HOW TO RESCUE A $400M SHIPWRECK YouTube
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ISSUE 6 OCTOBER 2013 $6.95 (INCL. GST) NZ $7.90 (INCL. GST)
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worldofknowledgeau WorldOfKnowAU
AUSTRALIA
! D E L A E V E R
HISTORY’S BIGGEST BRAIN SNAPS Tragic heroes! Epic mix-ups! Lost battles! Moments of madness that changed the world ON TOUR WITH THE CANINE SOLDIERS
NATURE
THE DEADLY SCIENCE OF BUSHFIRES
Secrets of the Earth’s core The lethal truth about fracking Flying dragons!
TECHNOLOGY
INSIDE THE MIRACLE 1KM TOWER
PP100009783
WORLD EVENTS
PLUS!
ON THE COVER
CONT
The colossal misjudgments of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, Napoleon, Hitler and others – and their consequences for mankind today. PAGE 12
ON THE COVER
Only the best soldiers make the cut for SEAL Team 6, the squad tasked with ridding the world of terrorists. Belgian Shepherd Cairo is one of them. PAGE 22
ON THE COVER
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Operation “Mayday”: the plight of others is their business. Salvage companies the world over wait for the calls for help that will earn them millions. PAGE 46
Prolonged hunger can make your organs shrink. Does that give people with larger fat reserves an advantage in starvation mode?
The Milky Way measures about 100,000 light years in diameter, but compared to many of its neighbouring galaxies it seems almost minuscule. PAGE 72
More and more killers are taking the mic, regaling us with their songs of torture, mutilation and murder. Right from the mouth of the perpetrator. PAGE 76
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OCTOBER 2013
ENTS Not all of our feathered friends are necessarily cute. Meet the thieving, blood-sucking, bad-tempered members of the bird community. PAGE 38
WELCOME FROM THE EDITOR In the early Sixties, American mathematician Edward Lorenz coined the term ‘butterfly effect’ to describe how small, seemingly insignificant events in one place can ripple out and have major effects elsewhere. At its basic level, the theory poses whether a butterfly flapping its wings in, say, Russia, could influence a tropical storm in the Philippines. I’d like to explain it more deeply, except the science behind Lorenz’s idea is based on so many equations, my brain whimpers just thinking about it. The butterfly effect is easier to understand in terms of history: how one leader’s or politician’s decisions can have a profound effect on the events that proceed it, and ultimately change how we live today. And that’s the starting point for this month’s lead story (p.12): how certain brain snaps, errors of judgement and mix-ups shaped the modern world. One day we’ll no doubt write about the inspired decisions, but somehow mistakes are that bit more human. Vince Jackson, Editor
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NATURE The Real Angry Birds Warning: they’re nothing like the ones in the famous video game
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The Deadly Physics Of Bushfires How can you survive an inferno at 1000 degrees Celsius?
ON THE COVER
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TECHNOLOGY The Kingdom Tower: The Kilometre-High Building
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Can A Radio Message Cost $250 million?
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Lab Test: Can My Water Catch Fire?
COVER PHOTOS: Laif (3); Visum; DPA/Picture Alliance (2); Getty Images (5); Bildagentur Huber; Corbis; The Art Archive; DeAgostini; Maritime New Zealand; iStockphoto; Newsdesk, Adrian Smith and Gordon Gill Architecture
Exploring the world’s tallest building
The most expensive salvage contracts at sea Fracking timebomb: the truth about gas extraction
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THE HUMAN BODY What Does Starvation Do To Your Body? How your system reacts to extreme food deprivation
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No natural disaster is more dangerous than a forest fire. But what makes these fires so volatile? And how exactly do they spread?
WORLD EVENTS The Dog That Found Bin Laden How one courageous canine became an elite soldier
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Sing Me The Song Of Death When killers sing about their crimes – and top the pop charts
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SCIENCE Journey To The Earth’s Core
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Galaxy Comparison: Which Is The Biggest?
