Birthday of Crown Prince Haakon Norway - Jul 20
Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway (born on 20 July 1973 in Oslo), with the full name Haakon Magnus, is the heir apparent to the Throne of Norway and the son of the current King, Harald V. He is a member of the House of SchleswigHolstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, which is a branch of the House of Oldenburg. In accordance with Norway's agnatic primogeniture succession, he became Crown Prince when his father ascended to the throne in 1991. He has an older sister, Princess Märtha Louise of Norway. When becoming King, he will be known as Haakon VIII. The latest king of this name was his great-grandfather Haakon VII (r. 1905–1957), and the very first was Haakon I (r. ca. 934–961).
Family and heritage
On birth he was named Prince Haakon Magnus, and it was stressed in the announcement that he would go by the name Haakon. The godparents of Haakon the Crown Prince of Norway are King Olaf V of Norway,Princess Astrid of Norway, Prince Carl Bernadotte, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden,Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, and Princess Anne, The Princess Royal. As a descendant of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, Haakon is also in line to the throne of each of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms. He is a third cousin to Charles, Prince of Wales, present heir to the thrones of the Commonwealth Realms. Haakon has one sibling, Princess Märtha Louise (born 1971). In 1990, the Norwegian constitution was altered, granting absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This was not, however, done retroactively (as, for example, Sweden had done in 1980), meaning that Haakon continues to take precedence over his older sister.
and military life Education Haakon served in the Royal Norwegian Navy undertaking
his first-level officer's education at the Norwegian Naval Academy, followed by a year aboard missile torpedo boats and other vessels. He then went abroad, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science from the University of California, Berkeley in 1999. Haakon later attended lectures at the University of Oslo and took the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs' civil servant introductory course in 2001. He completed his education in 2003 at the London School of Economics, where he was awarded an MSc in development studies, specialising in international trade and Africa.
Marriage Haakon married commoner and single mother Mette-
Marit Tjessem Høiby on 25 August 2001, at Oslo Cathedral, who upon her marriage became Crown Princess. Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark was the best man. When the engagement between Crown Prince Haakon and Høiby was announced, many Norwegians felt that the Crown Prince’s choice of wife was inappropriate. This was primarily about her being a single mother, but information concerning her involvement in the Rave scene in Oslo, which included a significant drug-subculture, also added to the controversy. In addition, the father of her child was convicted of drug-related offences. In a heartfelt press conference before the wedding the Crown Princess explained about her past, saying among other things that her youthful rebelliousness might have been stronger than most young people. Although some still find her inappropriate as a future leader of the country, the issue of Mette-Marit's past has largely been laid to rest in Norwegian public discourse.
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Her Royal Highness Princess Ingrid Alexandra born on 21 January 2004, in Oslo. His Highness Prince Sverre Magnus born 3 De cember 2005 in Oslo.
Royal duties
Beginning Tuesday afternoon 25 November 2003, and ending in the evening of 12 April 2004, Haakon was the country's regent, during the King's treatment for cancer and the subsequent convalescence period. Likewise, Haakon was Norway's regent from 29 March 2005 until the King had fully recovered from the heart surgery he underwent on 1 April. This period ended on 7 June. In addition to his official duties, Haakon has a strong interest in cultural matters. In January 2006, Haakon (along with the Norwegian Royal Family) revised his patronage list. He now has twelve patronage roles in his portfolio including the annual Bjørnson literary festival. The patronage roles will last for five years, after which they will be up for renewal and other groups can apply for Royal support. In 2006, Haakon established Global Dignity with Pekka Himanen and John Hope Bryant. Global Dignity is an independent, non-political organization that promotes the universal right of every human being to lead a dignified life. The Crown Prince and Crown Princess' Humanitarian Fund was established in 2001 in connection with the wedding of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess. The couple announced that they wished for donations to the fund as wedding gifts. The fund allocates funds to humanitarian projects in Norway and abroad. In Norway the fund mainly focuses on projects aimed at improving conditions for children and young people. Abroad, the fund mainly focuses on projects related to health and education.
Grant recipients: 2011
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Arbeidsinstituttet, Buskerud Pøbelprosjektet, Stavanger Gatekunstakademiet, Oslo Kjør for livet, Norway
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"Shonglap", Bangladesh Jovenes emprendedores, Ecuador
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"Vær stolt", Oslo Ungdomsprosjektet HYWA, Bærum
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Fundación Xochiquetzal Fundasion Šusital, Nicaragua
2010 2009 2008 2007
The good childhood: A collaboration between the Norwegian municipality Karasjok and Lovozero mu nicipality in Russia
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2006
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The Church City Mission: A youth project directed by the PMV Centre for health, dialogue and devel opment (Oslo, Norway) The AIDS Centre, “Project Bus”, Petrozavodsk, Republic of Karelia, Russia
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Right to Play: A sports and health project (Uganda)
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2005 2004
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Yirga Alem Hospital Fistula Unit (Ethiopia) Rehabilitation of child soldiers (Democratic Republic of Congo)
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Norwegian People’s Aid project ”Følgesvennen”, providing companions and provisional guardians to asylum seekers (Asker, Norway) Norwegian Red Cross project “Leksehjelpen”, offering help with homework to pupils from minority back grounds (Oslo, Norway)
2003
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2002
National Community of Women Living with Aids (Uganda) Education through Sport (Zambia)
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2001
The Vard Model (Haugesund, Norway) Basic education in Alefa Takusa (Ethiopia) Prevention of HIV/AIDS (Mozambique)
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Patronages The intent of the Crown Prince patronage is to raise public awareness of an organization or a specific event that
supports a worthy cause. 4H Norge – Norwegian 4H Organization • The Arctic Opera and Philharmonic Orchestra • The Christian Radich Sail Training Foundation • The Ibsen Stage Festival • Nordland Music Festival • The Northern Light Festival • The Norwegian Association against Substance Abuse • The Norwegian Asthma and Allergy Association • The Norwegian Band Federation • The Norwegian Festival of International Literature • The Norwegian International Film Festival • The Norwegian Lifesaving Society • Stavanger Symphony Orchestra • Ultima Oslo Contemporary Music Festival •
Personal interests
The Crown Prince was involved in several sports and seemed to take a particular liking to windsurfing. However, he has not engaged in serious competitions. Haakon is known as a big music fan. When he was younger, he attended music festivals all over Europe, including the Roskilde Festival in Denmark and the Quart Festival in Kristiansand, Norway. He has also been part of Olympics ceremonies. In 1994, the Crown Prince and his father played roles during the opening ceremony inLillehammer. While the King declared open the Games, the Crown Prince lit the cauldron, paying tribute to his father and grandfather having served as Olympians. He attended the opening ceremony in Vancouver.
