthatseason tofindouthowmanyofthosedrawsthatteamwould beexpectedtowin.Ithenaddedthisnumbertotheir totalnumberofwinstoseehowmanywinswecould expectateamtogetifyoucouldnotdraw.Fromthis, Idividedthatbythenumberofgamesplayedtogeta team’sAdjustedWin %.IthenfoundthedifferencebetweenateamsAdjustedWinpercentageandthethree equationsIcitedearlier,tofindtheMADineachofthe fiveleaguesandseasons.Myresultsshowedthatusing thisAdjustedWin % makesBillJames’expressionmuch moreaccurate.Table6showsalltheresults.Youcan seetheaverageforG,xG,andnpxGaresignificantlyless comparedtotheactualwinpercentagemodel.Goalsalso haveamuchlowermeancomparedtoxGandnpxG,and whenIappliedthesamestatisticaltestsasIdidtothefirst model,Ifoundtherewasstatisticallysignificantevidence thatGoalsdoabetterjobatpredictingateamsAdjusted Win %.ItwasveryinterestingtoseethatxGhadthe largestaverageinbothofthemodelsIused,andasIsaid earlieritisaagreatwayoftellingpeoplewhoplayed better,whichyoungstartosign,andwhethersomeone shouldbettheoverortheunder,butitisactuallynotthe bestwaytopredicttheoutcomeofanentireseason.

Table6:AdjustedWinMADofG,xG,andnpxGin Europe’sTopFiveLeagues

Conclusion

AlthoughthisisthebestmodelIhavefoundforpredictinganentiresoccerseason,itisstillnotnearlyas usefulasitisforbaseball.Ibelievethatisduetothe greaterinfluenceofluckinsoccercomparedtobaseball. AsIstatedatthebeginning,soccerisabout 50 percent luck,andassomeonewhousedtoplaybaseball,andis stillafanofthesport,Iknowthereismuchlessluck involved.Sowithhowmuchluckthereisinsoccer,I wouldsaythattheseexpressionsdoareallygoodjobof predictinganentireseason.Thisshowsthatstatisticscan actuallybeusefulforteamstryingtofigureoutwhatplayerstobuyandsell,fanstoseeiftheirteamdeservedto winthegame,andgamblerstofigureoutwhatbetshave thebestvalue.Sodespitetherebeingmoreluckthana lotofAmericansports,analyticscanstillbejustasuseful fortheskillsideofthegame,andgaininganedgeover opponents.Analyticsalsoneedtobepresentedbetterand moreoftentosoccerfans.InNFLgames,youcanseelive dataonhowlikelyaplayerwastocatchaball,aswell astouchdownprobabilities.Onhomeruns,weseelive dataonexitvelocity,launchangle,andwhatballparksit would’vebeenahomerunin.Ithinkitwouldbegreat toseesomethingsimilarforsoccerbroadcasts.Broadcastersoftenshowstatisticssuchasshots,possession, andsavesbutusuallyonlyathalftimeorafterthefinal whistle.Ihopethatsoonwecouldstartseeingthelive xGofimportantshotsandgoalsthroughoutthematch, rightaftertheshotwastaken.Thiswouldcertainlybe astartincatchinguptotheamountofdatapresentedto viewersofAmericansportsandawayforanalyticsin soccertogrowasmoreandmorepeoplewilldiscover statisticslikexG.Sobecauseofhowwellstatisticscan predictanentireseason,andhowonlyabout 50% ofthe sportiscontrollable,analyticsareessentialtothefuture andgrowthofthesportsosoon,itcanbeasanalytically drivenasmostAmericansports.

Iwillnowleaveyouwithmyfavoritequotefromthe threebooksthatgreatlyinfluencedmywork;it’smyphilosophy,mymission,mypurposeforwantingtodothis project.“Wecannotcontrolchance.Wehavetoaccept thathalfthetimewhathappensoutthereonthepitchis notinourhands.Therestofsoccer,theother 50 percent,

References

[1] CAnderson. TheNumbersGame:WhyEverything YouKnowAboutSoccerIsWrong. URL: fbref. com (citedonpages13,17).

2.3Gordon,Thomas.,et.al.ApplyingStochasticProcessestoDecisionMaking17 though,isforeachteamtodetermine.Thatiswhatthe billion-dollarindustrythatsurroundstheworld’smost populargameisbuilttodo.Toturnadrawintoavictory, togleanasmanypointsaspossible,todenyfortuneas muchasweareable.Wecan’tallbelucky.Butwecan trytobegood”[1].

[2] JTippet. TheExpectedGoalsPhilosophy URL: fbref.com (citedonpages12,13).

2.3 ApplyingStochasticProcessestoDecisionMaking

NotefromtheEditors

Thispaperwasgrantedpermissiontoresideinthe SigmaAcademicJournalcourtesyofthePennsylvania Governor’sSchoolfortheSciences2022Journal.

Abstract

StochasticProcessescanbeappliedtomanydifferent fields,fromparticlephysicstofinanceinordertooptimizedecisionsbasedontheoutcomesofpreviously occurringevents.Inspiredbytheformatofweightliftingcompetitions,wecreatedasimplifiedcarnivalgame thatusedstochasticprocessestooptimizedecisionsin ordertoearnthehighestexpectedvalue[3].Thebasic formatofthegameinvolvedpickinga K valueonthe interval 0 to 1.Thenan X valuewillbeselectedfrom thesamedomain.Ifitisgreaterthanthe K value,you win K andifitisnot,youwinnothing.Inorderto maximizetheexpectedvalueofaround,(whichcanbe alternativelythoughtofasyour“winnings”)youhaveto multiplytheoptimizedgainsofthatround(equivalent tothebest K valueyoucanselect)timestheprobabilityofthatgiven K valueoccurring.Thesituationin whichyouonlyhavetopickone K inoneroundwas justdescribed,butwhatifthegameismorecomplex? Inthispaper,wewilllookatdifferentscenariosofthis game.Thesescenariosincludesituationswhereyou mustpickone,two,orthree K valuesbeforeyoubegin playing,picking K valuesasyouprogressthroughthe rounds,andafewothers.Wewillalsoshowhowto selectthebest K valuesineverygivensituationtomaximizethegame’sexpectedvalueandelaborateonother mathematicaltechniques(suchasNewton’sMethod) usedtofindthese K valuesandtheexpectedvaluethey produce.

Introduction

Astochasticprocessisaprocessinwhichcurrentdecisionsareoptimizedbasedoneventsofthepast[1].Inthis situation,asetofrandomvariablesonacommonprobabilityspaceisassociatedwiththevalueofthevariableat

previoustimes.Theseprocessestrackhowrandomphenomenachangethroughouttime.Theycanbeappliedtoa varietyofreal-worldsituationsfromgamblingandcarnivalgames,toevenparticlephysicsandfinance.Although thepreviouslymentionedapplicationsarecompellingin theirownway,theinspirationforthisprojectoriginated fromweightlifting.Inourweightliftingscenario,thereare avarietyofrulesthatmustbefollowed.First,eachparticipantwillberequiredtoliftthreeseparatetimes.Fortheir firstlift,theparticipantwillbeallowedtoselectadesired quantityofweight.Iftheyarenotabletolifttheweight, theywillreceivenopoints.However,iftheyareableto lifttheweight,thenumberofpointstheyreceivewillbe equivalenttothemassoftheweight.Inaddition,theywill berequiredtoliftasecondweightthatmustbeatleast asheavyasthefirstregardlessofwhethertheysucceeded orfailedtoliftthefirstweight.Iftheysucceedinlifting thesecondweight,theywillreceiveanumberofpoints equivalenttothemassofthesecondweight.Thisprocess willgoonupuntilthethirdweight.Thetotalamount ofpointsisequivalenttoonlytheheaviestweightlifted throughthegames[2].Ifyouapplystochasticprocesses tothissituation,thefollowingquestioncouldbeasked andanswered:whatistheoptimalamountofweightthe liftershouldstartwithtoearnthemaximumamountof points?[4].

Thissituationinspiredustoapplymathematicalmethodslikestochasticprocessestofindtheoptimalstrategy forsituationswithsimilarpremises,followingtherule thatyoucannotgolowerthanyourpreviouslychosen number.

Inordertoconceptualizethisproject,ourcalculations andscenarioswillbeembeddedintothesettingofahypotheticalgame.Thisgamewillmakeiteasiertocover differentscenariosandmakecomputations.

OurGame

Thishypotheticalgamewillhaveseveralvariations; however,someaspectswillstayconsistentthroughout.In everyvariant,theparticipantwillhavetheopportunity

ByThomasGordon,alongwithDevinBryant,JackHasker,RafaelQuinodoz,BenSparling,LilyannaStrocko, andKovidTandon

toselectoneorseveral K values.The K valuewillbe ontheinterval [0, 1].Then,an X valuewillbeselected uniformlyatrandomonthesameinterval(someversions ofthegamewillhaveseveral X values).Ifthe X valueis greaterthanthe K value,thenyouwin K,butifitisless, thenyouwinnothing.

Ineachscenario,wewillgenerateanexpectedgains equation(E[G] thatisdependentonthe K value(s). G representstheamountgainedattheendand E[G] representstheexpectedvalueofthegame.Theexpectedvalue isfoundbyaddingtwoquantities.Thefirstistheamount gainedwhenyouwinmultipliedbytheprobabilityofthat happeningandthesecondquantityistheamountgained whenyoulosetimestheprobabilityofthatoccurring. Goingbacktotheweightliftinganalogy,ifyoulifta weightthatis K units,thenyouwillwin K points,and theexpressionforthewinquantityis K(1 K).Thisis theformulaforthewinninghalfoftheexpectedvalue equationbecauseitisthegainsiftheweightwassuccessfullylifted(K)multipliedbytheprobabilityofsuccess (1 K).Theprobabilityofsuccessis (1 K) becauseit representsallvaluesgreaterthan K,whichareneededto win.Ifyoudonotlifttheweight,thenyouwinnothing, andtheexpressionforthelosequantityis 0 K = 0.The valueof 0 representsthepointsgainediftheweightis notsuccessfullylifted,andthevalueof K representsall valuesfrom 0 to K (probabilityoflosing),thevaluesfor whichthelifterloses.

Figure1.Thisisagraphicalrepresentationofan arbitrarilyselected K value(representedbythedark greenline).Iftheselected X isgreaterthanthe K,you winandthatprobabilityisrepresentedbythegreen area.Ifitisless,youloseandtheprobabilityisshown withthebluearea.

thatwillyieldthebestexpectedgainfortheplayer.In ordertofindthe K valuethatoptimizestheexpectedvalue equationineverysituation,wewillfirstdeducethe E[G] equation.Thenwewillsimplifyitandfindthederivative oftheequationintermsof K.Afterdifferentiating,we willsetthederivativeequaltozeroandsolvefor K.This willgiveusthevalueof K wherethegraphof E[G] isat itsmaximumorminimumvalue.Tofigureoutwhetherit isamaximaorminima,weusedthesecondderivativetest. Ifthesecondderivativeisnegative,thegraphisconcave downandthevalueisamaximum.Ifthesecondderivativeispositive,thegraphisconcaveupandthevalueisa minimum.Thevaluewefindinallofourgamescenarios willbetheoptimal K valueorthepointwherethegraph oftheexpectedvalueequationisatitsmaximum.Returningtotheweightlifterexample,themaximumwefind representsthevalueof K thattheparticipantshouldselect inagivensituationtomaximizetheirexpectedgainsfrom thegame.

Scenarios SituationsInvolvingPicking1 K Value

Thesituationsbelowarerepresentedbythenotation E[Gn] fortheexpectedvaluewherenrepresentsthenumberofroundsforeachsituationand Gn representsthe gain.

Foreachgamesituationcreated,thereisa K value

TheFirstSituation(Picking1 K Value,Random

X Selected,1Round)

Inthisgame,wecanchooseanyvalueontheinterval on [0, 1];thenumberthatwechoosewillbedenotedas K Arandomnumberisthenrandomlyselecteduniformly withinthesameinterval.Thisrandomnumberwillbe denotedas X .Iftheselectedvalue K islessthanthe randomlyselectedvalue X ,then K isearned.

Theexpectedvalueshowstheaverageamountaplayer wouldwiniftheyplayedthegameoverandoveragain.To findtheformulaforexpectedvalue,wetaketheearnings ifthegameiswon, K,andmultiplythisbythechancesof winning, 1 K.Wewouldthentakethevalueoflosing thegame, 0,andmultiplythisbythechancesoflosing, K.Whenthesetwoquantitiesareaddedtogether,itresultsintheexpectedvalueformulaforthissituation.The expectedvalueformulathatwegeneratecanbeusedto findtheoptimalvalueof K thatcanthenbesubstituted backintotheexpectedvalueformulatomaximizethe expectedvalue.Thisisdonebyrewritingtheexpected valueequationasafunctionof K,findingthederivative ofthisfunction,andsettingitequalto 0.Thevaluewhere thederivativeequals 0,willbetheoptimal K valueto chooseinordertomaximizetheexpectedvalueofthe game.

Thefigureshownbelow(Figure2)assistedusin findingtheexpectedvalueequationforthissituation.We

2.3Gordon,Thomas.,et.al.ApplyingStochasticProcessestoDecisionMaking19

willuse G1 todenotethegainfortheinitialpick,which inthisgame,willbethevalue K ifthegameiswonand zeroofthegameislost.Wewilluse P(W ) torepresent theprobabilityofwinning,and P(L) torepresentthe probabilityoflosingthisround.

Figure2.Treeshowingallofthepossiblepathswith 1 K valueand 1 X value

thispointisamaximum,making 1 2 thebestvaluefor K.

Nowthatthevalueof K whichyieldsthemaximumexpectedvaluehasbeencalculated,wecanfindthemaximumexpectedvalueforoneroundbyreplacing K with thevalueof 1 2 inthefunction E[G1]: E[G1]= 1 2 1 1 2 E[G1]= 1 4

Hence,themaximumexpectedvaluewhen K = 1 2 ina singleroundgameis 1 4

Thecomputationfortheexpectedvalueisexpressedin thefollowingequation:

E[G1]= K · (1 K)+ 0 · K

Bysimplifyingthisequationandcalculatingthederivativeoftheexpression,wecanfindthevalueof K that wouldyieldthehighestexpectedvalue:

E[G1]= K (1 K)+ 0 K

= K(1 K)

= K K2

Now,let f (K)= K K2 andtakethederivative:

f (K)= K K2

f ′(K)= 1 2K .

Setthederivativeequalto0andsolvefor K tomaximize thefunction f (K):

0 = 1 2K

K = 1 2 .

Thisshowsthatselectingthevalue K toequal 1 2 would yieldthehighestresultfortheexpectedvalueinthe one-roundgamewhereone K valueisselected.

Thesecondderivativeteston f (K) canbeusedtoprove that 1 2 isindeedtheoptimalvaluefor K.Thegraphof f (K) isconcavedownbecausewefoundthesecond derivativetobenegative.Becauseitisconcavedown,

TheSecondSituation(Picking 1 K Value, 2 Random X ValuesSelected, 2 Rounds)Thissituationissimilarto thefirst,butitentailstheadditionofonemoreround.Insteadofonerandom X valuebeinggenerated,tworandom X valuesaregenerated; X1 representingthefirstround and X2 representingthesecondround.Onceagain,we canchooseanyvalueontheinterval [0, 1] tobeour K value,andthatwillbeour K valueforbothoftherounds. P representstheprobabilityofaneventhappening.

Inthefirstround,the X1 valuewillberevealed.If our K isgreaterthanthe X value,thenweloseandgain nothing.Ifour K valueislessthanorequaltothe X1 value,thenwegain K.Wecanonlywinthevalue K once, soevenifbothroundsarewon,thevalue K isonlygained once.Toyieldthebestoutcomewithasingular K value, onlyonewinisnecessary.Ifthefirstroundiswon,itwill continueontothewinningnodeinFigure3.Ifthefirst roundislost,itwillcontinueontothelosingnodeofthe treeinFigure3.

Inthesecondround,wewillmaintainthesame K valuethatwasselectedatthebeginning,regardlessofthe resultofthefirstround.Ifweareinthewinnode,regardlessofwhatthevalueof X2 is,wewillgain K because thefirstroundwaswon.Ifweareinthelosingnodebecausewelostthefirstround-weessentiallyhavea secondchancetowin K.Ifthesecond X valueisgreater thanorequalto K,thenwewin K.If X islessthan K, thenweendthegamewithoutanywinningsbecauseboth roundswerelost.

Inthisversionofthegame,wewilluseasimilar processdescribedintheinitialsituation,withappropriateadjustmentstoaccountforthetwo X valuesortwo roundsofthegame.Inordertofindthevalueof K that wouldmaximizetheexpectedgain,wecanaddtheexpectedgainsforallfourpathsofthetreeshowninFigure 3.Eachexpectedgainisobtainedbymultiplyingthe amountgained(K or 0)timestheprobabilityofgaining thatamount.Torepresentthisgame,wewilldenotethe expectedvalueE[G2],using G2 insteadof G1 becausethe numberintheexponentrepresentsthenumberofrounds:

Torepresentthedifferentpathsthatmaybefollowed onthetreeillustratedinFigure3,thesequenceofwins andlossesleadinguptotheroundcanbedenotedinparenthesis.Thisisimportantbecausedependingontheseries ofwinsandloses,therewillbeadifferentamountgained attheendofthegame,anddifferentprobabilitiesoffollowingeachdifferentpath.Forexample,(WL)represents winningthefirstroundandlosingthesecondround.

Thefirstpath,whichisdenotedas(WW),iswhere thefirsttworoundsarewon.Tofindtheexpressionto representthispath,wewillfirstmultiply K,thevalue gainedfromwinningaround,by 1 K (thechancesof winninguptothefirstlayer)and 1 K again(thechances ofwinningfromthefirstlayertothesecondlayer).The firstpathwillthereforeberepresentedbytheexpression K(1 K)(1 K)

Thesecondpath(WL)involveswinningthefirst roundandlosingthesecondone.Therefore,wewill multiply K,thevaluegainedfromwinningaround,by 1 K (thechancesofwinninguptothefirstlayer)and K (thechancesoflosingtheroundfromthefirsttothesecondlayer).Thispathwillberepresentedby K(1 K)(K) intheexpectedvalueequation.

Thethirdpathisdenotedas(LW)anditisthesituation wherewelosethefirstroundandwinthesecond.This meanswewillmultiply K,thevaluegainedfromwinning around,by K (thechancesoflosingtheroundfromthe firsttothesecondlayer)and 1 K (thechancesofwinningfromthefirsttothesecondlayer).Thethirdpath’s componentintheexpectedvalueequationis K(K)(1 K), whichisthesameasthesecondpath.

Lastlyisthefourthpath(LL)whichinvolveslosing bothrounds.Theexpressiontorepresentthispathis foundbymultiplying 0,thevaluegainedfromlosinga round,by K (thechancesoflosingtheroundfromthe initiallayertothefirstlayer)and K (thechancesoflosing theroundfromthefirsttothesecondlayer).Thefourth pathiswrittenas (0)(K)(K),whichthensimplifiesto0.

Wheneachpathisaddedtogether,theexpectedvalue equationforthissituationisthefollowing:

Bysimplifyingtheexpectedvalueequation,calculating thederivativeoftheexpression,andsettingitequalto zero,wecanfindthevalueof K thatwouldyieldthe highestexpectedvalue,whichistheoptimal K.First,we simplifytheexpectedvalueequation:

Weset

Figure3.Treeshowingallofthepossiblepathswith 1 K valueand 2 X values

2.3Gordon,Thomas.,et.al.ApplyingStochasticProcessestoDecisionMaking21

Theabovecalculationsshowthatchoosinga K value of 1 3 ≈ 0.577 wouldyieldthehighestexpectedvalue inearningsfromthisversionofthegame.Thisanswer deviatesfromtheinitialsituationbecausetherearetwo rounds,sothereisanadditionalopportunitytowin,resultinginahigheroptimal K value.

Thehigheroptimal K valuemeansthetotalearnings willbehigherifthegameiswon,andtheprobability ofwinning K inonerounddecreases.However,having tworoundscompensatesforthisdecreasedprobability becausetherearetwochancestowin K (whichraisesthe probabilityofwinning K bytheendofthegame).

Withthiscalculated K value,wecanfindthemaximumexpectedvaluebyreplacing K inourequationwith 1 3

Thefirst 2 roundsremainunchangedfromthesecond game,andourthirdroundconsistsofanadditionalwin andlosebranchoneachofthenodesinRound 2.Each paththatconsistsofatleastonewinnodewillresultin earningthevalue K because K canonlybewononce.The paththatconsistsoflosingeverysingleroundwillresult inearning 0.Therefore,everypathotherthan(LLL)will resultingaining K,asshowninFigure4.

Theexpectedvalueofthisgamecanbeshownas thevalueoftheresultofeachendnodemultipliedby theprobabilityofearningtheresult.Thefollowingtree (labeledasFigure4)canbeusedtocreatetheexpected valueequationofthisthree-roundgame.

Figure4.Treeshowingallofthepossiblepathswith 1 K valueand 3 X values

Hence,themaximumexpectedvaluehappenswhen

K = 1 3 .Theexpectedvalueis 2 3√3 ≈ 0 385.

TheThirdSituation(Picking 1 K Value, 3 Random X ValuesSelected,3Rounds)

Thedifferencebetweenthisversionofthegameand thepreviousversionisthatthereisanother X valuechosen,sothereisonemoreround.Thisexpandsourgame fromtworoundstothree.One K valueischosenatthe beginningofthegameontheinterval [0, 1],andthatvalue isusedforallthreerounds.Thefirstrandomvariablewill bedenotedas X1,thesecondwillbedenotedas X2,and thethirdwillbe X3.Thesubscriptrepresentstheround numberbeingplayed.

Theexpectedvalueequationisthissituationismore complexthantheprevioustwosituations.Theequation nowbecomestheexpectedvalueofspecifically G3 becausetherearethreeroundsinthisvariation.Theexpectedvalueequationisshownbelow.

Bysimplifyingthisequationandcalculatingthederivativeoftheexpression,wecanfindthevalueof K that wouldyieldthehighestexpectedvalue:

f ′(K)= 1 4K3 .

Finally,wesetthederivativeequaltozerotofindthe optimal K value:

E[G2]= K K3.InSituation3wegotanexpectedvalue equationof E[G3]= K K4

Aclearpatternispresentinthesesituations.Asthe numberofroundsplayed, n,increasesbyone,theexponentonthesecond K termintheequationdoesas well.Therefore,thenumberintheexponentisalways onegreaterthanthenumberofrounds, n inthissituation. Infact,thispatterncontinuesforallnasproveninthe combinatorialproofbelow.

Thecalculationaboveshowsthatwhen K = 3 1 4 (≈ 0 630),theexpectedvalueequationisatitsmaximum. Thisfollowsthepatternobservedintheprevioussituation wherethevalueof K increasesasthenumberofrounds grows.

Withthiscalculatedvalueof K,wecanfindthemaximum expectedvaluebyreplacing

Proposition: Wehave, E[Gn]= K Kn+1

Proof: First,wewillshowthat

[Gn]= K n ∑ i=0

n i Ki(1 K)n i Kn+1

When n roundsofthegameareplayed,thereare n i ways tolose i roundsandwin n i rounds,withprobability K oflosingeachroundandprobability (1 K) ofwinning eachround.

Ifatleastoneroundofthegameiswon,thereisagainof K,whileifalltheroundsarelost,thereisagainof0. Thus,thetotalexpectedvaluecanbewrittenas

Therefore,

Thisequationisveryimportantbecausewhenwedifferentiateit,setthederivativeequaltozero,andsolvefor K, wecanfindtheoptimalsingular K valueforanyamount ofroundsor X valueschosen.

Hence,when

630,themaximumexpected valueinthissituationis

0 472.

SynthesizingtheInitialSituation,theSecondSituation, andtheThirdSituation

Situations 1 through 3 allfollowadistinctpattern. Ineachsituation,youarekeepingalloftheparameters constant,asidefromtheadditionofan X value,which canbealternativelythoughtofasanadditionallayerto thetree.Intheinitialsituation,wefoundasimplified expectedvalueequationof E[G1]= K K2.InSituation2,wefoundasimplifiedexpectedvalueequationof

Thisprocessisshownbelow:

[Gn]= K Kn+1

Tofindthehighestexpectedvalueofthisexpression,let f (K)= K Kn+1

n+1

Wethentakethederivativeof

2.3Gordon,Thomas.,et.al.ApplyingStochasticProcessestoDecisionMaking23

FurtherReading

Theequationabovecanbeusedtofindtheoptimal K valueforanynumberofrounds, n,orthenumberofselected X valuesinagame.Byfindingthelimitofthis equationasthenumberofrounds,ninthegameincreases, wecandiscoverthetrendoftheoptimal K value.The limitofthisexpressionissolvedbelow:

Thecompleteversionofthispaperanalyzestwoadditionalversionsofthis“game”.Thefirstentailsbeing abletopickmorethanone K valueatthebeginning.The secondinvolvesselecting K valuesbasedontheresults ofpreviousrounds;inotherwords,youselect K values astheroundsprogress.Astheroundsbecomemorecomplex,sodoesthedifferentiation.Asaresult,weused Newton’sMethodandcomputationaltools-especiallyin thesecondofthetwoadditionalsituations-toobtainthe optimal K value.Aconclusionisalsoincludedthatties allthreeversionsofthegameandthetechniquesusedto solvethemtogether.Theentirepapercanbefoundat thislink(continuationstartingonpage12):

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1jeUeui 7ja0qy2-Q8_ASTZpj2NXwr8YUFniYQSZPCXbk/edit? usp=sharing

Acknowledgements

Wewouldfirstliketothankeverymemberofthe PGSSprogramstaff,PGSSalumniassociation,andthe PGSSFoundationforputtingincountlesshourstoplan thisprogramandfortheirfunding.Weareimmensely gratefultohavethisopportunity.Wewouldalsoliketo thankDr.BarryLuokkalaforprovidinguswiththeopportunitytocometogetherandlearn,Dr.DavidHandronfor assistingusinourinspiration,research,presentation,and paper,andJustineDellforbeingourguideandmentor increatingapresentationandreportonmathematics.In addition,wewouldliketothankourfriendsandfamily forcreatinganenvironmentwhereweareencouragedto applyandcompletethisprogramtothebestofourabilities.Wecouldnothavecompletedthisresearchwithout anyofyou.

References

[1] F.Baudoin. StochasticProcesses-anoverview 2010. URL: https://www.sciencedirect. com/topics/n%20euroscience/stochasticprocesses (citedonpage17).

[2] E.Goodman. Weightlifting101:Rules.Paris2024 OlympicGames. Oct.2021. URL: https://www. nbcolympics.com/news/weigh%20tlifting101-rules (citedonpage17).

Thisprovesthatasthenumberofroundsbeingplayed increaseswithoutbound,(or X valuesselected)thevalue of K thatshouldbeselectedtomaximizeyourexpected gainswillapproach1.

Thisvaluemakessense,becausesinceyoucanonly winonce,avalueof K closertoonewillresultinabetter gain,andasmoreroundsareplayed,theprobabilityof winningthathighervalue K increases.

[3] W.Kenton. ExpectedValue(EV). Mar.2022. URL: hhttps://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/ %20expected-value.asp (citedonpage17).

[4] J.Russell. Mathematicalmodelingofattemptselection:JeffRussell. Jan.2019. URL: hhttps: //startingstrength.com/article/ %20mathematical-modeling-of-attemptselec%20tion (citedonpage17).

2.4 TheGoldenRatio ByVivianLoh

Abstract

TheGoldenRatioisoneofthemostinterestingand mostbeautifulnumbersinmath.Atranscendentaldecimalapproximatelyequalto 1 618,thisisamagical numberwhichshowsupallovermath–andnature. Someofitsmoremathematicalpropertiesarethatit’s theonlypositivenumbertobeexactlyonemorethanits reciprocal,andthatitcanbefoundintheFibonaccisequence.Amoreartisticpropertyisthatitcanbefound hidinginthespiralofacephalopodshell[3].Andit hasmanymoreintriguingpropertiestoo,suchasthat it’sapproximatelytheratiobetweenournavelstothe floorandourheadstoournavels.There’ssomuchto unpackbehindthegoldenratio!

MathematicalBackground History

Thegoldenratioisoftendenotedas ϕ inmath,which isthegreekletter"phi".Itwasfirstdiscoveredbythe GermanastronomerMichaelMästlin,whowroteaboutit inalettertohisformerstudentKepler[5].

TheGoldenRectangle

Thegoldenratioisverymuchtiedtoproportions–probablythemostimportantandmostwell-knownpropertyofitisthat ϕ isexactlyonemorethanitsreciprocal. Thinkingaboutthatinageometricsense,therectangle withsidesintheratio 1: ϕ ,alsoknownasthe golden rectangle,hasthepropertythatifthelargestpossible squareisslicedofffromit,theremainingrectangleis simplyasmallerversionoftheoriginalrectangle.

GoldenSpirals

Iftheaforementionedprocessisrepeated–smaller andsmallersquaresareslicedoffastherectanglegets smallerandsmaller–,and 90◦ arcsaredrawnineachof thesliced-offsquares,thefamous Fibonaccispiral isobtained.Thisspiralissignificantbecauseitactuallymodels theinsideoftheshellsofmanysea-dwellingorganisms!

Figure1:TheGoldenRectangle

Figure2:TheFibonacciSpiral

2.4Loh,Vivian.TheGoldenRatio25

CalculatinganExactForm

Itwouldbenicetohaveanexplicitvaluefor ϕ .Althoughit’saprettyugly-lookingdecimal, ϕ actuallyhappenstoequalarathernice-lookingmathematicalexpression, 1 + √5

2 .Toderivethis,allwehavetodoissolve theequation

ϕ = 1 + 1 ϕ

for ϕ .Rearranging,weget

ϕ 2 = ϕ + 1 or

TheFibonacciSequence,AndInduction

Onemayask,whyisitcalledthe Fibonacci spiral?

Thisisbecausethegoldenratio ϕ happenstoalsobe approximatelytheratiobetweentwoconsecutivetermsof the Fibonaccisequence,whichisthesequencestarting with

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,...

whereeverysuccessivetermisthesumoftheprevious twoterms.Asonegoesfartherandfartherdownthe Fibonaccisequence,theratiobetweentwoconsecutive terms–whichstarts

2 1 , 3 2 , 5 3 ,...

approaches ϕ .Andthismakessensemathematically, becauseiftwoconsecutiveterms Fx and Fx+1 oftheFibonaccisequencehavearatioapproximatelyequalto ϕ , thenwecansaythat

Fx+1 Fx = ϕ

=⇒ Fx+1 = ϕ · Fx

TherulesoftheFibonaccisequencethentellusthat

Fx+2 =(1 + ϕ ) Fx ,

hencetheratiobetween Fx+1 and Fx+2 is

1 + ϕ ϕ = 1 + 1 ϕ

whichweknowbydefinitionisequalto ϕ .Andso, inductively,theratiobetweenconsecutivetermsofthe Fibonaccisequenceapproaches ϕ !

