Vol-4-No-8 by Seonghwan Yu

99r

VOLUME IV NUMBER INI, KOREA

1062 1003

CONTENTS

What can Won Buddhism Do for the World Community by Bongkll Chung Prospects and Problems of Cooperation among Religions by John Bernard Taylor

.....38

United Religions Movement to Realize World Peace by Pal Khn Chon..-..

.....b1

Buddhism and the Collective Perception of our Time : A Study of Religious Traditions with Reference to the Teaching of Won Buddhism bv Lewis R. Lancaster . Future Retrgron and Ven. Sotae,san's Thought by Byung-Duk Ryu

News

WOT{ BUDTX{ISM Rrblished by: Research lnstitute for Overseas Missions Wonkwang University lri City, Chonpuk The Republic of Korea

Corner

.......Ss ....79

........g3

1065 WON

VOL

NO.S

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BUDDHISM

1991

EDITORIAL The 100th Anniversary of the Birth of the Great Master Ven. Sotaesan, Founder of Won Buddhism The 28th of April this year was the 100th Birthday of the late Ven. Sotaesan. the founder of Won Buddhism. By establishing the new religion, Won Buddhism, he solidified the spiriutal revolution which he intended Would create a new society and new world. in peace.

He passed away in 1943 at the age of 53, but during the comparatively short period of 28 years of salvation work, his aspiration to save all sentient beings and to build paradise on the earth has been steadily realized. Won Buddhism now stands at the threshold of its 3rd generation. after 76 years of Won Buddhist history. From eight years ago, Won Buddhist devotees and lay people have been dedicated to preparing for the many specific programs arranged for the purpose of celebrating the one-hundredth birthday of Ven. Sotaesan. The absolute faith of Won Buddhist followers in Ven. Sotaesan was demonstrated through this anniversary. His life was dedicated to self-practice in the Budd'hist way ; to salvation tasks after his enlightenment; to the establishment of paradise on the earth and to realize world peace. There are many moving and heartfelt episodes in the life of Ven. Sotaesan, which show his devout religious life as an Enlightened savior. Various celebration programs were performed from the 24lh of April to the end of May, for the purpose of looking back upon the life of Ven. Sotaesan with reverence and adoration. Among these programs were the dedication of the Commemoration Hall of Ven. Sotaesan, which, in its harmonious and symbolic culture signifies the f ollowers' faith in him. Along with the completion of the Commemorative Hall of Ven. Sotaesan, the lnternational Academic Conference on World Community and Religion, and the interreligious cooperation for wor!d religious leaders on the subject of "lnterreligious Cooperation for World Peace

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WON BUDDHISM

and the Peace and the Peaceful Reunification of South and North Korea , were regarded as particularly deserving of worldwide attention. The commemorative book which has now been completed can be counted among the highight achievements of commemoration programs. Many other events promoting spiritual culture, the arts and academic cultural events, and especially the pluralistic universality and spiritual high level exaltation. Won Buddhism, which has made continuaI growth since its establishment 76 years ago, aspires to continue rn the spotlight on the internatior,al stage. We will reach the one-hundredth anniversary of the founding of Won' Buddhism twenty-five years from now. Twenty-five years is not a short period. Nobody can predict what will happen, or how much Won Buddhism will contribute to world peace during that period. The one-hundredth anniversary of the founding of Won Buddhism may be celebrated with even more colorful programs, but we believe that the meaning of the Ven. Sotaesan's coming to this world, and the meaning of the existence of Won Buddhism will never be changed.

What Can Won Buddhism do for the World CommunitY? Bongkil ChungP Contents

I . The world community as world of tl-Won

II. World of

the

miserY and founding

motive of Won Buddhism

III. Formative synthesis

old

teachings

1. Taking Buddha Dharma

the main tenet 2. New prescriptions in outline IV. Four Essentials for the ideal world

1. Right Enlightenment and ght Conduct

1) Enlightenment of ll-Won-Sang

Ri-

to the Truth

2) ll-Won-Sang as the standard of Right Conduct 3) Threefold Training

2. Awareness and Requital of Grace with gratitude 1) Grace of Heaven and Earth 2) Grace of Parents 3) Grace of Brethren 4) Grace of Law 3. Application of Buddha Dharma

4. Selfless Service V.

I . The World Community as the'World

>)f -<>r<>+<>{<>t<i't<>t<>{<>t<>t<)<;i<;r{<ir,K:}t<i}t<}r<>{<rrt<>t<t t<;r{<;rt<=u<>{<>{<)<>t<>l<>rc><r*r-+

fhe Great Master said, "ln corrupted and troublesome times, il il tnere appears a savior of the world who has the Law * f capablealways of reversing the spiritual trend of the universe, correctf; lng people." f; evils the of the world, and harmonizing 's the tx " -..minds of''---'-'-X

fiX

from "Prospects for the Future" il The Scripture of Won Buddhism *

ir..*t'.>,..><>.*>{<>t<;r{<>.*>{<>..s..>r=ri<>.,=>t<=,*:i<:,*==>r<>r<,,.<;'..>..>{<>,=>,.><>..t..r=J

for

the

Public Well-Being Conclusion

of.

II-WON

lhe general theme of this conference, the World Community and Religion, seems to be concerned with two questions. What can a religion do to the world community? How can the major religions of the world cooperate to preserve peace in the world community? This paper is mainly concerned with the first question : what can won Buddhism contribute to the world community? As part of an answer to this question, the main part of the paper analyzes the central doctrine of Won Buddhism. For the present status of Won Buddhism can best be understood by what it is and will be doing to the world with its doctrine. I do this because the most important question concerning the present and future of a religion of the world community is the truthfulness of its doctrine which will have serious sOcial impact on the world community. Though evangelical, educational, and charitable enterprises of Won Buddhism ate quite significant at present, the essence of Won Buddhism as a world religion is its ethico-religious doctrine. * prof. of Philosophy & Religion,

Florida lnternational University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A

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Furthermore, I have failed to find anything more important to contribute to this conf erence than an analytic introduction of its central tenets. lt is hoped that this paper can depict the true nature of Won Buddhism and prove its founder to be a true guide for the world community in the new era. I will begin this paper by reflecting a Won Buddhist viewpoint on the second question. The second question arises because there have been conf licts between religions, causing senseless miseries to mankind. This is a serious question as ..john E. Smith writes l These encounters are sometimes tragic as is illustrated by the struggles between Hindus and Moslems; others are more constructive as. for exair-ple. in the attempts currently being made by Buddhists and Christians to

The father in this analogy should be understood as the ultimate source'of all religious truths.3) Sot'aesan expressed this view by saying that all beings of the universe are of one essential nature and all dharmas [ethico-religious truths and principles] are from one source.4) ln Sot' aesan s view, such words as God, Dharmakaya, T'ai ch'i, Tao are different names of one and the same ultimate reality, which he symbolized by means of a circular figure, lrw6nsang.u) Thus we may call Sot'aesan's doctrine lrwOnism. lrwonism provides some fundamental moral principles for peaceful coexistence of the world community. ChO ngsan (1900-1 962), Sot'aesan's successor, advocated the Triple Homologous Morality based on lrw6nism and summarized it as a gatha:

Various religions arose in different parts of the world when the world was not a "world community." Today, the phenomenon of religious pluralism is left without any clear solution to any possible conflicts between heterogeneous religions. lt is doubtful whether the religions of the world can contribute to the realization of an everlasting peace in the world community as long as there remains

ChOngsan suggests that all religions are based on an identical truth, all races are cqnnected as a family, and all social and political enterprises

understand the fundamentals of each other's beliefs.')

enmity among religions. As a way of introducing the Won Buddhist viewpoint on the subtheme of the conference, Present and Future of World Religions, one can start with the idea of Sot'aesan (1891-1 943), the founder of Won Buddhism, on the general theme of the conference. To the question whether there were not enough religions in the world and whether heterogeneous religions coexist peacefully, Sot'aesan said l Suppose someone in Seoul enjoyed his life with his own children and then traveled alone all over the world. ln several of those foreign countries he spent several years in each and begot several children in eaCh country and then returned alone to Seoul. Suppose further those children still young from each country got together to meet with their father. lt may not be easy for them to get friendly and kind to one another since they have different facial complexions, languages, customs, and manners. As they grow mature after several years and understand their brotherhood, becoming familiar with different customs. they will then live in peace eventually. ln this way various religions have become different from one another while their origin is one and the same. When human intelligence

gets far more advanced and when the light of truth reaches everywheie, religions will form a family and maintain harmony and peace.2) 1) John E. smith, Philosophy of Religion(New

all

york:Macmillan co., igs6), p. 14.

2) wgnQulgyo kyoibn, comp., wdnbulgyo chonghwa-sa (ln : wdnbulgyo kyomubu, 1962), p. 438. This work is referred to as Kiojon hereafter.

Within one fence and with one truth, As one family within one household, As co-workers on one work place, Let us build the world of lrwon!6)

are for the construction of a prosperous and peaceful world. ln 1971 Won Buddhism marked its Half Centennial Commemoration of its founding, which Taesan, ChOngsan s successor and current leader of Won Buddhism, decorated with the following motto

Truth is one, the human race is one family, the world is one work place, hence let us build the world of lrwon!7)

One can see that building a peaceful and prosperous world in the world. community is the ultimate goal of Won Buddhism. Furthermore, the three leaders have expressed an optimistic outlook on the future world. At this point the world is faced with a number of major political, religious, social, and economic problems which can only be 3) This analogy cannot imply that one and the same messiah came to the world as Lao Tzu (c. 604-531 B.C), Gautama Buddha (563-?483 B.C.), Confucius (551-479 B.C.), Jesus Christ (Between I and 4 B.C.-29 A.D.) and Mohammed (570-632 A.D.) since Confucius and Gautama Buddha were contemporary and Confucius was born before Lao Tzu died.

4) Ky ohn, p. 1 07. 5) tbid., p. 127 6) ChOngsan chongsa pbbb IMaster

ChOngsan's Religious Discourses], comp., Wo

nbulgyo chOnghwasa (lri : Wonbulgyo kyomubu, 1972), p. 379. This work

referred to as Pbbo hereafter. 7) Taesan chongbbpsa pommunjip //[Collected Dharma Words of Supreme Dharma Master Taesanl (no publication information), pp. 471-472.

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solved

greed. hatred, and delusions are replaced with wisdom and

compassion in people. Wars, international trade deficits, AIDS epidemic,

drug addiction, homeless people, chemical contamination of air, water and soil, alarming number of viotent crimes--the cause of all these hellish phenomena lies at the bottom in the combination of greed, hatred, and'delusion in the mind of man. war on drugs, for instance, cannot be won by the Government's power as long as people at the bottom are not willing to liberate themselves from thL shackle of drugs and restore their human dignity. The competitive society free for all will always contain within itself some cancerous elements which cause senseless miseries in the world. As David Hume aptly pointed out : Man is the greatest enemy of man. Oppression, injustice. contempt, contumely, fraud--by these they mutually torment each other, and they would soon dissolve that society which they had formed were it not for the dread of still greater ills which must attend their separation.s)

A society or a nation can be founded on fair principles of justice, which does not guarantee good life of the members of the society or the nation unless the members thereof are morally respectable to abide by such principles of justice. tn Sot'aesan's view people will suffer in the sea of miseries unless they are moratly reformed by a truthful religion and a sound morality.e) This implies also that any religion which does not show how to ref orm the moratity of mankind will be irrelevant to the world community. Then, what is the way by which Won Buddhism tries to reform mankind? To answer this question is to answer also the question of the present and future of Won Buddhism. won Buddhism, comparatively a young religion, has a long way to go to emerge as a bonafide world religion with a significant religious impact on the world community. Whether it will achieve such a goal will depend on many factors, one of which is the veracity oi its doctrine. The present status of Won Buddhism in its evangelical, educational. and charitable works is quite phenomenal within Korean society if we consider its comparatively short history. Since Sot'aesan predicted that it will take about five hundred years for Won Buddhism to be followed all over the world. we should not expect that it can realize a paradise of a universal scale today. 8) David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Retigion. London, 177g. Recent Edition by Norman Kemp smith.oxford, 1g3s; Edinburgh, 1g47;New york, 1962. Part X.

9) Kyojon. P. 19.

WON

BUDDHISM

II. World of Misery and Founding Motive of Won Buddhism ln order to understand the nature of a religion, one should analyze its structure by applying the recurrent patterns in religious systems taken as a whole. ln order to understand the nature of Won Buddhism as a religion, therefore, I will approach it with the pattern outlined by William James. ln his view, three elements of structure can be found in every clearly articulated religious system. First, a vision of an ldeal, variously described as Ground, Order, Person, or in the case of the mystical forms, the Divine Nothirngness, and this ideal defines the true fulfillment of man and the perfection of all things; second, there is a critical judgment made in the name of this ldeal upon man and the world as it actually is, and this

judgment is intended

disclose in the actual world some defect

or flaw that

separates present life froni the ldeal fulfillment; third, there is a power-whether it be knowledge, a Person, a divine law, a model for conduct-whose function it is to nullify the distorting effect of the law and unite man with the ldeal.r0)

This structure of analysis is a very effective one as James saw it, for, can better understand . the plurality of religions and make critical comparisons among them as soon as we are able to say in the case of each religion what the ldeal means for that system, what flaw or distortion separates us from the ldeal, and what Power is to overcome the tragic element."rr) I assume that answers to these questions'from other religions have been made clear for long time, hence I will attempt to analyze the doctrine of Won Buddhism with these three questions in mind. Sot'aesan has clearly stated in the Founding Motive what the ldeal means for Won Buddhism, what flaw separates us from the ldeal, and what Power is to overcome the tragic element. Sot'aesan's founding motive of a new religion is not to show how one s soul can be saved into heaven after one s death, but to save all sentient beinEs from the bitter seas of suffering to a limitless paradise in this world. The founding motive is as follows l

'we

ln accordance with today's advancement in scientific civilization, the spirit of man who makes use of material conveniences gets weaker and weaker, while the power man uses gets more and more formidable. Such flourishing material power has conquered the enfeebled spirit of man, forcing man to follow the rule of matter. Thus. all men are bound to be enslaved by material power. lf so, how could man's life avoid being in the bitter seas of misery? Thus, the motive lies in the intention to expand the spiritual power and conquer the

of matter

10) Ouoted from John 11) nia.

E. Smith. Philosophy of Religion,

p.15.

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WON

material power by means of faith in a truthful religion and practice in sound morality so that all sentient beings suffering in the bitter seas of misery shall

BUDDHISM

Founding of Won Buddhism, Sot'aesan has given a new direction for the new world to follow. T.he new world is marked with the unfolding of the material pewer, which will endanger mankind unless the spiritual power of mankind be unfolded. Today, the material civilization has turned out to be the case of the Frankenstein's Monster. Sot'aesan compares a scientifically advanced but morally ill society to an infant playing with a sharp knife.") However, Sot'aesan's attitude toward material civilization is not totally negative. Once wisdom and moral sense of mankind is unfolded, material power will be an indispensable condition of a well rounded life. Sot'aesan compared a scientifically advanced but morally sick society to a physically healthy but mentally ill person and a morally advanced but scientifically backward society to a mentally sound but physically ill invalid.16),4 sharp knife in the hand of a good man is a useful tool, but it can be a lethal weapon in the hand of a robber. Today, the world has produced a material civilization in which man enjoys amazing material convenience. However, man has to pay dearly for the convenience. ln addition to the miseries caused by accidents mentioned above, moral illnesses such as greed, anger, hatred, resentment, and delusion aggravate the human predicament as we experience all the time. Mankind has a long history of miseries even before the unfolding of the material power due to the moral illness; the formidable material power has worsened the situation. Man's spiritual illness can only be cured by faith in a truthful religion and practice in a sound morality according to Sot'aesan. But. are there not enough religions with their potent doctrines to cure the world of illness? Of course there are great world religions with thousands of years of histories behind. lt is quite clear, however, that the ldeals of the major world religions do not lie in realizing a paradise in the world community. The ldeals of some religions are to be realized only in heaven; this world. full of evil and sin is of little worth or concern. ln Sot'aesan s view, the highest ldeal can be realized in this world and the whole doctrine of Won Buddhism is meant to realize it. Unless people are transf ormed into self-suf f icient and morally respectable enlightened beings, the ldeal cannot be realized. The Won Buddhist ldeal man is the one in whose mind ground there is no trace of greed, anger or hatred, stupidity or delusion, lust, fame, or jealousy.

be guided to a limitless paradise.t2)

Upon his great ?nlightenment in 1916, Sot'aesan foresaw the danger the world was about to face due to the formidable power of material civilization. His sense of urgency for awakening people for a new direction was expressed i "when the world reaches its degenerate age of crises, a savior-sage is to appear with a doctrine truthful enough to rule the world, to correct the ills of the world and rectify- the mind of mankind by reversing the energy of Heaven and Earth."ts) In won Buddhism sot'aesan is regarded as-''the new Buddha in the new world," because he has shown how ail sentient beings can be delivered from the bitter seas of misery and how one can realize the ldeal in this very world. One may wonder whether the intention to guide mankind away from the danger of material civilization could be alufficient reason for opening the gate of a new religion. ln Sot'aesan s enlightened view, the world was about to enter an era of unprecedented crises caused by the formidable material power. Today, we need no philosophical argument to prove the veracity of his foresight. Today, mankind is not only enslaved by the material power but gradualiy poisoned' by polluted air, water and soil as the result of chemical and physical industry in all the industrialized countries. Material convenience produced by high technology is so dazzling that man has surrendered his dignity to it. .Hundreds of thousands of people lose their lives in automobile accidents. Accidents at nuctear power plants and other chemical plants have killed hundreds of thousands in various parts of the world. lnsurance premiums related to material conveniences are going up all the time. The whole system is turning on vicious circles, in which individual citizens experien ce dizzy spells. ,All these problems were unheard of when Sot'aesan opened the gate of a new religion with the motto as the summary of what is stated in the Founding Motive : "since the matter is about to unfold itself, tet us have the spirit unfolded."ra) ln this motto, which is calted the Motto of the 12) Kyojbn. p. 19. 13) tbid., pp. 426-427. 14) lbid., p.1; Wbnbulgyo kyosa

[A History of Won Buddhisml, comp.. Wdnbulgyo chonghwasa (lri : Wonbulgyo ch'ulp'ansa, 1977), p. 31. This is referred to as

15) Ky ojbn, p. 149 16) tbid., pp. 148-149.

Ky osa hereaf ter.

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When the world community is full of such ldeal people, a true paradise will be realized. Today, any Won Buddhist who lives in this way realizes a personal paradise wherever the person is. tn order to show the relevance of Won Buddhism to the world community, we must

show how the central tenets

of the Won Buddhist doctrine

structured for the realization of its ideal.

III.

are

Formative Synthesis of old Teachings

A. Taking Buddha Dharma

as the Main Tenet

Upon his great enlightenment in 1g16, Sot'aesan perused some basic texts of confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, ch'0ndogyo, and Christianity in order to check the essence of his enlightenment against that of sages in the past.'7) Sot'aesan realized that the teachings of these religions are generally truthful though there are degrees of doctrinal depth among religions. He expressed his intention to integrate some of the tenets into the doctrine of a new religion he was about to establish.ls)He said : ln the past the founders of various religions came to the world'in accordance with the call of the times and taught the ways man ought to follow; yet the central doctrines have been different from one another depending on the

districts and times. This is like there being various areas medicine..

specialties

irr

Thus, the substance of the three teachings are different from one another; however, they agree in their goals of correcting the world and benefiting

sentient beings. ln the past each of the three religions exclusively taught their own areas of specialty; however, in the future, any one of them individually will not be sufficient to deliver the world. Hence, we inte.nd to integrate ail these doctrines into one system.re)

The three teachings include Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. 17) Kvosa, C/assrcs

p. 30, writes that sot'aesan surveyed the following : The Four and The Hsiaoching of Confucianism; The Diamond Sutra, The

Essentials of Chan.The Canon of Buddhism, Ihe Eight Aspects of the Buddha's Life of Buddhism; The Yun-fu ching, The yl-shu ching of raoism ; The Tonggyong taejbn and rhe Hymns of ch'ondogyo; The otd and New Testaments of Christianity. 18) For an analysis of sot'aesan's synthesis, see my "won Buddhism : A Synthesis of the Moral Systems of Buddhism and Confucianism,' Journal of Chinese Philosophy,VoL 15. No. 4, 1988, pp.

19) Kyojbn, pp. 125-126.

425-448.

Sot'aesan thought that Buddhism is best for the elucidation of truth although other doctrines are in general proper. The content of the Diamond S-utra lVajracchedik-a- prajnbpbramita- sbtraf impressed him to declare that Sakyamuni Buddha is the sage of all sages. He thought that Gautama was the origin of his enlightenment, feeling that there had been coincidental identities between their ways of searching for truth. Sot'aesan thus made up his mind to take the Buddha-dharma as the main body of the religion he was about to establish.zo) Buddhism as practiced in Korea at that time, however, could not be the religion to be used for delivering all sentient beings suffering in the bitter seas of misery. For over ,five hundred years, Yi dynasty (1 392-1 910) ostracized Buddhism with her pro-Confucianist policy. Her toadyism reflected Sung Neo-Confucianist harsh attack on Buddhism. Chu Hsi (1 1 30-1 200) has written l The mere fact they discard the Three Bonds (between ruler and minister, f ather and son, and husband and wif e) and the Five Constant Virtues (righteousness on the part of the father, deep love on the part of the mother, f riendliness of the. part of the elde.r brother, respect on the part of the younger brother, and filial piety on the part of the son) is already a crime of the greatest magnitude. Nothing more need be said about the rest.")