Honours and awards
National orders and decorations:
Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav ° Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit ° Defence Service Medal with Laurel Branch ° Royal House Centenary Medal ° Olav V's Commemorative Medal ° Olav V's Jubilee Medal ° Olav V's Centenary Medal ° Royal Norwegian Navy Service Medal ° Norwegian Reserve Officers Federal Badge of Honour Naval Society Medal of Merit in gold ° Oslo Military Society Badge of Honour in Gold °
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Foreign orders:
Austria : Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria Brazil : Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross Bulgaria : Grand Cross of the Order of Stara Planina ° Denmark : Knight of Order of the Elephant ° Estonia : Grand Cross of Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana ° Finland : Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose ° Germany : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany ° Italy : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic ° Japan : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum ° Jordan : Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance (Order of Al-Nahda) ° Latvia : Grand Cross of the Order of the Three Stars ° Lithuania : Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great ° Luxembourg : Grand Cross of the Order of Adolph of Nassau ° Netherlands : Grand Cross with swords of the Order of Orange-Nassau ° Poland : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland ° Portugal : Grand Cross of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique ° Spain : Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III ° Sweden : Knight of the Order of the Seraphim °
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Other awards:
Pakistan : 14 August Committee’s Bridge Building Prize 2011 Olympic Games : Lighter of the Olympic Cauldron; 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, opened by his father, King Harald V. A horse race bears his name, Kronprins Haakons Pokalløp. It is held every year in June, at Drammen Travpark.
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Declaration of Independence Colombia - Jul 20
Colombian Declaration of Independence refers to the historic events which happened on July 20, 1810, in Santa Fe de Bogota, at the time the Viceroyalty of New Granada seceded and the related events around this date that defined the uprising of the Republic of Colombia.
History An important factor in detonating the events of the inde-
pendence of Colombia and other countries of South America was the crisis of the Spanish monarchy due to the abdication of King Carlos IV forced by Napoleon Bonaparte in favor of Fernando VII who was also forced to abdicate in favor of Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte. King Joseph was cheered initially by Spanish afrancesados ("Frenchified"), who believed that collaboration with France would bring modernisation and liberty. An example was the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition. However, priesthood and patriots stirred up agitation among the populace, which became widespread after the French army's first examples of repression (Madrid, 1808) were presented as fact to unite and enrage the people. The remaining afrancesados were exiled to France following the departure of French troops. The pro-independence side included both traditionalists and liberals. After the war, they would clash in the Carlist Wars, as new king Ferdinand VII, "the Desired One" (later "the Traitor king"), revoked all the changes made by the independent Cortes, which were summoned in Cádiz acting on his behalf to coordinate the provincial Juntas and resist the French. He restored absolute monarchy, prosecuted and put to death everyone suspected of liberalism, and altered the laws of royal succession in favour of his daughter Isabella II, thus starting a century of civil wars against the supporters of the former legal heir to the throne. The liberal Cortes had approved the first Spanish Constitution on 19 March 1812, which was later nullified by the king. In Spanish America, the Spanish and Criollo officials formed Juntas that swore allegiance to King Ferdinand. This experience of self-government led the laterLibertadores (Liberators) to promote the independence of the Spanish–American colonies.. Together with other Spanish authorities in America, viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbóndeclared loyalty to the Sevillan Junta. However, the participation of Americans in the juntas was very restricted, and the Junta of Quitofounded in 1809, was hastily repressed. Other major factor besides the institutional crisis was the systematic exclusion of the white americans (also named criollo people) of the public administration, aggravated with the uprising of the House of Bourbon allowing only Spanish-born citizens to such jobs. King Carlos III, as a typical Enlightened absolutist promoted the arts and allowed the expression of the Age of Enlightenment in America, while at the same time maintaining strong political power. His support for the United States Declaration of Independencegenerated the creation of new taxes, causing disturbances such as the Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada) and the Túpac Amaru II's rebellion. Carlos IV was not very interested in political power, leaving such duties to his ministers, especially Manuel Godoy. Carlos IV was more interested in arts and science subjects and gave very little importance to the American colonies, which were forbidden from trading with other colonies, or countries such as the United Kingdom or the United States of America leaving Spain as their only source of goods and merchandises, although Spain were unable to fulfill the trade demands of the Colonies.
Memorial de Agravios - 1809 (pleading of offenses):
"Memorial de Agravios" was an open letter written by Camilo Torres Tenorio to the Spanish Monarchy criticizing the policy of exclusion of the white Americans, as if they were second class citizens, alleging the rights of the criollo people as "the off springs of the Conquers" and the "legitim heirs of the hegemony", although with great contempt towards the aborigins.The letter has very little effects politically and Torres was executed by hanging later, in 1816.
The first autonomous boards
On August 10, 1809, a group of criollos, led by Juan Pío Montúfar, established an autonomous Government Board in Quito, swearing loyalty to Ferdinand VII, but rejecting the viceregal authorities. The Viceroy of New Granada Antonio José Amar y Borbón considered this a rebellious act, and fearing for similar acts in the country, ordered repraissals against Quito, together with the troops sent by the Viceroy of Peru. The next incident happened in Caracas, on April 19, 1810. The mantuanos, (the rich, criollo elite of Venezuela) together with military and eclessiatic authorities, declared autonomy, again, swearing loyalty to Ferdinand VII but rejecting the viceroyalty. The Cadiz Board of government decided to order the destitution of Amar y Borbon, sending a notification with the royal visitor Antonio Villavicencio, who arrived in Cartagena on May 8. On May 22 in Cartagena de Indias, the Cartagena Board of government was created with similar terms to the previous one. Shortly after, same scenarios surged in Santiago de Cali, Socorro and Pamplona. Finally, Bogota, the central cathedra of the Viceroyalty rebelled on July 20. Initially, the government board declared to Amar y Borbón as president, but shortly after, on July 25, he was deposed and arrested. The spark for this was the flower base incident at local businessman José González Llorente's Bogota residence on the morning of the 20th.
Socorro Constitution – 1809:
From 1809 to 1830 the government failed to remain centralized, due to the lack of a national constitution. Eight separated attempts of constitutions surged in the main populated centres of the country, being the Constitution redacted in Socorro (at the time, Capital city of the Santander Province) the first one to be completed.
flower vase incident Llorente's On the morning of July 20, 1810, Joaquin Camacho went to the residence of the Viceroy Antonio José Amar y
Borbón, requesting response on an application for the establishment of a governing board in Santa Fe, but the refusal of the Viceroy coupled his arrogance, made to proceed to join the fray with the excuse of the loan of a vase. Luis Rubio then went to visit the businessman José González Llorente to borrow the vase, to use it in a dinner for the visiting royal commissioner Antonio Villavicencio, but once Llorente refused to lend the vase with a haughty attitude. In light of this, and as was planned on the previous day, The "criollos" took the vase and broke it to provoke Llorente and thus raised tempers of the people against the Spanish. The "criollos" knew Llorente, being a merchant, would refuse to lend the vase, first because it was for sale and second because he would not lend any objects to the "criollos" to meet fellow "criollos". Subsequently, a group of natives, among whom was Francisco José de Caldas, made a bow of submission to Spain and the Regency Council. In response, Antonio Morales Caldas scolded him for prompting a turbulent response from the people, who tried to attack Llorente. The mayor of Santa Fe, José Miguel Pey, tried to calm the people attacking Llorente, while Jose Maria Carbonell encouraged people to join the protest. That afternoon, a Junta was formed (later called the People's Junta) with José Acevedo as chairman, but the crowds were angered by the Viceroy's decision to be nominated for president, which he accepted. Later, a rally called by Juan Sámano, a Spanish Army officer, would lead to the Junta being reorganized (Acevedo had earlier urged the people to help charge him for lese-majesty). The next day, July 21, the Junta ordered the arrest of Viceroy Aman and his officials (and also for his resignation from the Junta presidency), and on the 25th Aman was forced to resign and was arrested. Five days later, July 26, the Junta declared that its ties to the Seville Regency Council were finally cut.