Inside the power plant that keeps our world together The world’s most spectacular solar systems undergo our check
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HISTORY History’s Biggest Brain Snaps How past misjudgments impact our lives today
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REGULARS Photo Stories Fascinating pictures – and the stories behind them
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Questions And Answers
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And Finally…
Amazing facts from science, technology and everyday life
Hydraulic fracturing has been heralded as the start of a new era in energy extraction, but it could be brewing up a threat underground. PAGE 82
When the dragons invented flying
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AMAZING PHOTO When it comes to protecting children, the US has the strictest laws in the world – except, that is, if deadly weaponry is involved Lisa (right of photo) is at the top of her class. The nine-year-old is a conscientious student and a fast learner, and her grades are exemplary. Her parents are proud of their daughter, but the girl from Virginia is neither a cheerleader, nor does she play a musical instrument. Instead, Lisa likes to spend her spare time shooting – and the AR-15 assault rifle is her favourite toy. Preparing, aiming, shooting; Lisa doesn’t need a weapons licence to use her rifle, which weighs 3.5kg. Everyone is welcome at her local shooting range – particularly younger shooters. In a country where, statistically speaking, there’s a weapon for every one of the 300 million residents, children like Lisa have often learned to shoot a gun before they’ve even left primary school. Lisa’s greatest supporter is the National Rifle Association (NRA), which has five million members and is among the most powerful lobbying organisations in the country. The NRA is currently focused on recruiting new blood, and in the last five years alone has doubled the money it spends annually on youth projects to $21 million. The NRA offers free training sessions for children at hundreds of shooting ranges across the country, and also publishes a magazine aimed at “young shooters” that contains glossy advertisements for assault rifles. Many young Americans will have been given such a weapon by the time they’re 14. America’s liberal attitude towards weapons is contrasted by its laws relating to other ‘threats’ to children. An adaptation of Little Red Riding Hood was banned in some school districts because the central protaganist carries a bottle of wine for her grandma in her basket (see the image on the right from a series by US pressure group Moms Demand Action). The game of dodgeball was banned from PE lessons for being too violent, while Kinder Surprise eggs were kept off American shelves because it was illegal to sell sweets containing small, inedible parts. The reason being that they were simply too dangerous for young children.
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C S E H T S I S I H T W THE
D A N G I A P M CARIEST CA
N E E S R E V E S A H WORLD
PHOTO: www.momsdemandaction.org
HISTORY
the world They can change the course of acts of more than wars, revolutions or l parliament. Mistakes are the rea they’re full engines of world history: and of consequences for humanity
ERROR 1
Akhenaten, 1351 BC
“From now on, you will worship only ONE god”
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eligion in Ancient Egypt was polytheistic, meaning many deities were worshipped at the same time. All Egyptian citizens believed every action on Earth was performed to earn the favour of those higher forces. The Pharaoh kings, while human, were believed to have descended from the gods – even though the priesthood, who themselves were polytheistic, were gradually eroding the Pharaohs’ influence. Akhenaten came to the throne in 1351 BC with radical ideas, banning all gods, except for one – the sun god Aten who he built a temple city, Amarna, for. It was an event unparalleled in the history of rebellions. Akhenaten also forced the priesthood to recognise the Pharaoh as a god-like figure once again. Many scholars now believe Akhenaten to be a religious revolutionary who introduced the concept of worshiping just one god, and laid the foundations for Judaism. Some have claimed that Akhenaten even inspired the story of Moses – who of course, was a passionate one-god believer. The odd thing about Akhenaten is he followed the divine model of the marriage of Isis and Osiris, who were brother and sister. Incest between siblings was allowed in Ancient Egypt to keep bloodlines pure, but its consequences, such as passing on genetic disorders, were unknown at the time. By examining drawings and statues of Akhenaten, which depicted him with thick thighs, breasts and feminine features, some scholars claim he had some kind of physical defect or serious illness, possibly brought on by incest. Dr Hutan Ashrafian, a surgeon at Imperial College London, recently suggested the Pharaoh had a form of epilepsy associated with intense spiritual visions. Which begs the fascinating question: was Akhenaten’s revolution kickstarted by an incest-related mental disorder?