Chu Hsi's advice was "a student should forthwith get as far away f rom Buddhist doctrines as f rom licentious songs and beautif ul women."") Buddhist monks in Korea by the time of Sot'aesan's enlightenment were regarded as one of the lowest classes of the social structure. Chu Hsi's ostracism of Buddhism was felt alive in Korean society, challenging Sot'aesan's intention to take Buddhadharma as the main tenet. The following dialogue between Sot'aesan and a new follower from the Confucian tradition makes Sot'aesan's position clear. Yi Ch'un-p'ung (1876-1930) was a devout Confucianist until he was introduced to Sot'aesan. Seeing Sot'aesan he broke with the Confucian tradition and entered the order of Won Buddhism and said, "l am thrown into ecstacy to see you as if I saw Confucius accompanied by three thousand disciples. lt weighs on my mind, however, that the Confucian sages in the past did not assent to certain tenets of Buddhism." Sotaesan said, "What were 20) Kyosa. p. 31. 21) See Wing--tsit Chan, trans. and Comp., A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton

Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 646.

22) Cnu Hsi and L0 Tsu-ch'ien. comp.. trans. Wing-tsit Chan, Reflections on Things at Hand (New York : Columbia University Press, 1967), p. 283.

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'lt was said that, since Buddhism is those tenets?' ch'un-p'ung an swered, ignore their duties to their Buddhis.ts extinction, and based on emptiness '|ouJ;;s;i;."''ioitu.iun said, "lt was the Buddha's orisinal fathers uno parents and children intention to op.n 1n. gri. of detiverance f or numberless that happe.ned'.however' occasionally nas tt throughout his many incarnationi. not have to do You intention. original his against tnings did Oiscipfes his later future doctrine worry about abnegation of paients and sovereignties sinc-e the Buddha-dharma will will be made to fit for the tim;; io that faith in the However' wu-ch'i or improve family life as well-as. social and national affairs. of essence true the is t'ai-ch'i in'ii.; Ch;r-i tfn. Book of Changesl Tsu equilibrium of state The desirei. no selfish with emptiness ,nO L*tin"tion is emptiness taught [in the chung Yung) cannot be the Mean unless it -ssu hs'ueh be manifested Ta the in virtue iilulirious the can nor and extinction; use different words without emptiness and extinciion. Tnus, various religions you up. with emptiness end if However, identical. is truth the but and names, Hence' you mUSt morality' of man a and extinction, you can never become Way and ien the of substance the ai extinction and take emptiness as the chrh and lwisdom] [benevolence], i [righteortnuit],-1,' [proptiety], myriads of human affairs' to way to-rppf,'thl order in W;y tne of function Only then will the Way become perfect'23)

ln this dialogue sot'aesan shows his intention to renovate and synthesize Budd-hism and confucianism into a new ethico-religious and'the system. Confucianism in Korea at that time was obsolete were Confucianists dynasty Yi The cause of social deterioration and controversies academic in involved divided into several factions reformation endless factional, bloody wrangling.2{) Buddhism needed that some fact The world. the deliver to were it to be a skillful means Buddhism of renovation and reformation for Buddhist ,on[. argued "The of the Society Research name the proves the point.zst Under which was Buddha- Onaiia," Sot'aesan created a new Buddhism, his successor renamed as WonbutgYo ot Won Buddhism in 1947 by Sot'aesan which with doctrine main the of chongsan.ru) The core of illness world the correct to and beings intends to deliver sentient present and the of ptop--"t understanding a should be analyzed for 23) Kyojbn, pP.280-281.

"Sorig;i'ri yon'gr- [A Study the Principles of Human Nature]' 24) Kim Tu-hon, -of collection of Articles for the much'ong lA Kinybm ed., Kil-chin in Pak Buddhisml (tri : Wonbulgyo Won of Centenniai Comm'emoration of ine Fialf

chulpan-sa, 1 971 ), PP. 344-361 ' yusi6n [On the Restoration of 2b) Han yong-un- 061g:igiqq, Chosbn putgYo pulgvo hvoksillon lA Korean auooii,Jrnl. soi'u.tan himsetf'wiote Choson Buddhisml' Korean of ireatise on th; Re;ovation 26) Kyosa, P. 112.

WON BUDDHISM L3

future of Won Buddhism. A brief outline is in order. B. New prescriptions in Outline

ln place of the Buddha statue, lr-Won-sang, the Symbol of the Buddha's entightened mind, is enshrined as the object of religious worship and as the standar,d of moral discipline. For this reason some

Buddhists argue that Won Buddhism is not Buddhism. For Sot'aesan, however, this renovation of Buddhist faith is a great service to the Buddha himself ; for people in the future will be disillusioned from the worship of the Buddha statue enshrined in Buddhist temptes. By stating that ll-Won is the fundamental source of all beings of the universe, the mind-seal of all Buddhas and sages, the original nature of all sentient beings,'7) he has shown a new direction for a truthful religion. By identifying ll-Won-Sang, Dharmakaya Buddha, as the original source of the Four Graces (Heaven and Earth, Parents, Brethren, Law), which are an augmentation of the Confucianistic moral tenets, Sot'aesan synthesized Buddhism and Confucianism into Won Buddhism.'8) By identifying ll-Won-sang as the standard of moral discipline in terms of Cultivation of Spirit, lnquiry into Facts and Principles, and Right Conduct, Sot'aesan synthesized the Buddhist Threefold Training in terms of san?bdhi, praiita and 1ila, and the NeoConfucianist moral discipline in terms of Nourishing, Seeing, and Following the Nature into Won Buddhist system of moral practice.2e) Thus, the core of Won Buddhist doctrine consists of the Truth of, faith in, and practice of ll-Won-San9; the morality of the Four Graces; and practice of the Threefold Training. ln addition to these, the Four Essential Ways are suggested for social ethics i Cultivate self sufficiency; Let the wise Ones lead; Educate the children of others'; and Regard with deep respect those who unselfishly serve for the public well-being. ln order to help iealize .a paradise by means of this doctrine, Sot' aesan set up the Four General Principles or Four Grand lmperatives i (1) Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct; (2) Awareness and Requital of Grace with Gratitude; (3) Application of the Buddhadharma; and (4) Se///ess Devotion to the Public Well-being. 27) Ky ojon, p. 7. 28) tbid., pp. 128, 131. 2e) tbid..128.

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14 WON BUDDHISM

through illusions that all things came to be differentiated"'therefore all things from the beginning transcend all forms or verbalization. description and conceptualization ind are, in the final analysis, undifferentiated, free from alteration, and indestructible. They are only of the One Mind; hence the name

IV. Four Essentials for the trdeal World A. ,Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct

suchness.32)

The ldeal world cannot be realized by merely praying to a transcendent divine being or by offering a mass to the Buddha statue unless human beings are transformed for the better. Thus the first imperative requires that "one's conduct should be fair and well rounded without being partial or biased when one uses the six sense organs by getting enlightened to and modeling oneself after the truth of ll-Won, the mind seal of the Buddha and patriarchs. "30) ln Sot'aesan s view, sentient beings cannot get out of the tormenting seas of misery unless they are enlightened to the truth of ll-won which is the original nature of all sentient beings; for the sickness of the world is due to the wrong acts of deluded beings. Thus, this imperative connects the tradition of Buddhist enlightenment to the deluded beings. The truthful religion mentioned in the Founding Motive is the religion of faith in the truth of li-Won, the mind seal of the Buddha and patriarchs and part of praqtice in a sound morality lies in Threefold Training. An analysis of these is in order.

1) Enlightenment to the Truth of

li-Wofl-Sangatr

Originally, the enlightened mind of the Buddha was enshrined by the symbol of a circle, li-won-Sang, which is called one Mind in some Buddhist scriptures. The truth of lrw\nsang reflects the essence of ldealistic Mah6ydna metaphysics, which describes the substance, attributes, and function of the absolute of the universe with respect to its phenomenal appearances. ln the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun lThe Awakening of Faith in Mahhyadnal, the absolute of the universe is referred to s the One Mind : The Mind in terms of the Absolute is one world of reality ldharmadhSrul and the essence of all phases of existence in their totality. That which is called "the essential nature of the Mind" is unborn and is imperishable. lt is only 30) tbid., p. 58. 31) For a philosophical analysis of the concept o't .lrwbnsang, Concept of Dharmakbya in Won Buddhism : Metaphysical Dimensions," Korea Journal,Vol. 27 No. 1 ,1987, pp. 4-15.

see my "The and Religious

ln this paragraph the substance of the One Mind is described in terms which hint at the ineffable realm. ln the same treatise we read that the triple world Ithe world of desire, form, and formlessness], is unreal and is of mind only. Apart from it there are no objects of the five senses and of the mind. Since all things are developed from the mind and produced under the condition of deluded thoughts, all 'no other than the differentiations of one s mind differentiations are itself.33) This is another way of saying that everything is nothing but the ideation of one's mind. Salvation from samsara into nirvana is merely an awakening into the absolute, the One Mind. This metaphysical view is reflected in the Truth of ll-Won-Sang DharmakbyaBuddha, which Ithink is identical with the One Mind. The Won Buddhist ldeal world is the one in which one is enlightened to this truth and acts accordingly. The Truth of ll-Won-Sang is stated in a

briefparagraphl

(i) ll-won is the fundamental source of all things in the unlverse. the mindseal of all Buddhas and sages, the original nature of all sentient beings, the realm where there is no distinction between noumena and phenomena or existence and nonexistence, the realm where there are no such changes as arising and ceasing or going and coming, the realm where good and evil karmaic retribution is ceased, and the realm where linguistic and nominal appearances are suddenlY void.

(ii) tn accordance with the light

[One Mind], void and calm, numinous

a*ur"ness,tn) distinctions between noumena and phenomena or existence and

32) '

Taisho s'hinshu daiz-oky'o (Tokyo : Taisho shinshU daizokyo kankokai, 19141922), 1666. 32.576a; the English translation is from Yoshito S. Hakeda, The Awakening of Faith, attributed to A6vaghosha (New York I Columbia

University Press, 1967), pp. 32-33. The Chinese tripitaka is referreC to as hereafter.

33) T 1666. 32.577b: Hakeda, Awakening of Faith' p. 32. 34) For the meaning of "numinous awareness," see Ch'i-hsin lun shu pi-hsUeh chi. 744: 341c, "tt tne mind contains thoughts it is deluded, hence called nonThen enlightenment. lf the mind is free from thoughts, then it is not deluded"empty there is one numinous awareness, hence called enlightenment." For and calm, numinous' awaress," see Chinul, Susim kyOl [secret of Cultivating the Mindl , T48:1007ab, "...This is the mind which is empty and calm and is your original face. This is also the dharma seal transmitted from Buddha to Buddha, from patriarch to patriarch, and all those learned under the heaven.

1080

1081

76 WON BUDDHISM WON BUDDHISM 17

nonexistence appear. ln accordance with this the distinction between good and evil karmaic retribution occurs, linguistic and nominal appearances become clear. and the three realms35) throughout the ten directions abpear as clearly as a jewel put in one's own palm. (iii) The creative transfoimation of true emptiness and marvelous existenceru) freely hides and manifests through all things in the universe throughout vast aeons with no beginning. (iv) This is the truth of ll-Won-Sdng.rzr (Division into sections and annotati5ns are added.)

Sot'aesan says, "That wnsang [circular figure] is a model which. is used to let the true ll-Won known. Analogously, this is like the case in which a..finger is not the moon when the iormer is used to direct at the latter."38) The circular figure, ll-won-sangis like a picture of God. Then, it does not make any sense to say t[at the picture of God is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. Thus, it's misleading to speak of the truth of ll-won-Sang,for strictly speaking, we should 6nly talk about the truth of ll-Won. Any attempt to philosophize on ll-WonSang [circular figureJ calls attention to the finger instead of the moon. According to Sot'aesan, ll-Won is the realm of samadhi which defies any linguistic description.3e) This reflects the nature of One Mind in terms of the absolute discussed in the Awakening of Faith in Mahby'a na. Thus, sot'aesan advises, "Hence, the foilower of the way should discover the true ll-won by means of ll-won-Sang which is only a model, nourish the true nature of ll-Won, and use th]e perfect mind of ll-Won, so that the truth of ll-Won-Sang Isic!] will be coincided with our living pâ&#x201A;Źrfeclly. "ro) The first section describes the substance of ll-Won, which is the However, in the voidness

awareness. "

of all dharmas is the empty [sic!] [numinousi

35) The Buddhist triple world is the world and formless realm of pure spirit.

36)

sensuous desire, substantial form

Ho-tse shen-hui (670-762) in his Hsien-tsung chi, E1 : 4bgc, writes "True emptiness is the substance and marvelous elristence is the tr""iion.; Tung-shan Ling-chieh (807-869), in the doctrine of "Five Ranis, uies True Emptiness as the Absolute and Marvelous Existence as the relativephenomenal. For this, see Heinrich Dumoulin and Ruth Fuller Sasaki, The Development of Chinese Zen (New York : The First Zen tnstitute of America lnc., 1953), p. 26.

37) Kyojbn, 3B) tbid.,

pp.21-22.

p. 129.

3e) tbid.. p. 23.

40) tbid.

fundamental source of all beings of the universe and the mind seal of all Buddhas and sages, and the original nature of all sentient beings, and yet, which transcends all characteristics of the phenomenal world. What is soteriologically important here is that ll-Won or Dharmakaya is identical for the Buddha and all sentient beings, reflecting the Mahdyb na doctrine of everything containing the Buddha nature, so that all sentient beings can recover their original nature by enlightenment. This ineffable realm which is pointed to by ll-Won-Sang is to be obtained not by ratiocination but by enlightenment. The second section shows that, from such a transcendent or noumenal realm, the phenomenal world with all the diversities appears in accordance with the light of One Mind, the substance of which is void and calm and the function of which is numinous awareness. First and second sections deal with noumena and phenomena respectively, reminding us of lmmanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, according to which the noumenal realm appea!'s as phenomena in accordance with the forms of sensitivity and under standing.o') One critical question is how the fundamental source of all beings in the universe is the original nature of all sentient beings. For Kant, the noumenal realm has no distinction between subject and object. lf the forms of sensitivity and understanding are not provided, the noumenal realm cannot appear as the phenomenal world. ln this sense, the Truth of ll-Won-Sang is a metaphysical treatise on the reality and appearance of the universe. ln the Truth of ll-Won-Sang the phenomenal world appears in accordanee with the light of One Mind's void and calm, numinous awareness. This implies that the phenomenal world depends epistemically on the One Mind. The third section explains vicissitude of the universe in terms of the interplay of true void and marvelous existence as the underlying principle. This principle reflects the central tenet of the Pral\tb Iperfection of wisdom] thought, viz., form is identical with void and void is identical with form; however, Sot'aesan s view is positive and cosmological. Whatever exists in space and time is devoid of its own nature [substance i that which can exist in itself without depending on anything elseJ; it is identical with void. Nothing can arise out of nothing, things arise from void, hence void is not a total nothing. Sot' aesan thus expressed this point by a gbtha: 41) lmmanuel Kant, lmmanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. trans., Norman Kemp Smith, (New York I Macmillan, 1968), pp. 270-275.

1482

108til WON BADDHISM 19

18 WON BT]DDHISM Existence turns into nonexistence And nonexistence into existence, Turning and turning to the ultimate; Then, existence and nonexistence are both void,

Ye1 the void is also replete.n2,

Sot'aesan warns against ratiocination on this truth by saying I Existence is the realm of what changes. and nonexistence the realm of no change; but "this realm" can neither be said to exist nor not to exist. Though it is said "turning and turning" and "to the ultimate," these are mere words of direction. How could it be necessary to say "void" or "replete"? This realm is the quintessence of the original nature; hence, do not try to figure out "this realm" by reasoning. but get enlightened o "this realm" by the reflection of your numinous awareness."t

Thus, the question of Right Enlightenment for Right Conduct comes down to a f ull-blown Zen Buddhist question concerning enlightenment to one s own original nature, which is symbolized as lrwbnsang in Won Buddhism. lf one is enlightened to the truth of ll-Won-Sang one will be enlightened to the identity of existence and nonexistence or the identity of birth and death. According to Chinul (1 158-1 210), birth and death are originally nonexistent. Birth and death appear as real only to the deluded beings. As an illustration of this point. Chinul compares the deluded being to someone who sees flowers in the sky on account of eye disease. Just as flowers appear to be real to the afflicted man, birth and death appear to be real to the deluded.no) The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to help all sentient beings enter nirvana, which can only be attained if they are enlightened to their original nature referred to by ll-Won-Sang. Enlightenment to one s own original nature is only a necessary condition for realization of nirvana.'it should be reflected in one s right conduct [karma] for most people. As Chinul suggested, gradual cultivation is necessary even af ter sudden enlightenment due to the habit force of defilement.os) Sot'aesan said that most people will be enlightened at their youth at home; but being enlightened to one s original nature, ll-Won. is like mastering the alphabet of a language, which is only a necessary condition of learning the language.ou) ln order to reach the level of Buddhahood, one must 42) Kyojon. p. 26. 43\ tbid., p. 304.

44) Chinul, Chinsim chiks6/ Straight Talk on True Mindl, nOl9A.48: 1000b. 45) Chinul, Susim kyitl T2020.48: 1006c.

discipline oneself with the Threefold Training as is explained below. 2) ll-Won-Sang as the Standard of Right Conduct

To the question how one should discipline oneself with ll-WonSang. Sot'aesan answered that one should take ll-Won-Sang as the stand.ard of moral discipline and cultivate one s morat character by modeling oneself after its truth in three aspects. lf one is enlightened to the truth of ll-Won-Sang, he says I First, one will understand the beginning and end or root and branches of all things in the universe, the principle of man s birth, aging, illness and death, and the law of karmaic retribution.n') Second, one will nourish one's original nature as perfect as ll-Won which is free from selfishness and such passions as lust and greed.6) Third, when one's mind responds to conditions and situatiqns, one will treat all affairs right and perfectly without being disturbed by such feelings as joy, anger, pleasure, and sorrow or by degrees ef closeness and intimacy, remoteness and estrangement.{e) (Annotations added)

This standard of moral discipline

ref

lects Sot'aesan's

grand

synthesis of Buddhism and Confucianism. The way the Buddha taught leading to nirvana is known as the Eightfold Noble Path : right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right rnindfulness, and right concentration. The whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself for forty five years, deals in one way or another with this path. These eigtlt factors are grouped into the threefold training I ethical conduct (Sila) mentat concentration ( sam'adhD and wisdom (prat\tb). Hui-neng (638-713) related this threefold training to man's own nature, which is referred to as ll-Won 46) Kyojbn, p. 300. 47) Here the Confucian items of knowledge and that of Buddhism are combined. Section 3 of "Text of Confucius" in the Ta-hiueh has 1 "Things have their ioot and branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.' 48) The practice of "nourishing the nature" is one of the main characteristics of Sung Neo-Confucian philosophy of human nature. which has its origin in the

Works of Mencius (\ry,1.1). Sot'aesan here has freely synthesized it with the Buddhist Ch'an/Zen practice. See Wingtsit Chan, trans.. Reflections of Things at Hano(New York I Columbia University Press, 1967), pp. 123-153,

"Preserving One's Mind and Nourishing One's nature.

49) "Following the nature is the path of Duty' (Chung-Yung, chapter 1, sec.1.

1084

WON BUDDHISM

WON BUDDHISM 2L

in Won Buddhism. Hui-neng said

When the mind is free from evil, that is morality (Sila) of one's own nature. When the mind is free from disturbance, that is the concentration, (samadhil of one's own nature. When the mind is free from delusions, that is the wisdom ( prajita) of one's own nature.so)

For Sot'aesan. to be awakened to the ti:uth of ll-Won is to see the self-nature, to keep the essential nature of ll-Won is to nourish the self-nature, and to act as perfectly as ll-Won is to follow the selfnature. He says further that the Buddha's Threefold Training in sita (morality), samadhi (mental concentration), and praina (wisdom) is none other than these.s') Sot'aesan has spelled out the criteria for perfect realization of ll-Won in terms of emptiness (kong, roundness ( wbn,) and correctness (chbng.) ln nourishing the self-nature I to intuit the state of mind which transcends existence and nonexistence is emptiness; the state of mind where nothing comes or goes is roundness; and the mind which does not decline or lean on anything is correctness. ln seeing the self-nature I to know, owing to thorough awareness of the truth of ll-Won, the realm which is ineffable and is devoid of the mind's

whereabouts rs emptiness;

have vast capacity

knowledge

with

blocking is roundness; and to see and judge all things correctly owing to exact knowledge is correctness. ln following the self-nature I to do all things with No Mind (harboring no false ideas) is emptiness; to do all things with no attachment is roundness; and to do all things in accordance with the Mean is correctness.s')

It is noteworthy that Sot aesan chose such terms as nourishing, seeing and following the self-nature in place of Hui-neng s samadhi, prajhb, and sila as the three aspects of the self nature, ref lecting more of the Neo-Corrfucian concepts of self cultivation. The doctrine of the Mean, which is clearly the

Conf ucian moral philosophy, is combined with the Buddhist practice of No Mind and no attachment as the criteria of following the self nature. While Hui-neng defines morality (Sita) of the self-nature as there being no evil in the mind, Sot'aesan clarifies the notion of no evil in terms of No Mind, no attachment, and the Mean That ll-Won-Sang is taken as the standard of moral discipline is

50)

T 2OO8. 48 : 342b;

085

Wing-tsit

Chan,

trans.. The Platform Scripture (New York

St. John's University Press, 1963), p. 1 09. 51) Kvojbn, p. 114. 52) tbid..pp. 129-130.

clearly seen in the religious ritual of reciting Vowing Words to it . ...ln order to be promoted and favored rather than demoted or harmed, we, deluded beings, vow that we shall discipline ourselves to keep our mind and body perfect, to know facts and principles perfectly, and to use our mind and body perfectly by modeling ourselves after ll-Won-Sang until we are endowed with the great power of ll-Won and are merged in the true nature of ll-Won.s3) ln this vow the gist of Threefold Training is sworn for practice.