ϕ 2 ϕ 1 = 0 whichissimplyaquadratic,andsolvingthisgivesus thepositivesolution 1 + √5 2 .Itmaymakesense,then, thattheexplicit(non-recursive)formulafortheFibonacci sequenceis

ABitofGeometry

Thisbringsustoperhapsthemostcoolgeometric propertyofthegoldenratio,atleastinmyopinion.The goldenratioisequaltoadiagonalofaregularpentagon dividedbyoneofitssides,orequivalently 2cos36◦ bya littlebitoftrigonometry.

Figure4:RatioBetweenaSideandaDiagonal

Thisisanawfullysurprisingfact,butifwelook closely,theexplanationisplainasday.Supposetheside lengthoftheregularpentagonis 1;thenallofitssides

Figure3:TheFibonacciSpiralinaNautilusShell[7].

havelength 1.Thefactthatit’s regular isimportant,becausethismeansthatthepentagonisperfectlysymmetric. Nowifwelookcarefullyatthediagramthereareaton ofisoscelestriangles,manyofwhicharesimilartoeach other.Inparticular,theredandbluehighlightedtriangles herearesimilartoeachother,andarealsobothisosceles.

Thismeansthattheotheryellowmarkedsegmentalso haslength 1.Andbecausethesetwotrianglesaresimilarandisosceles,wecansaythateachofthemhastheir longersidesequalto x timestheirshortestside,forthe samevalueof x.Thenthesmallersimilartrianglehas sidesoflength 1 x , 1, 1

whilethelargerofthetwohassidesoflength 1, x, x.And nowweseethatthehighlighteddiagonal,whichhas length x sinceit’sthelongersideofthelargersimilar triangle,isequalto1plusthesmallersideofthesmaller similartrianglewhichequals 1 x ,yieldingtheequation

So, x mustequal ϕ ,implyingthattheratioofadiagonaltoasideineveryregularpolygonis,indeed,the goldenratio.

CoolFacts

Givenhowmanycooloccurrencesthegoldenratio hasinmath(andthisisnotevenclosetoallofthem), onemightexpectthatitshowsupinnaturetoo–which itdoes!Mostflowershaveanumberofpetalsequalto atermoftheFibonaccisequence– 2, 3, 5, 8,andsoon–andinmanyplants,theleavesorpetalsarearrangedina spiral-likeformationresemblingtheFibonaccispiralas seeninFig.7.

whichlooksfamiliar!

Thegoldenratioshowsupinthehumanbody,too–thehumanskullhasdimensionsinthegoldenratio[2], andthelengthofaforearmdividedbythelengthofa handalsohappenstobethegoldenratio[1].

Figure5:SimilarIsoscelesTriangles

Figure6:AssigningLengthsintheCorrectRatio

Figure7:GoldenRatiopatterninplantleaves[6]

2.5Simhan,JayandTomokiyo,Tadao.TheSnowplowProblem27

Thegoldenratioalsohappenstobeaestheticallypleasing,astheAncientGreekstookadvantageofwhenconstructingfamousbuildingssuchastheParthenon.The goldenratioisknowntobepleasingtotheeyeandcan befoundinmanyfamousartworks.

Conclusion

Therearesomanysubtleandinterestingpatternsin nature,andmanyofthemcanbeexplainedwithmath! Thesameconceptcanbespottedallovertheworldin themostdifferentofplaces.Notonlydoesitshowupin nature,theGoldenRatioisusedinarchitectureandengineering.Designersandarchitectsusethegoldenratioto createvisuallyappealingbuildingsandpiecesofart,and musiciansuseittootocreatepleasant-soundingpieces. Forexample,theGoldenRatiocanbefoundintheNotre DameinParis,theUNHeadquartersinNewYork,andin thedimensionsofthetreasured18th-centuryStradivarius violins,becauseitisknowntobepleasingtothehuman eye[4].Thoughsomanyofitscoolpropertieshavealreadybeendiscovered,thegoldenratio ϕ willremaina mysteriousandoddlybeautifulnumberinmathematics. Thenexttimeyouseearectangle,stopandtakeasecond looktoseeifitmightbegolden!

References

[1] CBudd. Mythsofmaths:Thegoldenratio.Feb. 2010. URL: https://plus.maths.org/

2.5 TheSnowplowProblem

ByJaySimhanandTadaoTomokiyo

Abstract

Haveyoueverbeendoingyourworkandthensuddenly noticesnowfallingoutsideofyourwindow?Youmight wonder, wheredidthatcomefrom?Therewasnosnow before! Andthen,youstarttowonderwhenthesnow actuallystartedfalling.Well,ifyouseeasnowplow cleaninguptheroad,watchitclosely!Combinedwith thepowerofdifferentialequations,youmaybeableto determinewhenthesnowfallbegan!

Question

Onedayitstartedsnowingataheavyandsteadyrate. Asnowplowstartedoutatnoon,going2milesthefirst hourand1milethesecondhour.Whattimediditstart snowing[1]?

Implementation

Differentialequationsisourfriendinthisproblem!If weknowthattherateofsnowfallisconstant,thatthere

content/myths-m%20aths-golden-ratio (citedonpage26).

[2] GoldenRatioObservedInHumanSkulls.Oct. 2019. URL: https://www.hopkinsmedicine. org/news/n%20ewsroom/news-releases/ golden-ratio-obs%20erved-in-humanskulls (citedonpage26).

[3] PHorsley. TheGoldenRatioinNature. URL: https://animalthoughts.com/the-goldenr%20atio-in-nature (citedonpage24).

[4] GMeisner. GoldenRatioOverview.July2015. URL: https://www.goldennumber.net/ golden-ra%20tio/ (citedonpage27).

[5] J.J.O’ConnorandE.F.Robertson. TheGoldenratio.July2001. URL: https://mathshistory. st-andrews.ac.uk/%20HistTopics/ Golden_ratio/ (citedonpage24).

[6] A.M.Pop. WhatIstheGoldenRatioandHow toUseItinGraphicDesign.Nov.2021. URL: https://www.creatopy.com/blog/goldenr%20atio-in-graphic-design/ (citedon page26).

[7] MSchneider. FibonacciSequence.Dec.2016. URL: https://blogs.glowscotland.org. uk/glow%20blogs/uodhoperamage1/2016/ 12/03/fibona%20cci-sequence/ (citedon page25).

wasnosnowontheroadbeforetime b0 whenitstarted snowing,andthatthesnowplowclearsaconstantamount ofsnow,wecanactuallyusethebelowvariablestoform anequationwhichcanbeseparatedandintegratedto determinewhattimeitstartedsnowing!

Variables

t =timeafternoon(hours)

x(t) =distancethesnowplowhastraveled(miles)

h(t) =heightofthesnow(inches)

b =timebeforenoonwhenitstartedsnowing(hours)

k1 =rateofsnowfall(inchesperhour)

Calculations

Theamountoftimethatithasbeensnowingisthe amountoftimethatithadbeensnowingbeforenoonplus theamountoftimeafternoon.Therefore,itcanberepresentedas b + t.Theheightofthesnowisthen b + t multipliedbytherateofsnowfall k1.Thismeanswehave

equation h(t)= k1(t + b) (1)

If x(t) isthedistancethatthesnowplowhastraveled, x′(t) istherateofthesnowplow(ininches/minute).As theheightofthesnowincreases,thesnowplowwould naturallymoveslower,whichmeans x′(t) isinverselyproportionalto h(t).Usingtheproportionalityconstant k2, wecansaythat

x ′(t)= k2 h(t)

Substituting(1),weget

x ′(t)= k2 k1(t + b)

Let k1 k2 = k3 sothatweget

x ′(t)= k3 (t + b)

Thiscanbereorganizedintotheformofaseparabledifferentialequation,whichwecanthenintegrateandsolve:

dx = k3 (t + b) dt

dx = k3 (t + b) dt

x(t)= k3 ln(t + b)+ c1

Aftersolvingforanimplicitsolution,wecanthenuse ourinitialconditionstodetermineanexplicitsolutionto thepromptgiven.Weknowthatthesnowplowtravels2 milesinthefirsthour,whichcanbewrittenas x(1)= 2 or,moreclearly, x(1) x(0)= 2.Thus,

2 = k3 ln(1 + b) k3 ln(0 + b)

Wecanthenmultiplytheright-handsideof(3)bythe right-handsideof(2)andsetitequaltotheright-hand sideof(2):

Usingbasicalgebra,wecanmanipulate(4)togetthe polynomial

+

1 = 0

Thisisinthecorrectformtousethequadraticformula, where a = 1, b = 1,and c = 1.Solvingthequadratic formulagivesus b = 0.618 or b = 1.618.Wewantthe positivevaluebecausewearelookingforthe b,whichis theamountofhoursbeforenoon(negativevalueswould signifyhoursafternoon).Thismeansthatthesnowbeganfalling 0 618 hoursbeforenoon,whichisabout37 minutes.Finally,wecansaythatthesnowstartedfalling at11:23,37minutesbeforenoon!

DiscussionandConclusion

and

2 = k3 ln 1 + b b (2)

Then,weusethesecondpartoftheinitialconditions giventous,whichisthatthesnowplowtraveled1milein thesecondhour.Inotherwords, x(2) x(1)= 1.Thus, 1 = k3 ln(2 + b) k3 ln(1 + b)

and

Whileusingaseparabledifferentialequationtodeterminethestarttimeofsnowfallmightseemirrelevant andimpractical,wecanuseanequationsuchasthisone todeterminemanydifferentfactorssurroundingsnowfall andsnowplowefficiencyinclearingthestreets.Withdifferentknowledgeaboutthesnow,suchasthetimethatthe snowfallbegan,theheightofthesnowatacertaintime,or therateofthesnowfall,wecansolveforothervariables andvaluestomakeourliveseasierinunderstandinghow clearthestreetwillbewhenweleaveforwork,orwhat timethesnowwillbecompletelycleared.Additionally, separableequationscansolvemodelsofsimilarinstances, suchaspoolcleaning(ifthepoolfillsataconstantrate andthewateriscleanedevery20minutes,howwhen willallofthepoolwaterbefullyclean?)orrainbarrel waterfiltration(ifrainwaterentersthebarrelataconstantrateandfilteredwaterleavesatadifferentrate,after 2hours,howmuchfilteredwaterwillbeavailablefor use?).Whiletheuseofdifferentialequationsmightnot beobviousinmanycontexts,fundamentalsofthefield suchasseparabledifferentialsprovetobeveryhelpful indeterminingvariablessuchastime,height,orratein commonsituations.

3.CulturalAnalysis

SectionHeaderbyHannahHammons’25.

3.1 Nachthexen:TheNightWitchesofWWII

ByHannahHammons

Abstract

TheinstitutionoftheFemalepilotbrigadesintheRed ArmyduringWorldWarIIsignificantlychangedthe SovietArmy’sattitudetowardsgenderrolesaswellas influencedtheoutcomeofWorldWarII.Afterafour yearstruggleinWWIIagainsttheGermans,Russiawas leftwithmeagerresourcesandindesperateneedfor moresoldiersandstaffingintheRedArmy.OnOctober 8,1941,Stalindeployedthefemalebrigadeairforce unitsforthefirsttime,resultingintheSovietUnionto bethefirstnationtoofficiallyallowwomentoservein combat.Thefemaleairbrigadethatgainedthemost respectoverthecourseofthefightwithGermanyduringOperationBarbarossawasnamedthe588thNight BomberRegiment.Thefemaleairbattalionscompleted

over30,000missions,andeachindividualpilotcompletedaround800missions.TheyweregiventheirsignaturenameNachthexenor“NightWitches”because whentheplaneswouldidleatnight,theywouldmake asoundlikeabroomsweepingtheground.TheSovietUnionwashesitanttooriginallyallowwomento serveintheRedArmy,butthenecessityfortroopsand soldiersduringthewarallowedtheCommunistideals tobeshiftedslightlytoallowforthesocialequality thatwasneededtoachievetheirgoalsinthewar.This socialequality,whichwasonlyacceptedbecauseof necessity,allowedwomentoserveasfighterpilots,and theNightWitchestobecomeoneofthemostfeared militaryforcesduringWorldWarII.

Inthesummerof1941,GermanylaunchedOperation

Barbarossa,asurpriseinvasionoftheSovietUnion,on theEasternbordersofRussia,leadingtoa4-yearstruggleinWWIIthatultimatelydeterminedmuchofthefate ofthewar.TheRedArmyhadalreadyincurredmany casualties,“bytheendof1941,theSovietmilitaryhad suffered4.3millioncasualtiesandtheGermanshadcaptured3millionSovietprisoners,2millionofwhomdied inGermancaptivitybyFebruary1942”[2].ThecasualtiesofsoldiersintheRedArmyinthebeginningofthe warcombinedwiththesurpriseattackofthisNazioperationlefttheSovietUnionwithlimitedresourcesandno choicebuttorecruitmoresoldiersintotheSovietArmy. Asalastresort,theRedArmylookedtorecruitwomento importantsupportjobstoallowmorementofightonthe frontlines.Manywomenjumpedontheopportunityand appliedtobeinthefrontlinesoutofpatriotism,while otherwomenwerehappytoberecruitedforthesupport jobsoutofeconomicnecessity.Theimplementationof theall-femalemilitarybrigades,suchasthe1stWomens’ RifleRegimentsandtheWomen’sRifleBrigade,were originallyagreeduponbytheGeneralSecretaryofthe CommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion,JosephStalin,asa waytosatisfythewomen’simpulsivenesstotakeuparms anddefendtheSovietUnion,inadditiontotheneedfor agreaternumberofmembersenlistedinthemilitaryto combatthethreatofGermanyonRussianborders.Discountingthemistreatmentofthesewomenwhileserving intheRedArmy,thishesitantadmissionofthewomenin theSovietArmybecameasubstantialadvancementfor feminismallovertheworld,andtheimpactofmodern warfarecatalyzedchangesinboththeSovietattitudes towardswomenandgenderrolesshapedbyCommunism.

Theformationoftheseriflebrigadeswerepushed, primarily,bytheoutcryofmanywomenandothercitizens,whichledtomultiplemasswavesofenlistinginto theRedArmythroughoutthebeginningofthewar.The firstmasswaveoccurredin1941,whichwaspromotedto thepopulusasbeingapatrioticwarthatwoulddetermine thestateoftheSovietUnion.Manyofthemilitary’srecruitingofficerssentthewomenawaybysayingthatthe warwasnotawomen’sbusiness,butafterthelaunchof OperationBarbarossa,andtheGerman’ssurpriseattack ontheSovietUnion,theRedArmyfoundthemselvesin needformorebodieseitheronthefrontlineorinsupportingroles,thatallowedothersthatwerecurrentlyin supportingrolestojointhefrontlines.IntheSpringof 1942,thePeople’sCommissariatofDefensedeclaredthat womencouldservealongwiththemenintheRedArmy. Overthenextcoupleofmonths,themilitarypermitted morewomentoserveassignalers,couriers,radiooperators,medicalpersonnel,andothermilitaryoperational occupations.Becauseofthesedecrees,over2,000women enlistedintheRedArmy[1].

ThebattleforStalingrad,awarfrom1942-1943duringtheendofWWIIagainstNaziGermany,lefttheSoviet Unionsignificantlydepletedintheirresources,including numbersofmaterialsandranksthatresultedinahuge disadvantagefortheRedArmy.Thisledtoasecondmass waveofwomenenlistingintothearmy.Over50,000 womenwererecruitedtoreplacethemalesoldierson thebottomranksofthefrontlines[1].Becauseofthis sheernumberofwomenenlistinginthearmy,Stalinallowedtheformationofthe1stIndependentWomen’s VoluntaryRifleBrigade,whichwasthefirstall-female riflebrigadeundertheRedArmy.Inthespringof1943, theRedArmyformed50moreall-femalebrigades,totallingover162,000enlistedwomen[1].Stalininformed thepublicthatthesebrigadeswere“tosatisfywomen’s desirestotakeuparmsanddefendtheirsocialistmotherland”[3].Stalindidnotprioritizethewomen’srolein theRedArmytoallowthemtotaketheirplaceequally amongthemenalreadyonthefrontline.Themainpurposeofthebrigadeswastoguardimportantmilitarylocationssuchasgarrisonsandsupplyfacilities[1].These newbrigadeschangedthestructureofstandardmilitary brigadestomodernizeandbecomemoreefficient,asthe normal14,000menwerereducedto9,435women,which waseventuallyreducedto6,983peoplebytheendofthe war[1].Onthecontrary,themilitaryleadersassumed thewomenwouldnotbeabletooperateatankwiththe usualnumberoftrainedsoldiers,andtheaveragenumber ofwomenassignedtooperateatankwas3insteadofthe averagenumberof2menwhowouldoperatethesame tanks.

Topreparethebrigadestobereadyforcombat,the RedArmyestablishedawomen’strainingbootcampby theendof1942.Thewomenweretaughttofightonthe frontlines,pilotplanes,organizeammunitionandsuppliesforbattle,nursing,andmanagethebackgroundwork forthemilitary.TheRedArmy’spropagandacampaign ralliedsupportandresultedinwomensigninguptovolunteertobesenttothefrontlines.Althoughthebrigades weresaidtobereadyforcombat,theyweren’tsenttothe frontlines.ThisdecisionbytheRedArmy’sauthority causeddissatisfactionamongthefemalerecruits.

Aftertherecruitment,thewomenspentacouple weekstravelingbytraintogettothebootcamps.Due tocrampedconditionsonboththetrainsandinthebarracks,diseaseandillnessspreadrapidlyamongtherecruits.Thewomen’scampsweren’tmaintainedaswell asthemen’s.Althoughthemedicalchecksofthecamps thatwererequiredalwaysstatedthattheoverallhealth oftheresidencewasadequate,manyofthewomenwere classifiedasmedicallyunfitforthemilitary[1].Many campshadoutbreaksoflice,theflu,skininfections,and malaria.Becausemanyofthewomenwereweakandill

3.1Hammons,Hannah.Nachthexen:TheNightWitchesofWWII31 duetodisease,thecommandersofthesebrigadeunits startedsendingthewomenclassifiedasphysicallyunfit backtotheirhomes.Theirlivingconditionswereless thanadequate,astheircampswerelocatedinrundown barracksfromafactorythatwaslocatedonthesameland, andtherewasn’taccesstopotablecleanwater.Thisled tomorediseasespreading,andmanywomenrefusedto takebathsformonths,astheythoughttheywouldget evenmoresickfromthebathwaterthannotbathingat all.Thefoodwasalsopreparedinthesedirtyquarters andwasoftenleftuncoveredinstoreroomsinfestedwith disease-riddenrats.

Becauseoftheterriblelivingconditions,manywomen spokeoutagainstthebrigadecamps,andoftentriedtoescapeandrunhome.Onewoman,namedMaiaSmirnova saidthat,“ItisbetterwithHitlerthanhere.Thereis nojusticenowandtherewon’tbeany”[1].Therewere womenwhovolunteeredasrecruitswithulteriormotives ratherthanpurepatriotism.Someofthesereasonsinclude:betterrations,clothing,revengeforclosefriends orfamilymemberswhohadbeenkilledinthewar,ascare foryoungerorelderlyfamilymembers,orevenavoiding thestigmaforhavingdifferingpoliticalviews.Another womannamedAlbinaFilipovna,whojoinedthemilitary outofnecessity,said,“Ilookedforanyexcusestoreturn tohome”[1].Manyofthesewomenhopedtheharsh conditionsandlackoftimeonthefrontlinewouldlead tothemreplacingthemalesoldiers,butnoactionwas takentosendthemtothefrontlines.Inresponse,over 100womenranaway,toattempttojointhefrontline,and hundredsoflettersweresenttoleadership,mainlyStalin, askingtheirbrigadetobedeployedtothefrontline[1].

Sincethesewomenwereina“man’srole,”theRed Armymadeitclearthatthewomenwereallowedtobe subjectedtothesameamountofharshmilitarydiscipline astheirmalecounterparts.Theexpectationwasifany rulesorregimenwerebroken,itcouldleadtoexecution orremovalfromtheirrolesinthebrigadesandsenthome. These“deserters”weresubjectedtothesamepunishment anddisciplineasthemenwhowererunningawayfrom thefrontlines,eventhoughthesewomenwererunning tojointhefrontlines.Themilitaryleadershipthought thelackofdisciplineandpropereducationamongthe womenwascausingthemtorunawaytojointhefront lines.Manypeopleheldtheopinionthatthesewomen werebeinggivenagiftandprivilegeofservinginthe military,sotheyshouldbegratefulandobeycommands. Asaresult,thecommandantsconvincedthebrigadesthat ifanyofthemweretorunaway,evenifitwastogotothe frontlines,itwouldbeconsidereddesertionandtreason, andtheywouldbeseverelypunished[1].

Whileleadersdidn’tchoosetodeploythesewomen

tothefrontlines,onOctober8,1941,Stalindeployedthe femalebrigadeairforceunitsforthefirsttime,resulting intheSovietUniontobethefirstnationtoofficiallyallow womentoserveincombat.Buttheyweren’tdirectedto deployonflyingmissionsorevendropbombs[5].When thewomenweredeployedintocombat,theywereonly providedwiththeoutdatedandunfitforwarPolikarpov Po-2biplanesandcrop-dustersfromthe1920s,which hadbeenpreviouslyusedastrainingvehicles.Theselight two-seaterbiplaneshadanopencockpitandweremade outofplywoodwithcanvaspulledoverthem.Thisprovidedmeagerprotectionfromtheelements,andwhen theyflewatnight,theywouldhavetoendurefreezing temperaturesandfrostbite.Thebiplaneshadalimited weightcapacity.Thesuppliesandequipmentgivento thefemalebrigadeswereinadequateandoutofdate.Insteadofparachutes,radar,guns,andradios,thewomen hadtouserulers,stopwatches,flashlights,pencils,maps, andcompassesastheirnavigationwhileflyingoverthe battlefield.Theirbiplanescouldonlyflyataspeedthat wasslowerthanthestallingspeedoftheNazisnewly furnishedplanes.However,thismeantthatthewooden biplanescouldmaneuvermorequicklyintheair,making themhardertotarget.Therewaslittletonoprotection though,andifthesebiplaneshappenedtobehitwith tracerbullets,theywouldburstintoflames[5].

Thefemaleairbrigadethatgainedthemostrespect overthecourseofthefightwithGermanyduringOperationBarbarossawasnamedthe588thNightBomber Regiment.Theydroppedmorethan23,000tonsofbombs onNazitargets.Theseplanescouldonlycarryamaximumoftwobombsatatime,sotomakealargedent intotheGermantroops,40two-personplaneswouldbe deployedeachnight.Eachplanecompleted18missions anightandwouldreturntoreloadtheirammunitionbetweenmissions.Becausethesebombsweresoheavy, thismeantthebiplaneshadtoflyataloweraltitude,thus thewomencompletedtheirmissionsatnight,tobemore hidden.Thefirstplaneofthegroupwouldactasabaitto attracttheGermans’spotlights.Whentheplaneswould idleitwouldmakeasoundlikeabroomsweepingthe ground.This,incombinationwithflyingatnightearned themtheirsignaturename Nachthexen or“NightWitches” [4].

TheNightWitches’lastmissionwasonMay4,1945, whentheyflewtotheoutskirtsofBerlin.Acoupledays later,theNazissurrendered.Inall,theseall-womenair battalionscompletedover30,000missions,andeachindividualpilotcompletedaround800missions.Attheendof thewar,theSovietUniononlylost30ofthefemalepilots. Becauseoftheirsuccesses,24oftheNightWitcheswere awardedwiththetitleofHerooftheSovietUnion[5].

Understandingtheexperiencesofthewomeninthe RedArmyduringWWIIgivesaninsightintothegender relationsanddynamicsintheSovietUnion.Thewomen’s militarybrigadesintheRedArmywasanexampleof howtherewasanattitudechangeaboutgenderrolesin theSovietUnion.Europeandtherestoftheworldwasexperiencingsimilarchangesaswomenhadbeeninvolved intheworkforcethroughoutthedurationofthewar.The decreespassed,whichresultedinthefemalebrigades, givingthewomentheopportunitytoacquirenewskills, andrespectamongthemenwithwhomtheyworked.The womeninthemilitarybrigadesdispelledtheinitialskepticismofhavingwomenserveintheRedArmy.Since therebuildingoftheSovietUnionneededthesewomen forthecivilianworkforce,therolesofwomeninSoviet Russiansocietyexpandedbeyondthetraditionalhomelife.Becauseofthat,thewomenwerediscouragedfrom continuingtheirmilitarycareersorseekingemployment inrelatedoccupations,andwereencouragedtojointhe civilianworkforce.Thenecessityfortroopsandsoldiers duringthewarallowedtheCommunistidealstobeshifted slightlytoallowforthesocialequalitythatwasneededto achievetheirgoalsinthewar.Thissocialequality,which wasonlyacceptedbecauseofnecessity,allowedwomen toserveasfighterpilots,andtheNightWitchestobecome oneofthemostfearedmilitaryforcesduringWorldWarII. Incombat,theNightWitches’exceptionalperformance

wasprooftotheirnationthatgiventheopportunity,the womencouldtranscendthelimitsofstereotypes.

References

[1] E.C.CardonaandR.D.Markwick. “OurBrigade WillNotBeSenttotheFront”:SovietWomenunderArmsintheGreatFatherlandWar,1941-45. 2009. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/ 20620992 (citedonpages30,31).

[2] M.Lak. Stalin’sWars:FromWorldWartoCold War,1939-1953.YaleUniversityPress,2009(cited onpage30).

[3] SovietFemaleSoldiersintheSocialistState. Apr. 2022. URL: https://global-strategy.org/ the-invisi%20ble-combatants-of-worldwar-ii-soviet-f%20emale-soldiers-in-t (citedonpage30).

[4] TheNightWitches–FemmesFatales. URL: https: //sites.psu.edu/womeninhistory/20% 2016/08/24/thenightwitches/ (citedon page31).

[5] TheSovietNightWitches|WrightMuseumof WorldWarII.Oct.2020. URL: https://www. wrightmuseum.org/2020/10/01%20/thesoviet-night-witches/ (citedonpage31).

3.2 ACriticalLensAnalysis:“TheYellowWallpaper”byCharlottePerkinsGillman

ByMargheritaMemoli

Abstract

Thisarticlewillbeananalysisof TheYellowWallpaper byCharlottePerkinsGillman,anAmericansocialist feministandtheorist,whosefictionnovelstookpartin beingoneoftheinitialsparksinsciencefiction.The significanceofthisstoryisimportantbecauseitcreates awarenessofmentalillness,furthertiedtothemarginalizationofwomen.Thispieceaimstoshowthereaders ofthelate1800sthatforcingaoneroutineonapersoncandismantletheperson’sidentity,buttoteach thereadersoftodayaclassicexperienceofwomenat thetime.Themoralofthestoryistoallowwomen toexpresstheirconcernswhendealingwiththeirown recoveriesratherthanbeingdismissed,supervised,or belittledallbyamanwithnoexperienceofthismental healthissue(postpartumdepression).Thisstorymatters becauseofitslayersofconnotation.Thewallpapercan beperceivedassociety.Itisuglyandtornupanddim insomeplaces,representingtheunpleasantsidesofthe worldwelivein.Beneaththewallpaper,awomanis stuck.Likethepatriarchy,thewomancanroamwithin thewalls,butcanneversurpassthem.Ifshechooses,

shemayspeak,buthervoicewillbemuffledandsuffocatedbehindthesurfacethattrapsher.Itisimportant forwomenwhoconnecttothemaincharacter,Jane; thewomenwhohavebeenturneddown,ignored,disregarded.

Inhernovel,Gillmanintertwinedapieceofherself. Thebirthofherdaughter,KatharineBeecherStetson,led topostpartumdepression.Withlimitedmedicalknowledgeatthetime,shewasdiagnosedhystericandprescribedarestcure,thoughsheactuallyneededthefresh airoffreedomandstimulation.Shewasnowconfinedto thefourwallsofherbedroomandconfinedfromwriting, butthejournalentriesofthestoryshowherretaliation. Herdoctorevenwentsofarastodetermineherfeminism andsocialcritiqueassymptomsofherillness.Thisseeminglyinnocentstoryatfirsttakesagothic,horrortwist tobecomeoneofthemostprominentpiecesofwomen’s literatureandfeminism.

Therearemanypassagesonecouldreferenceifone wantedtodiscussthedominationofmasculinepowerover

3.3Sayette,Alex.FromPetalstoThorns:AResponsetoLi-YoungLee’sCollectionofPoems...33

womenin TheYellowWallpaper,butIwouldfirstliketo touchonhowpersonalthesediaryentriesare.

Weoftenassociatejournalingandwritingtheemotionsweexpressthroughoutthedayinanotebookwitha morefemininefigure,alittlegirlwritingoverandoverthe nameofherthirdgradecrushorajust-graduatedwoman whowantstofigureoutherlife,usingapaperandpenciltoescape.Andin TheYellowWallpaper,Janedoes justthat,escape.Buttherearelimitstoherimagination; shehastokeepithiddenfromtherarevisitsofhumans aroundher.

WhenJohn,bothherhusbandandcaretaker,explains toherthatdoinganywork,whetheritbeharshpushing andpullingor“congenialwork,”somethingJanemight findpleasureindoing,willnothelpherbecuredfaster,I picturehimspeakinginasofttone.He’dspeaksweetlyso Janewouldn’tfeeltheneedtotalkbackoractdefensively. He’dcallher“ablessedlittlegoose”and“dear”and“little girl”asshe’dcrawlintohislap.Hewouldsitthere,holdingher,holdingthepoweroverher,bothmentallyand physically,andinadiminishingway,he’dconvinceher thegrudgeshehasagainsttheuglywallpaperissimply agameandthat,infact,sheisfine.He’devenconvince her,awomanagainsttheideasandphilosophiesofher physicians,thatherescapeisnohelp.John,withhisnice andsweettones,“saysthatwithmyimaginativepower andhabitofstory-making,anervousweaknesslikemine issuretoleadtoallmannerofexcitedfancies,andthatI oughttousemywillandgoodsensetocheckthetendency.

SoItry[1,p.13].”