Liberation Day Guam - Jul 21
The Second Battle of Guam (July 21 — August 10, 1944) was the American capture of the Japanese held island of Guam, a United States territory (in theMariana Islands) during the Pacific campaign of World War II.
Background Guam is the largest of the Marianas, 30 miles (48 km)
long and 9 miles (14 km) wide. It had been a United States possession since its capture from Spain in 1898 until it was captured by the Japanese on December 10, 1941, following the Attack on Pearl Harbor. It was not as heavily fortified as the other Mariana Islands such as Saipan that had been Japanese possessions since the end of World War I, but by 1944 it had a large Japanese garrison. The Allied plan for the invasion of the Marianas called for heavy preliminary bombardment, first by carrier aircraft and planes based in the Marshall Islandsto the east, then once air superiority was gained, close bombardment by battleships. Guam was chosen as a target because its large size made it suitable as a base for supporting the next stage of operations towards thePhilippines, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands; the deep-water harbor at Aprawas suitable for the largest ships; and the two airfields would be suitable forB-29 Superfortress bombers. The invasion of Saipan was scheduled for June 15, 1944, with landings on Guam tentatively set for June 18. The original timetable was optimistic, however. A large Japanese carrier attack and stubborn resistance by the unexpectedly large garrison on Saipan led to the invasion of Guam being postponed for a month.
Battle
Guam, ringed by reefs, cliffs, and heavy surf, presents a formidable challenge for an attacker. But despite the obstacles, on July 21, the Americans landed on both sides of the Orote peninsula on the western side of Guam, planning to cut off the airfield. The 3rd Marine Division landed near Agana to the north of Orote at 08:28, and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade landed near Agat to the south. Japanese artillery sank 20 LVTs, and inflicted heavy casualties on the Americans, especially on the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, but by 09:00 men and tanks were ashore at both beaches. The 77th Infantry Division had a more difficult landing. Lacking amphibious vehicles, they had to wade ashore from the edge of the reef where they were dropped by their landing craft. The men stationed in the two beachheads were pinned down by vicious Japanese fire, making initial progress inland quite slow. By nightfall the Americans had established beachheads about 2,000 meters deep. Japanese counter-attacks were made throughout the first few days of the battle, mostly at night, using infiltration tactics. Several times they penetrated the American defenses and were driven back with heavy loss of men and equipment. Lieutenant GeneralTakeshi Takashina was killed on July 28, and Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata took over the command of the defenders. Supply was very difficult for the Americans in the first days of the battle. Landing ships could not come closer than the reef, several hundred yards from the beach, and amphibious vehicles were scarce. However, the two beachheads were joined up on July 25, and the Orote airfield and Apra harbor were captured by July 30. The counterattacks against the American beachheads, as well as the fierce fighting, had exhausted the Japanese. At the start of August they were running out of food and ammunition and had only a handful of tanks left. Obata withdrew his troops from the south of Guam, planning to make a stand in the mountainous central and northern part of the island. But with resupply and reinforcement impossible because of American control of the sea and air around Guam, he could hope to do no more than delay the inevitable defeat for a few days. Rain and thick jungle made conditions difficult for the Americans, but after an engagement at Mount Barrigada from August 2 to August 4, the Japanese line collapsed; the rest of the battle was a pursuit to the north. As in other battles of the Pacific War, the Japanese refused to surrender, and almost all were killed. On August 10, after 3 long weeks of bloody and ferocious fighting, organized Japanese resistance ended, and Guam was declared secure. The next day, Obata committed ritual suicide.
Aftermath
A few Japanese soldiers held out in the jungle. On December 8, 1945, three U.S. Marines were ambushed and killed. On January 24, 1972, Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi was discovered by hunters. He had lived alone in a cave for 27 years. After the battle, Guam was turned into a base for Allied operations. Five large airfields were built by the Seabees, and B-29 bombers flew from the island to attack targets in the Western Pacific and on mainland Japan. Four U.S. Marines were awarded the Medal of Honor for their heroic actions during the Battle of Guam: PFC Luther Skaggs Jr., PFC Frank Witek(posthumously), PFC Leonard F. Mason (posthumously) and Captain (later General) Louis H. Wilson, Jr.. Liberation Day continues to be celebrated on Guam every July 21.
National Day Belgium - Jul 21
Leopold I (Leopold George Christian Frederick; German: Leopold Georg Christian Friedrich; Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, later Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Saxony; 16 December 1790 – 10 December 1865) was from 21 July 1831 the first King of the Belgians, following Belgium's independence from the Netherlands. He was the founder of the Belgian line of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His children includedLeopold II of Belgium and Empress Carlota of Mexico. He was also an uncle of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. He was born in Coburg and died in Laeken.
Early life
He was the youngest son of Francis, Duke of SaxeCoburg-Saalfeld, and CountessAugusta ReussEbersdorf, and later became a prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha after Saxe-Coburg acquired Gotha from Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in 1836 and yielded Saalfeld toSaxe-Meiningen. In 1795, as a mere child, Leopold was appointed colonel of the Izmaylovsky Guards Regiment in Russia. Seven years later, he became a major general. When Napoleonic troops occupied the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg in 1806 Leopold went to Paris. Emperor Napoleon I offered him the position of adjutant, but he refused. Instead, he took up a military career in the Imperial Russian Cavalry. He campaigned against Napoléon and distinguished himself at the Battle of Kulm at the head of his cuirassier division. In 1815, at the age of 25, Leopold reached the rank of lieutenant general in the Imperial Russian Army. In Carlton House on 2 May 1816, he married Princess Charlotte of Wales, the only legitimate child of the British Prince Regent (later King George IV of the United Kingdom) and therefore second in line to the British throne, and was created a British field-marshal and Knight of the Garter. On 5 November 1817, Princess Charlotte delivered a stillborn son; she herself died the following day. Had she lived, she would have become Queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her father, and Leopold presumably would have assumed the role later taken by his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, as Prince Consort of the United Kingdom, and never been chosen to reign as King of the Belgians. Despite Charlotte's death, the Prince Regent granted Prince Leopold the British style of Royal Highness by Order in Council on 6 April 1818. In 1828–1829, Leopold was involved romantically during several months with the actress Caroline Bauer, who enjoyed a striking resemblance with Charlotte. Caroline was a cousin of his advisor Baron Christian Friedrich von Stockmar. She came over to England with her mother and took up residence at Longwood House a few miles from Claremont House. Halfway through 1829, the liaison was over, and the mistress and her mother returned to Berlin. Many years later, in memoirs published after her death, she declared that she and Leopold had engaged into a morganatic marriage and that he had bestowed upon her the title of Countess Montgomery. He would have broken this marriage when the possibility arose that he could become King of Greece. The son of Baron von Stockmar denied that these events ever happened, and sure enough no records were found of a civil or religious marriage, nor of an ennobling of the actress.