3) Threefold Training Only those who have reached the level of Buddhahood can satisfy such criteria for realization of the truth of ll-Won. How could the ldeal of Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct be realized by deluded beings? Sot'aesan has shown a way for the realization of such ldeal in terms of Threefold Training, viz., (a) Cultivation of Spirit, (b) lnquiry into Facts and Principles, and (c) Choice of Right Conduct. (a) By "spirit" is meant the mind which is clear and calm with no discrimination or attachment; by "cultivation" is meant nourishing the clear and calm mind by keeping it internally from discrimination and attachment and by keeping it externally from disturbing conditions.5n) Samadhi in Buddhism and Nourishing the Nature in Confucianism are practiced in Won Buddhism in terms of Cultivation of Spirit. ln the Confucian classic. the Chung y ung,we read, while there are no stirrings, of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of EOUILIBRIUM. When those feelings have been stirred, and they'act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of HARMONY. This EOUILIBRIUM is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this HARMONY is the universal path which they all should pursue.") (Legge's italics)

As, in Confucianism. the state of equilibrium is the great root from which all the human actings grow in the world, so. in Won Buddhism, the clear and calm mind, called Spirit, is the root of the moral life. For if one s mind is neither clear nor calm in adverse conditions, the intellectual, emotional, and volitional functions of one's mind will cause unnecessary and 53) tbid., pp. 23-24. 54) tbid.. pp. 50-51.

.55) James Legge, trans., Confucius i Analects. The Great Learning & of the Mean (Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1893), p. 384.

The Doctrine

1087

1086

22 WON BUDDHISM

WOT'T

undue sufferings to oneself as well as to others. The moral ideal of mental equilibrium meant that of the kingly man; the clear and calm mind is required

fundamental ground of this point clearly ! states Spirit Purpose of Cultivation of

of all men today as the most

paradise. The

of all creatures, has desires more than any living beings. When using his power, skill, or propriety, a sense of shame, and of rules pausing to consider without weapon rules of fairness. While doing so, he ends up with ruining his family, disgracing himself, and getting sick of iite on account of agony, wild fa':cies, anger and Somltimel, he suffers from a nervous breakdown or insanity; and' anxiety, 'people commit suicide in extreme cases. Therefore, the purpose of some spiritual cultivatlon lies in removing greed which spreads into thousands of ...man, the lord

he tries

to satisfy all of his desires, he does so

branches and thereby recovering the sound spirit, and finally nourishing sufficiency.$)

self-

Cultivation of spirit thus takes the central part of Unfolding the Spirit as stated in the Founding Motto against the Unfolding Matter. lf the leader of a nation lacks the sound spirit so that the mind is disturbed by greed, the whole nation will suffer immensely; for no wisdom can arise from a disturbed mind. (b) What is necessary for right conduct is right enlightenrnent. Right enlightenment in Won Buddhism, however, requires more than r"Ling into one s own nature. lnquiry into Facts and Principles reflects the Conf ucian idea of "investigation of thingS" for extension of knowledge i ...wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughtsl.Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation

things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowleige being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, iheir n6arts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their

persons were cultivated.5T)

Just as extension of knowledge is necessary for rectification of hearts and cultivation of persons, lnquiry into Facts and Principles is necessary for Right Conduct in Won Buddhism. Facts include human

affairs which are right, wrong, advantageous, or disadvantageous; and Principles include noumena and phenomena, and existence and nonexistence of the heavenly creation. By existence and nonexistence it means the rotation of the f our seasons; such atmospheric 56) tbid., p. 51. 57) See Legge. trans.. Confucius, pp. 358-359.

BUDDHISM 23

phenomena as clouds, rain, dew, frost, and wind; birth, aging, illness, and death of all beings; and such changing phenomena as rise and fall, prosperity and decay.sar Thus, lnquiry into Facts and Principles include not only human af fairs but also metaphysical principles of the universe. However, the purpose of lnquiry lies not in gaining mere intellectual knowledge, but in attaining the ability to analyze clearly and judge promptly in daily affairs. The world is built by the principles of noumena and phenomena, and being and nonbeing. Human affairs are operated by what is right, wrong, advantageous, or disadvantageous. However, whatever one receives, happiness or pain, is the results of using one s six roots. Thus, lnquiry into Facts and Principles is required for Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct. For the vast universe contains innumerably many principles, and the kinds of facts pertaining to people are also limitless; and one cannot be enlightened to them by merely seeing into one s own nature. Unless one is enlightened to Facts and Principles, one is to suffer; thus the purpose of lnquiry into Facts and Principles is stated I "'lf we do as we please without knowing rightness, wrongness, advantage, or disadvantage of human affairs, momentary functions of the six roots will turn 'out to be of sin and suffering, creating a limitless sea of misery. lf we live with no knowledge of principles of noumena and pherromena, and being and nonbeing, we will not understand the cause of suffering and pleasure we receive by chance. Nor will we know the principle of birth, aging, illness, and death and the principle of karmaic retribution of cause and effect due to shallow thought and narrow mindedness. Nor will we be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, thus falling into falsity and relying on chance so that eventually we will end up ruining the f amily and disgracing ourselves. Therefore, the rrurpose of lnquiry into Facts and Principles lies in investigating the inscrutable natural principles and the complicated human affairs in advance

so that we can have clear analysis and prompt judgment on pending daily af f airs,5e)

Thus, the Buddhist notion of wisdom (prathe) has been given a Confucianistic orientation of "investigation of things." lnstead of trying to get enlightened to one s self-nature in a secluded Zen monastery, one must inquire into f acts of human af f airs and metaphysical principles of the unlverse. While Buddhists were criticized for being other-worldly by Sung Neo-Confucians, Won Buddhist lnquiry into 58) Kyojbn. p.52. 5e) tbid.. p. 53.

1088 24 WON BUDDHISM

Facts and Principles is concerned with worldly affairs. (c) The purpose of . Right Enlightenment lies in Right Conduct ( Karma). The third of the Threefold Training is I "Take that which is just and forsake that which is unjust when you use your six roots, viz., eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind."u0) This training is necessary because whatever one has obtained by Cultivation of Spirit and lnquiry into Facts and Principles will be in vain if one cannot put it into practice when one confronts with matters of daily life. This will be like a fruit plant which has healthy roots, branches and flowers, but no frurit. This training takes the central part of the "sound morality" mentioned in the Founding Motive; for one cannot be kept from drowning into the seas of misery unless one can take what is right and forsake what is wrong. Concerning the importance of this training,'we read in the Ky olbn: ln general, we human beings, cannot do good though we know it is preferable and cannot sever evil though we know it should be, so that we discard tranquil paradise and enter perilous sea of suffering. What is the reason for this? lt is because: either we do not do good because we do not know right from wrong in try ing situations: or we do not do good because, even if we know right from wrong, we cannot control the burning greed or we cannot cut off the hardened habit energy. Thus, we aim at avoiding the detestable seas of miseri and realizing paradise by the training for doing justice and forsaking injustice.oD Thus, one can envisage the ldeal man who follows first of the Four Grand Platforms of Won Buddhism : one who is enlightened to one s original nature or Buddha nature and uses one s six consciousnesses without being contaminated by the six sense objects. ln the mihd of such a person there are no defilements of greed, hatred or anger, and delusions, which are the last three of the Thirty Precepts of prohibition for Won Buddhists. The content of Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct is closely connected to the Second of the Four Essentials.

2. Awareness and Requital of Grace With Gratitude One of the causes of human misery lies in the fact that mankind is prone to be unaware of his indebtedness to the sources of his life and, 60) tbid., p.54. 61) tbid., p.53.

1089 WON BUDDHISM 25

even if he is aware, to be negligent to requite it with gratitude. Thus, the second prescription necessary for delivering sentient beings from the tormenting seas and curing the world of illness aims at changing the life of ingratitude to that of gratitude. lt is stated as an imperaiive I Be aware of Grace and requite it. In order to comply with this imperative, one must understand what Grace (Un) is, how one is indebted thereto, and how one should requite it. This requires us to analyze the structure of the Ethics of Grace. By Grace (un) is meant that without which one's life is impossible. There are four agents without which one s life is impossible, viz. Heaven and Earthl, Parents, Brethren, and Law. Nothing can be a greater grace than these f our sources of life, thus the "Four Graces. " sot'aesan challenges us to think whether we could preserve our existenbe without Heaven and Earth, whether we could have brought our bodies into this world and nourish ourselves without our parents, whether we could survive alone where there are no other human beings, animals and plantd, or whether peace and order can be maintained unless there are laws of moral cultivation for individuals, of regulating a household, or regulating a society, of ruling a nation, and of keeping the world in peace.6') ln Sot'aesan's view, no further proof is necessary to show how we are indebted to what he calls Four Graces. Erren a man of very low intelligence can understand that without them one s life is impossibre, says sot'aesan, and nothing can !" , greater grace than that without which one s life is imposlible. Thus, one owes one s life to these four sources of grace.63) The Four Graces are the manifestation of Dharmakbya Buddha.6a) since Dharmakay a Buddha. il-won, is the object of religious worship, Four Graces are also the object of religious worship, thus, a religious injunction I "Everywhere is Dharmakaya Buddha manifested; hence, .as do all things an of fering to the Buddha. "6s) with this retigious 62) tbid., pp. 26, 32,35,38-39. 63) The idea of deriving moral duties from the concept of indebtedness is not

new with Sot'aesan.st. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, l-ll, in Basic Writings of st. Thomas Aquinas, ed. Anton c. Pegis (New yo* : Random House, /945), vol. 2 o. t)o Art. s. p. 837, writes, "/t is not an immediate dictate of

the natural reason that a man should do one thing in return for another, untess he happens to be indebted to someone. Now a son's debt to his father is so evident that one cannot get awaY from it by deny ing it; for the father is the principle of generation and being, and also of upbringing and teaching. " 64) Ky ojttn. p. 131 .

1090

1091

WON BUDDHISM

is combined the moral imperative for grace requital : "Requite Grace as an off ering to the Buddha. "00) lt is here we can find the meaning of "faith in a truthful religion and practice of sound morality" mentioned in the Founding Motive. For the true essence of the Won Buddhist religious life lies in feeling grateful to the source of one s life and requiting the grace with gratitude. The practice of Right Conduct will be incomplete if one does not requite the Four Graces with gratitude. Sot'aesan thinks it a matter of necessary course to requite the grace with gratitude to which one owes one s life, deriving moral duties from the ways Heaven and Earth, Parents, Brethren, and Law bestow grace on one. Thus, the second of the Four Essentials of Won Buddhism is a general moral imperative which is stated as: Be aware of Grace and requite it with gratitude.6') As daily moral discipline, this imperative is recited: "Let us change the life of resentment to that of gratitude. "oe) This imperative can transf orm a hell to a paradise, individually and socially. However, what is more relevant to curing the world of illness is the ways of requiting the Four Graces. A brief analysis of the Ethics of Grace is in order.6e) injunction

1) Grace of Heaven and Earth Heaven and Earth have their ways and virtues, and we are indebted to them. The automatic rotation of the grand framework of the universe is in accordance with the ways of Heaven and Earth and the result of their rotation is their vitures.T0) The virtues of Heaven and Earth are exemplified in the brightness of the sun and the moon, owing to which we can discern and know myriads of things; and the favors 65) tbid.. p. 7. 66) tbid. 67) tbid., p. 58. 68) tbid., p. 60. 69) For an analysis

of the structure of the Ethics of Grace, see my, "Moral Perfection and the Ethics of Grace in Won Buddhism," Munsan Kim Samnyong paksa hwagap kinybm: Han'guk munhwa wa wbnbulgyo sasang IKorean Culture and Won Buddhist Thoughtl (lri : Won'gwang taehakkyo ch'ulp'an'guk, 1985), pp. 1071-1098. For a general introduction to the Ethics of Won Buddhism. see my Ph. D. dissertation, "The Ethics of Won Buddhism : A Conceptual Analysis of the Moral System of Won Buddhism," Michigan State University,

7A) Kv ojan. p.

WON BUDDHISM 27

of the wind, clouds. rain and dew, owing to which myriads of things are nurtured and we are able to survive by depending on their

Products.Ttl

. As a way of requiting the Grace, it is suggested that we emulate the ways. The ways of Heaven and Earth ,r" (i) exceedingly bright, (ii) exceedingly sincere, (iii) exceedingly f air, liv) reasonable and natural, (v) vast and limitress, (vi) eternai, (rii) with no good or evit fortunes, and (viii) with no idea of having bestowed fa-vors.z2) This reflects the Confucian metaphysical thoughts synthesized with the Buddhist practice of No Mind.73) From tn"i" eight characteristics of the ways of Heaven and Earth, eight moral rules are derived, and requital of the Grace of Heaven and Earth lies in complying witlr the

rules.

(i) One ought to investigate and know all facts and principles by modeling oneself after the way of exceeding brightness of Heaven and Earih. (ii) O;; should model oneself after the exleedingly sincere way so that one could achieve the goal of myriads cjf affairs. (iii)-dne should model oneself after the way of exceeding fairness so that one could practice the Mean in dealing with myriads of affairs, without being distracted by such human relations of remoteness. closeness, friendliness,.and estrangement, or by such feelings

as pleasure, anger. sorrow. and joy. (iv) One shouid model onesetf after the way of reasonableness and naturalness so that one could analyze-mvriaos of to take what is reasonable and forsake what is not reasonable.'(v) One affairs should

model oneself..after the way of vastness and greatness so that one could remove partiality from one's mind. (vi) gnu snoltd model onrr.tt after way of eternity so that one could emancipate oneself from the transiency the of all things and the suffering of birth, aging. illness, and death. (vii) One should -gooO model oneself after the way of no or ill fortune lest one should be moved by good or ill fortunes, discoveling evil fortune hidden in good fortune which one faces and good fortune in ill fortune which on" .onironts. (viii) One ought to model oneself after the way of omnipresent response with false ideas. cultivating the way of no false ideas while acting or resting. no that one should harbor no false ideas after bestowing spiritrJal. physical, so or material favors, and should not hate, or become an enemy of, the one who returns evil for good.71)

71) lbid., p.27-28. 72) tbid.. p. 27. 73) James Legge, trans., The yi King, The sacred Books of the Easr (oxford : ctarendon press, jggg), p.417. ,,t.Thus (the sages) estaotiin"s nimsett as the ultimate standard for man. Hence. the charactei of the sage is identical with that of Heaven and Earth; his brilliancy is identicai with that of the sun and the moon; his order is identical with that of the seasons; his good and evil '-' and fortunes are identicar with those of spirituar beings.;

1093

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28 WON BUDDHISIII

lf one cultivates these eight virtues following the imperatives, one can form one body with Heaven and Earth in virtue, viz., wisdom

(brightness), sincerity, fairness, reasonableness and naturalness, broad immortality (eternity), imperturbability in face of good -mindedness, or ill fortunes, and genuine benevolence (harboring no false ideas after bestowing favors). Once one has perfected one s moral character with these virtues, one s moral influence on other sentient beings will be like that of Heaven and Earth, and hence one will be warmly received by them.75) The ldeal man Sot'aesan envisages in the World Community reflects more of a Confucianist sage than 'a Buddhist Bodhisattva. Cnung-hao ( 1032-1085). for instance, said, "the man of 7'en regards Heaven and Earth and all things as one body. To him there is nothing that is not himself. Since he has recognized all things as himself, can there be any limit to ieri?"'u> This moral ideal is reiterated by Chi Hsi and Wang Yang-ming."' Sot'aesan has not only revived the Confucian moral ideals in a new ethico-religious order, but also provided a way of realizing them through the eight articles of requital of the Grace of Heaven add Earth. . Thus. requital of the Grace of Heaven and Earth with gr,atitude lies in modeling oneself af ter their ways to which we owe our lives. Requital of this Grace with ingratitude incurs heavenly punishment. Although Heaven and Earth are empty and silent to one s deed, unexpected calamities and sufferings in life and sufferings caused by one s deeds are due to the ingratitude thereto.") Punishment will be as

follows

Since one does not model oneself on the ways of Heaven and Earth, one will be (i) ignorant of facts and principles,(ii) in lack of sincerity in whatever one

does,

(11i)

eitner excessive or deficient and (iv) irrational in many cases of

(v) partial, (vi) ignorant of the transformation of the phenomJnal world, of the principle of birth, aging, illness, and death, (vii) handling things. One will be

ignorant of good and ill fortunes, and ups and downs of the world. When one

74) Kvojon,pp.28-29. 75) tbid..p.30 76) Wing-tsit Chan, trans.,

A Sourcebook in Chinese PhilosophY (Princeton I Princeton University Press, 1963). p. 530. 77) Chu Hsi an Lii Tsu-ch'ien, Reflections on Things at Hand [Cnin ssu luJ. trans., Wing tsit Chan, (New York i Columbia University Press, 1_967), p. 63; Wang Yang-ming, lnstructions for Practical Living ICh'uan-hsi lu|. trans" Wing-tsit Chan, (New York I Columbia University Press, 1963), p. 272. 78) Kvojbn. p. 31

renders favors to others, one will be (viii) attached to the false idea of having done so, covertly praising oneself and overtly boastinQ.?e)

Such a one, therefore, will cause sufferings for oneself and for others, aggravating the human predicament in the World Community. Today, mankind has done violence to Heavan and Earth by polluting air, earth, and water due to his moral illness; consequence is the heavenly punishment.

2) Grace of Parents Neo-Confucian moralists used the duty of filial piety as weapons when they criticized Buddhist monks for abnegating the duty to their parents. Today's world where Confucian morality is not practiced can be criticized for the faded moral sense of filial piety. ln the Confucian tradition, one s filial duty is the most fundamental principle of morality. According to Confucius, filial duty is the foundation of virtues and the root of civilization. Conf ucius said, "Man excels all the beings in Heaven and Earth. Of all man's acts none is greater than filial piety. ln the practice of filial piety, nothing is greater than the reverence of one' S f ather.

"80)

ln Won Buddhism, the notion of filial piety is revived with modern orientation. Chdngsan said, "What is called filial piety lies in all actions of grace requital with gratitude. "8r) The central principle of requital of the Grace of Parents in Won Buddhism is i "Model yourself after the way of being indebted to the Grace of parents when you were helpless, and protect the helpless as much as you can."au with this general principle in'mind, one ought to do the following four things which are put into moral imperatives l (i) Follow the way of moral discipline (Threefold Training) and the ways man as man ought to follow (Requital of Four Graces and Practice of Four

Essentials). (ii) Support your parents faithfully as much as you can when they lack the ability to help themselves, and help them have spiritual comfort. (iii) ln accordance with your ability, protect the helpless parents of others as your

own. during or after the lifetime of your parents. (iv) After your parents are deceased, enshrine their pictures and biographical records and remember

79) nia., pp. 30-31. 80) Mary Lelia Makra, trans., The Hsiao Chrng(New York I St. John's University Press, 1961), p. 19.

8i ) P6ffi,pp. 174-175. 82) Kyotdn, p.32.

1095

1094 30

I4ION

WON BUDDHISM 3L

BUDDHISM

farmers, artisans, and tradesmen ought to be fair and ought to follow the principle of mutual benefit when they exchange what they have with others. What happens if people do not realize that they are indebted to the Grace of BrethrenT lngratitude to the Grace of Brethren, that is, violation of the rule of mutual benefit, will drive all brethren to hate and abhor one another and make them mutual enemies, causing quarrels among individuals, ill-will among families, antagonism among societies, and war among nations.sT) lf people requite the Grace of Brethren with gratitude, they will be blessed in a world of paradise. Fellow humans will be influenced by the virtue of mutual benefit and will bear good will to one another. ln such a society, one will be protected and respected; individuals will be endeared one to another; families will promote mutual friendships; and there will be mutual understanding among societies and peace among nations.Es) This end in view is the Founding Motive of Won Buddhism and clarifies its intention in the World Community.

them.83)

These moral imperatives go beyond the Confucian notion of filial piety. As the first imperative requires, one must cultivate a morally respectable personality as a way of requiting the Grace of Parents. 3) Grace of Brethren

ln a competitive society free fcr all, some socially advantaged groups of individuals can and do take advantage of others, causing tremendous suffering to the community. One of the necessary moral rules to correct such a cause of suffering is the principle of fairness as John Rawls argued.sa) However, the principle justice as fairness is one thing and it is totally another whether such a principle should be practiced by the members of the community if they do not care a straw about such a principle. lt is here that the role of religion becomes relevant. For it is religion that puts into practice what Ethics proves to be good and right. ln Won Buddhism, the principle of justice as fairness is put into religious practice as it is the central moral principle to be honored among men. The third content of Dharmakaya Buddha, ll-Won, is the Grace of Brethren. Brethren include one s own siblings, compatriots, alf people, birds and animals, and plants.s') People with various skills and businesses help one another by exchanging products on the principle of mutual benefit, and thus are indebted to one another. Sot'aesan does not say that there are no crooks and other morally despicable ones. By the claim that one is indebted to the Grace of Brethren, it means that people in general are helped by one another and that without depending on others life is impossible. The general principle of requiting the Grace of Brethren is I Act in accordance with "the rule of mutual benefit based on the principle of fairness" by which you are indebted to Brethren, and exchange products among people of various occupations on the principle of mutual benefit based

lf one feels it unnatural to talk about Grace of Law, one may recall Socrates' view that the state and law are like one s own parents and hence one ought to be most careful not to harm them.se) ln Sot'aesan s

on fairness.s)

imperatives which require men of various occupations to exchange what they can offer with others on the principle of mutual benef it based on f airness. Thus, aristocrats,

There are

ive

* ii

University Press, 1971).