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HISTO
BRAIN S
T S E G G I B S ’ Y R O
SNAPS ERROR 2
Emperor Caligula, 37 AD
“A few cups of wine a day won’t do us any harm”
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an a simple recipe for wine affect the mental health of an entire people? And possibly bring down an Empire? Because Italy’s domestic wine was too bitter for the Romans, it was sweetened with defrutum – making it the alcopop of the Classical Age. Defrutum is grape juice boiled with spices for so long that it becomes thick and sweet. Sugar was rare in the Roman Empire, and honey was not widely available, so this syrup was the replacement. To enhance the sweetness further, Roman winemakers cooked the defrutum in lead pots. During cooking, the acetate from the lead dissolved into the mixture. The resulting flavouring was so popular that many wealthy Romans made all of their utensils from lead. What the Romans didn’t realise was that lead acetate is a chemical salt that’s formed when lead
EMPEROR OF THE VICES Failure, tyrant, drunkard, murderer. Hardly any other Emperor of Rome has presented such a bad image to historians as Caligula.
comes into contact with acid. It is highly toxic. The consequences? Heart-rhythm disorders, anaemia, kidney damage and, finally, death as a result of circulatory failure. Archaeological investigations have revealed high concentrations of lead in the teeth and bones of Romans. We know from modern-day research that lead in the body can also attack the nervous system, triggering mental disorders. Emperor Caligula had suffered from a narcissistic personality disorder since childhood. He wanted to be worshipped – through violence, if necessary. When he became Roman Emperor in 37 AD, the Romans were unaware of his character: he was very popular for the first six months of his reign. He presented himself as a man of the people, spreading his wealth around, creating public holidays – and drinking. Caligula’s love of sweetened wine was legendary. But the concentrations of lead amplified his personality disorder and shut off his sense of morality. He tortured, raped and murdered. With every sip, the emperor poisoned himself further and went even more out of his mind. The Romans suffered him for four years, until he fell victim to a plot by his own bodyguards. But wine continued to be drunk from lead containers – and the dissolution of the Roman Empire followed a few centuries later.
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ERROR 3
Pope Urban II, 1095
“We need to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the hands of the Muslims”
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erusalem in 1099. After a siege lasting weeks, the army of Crusaders (Christians) managed to take the Holy city which was being defended by the Saracens (Muslims). What followed was a massacre which has to this day left a lasting image of Christianity in the Arab world. Historians believe that up to 50,000 people died within the walls of Jerusalem. Not just Muslims, but Jews and Christians as well. The capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders was the stated aim of what was a unique movement in the history of the world, one triggered by a speech by Pope Urban in November 1095. The content of the speech was monstrous: Christ orders the killing of Muslims to save Christians in the Holy Land. The reward promised by the head of the Church didn’t much differ from that promised to today’s Islamic suicide bombers: anyone who dies in the fight against the non-believers would be guaranteed a place in paradise. “Deus lo vult!” cried Pope Urban II at the end of his speech. “God
SAFE HAVEN Contrary to the Crusaders’ claims, Christians and Muslims lived in relative peace with each other in the Holy city of Jerusalem. 14
wills it!” And hundreds of thousands of Christians made the fatal error of believing it. But Urban II was lying to the believers. In reality the Christians in the Middle East were living peacefully alongside Muslims. The actual aim of the Crusades was quite different: to attract Europe’s young knights, second-born sons with no hope of social advancement, and impoverished farmers, artisans and labourers. “The Lord says that the fight should be brought to the unbelievers […] where previously it was misused fighting private battles, even against fellow believers. Those who until recently were thieves, will now be soldiers of Christ,” preached Urban II. “Those who previously fought against brothers and relatives, will now fight with full justification against barbarians.” The Crusades were also economic wars and were highly profitable for the trading cities, especially those in the Mediterranean. After the loss of Acre, the last Crusader stronghold, in 1291, it took the European powers more than 100 years to explore new ways of reaching Asia’s coveted goods without the use of Muslim intermediaries.