Readingtheseentriesispainfulespeciallybecauseof howtalentedofawriterthisconfinedwomanis.Maybe itisjustthat,thatherimaginationissoexpansivethat, sincesheisalonemostofthetime,allofherthoughts translateontopaper.Maybeitisthatshewantsmore. MaybesheisnotsimplycontentlikeJennie-John’ssister, Jane’ssister-in-law,whoactsasahousekeeperinJane’s homeandtakescareofthebaby—tonotdoanythingall day,butshehasnochoice.Johnconformstothislegacy inhistorywherewomencan’tdoathing.Andnowwith Jennie,Janehasnothingleft.Shedoesnotevenhave thesimplepleasuresawomanathertimeshouldhaveby planninganeventorsocializing.Sheisstrippedofevery amountoflibertyshecouldbestrippedfrom,andasshe growsmoretiredbytheday,hermindbeginstoinfest withtheseideasformedbysociety.

Andyet,throughtheexhaustshefeels,Janemaintains apieceofherwill,“Idon’tknowwhyIshouldwritethis. Idon’twantto.Idon’tfeelable.AndIknowJohnwould thinkitabsurd.ButImustsaywhatIfeelandthinkin someway–itissucharelief[1,p.25]!”Janeisawoman whoinspires,awomanwho,throughdemeaningtimes andill-spokenwords,findsherselfagaininherwriting.

References

[1] CharlottePerkinsGillman. TheYellowWallpaper. SimonSchuster,1892(citedonpage33).

3.3 FromPetalstoThorns:AResponsetoLi-YoungLee’sCollectionofPoems,“Rose”

ByAlexSayette

Abstract

Apowerfulpoetcanbendtimeandtruth.LiYoungLee’sfirstpoetrycollection,“Rose,”capturesthe essenceofgriefinawayonlyapoetcan.Through hislines,Leeconfrontsthelossofhisfatherbydescribingdreamsandmemories.Analysisofoneofthe collection’sfinalpoems,“RainDiary,”leadstotherevelationofwhyhispoemsaresoeffectiveatcapturing profoundhumanemotion.Leebendsrealitytoprolong thedeathofhisfather,andindoingsodemonstrates howdenialofgriefonlycompoundsitspunch.His poemseffectivelyshowratherthantellwhatitmeans tofeelloss.

Insleep,thelovedonesreturn.Somewhereinadream afamily,apet,alover,isreunitedbeyondthisworld,beyondthegrave.Thisisthemostfrequentformofspace travel.Thebrainistrulyaheart,andinthemomentsafter waking,itbelievesiswhatitwantstobelieve.Aman

isnotlostwhenonefallsasleepandseeshimthere,in adifferentplace,inadifferenttime.Amanisnotlost inmemory.Andthenthebodygivesup,allowingthe presenttodrownoutthepast.Li-YoungLee’spoetry collection,“Rose,”doesnotallowthereadertoforget thissensation.Writtenalongsidethepassingofhisfather,Lee’s“Rose”isthechildofgrief,theproductofthe chaos,loss,andquestioningpresentinLee’slife.The collectioncentersaroundthe“myth”ofthefather,the reimaginationofhispower,andthestruggleofreckoningwiththelimitsofhismortality.Nofatherisagod. Likearose,thefatherLeecapturesinhispoemsisradiantyetladenwiththorns.Inoneofhisfinalpoems, “RainDiary,”Leeexploreshowdreamsandtheirdenial ofrealitycanexacerbategrief.Throughhismeansofsubvertingreality–throughhisnarratedperceptionoftime, memory,andgraspofknowledge–Lee’spoemscapture thepsychologicalprofileofgrief.

“Rose”makesacceptinggriefamuchhardertask. Throughoutthecollectionasawhole,Leemodulatesbetweentimelines.Therearemomentswhenthefatheris alive.Therearemomentswhenheisgone.Therearemomentswhenheshouldbedeadbutisn’t,momentswhen heisalive,butdeathcloudshisexistence.In“RainDiary,” thetaskofmovingonismadealmostimpossiblebythe non-linearmovementoftime.Althoughthispoemcomes attheendofhiscollection,Leejumpsbackintimetothe momentsrightafterhisfather’sdeath.Leeillustratesthe feverishsearchforhisfather,writing,“Ilookedforyouin yourshoes./Ifoundnothing/andtherain./Itriedyour shirts,yourpants,/calledyoursweatersmine,/butadead man’sthingsare/noone’s,andthishousescreamsout foryou[1,p.60-61]”.Thefreneticbattleagainstreality isahopelessone,buttothegriever,itissimplyhuman instinct.Byexploringthemomentsofdenial,Leeallows thereadertoinhabitadifferentreality,oneinwhichLee’s fatherisstillpresent.Additionally,eachjumpintimereopensthewoundsofloss,exposingthereadertotheraw painoftheinitialstagesofgrief.Theconstanttimetravel inLee’spoemsbegsthequestionofwhetherthefather isaliveinanyparticularstanzaincreasinglydifficultto answer.Theresultingambiguityleadsthepoemstotake onanunrelentingquality,preventingthereaderfromever acceptingthefather’sdeathasfinal.

AnotherwayLee’spoetryimitatestheeffectofgrief isthroughtheuseofdreamsandalternaterealities.In “RainDiary,”dreamsdisrupttheflowoftime.Inthe firststanza,Leequestionswhathismothermighthave dreamtofthepriorevening,writing“Mother,whatdid youdream?/Wherewereyoulastnight/thateventhe stormdidn’twakenyou?[1,p.59]”.Instatementslike “wherewereyoulastnight,”Thethirdstanzaof“Rain Diary”isfloodedwithaseriesof“what-if”scenarios surroundingtheconditionsofLee’sfatherifhedidnot passon.Thesescenariosarefollowedbyadevastating lineillustratinghowthefather’sdeathinfluenceseventhe memoriesLeehasofhimwhilealive,“AsaboyIlayquietlybeside[myfather]whilehenapped./Iwaspracticing toliedown/byhisgrave[1,p.60]”.Theenjambment between“liedown”and“byhisgrave”createsashocking juxtapositionofimages.Leewarnsusthateventhough

ourlovedonescanseeminglysurviveinourmemories, ourmindsaren’tfreefromdistortion.Thismarksashift inthepoemwhichturnsthereadertowardseekingacceptanceofthefather’slossratherthanprolongingthenightmarishsuffering.Finally,afterthedistortionoftimeand memorythatgriefcauses,Leequestionstheworldaround him.Thedesireforacceptance–eventheacceptanceofhis father’sdeath–leadsLeetoholdtruth,aboveall,sacred. “RainDairy”ispunctuatedwithquestionmarksasmuch asitiswithperiods,signifyingLee’ssearchforreality.In thesecondstanza,Leewrites,“Wheredoestheraingo? Wherearemydead?[1,p.59]”.Afternearly60pages ofstrugglingagainsttherealityofhisfather’spassing, Leeallowshimselftoaskthequestionthathecouldnot initiallybeartohearanswered:Hisfatherisgoneandhe willnevergethimback–thatdreams,brokenmemories, andeventimetravelingpoemswillnotreunitethetwoof them.Bydelayingthisresolutionthroughcountlessacts toobfuscatethetruth,Leeprolongsthepainofloss,providinganextremelyintimatelessonontheinnerworkings ofgrief.

Insleep,thelovedonesstillrise.Moreghostlythis time,becauseeventhemindnowknowstheheart’stricks. Suddenly,theshowisover,thedreamisnotadreambut anightmare,andthebrainisawake.Thisishowthebody learnstoaccept.Afterenoughtime–evenconsidering thesetbacksofdenial–thesubconsciouslearnsthepastis sealedwitheveryclosedcoffin.“Rose”teachesusthat griefisnostraightline.Ofteninliterature,wethinklinearly,becauseliteratureisconsumedlinearly–lefttoright, toptobottom.“Rose,”however,isacollectionfreefrom thisconstraint,andforthisreason,itcapturestheexperienceofgriefsopoignantly.Ifnothing,“Rose”isanode togrief–fortherawandthornyrose,forthereflectiveand introspectiverose,fortherosethirstyandstilldrowning inadownpour.Lee’spoetrycollectionillustratesgriefin awaythatpsychologicallymakessense:“Rose”cutsand blooms–butalwaysitgleamsbloodred.

References [1] LLee. Rose.BOAEditionsLtd,2013(citedon page34).

3.4 DissectionsandDiscoveries:PetertheGreat’sGrandEmbassy

ByBenWinslow Abstract

Inthelate1690s,PetertheGreat,tsarofRussia,embarkedonanexpeditiontoWesternEurope.Hetraveled forseveralmonths,exposinghimselftothemodernity

oftheWesternportionofthecontinent.Theembassy confirmedPeter’ssuspicionthatRussianempirehad fallenbehinditscounterpartsintermsofgovernment, military,artsandsciences.Thisessayarguesthatthe analysisoftheinitialGrandEmbassyispertinentto

3.4Winslow,Ben.DissectionsandDiscoveries:PetertheGreat’sGrandEmbassy35

understandingPeterasarulerandexplorer.Indiscoveringtheadvancesinscienceandartandmilitary managementduringhistimeabroad,Peterwasinspired totransformhisownnation,modelinghisnewversion ofRussiaontheEuropeannationshehadseenduring hisinitialGrandEmbassy.

Waxsnakesslowlyslitherdownthesidesofthecandlesastheirflamesgrowtallerandtaller,waveringback andforth,castinglongshadowsacrossthefacesofthose careeningtheirneckstoglanceatthecenteroftheroom. Theairisthickwiththelatentsmellofrudimentarychemicalsandthedecompositionofflesh,nauseatingtoallbut thosewithaburningpassiontobeintheroom.Theleader ofthegroupofyoungmenhuddledaroundthewooden tableslowlybegins,movinghisscalpelcarefullyacross theskinofthecadaverplacedbeforethem,splittingthe fleshofthecorpsesotheycouldremovetheinternalorgansandweighthemonthe17thcenturyscaleplaced adjacenttothecorpse.Deepwithinthecrowdbehind thescientistsstandsanimposingfigure.Loomingatsix footeightwithwalnut-coloredhairthatfallsintosubtle wavesjustabovehisneck,hisdemeanorisimpressiveand noteasilydismissable,whichislikelywhyhe’ssituated himselfatthebackoftheroom;seeingovertheother’s headswasnoproblemforhimashewouldhavestood agoodsixtoseveninchesabovetherestofthecrowd [6].HisofficialnamewasSergeantPyotrMikhalyovbut itwasanopensecretthatthiswasPeterIofRussia,a monarchwhosenameisnowutteredininfamyasthe manwhosingle-handedlydraggedanunwillingRussia outofdestitutionandintoaneraofsupremeinnovation andmodernity.ThiswouldnotbethelastdissectionPeter wouldattend;hewasalwaysamaneagerforknowledge. ThiswouldalsonotbethelasttimePeterwouldengage inodditiesorattendeventsconventionallyconsideredoutof-date,butatthetimewerethepeakofscientificresearch anddiscovery.Asaresult,itisnosurprisethatPeter’s firstGrandEmbassy,occurringbetween1697and1698, whichcontainedmanyeventslikethedissection,would becomeincrediblyinfluentialonhisprecociousyoung mindashegrewfromafledglingrulertoanomnipotent politicalforceoverEurope.

LongbeforePeterwouldbewatchingdissectionsin thatroominAmsterdam,hegrewupinRussia,aland incrediblydifferentsocially,culturally,politically,and religiouslyfromtherestofEurope.Consideredtobe backwardsandtwostepsbehind,Russiahadbeenrejected fromtheinnerworkingsofEuropeanaffairs,forbetteror worse.Russialackedtheculturalandscientificprowess ofmanyofitsEuropeancounterpartsduetotheisolation theyreceivedfromtherestofthecontinent.Russiadid haveitsownartists,writersandscientistsbuttheylacked acohesionofthoughtorideals,andtheirabilitytomove

themassesorenactsocialchangewasminimalcompared tothatoftheirEuropeancounterparts.Withinthismaelstromofthought,Petergrewintoayoungman,studying manysubjects,includingbattlefieldtactics,math,andliterature.Comingtothethroneattenyearsofage,Peter’s earlyyearsastsarweresharedwithhishalf-brother,Ivan, whowaspuppeteeredbytheirsister,Sophia.Although PeterwasoriginallychosenasthesoleleaderofRussia, anuprisingoftheStretsly–asocialclassandmilitary regimentwithinRussia–organizedbySophia,allowed Ivantosecureaspotonthethronedespitehismental andphysicalhealthstrugglesthathadinitiallyledRussianelitestopassoverhimasruler.Thesharedthrone wasnotoneofcooperationbutinsteadofhostility;at everymoment,plotsandplansweremadebybothsides ofthefamily,eachhopingtousurptheotherandclaim fullcontroloverthetsardom[5].Theupheavalofthe earlyyearsofPeter’sreignimpresseduponhimnotonly thenecessityofreformationoftheRussianstatebutalso therequirementforreallocationofgovernmentalpower ifhewantedtocontrolRussiaforanextendedperiodof time[5].AsmanyWesternleadersremovedopposition totheirruleandconsolidatedthepoliticalmachinesoperatingunderneaththem,thepowerwithinRussiaremained scattered.WhenIvandiedin1696withnomaleheirs, PeterbecamethesoleleaderoftheRussianstate.Almost immediately,hebegantheprocessofmodernizationthat wouldlastdecadesandhaveeffectsonRussiaupuntilthe modernera.

Officially,theGrandEmbassywasconductedasa waytosecuretheRussianstatealliesagainstincursions fromtheOttomanTurks.Havingbeenisolated,whether bychoiceornot,formanyyearsfromthegrowingpowers ofWesternEurope,Russialackedthenecessaryalliesto protectitselfandtheotherEasternEuropeanstatesfrom theincreasingstrengthoftheOttomans.Asaterritory, Russiahadmanyuntappedresources.Thelandcontained withintheRussianbordersheldlargequantitiesoflumber andfurs,aswellasvarioustypesofmineralsandcrop resources.Russianleadersrealizedthattheseresources couldbeleveragedinnegotiationstosecurefavorablemilitaryandtradeagreementswiththenationsoftheWest [8].Quickly,theybeganplanninganexpeditionthatcould gototheWestandsecurethenecessarypartnershipsto createreciprocitybetweenthetwohalvesoftheEuropean continent.TheGrandEmbassywascomposedofvarious high-levelgovernmentofficialsandspokespeoplewho hadtheskillsnecessarytosecurenewpartnerships.PeterhimselfhadothermotivationsforjoiningtheGrand Embassy.Asstatedearlier,Peterwasalwaysanavid learnerwithadiversesetofinterestsandpassions.While herecognizedhisroleastsarintheGrandEmbassy,he alsounderstoodthatajourneytotheWestwouldalmost

certainlyincludetheopportunityforself-education;the kindofeducationthathewouldneverhavebeenableto findinRussiaatthetime.Whiletraveling,Petercarried asymbolwithhimthatwasinscribedwiththevaluable message,“IamastudentandIseekteachers,”aperfect encapsulationofhispersonalgoalsforthisjourney[6]. Peter’shedonisticmindsetaside,theGrandEmbassywas aninopportunemomentfornegotiationwiththeEuropean powers.Francehadaligneditselfwiththesultanleader oftheOttomanTurksandthemajorityoftheothermajor powerswereprimarilyfocusedontheWarofSpanish Successionratherthanthefar-eastthreatoftheTurks.Peterluckedoutinthissenseasmanyoftheofficialduties hewouldhavebeenexpectedtoperformasleaderwere negligibleandinsteadPetercouldfocusonhispersonal reasonsforjoiningthejourney.Peterstillhadanother issue:theprominenceofhisphysicalfigure.Standingat sixfooteightinches,heworriedthathisdominantstature wouldencouragestaresanddistracthimfromhisstudies, andtohiscredit,hewascorrect.WesternEuropeanswere eagertogettheireyesonthemythicalleaderofthefar easternstate.Peteradoptedhisaliasmentionedabove (Sgt.PyotrMikhalyov)andrevealedtoveryfewhistrue identity[3].Tohisfrustrationthough,onlyasmattering ofpeoplewerefooledbythedisguise;rather,Europeans werewillingtoengageinthemasqueradeinordertocurry favorwiththetsar.Theyhopedthatbyengagingwith himasPyotrMikhalyov,Peterwouldbeencouragedto engageinconversationwiththem,andtheywouldthen beabletosaythattheyhadmetthetsarandinteracted withhim[6].

Beyondhisdisguise,Peterspentthemajorityofhis timeontheGrandEmbassywiththeproletariatmembersofthejourney.Infact,duringavisittoGermany, Peter’sunusualhabitsweresodistinctthattheywerenoticedbytheleadersoftheHouseofHanover[6].During adinnerwiththefamily,Peteratewiththelower-class membersoftheEmbassyandseemedmostcomfortable amongthem.Intime,Peterwouldcometorecognizethe peculiarityofhishabitsandattempttoaltertheminan efforttoseemmoremodernandcohesivewiththelikesof otherEuropeanleaders,butforthetimebeingtheywere animportantaspectofPeter’spersonalityashetraveled throughtheWest.Hisinabilitytofitinwiththerestof theEuropeanmonarchswasnotasourceoffrustrationfor Peter,though.Instead,theyservedasaconstantreminder thathewasthewayhewasbecauseofabackwardRussia, somethinghecouldfixthroughreformations.

AfterspendinghistimewiththeHouseofHanover, PeternexttraveledtotheNetherlands;aplacethatproved tohavethelargestimpactonhimintheyearsafterthe GrandEmbassy.Amsterdam–justasPeterwasarriving –wasexperiencinganageofunprecedentedprosperity.

Wealthfromexpeditionsaroundtheworldhadspurred theDutchgovernmentintoinvestinginscienceandurbandevelopment,includingthefamouscanalsthatwould cometodefinemuchofAmsterdam[1].Thestreetswere bustlingwiththerousingwarmthofinnovativethought andtheevidenceofthenation’sprosperitypermeated fromeveryaspectofthemetropolitanarea.PeterwasparticularlytakenwiththebuildingstyleutilizedbyDutch architects.Hewouldlateraskhisbuilderstoreplicate thisdistinctDutchbaroquestylewhenconstructingSt. Petersburg[6].It’snothardtoimaginewhyacitythat wasexperiencingsuchanenergeticmomentofculturalenlightenmentwouldleavesuchaforcefulimprintonPeter’s consciousnessashecontinuedhisjourneyaroundEurope andeventuallyreturnedhome.OfspecificnotewasPeter’stimespentwiththeshipmakersoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany(DEIC).Foundedin1602,theDEICwasthe largestdrivingforcebehindtheNetherlands’emergence asaworldpowerintheseventeenthcentury[2].Their expeditionsandconquestsoflandsaroundtheworld,but particularlyinthesouthPacificOcean,stockedthecoffers oftheDutchgovernmenttothebrimwithenoughgold tosupportanimmensenumberofgovernment,military, andculturalprojects.Chiefamongtheseprojectswasthe expansionoftheDEICfleet[1].Peterwasgrantedthe opportunitytostudywiththeshipbuildersoftheDEIC duringhisfourandahalfmonthsthathespentinthe Dutchterritories.Hewokeupatsunriseandwalkedtothe shipyardwithhisfellowshipmakers,preparinghimself forafullimmersivedayinthelifeoftheaverageDEIC shipmaker.Ratherthanfocusonthepracticalaspectsof runningaNavy,somethinghewouldexplorelater,inthe NetherlandsPeterfocusedonlearninghowtoefficiently andcosteffectivelycraftalargenumberofships.He payedcarefulattentiontothemannerinwhichtheDEIC craftedtheirships;latermimickingtheirstyleforhisown fleetastheyweresomeofthefastestmaritimevesselsin theworld.OnNovember9,1697,Peter,inconjunction withtheDEIC,launchedashipthathadbeencraftedby PeterandothermembersofhisGrandEmbassycrew[6]. AptlynamedthePeterandPaul,itwasanefficientvessel thathewoulduseasthemainmodelforhislatership buildingventures.Besidesshipbuilding,Peterentertained himselfwithadiversevarietyofactivitiesandplaces.He visitedhospitalsandmedicalresearchcenterssuchasthe onesthathostedtheaforementioneddissections.Healso spenttimeatmuseumsandprivatecollectionsofwealthy familiesandcorporations,includingtheDEIC.Within theseprivatecollections,Peterdevelopedadeepfascinationwiththeodditiesthathadbeenamassedfromthe globalexplorationoftheDEIC.Hewouldlaterreplicate andacquirehisownversionoftheitemshehadseenin theNetherlandsinhisowncabinetofcuriositieswhich

3.4Winslow,Ben.DissectionsandDiscoveries:PetertheGreat’sGrandEmbassy37 wouldbecomeamuchwhisperedabouttopicinhisroyal court.Furthermore,oneparticularvisittoawindmillfarm inruralAmsterdamencouragedPetertotakespecificnote ofthewaysinwhichWesternEuropeannationshadmaximizedtheefficiencyoftheirartisansmall-masterworkers [6].Longbeforetheindustrialrevolution,innovations suchaswindmillshadallowedEuropeanstospeedupthe processofcreatingcraftgoods,butthisinnovationhad beennoticeablyabsentfromthelimitedartisanworkersof Russia.UponhisreturnfromtheGrandEmbassy,Peter wouldtakeanempassionedinterestinimplementingstatefunctionsthatwouldallowfortheworkersofhisnationto bemoreproductiveintheirestablishments.Combinethis withthelargequantityofuntappedresourcesthatRussia contained,andPeterheldallthenecessarycontrivances tospuraperiodofmassiveeconomicgrowththatwould mimicthatoftheDutchnation.

Peter’spersonalexplorationaside,theNetherlands alsoheldauniqueopportunityfortheRussiangovernmenttoestablishfavorabletradingconditionswithsome ofthepowerfulEuropeannations.AfterWilliamofOrangewasinvitedtotaketheBritishthronein1689,two massiveEuropeannations–theNetherlandsandEngland –wereunitedunderasingleruler.ThisisoneofthereasonstheRussianGrandEmbassyspentsuchanextended periodoftimeintheDutchStates:itservedasaplace wheretheycouldformnotonlyallianceswithonenation,butwithtwonations,andtwoincreasinglydominant nationsatthat.PeterhimselfmetwithWilliamofOrangeandduringthismeeting,Peter,reluctantlyremoving hiscapofself-indulgenceandplacingtheoneoftsaron toreplaceit,inquiredaboutthepossibilityoftradeand militaryagreementsbetweenthereclusiveRussianmonarchyandtheBritishandDutchgovernments[8].Thetwo wouldmeetagainafewmoretimes,somemeetingsoccurringlateroncePeterhadvisitedEngland,andbythe endoftheGrandEmbassythetwohadgrownamutual admirationforeachother.SomuchsothatWilliamofOrangeallowedhiscourtartist,SirGodfreyKneller,topaint anofficialportraitofPeter[9].Disappointinglytothe Russians,manyEuropeanpowers,includingthosecontrolledbyWilliam,werehesitanttoformallianceswith theRussians.TheEnglishandtheDutchhadjustsigned agreementswiththeHolyRomanEmperorformingthe GrandAlliancetocurbtheinfluenceonFrance,andasa resultwereunwillingtoentanglethemselvesinadditional Europeanconflicts,especiallyaconflictwiththeOttoman Turksthatwouldbefarawaygeographicallyandhave littlephysicalimpactontheirkingdoms[9].Although thelackofsupportfromtheirfellowEuropeanpowers wasdisappointingtomanymembersoftheGrandEmbassy,Peterhimselfshowedlittlesignofdisappointment; possiblybecausehewasbeginningtorealizethatRussia

hadeverythingitneededtocurbtheencroachmentofthe Ottomanswithinitsownborders;allRussianeededtodo wasorganizeandimplementsweepingsocietalreforms similartothosehehadseenintheWesternEuropean nationshehadvisitedthusfar.

AfternearlyfivemonthshadpassedinHolland,the GrandEmbassymovedalong,Peterbegrudginglyfollowingthem,disappointedtoleavehisbelovedAmsterdam behind.Theirnextstop:England.Inmanyways,EnglandwassimilartotheNetherlands.Bothnationsboasted thesamemonarchaswellassimilarlevelsofcultural enrichment.InLondon,Peterwasabletofindjustas manyeducationalopportunities,allowinghimtocontinue hisstudyofvarioustopicsincludingshipbuildingand navalmanagement.DuringhistimeinEngland,Peter wasgrantedtheopportunitytostudywithmembersofthe RoyalNavy.Heturnedhisfocusawayfromthephysical aspectsofshipbuildingandinsteadallowedhimselftobe educatedinthepracticalaspectsofmanagingandorganizinganavy.Heshadowednavalofficersandtraineesand allowedthevaluablelessonsheobservedintheserough andtumbleshipyardstobecomeintrinsictohisnavalphilosophythathewouldformallyimplementafterhisreturn fromtheGrandEmbassy[8].Watchingthestrictmanner bywhichthehigher-upsoftheRoyalNavytrainedand shapedtheirnavalofficersintonotonlyefficientyoung menbutalsotalentedmaritimeseafarers,Peterwasinspired.Infact,hewassoinspiredthatheaskedmanyof theBritishNavalofficersandsailorstoreturntoRussia withhimattheconclusionoftheGrandEmbassy;their styleoftrainingandmanagementsomethinghewould hopetomimicinhisownnavy[4].Alongwithstudyingattheshipyards,Peterventuredintootheraspectsof Londonhighsociety.Hemetvariousthinkersandsocial criticswhocontinuedtopushhisunderstandingofthe workingsof“modern”Europe.OnegentlemeninparticularleftalargeimpressiononPeter.HisnamewasDr. FrancisLee,andhewasanavidmemberofthePhiladelphianSociety,areligiousorganizationthatwasawaiting theriseoftheprophesizedfifthmonarchy;amonarchy thatwouldholdallthenecessarytraitstolastlongerthan priorkingdomsandnotvanishundertheleadershipof anephemeralmonarch.Dr.LeebelievedthatPeterheld manyofthenecessaryqualitiestobecometheleaderof thisprophesizednation.InpreparationforPeter’sarrival toLondon,thePhiladelphianSocietyhadcraftedalongwindeddocumentwhichoutlinedthewaysinwhichPeter couldconsolidatetheRussianstateandwinthelong-term supportofhispeople[4].AfterreturningtoRussia,Peter wouldinfactimplementalargequantityoftheactions proposedbythemembersofthePhiladelphianSociety,includingthereformationoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch andinnovationsineducationandmaritimemanagement.

Althoughitisunclearhowmuchofthesechangesarea directresultofthedocumentdeliveredtohimbytheSocietyorinsteadbyanoveralldesiretomodernizeRussiain thewakeofanenlighteningjourneytovisithisEuropean counterparts,LondonandtherestofEnglandprovided Peteranotherincredibleopportunitytomaturehisown personaleducationaswellascontinuetorefinesomeof thenecessaryadroitnesshewouldrequiretomanagethe volatileRussianstate.

Peter’stimeabroadcametoaratherabruptconclusion in1698whentheStreltsyregimentsbackhomeinRussia roseupinarmsagainstPeter’srule.Itispossiblethatthe causeoftherebellionwasfrustrationwiththeproposed modernizationeffortsofPeter,aperfectexampleofthe up-hillbattlePeterwouldfacewhenattemptingtoconvincethereluctantRussianpeoplethatthemodernityof WesternEuropewouldprovidetothemabetterlifethan thecontinueddiffidencetheywerecurrentlyexperiencing [5].TheStreltsy’sgoalwastomarchonMoscowandpunishtheboyarsandnoblesasameansofmaimingPeter’s abilitytoruleeffectively;itisalsolikelythattheyplanned oninstallingSophiatothethrone,adirectrebukeofPeter andhisplatformofprogress[5].TheGrandEmbassy quicklydashedbackacrossEuropetoRussiaanduponreturn,Peterviolentlysuppressedtherebellionandclimbed backtothethronewithastrongercontroloverRussia thanhehadbefore.Withover1,800Streltsydeadandthe unrestrebuked,Peterofficiallylaunchedhisreformation efforts,nolongerneedingtorulebythepuppetdecree hehadutilizedduringtheEmbassybutinsteadrulingby forceandpotentbrawn[6].

OneofPeter’sfirstofficialreformswastheestablishmentofhisBlackSeaFleet.Deeplyinfluencedbythe navalprowessoftheDutchandtheEnglish,theBlack SeaFleetbeganconstructionin1699,joiningtheexisting malnourishedImperialNavyandlaunchingin1703[8]. ItsdesignisstrikinglysimilartothenavalfleetsthatPeter hadstudiedintheNetherlandsandEngland.Fromdesign ofshipstomanagementofworkers,thefleetwasthebeginningofadistinctlyWesternEuropeanmilitarystyle thatwouldbecomecentraltotheRussianNavyandArmy. Later,hewouldaddaBalticSeaFleetalongwithseveral othercollectivesofsailorsandshipsthatwouldallowhim tonotonlyrebufftheimposingTurksbutactuallypush deepintotheOttomanterritoriesandreclaimlandslost underpreviousmonarchs.Populatingthesenewfleetswas anoddcombinationofRussiancitizensaswellassoldiers andsailorsPeterbroughtbackwithhimfromWestern nations.TheseWesternEuropeanmembersofhismilitary servedasmentorstotheRussiansoldiers,teachingthem strategicmethodsaswellaspersonaldecorum.Establishingamorerobustnavywasnottheonlychangethat PetermadeasadirectresultofhisGrandEmbassy;Peter

alsointroducedmanyinnovationstotheartsandsciences. OneofPeter’smaingoalswhiletravelingabroadwasto convincesomeofthemosttalentedartistsandscientists tojoinhimonhisGrandEmbassyandreturnwithhim toRussiawhenthetimecame.Thethinkingwasthatif hecouldbringtheseartistsandscientistswithhimback totheRussiancities,thentheirpresencewouldsparka culturalrevolutionthatwouldinspiretheRussianpeopletoengageinthecreationofliterature,poetry,music, andtheatretoanextentseeninthemetropolitancities ofWesternEurope.Inthesciences,heestablishseveral schoolsdevotedtothestudiesofmedicine,chemistry,and astronomy.Soon,Russiawouldhavethecapacitytohost foreignleadersinitsownhalls,allowingthemtoattend eventssimilartotheonesPeterexperiencedduringhis timeabroadsuchastheirrefutablytransformativedissectionheobservedinAmsterdam.Healsohopedthatany scientistshebroughtbackwithhimwouldbewillingto teachafuturegenerationofRussianthinkers.Generating arevolutionofthoughtinRussiawasjustonewaythat PeterhopedRussiawouldbeabletochallengetheirEuropeancounterparts.Thisthoughtrevolutionwouldgrow inconjunctionwithaheavieremphasisplacedontherole ofeducationinsociety.Petermadeitmandatoryforall malechildrenofwealthyfamiliestoattendschooluptoa certainage[7].Peterbelievedheavilyintheimportance ofaneducation,hopingthathewouldbeabletosurround himselfwithmoreenlightenedmindswhowouldbeable tonurtureandsustaintheprogressincominggenerations. PeteralsoestablishedtheSchoolofNavigationwhich allowedhimtotrainyoungmenintheskillsrequiredto becomenavalofficersaswellasupstandingfuturemembersofPeter’scourt[7].Furthermore,Petersentstudents abroadtobeeducatedinthebesteducationalfacilities inWesternEurope.Theseexchangeprogramsallowed thetiesbetweenRussiaandtherestofEuropetotighten intoashakyalliance,bringingRussiatotherestofthe worldandtherestoftheworldbacktoRussia.Combine thiswiththeinstitutionofRussia’sfirstnewspaperand formalizedhospitalanditisclearthatPeter’sattemptsat modernizationweremakingsweepingchangestothevery societalfabricofRussianculture[7].Walkingamonghis noblepeersinforeignnations,watchingastheircities flourishedinmedicineandculture,Peter’sinitialhypothesisthatRussiawasbehindtherestofEuropewasnotonly confirmed,butconfirmedtoanextentthatitmotivated himtomakesubstantialchangestohisnation.Theresults ofthesechangeswereastounding,affectingRussiaup untiltoday.