King of the Belgians Leopold turned down the throne of Greece. After Belgium
asserted its independence from the Netherlands on 4 October 1830, the Belgian National Congress considered several candidates and eventually asked Leopold to become King of the newly-formed country. He was elected on 4 June and accepted and became "King of the Belgians" on 26 June 1831. He swore allegiance to the constitution in front of the Saint Jacob's Church at Coudenbergh Place in Brussels on 21 July 1831. This day became the Belgian national holiday.Jules Van Praet would become his personal secretary. Less than two weeks later, on 2 August, the Netherlands invaded Belgium. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in 1839, the two countries signed the Treaty of London establishing Belgium's independence. With the opening of the railway line between Brussels and Mechelen on 5 May 1835, one of King Leopold's fondest hopes—to build the first railway in continental Europe—became a reality. In 1840, Leopold arranged the marriage of his niece, Queen Victoria, the daughter of his sister, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, to his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, son of his brother, Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Even before she succeeded to the throne, Leopold had been advising the then-Princess Victoria by letter, and after her accession, he was one of the great influences on her in the early days of her monarchy. In 1842, Leopold tried unsuccessfully to pass laws to regulate female and child labor. A wave of revolutions passed over Europe after the deposition of his father-in-law, King Louis-Philippe, from the French throne in 1848. Belgiumremained neutral, mainly because of Leopold's diplomatic efforts. He was the 649th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1816, the 947th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1835 and the 35thGrand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword. On 11 October 1850, Leopold again lost a young wife, as Queen Louise-Marie died of tuberculosis at age 38. Leopold also had two sons, George and Arthur, by a mistress, Arcadia Meyer (née Claret). George was born in 1849 (before the death of Queen Louise-Marie), and Arthur was born in 1852. After Leopold's death, each of the two sons was created Freiherr von Eppinghoven (in 1862), and in 1863 Arcadia was created Baronin von Eppinghoven. On 10 December 1865, the King died in Laeken at the age of 74. He lies buried in the Royal Vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken.
Peace and Freedom Day Northern Cyprus - Jul 20
The Turkish invasion of Cyprus, launched on 20 July 1974, was a Turkishmilitary invasion in response to the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état. It is known in Turkey as the "Cyprus Peace Operation" (Turkish: Kıbrıs Barış Harekâtı), "Cyprus Operation" (Kıbrıs Harekâtı) or by its Turkish Armed Forces code name Operation Atilla (Atilla Harekâtı). The coup had been ordered by the military Junta in Greece and staged by theCypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA-B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed Nikos Sampson, a leader in favour of Enosis, the union of Cyprus with Greece. In July 1974, Turkish forces invaded and captured 3% of the island before a ceasefire was declared. The Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by democratic government. In August 1974 further Turkish invasion resulted in the capture of 40% of the island. The ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as the Green Line. More than one quarter of the population of Cyprus was expelled from the occupied northern part of the island where Greek Cypriots constituted 80% of the population. A little over a year later in 1975, there was also a flow of roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots from the south to the north after the conflict. The Turkish invasion ended in the partition of Cyprus along the UN-monitored Green Line which still divides Cyprus today. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence, although Turkey is the only country which recognises it.
Background
In 1571 the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, following the Ottoman– Venetian War (1570–1573). The island and its population was later leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during theCongress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. Britain formally annexed Cyprus (together with Egypt and Sudan) on 5 November 1914 as a reaction to the Ottoman Empire's decision to join the First World War on the side of theCentral Powers; subsequently the island became a British Crown colony. Article 20 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 marked the end of the Turkish claim to the island. Article 21 of the treaty gave the minority Muslims on the island the choice of leaving the island to live as Turks in Turkey, or to stay on the island as British nationals. At this time the population of Cyprus was composed by both Greeks and Turks, who identified themselves with their respective "mother" countries. However, the elites of both communities shared the belief that they were socially more progressive (better educated and less conservative) and therefore distinct from the mainlanders. Greek and Turkish Cypriots lived quietly side by side for many years. Broadly, three main forces can be held responsible for transforming two ethnic communities into two national ones: education, British colonial practices, and insular religious teachings accompanying economic development. Formal education was perhaps the most important as it affected Cypriots during childhood and youth; education has been a main vehicle of transferring inter-communal hostility. British colonial policies also promoted ethnic polarization. The British applied the principle of "divide and rule", setting the two groups against each other to prevent combined action against colonial rule. For example, when Greek Cypriots rebelled in the 1950s, the colonial office expanded the size of the Auxiliary Police and in September 1955, established the Special Mobile Reserve which was recruited exclusively from the Turkish community, to crush EOKA. This and similar practices contributed to inter-communal animosity. Failure to fully adopt secular practices also fostered ethnic nationalism as the two main ethnic groups practised their own distinct religions, with very little crossover. Although economic development and increased education reduced the explicitly religious characteristics of the two communities, the growth of nationalism on the two mainlands increased the significance of other differences. Turkish nationalism was at the core of the revolutionary program promoted by the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk(1881–1938)., and affected Turkish Cypriots who followed his principles. President of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 to 1938, Atatürk attempted to build a new nation on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and elaborated the program of "six principles" (the "Six Arrows") to do so. These principles of secularism (laicism) and nationalism reduced Islam's role in the everyday life of individuals and emphasized Turkish identity as the main source of nationalism. Traditional education with a religious foundation was discarded and replaced with one that followed secular principles and, shorn of Arab and Persian influences, was purely Turkish. Turkish Cypriots quickly adopted the secular program of Turkish nationalism. Under Ottoman rule Turkish Cypriots had been classified as Muslims, a distinction based on religion. Being thoroughly secular, Atatürk's program made their Turkish identity paramount, and may have further reinforced their division from their Greek Cypriot neighbors. In the early fifties a Greek nationalist group was formed called the Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (EOKA, or "National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters"). Their objective was to drive the British out of the island first, and then to integrate the island with Greece. EOKA was a Greek nationalist organization and some