85) Kvofrn, pp.34-35.

of iustice (Cambridge, Massachusetts I

view, Law is that without which life is impossible and in this sense we are indebted to the Grace of law. He means by Law : - (i) religious and moral teachings which sages show for us to follow; (ii) rules with which aristocrats, f armers, artisans, and tradesmen direct and encourage us to preserve our lives and advance our knowledge; and (iii) judicial institutions which help punish injustice and preserve justice and help discriminate right f rom wrong and advantage f rom disadvantags.sor The essential meaning which Sot'aesan assigns to the term Law is "the principle of fairness for human justice."str This implies that all re'ligious and moral teachings of all sages should be conducive

83) tbid.,pp. 32-33. 84) John Rawls,A Theory

Grace of Law

86) tbid, p. 36. 87) tbid., p. 38. 88) tbid., p. 37.

Bg) F. llamilton and H. Cairns. ed. The Collected Dialogues of Plato (New York Harvard

Bollingen Foundation, 1961), pp,

90) Kyojn, pp. 39-40. 91) tbid.. p. 39.

35-36.

1097

1096

WON BUDDHISM 33

32 WON BUDDHISM

to the realization of justice in the World Community. The basic moral principle for requiting the Grace of Law lies in complying with the injunction of the Law : "lf one js indebted to prohibition of certain things by the laws, one ought not to do them; and if one is indebted to the things encouraged by the laws, then one ought to do them. "e2) This simple principle of requital of the Grace of Law presupposes a mature moral agent. For men's suffering is due, not to lack of law, but to the inability of men to do justice and to forsake injustice. ln Sot'aesan's view, a moral agent needs a much wider moral training than mere intellectual understanding of right and wrong. Thus, moral education must include, as a way of requiting the Grace of Law, learning and,practicing I (i) individual moral cultivation, (ii) the way of regulating one s family, (iii) the way of directing the society, (iv) the way of governing the state, and (v) the way. of putting the world at peace as an individual, as a member of the family, society, nation and the world respectively.ssr This reflects the way of moral, educational and political programs

of Confucius summarized in

the Ta-hsieh (The Great Learning).en) The main goal of the

Great

to show how to illustrate the illustrious virtue throughout the world, which starts with individual moral cultivation. Sot'aesan's main concern is the realization of the principle of fairness for human justice for all. lf the leader of a nation lacks illustrious virtue which can Learning is

only be cultivated by individual moral training, the whole nation will be doomed to suffer in the sea of misery as the world history keeps recording them. Thus, the way of requiting the Grace of Law should be followed by man in the World Community lest he should suffer in the sea of misery.

3. Application of Buddha Dharma This platform clarifies the position of Won Buddhism with respect Buddhism. For Sot'aesan relies mainly on Buddha dharma for the deliverance of all sentient beings from the sea of misery. His affinity to Buddha dharma begins with his perusal of lhe Diamond Scripture upon his great awakening in 1916 after eighteen years of searching for the truth. He said then that Sakyamuni Buddha is the sage of all sages. He

s2) tbid.. p. 40. e3) tbid..p. 40. e4) Legge, Confucius, pp. 357-358.

expressed his resolution to take Buddha dharma as the central doctrine of a perfect religion in the future.es) ln his enlightened view, Buddha dharma is a great way under heaven and excels all other religious doctrines because it elucidates the principle of human original nature, solves the grave matter of birth and death, makes clear the law of karmaic causality, and shows the way of practice toward nirva na.nu) Sor'aesan then declared that Buddha dharma was what he and his followers should learn and teach. lf one intends to lead people toward the cultivation of wisdom (prafie) and blessings (punya) by enlightenment to the fundamental truth and sound moral training, Buddha dharma should be taken as the central doctrine; and Buddhism will be the main religion of the world in the future.eT) Once the importance of Buddha dharma for the future world is made clear, Sot'aesan hastens to add that the future Buddha dharma will not be the same as the Buddhism practiced in the past. Though the supreme Buddha dharma undergoes no change in the future Buddhism, partial reformation of the doctrine and religious system will render Buddha dharma accessible to the general public. The future Buddha dharma will be practiced by people of all walks, priests as well as laity. Worship of the Buddha will not be limited to the Buddha statue, but all beings of the universe and emply dharma realm will be understood as Buddhas. Hence, Buddha dharma wrll be practiced in daily life and daily life will be none other than practicing Buddha dharma. Offering to the Buddha will not require a special place or a Buddha statue, but will depend on the nature of the work and wish of the offerer. ln this way, says Sot'aesan, Buddha statues and dharma halls will be everywhere, with the blissful influence of the Buddha transforming the whole world into an ideal Buddha world.'8) ln the Chos\n putgyo hybksitlon (On the Reformation of Korean Buddhism) which is summarized in the lntroductory chapter of Taejonggy\ng (the Scripture of the Great Master), Sot'aesan lists quite an extensive number of points to be reformed in the traditional Korean Buddhism.ee) The spirit of the reformation is expressed in a few mottos : Buddha' dharma is life itself, life is Buddha dharma itself; 95) tbid.,p. 107.

96) tbid..pp. 107-108. 97) tbid., pp. 1 15-1 16. 98) tbid., p. i 16.

99\ tbid.. pp.

5-124.

1099

1098

WON BUDDHISM 35

34 WON BUDDHISM

practice Zen all the time, practice Zen in all places. These mottos are meant to bring Buddha dharma practiced by Buddhist monks confined in the Buddhist temples mostly located in remote mountain valleys to urban areas where sentient beings need it for salvation. Thus, "Outline of the Doctrine" in the Kyofrn is spelled out : The Buddha's teaching embodies the supreme and great way. lts truth and skillful means leading to truth are boundless so that numerous Buddhist priests of high virtue have taken it as bases of their schools and sects of Buddhism and opened thereby gates of propagation, teaching numberless people"' The Buddhist institution in the past was formed mainly for the life of monks in the monastic order and was inadequate for the people living in the secular world. Anyone who wished to be a true Buddhist under that system had to ignore one's duties and obligations to the secular life and give up one's occupation. ln such a system, the grace of Buddh a dharma, no matter how great it may be, cannot reach the numberless sentient beings of the wide

world. How could such a system be called the perfect and great way? Therefore. we have enshrined ll-Won-Sang,symbol of Dharmak'aya Buddha, as the object of religious worship and as the standard of moral discipline. We have laid down Four Graces of Heaven and Earth, Parents, Brethren, and Law as the central tenet of religious faith; and the Threefold Training of Spiritual Cultivation, lnquiry into Facts and Principles, and Right Conduct as the central tenet of moral discipline. We have decided to unify the central doctrines of all religions of the world for practical use so that we can have faith in a grand and perfect religion.!oo)

Thus, Buddha dharma, which excets all other religions in Sot'aesan' s view, is to be used as part of a more grand doctrine needed in the

World Community. ln any event,

religion shoutd

not be

impediment to the realization of the ideal world.

4. Selfless Service for the Public Well-being

ln Sot'aesan's view, one of the main causes of the human predicament is the lack of benevolence. He points out that for millennia egoism has been prevalent everywhere, aggravating the human predicament. ln order to deliver all sentient beings from the sea of misery, a new morality is needed. Thus, the injunction of this platform requires one to realize the ideal of Bodhisattva I "One should devote oneself with sincerity to the deliverance of all sentient beings by altruistic and Mahay6nistic actions, giving up self-indulgence and egoism for oneself or ones own family."'o'r While the first three 100) tbid., pp. 21-22.

platforms are relevant to every one, it is questionable whether this platform could be realistic. lt should be noted that, in the 1943 edition of the Won Buddhist Canon (Pulgy o ch6ngt6n). Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct, Awareness and Requital of Grace, and Application of Buddha dharma are meant to be practaced for the realization of Selfless Service for Public Well-being.tozr Selfless Service for the public well-being can only be realized if one is enlightened to one s original nature, ll-Won, free from delusions and acts right, if one is aware of and requites graces, and if one can practice Buddha dharma in daily life. Thus, the first three platforms can be said to be practiced for the goal of serving selflessly for the public well-being. Abnegation of self in this platform is to replace the self covered up with greed, ill-will, and delusions with the enlightened self which is devoid of such defilements. The mind of a selfless person has emptiness as its essence, which is the central tenet of Mahbydna Buddhism. Chdngsan thus inculcates : Emptiness is the master of all beings of the universe; Heaven and Earth manifest their virtue through. emptiness. Empty mind is the master of myriads of things; hence you will make good use of material things only if you know how to use empty mind well. Through son (zen) you become aware of emptiness of mind and it is hence the Great Learning that teaches ybu how to use emptiness of mind. lf you know and use emptiness of mind well, you will be master of the world.'o')

Chdngsan thus equates selflessness with empty mind devoid of defilements. He shows further how one should serve for the public

well-being

Become emptiness itself! The empty space contains myriads

things

because it is empty. Your mind should become as empty as the empty sky if you wish to be a great virtuous one. lf you regulate yourself, your family, and the state with empty mind, and if you treat your friends and all fellow human beings with empty mind, then you can get rid of false notions, partiality based on the relations of remoteness and closeness, and hatred and love. You then become a Buddha or a Bodhisattva.roa)

Chdngsan regards this platform as the fundamental moral principle

of statecraft, "...Whoever unselfishly serves for the public well-being with a thorough understanding of the principle of selflessness can be 101) tbid..p. 59.

102) See Part ll, Chapter 103) P6b6, p.127. 1O4) tbid., p. 128.

100

1101

WON BUDDHISM

WON BUDDHISM 37

said to have a truthful idealogy."l0s) Psychological Egoism holds that man cannot do anything that is against self-interest and that heroes and martyrs sacrifice their .lives because they take great pleasure by sacrificing their lives. This theory of human nature is incorrect. A Bodhisattva may take great joy when they serve selflessly for the sake of public well-being as the consequence of self-sacrif ice. However, the consequential joy is not the Bodhisattva's motive for selfless service for the public well-being. lt will be better if they take great joy for such selfless service than selfish egoists take pleasure out of being so selfish. For the world community needs as many Bodhisattvas as it can produce; otherwise, the human predicanient in the world community will not be ameliorated.

Awareness and Grateful Requital of Grace, Application of Buddha dharma, and Selfless Service for the Public Well-being. For, certainly, the world comnunity will be different from what it is now if (i) its members are enlightened to the ultimate truth of their beings and of the universe and act in accordance with such enlightenment, (ii) they recognize the Four Graces and requite them with gratitude, thus changing life of resentment to that of gratitude, (iii) they can apply some of the Buddhist wisdom to their daily life, and (iv) they remove selfish egoism from their heart and serve selflessly for the public well to analyze the central tenets of the Four Grand -being. I have tried Platforms in this paper. lt is my hope that in this way I have answered the question : What is the position of Won Buddhism in the world community rzrs-a- vr,s the world religions I Present and Future?

Conclusion

I have tried to introduce Won Buddhism following William James's model of analysis I What is the ldeal to be realized? What is it that is to be corrected? What is the method to realize the ldeal by correcting the defect? For Sot'aesan, the main cause of the human misery was twofold : the formidable power of material civilization and the enfeebled human

spirit. Each of these two f actors can aggravate the human predicament. lf the power of human spirit be unfololed, then the

material power can be made to serve for the realization of a paradise on the earth. However, if human spirit is left closed, then man is to suffer in the seas of misery. When the spirit is closed, greed, ill-will and delusion take the main stage of human mind. These three evil roots are the ultimate cause of all human misery at the final analysis. lf the leader of a nation suffers from these three evil roots, millions of innocent human beings lose their lives on battle fields. Even when there is no war, the world community will suffer in the sea of misery if its members live with greed, ill-will and delusion unchecked. Thus, Sot'aesan opened the gate of new religion in order to help man unfold the spiritual power and thereby create the image of a sagely mankind. Sot'aesan has spelled out four main principles, called Four Essentials which should be followed in order to realize the ldeal world. Thus, a limitless paradise will be realized in the world community if every one follows the injunctions of Right Enlightenment and Right Conduct, 105) tbid.. p. 89.

Jft><>+<>r<>{<>t=>t<>{<>.=>{<>{<>'=>t=>t<:,x>{<><>r<=<>,x>t.>i<>{<>t<:,,,<>t<>l.>t<S{<st<>{<>t<r{<r=+

rne Great Master said, "The perfect, world, in which the il I f spiritual and physical life are well-integrated, will be constructed 0 f; when, inwardly, moral study deverops through the progress of * X spiritual civilization, and when, outwardly, the philosophi of sci- * $ ence develops through the prrogress of material civilization. fl However, if we continue as now to be prejudiced in putting em- il ff Ohasis only on materialism and ignore the importance of spirritual X cultivation, we will be like a careless child playing with a sharp- ** fi edged toot, being exposed to the threat of constant d;;;;. in * Q other words, the world which emphasizes only materialism may # * u" likened to a cripple whose body is healthy, but who has an $ I ailing spirit. And the world where emphasis is placed only on X spiritual civilization may be compared to a cripple whose spiritu- ** 0 ,l conddition is perfect but who has an ailing body. How can a t $ onesided world be called perfect? Therefore, when the develop- il spiritual civilization, perfect peace and tran X ,q,lJ of j,h,.beinward il " brought rorrn urougnr f orth tn in rnts this world. wono. X quility will re fi il t * From "On ,j,",,,^ \-il: r-,w1,,, Doctrine" ,,-,Y. x fhe Sccripture of Won Buddhism X fl X

*=*r*=,.>r<><>t<'t<>t<>r<>+<rt<s,=>'.>t<>,=>{<:r,.>t<:,.>{<>,*:r{<;rt<>,.>{<>,=>{<:rK>.=>,=>{<r*=*i

103

102 WON BUDDHISM 39

38 WON BUDDHISM

a multi-religious society and the goal of "Unjted Religions". I should like to address all of these issues as well, not to mention my interest in so many of the themes that will have preceded my pape-r. However, I must respect the excellent work and vision of the organizers and try to limit myself to "prospects and problems" or, as I feel after reading the Scriptures of Won Buddhism "the problems and prospects"

Prospects and Problems of Cooperation. among Religions John Bernard TaYlor*

ln the Discourses of the Great Master, the Venerable Sotaesan, there is the charming and challenging account of his offering to be of. service to a Christian minister who visited him to receive his teachings. The Great Master asked him if he had looked into the wider world. The minister asked "Where is the wider world?" The Great Master said: You will find a wider world when you break the boundary of your mind. Those who do not open their minds wide stubbornly insist only on their own

concerns and are confined within the boundaries of their old rules and habits, despising and rejecting the works and habits of other people. Therefore they finaily fatt into prejudice, making a barricade like the thickest and hardest wall of mountain between themselves and other people. The conflicts betwe >n nations, churches. and individuals are caused by this prejudice. Should we divide the original, perfect and whole community into parts or the limitless great Law into pieces by our prejudices? We should destroy, the barricade or thick iron wall between people and establish perfect and active new lives,'

making harmonized relationship

with all other people. Then we will

find

everythung utilized.

I use this starting point because it seems to point to Several fundamental issues which I wish to address: (a) confinement within boundaries (b) despising and rejecting the works and habits of others (c) the barricade of Prejudices (d) conflicts between nations, churches and individuals (e) the achievement of perfect and active new lives (f) harmonized relationship with all other people. and suggestive sequence it, leads me to address first the problems of confinement, despising of prejudices and conflicts before I come to the prospects of renewal, harmonized relationship and co-operation. Those who speak after me will take up the themes of co-operative and creative dialogue, religious morality in

lf follow this shrewd

Secretaty-General of the World Conference on Religion and Peace/International, Geneva, Switzerland.

I. Problems of Co-operation among Religions A. Confinement within Boundaries

I write and speak partly from the same background as the Christian minister who came to seek guidance from the Venerable Sotaesan but I am fortunate to have been guided from my youth to look for the wider world. I am an active layman in my church and what is known as a "lay preacher". My Christian upbringing and continued loyalties make me proud and grateful to be a Christian but not, I trust, in a sense that I cannot also be proud and grateful to have learned so much from other religions and even from secular traditions in the wider world. The boundaries of my mind were stretched from my early upbringing in Western European and Christian traditions to come to appreciate many other traditions, those of Jews and Muslims (with whom Christians have been closely associated, although too often in hostile ways) but also the Eastern traditions of Hindus, Buddhists and others(with whom Christians can share so many common concerns for peace and even patterns of meditation and practical compassion). As I write these words the world is obsessed by boundaries, especially if they are crossed by invading armies, imposed or maintained to secure colonial-style privileges, or artificially drawn to create ideological competition and fragmentation. Nowhere more than in the Korean peninsula do we feel the painfulness of imposed boundaries where a geographical latitude or the accidental course of a river defines peoples' rights and opportunities and estranges brothers and sisters from each other. Yet elsewhere in the world from Kuwait to Palestine, from Kashmir to Sri Lanka, from Sudan to Chad, from the Bantustans of South Africa to the ghettoes of European and American cities people are living in imposed or self-chosen separation from their true neighbours.

104

WON BUDDHISM 4L

WON BUDDHISM

Many

of the most violent conflicts in today's

105

r,n'orld are

civil conflicts

existence with one s neighbour is not enough. One needs to "proexist"-to learn to live cn behalf of one s neighbour and with equal attention tct his or her needs as to one s own. This phrase of proexistence" was used by the late Dr. Charles Malik when he appealed to his fellow Lebanese, Christians and Muslims, not to accept a "stale co-existence"which was like "laughing in one s sleeve and thanking God that we are not as the other person is. " We may be grateful for and loyal to our ov/n particular religious identity, but that should not give us a sense of superiority; rather should it give us a sense of humility, that we have been so blessed. lt should also give us a sense of respect for others who have been blessed in different ways,'recognizing and appropriating truth through different channels, using different language for what may be the same

President Carter has repeatedly and wisely emphasized, most recently in the 2Oth Anniversary Celebration of the organization which I serve, the World

on Religion and Peace. This means that the United Nations is bound to respect the national sovereignty of each member state has very little competence to intervene in civil conflicts

Conference

Organization which

between regions, tribes, religious groups, political parties, etc. inside a given country.

The wicked world-wide arms trade-the 20th century equivalent of the

slave trade-is growing richer and richer by encouraging people to imprison themselves and imprison other in jealously defended or ruthlessly imposed "ghettoes","autonomous regions" or "nations". A few exceptions exist where Germany has been reunited-reopening hopes for Korean reunification - or where Bantustans start to collapse in favour of a new multi-racial and democratic South Africa. "Apartness"(apartheid) means injustice and conflict, moral and physical death in w.hatever part of the world.

The Venerable Sotaesan reminded us that boundaries exist not only between nation states or autonomous zones but also between religions. lt is one of the paradoxes and tragedies of much of history that religions which claim to be based on peace and love and nonviolence and self-serving. Religions may not have strictly speaking caused even the "religious" or "holy" wars that have not only' disfigured history but that still shock our consciences today. Yet religious people have often been complicit in justifying economic injustice, territorial aggrandizement or discriminatory subiugation of other people.

ultimate foundations and goals. Elsewhere in the Discourses of the Great Master on Buddhahood notice that he couples respect with fear:

ll ll t;

B. Despising and Rejecting Others

Enclosed within our own boundaries of self, nation or religlon, we f ace the danger that ignorance will surely breed arrogance, that isolation will breed xenophobia, and f alse security will breed complacency. Because one is grateful for one's own tradition one may lose all sense of self-criticism, curiosity and openness to others. Just "glasnost"to open Up the secretive aS it has been necessary to have practices of some totalitarian countries, we need and exploitative openness" in our religious traditions to respect the truth and beauty of other traditions and also to be self-critical that most of us have failed to practise what we Preach.

Even tolerance of another religion is not enough. One can sometimes tolerate in a condescending or superior way. Even co-

Therefore I tell you to have respect and fear in your mind. lf you meet everything with this mind of respect and fear and practise right, you can make use of all things in the universe, and all regulations and laws in the world will protect you. On the other hand, if you conduct yourself imprudently, without proper fear and respect, all things in the universe will become instruments which may bring you harm, and all regulations and laws will be like ropes which bind your conduct. You disciples, therefore, if you are gorng to keep your mind and protect your body from harm in this difficult world, hold this motto to your heart and practise it on every occasion.