YearsafterthecompletionofhisinitialGrandEmbassy,PeterwouldonceagainheadtotheWest.Formany years,themajorityofhisreigninfact,Peterhadlongedto re-explorethestreetsofAmsterdamandLondon.Theini-

ItishardtounderstatehowuniquePeter’sembraceof dramaticculturalandsocialchangewas.Hebirthedthe momentumforprogressfromhisveryownunquenchable curiosity.Peterrecognizedthenecessityforprogressand ratherthanturningablindeyetothetruthsbeforehim, heprovidedhispeoplewiththeinstrumentsforsocial andculturalchange.Hisbreadthofunderstandingof hispeople,hisgovernment,andhisnation,allowedhim toradicallytransformRussia,destabilizingitforsome yearsbyenteringvariouswarsandconflicts,allwhile tighteninghisowngriponthechainsofpower.Itwas exceptionalandrelativelynovel;theonlyotherEuropean monarchswhowecoulddrawcomparisonstobeingKing HenryVIIIofEnglandandKingLouisXIVofFrance. Furthermore,Peter’smannerofleadershiplaidthefoundationforfutureleadersofRussiasuchasCatherinethe Great,whoutilizedasimilarstyleofforcingsocialand culturalchangeonherpeople,regardlessoftheiropinion ordesireforchange,understandingthatinthefuture,her nationwouldbenefitfromit.Itisforthesereasonsthat PeterhascementedhimselfasoneofthemostquintessentialRussianleaders.Hisradicallydifferentapproachto rulingthetsardomforeveralteredtherelationshipleaders havebetweenprogressandpower,shiftingtheparadigm bywhichleadershaveviewedtheinteractionsbetween thesetwoideasathomeinRussiabutalsoinlandsfar beyonditsborders.Peter’sinitialGrandEmbassybuilt themindandheartthatPeterwouldusetotransformRussia,butitwasthisveryactoftransformationthatPeter willalwaysberememberedfor.HislegacyforeverengrainedintothebedrockofmodernRussia.Hislessons arestillwhisperedinthehallsofRussiatodayasthe

worldfearfullywatchesthecurrentnation’sgovernment rebufftheadvancesofprogressanddisparagethepower ofenlightenment,twothingsPeterwouldviewasshamefulandantitheticaltotheRussiahelaboredfordecades tobuild.Progressdoesnotmeanlossofpower,alesson Peterundoubtedlylearnedonhis1697GrandEmbassy andalessonthatcountlessleadersaroundtheworldcould standlearningtodayastheglobeteetersontheprecipice ofaneweraofsweepingsocial,political,andcultural change.

References

[1] Amsterdam:CapitaloftheGoldenAge. URL: https://www.holland.com/global/ tourism%20/holland-stories/goldenage/amsterdam-%20capital-of-thegolden-age.htm (citedonpage36).

3.4Winslow,Ben.DissectionsandDiscoveries:PetertheGreat’sGrandEmbassy39 tialcultureshockhehadexperiencedhadonlyfurthered hisdeepfascinationwiththeexplorationofknowledge, andintheWestheknewhewouldfindtheintellectual stimulationheneededtosatiatehisever-presentdesire tolearn.Theimportanceofthe1697GrandEmbassy onPeter’smindsetashecementedhispowerandbegan hisprolificreignoverRussiaisimpossibletominimize. TheincredibleopportunitytoworkwiththeDEICand theRoyalNavydirectlyencouragedPetertorevamphis ownImperialNavyandhistimevisitingscientificinstitutionsandmuseumspromptedPetertofunnelmillionsof today’sdollarsintopromotingtheimportanceofthought withinhisownpeople.Personally,Peter’sowncabinet ofcuriositieswasinspiredbytheprivatecollectionsof variousleadingfiguresofWesternEurope.Arts,sciencies,medicines,militarytactics,socialettiquete,fashion, andsomanymoreareasweredramaticallytransformed inRussiaasaresultofPeter’sownpersonaldesirefor culturalchange.

[2] Britannica. DutchEastIndiaCompany. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Dutch%20-East-India-Company (citedon page36).

[3] Britannica. TheGrandEmbassy(1697-1698)of PeterI. URL: https://www.britannica. com/biography/P%20eter-the-Great/ The-Grand-Embassy-1697-%2098 (citedon page36).

[4] RobertCollis. ThePetrineInstauration:Religion, Esotericism,andScienceattheCourtofPeterthe Great,1689-1725.BrillPublishing,2012(cited onpage37).

[5] HoskingGeoffrey. RussiaandtheRussians:A History.HarvardUniversityPress,2011(citedon pages35,38).

[6] LindseyHughes. PetertheGreat:ABiography. NewHaven:YaleUniversityPressPublications, 2002(citedonpages35–38).

[7] EmmanuelMensah. TheImpactofPetertheGreat intheHistoryofRussia.Zambia:KwameNkrumah UniversityofScienceandTechnology,2015(cited onpage38).

[8] PetertheGreat:HowdidEnglandHelpRussiato EstablishitsNavyintheEarly18thCentury? URL: https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/ p%20eter-great (citedonpages35,37,38).

[9] WilliamtheThirdofEngland URL: https://www. cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikisp%20eedia/ wpcd/wp/w/William_III_of_England%20. htm (citedonpage37).

4.ScienceandEngineering

4.1 HarnessingHurricaneWindEnergyUsingVerticalActionWindTurbines

ByOctaviaChittyandVanessaGonzalez-Rychener

Abstract

Extremeweatherpatternshaveallcontributedtothe increasedfrequencyofpoweroutages.Withoutpower, medicinescanlosetheirefficacy,homescanoverheat orfreeze,andthequalityoflifedecreases.Despite thedestructivepowerhurricaneshave,discussionon howenergycanbeharvestedfromthemisrare.Now, thereareseveralcompaniesworkingtoharnessenergy fromhurricanes,includingChallenergywhichutilizes Magnusforcetocollectwindenergyfromalldirections. Thisprojectaimstoimprovethecut-inandcut-out speeds.Bytakingadvantageoftorqueanddrag,italso decreasestheenergyinputnecessaryforturbinesto work.

BackgroundandSignificance

Everyyear,June1sttoNovember30thmarksAtlantic hurricaneseason[6].Duringthistime,hurricanesand tropicalstormsoftenstrikecoastalregions.Thoughthe coastalcitiesandtownsundergolengthypreparations, thesenaturaldisastersarestilldeadlyanddestructive. Withwindsof117toover250kilometersperhour,businesses,houses,andpowerlinescanbedamagedbythe windsthemselves,orbyflyingdebris[15].

Alongwithhighwinds,hurricanesbringastormsurge andexcessiverainfall.Astormsurgeisthedrasticincreaseinwaterlevelfromstormwindspushingthewater towardstheshore.Thesestormsurgesraisethesealevel over6meters,causingintenseflooding[8].Flooding generallycausesabouthalfofdirectfatalitiesduringa

SectionHeaderbyVanessaGonzalez-Rychener’24.

hurricaneintheU.S.,andcandestroywholeelectricalsystemsinhomes[9][6].AfterHurricaneKatrina,morethan 2millionhomesandbusinesseswerewithoutelectricity. Itwasthemostcostlyhurricaneintermsofdamageand fatalitiesintheU.S.[11].Thesenaturaldisastersleave communitiesindisrepairwithcostlyrepairs.

Americansenduremorepoweroutagesthananyother developednation,andhurricanescausethemajorityof these.TheUnitedStatespowergridisoutdatedandcannotwithstandtheincreasingnumberofstorms.Since the2000s,therehasbeena 67% increaseinoutagesdue toweather-relatedincidents[13].Ahurricane’sstrong windsknockdownelectricalwires,whichmaystillbe connected,whichcanelectrocutewhentouchedandcause injuryordeath.Eventhegasoline-poweredgenerators usedafterastormhaspassedcanbedeadly.Theyrelease carbonmonoxide,whichcanbepoisonousifthegenerator isinsideornearahome[1].Carbonmonoxidepoisoningistheleadingcauseofdeathduringpoweroutages. Extendedpoweroutagesthreatenthesecurestorageofrefrigeratedmedicinesandtheuseofelectricity-dependent medicalequipment.Inregionsofextremetemperatures, lackofairconditioningorheatbecauseofalackofpower canmeanlifeordeath[13].

Tocombatthefailingelectricalgrid,engineershave beenlookingforon-sitecleanenergysystems,whichare moreaffordableandcansurprisinglywithstandsevere weather.Systemslikesolarandbatterystoragewouldcollectandstoreenergybeforethestorms,sustainminimal damageasthehurricanepasses,andstillbefunctionalafterthestorm[13].However,theaveragetropicalcyclone generatesabout600terawattsofenergy,150terawatts fromitswindsalone[4].Toputthisintoperspective,the humanpopulation’stotalenergyconsumptionisabout 17.7terawatts[22].Iftheycouldbeputtouse,winds fromasinglestormwouldbemorethanenoughtopower coastaltownsandcitiesforyears.

Currently,themostcommonwaytomakewindturbineswithstandhurricanesistosimplyturnthemoff. However,therigidframeoftheseturbinesandtheproximityofthebladestothetowercausesriskofsnapping. Bladescanbemadefirmer,butthiscomesatahigher cost.Turningthemoffalsomeansenergyisnotbeing harvestedwhenthewindisatitsstrongest[17].Computersimulationsofthishaveshownthatdespitethislack ofenergyproduction,whenwindturbinesareinstalled offshore,theycanreducethestormsurgeorevenwind gustsduringhurricanes,decreasingdestructionevenif theyarenotproducingwindenergy[2].

Flexible,two-bladewindturbinesprovideanother option

Anotheroptionforhavingwindturbinessurviveand evenbenefitfromhighwindspeedsistwo-bladewind turbineswhichareflexibleandspinparalleltothewind.

Thiscutsthecostofmaterial,whilealsodecreasingthechanceofbreakage.Thesewindturbineshavea computerizedsystemthatallowsthemtocalculatewhich directiontofacebasedonthestrengthanddirectionofthe wind.However,theyhaveyettobetestedinarealhurricaneandarealsomadetobeproducedonalargescale–exceedingtheheightoftheEiffelTower[17].Although largewindturbinescanproduceahugeamountofpower, theproblemisthatiftransmissionlinesgodown,thereis nowaytogetelectricitytohousesandbuildings.

Thelastandmostpromisingsolutionbeingdiscussed andtestedasofnowisaverticalaxiswindturbinethat utilizesMagnusforcetomaketheturbinespin(asshown infigure1)[21].Thismechanismallowsforwindtobe collectedfromanydirection.Engineershavecontrolover thetightnessofthecenterpolethatcankeeptheturbine workingsmoothly–orevenbetter–inhurricane-force winds[16].Thespeedofthecylinderscanalsobecontrolledinordertomaximizewhateverwindisblowingon agivenday.Despitethesemajorbreakthroughs,flying debriscanstillposeaproblemforthiswindturbine[3]. Also,inordertoharnesstheMagnuseffect,motorsare usedoneachcylinder,usingabout 10% oftheenergy generated[19].Lastly,itssize,whilerelativelysmallin thegrandschemeofthings,isstillseveralstoriestalland likelycostly(thepriceisnotreadilyavailable)[10].

Althoughhomewindturbinesdoexistanddonot needanintactgridtowork,theyproducerelativelylittle electricity,oftenlessthan 1/15thofwhattheaverage Americanhomeuses[5].Thesehomewindturbinesare additionallyrelativelycostlyandnothurricaneresistant [20].

Figure1.Diagramofaverticalaxiswindturbinethat utilizesmagnusforce.

4.1Chitty,OctaviaandGonzalez-Rychener,Vanessa.HarnessingHurricaneWindEnergyUsing VerticalActionWindTurbines43

Inordertosolvetheproblemofhighpricesandselfsufficiencyaftertheelectricalinfrastructureisdestroyed, wesetouttodesignaturbinethatcanwithstandhurricanesandharnessenergy,preferablyrequiringrelatively littleenergyinput.Itshouldbecost-effectiveandviable onasmallscale,eitherforacommunityoranindividual home.Installationshouldalsoberelativelyquick,simple,andinexpensivesothatitisaviablesolutionforthe low-incomecommunitiesthatareoftenmostaffectedby hurricanes.

DesignObjectives:

Allwindturbinesaredesignedtoworkinaspecific rangeofwindspeeds,knownascut-inspeed,ratedspeed, andcut-outspeed(asillustratedinfigure2).Cut-inspeed istheinitialwindspeedatwhichaturbinecanbegin generatingpower.Thecut-inspeedforageneric1MW turbineis13kilometersperhour.Theratedspeedis thespeedatwhichthemaximumamountofenergyis produced.

However,theturbinehadtobeshutoffafterreachingits toprotationspeedbeforetheeyeofthetyphoonandhad troublestartingbackupaftertheeyepassed[3].

Figure3:Challenergy’sturbineinthePhillipines.

InordertoextendtheperformanceoftheChallenergy turbine,weplantoaddmorefeaturesthatallowittoadapt todifferentwindspeeds.WhiletheChallenergyturbine iscapableoftighteningitscenteraxisinordertokeep itfromspinningoutofcontrolaswellaschangingthe speedofitsmotors,itstillhastostopbeforepeakwind speedsarehit[16][3].Inordertoimprovethisoutcome, weplantoutilizeelementsoftherelativelysimpledesign ofatripodinordertogivetheabilitytocontroltorque aswellasfriction[7].Thesimplestequationfortorque is T ∝ Fr,where F isforceand r isradiusordistance fromtheaxis[14].Whenthewindforceishighandthe radiusisalsolarge(asshownindiagramAofFigure4), thetorquewillbeveryhigh,causingtheturbinetospin outofcontrol.However,iftheforceishighandtheradius islow,likeindiagramBofFigure4,thetorquewillbe manageable.Thiswillalsosimultaneouslyhelpthelow endofthespectrum,sinceapositionlikediagramAor perhapsevenwiderwouldcapitalizeonthesmallamount offorcealightbreezewouldcreate.

Thepoweroutputincreasescubicallywithwindspeed betweenthecut-inandratedspeeds.Thecut-outspeedis thewindspeedatwhichtheturbinecannolongeroperate withoutriskingdamage[23].

Ourdesignwillexploreincreasingtheratedandmaximumcut-outspeedstoincreasethelongevityandpower createdbyawindturbineduringforcefulwindscreated byanaturaldisaster.Webasedourdesignonaturbine builttowithstandhightyphoonwinds(Figure3).This turbine,newlyconstructedinthePhilippinesbyacompanycalledChallenergy,functionedandsurvivedina categoryfivetyphoon,whichhadawindspeedofover 245kilometersperhour.Duringthisstorm,itattainedthe maximumamountofenergyitcouldgenerate(11kWh).

Figure2:Agraphillustratingthepoweroutputsfor windspeedsupto100km/h.

Figure4:Twodifferentdesignsoftripods.

AnotherissueintheChallenergydesignwhichwe willseektoimproveuponisitsuseofelectricitytomake thecylindersspin,thereforewastingsomeoftheenergy produced.Weplantotryoutstrategiessuchasattaching clothtothesideofthecylinderstotryandmakethem spinusingdragforce,whilehopefullynotinterfering withtheMagnuseffect[18].Thiscloth,ofcourse,will havetobestrongandwellconnectedinordertosurvive hurricane-forcewinds.

Inordertotestourdesign,whichwouldlikelyhaveto beconstructedatalargerscalethanwehavespaceforat school,wewillbuilditonamuchsmallerscaleanduse proportionallyweakerwinds(sincehurricane-forcewinds arealsodifficulttocomebyinPennsylvania)produced byfans.Wemayalsobeabletoperformsimulationsto testourproduct’sfunctionality.

ChallengesandConcerns:

Oneofthebiggestchallengesincreatingthiswind turbinewillbegettingspecificationsforcreatinga Challenergy-inspiredturbine,sincetheChallenergywebsitecontainsrelativelyfewconstructionspecifications. Wemaybeabletoinferagoodamountfromimagesand theinformationthatisreadilyavailable,butitwilllikely beimportanttocontactthecompany.Thefactthatthis companyworksinJapanandthePhilippineswillmakeit difficulttoworkwiththem[12].Wemaybeabletowork withWindStax–acompanyspecializinginverticalaction windturbines–tohavealocalpartnertoworkwith,even thoughtheydonotworkonhurricaneresilience[10].

Itwillalsobedifficulttoaccesswindturbinematerials,sincemanyarenotreadilyavailablealloysthatare alsodifficulttoworkwithandexpensive.Thiswould alsobeagoodopportunitytoworkwithWindStax,but forpreliminaryprototypeswewillusereadilyavailable materials.Lastly,asmentionedbefore,testingwillbe difficultduetothelackofstrongwindsfoundlocally. Forthesereasons,thebestoptionwilllikelybetestinga proportionallysmallerandweakerwindturbineinscaled downwindsorinasimulation.

References

[1] AfteraHurricane. URL: https://portal.ct. gov/DEMHS/Emergency-M%20anagement/ Resources-For-Individuals/Hur% 20ricane-Season-Preparedness/After-aHurr%20icane (citedonpage42).

[2] J.Broughel. CouldWindTurbinesBeASecret WeaponAgainstHurricanes?Today’sFantasyMay BeTomorrow’sReality. 2022. URL: https:// www.forbes.com/sites/jamesbrou%20ghel/ 2022/11/11/could-wind-turbines-be%20-

a-secret-weapon-against-hurricanesto%20days-fantasy-may-be-tomorrowsreality/%20?sh=79ecfa583156 (citedon page42).

[3] A.Corbley. FirstWindTurbineDesignedtoHarnessTyphoonEnergyisErectedinStorm-prone Asia,SoonTestedby154mphWinds. 2021. URL: https://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/first%20wind-turbine-designed-to-harnesstypho%20on-energy/ (citedonpages42,43).

[4] M.Z.Donahue. CanWeCaptureEnergyFrom aHurricane? 2016. URL: https://www. smithsonianmag.com/innovat%20ion/ can-we-capture-energy-hurricane-18% 200960750/ (citedonpage42).

[5] C.Eaton. Howmuchenergydoesanaveragehouse use? 2022. URL: https://blog.ecoflow. com/us/how-much-e%20nergy-does-anaverage-house-use/ (citedonpage42).

[6] Gulfcedestin. Howhurricanesaffectyourhome electricity. 2021. URL: https://gcedestin. com/how-hurricanes-a%20ffect-yourhome-electricity/ (citedonpages41,42).

[7] Home. URL: https://windstax.com/ (citedon page43).

[8] HurricanePreparedness-Hazards. URL: https: //www.nhc.noaa.gov/prepare/hazar%20ds. php (citedonpage41).

[9] Hurricanes. 2020. URL: https://www.noaa. gov/education/resourc%20e-collections/ weather-atmosphere/hurri%20canes (cited onpage42).

[10] ChallenergyInc. Product. 2021. URL: https: //challenergy.com/en/product/ (citedon pages42,44).

[11] J.Larino. EntergylearnsKatrinalessons,butdamagepreventionstillinquestion. 2015. URL: https: //www.nola.com/news/article_bb5% 20f05b6-701b-5a6b-adfd-42f64f30b5b7. html# (citedonpage42).

[12] L.-H.Liang. Thewindturbinesstandinguptothe world’sworststorms. Sept.2020. URL: https: //www.bbc.com/future/article/202% 2000903-the-wind-turbines-standingup-to%20-the-worlds-worst-storms (cited onpage44).

4.2Clark,Elena.YourNuclearCon-Fusion:Resolved45

[13] S.Minos. RenewableEnergyandEnergyStorageCanHelpYouPowerThroughNaturalDisasters. June2022. URL: https://www.energy. gov/energysaver/art%20icles/renewableenergy-and-energy-stor%20age-canhelp-you-power-through-natural (cited onpage42).

[14] D.Nelson. WhatIsTheTorqueEquation? Nov. 2019. URL: https://sciencetrends.com/ what-is-the-%20torque-equation/ (cited onpage43).

[15] StateofNewHampshire. Hurricanes. Sept.2022. URL: https://www.readynh.gov/ disasters/hurr%20icanes.htm# (citedon page41).

[16] J.OguraandJ.Marsh. Stormchasers:TheTyphoonTurbineThatCouldPowerJapanfor50 Years. Sept.2016. URL: https://www.cnn. com/style/article/typh%20oon-catchersjapan-challenergy/index.h%20tml (cited onpages42,43).

[17] K.Simkins. Inspiredbypalmtrees,scientists develophurricane-resilientwindturbines. Sept. 2022. URL: https://www.colorado.edu/ today/2022/06%20/15/inspired-palm-

4.2 YourNuclearCon-Fusion:Resolved

ByElenaClark

Abstract

RecentadvancesbynuclearscientistsattheNational IgnitionFacilityinCaliforniamaybeabigsteptowards makingnuclearpowerasaferandmorecommonsource ofelectricity[2].Thispaperexplainswhynuclearfusionisbetterthannuclearfissionasasustainableenergy source,andwhythenewsfromCaliforniaisimportant. Currently,allnuclearpowerplantsusenuclearfission toproduceenergy.Unfortunately,nuclearfissionis moredangerousthannuclearfusion.Iffusionwasthe primarysourceofnuclearenergy,alotofthesafety concernsthathavebeenassociatedwithnuclearpower wouldberesolved.Inthisarticle,theauthordefines keyterminologyandsummarizesrecentarticlesabout thebreakthroughsattheNationalIgnitionFacility.By providingthisoverviewtheauthorwillexplainwhy nuclearpowerdoesn’tneedtobeasdangerouswhen usingnuclearfusion.Educatingawideraudienceabout thistopicwillhopefullyhelptonegatesomeofthe fearsurroundingnuclearpowerasasustainableenergy solution.

Tounderstandwhynuclearfusionisabettersolution, it’sbesttounderstandhowbothfissionandfusionop-

trees-scientists-dev%20elop-hurricaneresilient-wind-turbines (citedonpage42).

[18] Jim’sCoolStuff. AnewtypeofVAWTthatiseasy tobuild. 2019. URL: https://youtu.be/2k41_ OZBo5k (citedonpage44).

[19] TishoYanchev. WindTurbineWithNoPropellors. Oct.2017. URL: https://youtu.be/OdpKHBdhoE (citedonpage42).

[20] A.Tweedale. Aguidetodomesticwindturbines andhowtheycanpoweryourhome. May2021. URL: https://www.ovoenergy.com/guides/ energ%20y-guides/home-wind-turbinespros-cons-%20and-how-much-they-cost (citedonpage42).

[21] Veritasium. WhatIsTheMagnusForce? Nov.2012. URL: https://youtu.be/23f1jvGUWJs (cited onpage42).

[22] WhatisaTerawatt? Aug.2022. URL: https: //www.electricrate.com/what-is-a%20terawatt/ (citedonpage42).

[23] WindPower. URL: https://energyeducation. ca/encyclopedi%20a/Wind_power# (citedon page43).

erate.Innuclearfission,neutronscollidewithunstable uraniumatoms,breakingtheirbondsinanexothermic reactionandreleasingenergyintheformofheatand radiation.Theproblemwiththistechniqueisthatitis achainreaction.Oncethishappenstothefirstatom, moreneutronsarereleased,whichcreatesadominoeffect.Ifthisreactionisnotsafelycontained,therecould becatastrophicconsequences.Anexampleofthisisthe Fukushimanucleardisasterin Okuma,Fukushima,Japan. Duringthisincident,a 9 0 magnitudeearthquaketriggeredatsunami,whichfloodedfissionreactors,causing numerousexplosions[1].TheFukushimadisastergave risetoanti-nuclearmovementsinJapan,aspeoplelost faithinitasasustainableenergysolution.

Innuclearfusion,extremeheatandpressurearerequiredtocreateaplasma,wherenucleiandelectrons arebouncingaroundfreely.Sincethenucleitravelexceedinglyfast,therepulsionbetweenthemisoverridden, andtheyfusetogether,releasingenergyintheprocess. Radiationisnotreleased.Inthepast,theproblemwith nuclearfusionwasachievingignition.Thismeansthat scientistshavestruggledtocreateafusionreactionwhere

moreenergyisproducedthanconsumed.Butjustrecently,theNationalIgnitionFacilityinCaliforniawas abletoachieveignition.OnDecember5,2022,theyused 2 05 megajoulesofenergytoproduce 3 15 megajoulesof energy[2].Theyachievedthisbyblastingapelletofdeuteriumandtritium,isotopesofhydrogen,with 192 lasers tocreateenoughheatandpressureforfusiontooccur. Althoughthisbreakthroughwasmassive,itcouldstill bedecadesbeforenuclearfusionbecomescommercially available.

Inthepast,nucleardisastershavecreatedastigma aroundusingitasanenergysource.Thisisonereason whyfusioncouldbeabetteralternative.Whennuclear fissioniscreated,energyisreleasedintheformofheat. Topreventoverheating,controlrodsareusedtomanage thenumberofneutronsreleased.Thisway,thechain reactiondoesn’tspiraloutofcontrol.However,ifthe poweriscutoutandthecontrolrodscannolongerbe operated,areactormeltdownoccurs.Atactictoprevent anexplosionistoreleaseallofthatheatandradiationinto theair.Radiationexposurecanbeextremelydangerous, leadingtoillnesseslikeAcuteRadiationSyndrome.Ifa disruptionoccurredinafusionreaction,largeamounts ofradiationwouldnotbereleased,andtherewouldnot bethethreatofexplosion.Thereactionwouldsimply stop.Anotheradvantageofnuclearfusionisthelackof radioactivewaste.Nuclearwastefromfissionreactorscan becomparedtoplastic,it’sdifficulttogetridof.While

4.3 SocialInfluenceandDecision-Making

ByNoraFaraci

Abstract

Thepurposeofthisexperimentwastodetermineifpeoplearemorelikelytoanswerquestionsbasedonothers opinionsortheirownpersonalknowledgeandifthere isanincreaseofconfidencewhenprovidedwithsocial influence.Toperformthisexperimentfirst,azoomcall washostedtoexplainthesurveytoallparticipants.The surveywasthensentout.Theparticipantsanswered eachgeneralknowledgequestionwithoutanyoutside resources.Then,thedataoftheentirestudy’sanswers werecompiledandaddedtothesurvey.Theoriginal surveywassentbacktothecontrolgroupandthenew surveywassenttotheexperimentalgroup.Thedata wasgatheredtodetermineifhavingsocialinfluence boostsconfidenceandifsocialinfluenceimpactsdecisionmaking.Itwasdiscoveredthatslightlyoverhalf oftheexperimentalgroupwhoswitchedtothemajority answerincreasedtheirlevelofconfidence,butsurprisingly,approximatelyaquarterdecreasedtheirleveland and 22% remainedatthesamelevel.Ultimately,social influenceimpactedtheexperimentalgroupsconfidence,

somenuclearwastecannowberecycledandreuseditis preferentialandsafertonotcreatenuclearwaste.

Despitethefearsurroundingnuclearfission,nuclear disastersaren’tverycommon.SincetheThreeMileIslandaccident,scientistshavelearnedalotabouthowto makefacilitiessafer.Therearethicklayersofconcrete toabsorbheatenergy,watercoolingsystems,andmany otherdefensesputinplacetopreventdisastersfromhappening.Withtherecentbreakthroughsinnuclearfusion, wearewellonourwaytocreatingamoresustainableand safeenergysource.

References

SpecialthankstoDr.Hortonforhelpingmewiththis article!

[1] BBC. Fukushimadisaster:Whathappenedatthe nuclearplant? Mar.2021. URL: https://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-56%20252695 (citedonpage45).

[2] MGreshko. Scientistsachieveabreakthrough innuclearfusion.Here’swhatitmeans.Science.Dec.2022. URL: https://www. nationalgeographic.com/sci%20ence/ article/scientists-achieve-breakt% 20hrough-nuclear-fusion (citedonpages45, 46).

butnottheiranswers.Thisworkisimportantforpersonalselfawarenessandhowothersopinionsimpact yourconfidence.

Everyday,weareconstantlymakingdecisions.What outfitshouldIwear?WhatshouldIhaveforlunch? WhichbusshouldItakehome?Moreoftenthannot,one ofthekeyfactorsthatinfluencethedecisionswemakeis fromotherpeople.Whetheritisfromthemedia,ourparents,orourfriends,peopleareconstantlytellinguswhat todo.Andwhilewetypicallygoalongwithwhatother peoplearedoing,thequestionthatremainsisiffollowing thenormmakesusmoreconfident.Iusedthisquestion toguidethemainpointsofthisstudy.Whenaskedaseriesofquestionsarepeoplemorelikelytoselectanswers basedonothersopinionsortheirownpersonalknowledge.Isthereanincreaseinconfidencewhenprovided withsocialinfluence?

Inordertoconsiderthesequestionsaboutsocialinfluenceitisimportanttolookatonepartofthebrain

4.3Faraci,Nora.SocialInfluenceandDecision-Making47 essentialfordecision-making.Theventralmedialprefrontalcortexisresponsibleformanagingrisk,fear,and emotionalresponsesrelatedtodecision-making.Lesions inthispartofthebraincancausedifficultiesmakingdecisionsandtheinabilitytobedoubtful.Thismeansthat theventralmedialprefrontalcortexisessentialfordeterminingwhowechoosetolistentoandwhenwechoose tolistentoothersforadvice.

Whileourbrainsplayanimportantroleinour decision-making,externalfactorsalsohaveasignificant impactonourchoices.Forexample,whenpresentedwith similarchoices,mostpeoplechoosetheonethatresulted inapositiveoutcomebeforedemonstratingtherolepast experienceinfluencesourchoices.Additionally,commitmenttoaproject,socioeconomicstatus,age,andpersonal relevancealsoimpactourdailydecision-making.