HATE PREACHER Pope Urban II called for a crusade to the Holy Land after asserting that Muslims would systematically kill Christians.
SOLDIERS OF FORTUNE The vast Incan army could have easily taken down Pizarro’s tiny brigade – if it hadn’t been for one regrettable order from King Atahualpa. ENFEEBLED First a deadly epidemic, then a civil war. When the Spanish arrived, the Incan Empire was already in a weakened state.
ERROR 4
Atahualpa, 1532
“The bearded men are gods”
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eports confirm the rumours: those bearded men with white skin, who claim to have travelled across the ocean in enormous rafts, really do exist. The first sightings were in the distant north, three years beforehand. The Incas worry that their fall is imminent. But their king, Atahualpa, has more important things to worry about than peasants’ crazy superstitions. Atahualpa’s father died of a mysterious illness, as did his eldest son. Atahualpa and his older half-brother battled over the succession for years. Finally, Atahualpa, not Huascar, took the throne. Atahualpa is commanding a 300,000-man army when messengers bring him a dispatch in 1532: a brigade of exotic-looking men is drawing closer. Their weapons are impressive: metal tubes that make thunder and lightning. They have armour, and strange animals carry them on their backs. The myth of the white gods appears to be true. Exasperated, Atahualpa makes a fateful error. Rather than approach the Spanish forces warily, he agrees to a meeting with no strategy in mind, and
gives his soldiers an order he’ll come to regret: under no circumstances should they attack. Tensions rise at the meeting when the priest accompanying the 182 men of Francisco Pizarro’s brigade gives King Atahualpa a Bible, saying it will allow him to hear the word of God. Books are unknown among the Incas as they have no written language, so Atahualpa tosses the Bible away after it appears to make no sound when he holds it to his ear. The priest condemns Atahualpa as a godless monster. In a surprise attack, Pizarro’s men capture the Inca king. Atahualpa’s soldiers become nervous; Pizarro’s men mount an attack. Just as their king ordered, thousands upon thousands of Atahualpa’s warriors simply stand and, without resisting, endure a horrific massacre. The Spanish agree to let Atahualpa go in return for a huge ransom. But when the Incas deliver the 16 tonnes of gold and 180 tonnes of silver, the Spanish break their word and execute Atahualpa. In the end, the Incas learn that these men were not gods, but monsters. “They treat us like dogs. Even if all our snow magically became gold and silver, they would still not be satisfied.” With these words, Atahualpa’s successor, Manco Capac, succeeds in mobilising an Incan revolt. It would take the Spanish another 35 years to bring the last bastion of Indios to their knees – the start of the decline, and eventual eradication, of Inca culture in favour of another religion, Christianity. It was a pattern of bloody conquest, in the name of Christianity, that would continue worldwide for the next few hundred years. 15
“MAYDA
TECHNOLOGY
Their business is the misfortune of others. All over the world, professional salvage companies wait for calls of help so that they can earn millions. Sometimes a captain just needs to be in the right place at the right time to get rich quickly‌
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CAN A
COST
AY!�
RADIO MESSAGE
1
$250 MILLION?
2
3
AN EXPENSIVE COLLISION Travelling at full speed, the Liberian cargo ship Rena rammed into the Astrolabe Reef off the coast of New Zealand on October 5 2011. Two holds filled with water causing the ship to tilt to one side (main photo). It then broke apart in the heavy seas [1]. Specialists abseiled onto the wreck [2] to begin pumping out the oil and ultimately remove the containers from the ship [3]. About half of the 1,386 containers were salvaged before the ship’s stern slipped off the reef [4] and sank. The salvage operation lasted months and cost around $250 million.