There is an important reference to the idea of "respect" coupled with the idea of ' "fear"in the New Testament in the First Letter of Peter, chapter 3, versel5; Christians are called to give an account of the hope that they hold, but to give that account with "meekness and fear" or with "gentleness and reverence" or "modesty and respect" as some more modern translations express it. The same epistle enjoins hospitality, partnership, sobriety and patience. Unf ortunately many preachers and missionaries have been disrespectful, inhospitable, exclusive, extravagant and impatient; it is not surprising that their witness has been perceived by others not as one of hope and invitation but rather of threat and disparagement or rejection of the wider world. lt is legitimate for religions to want to have freedom to propagate their faith but this should be done in respectf ul ' and modest ways. This does not mean timidity or hypocrisy but serenity and openness where one respects the freedom

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42 WON BUDDHISM

of one's neighbour to make his or her own choice. ln the example given by Venerable Sotaesan and in the Christian scripture quoted above we have thought especially about Christians who have sometimes shown disrespect for their neighbours or other f aiths. However this danger exists almost world-wide. Jewish scriptures are full of admonitions to the children of lsrael that they should not abuse the privileges given to them and should always give welcome and care to the "stranger. " The Holy Our'an of the Muslims stipulates very clearly that there should be no compulsion in religion. This does not only mean that "holy war" can only be defensive and never aggressive but it means that preaching and teaching should encourage in the believer a true and pure intention to make confession to One God and to build one community regardless of race or age or sex since all are equal in the sight of God. Here in Korea I leave it to our Buddhist hosts to give many examples of the need for respectful approach in human relationships as are advocated in the teachings of the Venerable Sotaesan. C. The Barricade

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of Prejudice

Disrespect and rejection of othere's practices can lead to a permanent state of blindness or deaf ness whereby one cannot recognize truth and beauty in others. Prejudice is not just a passing attitude such as disrespect but it represents a much more hardened form of self-isolation cutting oneself off not only from the past and present but from the future. lt expresses the idea that one cannot change one s mind or attitude towards others. This ingrained mentality is addressed not just towards or against individuals but against whole groups or nations. Prejudice refers us essentially to the idea of judgment-of taking advance judgment, or assuming that someone is guilty, and so it is not even necessary to give him or her a chance to prove innocence. Human beings like to stand in judgment and yet most of our great religious traditions teach that human judgment must be based on ultimate criteria of truth and morality. ln Christian terms there is quite simply the admonition of Jesus: "Judge not that yet be not judged". Judgment belongs to God, in Christian teaching. This does not mean that the believer should not be constantly trying to discern what is true or false, right or wrong, but this discernment should be directed essentially towards himself or herself.

Society may have to develop laws and exercise collective judgments but always in accordance with values that are both inherited and evolving at the same time. Prejudice is usually based upon a concept of truth or justice that is static and seJf-evident rather than upon concepts that see truth as infinitely mysterious and justice as needing to be equally and equitably relevant to every individual and to every new situation. A system like "apartheid" in South Africa has provided widety different possiblilities of access to truth in a deeply discriminatory education systerfl; it has provided no true justice when legislation and administration have been the prerogative of the white race whiie other races were victims of discrimination. ln a recent visit to South Africa I had the poignant privilege to attend the funeral of the first black south Af rican to be buried in a "white" cemetery in Johannesburg. As I stood at the side of the black minister who conducted the funeral I grieved for the young man who had been shot by the police during a peaceful demonstration, but I also grieved for those of the white socie.ty who would, in many cases, have to wait for the Day of Resurrection before coming to know the beauty and eq'uality of a human race where all men and women are,'in Christian understanding, made in the same "image" of the one God and ail judged by the One God. Only when we learn that we are essentially in this life to be answerable and responsible to others rather than to exploit or stand in judgment upon others, only then can we resist the subtle and sometimes unacknowledged damage that prejudice has caused in ourselves and in our societies. Religious prejudice has caused the horrors of the Crusades, the lnquisition, the Holocaust in the European context; in Asian and African contexts also it has expressed itself in ethnic or religious conflicts not only in the past but also today. Prejudice on the basis of sex or age, intelligence or physical prowess leads us to ignore the enormous capacities of people who are different from ourselves- yet we have so much to learn even from a "retarded'.' child, a dying victim of Aids, and unsophisticated peasant, an unemployed youth, etc., Our religion should teach us the capacity of compassion to overcome the prejudices and contest the discriminations to which all our societies are a prey. The barricade of prejudice can best be pulled down by education. A conf erence like this which encourages enquiry, research and improved pedagogy in inter-religious relations is to be warmly

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WON BUDDHISM

welcomed. However such education must not be restricted to the higher levels of universities. Even youg children should be introduced to principles of openness, respectfulness and equality. Young people can quickly become a prey to prejudice, attracted by the simple alternatives of truth and falsehood, good and bad, success and failure when they should be being trained to discern more nuanced and -variegated stages between each opposing extreme D. Conflicts between Nations, "Churches" and lndividuals

A f ourth major problem zone to inhibit co-operation between religions can exist when conflicts exist, especially if they have been complicated or justified by religion. However this is an area where "problems" can sometimes be transcended or resolved and can actually become "prospects" and opportunities. It is often in the worst situations like lreland or Lebanon or Sri Lanka or the Sudan where people are realizing that religion must play a role of reconciling rather that justifying conflict. Religious leaders and laity in such situations are coming forward to criticize past practices of separate education, i'ef usal or mixed marriage, discriminatory legislation or disparaging preaching. Some peace ntakers are even becoming martyrs for their reasonable and bridge-building approach; some of these "martyrs" are university teachers like Fr. Michel Allard in Lebanon or Dr. Mushir al-Haqq in Kashmir. Their application of principles of dialogue cannot be tolerated by the fanatics. The existing international conflicts and the new civil conflicts which are often breaking out as the Cold War recedes are both barriers and opportunities for inter-religious co-operation. Many of these conflicts which bear the stamp of religious wars are in fact struggles against constitutional, legislative or economic injustices and prejudices. lf, in a given situation, most of the adherents of one religion are oppressors and the adherents of another religion are victims, then there is a special challenge for religious people to be magnanimous, fair and patient, without acquiescing in evii or injustice. Both in a hot war and in a cold war it is easy for religous people to be carried along in a tide of national or ethnic or sectarian prejudice and violence. lt is often difficult to get to know the truth about the enemy and so caricatures and calumnies can predominate. Until recently Eastern and Western Europeans had grotesquely polarized and exaggerated ideas about the conditions of life on opposite sides

109

of the old lron Curtain. Perhaps something similarly tragic and divisive has happened in the Korean peninsula, where the Venerable Sotaesan was referring to "a barricade of thick iron" in people's attitudes. The Venerable Sotaesan, in his advice to the Christian ministes, drew attention to a further dimension of conflicts which may inhibi. co-operation and understanding. Conflict between individuals, perhaps caused by jealousy or competition or exploitation, or actual injury, can be used to foment still wider and bigger conflicts. But qualitatively and spiritually an individual conflict can be as painful and damaging as a war and it may'also escalate into a wider family feud, a communal tension or eve.n become a casus belli.ll is perhaps the effect of conf lict and hatred on each individual that it may incapacitate him or her from recognizing truth and justice and may induce an attitude of opinionated and selfrighteous stubbornness. Some of this analysis about individual conflict is suggested to me by reading the venerable Sotaesan's description of "the three most dreadful sins in the world": The first is injuring others by declaring that they have committed sins merely from one's owh supposition. the second is alienating intimate acquaintances out of envy and the last is misleading innocent people with evil genius.

False accusation recalls the ninth commandment of the Laws of Moses:"Thou shalt not bear false witness" and envy recalls the tenth commandment prohibiting covetousness. The "misleading of innocent people with evil genius" recalls Jesus' warning in Matthew 18 verse 6 that "whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin, it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened around his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea".

II. Prospects for Inter-religious Cooperation A. The Achievement of Perfect and Active New Lives Reconciliation is best described a transfiguration of separation into co-operation. A conciliar process of discussion and shared planning is beginning within religions and betv;een religions. The World Council of Churches is one example in the Christian world. The World Conference on Religion and Peace is an example of wider inter-religious cooperation for peace and justice. .When, 20 years ago, people were remembering the centenary of

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46 WON BADDHISM

Mahatma Gandhi but facing new dangers of war in S.E. Asia (not forgetting, either, more recent wars in the Korean peninsula and the End World War) they determined to set up a world-wide organization where the accent on inter-religious relations would not be philosophical or dogmatic relationships but rather active co-operation in the pursuit of peace and justice. They took the example of Mahatma Gandhi's patient pursuit of national independence and intercommunal harmony and active self-help non-violence. Contributions from Japanese Buddhists, America and European Christians and Jews, Middle Eastern and African and Asian Muslims, as well as from smaller religions, were quidk in coming. It is a particular joy to pay"tribute to the support that Won Buddhists have given particularly in recent years at WCRP world assemblies in Nairobi in 1984 and Melbourne in 1989 and in helping to host the regional meeting of ACRP/WCRP(Asia) in Seoul in 1 986. Furthermore two generous financial gifts have been received as a sign of continuing solidarity. New possibilties of co-operation are opening up with explorations under way to invite inter-religious delegates from Pyongyang to the next regional meeting in Kathmandu, Nepal, in 1991. Such openness and generosity shown by religious communities can exercise a not unimportant example upon political leaders. Responding to problems elsewhere we hope, in 1991, to bring

together religious leaders f rom Jewish, Christian and Muslim communities in tsrael and Palestine; in Africa we hope to host a

conference on "The Religions of Africa for the Children of Africa" and a similar conference could well be planned in Asia for "The Religions of Asia for the Children of Asia". These regional conferences follow on a major conference which WCRP/lnternational arranged together with UNICEF two months bef ore the World Summit f or Children in September 1990. Such examples of activities of WCRP point to the possibilities for inter-religious co-operation to be more than study and talk. Of course understanding and dialogue are necessary to pave the way and to provide a context of confidence for the co-operation. Sometimes however it is when urgent events or crises force us to take the risk of co-operation that we then realize that deep spiritual and intellectual common ground exists alongside the common ground we have discovered in practical work together. The achievement of perfect and active new lives is not only a question of moral and intellectual perfection but also of practising what we preach and providing a

1111 WON BUDDHISM 47

practical example to others that our actions can often be more eloquent than our preaching. When Venerable Sotaesan gave his advice to the Christian minister he was perhaps indicating that one should not wait to establish a perfect intellectual or dogmatic understanding of the relationship between world religions before undertaking co-operation. Sometimes, people have used the evident difficulties of dogmatic understanding to block any efforts to practical collaboration. However the experience of WCRP has been that one can be active together while respecting,differences. This may be. the point to trespass slightly on the subject of some of the other invited speakers. The idea of "United Religions" seems very attractive especially when we see the importance and promise of the "United Religions" seems very attractive especially when we see the importance and promise of the "United Nations". However a word of caution may be permitted. Full unity is very difficult to achieve-certainly we are not thinking of "unif ication" or "total unanimity", but rather of a unity in diversity. Also, even as we admire the United Nations we see the limitations of unity coming about between "nations" since "nations"are sometimes fatse absolutes in chauvinistic and my -country-right -or-wrong contexts; further many conflicts take place within nations. By concentrating on "activity" \ y'e may be saved f rom much disputation and may even find a way to redeem the image of "religion" in the critical eyes of many people who blame it for so much conflict and injustice in history and in today's world. However we should not forget the word "perfect" is an aim for the transformation of our individual lives and societies. Perfection is essentially a goal, based perhaps on the shining examples of our religious founders such as the Lord Buddha or the Lord Jesus. Jesus commanded his followers to aspire to perfection but he knew the frailty of even his closest disciples. Perfection is not a goal to discourage or humiliate but to inspire and ennoble. Ouest for perfection is certainly not a cause for human pride or boasting. lt represents a sense of constant self-criticism and even dissatisfaction that one has not achieved enough in the pursuit of ultimate values like peace and justice; however the dissatisfaction can be transformed by a sense of stisfaction that the final goals are so necessary and so noble.

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B. Harmonious Relationship with All Other People

One of the most important prospects that can be held up for improving interreligious co-operation is that the interreligious dialogue can be a singn and an encouragement for many other related fields of dialouge and reconciliation. Furthermore. the practice of such dialogue and co-operation between members of different religions is itself a peace-making action and thus more than a means or a sing.' Harmonious relationship is a concept that allows for differences and discords to be resolved rather than simply ignoring or denying them. The focus of "all other people" picks up the original question of the Christian minister to the Venerable Sotaesan about the "wider world". lt is too easy to judge a solution on the basis of a "charity begins (and stops?) at home" approach. The increasing recognition of a universal and even cosmic interdependence brings people of all continents, all races and all religions together to face a Common Future. The United Nations forthcoming Conference on Environment and Development in Brazil in 1992 will be a special challenge for us to relate our human interdependence to our human responsibilities for susta,ining our environment and our human dependence upon the world of nature. Relationships that are based on a harmony between body and soul, between humanity and nature, between men and women, old and young, dif ferent races and different religions are essehtially relationships of trust. When the 5th World Assembly of the WCRP met in Melbourne, with many Won Buddhist friends as delegates or visitors, we reorganized, under our theme "Building Peace Through Trust: The Role of Religion", that the Pacific cultures of the area where we met were rich in the respect due to humanity toward earth, sea and sky and that trust could well be translated as trusteeship. We cannot have trust and harmony between humans if it is based on exploitation and pollution of our common heritage of earth and sea and sky.

The agenda of an interreligious peace organization like WCRP cannot stop at the necessary concern for disarmament or restoration of human rights; it must go on to address some of the root causes behind these symptoms of disharmony. Among the, deepest causes are human greed that exploits fellow humans and "mother Earth" and human pride that ignores or rejects the truth and beauty that others

1113 WON BUDDHISM 49

perceive. Accordingly the issues of development, especially as related to promoting human rights and interreligious respect, becomes very necessary for WCRP and other such organizations. As religious people we should not forget that our visions and activities must be sustained by meditation and/or prayer. A major impetus f or the interf aith peace movement was given when Pope John-Paul ll invited religious leaders from all the main religions of the world to Assisi in October 1986. Ihe next year similar prayers were offered at Mr Hiei in Japan. Then WCRP in Melbourne was climaxed by interfaith prayers for peace on Mothers' Beach south of Melbourne. By taking as the structure of this paper the suggestive answer of Venerable Sotaesan to the Christian minister I have emphasized "problems" more than "prospects". This may have been salutary since one cannot often perceive the promise of dialogue until some of the barriers have been overcome. This should not be used as an argument to delay starting the dialogue but it may be recognized that interreligious dialogue is still a relatively new and voluntary enterprise. It is less than 100 years since the "World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. As WCRP and other interfaith organizations plan to celebrate the centenary in 1993 we are putting the emphasis on more active co-operation to promote universal and cosmic harmony. Some people will celebrate the centenary in a somewhat idealistic way suggesting that all religions may easily come together and even unify or coalesce into some new super-religion. However many of us feel that that is neither realistic nor desirable. lt should be possible to build a unity in diversity based on openness, mutual respect and trust. lt should be possible to avoid any common front by religous people against secular people in favour of a true partnership between religiously-minded people and secular-minded. Race, ideology, age and.sex should not be limitations on the true harmony we seek. ln Volume lV,7 of "Won Buddhism", Mr Sunggon Kim speaks of "integrate into one vehicle" not as the "subsumption of all different teachings into a particular form of teaching" but as the "realization of the One message in many different teachings". I find this a very helpful model for showing that I as a Christian can gladly recognize Christian values and teachings, for example In Budcjhism. I should hope that a Buddhist could recognize his or her values in Christian teaching and practice. Yet it not only a question of recognizing what is familiar but of

to the environment, and education, and especially as related

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WON BUDDHISM

discovering new insights and truth that confirm or even correct one s af raid to grow into more awareness of the Truth and to engage more vigorously and radically in building a shared society for shared values. lt is only when we really feel the pain felt by a neighbour who is in pain, o, when we can share his or her joy or hope, that we become truly human. Self-centredness,

WON BUDDHISM 5L

United Religions Movement to Realize Word Peace

old perceptions. we should never be

iciency, self-righteousness are the most limiting and diminishing of human traits. Self-giving, a sense of interdep"nd"nce self -suf

and qplf-criticism are important correctives and lie at the foundation of our self-understanding in WCRp. ln paying tribute to the support and leadership given by won Buddhists to our WCRP movement I wish to say in closing that the ideas and analyses and criticisms of a conference like this need to be made more widely known and may help to pave the way for another major meeting of wcRP in Korea, hopefully in a reunified Korer. I am conscious that within every religious community there are those whose vision and prospect are limited to many necessary and urgent

domestic matters, but a balance needs to be found betwlen domesticity and internationalism, exclusivism and inclusivism, particularity and universalism. Both potes of a paradox are equaily

necessary.

An international organization needs its local. national and regional base-groups-and those groups need the international organization. An academic conference needs foilow-up at a more popular levelbut attitudes at the popular level are unlikely to change if religious leaders and thinkers have not encouraged this process, We are living in a time of great promise despite the problems that surround us. Lei us struggle together to fulfil the high goals not only of this conference but, above all, of the teachings of our respective religions to promote peace and justice, love and compassion among all people and with

nature.

Pal Khn Chon*

World Peace has always been the dearest wish for mankind in history.To realize world peace, men have sincerely made efforts in their respective areas, but the history of men has been a history of continuous wars. Among the various factors that had hindered establishment of world peace, war has probably been the prime enemy against peace. After experiencing the first World War in 1919, people organized the League of Nations to achieve a world without war. But in 20 years, the Second World War broke out, which resulted in the foundation of the United Nations. Now the world has sophisticated high-tech nuclear and chemical weaponry which may overkill all living creatures on earth. Knneth N. Waltz said "Asking who will win the war is like asking who will win the earthquake in San Francisco. That is, there will be no triumph in the 20th Century wars but defeat of different degrees." Because of the basic mission of religions, it should be the religious people who will bring about a world where no missiles fly above and where you don't have to wear gas masks, and barbed wire at the national borders is replaced with flowers. Religious people should play the important role of changing the history of war to that of peace by combining the unified forces of the religious with the United Nations. Peace means a state where there is no war, the enemy of mankind. Peace cannot exist where confict, hatred, resentment etc. prevail. Kant said peace meant "a state where all hostile actions have terminated. " Peace may mean a stable state without war or violent disputes. Or it may mean a state which guarantees human life without severe disparity between the haves and the have-nots, where human dignity is honored and based upon material and spiritual liberty and equality. ln a peaceful society basic human right are secured so that men can enjoy creative life as cultural beings without feeling any significant inconvenience in basic necessities. The establishment of the peace of mankind is basically related to the spirit, rather than to the material.And the issue of human spirit belongs to the religious realm. ln providing holy and truthful guidance to

Vice President and Professor, Wonkwang University

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the people's soul, religions have stronger and more popular influence than other institutions. Holy books of various religions have greatly contributed to world peace on their own with their respective prescriptions to heal human minds. Won Buddhism proclaimed in its statement of purpose at the time of its foundation that it was aimed at realizing a limitless paradise by combining faith in a truthful religion and practical training of morality. ln other words the boundless paradise is a world where both the spiritual and the material are harmonized, moral civilization and scientific civilization go together, and both a paradise in mind and happiness in life are gained. To make the spiritual and material paradise even more perfect, religion and morality should be found through the mental world. ln this regard, a real world peace will come only when politics (material) and religion (spirit) will fulfill their normal roles. Therefore, mutual understanding and harmony among the religions, which are in charge of the basic problems of world peace, is all the more necessary and important. ln today's world many religious associations are active for world peace: WCRP ( World Conf erence on Religion and Peace),WPR(The World's Parliament of Religions), IARE(lnternational Association for Religious Freedom), WFB (The World Felloluship of Buddhists), TOU (Temple of Understanding), WCF (World Congress of Faith), etc. Some i 00 religious associations in the East and the West share the common goals of realizing justice, social service and world peace though active cooperation and unification and shared experiences. ln building world peace, the United Nations and the religious associations have a very close cooperative relationship. The two organizations seem to be destined to cooperate with each other to solve the same challenging tasks before them. ln modern society, the issue of peace Involves a wide variety of elements. To solve the problems, deep insight in both the material and spiritual human world and specific implementation plans are required for which cooperation between the United Nations and religious associations is critical. The United Nations and the religious associations are not hierarchically placed but rather their relationship and missions should be like two wings of a bird. The One-ness Principle of the Great Master Sotaesan and Tripartite Ethics of Master Jongsan, and the Cosmopolitanism of Master Daesan have made up the basic ideology of the religious assocration of Won Buddhism. Therefore, Won Buddhism's pursuit of religious association in the United Religion's Movement is in a sense a practicing

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of spiritual enlightenment based upon the Truth. ln his own state of enlightenment, the Great Master Sotaesan, clearly taught us that we are based cn one principle and that we are siblings from the single womb of truth. He compared the hostility and conflict among religions in the East and the West to children with different nationalities who are gathered together under one father and cannot become one family. Likewise, religions will grow mature and understanding, and all religions will form a big group accepting each other.