Peoplehaveastrongtendencytoconformtogroup norms.Groupconformitymakespeoplefeelaccepted andwelcomed.Oftenwefindcomfortinasenseofcohesivenessinsociety.Therearetwomainwaysthatpeople conformtotheidealsofthegroup.Theideaofpublicconformitysuggeststhatpeoplewilloftenconform withotherstofitinwhilemaintainingtheirownpersonal beliefs.Conversely,privateconformityoccurswhenindividualschangeinternalvaluesbasedontheideasofthe group.

Whileitisclearwithcurrentresearchthatseveral factorssuchasourbrains,externalfactors,andgroup idealsleadustodifferentchoices,lessisknownabout theimpactoftheseinfluencesoninternalfeelingssuch asconfidence.In2013,astudyconductedbyMehdi Moussaïd,JulianeE.Kämmer,PantelisP.Analytis,and HansjörgNethassessedifin-personfeedbackboosted participants’confidenceintheirchoices.Theyfoundthat socialinfluencedid,infact,increasetheircertaintyin theirdecisions.

Duetothepandemic,wehavespentlongperiodsof timeawayfrommainsourcesofinfluence.Thismeans that,whetherwelikeitornot,wehavebeenrelyingon percentages,falseinformation,andmediacommentsto informouropinions.Iwantedtocreateanexperiment thattestedpeople’sconfidenceandtheirdecision-making electronically.Todothis,Icameupwithtengeneral knowledgequestionswiththreepossibleanswers.These questionsweresentto26eighthgradestudents.Theparticipantswereaskedtoanswereachquestionandassess theirconfidenceintheiranswerbasedonasixpointscale. Thedataoftheirresultwascompiledontoanewsurvey. Forexample,iftwentypercentoftheparticipantschose answerchoiceC,then(20%)wouldbeplacednextto answerchoiceConthenewsurvey.Theinitialsurvey wassenttohalfoftheparticipantsrandomlyselectedin

thecontrolgroup.Theyansweredeachquestioninthe samewayasthefirsttime.Theotherhalfoftheparticipantsintheexperimentalgroupweregiventhenew survey.Theyansweredeachquestioninthesameway asbeforewiththeadditionofknowledgeontheanswers theirpeerschooseinthefirstround.

Twohypotheseswerecreatedtohelpanalyzetheresultoftheexperiment.Thefirstonesuggestedthatif participantsareaskedgeneralknowledgequestionswith socialinfluence,thenthosewhochangetheiranswerin thesecondroundwillconformtothemajorityopinion. Thesecondhypothesissuggestedthatifparticipantsare askedgeneralquestionswithandwithoutsocialinfluence, thentheoneswiththeinfluencewillhaveincreasedlevels ofconfidenceintheirfinalanswers.Afteranalyzingthe data,Iwasabletoproveanddisprovethesehypotheses aswellascometootherconclusionsusingthesamedata. Hereiswhatwasfound.

Thefirstmaintakeawaywasthatmostpeopledidnot changetheiranswerstothegeneralknowledgequestions betweenroundsoneandtwo.AsFigure1suggests,only 21% ofthecontrolgroupandonly 25% oftheexperimentalgroupchangedtheiranswer.Thismeansthatthe participantsdidnotdemonstratetheideasofpublicor privateconformityinthisexperiment.Inotherwords,the participantsinthisstudydidnotfeelpressuretochange theiranswersevenwithsocialinfluenceimplemented. Additionallyitwasdiscoveredthatthemajorityofthe experimentalparticipantswhochangedtheiranswerdid notchangetothe majorityanswer.AccordingtoFigure2, 76% surprisinglydidnotchangetothe majorityanswer, thereforedisprovingthefirsthypothesis.

Whilenotmanyparticipantschangedtheiranswer, severalofthemchangedtheirlevelsofconfidence.AccordingtoFigure3, 50% ofthecontrolgroupchanged theirconfidenceand 56% oftheexperimentalgroup changedtheirconfidence.Thismeansthatconfidence levelsarelessstablethanpeople’sopinions.Soeven thoughapersonmayhavethesameopinions,overtime, theircertaintyinthesedecisionsismorelikelytochange. Whatisparticularlyinterestingaboutthisisthatthereis notmuchdiscrepancybetweenthestabilityofconfidence whenprovidedandnotprovidedwithsocialinfluence. Thismeansthatpeople’sconfidenceislikelytochange regardlessoftheirsurroundings.

Althoughtherewasnotmuchofadifferencebetween thepercentageofpeoplewhochangedtheirconfidencein thecontrolandexperimentalgroups,therewasaslightly morenoticeabledifferencebetweenthepercentageof peoplewhoincreasedtheirconfidencelevelsoutofthe peoplewhochangedtheirconfidencelevels.According toFigure4,only 45% ofthepeopleinthecontrolgroup

whochangedtheirconfidenceincreasedtheirconfidence. However, 56% oftheexperimentalgroupwhochanged theirconfidenceincreasedtheirconfidence.Thiscould possiblyindicatethatwhenpeopleareprovidedwithsocialinfluence,theirconfidenceismorelikelytoincrease. However,duetothelimitedsamplesizeandonlythe smalldifferencebetweenthecontrolandexperimental groups,thisconclusioncannotbemadefromthisexperiment.

Thefinaltakeawayofthisexperimentpossiblyconcludedthatchangingone’sopiniontoconformwiththe majority,increasesconfidencelevels.AccordingtoFigure5,oftheparticipantsintheExperimentalgroupwho changedtheiranswertothe majorityanswer, 52% reportedincreasedlevelsofconfidence.Surprisingly, 26% ofthemdecreasedtheirconfidencelevelsand 22% ofthe participantskepttheirconfidencelevelthesame.

Thisexperimenthelpeddetermineifone’slevelsof confidenceincreaseiftheyareimpactedbysocialinfluence.Thedatadidnotsupportthefirsthypothesisthat predictedthosewhochangedtheiranswerwouldconformwiththemajorityopinion.Instead,onlyabout 23% oftheexperimentalgroupconformedwiththemajority opinion.Thedatadidhoweversupportthesecondhypothesiswhichpredictedthattheexperimentalgroupwould havehigherlevelsofincreasedconfidencecomparedto thecontrolgroup.Only 45% ofthepeopleinthecontrolgroupwhochangedtheirconfidenceincreasedtheir confidence.However, 56% oftheexperimentalgroup whochangedtheirconfidenceincreasedtheirconfidence. Itwasalsodiscoveredthatslightlyoverhalfoftheexperimentalgroupwhoswitchedtothemajorityanswer increasedtheirlevelofconfidence,butsurprisinglyabout aquarterdecreasedtheirlevelandand 22% remainedat thesamelevel.Ultimately,socialinfluenceimpactedthe experimentalgroupsconfidence,butnottheiranswers.

Weareconstantlytakinginsocialinfluencefromthe worldaroundus.Knowingthatithasthecapabilityto swayconfidence,thinkabouthowyouareimpactedon thedaily.Areyouhesitanttotakerisksorperforminfront ofanaudience?Or,doyouthriveoffofgroupideals? Bybeingawareofoursurroundingsandhowtheyimpact ourmood,weareabletomakebetterdecisionsthatbest reflectourpersonalbeliefs.So,takethetimetothink, whenisittimetoconformwiththemajorityandwhenis ittimetostickwithyourgut?

Figure1

Figure2

Figure3

Figure4

Figure5

decision-making-factors-that-in% 20fluence-decision-making-heuristicsuse%20d-and-decision-outcomes.

[3] FeaturedNeurosciencePsychology. TwoDistinct BrainRegionsHaveIndependentInfluenceon Decision-Making.Sept.2017. URL: http:// neurosciencenews.com/decision-m% 20aking-brain-regions-7390/.

[4] IdeasforLeaders. SocialInfluencesonDecisionMaking:NeuroscienceInsights.July2017. URL: http://www.ideasforleaders.com/ideas/ s%20ocial-influences-on-decisionmaking-ne%20uroscience-insights.

[1] Demetre. WhatIstheVentromedialPrefrontal Cortex?ScienceBeta. Mar.2010. URL: https: //sciencebeta.com/ventromedial-p% 20refrontal-cortex/.

[2] CDietrich. DecisionMaking:FactorsThatInfluenceDecisionMaking,HeuristicsUsed,and DecisionOutcomes.2010. URL: http://www. inquiriesjournal.com/articl%20es/180/

[5] etalMoussaïdM. SocialInfluenceandtheCollectiveDynamicsofOpinionFormation.Public LibraryofScience.Sept.2017. URL: http:// journals.plos.org/plosone

[6] AWaude. SocialInfluence:WhyWeConformInGroups.2017. URL: http://www. psychologistworld.com/influ%20ence/ social-influence

4.4 Dose-ResponseConfirmationofSmallMoleculesThatStabilizeMutantTriose PhosphateIsomerase(TPI)asTreatmentsforTPIDeficiency

ByDr.AndreasVogt,SidharthSadashiv,LauraVollmer,Dr.MichaelJ.Palidino

Abstract

Inthisproject,aninventoryofHELAcellswas treatedwiththemutantTPI-GFPproteinusingthe InvitrogenTM Flp-InTM System.ThesecellswerecreatedtotestmultiplecompoundsfromanNIHcompoundlibrary.CompoundsfoundinthisprimaryscreeningthatincreasedlevelsofmutantTPIwerethenconfirmedinpatientfibroblastswiththegoaloffindinga drugthatcanbeusedtotreatpatientswithTPIdeficiency(TPIDF).

Introduction

Triosephosphateisomerase(TPI)isanenzymethatis involvedinacriticalenergy-producingprocessknownas glycolysis.Thisglycolyticenzymeconvertsdihydroxyacetonephosphatetoglyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.MutationsaffectingthisenzymecanleadtoarecessivedegenerativeneuromusculardisordercalledTPIdeficiency orTPIDf.ThemostcommonmutationistheTPI/E105D mutation.Thetypicalageofdiagnosisisbetween1and 5yearsofage,andthemostcommoninitialsymptomis hemolyticanemiabecauseerythrocytescannotcompensatefordefectiveglycolysis.Oncediagnosed,patients typicallyhaveabout2to5yearslefttolive,withtheend

stageofthisdiseasebeingsevereparalysis.Thecommon TPI/E105Dmutationisamissensemutationthatleadsto thedecreasedstabilityoftheTPIprotein.Whilethemutantproteinremainsactiveandfunctional,themutations causeittobetargetedbytheproteinqualitycontrol(PQC), leadingtolowlevelsofTPIinthecells.TherearecurrentlynoknownmedicaltreatmentsforTPIDf.Inorder tofindpotentialtreatmentsforTPIDf,thePalladinolaboratoryincollaborationwiththeUniversityofPittsburgh DrugDiscoveryInstitutedevelopedahigh-throughput, high-contentscreeningassaytoidentifycompoundsthat increasecellularlevelsofmutantTPI.

Methods

WecreatedtheHELAHyperRedcelllinethatexpressesthemutantTPI/E105Dproteinfusedtoagreenfluorescentproteinreporter(TPI/E105D-GFP).Thecultured HELAcellsallowedustotestthousandsofcompounds fromtheNationalInstituteofHealthClinicalCollection ofcompoundsforscreeninginpilotscreens.Theseassays functionedasaphenotypicscreenforcompoundsthatstabilizemutantTPI.Insightsgainedfromthisscreening allowedforconfirmationexperimentsusingthepotential therapeuticsonpatientcells.Fibroblasts(FB303)with

4.4Sadashiv,Sidharth.,et.al.Dose-ResponseConfirmationofSmallMoleculesThatStabilize MutantTriosePhosphateIsomerase(TPI)asTreatmentsforTPIDeficiency49

the“common”E105Dmutationwereculturedusingstandardmethods(37 degC, 5% CO2)inDMEMmedia.The cellswereplatedona384-wellplateandtreatedwith theprimaryscreeninghits(Vincamine,Artesunate,Vinpocetine,Arimoclomol,Itavastatin,andResveratrol)at varyingconcentrationsinten-point,two-foldconcentrationsgradientsusingaBeckmanCoulterBiomek2000 liquidhandler.DMSOwasusedasanegativecontroland Luminespibwasusedasapositivecontrol.Thecellswere thenstainedusinganti-TPIantibodies(Invitrogenrabbit polyclonalandSantaCruzrabbitpolyclonal)followedby aCy3-conjugatedsecondaryantibody.PlateswereimagedonaPerkinElmerOperaPhenixhigh-contentreader andanalyzedbyautomatedimageanalysisforlevelsof cellularmutantTPI.

Results

Duringtesting,theproductionofouroriginalanti-TPI antibodywasstopped,soVincamine,Artesunate,and Vinpocetineweretestedtwice—oncewithouroriginal antibodyandoncewiththenewone.Bothantibodies gaveidenticalresultswhichwereconfirmedinasecond independentbiologicalrepeat,soArimoclomol,Itavastatin,andResveratrolwereonlytestedinthenewantibody.Dose-responsecurvesrevealedthattwoofthe agentstestedArtesunateandResveratrolandcauseda dose-dependentincreaseinmutantTPI.However,when comparedtoourpositivecontrolLuminespib,atleast 100-foldhigherconcentrationsofArtesunateandResveratrolwererequiredtoincreasemutantTPIlevels.Both compoundsreducedthenumberofcellsinthewells,possiblyduetotoxicity,butlesscellswerelostoverallin comparisontothecontrolLuminespib.

Discussion

TheresultsshowninFigures1-6indicatethatTPI levelsincreasedinmutantpatientFibroblastsuponArtesunateandResveratroltreatment.Hence,bothcompoundscouldbeapromisingnewtreatmentforTPIDf. Futurestudieswouldinvolvefurtherconfirmationinan orthogonalassayforTPIexpression(Westernblot)and testinginanimalmodelsofTPIDf(fruitfliesandmice).

Figure1

Figure2

Figure3

Figure4

4.4Sadashiv,Sidharth.,et.al.Dose-ResponseConfirmationofSmallMoleculesThatStabilize MutantTriosePhosphateIsomerase(TPI)asTreatmentsforTPIDeficiency51

[1] OlahJ;OroszF;KeseruGM;etal. Triosephosphateisomerasedeficiency:aneurodegenerative misfoldingdisease. 2002. URL: https://pubmed. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/120238%2019/.

[2] KnowlesJR. AlberyWJPerfectioninenzymecatalysis:theenergeticsoftriosephosphateisomerase. 1977. URL: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/ 10.1021/ar%2050112a001.

Figure5

Figure6

5.ContemporarySocialIssues

5.1

IsOilMoneyDamagingtheReputationofInternationalFootball?

BySpencerAmole

Abstract

Thisarticlediscussestheintroductionofoilmoneyinto soccer,morecommonlyknownaroundtheworldas football.Thephenomenonof“sportswashing”istheactionofattemptingtodistractfrompastmisdeedsbygarneringsupportamongsportsfans.Manyoiloligarchs arenowusingthisstrategyintheworldoffootballwithouttheawarenessoffans.Thisworkwilleducatethe readerabouttheincursionofpoliticsanddirtymoney intothereveredsportoffootball.

Soccerisoneofthemostpopularsportsintheworld. Childrenonnearlyeverycontinentbegintolearntohandleasoccerballfromaveryearlyage.Inmanycountries –suchasBelgium,Italy,Argentina,andMexico–soccer isconsideredtobethenationalpastime.The2021ChampionsLeaguefinalgame,whereplayersparticipateina gameofEuropeanfootball(Americansoccer),broughtin 700millionviewers,comparedtothe2022SuperBowl,a gameofAmericanfootball,whichbroughtin112million viewers.Professionalsoccerteamsareknownasfootball clubsinmostoftheworldoutsideoftheUnitedStates. Thispaperwillrefertothegameasfootballbecauseit willfocusoninternationalteams,withaspecialfocus

onEnglishclubsthathavealongassociationwithoil producingnations.

Thesuccessofafootballclubdependsuponmany factors.Someofthesefactorsincludewhethertheclubis playinginaprestigiousleague,thedegreeofskillofthe playerswhoarerecruitedtotheteam,andtheexperience andtalentofthecoaches.Allofthesefactorsaredependentuponthedepthofsponsorshipmoneyavailableto theteam.Thispaperwillexploretherecenthistoryofoil moneyinfusionintointernationalfootball,howfinancial sponsorshiphasbeenshowntodirectlyimpactfootball clubs,andtheethicalissuesraisedduetoenvironmental andhealthconcernscausedbythepetroleumindustry.

Internationalsoccerteamshavecomeunderscrutiny recentlywithregardtotheoriginsoftheirfunding.This isinlargepartduetostudiesthathavedeterminedthat footballclubsownedorsponsoredbypeoplewhohave madetheirfortunesthroughthepetroleumindustrytend tobethemostsuccessful.Infact,afootballclubthat isownedorsponsoredbysomeonewhoobtainedtheir moneythroughthepetroleumindustryisconsideredto bean“oilmoneyclub:”“Footballclubsthataresaidto berunonoilmoneyarethosewhichhavereceivedinvest-

SectionHeaderbyTiagoAlfonso-Wells’23.

mentfrombusinessesinvolvedinthepetroleumindustry or...thosewhichhavebeenboughtoutrightbygroups orindividualswhosefinancialcloutemanatesfromtheir dealingsinoil”[8].AnexampleofthisistheManchesterCityFootballClub,locatedinManchester,United Kingdom,whichissponsoredbyEtihadAirways.Etihad AirwaysisownedbythegovernmentoftheUnitedArab Emirates(U.A.E.),acountrywhichisdependentonoil productionforitswealth.ManchesterCityisthetopteam inthePremierLeague,thewidely-acknowledgedbest footballleagueintheworld.

Thepatternofoilmoneyinvestmentinglobalfootball canbefoundamongmanyothertoptierteams;thusthe resultantsuccessoftheaffectedteamscanbeobserved. Namely,“Oneoftheearliestandmostnotableexamples ofafootballclubreceivingaboostfromtheindustryis PremierLeagueclubChelsea,whoweretakenoverby RomanAbramovichin2003.TheRussianbusinessman investedmoneyintotheBlues[Chelsea’snickname]and helpedtopropelthemtowardssuccessonthenational andcontinentalstages”[8].Abramovich’sfortunecomes inlargepartfromhisinvolvementintheoilindustry,and hisinvestmentinthe3rdhighestrankedteaminthePremierLeaguesuggestsaprobableconnectionbetweenoil moneyfundingandfootballclubsuccess.TherearenumerousotherexamplesoffootballclubslikeChelsea.A numberofthemostsuccessfulteamsintheworldhave benefitedfromoilmoneyandtheseincludeclubsfrom Germany,Greece,Argentina,Italy,France,andSpain amongothers.TheUnitedStates,althoughthelargest producerandconsumerofoilproducts,isstillonlyone ofanumberofthebiggestoilproducingcountriesinthe world.AnInvestopediaarticleonthematterpresents that,“Accordingtothemostrecentdata,thetopfiveoilproducingnationsaretheU.S.,SaudiArabia,Russia, Canada,andChina”.OthertopoilcountriesincludeIraq, UnitedArabEmirates,Brazil,Iran,andKuwait[14].Of thetoptwentyPremierLeagueteams,thirteenofthem haveownersfromthetopoilproducingcountries(See Figure1,Whichcountryhasthemostfootballclubownersfromthetop-fiveEuropeanleagues?).Forexample, theManchesterCityFootballClubinEngland,asmentionedabove,isownedbyArabroyaltyintheUnited ArabEmirates.Similarly,businessownersinChinaare lookingtoinvestinEnglishfootballclubs.Thus,theseexamplesshowthatinternationalfootballclubownersfrom theseoilrichcountriesareableandwillingtoinvesthuge sumsofmoneytopromotetheirteamsandexcitethefans. Additionally,theseoilclubsponsorshipsattractsubstantialrevenuetothecitieswheretheseteamsarelocated. Thisrevenuecomesintheformofincomefromsuch thingsashotels,restaurants,stores,teammerchandise, andparking.

Theissueofhowoilmoneyplaysanoutsizedrolein thesportoffootballhasbeeninvestigatedinrecentyears. AYouTuberwiththeusername DWKickoff undertooka reviewofthetopinternationalfootballleagueteams.That study,whichlookedatthe2015-2018PremierLeagueseasons,uncoveredsomeinterestingfacts.Onesuchdiscoverywasthat,ofthetwentyteamsinthePremierLeague, thetoptenintherankingswerefinancedbyoilmoney, explicitlyhighlightingthecorrelationbetweenthesuccess offootballteamsandoilmoneyfunding.Specifically,as ofMatchweek31inSeason21-22,thetopthreeranked teamsinthePremierLeaguewereManchesterCity,Liverpool,andChelsea.ManchesterCityspendsnearly£143 millionannuallyonplayercontracts,Liverpoolspends around£135million,andChelseaspendscloseto£163 million.Conversely,thebottomthreerankedteamsin thePremierLeaguehavesignificantlylesseramountsto spendonsuchcontracts.ThebottomthreeteamsareNorwichCity,Watford,andLeicesterCity.Norwichonly spends£23milliononcontracts,Watfordspends£30 million,andLeicesterCityspends£55million[4].It isarguablefromthesestatisticsthatthehugeresources availabletothetopteamsfromoilmoneydirectlyand positivelyimpacttheirstandingsintheleague.

Therehavebeenattemptsinthegeneralsportsworld tocorrectfundinginequitiesamongleagueteams.The NationalFootballLeague(NFL)intheUnitedStates–whichplaysAmericanfootball,ratherthansoccer–has attemptedtodealwithfinancialinequalitiesamongthe variousteamsbyimplementingamandatorysalarycap forplayers.Thishasbeenaccomplishedthroughcollectivebargainingandcontractualagreements.“Thecapis anartificiallimitoncollectiveplayerspendingsetbythe CollectiveBargainingAgreement(CBA),thegoverning documentbetweentheNFLandtheNFLPlayersAssociation....Thecap,intheoryatleast,levelstheplaying fieldonthefinancialside”.InEngland,aformofasalary caphasbeenusedinthesportofrugbybuthasbeensofar unsuccessfulindealingwithfinancialdifferencesamong thefootballclubs.

Internationalfootballisinauniquepositionwhen comparedtotheNFLorrugbyduetoboththewidediversityofforeignownership,thatmakescollectivebargaininganimpossibletaskandtheenormousamountsof wealthinvolved.

Inadditiontotheproblemoffinancialinequality amongfootballteams,scrutinyofthese“oilclubs”can bejustifiedbecauseoftheprofoundlynegativeeffectthe petroleumindustryhashadandcontinuestohaveonthe world’senvironment.Forexample,accordingtotheEnvironmentalIntegrityProject,“Theoilandgasindustry producesvastamountsoftoxicairandwaterpollution

5.1Amole,Spencer.IsOilMoneyDamagingtheReputationofInternationalFootball?55

andisthelargestsourceofgreenhousegasemissionsin theUnitedStates”.Thus,animportantethicalissueassociatedwithoilclubmoneyiswhetherthesportitselfends upessentiallysupportingandpromotingdamagetothe environmentandtopeople’shealthbecauseitacceptsand reliesonoilmoney.

Thereexistsaveryrealconflictforthesportoffootballbetweenthedesiretobesuccessfulandtakingan ethicalpositionwithregardtoprotectingourplanetand itsinhabitants.InaJuly2021articlebyTheWilderness Society,itwasstatedthat:

Oilandgasdrillinghasaseriousimpactonourwildlandsandcommunities.Drillingprojectsoperatearound theclockgeneratingpollution,fuelingclimatechange, disruptingwildlifeanddamagingpubliclandsthatwere setasidetobenefitallpeople....Airpollutionfrom fossilfuelsisknownasthe“invisiblekiller.”Itcanlead torespiratory,cardiovascularandotherdiseasesandis responsibleformorethan 13% ofdeathinpeopleaged 14andolderintheUnitedStates.Fossilfueldevelopment canalsoleaktoxicsubstancesintothesoilanddrinking watersources,causingcancer,birthdefects,andliver damage.

Itisgenerallyacceptedthattheproductionanddistributionofoilisadirectcauseofnumerousenvironmental andhealthissues.Despitethiscommonknowledge,successfulfootballclubscontinuetoacceptmoneyfromoil companiesandevenadvancethesecompaniesthrough suchthingsasadvertisementsandpromotions.TheInternationalFederationofAssociationFootball’s(FederationInternationaledeFootballAssociation,akaFIFA) continuedrelianceonfinancialsupportfrompetroleum companiesdisplaysalackofastrongenvironmentaland socialconscience.

Clearly,therearegraveethicalconsiderationsassociatedwiththeglobaltakeoverofthesportoffootball, orsoccer,byoilrichnationsandtheirresidents.The petroleumindustry’sinvestmentsininternationalsports hasalsoraisedserioussocio-economicandpoliticalconsiderations.Inthefighttoprotecthumanrights,“Amnesty International[aBritishorganizationemphasizingafocus onhumanrights]hasbeenvocalinitscriticisminthe UAEandalsoraisedseriousconcernsaboutQatar’streatmentofmigrantworkersinthelead-uptothe2022World Cup”[8].Abuseoflaborlawsandotherunjusttreatment (poorhousinginremotelocations,malnourishmentasa resultofinadequateaccesstofood,etc.)ofmigrantsin Qatarhavebeenreportedasthecountryhasconstructeda newcitytohostthismonumentalfootballgame,which isthecauseofconcernforAmnestyInternationalamong otherhumanrightsorganizationsandactivists.These problems,infieldsrangingfromenvironmentaltocivil

andhumanrights,havebeenrecognizedbyFIFAbutno remedyhasyetbeensuccessful.Thereislittleargument againstthefactthattheoilindustryoverallhashad,and continuestohave,devastatingeffectsonboththehealth ofourplanetanditsinhabitants.Thisdilemmabegs thequestionofwhethertheseeminglylimitlessfunds providedbytheoilindustrytosupportandpromotethe internationallybelovedsportoffootballovercomesthe tremendousdamagecausedbythesourceofthesefunds.

Oilmoneysponsorshiphasbeenshowntohavea measurableeffectontheperformanceofaninternational football(soccer)clubbutalsoraisesethicalconsiderationsduetoenvironmentalinjuryandillnesscausedby thepetroleumindustry.Thestatisticsandfactsreferenced abovedemonstratethatoilmoneyclubsarethemostsuccessfulinthePremierLeague.However,Iwouldargue thatthesourceofthesefundscontinuestoraiseethical questions,placinginternationalfootballatamoralcrossroads.Acceptinghugeamountsofmoneyfromanindustrythatisknowntocausedirectenvironmentaldamage andhealthissuesmustcertainlycallintoquestionthereputationsoftheseclubs.Itappearsthattheseteamshave prioritizedbothwinningandahugereturnoninvestment fortheirownersaboveourpersonalgoodhealthandthe well-beingofourplanet.ItistimeforthePremierLeague andFIFAtostopwaveringandtostepuptoaddressthe seriousethicalcomplicationsassociatedwithforeignownershipandoilmoneyinvestmentininternationalfootball.

References

[1] 7waysoilandgasdrillingisbadfortheenvironment URL: https://www.wilderness.org/ articles/bl%20og/7-ways-oil-and-gasdrilling-bad-envi%20ronment.

[2] BusinessofFootball:Understandingsalarycap, deadmoney URL: https://www.si.com/nfl/ 2021/03/02/busi%20ness-of-footballunderstanding-the-sala%20ry-cap%20dead-money

[3] Itisasquadgame:ManchesterUnitedasadiplomaticnon-stateactorinInternationalAffairs. URL: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10. %201080/17430437.2013.856610

[4] ManchesterCityF.C.2022salarycap. URL: http: //www.spotrac.com/epl/manchester%20city-fc/payroll/ (citedonpage54).

[5] Men’sfixturesresults. URL: http://www. chelseafc.com/en/matches/le%20aguetables/men

[6] MonthlyReport42. URL: observatory.com/ IMG/sites/mr/mr42/en/.

[7] Oilandgas. URL: https:// environmentalintegrity.org/wha%20twe-do/oil-and-gas/.

[8] Oilmoney:Petrodollars,ManCity,PSGHow ModernFootballisfuelledbymega-richindustry. URL: http://www.goal.com/en-us/ news/oil-m%20oney-petrodollars-mancity-psg-how-mo%20dern-footballis/k8rob5liyzrl1wr63osn%2057ytk (citedon pages54,55).

[9] A.Rodrigues. Whichcountryhasthemostfootball clubownersfromtop-fiveEuropeanleagues? Aug. 2020. URL: https://khelnow.com/football/ european-fo%20otball-club-owners

[10] et.alStaffT.I. Whichcountryhasthemostfootball clubownersfromtop-fiveEuropeanleagues? May 2022. URL: http://www.timesofisrael.com/ under-sanc%20tions-roman-abramovichhas-seen-wealth-h%20alved-to-7-5billion/

[11] D.Storey. Thedaysofsportswashingareover atChelsea-butnotinEnglishfootball. Mar. 2022. URL: https://inews.co.uk/sport/

Chapter5.ContemporarySocialIssues

football/abr%20amovich-sanctionssportswashing-chelse%20a-englishfootball-1509190.

[12] T.I.Team. Theworld’stopoilproducers. July 2022. URL: http://www.investopedia. com/investing/wo%20rlds-top-oilproducers/.

[13] TheballmayberoundbutfootballisbecomingincreasinglyArabic:Oilmoneyandtherise ofthenewfootballorder URL: http://www. tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1%20080/ 14660970.2015.1133416

[14] A.Twin. BiggestOilExporters:Top10oilexportingcountries. Aug.2022. URL: https: //www.investopedia.com/articles/ %20company-insights/082316/worlds-top10-o%20il-exporters.asp (citedonpage54).

[15] YouTube. ManchesterCity’scontroversialEtihad deal. Sept.2018. URL: http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=yDjISzW%204QDk

[16] YouTube. Howoneindustrycontrolsfootball. Nov. 2021. URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=tNVHJzD%20PTfY.

5.2 VaccineCrisisResponse:SmallpoxLessonsAppliedtoCovid-19

ByFelixGamper

Abstract

Covid-19isthefirstglobalpandemictobeanalyzed throughthemodernscientificlens.Butinaneraoftechnologicalrevolution,ofrapidvaccinedevelopmentand extensiveclinicaltrials,historicalissuesstillhamper theresolutionofthecrisis.Thispaperaddressesthe failuresofdistributionandoutlinesthepatternofbias againstlowerincomecountries;overwhelminglyinthe geographicregionsofAfrica,SouthAmericaandAsia. Inaddition,itreviewstheglobalsmallpoxresponsefor potentialsolutionstologisticalproblems,comingtothe conclusionthatapolicyofcalculatedselflessnessisa necessityforwealthynationsandlargecompanies.