members murdered Turkish Cypriots who were thought to have colluded with the British. EOKA wished to remove all obstacles, British, Greek Cypriot or Turkish Cypriot from their path to independence, or union with Greece. EOKA initiated its activities by planting the first bombs on 1 April 1951 with the directive by Greek Foreign MinisterStefanopoulos. The first secret talks for EOKA, as a nationalist organization established to integrate the island to Greece, were started in the chairmanship of Archbishop Makarios III in Athens on 2 July 1952. In the aftermath of these meetings a "Council of Revolution" was established on 7 March 1953. In early 1954 secret weaponry shipments to Cyprus started with the knowledge of the Greek government. Lt. Georgios Grivas, formerly an officer in the Greek army, covertly disembarked on the island on 9 November 1954 and EOKA's campaign against the British forces began to grow. The first Turk to be killed by EOKA on 21 June 1955 was a policeman. EOKA also targeted Greek collaborators. A year later EOKA revived its attempts to liberate Cyprus from British rule. The Turkish Resistance Organization (TMT, Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatı) declared war on the Greek Cypriot rebels as well. On 12 June 1958, eight Greek Cypriot civilians from Kondemenos village were killed by the TMT near the Turkish Cypriot populated village of Geunyeli, after being dropped off there by the British authorities. After this the Turkish government ordered the TMT to blow up the offices of the Turkish press office in Nicosia to falsely put the blame onto the Greek Cypriots and prevent independence negotiations from succeeding. It also began a string of assassinations and murders of prominent Turkish Cypriot supporters of independence. The following year, after the conclusion of the independence agreements on Cyprus, the Turkish Navy sent a ship to Cyprus fully loaded with arms for the TMT. The ship was stopped and the crew were caught red-handed in the infamous "Deniz" incident. British rule lasted until 1960 when the island was declared an independent state under the London-Zurich agreements. The agreement created a foundation for the Republic of Cyprus by the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot communities, although the republic was seen as a necessary compromise between the two reluctant communities. The 1960 Constitution of the Cyprus Republic proved unworkable however, lasting only three years. Greek Cypriots wanted to end the separate Turkish Cypriot municipal councils permitted by the British in 1958, made subject to review under the 1960 agreements. For many Greek Cypriots these municipalities were the first stage on the way to the partition they feared. The Greek Cypriots wanted enosis, integration with Greece, while Turkish Cypriots wanted taksim, partition between Greece and Turkey. Resentment also rose within the Greek Cypriot community because Turkish Cypriots had been given a larger share of governmental posts than the size of their population warranted. In accordance with the constitution 30% of civil service jobs were allocated to the Turkish community even though at they time they only constituted 18.3% of the population. Additionally, the position of vice president was reserved for the Turkish population and both the president and vice president were given veto power over crucial issues. The veto power in particular made it difficult for the government to operate efficiently as any proposal had to be agreed to by both communities. The Turkish Cypriots had also vetoed the amalgamation of Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot troops into the same units.
1963–1974:
In December 1963 the President of the Republic Makarios proposed thirteen constitutional amendments after the government was repeatedly vetoed by the Turkish Cypriot legislators, forcing deadlock over all major legislations and the budget. Makarios believed these amendments would help facilitate the functioning of the state and to more accurately reflect their ethnic make up. The amendments would have involved the Turkish community giving up many of their protections as a minority, including adjusting ethnic quotas in the government and revoking the presidential and vice presidential veto power. These amendments were rejected by the Turkish side and the Turkish representation left the government, although there is some dispute over whether they left in protest or whether they were forced out by the National Guard. The 1960 constitution fell apart and communal violence ensued. Turkey, Great Britain and Greece, the guarantors of the Zürich and London Agreements which had led to Cyprus's independence, wanted to send a NATO force to the island under the command of General Peter Young. Between 21 and 26 December 1963, the conflict centered in the Omorphita suburb of Nicosia, which had been an area of tension in 1958. The participants now were Greek Cypriot irregulars and Turkish Cypriot civilians and former TMT members, known as the "fighters" during the Cyprus problem, the Turkish fighters were less powerful, outnumbered and were held down in "ghettos" from the superior Greek Cypriot side who were supplied with stored EOKA guns and eventually guns from foreign powers. Many Greek and Turkish Cypriot civilians who were caught in the crossfire and chaos that ensued over the Christmas week were killed, others were massacred by Greek or Turkish irregulars and had their homes looted and burnt down in small villages as the problem developed. The government of Turkey used these events as an excuse to cancel the residence permits of 12,000 Greek citizens living in Istanbul leading to the confiscation of their property. Both President Makarios and Dr. Küçük issued calls for peace, but these were ignored. Meanwhile, within a week of the violence flaring up, the Turkish army contingent had moved out of its barracks and seized the most strategic position on the island across the Nicosia to Kyrenia road, the historic jugular vein of the island. So crucial was this road to Turkish strategic thinking that they retained control of that road until 1974, at which time it acted as a crucial link in Turkey's military invasion. From 1963 up to the point of the Turkish invasion of 20 July 1974, Greek Cypriots who wanted to use the road could only do so if accompanied by a UN convoy. 700 Turkish hostages, including women and children, were taken from the northern suburbs of Nicosia. By 1964, 193 Turkish Cypriots and 133 Greek Cypriots were killed, with a further 209 Turks and 41 Greeks missing, presumed dead. The British Daily Telegraph later called it the "anti Turkish pogrom". Thereafter Turkey once again put forward the idea of partition. The intensified fighting especially around areas under the control of Turkish Cypriot militias, as well as the failure of the constitution were used as justification for a possible Turkish invasion. Turkey was on the brink of invading when US president Johnson stated, in his famous letter of 5 June 1964, that the US was against a possible invasion and stated that he would not come to the aid of Turkey if an invasion of Cyprus led to conflict with the Soviet Union. One month later, within the framework of a plan prepared by the US Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, negotiations with Greece and Turkey began. After 1963–64 crisis, the Turkish population began to form enclaves in different areas that were blockaded by the National Guard and were directly supported by Turkey. In response to this, their movement and access to basic supplies became more restricted by Greek forces. Fighting broke out again in 1967 as the Turkish Cypriots pushed for more freedom of movement. Once again, this was only settled after Turkey threatened to invade on the basis that they would be protecting the Turkish population from possible ethnic cleansing by Greek Cypriot forces. In order to avoid this, a compromise was reached in which Greece was forced to remove some of its troops from the island, Georgios Grivas, leader of the EOKA had to leave Cyprus, and the Cypriot government lifted some restrictions of movement and access to supplies of the Turkish populations.