The Great Master symbolized the root of all truth and source of all being by the shape of one circle. he clarified that variations with different religious principles, institutions and methodology share the same single fundamental meaning. He taught that religious may describe their objects differently using different names but all will meet at one place which is the origin of all creatures of the universe. The need to build worid peace through cooperation between the United Nations and religious association becomes even more clear by the ideology of the identical mind of politics and religion (Jungkyo Dongshim of the Great Master Sotaesan). ldentical mind of politics and religion means that religion and politics should join in efforts for the salvation of mankind. The Great Master likened politics to a strict father of a family and religion to a caring mother of the family. The religion and politics will fulfil their responsibilities when they can find a comfortable life for all living creatures by wise and generous political ruling based upon true morality, the Great Master emphasized. The Great Master Sotaesan compared politics and religion to two wheels of a cart. To drive the worid peacefully, the two wheels must keep their equal positions without getting rotten or deveioping vices while the leader controls the politics by legitimate laws. The Great Master also compared religion and politics to southeastern wind and northwestern wind respectively. Master Jungsan taught Tripartite Ethics. (Samdorrg Yulli) as the basic principles by which the mankind will work and enjoy life together as a big family in a peaceful and comfortable world, overcoming all different prejudices and obsessions. ln buliding a peaceful and integrated country, religion and politics should cooperate with each other as politics and religion have different roles but they are not two different things. He said politicians should concentrate on politics while religious people should focus on educating the people as religion or morality is the fundamentality and politics is its operation.

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Master Daesan claimed that to create world peace, the United Nations need cooperation from a partner organization, which should be a religious association with forces of dispersed religious organizations pulled together in it. Master Daesan emphasized Respect for Those Dedicated to the Public Welfare among the Four Essentials of Won Buddhism, saying "lf we don't venerate Jesus Christ, he being the founder of Christianity, we are not respecting those who dedicate themselves to public welfare.' He said, "Regardless of one s religion, one will be evaluated by how much he or she has benefited human beings. Therefore, we need to have a new standard of evaluation for world peace,"he said. The fundamental spirit of Master Daesan's to call for a religious as'ciation matches exactly with that of the Great Master Sotaesan and -ster Jungsan. Master Daesan has proclaimed the need for a United Religions to cooperate with the United Nations to build world peace. He has frequently emphasized the necessity of a religious association on the scale of the United Nations. Since 1970, Master Daesan has distributed a propectus of founding internatienal religious associations, a declaration promoting international religious association, three recommendations for world peace at various international gatherings. Various religious organizations are members of international organizations as NGOs (non govermental organizations), actively pursuing their goals of exchanging dialogue, doing social services, and heading for the common goal of realizing social, justice cultural exchanges and overcoming prejudice and conflict among religions. Won Buddhism has been active as a member of religious associations. However, it is desirable that existing religious associations will carry out activities to fulfill their original purposes, and those associations will make an organization uniting all associations. We would like to call this organization by the name of United Religions. This organization will be a body of cooperation, neither bigger nor smaller than the UN, playing the role of one of the two wings of the bird of world peace.

WON BUDDHISM 55

Buddhism and the Collective Perceptions of our Time: A Study of Religious Traditions with Reference to the Teachings of Won Buddhism Lewis R. Lancasfef Gontents

lntroduction [. Social welfare in Asia and the West: A historical survey u. The Contact bf the dead with the poor in Europe' ry. Protestant social welf are in

V. Buddhist ethical structure Suf fering in Buddhism

VI.

and

Christi-anity VII. Buddhism

and other religious

traditions

Europe

TNTRODUCTTON

My paper has, to be truthful, been a difficult one to write, and am afraid it may be equally difficult for the listeners to absorb. Some of the ideas are but hazy suggestions which are just beginning to be formed into a structure. For this I apologize. My only excuse must be that I feel the need to bring new material to my lecture, for in the spirit of Ven. Sotaesan, we must strive to break through to new levels of understanding and not be content to rest calmly on past insights which grow stale if not constantly renewed. Since my topic is a somewhat complex one, I must proceed slowly, even cautiously as the exploration opens up some of the most important issues of our era. The main thrust of my comments will be focused on the conceptions which have in the past and continue in the present, to dominant our activities with regard to social welfare. The topic has been chosen because of the well known emphasis of the Won tradition on service to others. ln many ways Won Buddhism stands out as a group whose dedication to social welfare surpasses that of any other Buddhist group. My following comments are not intended to judge this activity, so much as to attempt to put into social and historical context, the development of charity and assistance for the needy in both the West and Buddhism.

Prof., University of California. Berkeley, U. S. A

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. Social Welfare in Asia and the West: A Historical Survey

Buddhism in Korea and in other nations of Asia has from time to time come under criticism for the lack of social service programs. These critical remarks have been directed toward the tradition by Christians who have had a long history of such help for the poor and the oppressed and by the Confucianists who lay stress on the social fabric of life. Often, this criticism coming from the Western religious tradition has been unanswered because Buddhists do not know their own history in this respect nor do they know the background from which the Christian activities have arisen. I might also add that when it comes to history, the followers of both Christianity and Buddhism are often lacking in a historical view of their faiths, most particularly in regard to this social aspect. As we turn our attention to the social aspects of religions, it is important to note that Buddhism was the first portable religion. lt was the first tradition that moved across cultural, linguistic and regional boundaries and in its organizational structure accepted people from all levels of life and from any racial or tribal background. Being portable in

this fashion, Buddhist social outreach has had particular characteristics which are not seen in traditions which have boundaries that restrict activities with regard to those outside of the primary group. This portable sanctity, that is the quality of being sacred or hallowed, did not depend on mass migration or invasion of armies. Neither was it only a movement of religious ideas from a developed culture into a primitive environs. Buddhism was able to spread from lndia into one of the most sophisticated cultures of the world, China. This portable aspect of Buddhism allowed it to escape from the cultural boundaries of the Ganges Valley and to become a part of social and rellgious life throughout Asia. ln this ability to be part of the cultural expression of this vast region in Asia, it has no equal, because it is the only tradition that was able to accomplish this feat. No other religion, social institution or philosophical tradition can be found in all of Asia, lndia, China, Tibet, Japan, Thailand, and'all the other Kingdoms and political entities of the region. Jainism, Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism. Shintoism, and the other religions have not become pan-Asian in the same way as Buddhism.

At the same time that we note the portability of

Buddhism, we must keep in mind that it also has had a history of being fixed. By this

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we mean that the sanctity and practices of Buddhism in the past centuries tended to become limited to cultural and linguistic areas and there has been no attempt or interest to spread it outside. Another way of describing this fixed nature is to say that the cultic life has at times become immoveable and thus regionally and sometimes even sub-regionally specific. This fixed aspect has been espgcially noticeable after the time of the Mongols and the Yuan dynasty. Ming Buddhism turned inward to China itself and had littlg impact on the developments of the tradition in other East Asian nations, especially when we compare this dynasty with earlier ones. The Koreans, Japanese, Thai, Burmese, after the period of the Mongols have all tended to withdraw from an outward thrust and Buddhism has remained fixed. developing a local character and securing support solely within these limits. lt is only at the end of the 1gth century and the beginning of the 2Oth century that we once again see some indications of the development of interest in portability. As I will point out in more detail later, the nature of social programs within religious traditions is largely determined by whether the tradition is portable or fixed. ln the research on this topic of whether a religion moves outward in terms of service or missionary activity, patterns to be found in both Buddhism and Christianity provide a surprising answer to this question. The answer was not one that I expected and it is not one which I can discard. Both Buddhism and Christianity have exhibited fixed and portable modes depending upon the collective perceptions regarding the nature of the dead. Portable and fixed aspects of religion are directly tied to whether the local cultural pattern is the practice of cult of ancestor or cult of dead. The cult of ancestor is defined as that situation in which the responsibility and obligations are limited to ones genetic kin either alive or dead. ln the case of the cult of the dead, the obligations extend beyond one s own kin and include the dead of others. To the degree that there is a cult of ancestor, to that degree the religious expression will be fixed and localized; to the degree that there is a cult of the dead, to that degree the religious expression will be portable and able to spread trans-regionally. Let me again state, that I am not making a value judgement of either cult of ancestor or cult of dead. Religious life is equally valid under each. The major difference is to bq seen in whether the sanctity becomes portable or fixed and this characteristic Seems to be directly tied to which of the two cultic practices is dominant. With cult of ancestor or with cult of dead, a number of accompa-

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nying aspects in the religious life can be determ'ined. Where there is a strong cult of ancestorand subsequent fixed sanctity, we can also find pollution fears. Pollution is always prominent in regions where sanctity is fixed at holy places, usually places made holy by being directly related to the dead ancestors. ln other areas, pollution diminishes in proportion to the mobility of sanctity. To the degree that we find fixed religious practices, to that degree can we find the strength or weakness of pollution. Pollution varys directly i,: relationship to this fixed or portable nature of the religion. The relationship that exists between the living and the dead is profoundly affected by how pollution fears are handled within the culture. Aid to other individuals is often controlled by whether the'contact with those in need has an element of polluting involved in the contact. In the cult of dead practices, pollution and fear of the dead body decreases. This had enormous consequences for the spread of both Buddhism and Christianity, since in both instances, relics, the bones and remains of the bodies of special holy persons. were a major vehicle for expansion. Relics belong to the cult of dead because they need not be the bones or ashes of ones own kin and yet they carry great sanctity. No greater or more rapid spread of Buddhism has ever occured than under the r:eign of King Asoka. His use of relics indicates that they did not have to remain at the place of death or even at places made sacred by the events in the life of the Buddha. Rather, Asoka took over the seven ancient stupas, removed the relics and redistributed them, we are told, in 84,000 stupas throughout his empire. The vast number of relics testified to the Emperor's control of all the Buddha's physical remiins. ln this way Asoka not only legitimized the extension of his rule across many tribal boundaries-often marked by local shrines and local burial sites-but the great King also made sacred space coextensive with his dominrons. The handling of relics is a sure sign that the pollution fears regarding the dead were not operative in the same way that we find in fixed sanctity sites. To translate this into some statement about the present and future situation of Buddhism, we can state that where the cult of ancestor is dominant, we should expect little portability of the religion. lt is only where there is the cult of the dead, with responsibility and contaot occuring with the dead of others that we can anticipate portability. The Confucian tradition based on the cult of ancestor, has always been in conflict with the Buddhist tradition which is more directed to-

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ward a cult of dead. By this I mean that when there is a cult of ancestor, one has a direct obligation to one's kin whether alive or dead and it is out of these obligations and the fulfilment of them that the social structure is organized and functions. For the Buddhists, there is a cult of the dead, that is that ones obligations and involvements go beyond the ancestors or kin and include obligations that extend over a wider sphere than that of the family. lt has been this concern for beings in whatever place or time that has been the major factor in the spread of Buddhism outside of its homeland of lndia into all of the cultures of East and South Asia. ln Europe as well as in Asia, where there is strong cult of ancestor activity, religion and culture remain fixed to specific local sites. lt is only when the cult practice which includes the dead of other people comes into being that there is an outward thrust of religious life and it then spreads across the boundaries of language, political divisions, religious heritage and cultural patterns. This

what we see in the activities of Asoka as he removed the relics of the Buddha from the established sites and carried them to the borders of his realm. ln the same way Christianity went through a phase in its history when the relics of the saints were carried far and wide as a major method for the spread of the doctrine. ln late antiquity, Christians searched for the bodies of those who had died as martyrs. The bones were handled with great care and the devotion lavished on them included kissing. The remains of the martyrs were the center of early practice by the Christians. Mass was celebrated in cemetaries, using the tombstones of the martyrs as the altar. The Bishop of Rome derived his power from the fact that he possessed the bones of St. Peter and it was not until the 12th century that this source of power became the Bible. This understanding of the nature of the religious traditions that are based on ancestors or on the dead regardless of kinship, helps to explain significant differences between the Confucian concepts of society and those of the Buddhists. This approach can be used in looking at the developments in Won Buddhism. ln the words of Ven. Soetesan that are still preserved, one can spot an outward thrust of involvement that moves beyond the immediate family to include the whole of mankind. While one remains a family member, this wider view and the urge to move outward to extend the teaching and assistance to others can only happen when the obligations toward the ancestors are matched or exceeded by obligations to all beings.

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I do not intend any of my remarks to suggest that religious practice that is fixed to a locale, deeply imbued with the cult of ancestor is any less effective as a spiritual pattern of belief than one which is portable. Buddhist history certainly shows us that the tradition can thrive in both environments and neither can be called superior to the other. But the very fact that Buddhism can exist in a situation like the late Ming dynasty of Cl'rina. deeply involved with local ancestral beliefs, and in lndia and Central Asia during the first centuries of this ' common era when merchants freely carried Buddhism across deserts and mountains, indicates that both aspects cjf fixed and portable are capable of sustaining successful religious life. But if this argument is valid that both cult of ancestor and cult of dead practices can be part of a complete religious life, then the attacks against Buddhism when it extends beyond the boundary of the family are not defensible. History teaches us that good and honorable people have followed both types of practice in the past. lt may come as a surprise to you, as it did to 1^n", to know that religion is either portable or fixed depending on how people treat their dead. lf the obligation is only to the dead ancestors, there is no impetus to move outward into the wider sphere., But if the relics of the dead that are not ones kin are considered of great value, and if one has concern and obligation that extends to unrelated individuals, then religion moves outward Social welfare and service to others is directly affected by these perceptions regarding obligations. For the cult of ancestor, the first and primary duty is toward ones own kin. So long as this is fulfilled, one can be said to have successfully handled the major task of life. On the other hand, the idea that the beings throughout the world are of importance creates an entirely different environment. For this latter case, empathy toward others pulls the individual away from a strictly local focus and brings about actions which have a thrust that moves outward to a wider and wider circle. This expansion of obligation and concern occurs in part within the aspects of whether associations are voluntary or involuntary. When we have ancestor activity, it is not voluntary, because we are born into our family and our responsibilities are given to us without regard to our choosing the involvement. Our obligations, while freely given and done with deep love and affection, are nontheless in part an involuntary duty by virtue of our birth. We are involuntarily in debt to our parents and ancestors and this can never be removed. The voluntarv associations imply the movment which we have

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already discussed of being oriented to a wide circle, one that is not automatically created by our birth into a family or a people. One of the first characteristics of the widening horizon of a society, is the appearance of voluntary associations with individuals who are not relatives, Buddhism is just this type of association, a voluntary one based on relationships which are not defined by kinship, caste or tribal affiliations. lndividuals who become involved with voluntary associations that are not family oriented, have been the ones who have wished to spread Buddhism into the world community. This study has changed my understanding about the spread of Buddhism to the West. ln the past, I have, along with most other interested scholars, tended to focus attention on the nature of society and e.rents in the West without giving much thought to the developments taking place in the nations that send the missionaries. What I now suggest is that the impetus to spread Buddhism into a wider sphere originates in Asia, and comes about as the collective preceptions within Asia shift. And within this theory is the notion that as cult of dead activities surface and cult of ancestor declines, Buddhism becomes mobil, not just because of a demand and attraction that is centered in the West. What is it that brings about such a dramatic shift in the cultural life of a nation such as Korea, a move from cult of ancestor to cult of dead with the accompanying sequence of social and cultural changesT ln part the answer must lie in the development of the urban culture. When urbanization occurs, and individuals in large numbers move from the rural areas, f rom communities in which they live in face to face relationship with their family and friends, life can never be the same. City dwellers live with strangers, and strangers daily control much of their activity. Needing support structures for themselves, voluntary associations made up of people who are not related to one another, spring up. These voluntary associations whether they be religious or social, create the environment which causes an outward thrust of involvement and interest to occur. I think that a study of the voluntary associations in Seoul give us ample evidence for the shifts which have occured in Korea over the last decades. While the involuntary family obligations still remain important, there are larger and larger groupings of voluntary associations that have reshaped much of social life and from these will come a thrust that will reach out beyond the boundaries of the Korean culture. This is not, please remember, a statement that the involuntary is inferior to the voluntary, or vice versa; it is only

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to say that there are shifts which occur in Korea itself which will influence the outreach to the rest of the world. Thus, if Korean Buddhism is now appearing in Europe and North America, it needs to be seen as representing events in Korea as well as the events in those areas that are receiving the religion . My research has been to look at the religions of Asia and Europe and to try to discern those common faotors which have allowed each of the two areas to produce religions that spread far and wide. I have reached a conclusion that I did not expect. To the degree that there is cult of ancestor, involuntary association of family with obligations limited to ones kin, to that degree religion tends to be fixed and local. To the degree that there is cult of dead, voluntary associations which extend beyond the family, to that degree the religion will be portable and transregional. lnto this structure, I place the teachings of Soetesan as shifting away from a strict cult of ancestor to a cult of dead and voluntary association. The Won Buddhist movement has had two very impprtant characteristics. lt is voluntary in that membership is chosen by those who belong. Being a voluntary association, it is not tied to kinship patterns of lineage. lf it were to be more involved in lineage then it would be more fixed and less active in moving outward. The voluntary associations that arise among lay people have had in both Asia and Europe enormous consequences for the development of cultural life. The'support of the lay community is always directly reflected in the structures and rituals of the religion.

III.

The Contact of the Dead With Poor in Europe

ln Europe we can trace the development of lay power within the Christian movement. power that was directed toward remission of sin and movement from purgatory to heaven. For the Christians in the 13th to 1sth centuries, those years when most scholars agree all of Europe finally became Christianized, lay people were faced with a very crucial problem. lf they or their dead ancestors had committed a few moments of sin on earth, they could be faced with the prospect of thousands of years in purgatory before being allowed into heaven. Thus the believers of that time were greatly interested in shortening the time of purgatory. This problem was solved by the lay people banning together into confraternities, collective action for creating the merit which would aid in this process of salvation. The confraternities allowed for universal access to paradise through the feeding of the

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poor and the needy and the penitence of the members. During this time in Europe charity was undergoing enormous transform.ation. lt becomes empathy for the state of the poor and this becomes the humanitarian aspect of the Western culture. Let me make this a bit clearer. Monks in Christianity could give access to paradise for individuals by virtue of the fact that they possessed an excess of merit which they could give away. The dead could be helpful in this, since the special dead lbft behind relics which held part of their excess of merit which could be called upon by those who venerated the bones of the martyrs. Using the prayers of the monks, the lay people could secure passage f rom purgatory into heaven for their dead and for themselves. But this process was followed by ahother one in which the people could provide an indulgence, a pass from purgatory to paradise. ln order to obtain an indulgence for oneself or one s dead, it was necessary to seek forgiveness in a penitent manner, that is confession and this to be followed by some good work. The good works could be performed by confraternities and if the group did a good act, they could secure a corporate indulgence from the Pope, every member of the group was assured passage for themselves and for their dead. This marked a turning point in the relationship to the dead, since in the past, relying on the power of relics, the lay people had secured help from the dead martyrs. But with the indulgence, the dead become dependent on the living and the good works which the living can perform in the process of securing the passage to paradise. There is no longer in this process a need for the relic. lf good work is one way to secure entry to paradise. the agent for this is the poor. This explains how the poor, the object of good work, came to be tied to the dead in Europe. ln order to help the dead, it was necessary to do good to the poor. By the 15th century this was widespread and the lay people had shifted their dependence on the monks and monasteries in the rural areas to the urban environment, where voluntary associations had taken the place of the monasteries. Lay people as members of confraternities now had the means to secure their own access to paradise. One necessary ingredient of this great movement was to do good to the poor. ln the above sequence we can see the movement from monastic oriented salvation practice to one whlch was firmly based on charity as a means of achieving salvation in an urban sense. Lay people discovered that they need not rely solely on the power of the miraculous dead for this re-

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WON BUDDHISM 65

of sin, but they could by going on crusades, making pilgrimage and doing good to the poor accomplish this salvific function. Thus the portability which first moved sanctity from the king and monk to the lay people was part of the energy that led to the crusades and finally to the great missionary movements of Christianity. ln Ihe process of democratization of access to penance, there was the eventual loss of papal power. lt is quite amazing from one point of view to understand that the agents of salvation were not the monks or nuns, but in fact. were the poor. At the very portals of heaven, it was thought that the poor would be there to judge the soul as it came seeking admission. lt was the poor who would report on the action of the individual and either cause the doors to be opened or closed forever. ln order to help with this process, the lay formed confraternities to give to the poor and by doing this act of merit to assure final salvation for themselves and their dead. ls it to be wondered that lraving tied the helping of the poor and needy to salvation, that Western social welfare came to play such an important role in the culture? At the same time, the passing of power from the kings and the monks and nuns down to the lay people created an entirely new vision of society. lrr part this democratized lay centered social structure is still part of Western culture. The focus on the oppressed continues to echo in the narrative of Marxisin. Revolution, one of the exports of Europe to the world, is based on the power of the people, most particularly the lower eschalons of the Social structure. This focus on the poor and the oppressed ori.ginated within the Christian church in the years leading up to the 15th century, and is a poorly understood basis for social welfare interest that is still so important in the Church and in political movements of the present. For many converts in Korea, the social programs of the Church are accepted but without very much in the way of any training in the history of the activity, a history that was firmly based on the needs and perceptions of Europeans some five centuries ago. Making this process more particular for the West, we need to see how charity was transformed so that it became the very basis of society. Here we look for the roots of the bonding power that unites people In a society, and in this case we explore the concept of empathy. Empathy is the sentiment of being able to stand in another person s place. This is perhaps best known to us in the theatre, where even though we know that it is just acting, still we feel elnpathy for the characters. We are able to place ourselves in the emotions of anmission

other. This ability is the most powerful bonding force in society, and

Europe, history shows us that humanitarianism has arisen from the charity described above toward the poor. lt is a type of 'love but it has no devotional character to it. We do not become what we feel, we can internalize the emotion but we do not become the person who is being watched. We only feel in ourselves the emotion, as when seeing a movie or a play. There is distance, a distance which allows one to keep personal identity while internalizing another s emotion. j Where we have empathy, this leads to "sociability", for it is empathy that takes friction out of relationships, even among foreigners and strangers. lt has tcj do with manners, customs and the ways of doing things. Only through some type of empathy can we have identity with someone who is doing things in a completely different way. ln this process, the idea of what is "just" comes to be identified with what is appropriate. Empathy then is what we feel for another regardless of background when we are able to say "isn't that touching", "\ y'e are moved", "it is a deeply moving experience". Several years ago, Korean television was focused on the process of reuniting families who had been separated during the Korean war and had lost contact with each other. Since the camera was able to show them being reunited in some cases, people across Korea shed tears. That experience was empathy for strangers and it is such empathy that helps to create "sociability" in all our affairs. When charity, which was done in the Middle Ages in Europe in order to assure entrance into paradise, gets transformed into empathy, radical changes occured in society. When this first happened, the power and the affective parts of government in a nation such as France at the time of Louis XV, were one and the same. The King was later to be sainted as St. Louis because he carried empathy and power at the same moment. He paid back individuals who had been in some way cheated by the government, he was humble and allowed the lowest priest to unbraid the throne for wrong doings. But when the affective part of the ruling group was split away from power, then power was sought for its own sake and the state became a machine. When the affective part of the kingship was split away from the kings of France, it moved downward into the general population. lt became manners and politeness toward others, honor was something which even the lowest person could experience. When the people take over this af f ective side, they also take over the sacred. Humanitarianism and equality all become spiritual virtues and in France .