Vaccinesweretheproductofthehumanstruggle againstuntreatablediseases:polio,rabies,measles,smallpox,andtetanus.Beforemodernmedicine,smallpox -variolamajor-killed 30% ofpeoplewhocontractedthe disease,leavingsomevictimsblindandmanymoredisfigured.Smallpoxvictimsweremarkedwithscars,resulting fromscabsfilledwithinfectiouspusthatalsothreatened thelivesofthosecaringforpatients.Theonlyguaranteedimmunitycamefromsuffering-andsurviving-the diseaseitself.Variolation,aprocessinvolvinginocula-

tionwithvariousweakerformsoftheviruswaspracticed. However,theprocessprovedunreliableasexposureto samplesofvirus-containingmaterialdidnotguarantee animmuneresponse.Conversely,therewasalsotherisk ofdevelopingthefullinfection.AnEnglishdoctorlivinginthemilk-producingregionofGloucester,Edward Jenningswasexposedtothecommonsentimentthatmilkmaidswouldavoidtheredplague[11].Workingamong thecountrypeople,Jenningsobservedthatthoseworking amidstcattleinfectedbycowpoxandworkershadfewer occurrencesofsmallpoxscars.Jenningsdeterminedcowpoxtobethecommondenominator,thatcowpoxcaused animmunityfromthefardeadlierhumandisease.Applyingtheenlightenedideasofexperimentation,Edward lookedtoprovehistheory.In1796,Edwardextractedpus fromthewoundofalocalmilkmaidandappliedittoan incisionofaneight-year-oldpatient.Fortunately,theboy recoveredwithprotectionandwhenEdwardsubsequently exposedhimtosmallpox,hewasimmune.Thecrueltest demonstratedthesuccessofvaccinationusingananalog infection,whichwouldspreadfromEnglandtoEurope. Themethodscontinuedtoevolve,butthepremisefor vaccination-thusderivedfromtheLatinwordforcow-

5.2Gamper,Felix.VaccineCrisisResponse:SmallpoxLessonsAppliedtoCovid-1957 remainedthesame,toprotectfromthedisease[7].

Noteverydiseasehadanobviousanimalanalog.Animalsfromthesurroundingforestsbroughtrabiestothe streetsofParis,exposingdogsandcattletothevirus, whichwouldgoontoinfecttheirowners.Pasteur’scolleaguesattemptedtoexposeanimalstosmallquantitiesof thevirus,asdoneinvariolation,butthevirusprovedtoo virulent:itkilleditsvictimsbeforethebodycouldrecognizeandrespond.Understandingthatthevirusaffected thecentralnervoussystem,Pasteurdevelopedtheprocess ofattenuation.Pasteurexposedaseriesofrabbitstothe infectedspinalcolumnoftheprevious,whentherabbits nolongershowedsymptoms,thelastrabbitwasselected -thusobtainingaweakerformofthevirus.Buttheprocedureappeareddangerous,Pasteurwouldonlygethis chanceafteroneJosephMeisterwasinfected.Thepatient, withoutacure,wasconsideredalreadydead.Following theincubationperiod,Meistershowednosymptoms:Pasteur’svaccinewasasuccess[20].

Theseprimitivevaccinesweredangerous,oftendevelopedincruelconditionswithlittleinsightintothemechanismbehindtheirinteractionwiththedisease.Ultimately, theywerecrudebuteffectivesolutionstoanincurable disease,bornoutofawilltosurvive.Theimmunesystem wasdiscoveredinthelastquarterofthe19thcentury,with thediscoveryofpathogensengulfingphagocyticcellsand antibodies.Overthefollowingcentury,theunderstandingoftheantibodyanditsbindingtothecorresponding antigen-auniquepathogenmolecule-grew.Theimmune systemproducesantibodies,whichbindtopathogensand allowtheimmunecellstorecognizeanddestroythose pathogens[10].Thisunderstandingestablishedthebasis ofimmunology,thetrial-and-errorprocessofvaccination couldmeetscientificexplanation,producingsaferand morereliablevaccines.

Vaccinesweredesignedforcommonincurablediseases:polio,rabies,measles,smallpox,andtetanus.As thefieldmatured,vaccinetechnologiesweredeveloped. Toxoidvaccinesinitiallycontainedsmallamountsoftoxinsthatbacteriawouldrelease,allowingtheimmunesystemofthepatienttodevelopitsantigensso,inthecase ofarealinfection,theimmunesystemwouldbeableto mitigatethebacterialattackandhavecriticaltimetorecognizethebacteriumitself.Latertoxoidvaccineswould haveanantigenfromananimalsystemattachedtothe toxin,somethingwhichtheimmunesystemlearnedto mimicinitsownreaction.Later,theserumwasproduced synthetically,withadvancesinproteinbiochemistry.Thus infectionbytetanus,diphtheria,andpertussiswaspreventable[17].

Butwithsuchgrowthandsuccess,whywasthetechnologynotused?Whyweremanystilldyingofpre-

ventablediseases?Logistics.Inthe20thcentury,modern medicinedemonstratedthatthesewerecapableofpreservingcountlesslives-notonlypreventingdeathsbut preservingthequalityoflife:preventingthelossoflimbs. WhilesmallpoxwaswidelyinoculatedagainstinEurope, itscoloniesandnon-continentalnationswereleftwithout -ignoredbothinmedicineandinstatistics,whilealso beingevermoreexposedasaresultofglobalcirculation. Fenner,thechairmanoftheSmallpoxEradicationCouncil statesinresponsetorecordingsofthousandsofWHOreportedcases“itisnotunreasonabletoregardtheofficial figuresreportedtoWHOasrepresentingonly1-2percent ofthetrueincidence–probablynearer1percentforthe yearsbeforetheinitiationoftheglobaleradicationprogram.Intheearly1950s,150yearsaftertheintroduction ofvaccination,therewereprobablysome50millioncases ofsmallpoxintheworldeachyear,afigurewhichhad fallentoperhaps10-15millionby1967”[16].Medicine hadnevertackledsuchaglobalproblem,itrequireda groundupdevelopmentofcommunication,production anddistributionnetworks.

Thesituationwasbleak,theDirector-Generalofthe CDC,MarcolinoGomesCandau,wasalreadyunderpressureforhisstragglingcampaignagainstmalaria[19]. Manycountrieswerereluctanttofundanotherprogram. TheWorldHealthAssemblyapproved$2.4millionfor aglobaleradicationprogramover10years,butin1966, smallpoxremainedendemicinoverthirtycountries.Thus withlimitedfunding,theteamneededtocontrolcasesin apopulationofoverabillionpersons,manyinremotevillages.Surprisingly,attheheightofthecoldwartensions, theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesdonatedover1.5 billiondosesofvaccine.Theteamstillwasnotableto massvaccinate,butviacontacttracing,agroupofmultinationalexpertswasabletovaccinatethosemostlikelyto beexposed[2].Whilemoneywastight,goodwillwasnot, andthehumanpursuitofinnovationandimprovement ultimatelywonout;thelastcaseofwild-typesmallpox wasrecordedin1977.

Whiletheventurewasultimatelyatriumph,itisnecessarytoacknowledgeadisturbingtrend.AsShchelkunova fromtheformersovietvectorinstitutedescribes:“This dangerous,highlycontagiousdiseasewaseradicatedin manydevelopedcountriesinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.However,smallpoxoutbreakswerestillrecorded eachyearin50-80countrieseveninthe1950s.Inaddition,thefociofendemicsmallpoxinAsia,Africa,and SouthAmericaposedaconstantthreatofimportation tocountriesalreadyfreeofthedisease”[18].Theinternationalcommunityshowedanunwillingness,notthe scientistsbutratherthefinanciers,toputintoactionaplan toresolvethecrisis.Theignoranceofpriordecades,or lackofcare,resultednotonlyinhumanitariandisasterbut

wentagainsttheself-preservationinstinctofdeveloped nationsthemselves.

Unfortunately,thecoronaviruspandemicdemonstratedthattheinternationalcommunityhasnotlearned itslessonfrom60yearsago.Thoughconfidentinour abilitytobandtogether,toultimatelyovercomethischallengeasacommunity,onemustask:howmanylives needbelost?

InFebruary2022, 62% oftheworld’spopulationreceivedasingledoseofaCovid-19vaccine.Butthis statistichidesagreaterdisparity:manywealthycountries exceeded 90% inoculation,whileonly 11% ofthosein low-incomecountriesreceivedatleastonedose[8].At thisjunctureitisnolongerthenumberofvaccinesthat istheproblem,withover30vaccinesapprovedaround theworld,ratheritisaquestionofwillingnesstoshare resources.Mattersofintellectualpropertyandrightsto productiondictatethenumberofvaccinesthatcanbe produced,andtowhomthevaccinesmaybeexported. Sub-SaharanAfrica,LatinAmerica,andAsia,thesame areaswheresmallpoxwaslasttobeeradicated,facethe samechallengestoday.Medium-incomecountriesdid purchaselargequantitiesofthevaccine,inadditionto havinginvestedmuch,particularlyrelevantrelativeto theirGDP,intomedicalstudies.Vaccinetrialsusedthese populations,however,countrieslikeMexicostilllagin thequeueforvaccinations[12].

Thecurrentlineupofvaccinesincludessubunitvaccines,adenovirusvectorvaccines,andmRNAvaccines. Eachvaccinerequiresitsowncost-benefitanalysisbased onsideeffectsobservedinphaseoneandtwoclinicaltrialsanditsefficacy,heldagainsttheenvironmentinwhich itwastestedinphasethreetrials.Themostcommon vaccines,PfizerandModernaintroduceapieceofmRNA correspondingtoanoutersurfaceproteinofthevirus. Thecells,producingtheviralprotein,notthevirusitself, recognizetheforeignmaterialanddeveloparecognition andresponsemechanism.Thus,theycanfendoffthe realvirus(mRNAvaccines).WhilethemRNAisoften portrayedasnovelandthereforedangerous,theideaitself isdecadesoldandwellstudied,thenoveltycomesfroma proteindeliverymethodthatcanbypassanimmunesystemevolvedtodestroyforeignmRNA[15].Additionally, bothvaccineswererigorouslytestedforsideeffects.Estimatesofanaphylaxis-orsevereallergicreaction-were 11.1casespermillionand2.5casespermillionforthe firstformulationsofPfizer-BioNTechandModernavaccinesrespectively.Theoverallestimateof6.1casesper onemilliondosesadministered,palesincomparisonto theireffectiveness- 90% effectiveinpreventingdeaths [3].

Instead,themoralquandarylieswiththecostofvac-

cinationtechnology.In2022,PfizerandModernavaccine revenueisexpectedtoexceed54and38billiondollars respectively.Thetwocompaniesjustifytheheavyprice tagsasthedevelopmentcosts.However,accusations ofpricegougingarecommon[4].TheUnitedStates awardedModernaalonewith10billiondollarsworth oftaxpayermoney,includingnearlytheentirecostof clinicaldevelopment,andanagreementtopurchase500 milliondoses[14].However,Modernapatentedmany ofthetechnologiesdiscoveredwithoutcitingscientists fromfederalagencies.Moderna,ineffect,wasdevelopingforitselfavaccinemonopoly.Consideringthetime requiredforFDAapprovalandthegymnasticsneededto avoidtreadingontheirpatents,iteffectivelycontrolled itssubsetofthemarket[6].Thispractice,inandofitself,isnotuncommoninthepharmaceuticalindustry, however,itbecomesacrisiswhenthevaccinesbecome unaffordabletolowerandmid-incomecountries.While ModernaandPfizerhavemadebillions,theirvaccines costing$19.50and$18adoserespectively,theyhavenot fulfilledtheirpromisestoprovidevaccinestotheWHO’s equitabledistributionnetwork,COVAX.Thisleftlowerincomecountriesstrandedamidsttheracetoprotecttheir people.WhilewealthiernationslikeIsraelcouldafford topayabovetheaskingpricetobeprioritized:paying anaverageof$23.5tobeadvancedinthequeue,less developedcountriessuffered.Forinstance,evenSouth Africa,whichqualifiesasahighermid-incomecountry isunabletopurchasethevaccinesatsuchahighcost [5].Whiletheindustryhasnotbeeninclinedtosharethe rawcostsofvaccineproduction,proceduralstudieshave establishedapproximatecapital,personnel,andmaterial costsof$2.85and$1.18(pervaccine)respectivelyusing preexistingmanufacturingfacilities[13].Tragically,the marginbetweenPfizerandModernamarketcostandproductioncostrepresentsthedifferencebetweenlifeand deathforindividualsincountrieswithoutthenecessary purchasingpower.

Unlikesmallpox,thisvirusisrapidlymutating.The OmicronvariantoriginatedfromAfricancountrieswith theleastaccesstovaccines.Thevariant’sevolutionwas largelyoverlookedduetoalackofrecord-keepinginregionsoftheGlobalSouth.Ignoringtheinhumanityof thefinancialbarriers,theyfailedtoacknowledgethevulnerabilityofanorganismthatdoesnotprotectitsown [9].Newvariantswillcontinuetoemergeaslongasthere isnowidespreadimmunity.Whetherlocal,regionalor international,unprotectedpopulationsarenotonlyvulnerablebutalsovulnerabilitiestothesystemasawhole. Thisiscommonknowledge;whatwemustdecideisour fate.Inourwayliescultural,economic,educational,and nationalisticbarriersthatmustbeovercometopreserve, whichismostimportant,humanlife.Wesimplycannot

5.2Gamper,Felix.VaccineCrisisResponse:SmallpoxLessonsAppliedtoCovid-1959

afforddivision,bureaucraticmismanagement,andbroken promises.Intheimmediatefuture,wemustdoeverything toensurethateverypersonhasaccesstoaneffectivevaccine.Itwouldonlytake27billiondollarstofullyfundthe COVAXprogramtovaccinatethoseindevelopingcountries.Someonewillinevitablymischaracterizethisasan attackonthefreemarket,butforonlyaminorexpense inatimeofglobalcrisis,adropintheproverbialbucket comparedtothe9.2trillionfigurefromtheInternational ChamberofCommerceResearchFoundationforafailure tovaccinatetheseindividuals-acostofwhichhalfwill fallonwealthynations[5].

Atthemoment,effortsaregreatlyaidedbytheproductionofvaccinesinIndia,China,andSouthAmerica. ThereexisteffectivevaccinesbeyondPfizerandModerna: AstraZenecaandCoviShield,Sputnik(JonesandRoy), Covifenz,andJohnsonandJohnson(MashalandYee). Butmoreoftenthannot,countriesareslowtodistribute thosevaccinestothoseintrueneed.Atthemoment,there isacallforeveryusableresource,eachofthesevaccines hasseenawideandeffectiverollout.Butthesevaccines areoftentheproductofthewrongmotive,anationalistic racetohavethe“bestvaccine”oranattempttocapitalize onthemarketforcheapervaccinesthatcanbeproduced atlowercosts,butwithlongerdevelopmentperiods,with oldertechnologyi.esubunitandviralvector[1].

Ultimately,whatneedstobedonetobothrestorethe faithoftheinternationalcommunityandtoenablethe futureJenningsandPasteur’stodeveloplifesavingtechnology,isanagreementbetweennationstoshareinformation,includingvaccinetechnologyanddiseaserecords. Ifweintendtoeradicatethedisease,countriesmustleave behindfingerpointingforhandshaking.COVID-19will notgoawaywithoutaprotractedstruggle.Itisamedicalchallenge,ahighrateofvariance.Thesuccessof secondandthirdvaccineswilldependonourabilityto collaborate,tosacrificeprofitsforthegreatergood.

References

[1] ApprovedVaccines. URL: https://covid19. trackvaccines.org/vacc%20ines/ approved/#vaccine-list (citedonpage59).

[2] SeanB.Carroll. AttheHeightoftheColdWar,the USandSovietUnionWorkedTogethertoEradicateSmallpox. URL: https://www.weforum. org/agenda/2016/07%20/at-the-heightof-the-cold-war-the-us-%20andsoviet-union-worked-together-to-er% 20adicate-smallpox/ (citedonpage57).

[3] Bryan.Christie. Covid-19:VaccinesAreHighly EffectiveinPreventingDeathsfromDeltaVariant, StudyIndicates. 2021. URL: https://www.bmj.

com/content/375/bmj.n2%20582 (citedon page58).

[4] Kevin.Dunleavy. Pfizer,ModernaWillRakein aCombined$93BillionnextYearonCOVID19VaccineSales:Report. 2021. URL: https: //www.fiercepharma.com/pharma/pf% 20izer-moderna-will-rake-a-combined93-b%20illion-next-year-covid-19sales-says-a%20nalytics-group# (citedon page58).

[5] Owen.Dyer. Covid-19:CountriesAreLearning WhatOthersPaidforVaccines. 2021. URL: https: //www.bmj.com/content/372/bmj.n2%2081 (citedonpages58,59).

[6] Owen.Dyer. Covid-19:ModernaSeekstoExclude USGovernmentScientistsfromVaccinePatents, despitePublicInvestment. 2021. URL: https:// www.bmj.com/content/375/bmj.n2%20781 (citedonpage58).

[7] HistoryofSmallpox. 2021. URL: https://www. cdc.gov/smallpox/history/h%20istory. html (citedonpage57).

[8] etal.HunterDavidJ. AddressingVaccineInequity -COVID-19VaccinesasaGlobalPublicGood: Nejm. 2022. URL: https://www.nejm.org/ doi/full/10.1056/%20NEJMe2202547 (cited onpage58).

[9] PhD.JuliannaLeMieux. Omicron’sOrigins:How theSARS-COV-2VariantEmergedinAfrica. 2022. URL: https://www.genengnews.com/ virology/co%20ronavirus/omicronsorigins-how-the-sar%20s-cov-2variant-emerged-in-africa/ (citedon page58).

[10] StefanHE.Kaufmann. Immunology’sComingof Age. 2019. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/artic%20les/PMC6456699/# (cited onpage57).

[11] Lesters.King. EdwardJenner. 2022. URL: https: //www.britannica.com/biography/E% 20dward-Jenner (citedonpage56).

[12] Claire.Klobucista. AGuidetoGlobalCovid19VaccineEfforts. 2022. URL: https:// www.cfr.org/backgrounder/guide%20global-covid-19-vaccine-efforts (cited onpage58).

[13] DonaldWLightandJoelLechin. TheCostsof CoronavirusVaccinesandTheirPricing-Sage Journals. 2021. URL: https://journals. sagepub.com/doi/10.11%2077/ 01410768211053006 (citedonpage58).

[14] ModernaPostsBillionsinProfitfromCovid19VaccinebutWon’tShareTechnology. 2021. URL: https://www.doctorswithoutborders. org/%20latest/moderna-posts-billionsprofit-c%20ovid-19-vaccine-wontshare-technology (citedonpage58).

[15] Kathleen.Mullane. WhatisanmRNAvaccine? Apr. 2021. URL: https://www.uchicagomedicine. org/foref%20ront/coronavirus-diseasecovid-19/what%20-is-an-mrna-vaccine (citedonpage58).

[16] SophieOchmannandMaxRoser. Smallpox. 2018. URL: https://ourworldindata.org/ smallpox#cos%20ts-of-smallpox-andits-eradication (citedonpage57).

[17] Dr.Osman.Shabir. WhatIsaToxoidVaccine? 2022. URL: https://www.news-medical.net/ health/W%20hat-is-a-Toxoid-Vaccine. aspx (citedonpage57).

[18] GAShchelkunovaandSNShchelkunov. 40Years withoutSmallpox. 2017. URL: https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/artic%20les/ PMC5762823/ (citedonpage57).

[19] Smallpox:DispellingtheMyths. 2008. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ artic%20les/PMC2649583/ (citedonpage57).

[20] VaccineTimeline. URL: https:// historyofvaccines.org/history/ %20vaccine-timeline/overview (citedon page57).

5.3 PenaltyKick:FoulPlaybyFIFAandQatar,andWhatNeedstoBeDone

ByVanessaGonzalez-Rychener

Abstract

The2022QatarWorldCupgeneratedmuchdiscussion regardingthehostcountry’shumanrightsabuses;which includedthosedirectedtowardswomen’sandLGBTQ+ rights,aswellastheappallingnumberofdeathslinked topreparationforthetournament.Thisarticlewillelaborateonallthreeoftheseareas.However,Qataris clearlynotthefirstauthoritativeandabusiveregimeto hostaworldcup.Thehumanrightsabusesofotherhost countrieswillalsobediscussedasapointofcomparison.Toconclude,waysforFIFAtoimprovethehuman rightsofhostcountriesthroughstrategiessuchasfines, grants,andincreasedoversightwillbeproposed,asit isimportanttodiscusssolutionsalongsideproblems.

FromUruguayboycottingthesecondWorldCupover theabsenceofmanyEuropeanteamsatthepreviouscompetition(whichtheyhosted),toprotestsinBrazilover theamountofmoneyspentonWorldCupinfrastructure, theFIFAWorldCupisthesiteofclashes,tensions,and demonstrations[1].WhiletheWorldCupcouldeasily bedismissedasaharmlessevent,whichhasnothingto dowithpoliticsandnevershould,diggingdeeperreveals thisisnotthecase.AstheQatarWorldCupsawthe firstAfricanteamqualifyforsemifinalsandupended Europeansoccerleagueschedules,angereruptedover Qatar’shorriblehumanrightsrecordandthemanylives lostthroughouttournamentpreparation.Thequestionis, isthisjustanoverreactionthatwillriskpolarizingthe world’sfavoritesport?WhatmakesQatar’shumanrights recordsobad,andmostimportantly,whatcanbedone aboutit?

FromthetimeQatarwasannouncedasthehostfor the2022WorldCupin2010,thislocationhadelicitedreactionsrangingfromskepticismtooutrageamonghuman rightsadvocates,politicians,andsoccerfansalike.From thecountry’stinysizeandpopulation(sosmalltheyhave longnaturalizedathletictalenttofillsportsteams),to theirvirtuallynon-existentsoccerculture,tothesearing heatofthedesertcountry,FIFA’sdecisiondoesnotseem convincingevenfromapurelyathleticperspective[3]. SomethingquestionablehadtobegoingonwithFIFA, whichendedupbeingthecase.Over100milliondollars inbribeswerepaidtoFIFAboardmemberstoinfluence theirvotes,andthen-FrenchpresidentNicolasSarkozy allegedlyswayedthevoteofanimportantstakeholderin thehost-selectionafterQatarinvestedinFrenchsoccer andindustry.Manyoftheboardmemberswhocorrupted thehostselectionwerelaterremovedfromofficeorresignedontheirown,buttheselectionofQatarremained unchanged[16].Asmuchaswewouldliketosay,in thewordsofcurrentFrenchpresidentEmannuelMacron, “sportsshouldnotbepoliticized”,eventhedecisionof ahostcountryisapoliticalgame,anditishypocritical (especiallyforsomeoneholdingthesameofficeasaman whosepoliticalfavorshelpeddecidethe2022winning bid)tosayotherwise[5][14].

AlthoughtheselectionofQatarasthehostcountry ismarredwithcontroversy,Qatar’shumanrightsrecord isarguablyworse.Womenareviewedunderlawasthe chargesoftheirmale“guardian”,closingmanydoorsand providinglittleprotectionfromabuse.Divorceisdifficult tocomeby,andevensuccessfullydivorcedwomenlose legalguardianshipoftheirchildren[10].Inthecaseof

5.3Gonzalez-Rychener,Vanessa.PenaltyKick:FoulPlaybyFIFAandQatar,andWhatNeedsto BeDone 61

sexualassault,theillegalityofextramaritalsexopensa doorforwidespreadvictimblaming.Authoritieshave beenknowntoignoreforensicevidenceinfavorofan assailant’sclaimthatthetwowereinaconsensualrelationship,thusdraggingthesurvivorintocharges,often worsethanthechargestheassailantreceives.AnofficialworkingattheWorldCupreportedbeingsexually assaulted,andwouldhavefacedsevenyearsinprisonand onehundredlashesforextramaritalsexifshehadnotfled [17].Withhalfofthepopulationseenunderthelawas inferiortotheother,questionsshouldalreadybegintobe raised.

LGBTQ+peoplealsoaretreatedhorriblyunderthe Qatariregime.Underthesamelawthatissometimesused topunishrapesurvivors,same-sexrelationshipsareillegal.Therehavealsobeennumerouscasesofdetainment oftransgenderwomenforsupposedlyimitatingwomen, withareleaserequirementofattendingconversiontherapy.NumerousmembersoftheLGBTQ+community havebeendetainedandbeaten,oftenwithoutcharges orevenarecordoftheirdetention[15].WhileQatar promisedtoallowmembersoftheLGBTQ+community toattendthetournamentandspectatorstowavethepride flag,FIFAannouncedthatplayerswearingrainbowarmbandswouldbeyellowcarded,andasportswriterwearing arainbowshirtwasdetainedforashortperiodoftime [7][13].Ifnotwelcoming,theWorldCupseemstohave proventobesomewhatsafeforqueerfans,butthissays nothingaboutwhatishappeningastheworld’sattention movesawayfromtheemirate,andsignspointtobackwardsmovementifanythingistochangeatall.

AlthoughthesituationofLGBTQ+peopleand womeninQatarisoftenmiserable,potentiallythemost glaringhumanrightsabuseintheWorldCuphostcountry –oratleasttheoneforwhichFIFAismostculpable–isthegruelingconditionsofworkerswhichledtothe lossofhundredsoflivesinthepreparationfortheWorld Cupalone.Workerconditionshaveimproved,atleast onpaper,sincetheselectionofQatarasthehostforthe 2022WorldCup.Thekafalasystem–inwhichworkers couldnotchangejobsfreely–wasabolished,aminimum wagewasinstituted,andnewsafetyruleswereputin placeatconstructionsites[8].Itispossiblethatagreater numberoftheWorldCupconstructiondeathstookplace beforethesechangeswereinstituted,butevenwiththe changes,workersstillwereoftenforcedtoworkinthe blazinghotsun,liveincrampedandunsanitaryconditions,neverleavethecountry,andgoformonthswithout pay[9].Althoughthekafalasystemisgoneandworkers havegainedrights,thegovernmentoftenturnsablindeye totheinfringementofthoserights,andformanyworkers,thegrimsituationhasnotchanged.Becauseofthis exploitation,therehavebeenatleastfourhundreddeaths

intheconstructionofinfrastructurefortheWorldCup, andfamilieshavenotevenreceivedcompensationfor thepainfullossoftheirlovedonesandbreadwinners[8]. Thereisstillalotofworklefttobedone.

Qatar’shumanrightsrecordisclearlysub-par,which raisesthequestion:isthisananomaly,oradoublestandardthatdeclaresEuropeancountriestobethepinnacle ofcivilization,andwhichseekstoignoretheserious Westernhumanrightsabuseswhichwentuncheckedfor years?WorldCupshavebeenheldunderabusiveEuropeanregimesinthepast,andVarietiesDemocracyProject ratesQatarasonlythirdlowestofallthehostcountries atthetimeofhostingtheirWorldCups[11].Whileautocracydoesnotalwaysequatetohumanrightsabuses,it canbeagoodindicator.Mostrecently,the2018World CupwashostedbyRussia,acountrywhichhadrecently seenanLGBTQ+purgeandthedetentionofjournalists, inadditiontoatleasttwenty-onedeathsinpreparationfor thetournament[19].Inaddition,hostingtheWorldCup didnotseemtochangeRussiaforthebetter,sincethree yearslater,theyinvadedUkraine.However,whilehuman rightsabuseswerebroughtupduringthatWorldCup,the outragewasnowhereneartheoutrageinQatar.Although someofthismightbeduetoanti-MiddleEasternsentiment,peoplewerealsorespondingtothefactthatthere werelikelymanymoredeathsinpreparationforQatar [12].Despitethis,whatismostimportantisnotdeciding whetherQatarisworsethanothercountries(likeFIFA hastriedtomakepeoplefocuson),itisdecidingwhatcan bedonetoavoidfutureabuses,andperhapsevenfinding awaytoleaveWorldCuphostcountriesbetteroffthan FIFAfoundthem[7].

TomakeupforsomeoftheabusesinQatar,theEuropeanUnioncalleduponFIFAtodistributereparations todeceasedWorldCupworkers’familiesequivalentto theprizeearningstheydoledoutlastyear.However,this didnotseemtogoanywhere,andevenifitdid,systemic changeisalsonecessary[18].Justaspouringwateron ahousewillnotsaveatownfromaragingforestfire, FIFAmustsetaprecedentforallfutureWorldCups.The simplestpotentialsolutiontothehugedeathtollfrom WorldCuppreparationswouldbeanextensionofthe reparationsproposal,whereFIFAwouldrequireacertain sumofmoneytobepaidtothefamilyofanyworker injuredorkilledinpreparationfortheirgames(making surethisisclearwhenthebidisdecided,notjustonce deathtollsarerevealedtobeontherise).However,reparationsareknowntosometimeshaveadverseeffects,and couldbeseenasafairtrade–onelifeforafewthousand dollars[6,p.268].Couplingthiswithmoreoversightof workingconditionscoulddramaticallydecreasethedeath toll.Also,ifthedeathtollrisespastonehundredorsome othernumber,asinthecaseofthisWorldCup,hosting

privilegesshouldalsoberevokedorthenationalteam shouldbepenalized.

Inadditiontoimprovingtheoversightofworking conditions,FIFAneedstoclearlyoutlinewhatteamsand fansmustbeallowedtodo,suchasdisplaycontroversialiconographyandslogans(rainbowswerebasically bannedfromthefieldthisWorldCup,andfanshavebeen toldtoturnprotestshirtsinsideout),aslongastheydo notportrayviolentintent[4].Hostcountriesshouldhave autonomyindecidingcertainthingslikedresscodeand alcoholconsumption,butthisshouldbeappliedequally toallpeople,beclearlyarticulated,andnotcoupledwith unreasonablepunishments(forexample,wearingshorts shouldnotbepenalizedwithamonthinprison).Both theserulesandtherulesaboutworkers’rightsabuses shouldbepartofthecontractwhichhostcountriesare requiredtosignontobeforetheirbidisapproved.

AlthoughdirectlyFIFA-relatedabusesarenoeasy problemtosolve,themostdifficultquestiontoansweris whatroleFIFAshouldplayinimprovinghumanrightsin hostcountriesoutsideofeventsandconstructionprojects thatdirectlyrelatetotheWorldCup.Thisdoesnotonly relatetoQatareither;protestsbrokeoutaroundthe2014 BrazilWorldCupoverthehugesumsofmoneyspenton stadiumsinsteadofpeople[1].Thequestionis,howcan FIFAwelcomelessdevelopedcountriesashostswhile nothurtingthecountries’people?Onewaywouldbeto givegrantstohostcountriesatleastequaltothesumof prizemoneytobespentoninfrastructure,humanrights, andsocialservices.Governmentscouldthenproducea reportofwherethemoneywasspent,toensureitgets usedfortheintendedpurpose.InthewisewordsofEldridgeCleaver,“Ifyouarenotpartofthesolution,you arepartoftheproblem”[2].IfFIFAdoesnotdoanything toimprovethelivesofpeopleinitshostcountries,itis onlyencouragingtheirinhumanepractices.