Greek military coup and Turkish invasion Greek military coup of July 1974:
In the spring of 1974, Greek Cypriot intelligence discovered that EOKA-B was planning a coup against President Makarios which was sponsored by the military junta of Athens. The junta had come to power in a military coup in 1967 which was condemned by the whole of Europe but had the support of the United States. In the autumn of 1973 after the 17 November student uprising there had been a further coup in Athens in which the original Greek junta had been replaced by one still more obscurantist headed by the Chief of Military Police, Brigadier Ioannides, though the actual head of state was General Phaedon Gizikis. Ioannides believed that Makarios was no longer a true supporter of enosis, and suspected him of being a communist sympathizer. This led Ioannides to support the EOKA-B and National Guard as they tried to undermine Makarios. On 2 July 1974, Makarios wrote an open letter to President Gizikis complaining bluntly that 'cadres of the Greek military regime support and direct the activities of the 'EOKA-B' terrorist organization'. He also ordered that Greece remove some 600 Greek officers in the Cypriot National Guard from Cyprus. The Greek Government's immediate reply was to order the go-ahead of the coup. On 15 July 1974 sections of the Cypriot National Guard, led by its Greek officers, overthrew the government. Makarios narrowly escaped death in the attack. He fled the presidential palace by catching a taxi after escorting a party of school children out of the building and went to Paphos, where the British managed to retrieve him by Westland Whirlwind helicopter in the afternoon of 16 July and flew him from Akrotiri to Malta in an Royal Air Force Armstrong Whitworth Argosy (AW.650 / 660) transport and from there to London by de Havilland Comet the next morning. In the meantime, Nikos Sampson was declared provisional president of the new government. Sampson was a Greek ultra nationalist who was known to be fanatically anti-Turkish and had taken part in violence against Turkish civilians in earlier conflicts. The Sampson regime took over radio stations and declared that Makarios had been killed, but Makarios, safe in London, was soon able to counteract these reports. In the coup itself, 91 people were killed (All Greek-Cypriots). The Turkish-Cypriots were not affected by the coup against Makarios; one of the reasons was that Ioannides did not want to provoke a Turkish reaction (The Tragic Duel and the Betrayal of Cyorus-Marios Adamides-2012). In response to the coup, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger sent Joseph Sisco to try to mediate the conflict. Turkey issued a list of demands to Greece via a US negotiator. These demands included the immediate removal of Nikos Sampson, the withdrawal of 650 Greek officers from the Cypriot National Guard, the admission of Turkish troops to protect their population, equal rights for both populations, and access to the sea from the northern coast for Turkish Cypriots. These demands were rejected as they would have given Turkey an unacceptable amount of power on the island. Turkey, led by Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, then applied to Britain as a signatory of the Treaty of Guarantee to take action to return Cyprus to its neutral status. Britain declined this offer, and refused to let Turkey use its bases on Cyprus as part of the operation.
First Turkish invasion, July 1974:
Turkey invaded Cyprus on Saturday, 20 July 1974. Heavily armed troops landed shortly before dawn at Kyrenia (Girne) on the northern coast meeting resistance from Greek and Greek Cypriot forces. Ankara said that it was invoking its right under the Treaty of Guarantee to protect the Turkish Cypriots and guarantee the independence of Cyprus. The operation, codenamed 'Operation Atilla', is known in the North as 'the 1974 Peace Operation'. Turkish forces primarily used a clear and hold strategy, forcing many Greek Cypriots to flee to the south. By the time a ceasefire was agreed three days later, Turkish troops held 3% of the territory of Cyprus. Five thousand Greek Cypriots had fled their homes. By the time the UN Security Council was able to obtain a ceasefire on the 22 July the Turkish forces had only secured a narrow corridor between Kyrenia and Nicosia, which they succeeded in widening during the next few days in violation of that ceasefire, demanded in Resolution 353. On 23 July 1974 the Greek military junta collapsed mainly because of the events in Cyprus. Greek political leaders in exile started returning to the country. On 24 July 1974 Constantine Karamanlis returned from Paris and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He decided against further military involvement as the Turkish forces were much stronger. Shortly after this Nikos Sampson renounced the presidency and Glafcos Clerides temporarily took the role of president. The first round of peace talks took place in Geneva, Switzerland between 25 and 30 July 1974, James Callaghan, the British Foreign Secretary, having summoned a conference of the three guarantor powers. There they issued a declaration that the Turkish occupation zone should not be extended, that the Turkish enclaves should immediately be evacuated by the Greeks, and that a further conference should be held at Geneva with the two Cypriot communities present to restore peace and re-establish constitutional government. In advance of this they made two observations, one upholding the 1960 constitution, the other appearing to abandon it. They called for the Turkish Vice-President to resume his functions, but they also noted 'the existence in practice of two autonomous administrations, that of the Greek Cypriot community and that of the Turkish Cypriot community'. By the time that the second Geneva conference met on 14 August 1974, international sympathy (which had been with the Turks in their first attack) was swinging back towards Greece now that she had restored democracy. At the second round of peace talks, Turkey demanded that the Cypriot government accept its plan for afederal state, and population transfer. When the Cypriot acting president Clerides asked for 36 to 48 hours in order to consult with Athens and with Greek Cypriot leaders, the Turkish Foreign Minister denied Clerides that opportunity on the grounds that Makarios and others would use it to play for more time.
Second Turkish invasion, 14–16 August 1974:
The Turkish Foreign Minister Turan Güneş had said to the Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, When I say "Ayşe is going on vacation"(Turkish: "Ayşe Tatile Çıksın"), it will mean that our armed forces are ready to go into action. Even if the telephone line is tapped, that would rouse no suspicion. An hour and a half after the conference broke up, Turan Güneş called Ecevit and said the code phrase. On 14 August Turkey launched its "Second Peace Operation", to gain control of 40 percent of Cyprus. Britain's then foreign secretary (later prime minister) James Callaghan, later disclosed that U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger "vetoed" at least oneBritish military action to pre-empt the Turkish landing. 40% of the land came under Turkish occupation reaching as far south as theLouroujina Salient. In the process, many Greek Cypriots became refugees. The Cypriot government estimates their numbers at about 200,000, with other sources stating 140,000 to 160,000. The ceasefire line from 1974 today separates the two communities on the island, and is commonly referred to as the Green Line. After the conflict, Cypriot representatives and the United Nations consented to the transfer of the remainder of the 51,000 Turkish Cypriots that had not left their homes in the south to settle in the north, if they wished to do so. The United Nations Security Council has challenged the legality of Turkey's action, because Article Four of the Treaty of Guarantee gives the right to guarantors to take action with the sole aim of re-establishing the state of affairs. The aftermath of Turkey's invasion, however, did not safeguard the Republic's sovereignty and territorial integrity, but had the opposite effect: the de facto partition of the Republic and the creation of a separate political entity in the north. On 13 February 1975, Turkey declared the occupied areas of the Republic of Cyprus to be a "Federated Turkish State", to the universal condemnation of the international community (see UN Security Council Resolution 367(1975)). The United Nations recognizes the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus according to the terms of its independence in 1960. The conflict continues to affect Turkey's relations with Cyprus, Greece, and the European Union.
Birthday of King Sobhuza Swaziland - Jul 22
Ngwenyama Sobhuza II (July 22, 1899 – August 21, 1982) was the Paramount Chief and later King of Swaziland. He was the son of Ngwane V.