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it was the people

rather than the king who had all of this sanctity. Thus it was not long before the people could do away wiih the king and the aristocrats and the concept of revolution appears in the European culture.

Thus, we see at the beginning of our process of explanation, that sanctity was at one time concentrated in the crown. But this was followed by a split of the affective side of kingship and its power and the affective moved downward to the people. This same process can be seen when we look at religion. At first it was the monks who allowed access to paradise for individuals by virtue of their merit w'hich they gave away. The power of the dead martyrs and salnts was of crucial importance for the movement to paradise, since the relics of the miraculous dead held such power. Just as the affectivity of the king moved downward and was taken over by the people, the same occured in the process of having access to paradise. The power of the monks and relics was passed on to the lay people who in their penitence and corporate good works, held the power of salvation which had once been in the hands of the elite monastic dwellers. The people who absorbed this power and carried out the good works were centered in the cities, and the rural monasteries were left without the enormous support they had received when they held the power of granting final entrance to paradise.

ln the above sequence, we can see the movement from monastic oriented salvation practice to one which was firmly based on charity as a means of achieving salvation in an urban sense. When the affectivity of the sacred king of France was split away f rom the king it was transformed into empathy among the people and it was this empathy which became the strongest social bond. Virtue became something which was natural, it was a part of everyday life and did not need the king or the aristocrats to be practiced The power became more and more democratized as commoners in the army claimed the same right to a glorious death on the battlefield as the nobility. As power and affectivity flow downward, ordinary people claim honor and as virtue comes to reside in the people, then the Republic formed of these people is virtue. Through this process we have charity being transformed into sociability and humanitarianism through the movement of the power and affectivity downward. ln Level One we can see how the access to paradise was democratized by being moved from the control of the

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monks and monasteries to the confraternities and the universal access offered to both living and dead. ln Level Two we see the power and affectivity of the king moving down to be taken over by the ordinary people and converted into sociability and humanitarianism. Thus, when we look at portability in Europe, we see it in part as the form of movement of democratization as virtue, power and affectivity move from the elite into the general society. lt is this shift into empathy for others which was reaching its apex when Christianity was bes'et with the invasions of the Mongols and the growing power of the Muslims in the 14th century. Since the Mongols had opened up the routes of trade and allowed for the first time passage back and forth between China and the Mediterranean basin by European merchants, the stage was set for the modern global world. Just as Buddhism had been ready in lndia to be carried by merchants during the first centuries of the common era, so Christianity was ready to move through the world in part based on the background of empathy tltat had become part of the social fabric of the western part of Europe. The ascendance of the Europeans during the next centuries, as they moved from continent to continent, carrying with them a conception of spreading the gospel, was not countered until the last hundred years by any similar movement in Asia. This empathy meant that when the idea of converting the peoples of Asia and America arose, it was at a time when love and reason were thought to be the way rather than force. Even the study of Asian languages, such as the chair at the University of Paris in Arabic was fueled by this outward thrust of empathy that had developed most particularly among the French and the Spanish. Thus the missionary movement was raised in Europe with the idea that first Jerusalem must be retaken from the heathen and then the whole world should be converted and when that process was completed, then it would mark the end of the world for the divine purpose would have been fulfilled. Of course, in the struggles which resulted from this movement of the Europeans into the world, power was employed, conversion by the sword and destruction of indigenous cultures occured. Thus, even though this use of force was present, we need to understand that there was also this other aspect of empathy as described above. We can see this development in the work of Francis of Sales, who made the point that the civility which had arisen as affectivity moved downward from the King to the population could be transformed into love of one's neighbor. Thus Francis revealed a new as-

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pect of monasticism. The monk need no longer be one who is fleeing from the world and those who constitute society. Religion which had previously been separated from the world and was Bracticed at its best by those who retired f rom the world, was in the 1 7th century being tied ro the world. Whereas previously there had been sanctification through isolation with as little reference as possible to "other" de Sales shifted it to the opposite, stating that sanctificatlon only occurs with "others". For him the virtue of relations came to surpass the virtues of perfection. Thus St Vincent de Paul could tell the women of his congregation "it is better to help the poor than to go to Mass" Let me point out that I believe on this anniversary of the founder of won Buddhism, *. can gain insight from looking .t'rorn. of tn. ..quences of events that have occured in Europe, just as Europe can gain by seeing those of Asia. won Buddhism has in some ways followed the pattern that I have described above. lt is a lay organization that no longer relies upon the office of the monastic organization. The access to enlightenment has passed from the monks and nuns to lay people who joined together in a voluntary association to do good works as part of their practice. This process of democratization has been going on for many decades and has provided a more universal access to the rewards of Buddhism. ln this respect, Won Buddhism has been an example of portability, spreading the authority and power from monastic institutionalism to lay voluntary associations. I am not in any way implying that Won Buddhism is a copy of the developments in Europe, only to state that I see a similarity of patterns which have been developed in both situations. Some of the same approach can be used for example to study the Pure Land tradition of Japan under Shinran with the Protestant reformation of Luther. There are many similar sequences in both developments, but I do not suggest in that case that Luther who came after the time of Shinran copied the Japanese. The approach of the study which I share with you, is to look for those collective perceptions which operate over centuries and which influence our lives so directly. lf we can begin to "see" the collective perceptions which are present in any given period, perhaps we can also spot them in our own time and have some better understanding of the sequences which are in operation within society. I believe that Buddhism and Christianity potentially have a number of important differences with regard to social welfare and doing good works. As indicated above, Christianity led by its lay movement in the Middle Ages, tied the poor to the salvation of the dead. tn doing this,

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social Welfare came to be identified as limited to this concept. There was no merit to be gained from helping a rich person or someone of equal substance to oneself. The formula for salvation required that one find a needy person and give aid to that needy one in order to secure the great reward of paradise, nothing else would suffice. This use, and I think we can with justification call it "use", of the poor has had many ramifications in the West which are not all positive. When the Reformation took place, one of the most fiercely opposed practices of the Church was the issuance of indulgences. Luther spoke out against any idea that good works could secure salvation which he maintained was only to be had through faith. Calvin called for good works but had the idea that all was predetermined by God in any case.

IV. Protestant

Social Welfare in Europe

Social welfare. as we know it in the West, can be traced to the two traditions, one in which good was done for the sake of salvation and the other which arose among the industrial cities of Europe. These large urban centers of manufacturing and trade dominated by the Prot-

estant tradition, created a new group of impoverished people, different f rom the rural poor of the past.'The traditional poor were "deserving", widows, orphans and the handicapped. The new urban poor were undeserving, able bodied men and women who were unemployed, or worse, were seen to lack drive and ambition. Early attempts to handle the problem are now looked on with a good deal of criticism. The Poor Laws passed in England by the Christian ruling group were based on the idea that no help could be given to those undeserving poor still living in a household because it might encourage them to become dependent on society for support. Therefore, the workhouses, made infamous by the novels of Dickens, were set up to take these poor out of their households and put them into a public institution. The aid they received was thus made purposefully degrading so that the recipients would be encouraged to find jobs and support themselves in the "right" manner. Most laws concerning the needy and a good deal of charity based on the social welfare ideas focus on separating the "deserving" from the "undeserving". There is now a new voice speaking out about this matter and that is contemporary pusychology. lt tells us that if in giving help one shames the recipient, that may be more destructive to the individual than the original prob-

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lem. The psychologists have also begun to study those Who become caretakers, and questions whether they have become so because of personal need. That may include a need to create situations in which another person is seen as inferior, so that shame can be transferred to them. Thus the social welfare narrative of Christianity and charitable programs in the West are in a state of crisis. The tragic point is that we have so little idea of how to do the "good" without having the "good( turn into a greater evil than the original situation. There are many tragic occurances in our world in which "doing good" comes into conflict with "what is good". For example, ethical behavior in Marxism assumes that the revolution of the proletariat is so important thal violence may be not only condoned, but even encouraged. Even in the fields of science, there is a tragic element. fhe new narrative of the ecological movement points out that industrial and scientific progress which requires a change in Nature and the destruction of part of our environment cannot be tolerated. No narrative is immune from such appraisals, whether it be Marxism, Christianity or Buddhism. The people of Eastern Europe have turned away from the Marxist position and in doing so reveal much of the destructive nature of the past decades in terms of the environment and state of living conditions. Just as psychological insights point out the potential tragic consequences of social welfare, so every narrative contains within it a " tragic " element.

V. Buddhist Ethical Structure When we consider Buddhism in East Asia, we are met with the problem of the ethical implications of its practices and teachings. ln this, our task is not different from that of Ven Soetesan who long ago recognized the problems and the issues which I have been describing. Buddhism has and will continue to play a major role in the culture and religious life of East Asia. lt is impossible to read the literature of Asia and not be struck by the Buddhist elements that appear: the doctrine of karma, the nature of rebirth, the mona'stic life, the idea of hells and paradise, the judgment that occurs after death, the concepts of cause and effect, the possibility of the enlightened mind, the primacy of mental perception, ways of viewing and judging holy people, universal compassion due to enlightenment, abundance, health and long life as reward for meritorious deeds, non-attachment as a way of handling change, suffering as a primary state of human existence, ignorance as

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the source of suffering. There is no lack of Buddhist elements in these societies, but many questions remain about how these el,ements can be implemented, especially in an ethical system. When the critics of Buddhism use the lack of a social welfare program as an argument, there is an imoulse on the part of some to try irnmediately to mimic the Western Christian approach to the poor and needy. But as it has been pointed out there are serious flaws in this approach. Based historically on the ideas related to the entrance into paradise for the dead, help for the poor has had a long tradition of being designed to aid oneself and one's family members. This puts the poor in a position of being an agent for accomplishing salvation but ironically the poor and needy are necessary for this purpose and thus there is no move to create an environment which has no poor in it. ln addition, we see serious questions raised about the attitude of those who give help to others, indicating that the motive and the unconscious attitudes may poison the gifts. Buddhism in this area of life may have a contribution to make which goes beyond the solutions that have been used in the Western models. For example, it appears that the First Truth of the Buddhist doctrine regarding the universal fact of suffering can be applied to our urbanized existence. Suffering is universal; both rich and poor suffer. This idea that we are all in the same condition, despite money or power, allows some hope for mutual sharing and support. According to this Buddhist narrative, the poor suffer and should be helped; the rich suffer and should be helped. The rich should help the suffering poor and the poor should help the suf f ering rich. ln the Prajnaparamitasutra we find the statement that not everyone should give a gift, only those who have achieved a state of insight that allows them to give a gift with the full awareness that the giver, the receiver and the gift are empty of any permanent substance. Those who see themselves as the "giver" and others aS the "receiver" can easily fall into the trap of patronizing others. Those who see the "gift" as an entity may feel superior by virtue of being able to bestow something of value on another. ln other words, Buddhist ethical systems will not be focused on just the poor or the oppressed, with the subsequent problems of shaming by making them an object of special assistance. Buddhists might better hold to a position which makes use of their own tradition, a tradition that says help is needed by all sentient beings. ln suffering, we are all brothers and sisters. This is a portable concept of religion, not that others are different, but that

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72 WON BUDDHISM

all others are simitar to me and deserve equal'interest and supporr. From one point of view inis ls a radical approach to ethical behaviour and one that has been little practiced.

VI. Suffering in Buddhism and Christianity Suffering is something which must be looked at from both the Buddhist and the Christian point of view. Prior to the Reformation in Europe, intentionality was ascriped to suffering. That is, the asceticism, the pilgrimages, the fasting were all done with the,intention of having the state of suffel,ing that might be induced by the activity, transformed into merit which could aid in salvation. Thus suffering was seen within the framework of the inention of the practitioner, Where suffering has no intentionality such as this, we can say that it is passive suffering When Luther began to teach, he denied that works, be they pilgrimage or ascetic practices, had any value or religious signifiance. only that which comes from God was thought by Luther to have significance. For Luther the world lacks vatue, it is a cesspool which can never be redeemed regardless of our works. This was a major shift in thinking within Europe, for since the bth century up to the Reformation, all suffering was related in some sense to the dead, and the ascetic practices which earned merit coutd be used by revering the bones of the dead saints or in helping the dead to move to paradise. ln Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, prior to the time of Luther: in Germany, Shinran had taught that works had no value and suffering could not be transformative. This is very different from the whole scheme of value and suffering that dominated one aspect of Christian-' ity especially the Roman church and the French. For it was suffering with intention that was transformed into humanitarianism, enlightenment and revolution. There is the attempt to find value in suffering. Korea has been a society which has looked for the value and th; transformative character of suffering. Buddhism has two types of approach to suffering one is the idea that suffering is passive and is therefore of no value and the object of religion is to aid in the escape from it. But in later Mahayana Buddhism, the Bodhisattva ideal brought forth the idea that suffering of the enlightened individual could bring salvation to sentient beings. This may be seen in the difference between the crucifixion scene of Jesus on the cross and the smiling Buddha who on the night of enlightenment transcended all suffering and attained perfect bliss.

VII. Buddhism

and Other Religious Traditions

The portable characteristic of Buddhism has yet another dimension which is badly needed in our wortd. Buddhism can perhaps be of greatest help in the ethical arena of life by giving close attention to its ability to exist beside rival traditions. Exclusive claims in some narratives have led to deadlocks where death and,destruction are the only method of resolution. Buddhists should present their narrative, rarhich not only allows but actually encourages followers to find support and assistance in a variety of practices. Significantly, this has been accomplished witltout jeopardizing the integrity of Buddhism itself. Buddhism in China lives with Taoism and Confucianism, in Japan with Shintoism and in Korea with shamanism, as lust a few examples of this accomodating element. When we see Christians and Muslims battling in the Middle East, Muslims and Jews, Hindus dnd Muslim, and in Sri Lanka Buddhists and Tamils, it is a sober reminder to us that religious exclusive practices are f raught with danger for all of us. Ven Soetesan s acceptance of other practices as being valid for individuals is certainly within the historical patterns we see as Buddhism has spread across Asia without having to resort to battle. Buddhism in this regard might offer the world a narrative of tolerance and support for all who seek spiritual expression and thus help to overcome some of the tragic dilemmas of conflicting ethical systems. From my comments, I hope you have some glimpse of the context in which we can see religious expressions. Spiritual insights are able to be effective in religious life that is fixed or portable, limited to one family or reaching out to all beings. Today, we seem to be in an environment that is causing Buddhisrn of Asia to reach out and spread to other cultures, just as it did centuries ago before becoming fixed to specific areas. This force to move outward is originating within Asia, anC the collective cultural perceptions of Asia are the driving power behind such attempts. As Buddhism begins to once again assert its portable character, it will come up against the boundaries of other faiths and will be called upon to respond to critiques. ln the area of social welfare, Buddhism and Christianity have very different historical backgrounds and it is difficult for the two to be reconciled. christianity has had a long histcry of focusing on the poor and needy while Buddhism in its doctrinal statements and in its practices has had a more universal approach to helping others, giving aid regardless of so-

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cial or economic conditions. ln large part, the movement of both Buddhism and Christianity will depend upon the power and role of the lay voluntary associations. Won Buddhism offers an example of this development which deserves the attention of scholars who look at some of the comparative elements between the West and Asia. I bring this to your attention in order to give some hint of the complexities of life as we live it. We are swept along within the tides of coltective cultural perceptions which dominate our thinking and.our lives but which by virtue of their massive expression are invisible to us. This study is presented on the occasion of the anniversary of the birth of a leader who has exemplified in his life and in the organization which he founded many of the principles that I believe are operative in society whether in Korea or in Europe or North America. lf these comments help us to understand the importance and the contribution of Ven Sotaesan within the context of a global approach to history, then my task for this conference will be finished. Let me add, it is by looking at the developments within the Won tradition, that I have been led to seek for certain answers within the European environment, further proof that we are all involved in similar collective perceptions. lt is only through a search in the histories of Europe and Asia and the other cultures of the world that we can begin to pick out some of the factors which have dominated life and to understand better the forces which are active in the present moment.

in the

Renaissance and the Reformation," Historical Reflections 7 980) xi-xiii, 3-251 "The Odour of Santcity and Hebrew origins of Christian Relic Veneration" Historical Reflections 8 (1981), 95-142. "Peasant and Jews: Fears of Pollution and German Collective Pet ceptions" Historical Refiections 10, (1 983) 59-75. "lcon and ldeology in Religion and Rebellion 1300-1500," Bauernfreiheit and Religion Royale in Religion and Rural Revolted. Janeos M. Bak and Gerhard Benecke (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984) pp. 31-61 "Holy Shrines, Religious Dissonance and Satan in the Origins of the German Reformation" Historical Refelctions 14 (1987) 143-2Bo "German Holiness and Western San tity in Medieval and Modern History," Historical Reflections 15 (1988) 161-249. Other works on European matters have included the following: Social Justice ln the Ancient Near East and the People of the Bible, Leon Epzstein, trans J. Bowden, London: 1983. The Might that was Assyria. H.W.F. Saggs, Great Civilizations Sez'es, London: 1984 The Greek Way of Death, A. Garland. London:1 985. Map is Not Territory, Jonath an Z. Smith, Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity v. 23, Leiden :1978. Marty rium:recherches sur le cult des religues, paris : 7 946 A. (1

Grabar,

Notes:

of the presentation of this paper as a public lecture,. have not been able to make ful! use of notation for the audience. Because

Since the lecture is now being printed, the following refernces will help those who wish to follow the resources that I have drawn upon. For a study of the European material, I have relied heavily upon the work of Lionel Rothkrug of Concordia University in Montreal. Prof. Rothkrug has made a lasting contribution to our understanding of the European culture and his work has allowed me to see many parallels within the Asia context. Some of his works consulted in the preparation of this lecture: "Popular Religion and Holy Shrines:Their lnfluence on the origins of the German Reformation and Their Role in German Cultural Development," in Religion and the People, 800- 1700 ed. James Obelkevich (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979). pp. 20-86 "Retigious Practices and Collective Perception: Hidden Homologies

Jewish Ossuraries Reburial and Rebirth: Secondary Burials in their Ancient Near Eastern Setting, E. Meyers, Rome: 1971. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An lnquiry into a category of Bourgeors Society. J. Habermas, Cambridge, Mass.:1989. Greak Religion, W. Burkett, Cambridge:1 985. Cult of the Saints: /rs Rise and Function in Latin Christianity, P. Brown, Chicago:1 981 . "Roman Spirituality in Classical Mediterranean Spirituality", J. Pinsert in Classical Mediterranean Spirituality. World Spirituality v. 5, New York: 1986. "The virgin on the Street Corner: The Place of the Sacred in italian Cities", E. Muir in Religion and Culture in the Renalssance Reformation ed. S. Ozment Sxreenth Centry Essays and Studies v. 11 kirksville: 1 989. ln our lmage and Likeness.' Humanity and Divinity in ltalian tlumanist Thought, C. Trinkaus in ldeas of Human Nature Series v. 1, Chicago:

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1970. Tradition and lnnovation

Renaissance

ltaly, P. Burke, London:

197 4.

"The Reformation City", B. Hall, Journal of John-Rytand Library, 1971

Calvin's Doctrine 1

of the Christian Life. R. Wallace, Grand

Rapids:

959.

lmperial Cities and the Reformation, B. Moeller, trans H. Midlefort and W. V. Edwards, Philadelphia:1972. Ritualized Friendship and the Greek City, G. He'rman, Cambridge:1987. Erring, M. Taylor, Chicago:1984.