Inthisageofgrowingpolarizationthereisvirtually nowaytoseparatesportsfrompolitics.FromthegoverningboardofFIFA,tothehundredsofliveslostbuilding stadiumsinandaroundDoha,towomencriminalized forassaultsontheirbodies,toLGBTQ+peoplebeaten forbeingwhotheyare,tothemanyhumanrightsabuses previousWorldCuphostshavealsoendorsed,politicizationisinevitableifwearetofaceFIFA’scorruptionand supportforoppressionheadon.Inordertofixthisbroken system,FIFAmustputregulationsinplace.Insteadof leavingatrailofbloodyfootprintsbehind,WorldCups shouldpavethewaytoabrighterfutureforall.

References

[1] Coleman&Co.Bennet. FIFAWorldCup:Protests andcontroversies:FootballNews-TimesofIn-

dia.Nov.2022. URL: https://timesofindia. indiatimes.com/s%20ports/football/ fifa-world-cup-2022/fi%20fa-worldcup-protests-and-controversi%20es/ articleshow/95796669.cms (citedonpages60, 62).

[2] ECleaver. QuotableQuote URL: https://www. goodreads.com/quotes/2145%208-if-youare-not-a-part-of-the-solutio%20n-you (citedonpage62).

[3] TFinn. Qatar’sRecruitedAthletesStirDebate onCitizenship.Aug.2016. URL: https:// www.reuters.com/article/%20us-qatarolympics-nationality-idUSKCN11%20015P (citedonpage60).

[4] FreeSpeechIsn’taContenderatthe2022 WorldCup.Dec.2022. URL: https://www. thefire.org/news/fre%20e-speechisnt-contender-2022-world-cup (citedon page62).

[5] MGoillandeau. Qatar2022:’sportshouldnotbe politicized,’France’sMacronsaysaheadofWorld Cup.Nov.2022. URL: https://www.cnn.com/ 2022/11/17/footbal%20l/macron-qatarworld-cup-intl-spt/index%20.html (cited onpage60).

[6] A.M.Grant. ThePowerofIntrinsicMotivation Originals:Hownon-conformistsmovetheworld. PenguinBooks,2017(citedonpage61).

[7] J.Gutierrez. QatarFIFAWorldCup:Worker deaths,Anti-LGBTQ+lawscauseconcern.Nov. 2022. URL: https://www.msn.com/enus/sports/fifa%20-world-cup/qatarfifa-world-cup-worker%20-deathsanti-lgbtq-laws-cause-concern/%20arAA14smoe (citedonpage61).

[8] CBSInteractive. QatarAcknowledges‘between 400and500’WorkersDiedPreparingforWorld Cup.Nov.2022. URL: https://www.cbsnews. com/news/qa%20tar-world-cup-workerdeaths-between-40%200-500 (citedon page61).

[9] AmnestyInternational. QatarWorldCupofShame July2021. URL: https://www.amnesty.org/ en/latest/campa%20igns/2016/03/qatarworld-cup-of-shame/ (citedonpage61).

[10] AmnestyInternational. Qatar2021 URL: https: //www.amnesty.org/en/location/mid% 20dle-east-and-north-africa/qatar/ report-%20qatar/ (citedonpage60).

5.4Gordon,Tommy.EnvisioninganEthicalA.I.63

[11] T.S.James. Qatar2022:TheWorld’sMostAutocraticWorldCupVenue?TobyS.James. Nov. 2022. URL: https://tobysjames.com/2022/ 11/18/qat%20ar-2022-the-worldsmost-autocratic-wor%20ld-cup-venue/ #respond (citedonpage61).

[12] IKarata¸s. HypocrisyagainstQatar’shosting FIFAWorldCup2022:Opinion.Nov.2022. URL: https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/ op-%20ed/hypocrisy-against-qatarshosting-fif%20a-world-cup-2022 (cited onpage61).

[13] R.Lewis. LongtimeSoccerSportswriterGrant WahlHasDiedCoveringtheWorldCupinQatar. Dec.2022. URL: https://www.npr.org/2022/ 12/09/1142054%20844/grant-wahl-soccerwriter-dies-qatar%20-world-cup (citedon page61).

[14] A.Marinez. Op-ed:PutanasteriskontheQatar WorldCup.Nov.2022. URL: https://www. latimes.com/opinion/story/2%20022-1119/qatar-world-cup-soccer-fifa (citedon page60).

5.4 EnvisioninganEthicalA.I.

ByTommyGordon

Abstract

ArtificialIntelligenceisarguablythemostconsequentialtechnologycurrentlyshapingtheworld.Thepower ofA.I.comesfromitsversatility.Ithasapplicationsin nearlyeveryindustryandprovidesaplethoraofpositiveeffectsinsectorsfromhealthcaretopublicpolicy. Thisversatilitycomeswithequallyhazardousrisks. Themassimplementationofartificialintelligencealgorithmsthreatenstoexacerbateissueslikeprivacyandbiases—alreadybecomingincreasinglyrelevantthrough thepervasivenatureofmoderntechnologieslikesmartphones.Inordertoaddressthechallengesbroughtforth byA.I.,governments,corporations,coders,andcitizens mustcollaborateandupholdtheirdistinctresponsibilities.ThiswillensureafuturewherethebenefitsofA.I. canbeharnessed,andtherisksmitigated.

Introduction

In 21Lessonsforthe21stCentury,abookexploring artificialintelligence’sroleinthe2000s,Israeliauthor YuvalNoahHarariwrote,“Humanswerealwaysfarbetter atinventingtoolsthanusingthemwisely.Itiseasierto

[15] Qatar:Securityforcesarrest,abuseLGBTpeople Oct.2022. URL: https://www.hrw.org/news/ 2022/10/24/qat%20ar-security-forcesarrest-abuse-lgbt-p%20eople (citedon page61).

[16] J.Rollin. 2015FIFAcorruptionscandal. URL: https://www.britannica.com/event/ 2015-%20FIFA-corruption-scandal (cited onpage60).

[17] J.Thomas. WorldCupWorkerThreatenedwith100 LashesafterSexualAssaultinQatar.Feb.2022. URL: https://www.newsweek.com/worldcup-wor%20ker-threatened-100-lashesafter-sexual%20-assault-qatar-1680871 (citedonpage61).

[18] A.Wiegmann. ActivistsTakeQatarWorkers ProtesttoFIFAboss’shometown.Dec.2022. URL: https://www.reuters.com/world/ activis%20ts-take-qatar-workersprotest-fifa-bos%20ss-home-town-202212-07/ (citedonpage61).

[19] M.Worden. Russia’sBloodyWorldCup.Oct.2020. URL: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/07/ 13/ru%20ssias-bloody-world-cup (citedon page61).

manipulateariverbybuildingadamacrossitthanitisto predictallthecomplexconsequencesthiswillhaveforthe widerecologicalsystem[3]."Harariwasusingthispassagetodrawaparallelbetweentheprocessofbuildinga damandimplementinganartificialintelligencealgorithm. Buildingadamcancontroltheflowofwatertoprevent floodingandgenerateelectricity,asexemplifiedbythe ThreeGorgesDamontheYangtzeriverinChina.In2020, itprotectedcitiesinitsvicinityduringsomeofChina’s worstrecordedfloodsandcurrentlygeneratesover22,500 megawatts-enoughtopowermillionsofhouseholds-of electricityannually;similartohowA.I.willpowertheindustriesofthefuture.Thebenefitsthedamhasprovided, havenotbeenenoughtojustify,intheeyesofmany,the myriadofissuesitsconstructionhascaused.Theseissues includethedisplacementofoveronemillionpeople,the deathofconstructionworkers,andtheinitiallyunforeseenconsequencesofnaturaldisasterslikeearthquakes andlandslides[9].AsA.I.becomesanintegralpartof today’sworld,gainingcontrolandinfluenceinallsectors ofsociety,frommedicinetomovieproductiontosports, wearequicklynoticingthepromisedbenefitscomewith

justasmanychallenges.SimilartotheThreeGorges Dam,unforeseenissueswillarise,however,itiscrucial toaddressthembeforetheyembedpermanentlyintoa technologythatwilldictateandhelprunourfutureworld. Governments,corporations,coders,andcitizenscanand mustworktogethertocreateanethicalA.I.systemfor thefuture.Thissystementailsprovidingaplethoraof positiveimpactsinallfields.Inaddition,itwouldsuccessfullyaddressandworktowardssolvingnotonlyprivacy concernsbutbiases.

ArtificialIntelligence’sBenefits

Artificialintelligencehasshownpromiseinbringing aboutpositivechangeinmanyfieldssuchasmedicine andpublicpolicy.AnarticlefromtheNewYorkTimes assessedstudiesdonebytheUnitedStatesandChina toimplementartificialintelligenceinhospitalstocomplementtheworkofdoctors.Itstated,“thesystemcan spot-checkandmakesurethephysiciandidn’tmissanything[7]."Thearticlealsodescribedhowthealgorithm can“recognizepatternsindatathathumanscouldnever identifyontheirown”.Thissuggestsmisdiagnosiswill decrease,asdoctorswillbeabletodouble-checktheir conclusionswithmillionsofotherA.I.synthesizedpatient datapoints.Inaddition,doctorswillsavealotoftime, allowingthemtoconcentrateonpatientsinamorecritical conditionorresearch.Thearticlewentontosaythese algorithmscouldbe“particularlyusefulinplaceswhere doctorsarescarce[7]."Thiscanbringqualitymedical caretothecornersoftheworldthataremostinneed.

Beyondmedicine,artificialintelligence’spositiveimpactscanbeseeninpublicpolicy.FollowingthewatercrisisinFlintMichigan,itwasconcludedallcorrodedlead pipeswouldhavetobereplacedtomaintainthehealth andsafetyofthepopulation.Thisendeavorwouldbefar tooexpensive.Therefore,amachine-learningmodelwas constructedusingthefollowingprocess.

Codershadtoimplementmanyfeaturesorindependentvariables(dataaboutthehousesincludingtheageof thehouse,neighborhood,howthehousewasbuilt,theincomeoftheowner,whethertheresidentsgotsick,etc.to beusedtopredictthelabels)intothemodel.Interpreting allofthefeatures,themodelcouldoutputlabels,oraconclusion(eitherthehousehasleadwaterpipesoritdoes not).ThecityofFlintthenmadeatrainingdataset(prelabeledexamplestotrainthemachinelearningmodel) usingtheinformationofafewhomesinthecitythatwere alreadyknowntohaveleadpipesornot.TheFlintteam thenusedthislabeleddatatotrainamachine-learning model(traininginvolvedgivingthealgorithmexamplesof housesthatwerealreadyknowntohaveleadpipes).After themodelwastrained(meaningthemodelhadlearned whatfeaturesleadtoalabelofleadpipesornoleadpipes),

itpredictedwhichhousescontainedleadpipeswithremarkablespeedandaccuracy.Thismadetheallocation ofresourcesmoreefficientandviable.

Medicineandpublicpolicyrepresenttwoareaswhere theapplicationofA.I.canyieldpositiveresults,butthey areonlyaslimfractionofthefieldsA.I.canimpact.As anarticlewrittenbyStephenLohrintheNewYorkTimes argued,“A.I.-powereddecision-makingispoisedtoalter virtuallyeveryindustry[5]."StephenLohrlaterwentinto detaildescribingA.I.’spositiveimpactsonagriculture, heavyequipmentmanufacturing,insurance,andevenart.

ArtificialIntelligence’sChallenges

Althoughartificialintelligenceiscapableofproducingmanypositiveeffects,itsmassapplicationcomeswith twomajorconcerns:privacyandbias.Weoftenhear thatdatafrominteractionswehaveonourphonesand appsisbeingcollectedatindustrialscales.InanarticlepublishedbyWIREDin2018,itwasdescribedthat “fromhairbrushestoscales,consumerandindustrialdevicesarehavingchipsinsertedintothemtocollectand communicatedata[2]."Itwasthenstated,“Smarttoasters,connectedrectalthermometers,andfitnesscollarsfor dogsarejustsomeoftheeveryday‘dumbitems’being connectedtothewebaspartoftheInternetofThings (IoT).Connectedmachinesandobjectsinfactoriesoffer thepotentialfora’fourthindustrialrevolution’,andexpertspredictmorethanhalfofnewbusinesseswillrun ontheIoTby2020[2]."Itappearsnearlyallthedevices wewillinteractwithinthefuturewillcollectandshare datanotonlyaboutwhatwedo,butaboutourpreferences andbeliefsaswell.TheWIREDarticlethenwentonto address“Inthefuture,intelligenceservicesmightusethe [internetofthings]foridentification,surveillance,monitoring,locationtracking,andtargetingforrecruitment, ortogainaccesstonetworksorusercredentials[2]"—a scaryrealityreminiscentoftheonefoundinadystopian novel.

Theissueofbias-primarilyracialandgender-related -isalsopresent.Inasocietyplaguedwithimplicitbiases,itisoftenbelievedthatallowingcomputersand artificialintelligencealgorithmstomakedecisionswill bringimpartialefficiency.AsRuhaBenjamin,aprofessor atPrincetonUniversityputit,“fromeverydayappsto complexalgorithms,technologyhasthepotentialtohide, speed,andevendeependiscrimination,whileappearing neutralandevenbenevolentwhencomparedtoracistpracticesofapreviousera[1]."Artificialintelligencealgorithmsamplifyingbiashavealreadybeenidentifiedmany timesasshownbyImageNetRoulette(anartprojectthat scansthefaceofauserandrevealswordsfromtheinternetthatdescribethepersontoshowthebiasesthatcan creepintoartificialintelligence).Mr.TabongKimaisa

5.4Gordon,Tommy.EnvisioninganEthicalA.I.65

24-year-oldAfricanAmericanmanwhoscannedhisface onImageNetRouletteandtheresultshereceivedwere ratherstaggering;beinglabeledasa“wrongdoer”andan “offender”[7].Whileseeminglikeatrivialartproject atfirst,ImageNetRoulettewasderivingitslabelsfrom “facialrecognitionservicesusedbyinternetcompanies, policedepartments,andothergovernmentagencies[7]." Whenanartprojectmakessuchconclusions,theeffects arenegligible,butwhenlawenforcementinstitutionsand governmentagenciesusethistypeofalgorithmtodecide whotoarrestorincarcerate,adangerousandunfairfuture isonthehorizon.

CreatinganEthicalA.I.

Intheageofartificialintelligenceembeddingitself deeplyintosociety,andmega-corporationslikeGoogle, Facebook(recentlyrebrandedasMeta),andTwitterdominatinglargersectorsofourlives,governmentswillhave tobenimblewhenpassinglegislationtoaddresstheproblemsA.I.presents.Inregardtoprivacy,thereisnodoubt thatcollectingvastamountsofdatacanbeimmensely beneficialforbothcorporationsandcustomers.Although manyconsumersmaygiveconsenttohavingtheirdata usedforadvertising,identification,andmonitoring,it cannotbeforgottenthatasignificantamountofthepopulationisadamantaboutprotectingtheirinformation.Governmentswillhavetoleadtheeffortinfindingsolutions thatforcebigcompaniestogiveconsumersalargerrole indecidinghowtheirdataisstored,shared,andused. Acommonprocedureforcompaniesispresentingconsumerswithatermsandconditionsform,however,our modernwayoflifehaspushedustoapointwherenot consentingcomeswithsignificantobstacles.Toaddress this,governmentswillhavetopushcompaniestotruly givepeopleanoption.Thiscanbeachievedbydevelopingincentivesforcompaniesthatdoso,anddeterrentsfor companieswhodonotwishtocomply.Thereisalsoan elementofself-regulationthatmustbedevelopedforgovernments.Forexample,whenthelocalFlintgovernment wasdevelopingamachinelearningmodeltoassistinselectingwhichhousestoreplacepipesin,thegovernment ofFlinthadtoassuretheywerecollectingreliabledata thathasbeenvettedtoassurenomistakesweremade.

Corporationshaveacomplicatedroleincreatingan ethicalA.I.system.Askingtheentitiesthatreduceindividualprivacy,collectdata,andamplifybiases,topolice themselvesisachallengingproposition.Thedilemmais whetherimplementingpoliciestocreateamoreethical systeminfringestoomuchonprofitsandefficiency.A potentialsolutionforcompaniesisimplementing“remediationprotocols”orrulesthatwillholdthemaccountable forusinguncleaneddata(datathathasnotbeenvetted foraccuracyanddiversity),ornotgoingthroughvarious

stagesofconfirmingthe“fairness”ofanA.I.system.In anarticlebytheWallStreetJournaltitled“WhyMakingAISystemsFairIssoComplicated”,authorJohn Murawskiarguesthat“fairness”isaconceptdefineddifferentlybymany.HeexplainshowAlphabetIncorporated madeanartificialintelligencealgorithmthatassessesloan qualificationsthroughafive-stepprocess.Thearticle states:

Inthefirstfairnessmeasure,qualificationsforloans areassessedstrictlyonobjectivemerits,evenifthatmeans nowomenqualify.Versiontworequiresthatthequalificationsbeloweredforwomentocompensateforhistorical biases.Thethirdversionsaysloanawardsshouldproportionatelymatchtheapplicantpool,sothatif 30% of applicantsarewomen,thenwomenshouldaccountfor 30% ofapprovedloans.Versionfoursaysthesamepercentageofmenandwomenwhoarelikelytosucceedat repayingloansshouldgetloans.Versionfivesaysthat fairnessisachievedwhenthe‘percentageoftimes[the systemis]wronginthetotalofapprovalsanddenialsis thesameforbothgenders[8].

Byaggregatingallfive“fairnessmeasures”Alphabet Incorporatedcanmakebetterdecisionsonwhoqualifies foraloan.Thisfive-stepprocessmightworkforAlphabetIncorporated,butindividualcompanieswithdifferent purposeswillhavetodevelopdifferent“fairness”metrics tomostaccuratelyassesstheirneeds.Thistaskcouldbe giventonewlyhiredA.I.ethicsexpertswhowouldscrutinizeanyalgorithmforelementsthatcouldpotentially havedestructiveconsequencespriortotheirrelease.

In2018whenMarkZuckerberg(thefounderandCEO ofFacebook)claimed“Facebookisanidealisticandoptimisticcompany.Formostofourexistence,wefocused onallthegoodthatconnectingpeoplebrings[6]"many believedthisstatementreflectedthesentimentamong manyyoungcodersfoundingnewtechnologycompanies. ZuckerbergfoundedFacebookasaHarvardsophomore. Atthetime,itseemedhighlyimprobablethathiscompany wouldwieldthedestructivepotentialithastoday.The analogyofaspreadingdiseasecanbeusedtorepresent thisphenomenon.Whenadiseaseisinitsinfancy,itcan behardtotrackandlocate,untilithasspread.While seeminglikeaninnocentsocialplatformduringitsinception,Facebookhasgrowntoimmenseproportions.More recently,itsdestructivecapacitywasshowcasedinthe 2020presidentialelection.Theplatformwasaperfect spaceforconspiraciesandacreatorofdivision.Itsalgorithmsaredesignedtokeeppeopleontheplatformforas longaspossibleanditoftendirectspeopletoradicaland fictitiouscontent.IfcoderssuchasMarkZuckerberghad takenclassesemphasizingthesocialethicsofartificial intelligenceandthepowerA.I.holdsinspreadingharmful

information,itcanbehypothesizedthattheywouldhave madewiserchoicesinrollingouttheircompanies.

Thesamementalitycanbeappliedwhenitcomesto biasorprivacy.Priortostartingcompaniesorworkingfor well-establishedones,collegestudentsmustreceiveeducationonthedisastrousconsequencesofmakingunethical A.I.algorithms.Whenitcomestobiases,forexample, itiswell-knownindividualsarefullofimplicitones.If codersdonotscrutinizethedatasetstheyaregivenor failindesigningadatacollectionprocessfocusedonremovingallpossiblebiases,biaseswillbeamplifiedto scalesdifficulttomanage.Thisprocessreflectsthepopularsayingindatascience:“garbagein,garbageout.”It brieflystateshowcodersmustbeawareofthepotential implicationsofusingbiaseddatasetsfortheirprojects/companies.Puttingin“garbage”willresultinanartificial intelligencealgorithmthatprovidesdamaging,inaccurate, irreversible,ordangerousresults.

Ifitisnotagovernmentthathasthepowertohold corporationsaccountable,itisthecitizensorconsumers. InaspeechattheWorldEconomicForum,JoyBuolamwini,founderoftheAlgorithmicJusticeLeague,was explaininghowlargetechnologycompaniesthatareheavilyinvestedinartificialintelligence,suchasIBM,have frequentlybeenmislabelinganddiscriminatingagainst certaingroupsofpeople,specificallywomenofcolor. BuolamwiniexplainedIBM’sfacialrecognitionsoftware, whichisdesignedtoexcelinfacialrecognitiontasks,only exhibitedanaccuracyofeighty-eightpercentinidentifyingwomen.Itsperformancewasworsewithwomenof color,whichitaccuratelyidentifiedsixty-fivepercentof thetime.WhenshereachedouttoIBMwithherresearch, thecompanyreleasedanewracialrecognitionsystem[6].

Buolamwini’seffortsentailedpresentingIBMwith researchandusingwebsitesshecreated(likeSafePlace Pledge)tocauseIBMtochange.Buolamwini’sstoryis anexcellentexampleofacitizensteppinguptoinspire change.Whilenotallcitizenscanbecomputerscientists whofocusonA.I.-relatedactivism,itisimportantwestay informedandquestionnewdevelopmentsinartificialintelligencetopreventinfringementsonbasicprivacyrights, orwiththepotentialtocausesocialharm.Attheendof theday,bigtechnologycompaniessuchasFacebookdo wellwhenmanyusersinteractwiththeplatform,butif enoughoutcryagainstacompanyengaginginunethical behaviorsoccurs,thecompanywillbeforcedtochange.

Conclusion

Aswemoveintowhathasbeendescribedas“the fourthindustrialrevolution[4]”,itiscrucialthatwedo notallowourselvestobeblindedbyallofthepositive impactstheapplicationofartificialintelligencecanhave

inmanyindustries.Wemustattempttoforeseelonginto thefutureandquellthedangersofunethicalA.I.algorithmsbeforetheybecomeanuncontrollableproblem. Onlyifgovernments,companies,coders,andcitizens worktogethertoaddressandtakeactionagainstunethical A.I.algorithms,willanethicalandbeneficialartificial intelligencesystembecreatedtoassisthumanityinthis “industrialrevolution”.Notonlywillhumansbeableto enjoythebenefitsofamoreefficient,sustainable,healthy, innovative,andmodernworld,butthedangersofaworld whereartificialintelligenceperpetuatesbiasandprivacy losswillbeavoided.Peoplewillnotbejailedordenied ajobbecauseofA.I.algorithms’discriminationagainst certainracesandgenders.Peoplewillnothavetheirconsumerdataavailablefortheviewingofbigcompaniesand governments.Peoplewillnotfallvictimtomassamounts ofmisinformation.Asareaderofthisarticle,youmust stayinformedandbevocalwhensomethingseemswrong toassuretheA.I.systemsofthefutureprioritizeethics, andbenefitall.

References

[1] R.BenjaminandJ.McNealy. Cambridge:The BerkmanKleinCenterforInternetSocietyatHarvardUniversity.2019. URL: https://cyber. harvard.edu/events/new-ji%20m-code (citedonpage64).

[2] M.Burgess. WhatIstheInternetofThings? 2018. URL: https://www.wired.co.uk/ article/intern%20et-of-things-whatis-explained-iot (citedonpage64).

[3] Y.N.Harari. 21Lessonsforthe21stCentury SpiegelGrau,2018(citedonpage63).

[4] J.Hoagland. TheFourthIndustrialRevolution IsUponUs.2017. URL: https://www. washingtonpost.com/opinion%20s/thefourth-industrial-revolution-is%20upon-us/2017/11/22/5ff97086-cd6211e7-%209d3a-bcbe2af58c3a_story.html (citedonpage66).

[5] S.Lohr. FromAgriculturetoArt-theA.I.Wave SweepsIn. 2018. URL: https://www.nytimes. com/2018/10/21/busi%20ness/fromagriculture-to-art-the-ai-wave%20sweeps-in.html (citedonpage64).

[6] S.Marche. TheInfuriatingInnocenceofMark Zuckerberg.2018. URL: https://www. newyorker.com/culture/cult%20uralcomment/the-infuriating-innocence%20of-mark-zuckerberg (citedonpages65, 66).

5.5Haider,Najih.AretheStereotypesThatHaveBeenCreatedforMuslimsFair?67

[7] C.Metz. ’Nerd,’’Nonsmoker,’’Wrongdoer’:How MightA.I.LabelYou? 2019. URL: https://www. nytimes.com/2019/09/20/art%20s/design/ imagenet-trevor-paglen-ai-faci%20alrecognition.html (citedonpages64,65).

[8] J.Murawski. WhyMakingAISystemsFairIsso Complicated. 2019. URL: https://www.wsj.

com/articles/why-making-%20ai-systemsfair-is-so-complicated-1155601%201800 (citedonpage65).

[9] M.Petruzzello. ThreeGorgesDam.2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Three-%20Gorges-Dam (citedonpage63).

5.5 AretheStereotypesThatHaveBeenCreatedforMuslimsFair?

ByNajihHaider

Abstract

Thispaperdiscussestheunfairstereotypesthathave beencreatedforMuslimsinAmericansociety,which makeitdifficultforMuslimstolivea"normal"life.

Muslimsareoftenlabeledasterrorists,sexists,andextremists,despitethefactthatonlyameageramountof Muslimsareinvolvedintheseactivities.Therecent MuslimBan,issuedbyPresidentTrump,separatedfamiliesandstrandedMuslimsseekingasylum.Thepaper drawsparallelsbetweentheMuslimBanandtheinternmentofJapaneseAmericansinthe1940s,highlighting theirrationalfearandignorancebehindbothactions. Thepaperarguesthatwhilesomefearofterrorismis justified,itiscompletelyunreasonableandracistto blametheentiretyoftheworld’sMuslimpopulation fortheactionsofasmallpercentageofextremists.The paperalsodebunksthestereotypethatIslamsuggests usingviolencetospreaditsinfluence,pointingoutthat terroristsusearadicalinterpretationofIslamthatdoes notreflectthevaluesofthereligion.Overall,thispaper callsforanendtotheunfairstereotypesthathavebeen createdforMuslimsinAmericansociety.

“Nomatterhowbiganationis,itisnostrongerthan itsweakestpeople,andaslongasyoukeepapersondown, somepartofyouhastobedowntheretoholdhimdown, soitmeansyoucannotsoarasyoumightotherwise.” -

MarianAnderson

Intoday’sAmericansociety,manystereotypesabout MuslimsmakeitdifficultforaMuslimtoliveouta"normal"lifebyAmericanstandards.Muslimsarestereotyped asterrorists,sexists,andextremists,whileinreality,just amicroscopicamountofMuslimsindeedarethosethings.

ThisisshownbytherecentMuslimBanissuedbyPresidentTrump,whichmadeitnearlyimpossibletocome totheUnitedStatesifyouwereaMuslim.Thebanseparatedfamilies,forcedpeopletogiveuptheirdreams, andstrandedMuslimsinplacesforyears.Yetifwewere toturnthegearsbackinAmerica’shistory,thiswould notbethefirsttimesomethinglikethisoccurred.Infact, intheearlyandmid-1940s,stereotypesaboutJapanese

AmericanswouldresultinExecutiveOrder9066,causing theinternmentofJapaneseAmericanswhowerethought tobeathreattonationalsecurity.Thesecampswerein serviceforaboutthreeyears.SimeonMan,inanarticlecomparingJapaneseInternmentandtheMuslimBan, says,“Astheexecutiveorderof1942,Mr.Trump’sbanis theproductofirrationalfearandignorance,andit’ssad ironyisTrump’sclaimofamoraldutytooverturnalmost acenturyofAmericaninternationalleadership,abandon refugeestotheirfates,barlawfulvisaholders,andresidents,andexcludelaw-abidingpeoplebasedontheir religion”[10].Thestereotypesthathavebeencreated forMuslimsaresimplynotfairorrational–aslikemany stereotypes,theytakeasmallpercentageofthepopulation andassignthelabeltoabiggergroupofpeople.

Ofcourse,withsomeofthemostprominentterrorist organizationsintheworldbeingMuslim-based,therewill befearsaboutthesmallpercentageofMuslimsthatare involved.However,theargumentthatmanyAmericans make,famouslyonemadebyformerPresidentDonald Trump,isthattokeepAmericanssafefromterroristattacksthereneedtobelawsthatmakeitdifficultoreven impossibleforallMuslimstoliveintheStates.Trump hasevengonetosuggestextremessuchas“creatinga databaseofallMuslimsintheUnitedStates”[9],andclosingmosques.WhenTrumpsuggestedinternmentcamps forMuslimsthatwouldbesimilartowhatwasdoneto theJapaneseinthe1940s,hisreplywas,“We’regoing tobelookingatalotofdifferentthings.Youknow,alot ofpeoplearesayingthat,andalotofpeoplearesaying thatbadthingsarehappeningoutthere.We’regoingto belookingatthatandplentyofotherthings”[9].This quoteshowshowhighthedegreeofracismandlackof reasonabilitythereistowardstheperceptionofMuslims. Agreeingwithorevenunderstandingwhyacountrythat issocommonlyadvertisedasaplaceoffreedom,justice, andliberty,hasaPresidentthatiswillingtorepeatoneof themostshamefulandcriticizedmistakesoftheirhistory istrulyheartbreaking.

Itisheartbreakingforfamiliesandyoungpeople

thatwerehopingtomaketheirdreamscometrueinthis “promisedland”imagethattheUShasmadeforitself. Itisheartbreakingforthosewhorebuiltthiscountry’s lawsandsocialgapstoensureabetterfuturefornotjust Americancitizens,butallthosewhowouldcomelater foranopportunityforthebetter.Partoftheheartbreakis thatwhilerunningforhisfirstpresidentialtermin2015, Trumpthoughtthatitwouldbebeneficialtohiscampaign topledgetokickoutSyriansforbeingoneofthehome countriesofISIS.“AtaNewHampshirerally,Trump pledgedtokickallSyrianrefugees—mostofwhomare Muslim—outofthecountry,astheymightbeasecret army.‘TheycouldbeISIS,Idon’tknow.Thiscould beoneofthegreattacticalploysofalltime”[9].This quotejuststrengthenstheideathatthisbasicandjustified fearofthissmall,smallportionoftheMuslimworld,has resultedinaracistmovementthatcouldpreventsomany people’shappyandsuccessfullives.Overall,theissues andchallengesthatthispresentsarethatitisveryeasy forAmericanswhohavenorelationshipwithoranyinteractionswiththetrueMuslimpopulationtodiscriminate andargueforlawstohelp,intheory,preventsuchattacks fromoccurringwithintheUS’sborders.Sowhilethis fearcanbejustifiedtoanextentandwithinreason,itis completelyunreasonableandracisttoblametheentirety oftheworld’sMuslimpopulation.Essentially,asignificantportionofglobalMuslimsarebeingpunishedfor theactionsofasmallportionofMuslimshalfwayacross theglobe.Moreover,thesemisguidedindividualswho followamorphedandmuchlesshumaneversionofIslam thantherestoftheMuslimworld,makeuplessthanone percentofallMuslims.