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THE MOST EXPENSIVE SHIP If the ship is “only” incapable of manoeuvring, the solution is straightforward: it will simply be towed to the nearest port. This alone can cost several million dollars, but it’s nothing compared to when a ship is sinking, leaking and losing oil. In these situations, the necessary salvage operations can last for months and cost hundreds of millions. Here are six of the costliest…
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M
ayday!” It’s a desperate cry for help, only uttered by those in the direst of dire straits. But for many who heed that call, hearing the word “mayday” is like having all their numbers come up in the lottery. The moment the captain of a large ship broadcasts this internationally recognised emergency signal, salvage companies leap into action. At the very least, the ship will be incapable of manoeuvring; it may also be filling with water; it may even be burning, or in danger of sinking. The first priority is to get the crew off the stricken vessel,
then rescue the ship and its cargo. Back on land, meanwhile, a logistical avalanche will begin. Because a damaged ship can quickly develop into a multi-million dollar business.
CAN THE MISFORTUNE OF OTHERS CREATE MILLIONAIRES? There are currently 58 commercial salvage firms that belong to the globally recognised International Salvage Union. They’re the first point of contact whenever a ship is in distress – and they are always busy. There are around seven accidents involving ships at sea every day – that’s 2,500 every year.
RESCUES 2
$250MILLION
RENA, 2011 The ship and half of its cargo were lost, and the beaches of New Zealand were covered in oil.
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1
$140MILLION
PRESTIGE, 2002 The tanker lost 64,000 tonnes of oil, which contaminated 2,900km of Spanish coastline. 250,000 sea birds died.
4 $425MILLION
COSTA CONCORDIA, 2012 It may look like modern art, but this is in fact a satellite image of the most expensive shipping accident in history. Just off the Italian island of Giglio, special ships and work platforms were brought into position to salvage the Costa Concordia, which capsized in January 2012. This spring the 290-metre cruise ship is due to be righted and towed to a scrap harbour.
In around 125 cases annually, the damaged ship will represent a massive danger to humans, wildlife and the environment, and only six of the 58 salvage companies are equipped to deal with this type of incident. If a salvage company can prevent a damaged ship and its cargo from being written off as a total loss, it can expect to earn millions. But how is the cost of such an operation calculated? Generally, there’s not much that the captain on board can do. He’ll report to the ship’s owners, painting as accurate a picture as possible about the vessel’s location, the severity of the damage, and whether people are injured.
$135MILLION
EXXON VALDEZ, 1989 37,000 tonnes of oil leaked into the sea just off Alaska. On top of the salvage costs was a billion-dollar bill for damages.
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$120MILLION
KURSK, 2000 This Russian atomic submarine sank in the Barents Sea, north of Norway, killing 118. The resulting salvage operation lasted for several weeks.
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$100MILLION
SEA EMPRESS, 1996 This oil tanker collided with a rock near the Welsh town of Milford Haven – 72,000 tonnes of oil leaked into the sea. The tanker was towed to port and repaired. 49
NATURE
UNBELIEVABLY LOUD,
COMPLETELY
HOW DO I SURVIVE A BUSHFIRE IN A CAR? US firefighter Ed Sanford’s car races through his operational area in Seeley Lake, Montana, USA. At any moment, his path might be blocked by a blazing tree. A recent Australian experiment shows how he could maximise his survival chances were this to happen: 1) Stay inside the vehicle. 2) Turn off the air conditioning. 3) Park at a right angle to the hottest spot. 4) Lie down as
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low as possible in the front or rear footwell. 5) Wrap himself in a woollen blanket, which will reduce exposure to toxic gases and maintain the temperature within the blanket at a bearable 50°C. 6) Stay clear of his car interior’s plastic parts, as these will give off toxic hydrogen chlorine gas once the temperature hits 220°C. 7) Wait for help to arrive – while hoping the car itself doesn’t catch fire.