The Disappearance of God:Five l9th Century Writers, J. Miller, Harvard:1969. An Adversary in Heaven: Satan in the Hebrew Bible, P. day, Atlanta: 1 988. Unmasking the Powers: The lnvisible Forces that Determine Human Existence, W. Wink, Philadelphia:1 896. "Monotheism and Polytheistic Elements in Classical Mediterranean Antiquity" in C/assical Mediterranean Spirituality (see above). Conflict SociologV, R. Collins, New York:1975. Pagans and the Christians, R. Fox, New York:1987. Temple in SocietV, M. V. Fox, 'Minnesota:1 988. Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle, K. Dover, Berkeley;1974. Did the Greeks Belive in Their My ths: An Essay on Constitutive lmagination P. Veyne, Chicago:1983. The Roman Empires and the History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium, P. Veyne. Cambridge, Mass.:1987. Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, O. Patterson, Harvard:1982. Asian and Buddhist materials consulted for this paper include: The Cult of Dead in a Chinese Village E. Ahern, Stanford:1973. Ganges Civilization T. Roy in Heritage of lndia no. 2, Delhi 1 983. "Buddhists of the Sind" \y'/. Ball, South Asian Studies 5, 1989, pp.

19-131. "Mythology of Modern China", H. Maspero in Asiatic My thotoov ed J. Hackin, New York: N. D. Essays on Chiness Civilization, D. Bodde, ed. C. Le Blanc and D. 1

Borel, Princeton:1 981.

origins of Evil in Hindu My thology,

o'Flaherty, Hermeneutic

Studies in History of Religion v. 6, Berkeley:1976. Collapse of Ancient States and Civ,ilizations. Cowgil, Tucson:1 988.

ed N. Yoffee and

Ancient China in Transition, C. Y. Hsu, Stanford:1965. "Tibetan Sacred Kingship and Some East Asian Parallels", M. Waida, Numen xx, April,1973, pp. 68-78. lndia and the Greek World. J. Sedglar, Totowa:1980. Chinese Eunuchs:The Structure of lnitmate Poiitics, T. Mitamura, Tokyo:1978.

"The Church:State Conflict in the T'ang Dynasty" C.Y. Chia, in Chinese Social History ed. E. Sun and J de Francis, Washington:1956. The Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chun-hung and the Late Ming

Synthesls. C. Yu, New York:1981. Popular culture in the Late lmperial China eds. David Johnson, et.al.,

Berkeley:1985. The Ghost Fesitval in Medieval China S. Teiser, Princeton:1988. The Legend of Miao-shan, G. Dudbridge, Oxford Oriental Monographs, no. 1, Loncion:1 978. Chiness Ritual and Politics E. Ahern, Cambridge:1981. Gods, Ghosts and Ancestors; Fotk Retigion in a Taiwanese Viltage, D. Jordan, Berkeley :1 97 2. The Flying Phoenix: Aspects ofsectraianism in Taiwan, D.. Jordan and D. Overmyer, Princeton:1986. "The Boundaries of Compassion: Buddhism and National Traditon in Japanese Pilgrimage" in Journal of Asian Studies vol. 41 :2, 1982, pp.

231-51.

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Future Religion and Ven. Sotaesan's Thought Byung Duk

Ryf

What are the problems in modern religions?

Modern religions should face the reality of the modern peo.ple chained to the servitude of materialism squarely. And they should find their ways in recovering the spiritual value of mankind and the religious objects paying homage to. What shall human being do to break from the servitude to materialism? They must, I think, make a beginning with reducing evil desire in their mind. Today's religions are to transform people with ceaseless desire to possess to ones being able to upholding the dignity of men. However, today's religions, in fact, cannot exercise anymore influence over the society where money rules everything, and extreme egoists and opportunists prevail. What's more, religions themselves tend to illicitly compromise with the powers of influential groups adhering to regionalism under the slogan of peace. Mixing with this phenomena, religions are departing from their original role. Although religions are vigorously studied from a scientific view of science, much emphasis is not given on the way of awakening the religious mind or religious spirit. Long ago religions gave way to the material civilization in the world history. Religious people lead their lives by adorning the worldly value with words full of flourishes for the ideology of capitalism, a symbol of worldly desire. What shall we do for religions to gain the respect of all classes of society again? Modern people have lost the objects to pay respect to miss something spiritually important. Human personality and material are fo completely different character. Personality itself is able to create holiness in its highest state. From the aspect of religious personality, it can be elated to mature personality through the medium of symbolized object of respect, making in possible for us to have close connections with each other. ' The modern world has been degraded to the status of threefold structures of rigorism def ending the holiness, capitalism extending

Professor, Dept of Won Buddhism, Wonkwang Univ.

worldly desire of possession, and socialism. The loss of respectability originated in considering religious asceticism and rigorism as worn-out result of the past days. When religious people keep their nerve at highest tension for the holiness and crave for worldly relaation and freedom at the same time, this world has become to reach out to secularization of threefold structure. On the contrary, churchy people, claiming to stand for a religion, and followers adhering to organization of a religion bring about complications between divineness and worldly-mindedness. At this juncture, all the modern religions should reflect on themselves first. Modern religionists, regardless of religion and sect, should arrange dialogue meeting for mutual understanding, starting a campaign to recover the objects of respect. ln addition to the problems of servitude to materialism and loss of respectability in modern religions, religionists, should be awakened to the following urgent affairs. First, a religion should play a part to teach right pleasure of life. Second, it should pursue pure value not being contaminated by worldly ideology. Third, it should correct attitude of persons to take only power not being without a sense of responsibility. J[

. What

will

become of

future religions?

A religion ought to raise morality highly and establish peaceful culture for the future human life. l'd like to suggest the following to fulfill the responsibility of future religions. First, religious symbols of future religions must be unified. they have been expressed for the religious object in each religion so far. Sotaesan, upon the attainment of his Great Enlightenment, said that all beings are of one Reality and all things and principles originate from one source, where the Truth of No Birth and No Death and the Principle of Cause and Effect operate as a perfect organ bn an interrelated basis. Sotaesan's view of the truth, well summarized in the symbol of II -Won-Sang(One Circle) can encompass all religious doctrines and symbols in accordance with this passage. Second, future religions should refrain from making duallstic view of holiness and vulgarness. Real secularization of religion doesn't mean secularization of holiness but potential courage being able to penetrate the secular world on this earth without disturbing the sense of holiness, improving the social atmosphere seeking only for more materials. What does the truthful religions involve? Those are:(1) the symbol

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spiritual wo,rld illuminated by Sotaesan s Great Enlightenment(2) representation of the ultimate reality penetrating the order both of human beings and universe by the symbol of "ll-won-Sang" (3) response to the Four Graces and requital of them by Dracticing the Four Essentials to level inequalities of society (4) doing each thing as an offering of worship to the Buddha, since all are incarnations of Truth-Buddha and trustworthy power as well (b) practicing the Threefold Trainings-Cultivation of Spiritual Stabitity, Study of Facts and Principles and Selection of Right Conduct-as the main principles pf regular and constant training of Won Buddhism for both human training and moral discipline (6) a religion which teach about the Na_ ture, the origin of all Laws and the basis of all Principles (7) a religion taking the leading in spiritual cultivation to make good use of scientific civilization (B) a religion suggesting a sound view of righteous happi_ ness and misery to find the source of crime and blessing (9) a religion to train religious leader being able to remedy diseases of the people (10) a relgion not apart trom reat life supporting itself economically (1 1) a religion awakening that each person is his own creator without any other special God or Buddha (t t I a religion manifesting human spirit deeply in the grass-roots. II[. What is the Moralistic Socialism?

The moralistic socialism aims at constructing community through an agreement movement between a religion and morality, as the former has always been developing human morality as basis of society. Human bings are always groping for higher value to realize their spiritual world. Moreover, they make up creative community to actualize social ideal of coexistence, coprosperity and public welfare to leave in comfort and peace which are only possible on the basis of religiosity of moralistic socialism. This is also innate and religious hope

of human

beings.

Therefore, moralistic socialism is a result of idealists basing their ideal on the human religiosity. When the realization of the moralistic socialism is thought of as the perfect state of society, individual and liberal lines can be accepted as the ways to accomplish the moralistic socialism, which is greatly different from communistic society obliterating religiosity. Furthermore, Sotaesan 's moralistic socialism aims at the society where giving is preferred than taking only, altruistic service is prac-

ticed, and men live in harmony with each other, bringing and sharing life mutually. After all the moralistic socialism is movement for reflection on whether one can keep one s being up without the Four Graces. The long-cherished pa'radise and nirvana can be possible only by training an individual and groups alike. For this reason the moralistic socialism is often referred to the movement for reviving the moralistic connections. I

l[.

Development of Moralistic Socialism

1) Sotaesan's View of Moralistic

Socialism

After attaining the great enlightenment, Sotaesan proved anyone enlightened to the Truth of ll-Won-Sang is qualified to become real moralistic people and be able to lead society moralistically. He also predicted unitary world would come in harmony of eastern and western morality, and opened up ethics unitary in space and time, establishing "life morality" to the effect that it is the philosophy of life to all sentient beings. Approaching the people having no sense of morality and conscience and repressed grass-roots in needy circumstances in the lowest social stratum, he recovered the order of their lives and made them feel sense of life. Sotaesan's view of social reformation begins with finding the lack of sociality in each person s mind rather than from eradicating deeply rooted social problems first, thereby changing life of resentment to one of gratitude. The true picture of moralistic religion lies in delivering the response to others just as he received divine response before from the heaven and earth, making it possible to accomplish everything in the world. ln the Canon of Won Buddhism, Sotaesan suggested the eight items of requital of the Grace from Heaven and Earth. And when following the eight ways and virtues in heaven and earth has been done, the social morality can be formed. ln other words the morality is the principle of response of the great universe found by human beings. Those attaining the enlightenment can clarify the close relationship with each other-morality. Recognizing the close relationship between "l and you", "l and other thing", and finally "l and everthing surrounding me", he used a circular figure, ll-Won-Sang, to symbolize the relationship. Therefore, what this circular figure refers to is "moralistic socialism" in terms of

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emphasis on the retationship. ln this study I would like to call it another title of "ne\ y' socialism".

2) Life Sociology

and Moral Sociology

t'd like to regard Sotaesan s idea of peace is as "moralistic socialism", which will be pushed ahead until being completed by two academic ways-life sociology and moral sociology. "Life sociology" is that in which ecological view of the world is earnestly sought after, and in more detail, awakening to life and sociatly practicing movement based on life human culture of tife are vigorously studied in the concrete. This movement should be developed into civil campaign for ecological balance, social justice, humanization, etc. with the concrete practical items such as protection of enviornment, women's and youth's activities, sociat welfare, etc. Especially, saving the environment will climb to the top of EastWest agenda. All humankind are responsible for precious lives-even for an ant-and fatal circumstances of the enviornment, and should establish the world view of life and create new life styte thereof/ "Moralistic Sociology" aims at renewal of morality-recovery of the human nature, prevention of crimes, sharing campaign be the privileged. following the dictates of -one's conscience espeeially by the class for leaders, emancipation of the repressed. etc. Among the doctrines of won Buddhism, "The Four Graces" and "The Four Essentials"'principle,are suggested as the basic method for practicing "Moralistic Sociology" with the essential teachings of "Threefold Learnings" and the training-regular and constant-of won

NEWS CORNER 1.

"New Life Pilgrimage" Going by Bicycle A group of students of the Department of Won Buddhism, Wonkwang University, made a "new life pilgrimage" across the country to raise funds for suggery on children with heart disease during July, 1991. Thus tar, 102 children have received the free operation.

Seminar for Mutual Understanding Between Religions Held The first academic seminar, sponsored by the lnstitute for Cultural Religions, was held to present and discuss papers on case study of interreligious dialogue and the prospect and task of it at Samdong(Threefold Sameness) Training Center of Won Buddhism and Naeso Buddhist Temple in Chonbuk, August 15 to 19, 1991.

Commemoration

100th Anniv.

of Ven.

Birth held

ln commemoration of the l OOth anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan's birth, an academic meeting was held under the theme of "Korean Social Problems and Religious Response" at Seoul Cultural Hall, October 19, 1991. The meeting was sponsored and supervised by the Commemorting Commission for the Sacred Achievements and the Research ln'stitute of Religion of Wonkwang Univ., respectively.

of WFB Visit the Headquarters of Won Buddhism The delegation participant in the 17th wordl Fellowship of Buddhists(WFB) Seoul meeting visited the Headquarterts of Won Buddhism in lri, Chonbuk, October 28, 1990. Welcoming dharma meeting and reception were given at Memorial Hall and the Wonkwang University Cultural Gymnasium, respectively. Rev. Kong-Ju Lee Entered into Nirvana Rev. Kong-Ju Lee, one of the disciples of the Great Master and the eldest minister of Won Buddhism, entered into Nirvana at the age of 96 on January 1, 1991. The funeral service was held with Won Buddhist ministers and followers across the parishes in attendance at the Headquarters of Won Buddhism.

4. Delegation

Buddhism.

All religions. in charge of leading human mentality, shoutd remove all the barriers among them, slough off old prejudices and obsolete creeds, and meet as one. lt gose without saying that mankind can be one famijy only when all religions are unified into one, and that the world cannot be renewed without mankind's renovation through practice of life and moral sociology. These are nothing other than movement of bringing life and giving support to all humankind. The two sociologies should be widely spread among the world academic field. And every religion is to reexamined and reinterpret the scripture of each one to find the principle of life and morality suitable to the modern times, finally correcting the direction of scientific civilization confronting lethal circumstances today.

Academic Meeting Sotaesan's

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WON BUDDHISM 85

6. Won Buddhism to Celebrate Centennial Won Buddhism held a variety of programs during April to mark the 100th anniversary of the birth of the founder, Chung-bin Park (1891 -1943), or the Great Master Ven. Sotaesan. First of all, Wonkwang University, founded by the religious order, hosted an international seminar on "World Community and Religion" April 25-17 tn the newly built Soongsan Memorial Hall in

Prasert Ruangskull, Secretary-Generai of the World Fellowship of Buddhists(WFB);and Mehervan Singh, Secretary-General of the Asian Conference on Religion and Peace(ACRP). These foreign religious leaders met with such Korean counterparts as Won-Yong Kang, Chairman of the Korean branch of the ACRP;the Ven. Ui-Hyon Suh. secular leader of the Buddhist Chogye Order;lk-Je Oh, the leader of Chondogyo, another indigenous Korean religion;and leaders of Won Buddhism. They had three sessions of dialogue. The first one reviewed the activities of domestic religious organizations geared to reunufucation and focused on obstacles in its way. Discussion during the second session searched for ways for Korean and international religious organizations to contribute to reunifications, while the third session dealt with the specific proposal for meetings with political leaders of the two Koreas. Won Buddhism also scheduled many events from April 27'to 29. On April 27, which was designated the Day of a New Opening of Heaven, a memorial center for the founder was dedicated at the Headquarters of Won Buddhism, lri. On April 28, the Day of Grace, on which Won Buddhism was inaugurated. a ceremony was held at Wonkwang University with the participation of Won Buddhists from across the nation. April 29 was designated the Day of Peace, and some 2,000 followers of Won Buddhism made a pilgrimago to the birthplace of the founder in Youngkwang, Chollanam-do.

lri, Chollabuk-do.

The Conference took up the question of how religions can contribute to the recreation of civilization for a global community of the f

uture.

A total of 22 scholars from the United States, China, lndia, Germany, Austria, the United Kingdoms. Japan and Korea participated in the seminer;all presented papers. Among the foreign guests invited were such eminent scholars as Robert C. Neville, Dean of the Boston University's School of Theology;Prof. Ninian Smart of the University of California at Santa Barbara;Michael Pye of Marburg University of Germany;Makita Tairyo, former professor of Kyoto University in Japan;and rJohn Taylor. Secretary-General of the World Conference on Religion and Peace(WCRP). Korean perticipants included Prof. Byung-Duk Ryu of Wonkwang University;Ki-Young Lee, Director of the Korean Buddhism Research Center;Seung-Kook Rew, Director of the Research Center of Bastern Thought;and E-Heum Yoon, Professor of Humanities at Seoul National University. Sam-Ryoung Kim, President of Wonkwang University, said of the conference: Religion still maintains the position of being a prime source of civilization in modern society. ln this regard, religions feel the most responsibility for the total crisis of human civilization, and they should take the initiative in finding prescriptions to overcome this crisis. This is why we organized the seminar. " ln addition to the academic conference, Won Buddhism also held an interfaith meeting on the basis of a roundtable discussion among world religious leaders April 27 -28 in Yusong, Chungchongnam-do, to address the issue of the reunification of the two Koreas in the context of achieving international peace. Guests invited to this dialogue included Marcus Braybrooke, Chairman of the World Congress of Faiths;Robert Traer, SecretaryGeneral of the lnternational Association for Religious Freedom;

Festival of Harmony Marking the 100th anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan's birth, Won Buddhism gave a festival with the theme of "grand union, spiritual awakening reunification of the two Koreas, and human peace" in the presence of political. financial, academic, religious, and cultural figuress as well as diplomatiC missions in Korea, at the Seoul Hilton Hotel, April 23, 1991. "Religious Education of Open Society", Interfaith Dialoguo Meeting Opened

An interfaith dialogue meting with the theme:"Religious Education of Open Society" was held under the auspices of tho Peace Education Center of ACRP(Asian Conference on Religion and Peace) and the Commemorating Commission for the Sacred Achicvements -l of Won Buddhism at Koriana Hotel, Seoul, May 22, 1991. he meet-

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of all religious cooperating together for world peace beyond barriers of religion and ideology. Among the distinguished scholars invited were Dr. Gabriel Moran, a professor and director of the Program of Religious Education of New York Univ., Maria Haraas, a professor of Fordham Univ. of U.S.A., and Dr. Yookoo Lee, director of Peace Education Center of ACRP, who read papers on the subjest. ing agreed on the idea

9. Two historical Book on the History and Thought of Won Buddhism Published

"A Comprehensive Bibliography of 72 Years' General Situation of Won Buddhism" and "Human Civilization and Thought of Won Buddhism", timely publication to mark 100th anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan's birth, were published by the Commemorating Commission for the Sacred Achievements of Won Buddhism. A party in celebration of the publication was thrown at the Headquarters of Won Buddhism, lri, July 5, 1991.

The delegation of the 17th WFB(World Fellowship of Buddhists) Seoul meeting paid a viJit to the Headquarters of Won Buddhism. lri, and were present at the welcoming Dharma meeting at the Memorial Hall, October 28, 1990.

of The delegation of WFB took a look around the precinct of the Headquaters Won Buddhism.

1152

The followers of Won Buddhism at Frankfurt branch temple, Germany, took part in a charity bazar for the orphan asylums in Johannesburg, South Africa Dec. 1, 1990. They won popularity by presenting Korean traditional foods and

1153

The devotees and followers of Won Buddhism pose in front of newly opened Washington branch temple, Rockville, MD, U.S.A.

accessories.

The followers of Frankfurt branch temple observed December 1 Memorial Day of Won Buddhism. Dec. 1, 1990.

Korean followers in New York and native Won Budontsts hold a goodwill Dharma meeting at the New York branch temple of Won Buddhism.

154

On Great Enlightenment DaY, the New York temple members of Won Buddhism give a luncheon party f or mentallY-

Ven. Sotaesan's Memorial Hall. This hall was built in memory of the 100th anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan's birth. lt took two years work and opened, April 27. 1991.

handicapped people at Sanford Plaza, including a song recital,

dance. and traditional Korean music.

!&*{q;,r,

The granite-stat-

ue of Ven. So-

The children of Wonkwang Korean School attached to the New York temple of Won Buddhism participato in the 4th Korean school's festival, performing traditional Korean farm music.

155

taesan located in the center of the Memorial Hall.

1157

156

-. This oil painting "Opening Spirit of Won Buddhism is attached to the wall of the Memorial Hall.

Dr. Sam-Ryong Kim, president of wonkwang University, is giving a welcoming uOOr".r to opin the'lnternational Academic Conference in commemoration of the lOOth anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan s birth, April 25, 1991'

Prof. Robert c. Neville, Dean of the school of Theology of Boston University, "World U.S.A., the keynote .p"ik"r of the Conference, his presentation is Community and Religion."

Prof. Ninian Smart

of the

University

California

at Santa Barbara,

reads his paper on "Modern Civilization and World Community.'

U.S.A.,

1158

Dr. Pal Khn Chon. Vice President of Wonkwang University, reads her paper, "United Religions Movement for world Peace.-

of the 'lttoen' of Japan, speaks at the Religious Leader's Meeting for Dialogue in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Ven. Sotaesan's birth, sponsored by Won Buddhism at Yusong Hotel, Daeion, Rev. Nishida Takesi, Head Aprit 27

Dr. John B. Taylor, the Secretary-General of WCBP(World Conference on Religion and Peace), on "Prospects and Problems of Cooperation among Religions.'

159

-28,

199'1.

Religious leaders participating in the Dialogue Meeting pay a visit to the Headquarters of Won Buddhism and the Sacred Pagoda of Ven. Sotaesan.

1181

1160

Dialogue Meeting participants at Yousung Hotel, Daejon'

One great circle of mysterious light appeared over the main ground from 11 to 4 o'ciock while the commemorating ceremony was being held, April 28. 1991.

The commemorating ceremony for the 100th Anniversary of Ven. sotaesan's airih at the large fieh of the sports complex of Wonkwang University' April 28 1

991.