Biography
Sobhuza succeeded Ngwane V as Paramount Chief of Swaziland on December 10, 1899, when he was only a few months old. His grandmother, Labotsibeni Mdluli, acted as regent until December 22, 1921. His nominal reign of 82 years, 9 months is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the longest documented reign of any monarch since antiquity. Only Pepi II Neferkare of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed. Sobhuza's personal reign of over 60 years (1921–82) saw Swaziland's independence fromGreat Britain in 1968, after which he was styled King of Swaziland. When the kingdom became independent, it was considered possible that the existing tribal government could be modified into a constitutional monarchy. This existed for some time, until April 12, 1973, when he repealed the constitution and dissolved parliament, making himself absolute ruler. King Sobhuza continued the tribal practice of keeping many wives. According to the Swaziland National Trust Commission, King Sobhuza II married 70 wives, who gave him 210 children between 1920 and 1970 (i.e. three children per wife, on average). About 180 children survived infancy, and ninety-seven sons and daughters are alive today. When he died he had over 1000 grandchildren. In the early 1980s he attempted to gain control over KaNgwane, a Bantustan set up by theSouth African apartheid government. Sobhuza died in 1982, having Prince Sozisa appointed Dlamini to serve as 'Authorized Person', advising a regent after his death. The first regent was Queen Dzeliwe, but after a power struggle Sozisa deposed her and replaced her by Queen Ntombi, while at the same time Ntombi and Sobhuza's young son Mswati was designated as Crown Prince. Mswati was crowned as king in 1986. A son-in-law was King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu of the Zulu Nation, who married Sobhuza's daughter Mantfombi Dlamini. A daughter-in-law is Zenani Mandela, the daughter of former South African President Nelson Mandela of a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty, who is married to one of Sobhuza's many sons.
Martyr's Day Armenia - Jul 23
Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenian: Եղեռնի զոհերի հիշատակի օր) or Genocide Memorial day, is a national holiday in Armenia and is observed by Armenians in dispersed communities around the world on April 24. It is held annually to commemorate the victims of the Armenian Genocide from 1915 to 1923. In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, hundreds of thousands of people walk to the Tsitsernakaberd Genocide Memorial to lay flowers at the eternal flame. The date 24 April commemorates the Armenian notables deported from the Ottoman capital in 1915, of hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and community leaders, most of whom would be executed, which was a precursor to the ensuing events.
National Hot Dog Day U.S. - Jul 23
Hot Dog Days are informal events that are celebrated in communities throughout the hotdog-eating world, including the USA, Canada, Great Britain and Australia. Their origin is obscure. As the name suggests the festivals revolve around eating hot dogs, but usually there are many other activities such as wiener dog races, root beer chugging contests and face painting. Often the proceeds from a hot dog day are given to charity. Industry groups, such as National Hot Dog & Sausage Council in the USA, which designates July as National Hot Dog Month and July 22 as National Hot Dog Day 2009, encourage, sponsor, and support the events. The council also gives advice on hot-dog eating etiquette, which aren't considered strict, as most Hot Dog Day style events do not adhere to them.
Notable Hot Dog Festivals Alfred Village Hot Dog Day:
Hot Dog Day is celebrated in the spring in the village of Alfred, New York. It has been celebrated since 1972, when students first proposed it. The event is focused on the hot dog, a food popular among college students for its cheapness and ease of preparation. Hot Dog Day itself is usually the third Saturday in April, although many students celebrate the entire "hot dog week", running from that Wednesday to that Sunday. Hot Dog Day, which is organized primarily by students from Alfred Universityand Alfred State College, raises money for local charities and community organizations, such as Alfred's fire department and Montessori school. Events typically include a parade, ice cream social, "fun run", mud Olympics, hot dog eating contests, carnival and live music. Main Street, which is closed to traffic, hosts most of these activities, along with food choices such as a chicken barbecue and numerous hot dog stands. Hot Dog Day is often the time chosen for alumni reunions for Alfred's two colleges.
Revolution Day Egypt - Jul 23
Revolution Day refers to the public holiday in Egypt on 23 July, the anniversary of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. It is the biggest secular public holiday in Egypt. Annual celebrations marking the Revolution begin on the preceding evening, as the evening of 22 July 1952 was when the Free Officers Movement led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser commenced the military coup d'état that launched the Revolution, and ultimately led to the abdication of King Farouk (the penultimate King of Egypt and Sudan). The public holiday itself is characterised by large and elaborate celebrations, including televised concerts with heavily nationalistic themes, and military parades.
Bolivar Day - Jul 24 Venezuela, Ecuador
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Blanco(July 24, 1783 – December 17, 1830), commonly known as Simón Bolívar, was a Venezuelan military and political leader. Together with José de San Martín, he played a key role in Hispanic-Spanish America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire, and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in American history. Following the triumph over the Spanish Monarchy, Bolívar participated in the foundation of the first union of independent nations in Hispanic-America, a republic, which was named Gran Colombia, of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Bolívar remains regarded in Hispanic-America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary, and liberator. During his lifetime, he led Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia to independence, and helped lay the foundations for democratic ideology in much of Latin America. The surname Bolívar derives from the Bolívar aristocrats who came from a small village in the Basque Country, Spain, called La Puebla de Bolívar. His father came from the male line of the de Ardanza family. His maternal grandmother, however, was descended from some families from the Canary Islands that settled in the country. The Bolívars settled in Venezuela in the sixteenth century. His first South American Bolívar ancestor was Simón de Bolívar (or Simon de Bolibar; the spelling was not standardized until the nineteenth century), who lived and worked with the governor of the Santo Domingo from 1550 to 1570. When the governor of Santo Domingo was reassigned to Venezuela in 1589, Simón de Bolívar came with him. As an early settler in Caracas Province, he became prominent in the local society and he and his descendants were granted estates, encomiendas, and positions in the Caracas cabildo. The social position of the family is illustrated by the fact that when the Caracas Cathedral was built in 1594, the Bolívar family had one of the first dedicated side chapels. The majority of the wealth of Simón de Bolívar's descendants came from the estates. The most important of these estates was a sugar plantation with an encomienda that provided the labor needed to run the estate. In later centuries, slave and free black labor would have replaced most of the encomienda labor. Another portion of Bolívar wealth came from the silver, gold, and more importantly, copper mines in Venezuela. In 1632, small gold deposits first were mined in Venezuela, leading to further discoveries of much more extensive copper deposits. From his mother's side, the Palacios family, Bolívar inherited the copper mines at Cocorote. Native American and African slaves provided the majority of the labor in these mines. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, copper exploitation became so prominent in Venezuela that it became known as Cobre Caracas ("Caracas copper"). Many of the mines became the property of the Bolívar family. Bolívar's grandfather, Juan de Bolívar y Martínez de Villegas, paid 22,000 ducats to the monastery at Santa Maria de Montserrat in 1728 for a title of nobility that had been granted by the king, Philip V of Spain, for its maintenance. The crown never issued the patent of nobility, and so the purchase became the subject of lawsuits that were still going on during Bolívar's lifetime, when independence from Spain made the point moot. (If successful, Bolívar's older brother, Juan Vicente, would have become the Marqués de San Luis and Vizconde de Cocorote.) Bolívar was able to use his family's immense wealth to finance his revolutionary efforts.
Jose Barbosa Day Puerto Rico - Jul 24
Dr. José Celso Barbosa (July 27, 1857 – September 21, 1921) was a medical Physician, sociologist, and political leader of Puerto Rico. Known within Puerto Rico's New Progressive Party as "The father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico movement", Barbosa was also the first Puerto Rican earn a medical degree in the United States.