INCREDIBLY FAST AND
UNPREDICTABLE THE DEADLY PHYSICS OF BUSHFIRES They’re one of nature’s most dangerous phenomena – not just in Australia but around the world. And battling against these monsters is one hell of a job…
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WHEN DOES WATER BEGIN TO BOIL? Tammy Holmes had to react quickly: the Tasmanian coastal town of Dunalley was surrounded by a devastating bushfire in January. As the flames rose several metres above the houses, Holmes and her husband grabbed their five grandchildren and took refuge in the water next to a tiny jetty. Water does not burn and barely heats up. However
even more dangerous than the flames were the poisonous gases – most victims of the Dunalley bushfire suffocated before the fire even reached them. “The atmosphere was very toxic,” recalls Tammy of her three-hour ordeal. “We had about 20 to 30cm of breathable air above the water’s surface. Above that was just smoke and ash.”
WHEN IS AIR TOO HOT TO BREATHE? The potential for damage caused by flame-heated air depends on its moisture content – the higher it is, the more dangerous it can be. Dry air at a temperature of 350°C will have cooled down to body temperature by the time it reaches your airways. But steam at a temperature of 100°C will still be 53°C to 94°C when it hits your bronchi and lungs.
IS IT POSSIBLE TO ‘STEER’ FIRE? Special coverings can help to make buildings fireproof up to a certain heat. This watchtower in Garden Valley, Idaho (right), is at risk of burning. Therefore, the local fire department has covered it with a heat-reflecting material – a measure designed to limit any damage. When fighting large bushfires, even the teams equipped with modern aircraft and tankers are fighting a losing battle. A large fire cannot be extinguished, it can only be controlled. In order to deny the fire any new food, the firefighters clear all flammable objects from natural obstacles such as roads and rivers. To a degree this allows them to dictate the route that the fire takes.
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E HOW LONG CAN A PERSON WITHSTAND 1,000ºC FOR? Military studies have shown that someone subjected to this temperature would die after 18 seconds, though they could survive for up to nine seconds without suffering lasting damage. So in an emergency it may make sense to run through a fire, rather than flee it: at a speed of five metres per second, you could pass through 45 metres of flames before your life would be in danger.
xhausted, Todd Conally and his team of firefighters laid down their equipment. They’d spent hours attempting to extinguish an out-of-control bushfire – but their efforts had been in vain. Conally wanted to discuss the situation with his team on a plateau 200 metres from the fire – theoretically, a safe distance away… What happened next is something that fire researchers are only able to reconstruct: within a fraction of a second, a huge fire cloud burst into life, roaring outwards just above the heads of the four firefighters. All the oxygen was sucked from the air as the temperature soared to 800°C. The flames were spreading at 30 metres per second, two metres above the ground. The energy of the explosion was so great, it bent trees back as if they were snapped matchsticks. It was a catastrophe that would have surprised even the most experienced firefighters.
WHAT CAUSES A GAS EXPLOSION IN THE MIDDLE OF A FOREST? It was only a tiny act of carelessness which cost the professionals their lives. As a result of the bushfire, explosive gases had formed and eventually exploded over the heads of the men. Such gases are produced when wood or other material do not fully burn; a similar phenomenon can be seen when the flame on the smouldering wick of a candle is blown out: the candle briefly ignites again, despite it having no direct contact with a flame. These dangerous gases rose into the air and mixed with oxygen to form a deadly timebomb. The cloud sank down to the parched ground; all it needed was a spark to ignite it into blazing life. Once ignited, it created an effect similar to the rollover stage of a building fire – the entire area was buried under a rapidly expanding carpet of fire. The four firefighters on the plateau were burned alive. Since 1851, bushfires have claimed more than 800 lives in Australia. Staggeringly, though, at least 339,000 people are killed worldwide as a result of bushfires – more than in any other type of natural disaster. The figure is so high because most of the deaths are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia, where early-warning systems and emergency services don’t receive the kind of funding we’ve come to expect in Australia. Even after hundreds of years of experience of firefighting, bushfires and their movements are
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