OneofthetwoprominentstereotypesaboutMuslims isthattheysupportviolenceandterrorism.Ofthepeoplethatfindthisstereotypetobeaccurate,itismostly thoughtthatIslamsuggestsusingviolencetospreadthe powerandinfluenceofIslamtootherplaces.Notonly isthisfundamentallywronginspeakingoftheteachings andvaluesofIslam,butjustlikeChristianityandJudaism(theotherAbrahamicreligions),Islamanditsholy textscanbeinterpreteddifferently.TheAnti-Defamation Leaguesays,“TerroristsuseradicalinterpretationsofIslam,whichtakeasmallnumberoftextsthatweremeant toregulatewarfareintheearlydaysofIslam.Terrorists thenapplytheseinterpretationstocontemporarytimes" [12].WhenlookingatthethreeAbrahamicreligions,Islamisn’tthereligionwiththemostterroristattacksbased onpopulation:“ThereweremoreJewishactsofterrorism intheUnitedStatesthanIslamic”[2].Whenmakingthis argumentthatIslamisnotareligionofviolenceandthat allMuslimsarenotterrorists,statisticsandnumbersare essentialtothecase.InaHuffPostarticle,itsays,“the averageAmericanismorelikelytobecrushedtodeath

bytheircouchortelevisionthantheyaretobekilledbya Muslim.Americansweremorelikelytobekilledbyatoddlerin2013thanaso-called‘Muslimterrorist’”[2].The sheerabsurdityofthisfactisboththefactthatcouches, TVs,andtoddlersaremoredeadlythanMuslimsandthat thisassertionwasfrom2013beforemanyrulessuchas Trump’sMuslimBanwereputintoplace.Ofcourse,the biggestandmostwell-knownMuslimterroristattackis 9/11.Ofthe19peopleinvolved,15werefromSaudi Arabia,andtherestwerefromthesurroundingcountries. SaudiArabiahadapopulationofover20millionatthat point.Fromthesestatistics,wecanseethatwecannot pintheblameonMuslimsandIslamasawhole.Wealso cannotpinitonArabcountries,whichhavebeenblamed insteadofMuslimsasawholebecausetherewerejust fourinvolvedoutsideofSaudiArabia.Butitisseverely unreasonabletoblameSaudiArabians,whosedomestic situationwithISISitselfisextremelyunfortunate.This stereotype,likemanyothers,isbasedonsuchasmall sampleofeventsandsetofcharacteristicsoftheMuslimpeoplethathas“taintedIslam’smessageandimage” [2],accordingtoaSaudiU.S.envoy.Assigningsucha dauntingroleandtitletoapopulationthathasinlarge partbeenmuch,muchmorenegativelyaffectedbythis minorityisabiased,racistaccusationthatneedstostop beingthrownaround.

AlongwithMuslimsbeingcalledterrorists,another commonstereotypethrownatMuslimsisthattheyare sexistandthinkofwomenaslesserbeings.ThisperceptionofMuslimcountriesissomewhataccurate,asmany lawsexistthatlimitwhatwomencando.Forexample,in SaudiArabia,itwasillegalforwomentodrive.InIran, womenneedpermissionfromamalerelativetotravel. Thismeansthatanyfemale,nomattertheirageorclass, mustaskoneoftheirmalerelativesbeforetravelinganywhere.Thesetypesoflawsareoftenmisunderstoodas lawssuggestedandapprovedbyIslam’sholytextsbut arejustaresultofanIslamicgovernmentmakingspecificlawsthatarenotstatedclearlyinanywayinIslam’s teachingsandtexts.Itiscrucialtounderstandthatthe governmentsmaketheselaws,anditmustbestressedthat unfortunatelymanyofthesecountriesarenotdemocraciesbutratherhaveotherformsofgovernment.When youlookatthegovernmentsthatarevotedforbythe people,Muslimcountriesareveryfarapartintheirdiversityinthepoliticalsystem.Thisquotefromanarticle from TheAtlantic usesthisstatistictoprovehowmany Muslimcountriesarerighttherewiththerestoftheworld ontheissue.“WhydidEgypt’shateful‘they’electonly2 percentwomentoitspost-revolutionarylegislature,while Tunisia’shateful‘they’elected27percent,farshortof thehalfbutstillsignificantlymorethanAmerica’s17 percent?”[5].Thisopensmindstohowfarapartand

5.5Haider,Najih.AretheStereotypesThatHaveBeenCreatedforMuslimsFair?69

howdifferentMuslimcountriesareontheirjourneyto reachequality.OftenallMuslimsandtheircountriesare justclumpedtogetherunderthisbigumbrella.However, inreality,somecountriesarefaraheadoftheUS,some arefarbehind,andclumpingjustdoesn’tworkanymore. AnotherbigissuewithMuslimwomenhasbeenhowthey arebeingdiscriminatedagainst,notonlyintheUSbutin manyotherWesterncountries.Inmanysituations,includingmanygovernmentphotosandoccupations,women areforcedtotakeofftheirhijabsorheadscarves.Hijabs areaveryimportantpartofIslamforwomenanditis consideredofutmostimportanceforwomentowearthem inpublicandaroundnon-familymembers.Iftheywereto refuse,theyarenotissuedIDsorareaskedtoleavetheir governmentposition.AccordingtotheAmericanCivil LibertiesUnion(ACLU),hijabdiscriminationincidents occurredatleast25timesin2016undereachofthese circumstances:deniedentrancetopublicbuildings,malls, pools,andamusementparks,beingfiredforwearinga hijabasapoliceofficer,teacher,andpublictransport worker,andbeenforcedtotakeahijaboffinjail,courts, schools,andathleticcompetitions.Thesimplefactof thematteristhatintheUS,manyMuslimsjustcannot livelifewhilefollowingtheirreligiontotheextentthey shouldhavethefreedomto.Freedomofreligionisoneof theUS’smostfamousandadmiredliberties,butinmany places,suchfreedomdoesnotexist.

References

[1] St.EdmundsAcademy. TheSEAExperience. URL: www.stedmunds.net/about-sea%20%09% 20the-sea-experience#

[2] OmarAlnatour. MuslimsAreNotTerrorists:A FactualLookatTerrorismandIslam. Dec.2015. URL: www.huffpost.com/entry/muslimsare-not%20-terrorist_b_8718000 (citedon page68).

[3] RaymondWilliamBaker. ScreeningIslam:terrorism,Americanjihad,andthenewIslamists.Arab StudiesQuarterly.2003.

[4] DISCRIMINATIONAGAINSTMUSLIMWOMEN -FACTSHEET. URL: www.aclu.org/other/ discrimination-agai%20nst-muslimwomen-fact-sheet

[5] MaxFisher. TheRealRootsofSexisminthe MiddleEast(It’sNotIslam,Race,or’Hate’). Oct.2015. URL: www.theatlantic.com/ international/arch%20ive/2012/04/thereal-roots-of-sexism-i%20n-themiddle-east-its-not-Islam-race-o%20rhate/256362/ (citedonpage68).

Nevertheless,inreality,whenyouhavethesesmall biasesandinequalitiesineverycorneroftheUS,thefreedomofreligionisnottrue.Oneofthemostbasicand well-knownteachingsofIslamisthatwomenshouldwear ahijabandifthat’snotallowedinasmanyplacesasit is,doestheUShavefreedomofreligion?Thebiggest issuewiththesestereotypesisthatMuslimsarenotonly affectedintheUSbydiscriminationandracismofthese stereotypes,butthebiggestvictimsoftheseterroristand sexistactsaretheMuslimsthemselvesthatarefromthose countries.TherearefamiliesouttherewhohavehadfamilieskilledorimprisonedunfairlyandthencometotheUS hopingthattheadvertisedfreedom,liberty,andjustice willhelpthemrebuildtheirlives,butunfortunately,no luck.Thesamepeoplewhohavedestroyedtheirrelationships,family,andfriendsarenowthesamepeople AmericansviewimmigrantMuslimsas.Itissad,devastating,andevenheartbreakingtoseethatso,somany peoplehavetostruggleandbediscriminatedagainstfor thingsthattheyhavelostsomuchto,letalonetakepart in.Ofcourse,hereatWinchesterThurston,ourmottois, “Thinkalsoofthecomfortsandrightsofothers”.And bylivingthosewordsout,theissueofstereotypescanbe solvedandcreateabetterworldforallpeople.

[6] ChrisFuchs. Reportedanti-Muslimhateincidents, rhetoricroseintheyearaftertheelection,report finds. Feb.2018. URL: www.nbcnews.com/news/ asian-america/rep%20orted-anti-muslimhate-incidents-rheto%20ric-rose-yearafter-election-n843671

[7] Gallup. Islamophobia:UnderstandingAntiMuslimSentimentintheWest. URL: news.gallup. com/poll/157082/islamophob%20iaunderstanding-anti-Muslim-sentiment% 20-west.aspx.

[8] EricaGambatese. StereotypesofIslamicDress andAppearance-BasedDiscriminationinAmerica.2018.

[9] JennaJohnsonandAbigailHauslohner. ’Ithink Islamhatesus’:AtimelineofTrump’scomments aboutIslamandMuslims. May2017. URL: www. washingtonpost.com/news/post-polit% 20ics/wp/2017/05/20/i-think-islamhates-%20us-a-timeline-of-trumpscomments-about%20-Islam-and-Muslims/ (citedonpages67,68).

[10] SimeonManandMichaelProvence. ParallelsbetweenJapaneseInternmentandMuslimBan? Feb. 2017. URL: www.chicagotribune.com/sdutbg-japanes%20e-camps-Muslims-trump20170217-story.h%20tml (citedonpage67).

[11] JackMeacham. Effectiveteachingtocountermisinformationandnegativestereotypes:theexample ofIslam. 2009.

[12] MythsandFactsaboutMuslimPeopleandIslam. URL: www.adl.org/education/resources/ tools-%20and-strategies/myths-andfacts-about-m%20uslim-people-andIslam (citedonpage68).

[13] CNNNewsroom. TrumpDefendsPlanforMuslim Ban;Investigators:FarookPlanAttacksin2012; IraqMilitaryFightingtoRetakeRamadi;Confu-

5.6 TheChannelCrisis

ByAlexPeris

Abstract

Thispieceexaminesthemigrantcrisisbrewinginthe EnglishChannel.ItfirstgivesahistoryoftheEuropean MigrantCrisisof2015,inwhichlargeamountsofmigrantscrossedtheMediterraneanintoEurope.Itthen transitionsintodiscussingthenewtrendsinmigrantdestinationsandgovernmentpolicies.Emphasisisplaced ontheuniquecircumstancespromptingthousandsof migrantstoattempttocrosstheEnglishChannel,and claimsarebackedupwithevidencefromgovernment statistics.Thepaperendswithaproposedsolutionthat enhancesrescuecapabilitiestoavoidfurtherlossoflife.

Atitspeakin2015,theEuropeanmigrantcrisissaw 1.3millionpeoplerequestingasylumintheEU.This increasewasaccompaniedbyasurgeofdeathsinthe Mediterranean,asmoremigrantsattemptedtherisky crossingtoSouthernEurope.Althoughthenumberof deathsintheMediterraneanhasbeensteadilydecreasing sincethen,thenumberofmigrantsdyinginattempted traversalsofanotherEuropeanwaterwayhassincerisen. TheUK,whichemergedfromthecrisesof2015relatively unscathed,isnowfacingacriticalmigrationchallengeas asylumrequestssoaranddeathsintheEnglishchannel multiply.Thusfar,theUKandFrenchgovernmentshave provedunabletocopewiththecrossings,andthesituationrisksdevelopingintoafurthertragedyifpreventative stepsarenottaken.

TheUKwasfarlessimpactedthanmainlandEurope bythe2015migrantcrisis.IncontrasttoGermany,which received442,000applicationsforasylum,orHungary, whichreceived174,000,theUKgovernmentrecorded only39,000applications[3].Thiswasduetoseveral factors;nationssuchasGermanywhichmaintaineda publiclyopenstanceonrefugeeswerelikelyviewedmore favorablybyasylum-seekers,whileHungary,although unfriendlytowardsasylumseekers,waslocatedonthe

sionin.Dec.2015. URL: www.stedmunds.net/ about-sea%20%09%20the-sea-experience#

[14] CNNNewsroom. TrumpDefendsPlanforMuslim Ban;Investigators:FarookPlanAttacksin2012; IraqMilitaryFightingtoRetakeRamadi;Confusionin.Dec.2015. URL: link.gale.com/apps/ doc/A436998697/STOM%20?u=pl5532&sid= bookmark-STOM&xid=2044de%20fc.

[15] Oyez. Trumpv.Hawaii URL: www.oyez.org/ cases/2017/17-965

primarymigratorycorridorforpeopleenteringEuropevia theAegean.Thesheergeographicdistancesinvolvedalso madetheUKalesslikelydestinationforasylumseekers, mostofwhomstartedtheirjourneysintheMiddleEast andAfrica.

Sincethepeakofthecrisis,theflowofasylumapplicationshaveeased,withfirsttimeEUapplications numbering535,000in2021.However,therearetwokey differencesbetweenthecurrentasylumsituationandthat of2015.

First,thedistributionofcountriesreceivingapplicationshaschanged.AlthoughGermanyhasretainedthe numberonespot,itsuni-popularityisfarbelowwhatit wasin2015.Franceisnowthesecondmostpopulardestinationofasylumseekers,receiving103,000applications toGermany’s148,000[7].Thisincreaseinapplications comesastheadministrationofEmmanuelMacronfaces pressurefromtheFrenchfarrightandpublictocrack downonimmigration.Asaresult,theacceptanceratefor Frenchasylumapplicationsdroppedtoarecordlowof 22% in2021[5].Thosewhoseapplicationsarerejected havefewchoices.Theyfacetheprospectofdeportation, stayingillegallywithfeweconomicopportunities,orhavinganothershotattheprocessinaneighboringcountry —usuallytheUK.

Second,thedepartureoftheUnitedKingdomfrom theEUhashadasizableimpactonthemigrationdynamicsoftheregion.TheUKcannolongerusetheDublin Regulation–anEUagreementmandatingthatmigrants mustapplyforasyluminthefirstEuropeancountrythey enter,andbesenttothatcountryiffoundinanotherafterwards–torelocateasylumseekerstothefirstEuropean countrytheysetfootin.Asaresult,thenumberofasylumseekersremovedfromtheUKhasdroppedsharply. While56,000peopleclaimedasylumintheUKin2021,

5.6Peris,Alex.TheChannelCrisis71 only2,761weredeported.Additionally,theUKasylum grantratehasreachedarecordhighof 77% [4].TheUK governmentandpublicarebothdispleasedwiththesituation,astheUKisspendingmillionsofpoundsadayon migranthousing.TheUKHome-Officehasbeenworking onalternatives,suchastheRwandanrelocationplan,but removingmigrantsoncetheyreachtheUKhasbecome unmistakablydifficult.

Theseconditionshavepromptedafloodofmigrants toattemptcrossingtheEnglishChannel.Thenumberof asylum-seekerstraversingthewaterwayinthelastthree yearshassoared.In2018,amere218peoplecrossedthe Channel.By2022,thatnumberhadrisentoover45,000 [1].Settingoffinsmallboatsprovidedbysmugglers, migrantsbravefreezingtemperaturesandroughseas.The majorityofmigrantseithersucceedinthecrossingorare pickedupbytheUKBorderForce.Onlyafractionare turnedbacktoFrance.

Unfortunately,ascrossingsmultiply,sodoesthepotentialforcatastrophe.InNovember2021,thirty-two people,includingseveralchildrenandapregnantwoman, drownedwhentheirovercrowdeddinghysank.Disturbingly,itappearedthatneithertheBritishnorFrench governmentsrespondedtothefranticcallsfromthevessel intime,hopingthattheircounterpartsacrossthechannel wouldhandleit[2].Bothblamedeachotherforthedisaster.Morethanseventydeathshavebeendocumentedin thechannelsince2020,andtheactualnumbersarelikely higher[5].Thistollcanbeexpectedtoriseasmoreand moremigrantstrytoseekasylumintheUK.Shortofa drasticchangeintheattractivenessoftheUKtomigrants, thepaceofthearrivalswilllikelycontinueunabated.

TheresponsesfromtheBritishandFrenchgovernmentshaveprovedinsufficienttotacklethecrisis.The twopartnersareinconfrontationoneverythingfromfishingrightstotheaftermathoftheAUKUSsubmarinedeal. FormerPrimeMinisterBorisJohnsonandFrenchpresidentEmmanuelMacronhadanespeciallytumultuous relationship,whichledtoFrenchreluctancetoworkwith theUKonthecrisis.Frenchcooperationisvitaltostop crossings.TheonlywaytopreventsmugglersfromsendingpeopleouttoseaispatrollingtheFrenchcoastlineto detectboatsbeforetheysetout.Allofthismustbedone bytheFrench,whointurnreceiveadditionalfundingfor theseoperationsfromtheBritishgovernment.

WhilerelationshavecalmedsincetheascentofRishi Sunakto10DowningStreet,theyremaintense.Thetwo governmentsrecentlysignedanewdealtopostmoreofficersonthebeachesofCalais,buttowhatextentthis willcurbthecrisisisyettobeseen.Findingsmugglers alongdozensofmilesofcoastlineishard.TheUKhas

steppedupitseffortsinrecentmonths,establishinga“NationalSmallBoatCommandCenter”anddevotingmore resourcestotacklethecrisis,butitisfarfrominevitable thattheseinvestmentswillbeeffectivelong-term.

ThepresentstateofaffairsintheEnglishChannel isunsustainable,andhasthepotentialtobecomemuch, muchworse.Lettingthousandsofmigrantscontinue torisktheirlivescrossingtheChannelisunacceptable. Whatcanbedone?Onesolutionistheadoptionofanew strategyfromtheUKthatutilizesthelessonslearnedfrom theMediterraneanmigrantcrisis.Asmigrantnumbers soaredanddeathsmultiplied,governmentsbeganworking withSearch-and-RescueNGOs.TheNGOseventually becameresponsibleforover 40% ofmigrantrescuesin theMediterranean,savingover23,000peopleatthepeak ofthecrisisin2015.TheseNGOsfitintothelargerframeworkofgovernmentaloperationsunderthesupervision oftheItalianMaritimeRescueCoordinationCentre[6]. Workingtogetherunderjointcontrol,theItaliangovernmentandNGOsformedaneffectiveforce.

Thiseffectivepublic-privatecoordinationcanserve asamodelfortheresponsetotheChannelcrisis.TheUK governmentisoperatingunderdismaleconomicconditionsandhasnodesiretofurtherincreasethepayments toFranceortheBorderForcebudget.ShiftingtheoperationalframeworktoincludeNGOswouldnotonlyhelp savelivesbutwouldalsodosoatadecreasedcost.The NGOscouldbeintegratedintothenewlyestablishedNationalSmallBoatCommandCenter,wheretheywouldbe abletoworkincloseconjunctionwiththeBorderForce andrespondtomajorincidents.Suchanapproachwould minimizethechancesofamasscasualtyeventandensure thatmoremigrantssurvivethedangerousjourney.

Whilethisapproachwilldecreasedeathsinthechannel,stepsarealsoneededtoreduceoverallmigrantinflows.Improvedrescuemeasureswilllikelyresultinan increaseintheamountofmigrantswillingtoattemptthe journeyastheyknowthattheyprobablywillberescued andtakentotheUK.Assuch,stepsmustbetakento minimizetheflowofmigrantsbeforetheysetofffrom France.Thiswillrequireheavynegotiationswiththe Frenchgovernment,negotiationswhichwilllikelyresult inaconcessionononeofthevariousissuesdividingthe twoneighborsorasizablemonetaryincentive.Ultimately, theUKmustrememberthataconcessionorpaymentwill befarlesscostlyinthelongrunthantheupkeepand associatedcostsoftensofthousandsofasylumseekers.

Thecrisiscouldhardlycomeataworsttimeforthe UK.ItfacesaneconomicrecessionandastrainedrelationshipwithFrance.Thereisnosolutionwhichwillnot requirenegotiationandsacrifice.Butthepotentialfor

humantragedyrequiressteadfastdetermination.Disaster canandmustbeavoided;itismerelyaquestionofwill.

References

[1] BBC. HowistheUKstoppingchannelcrossings andwhatarethelegalroutestotheUK? Dec. 2022. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/ explainers-53%20734793 (citedonpage71).

[2] A.Bunkall. UKandFrenchservicesleftrescue ofmorethan30drowningmigrantsinchannelto eachother,reportclaims. July2022. URL: https: //news.sky.com/story/uk-and-fren%20chservices-left-rescue-of-more-than-3% 200-drowning-migrants-in-channel-toeach%20-other-report-claims-12658965 (citedonpage71).

[3] P.Conner. NumberofRefugeestoEuropeSurges toRecord1.3Millionin2015. 2016. URL: https: //www.pewresearch.org/global/201%206/ 08/02/number-of-refugees-to-europes%20urges-to-record-1-3-million-in2015/ (citedonpage70).

5.7 TheEthicalConsiderationsofA.I.

ByJaySimhan

Abstract

AsA.I.andmachinelearningdevelop,ourperception ofsuchtechnologiesmustdosoaswell.Thisworkwill addresstheproblemsofmachinelearningfromcreation toapplicationandhowwecanuseourunderstandingof inclusive,intentionalprocesses,thenecessityofproducts,andequitableimplementationofsuchalgorithms tocreateamoreethicalA.I.system.Acknowledging thatourdefinitionsofproblemstobesolved,andmore complex,theoreticalconceptssuchassentiencyandpersonhood,isessentialtodeterminingthewayinwhich A.I.functionsinoursociety.Thus,consideringthese challengingquestionsaboutdefiningproblems,creating algorithms,A.I.application,andsurroundingsocietal concernswillhelpmakethedevelopingtechnological spacemoreequitable,ethical,andsafe.

Theproblemsofmachinelearningbegustoconsider boththeprocessandtheproduct.Theuseofmultiple ethicalsafeguardscanmoveustowardsmoreinclusive, moral,andsafeA.I.EffectiveactioncomesfromunderstandinganddefiningaproblemandensuringthattheA.I. algorithmadequatelyaidstheproblemwithoutcreating newissuesalongtheway.Itiscriticaltorecognizethat themodel-makingprocessmattersjustasmuchasthe productitselfinordertomakeA.I.themostinclusiveand ethicallysound.

[4] L.Corban. Governmentstatisticsshowastaggeringbacklogofasylumclaims,ahighgrantrate, andalackofsaferoutes. Nov.2022. URL: https: //www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/late%20st/ news/government-statistics-show-a-s% 20taggering-backlog-of-asylum-claimsa-h%20igh-grant-rate-and-a-lack-ofsafe-rout%20es/ (citedonpage71).

[5] Europe:Missingmigrantsproject. URL: https: //missingmigrants.iom.int/region%20/ europe? (citedonpages70,71).

[6] L.Riebl. NGOsonRefugeeSearchandrescue intheMediterranean. June2017. URL: https: //www.borgenmagazine.com/refugee%20search-and-rescue-mediterranean/ (cited onpage71).

[7] Statistics-AsylumInformationDatabase. Apr. 2022. URL: https://asylumineurope.org/ reports/cou%20ntry/france/statistics/ (citedonpage70).

Anartificialbeingwouldnothavethesamerightsas ahumanbecauseitis not ahumananditdoesnothave thesamecriticalneeds,desires,andconsciousness.The conceptofsentientA.I.canhelpusdefinetheessence ofwhatishuman,andthushelpusclarifytherightsof humans.Thisactofclarifyingleadsustonotethatmany humansintheU.S.donotreceivethebasicresourcesthat theyneed,includingsufficientshelter,food,andhealthcare.Ifwebarelysupportallofthehumanbeingsinour country,potentiallyexpandingthisgrouptoincludeA.I. beingscouldworsenthiscurrentinabilitytomeetthefundamentalneedsofhumans.Iwillargueinthisessayfora frame-shifttoconceptualizerightsrelatedtoAIbeingsin awaythatfocusesonhowthebeingsaffectthehumans andinstitutionsaroundthem–morehuman-centrictothe benefitofthewellbeingandsafetyofcitizensandtheprotectionofethicalA.I.Problemsdefinesolutions,andso thewayinwhichanissueisdefineddeterminestheway inwhichtheA.I.modelwillbeconstructedandultimately producepredictions.Beforeanydataentersamodel,ethicalmachinelearningrequiresaconcrete,user-centered goalinmind.Businessentitiestendtoconcentrateontheir successusingproduct-centeredorprofit-centereddesign. Instead,ethicalA.I.practicesmustbecenteredaround participatorydesign,integratingdiverseperspectivesto

5.7Simhan,Jay.TheEthicalConsiderationsofA.I.73

asktherightquestionsandidentifygoalsthatbenefita morebroadly-definedgood.Codersneedtokeepthe user-defined real problemfrontandcenterintheirwork. Inherarticle“Accessingrisk,automatingracism,”Ruha Benjamindiscussestheimportanceofproblem-defining andlabelswhenmachinelearningisappliedtohealthcare resourceallocation.ShediscussesastudydonebyObermeyeretal.,whoillustratedthat“dependingonhowone definestheproblemtobesolved–whethertolowerhealth carecostsortoincreaseaccesstocare–theoutcomes willvaryconsiderably”[2,pg.2].Thewayinwhichthe researchersunderstoodtheproblemthattheyweretrying tosolve–loweringhealthcarecostsratherthanincreasing accesstocare–determinedtheresultsoftheiralgorithm, hidingbiasineverycreviceofthemodel.Becausefar lessmoneyhasbeenspentonblackpatientsthroughout history,thesystemnaturallyunderestimatedthelevelof attentionthatablackpatientneeded.Itiscrucialtoinclusivelyframetheactualproblemandconsiderhowthe A.I.willmagnifypatternsasdataflowsin.Attentionto inputensuresthatagoalcanbeachievedwithoutexacerbatingexistingsocialproblems.Aclearlyandinclusively definedproblemallowsforaneffective,user-centered solutiontoarisewhichmeetscriteriaforanethicalA.I. algorithm.Wecannotcededecision-makingsolelytoan AImodelwithoutestablishinghumanoversight.Pulling togetherdiversegroups,alongwitharepresentativeofthe federalgovernmentwouldserveasaninputcheck,design check,andoutputcheckonalgorithms.Bycreatinga comprehensiveregulatoryapproachtoA.I.andmachine learning,wecouldworktowardequityinthebenefitsof thistechnology.Bringinginethicists,philosophers,social scientists,activists,andstatisticians,amongothers,toa computersciencefieldallowsmodelstobecrosschecked andvalidatedinallstagesofconstruction.Aregulatory entitydesignedtoactatthebeginningandendofamachinelearningprocesscouldresultinamoresocially conscious,moralprocessofcreationandproduction.

WhathappenswhenthisA.I.surpassesit’smorepracticalusessuchashealthcareriskpredictionsandtraffic patternmanagement,andevolvesintoprogramsthatfunctionassentientbeings?Underthelaw,thereisnoneed topossessthecomplexityandemotionthathumanscommonlyexhibitinordertoachieve“personhood”–theonly conditionisthattheindividualcanfunctionwithinthe legalandpoliticalspaceintheU.S.AsstatedinShawn

Bayern’s TheImplicationsofModernBusiness–Entity LawfortheRegulationofAutonomousSystems,legal personhood“issimplythecapacityofaperson,system, orlegalpersonhoodentitytoberecognizedbylawsufficientlytoperformbasiclegalfunctions.”Thisentails the“capabilitytoownproperty,enteracontract,filea

lawsuit,benamedinalawsuit,serveasalegalprinciple, andserveasalegalagent”[1,pg.94-95].Theoretically, anA.I.beingcoulddothiswithease.Machinelearning bearsonesignificantdifferencefromhumans–it’serror modality.A.I.isunabletoadjustaseasilyandspontaneouslyashumans,eventowhatmightappeartobea minisculechangeintask.Takechess,forexample.If weprogramamodeltocompeteinchess,itcouldeasily beateventhemostskilledchessplayers,howeverifwe switchtoagameofcheckers,thatsamealgorithmwould failinstantly.

Inordertobeasentientbeing,A.I.wouldneedto overcomethisdifferenceandpossessthesameadaptive andimprovisatoryabilitiesasahuman.Evenatsucha point,algorithmsdonothave needs,motivation,desires, dreams,orthoughts.A.I.analyzesdataforpatterns,then replicatesthosepatternsinitsoutputsatdifferentlevels ofintricacydependingonthecomplexityoftheprogram. Consciousnessisnecessarytounderstand,notjustactor producearesult.WhileA.I.algorithmscanmakedecisions,theydonot understand whytheyarechoosingone optionoveranother,andarenotconsciousofachoice inthefirstplace–theyaresimplyaccomplishingapreprogrammedgoal,andthenlearningfrompastdatatrends toperformthattaskmoreeffectively.Ifwerecognizethe machineforwhatitis,thentherearenotenoughqualities oftheartificialbeingtomeritrightsinthesamewaythat Americanshavefreedomofspeech,expression,andreligion.Instead,rightsrelatingtothesemachineswould servetoprotecttheindividualsandcommunitiessurroundingtheartificialbeing–rulesabouthowitsoutputscan beapplied,whoisinchargeofthemachine,andhowA.I. algorithmsarecreated.Thus,anartificialsentientbeing isnotahumanwithindividualrightsinourcountry,but anentitywhoserelationtoandimpactonhumansmust beregulated.

A.I.shouldnotbecreatedjusttoinnovate,butrather withacarefullyandinclusively-definedpurposeinmind. Whenartificialbeingsarise,wecanunderstandthatthey donotpossessthesamefundamentalcharacteristicsofa humanbeing,andthusdonotmeritthesamefundamentalrights.Ascitizensofarapidlyadvancinginnovative society,weneedtoinvestinanethicalapproachtoA.I. thatbenefitsthegreatergood.

Todevelopacompletemind:Studythescienceofart.Studytheartofscience. Learnhowtosee.Realizethateverythingconnectstoeverythingelse.

–LeonardodaVinci