Early Years Barbosa was born in the city of Bayamón,Puerto Rico; he received both his primary and sec-
ondary education in Puerto Rico. He was the first person who had both black ancestry and white ancestry to attend Puerto Rico's prestigious Jesuit Seminary. After graduating from the Seminary, Barbosa tutored private students to save money to attend college. In 1875, he moved to New York to attend prep school where he learned English in a year. Originally Barbosa wished to become a lawyer, but after a bout of pneumonia in New York City, his doctor recommended he study medicine rather than law. In 1877, he was admitted to the medical school of the University of Michigan, where he graduated valedictorian of the class of 1880. He returned to the island where he set up his practice in his native hometown.
First Puerto Rican with an American medical degree The Spanish government did not recognize Barbosa's medical degree as it was not from one of the European universities. It took the intervention of the American consul to the island for Barbosa's degree to be recognized. Barbosa was the first person in the island with an American medical degree. He practiced medicine all over the island, and introduced the novel idea of employers paying a fee for the future health care needs of their employees (a very early health insurance system). In 1893, Barbosa founded the first Puerto Rican cooperative and named it "El Ahorro Colectivo".
Political career Barbosa was a member of the Autonomous Party led by
Román Baldorioty de Castro but left because of ideological differences. In 1898, when the United States bombarded and blockaded San Juan during the Spanish–American War, Barbosa together with other doctors who lived in Bayamon, traveled to the town of Cataño and boarded a ferry headed towards San Juan. Barbosa, as member of the Red Cross, went to the aid of the wounded Puerto Rican and Spanish soldiers. The ferry trip which crossed San Juan Bay was dangerous due to cannon fire. Barbosa and those with him were recommended by the Spanish government to be decorated with theCruz de la Orden del Mérito Naval (The Cross of the Order of Naval Merit) for their bravery. On July 4, 1899, Barbosa formed the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party as a reaction to the outcome of the Spanish-American War, in which Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States; he became known as the father of the "Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement.
Later years
On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named Barbosa, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón,José de Diego, Manuel Camuñas and Andrés Crosas as part of an Executive Cabinet under U.S. appointed Governor Charles H. Allen. The Executive Cabinet also included six American members.Barbosa served in Executive Cabinet until 1917 and as a member of the first Puerto Rican Senate from 1917 to 1921. In 1907, he established the newspaper "El Tiempo", the first bilingual newspaper on the island. José Celso Barbosa died in San Juan on September 21, 1921. He was laid to rest in Santa Maria Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery in Old San Juan. His daughter Pilar Barbosa would one day become a renowned historian, the Official Historian of Puerto Rico from 1993 to 1997 and a political activist who would carry on her father's work.
Recognition In honour of Barbosa's accomplishments, Puerto Rico has declared his birthday, July 27, an official holiday. Barbosa's
house in Bayamón has been converted into a museum in which many of his awards, certificates, books and other artifacts of interest are exhibited. On August 1, 2006, President George W. Bush signed Public Law 109-253, the Dr. Jose Celso Barbosa Post Office Building Designation Act, to designate the facility of the U.S. Postal Service at 100 Avenida RL Rodriguez in Bayamon, Puerto Rico, as the Dr. Jose Celso Barbosa Post Office Building.
Pioneer Day (Utah) U.S. - Jul 24
Pioneer Day is an official holiday celebrated on July 24 in the U.S. state of Utah, with some celebrations in regions of surrounding states originally settled by Mormon pioneers. It commemorates the entry of Brigham Young and the first group of Mormon pioneers into the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, where the Latterday Saints settled after being forced from Nauvoo, Illinois and other locations in the eastern United States.Parades, fireworks, rodeos, and other festivities help commemorate the event. Similar to July 4th, most governmental offices and many businesses are closed on Pioneer Day. In addition to being an official holiday in Utah, Pioneer Day is considered a special occasion by many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). On Pioneer Day, some Latter-day Saints walk portions of the Mormon Trail or reenact entering the Salt Lake Valley by handcart. Latter-day Saints throughout the United Statesand around the world may celebrate July 24 in remembrance of the LDS Churches' pioneer era, with songs, dances, and pioneer related activities. While the holiday has strong links to the LDS Church, it is a celebration of everyone, regardless of faith and nationality, who emigrated to the Salt Lake Valley during the pioneer era, which is generally considered to have ended with the 1869 arrival of the transcontinental railroad. Notable non-LDS American pioneers from this period include Episcopal Bishop Daniel Tuttle, who was responsible for Utah's first non-Mormon schools (Rowland Hall-St. Mark's) and first public hospital (St. Mark's) in the late 1800s. The Intertribal Powwow at Liberty Park in Salt Lake Cityhonors the rich cultural heritage and contributions of the area's American Indians, helping Utahns to gain a deeper understanding of the region's history. The holiday generates a great deal of road traffic; Utah Department of Public Safety statistics demonstrate that Pioneer Day has the second highest holiday traffic fatality rate in Utah, with the earlier July 4 Independence Day having the highest rate.
History
The earliest precursor to Pioneer Day celebrations in Utah occurred on July 24, 1849, when the Nauvoo Brass Band led a commemoration of the second anniversary of the Latter-day Saints entering the Salt Lake Valley. The first celebration of Pioneer Day in 1857 was interrupted with news of the approach of Johnson's Army, heralding the beginning of the Utah War. During the following occupation of the Utah Territory by federal troops, Pioneer Day was not celebrated. Once PresidentAbraham Lincoln initiated a hands-off policy on Utah in 1862 during the American Civil War Pioneer Day was once again observed, and expanded into the surrounding areas as the Mormon Corridor spread throughout the Intermountain West. In 1880, Latter-day Saints commemorated the Golden Jubilee of the church's formal organization in 1830; tens of thousands of people in hundreds of communities participated in very enthusiastic festivities. In the years that followed, federal enforcement efforts of anti-polygamy laws (including the 1882 Edmunds Act) resulted in greatly subdued celebrations. The 1886 commemoration was particularly notable for its mourning theme, with the Salt Lake Tabernacle decorated in black instead of the usually colorful bunting, and the eulogizing of Latter-day Saints who were in hiding or imprisoned for polygamy offenses. By 1897, the celebration included not only the 50th anniversary of the initial arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, but also the end of the polygamy issue, the completion of the Salt Lake Temple, and statehood for Utah. The centennial in 1947 and the sesquicentennial in 1997 were especially large celebrations in Utah. One writer indicated that the 1947 celebrations seemed to incorporate the entire year, with July 24 only being an apex to the events.
Constitution Day Puerto Rico - Jul 25
Law #1 of August 4, 1952 of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico establishes a full state holiday on July 25 of every year, to be known as Puerto Rico Constitution Day. The holiday commemorates the fact that the Constitution of Puerto Rico, approved on July 3, 1952, was promulgated by Governor Luis Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. Up to then, July 25 had been a holiday in Puerto Rico, known as "Occupation Day", to commemorate the arrival of United States military forces on July 25, 1898 in an area of the municipality of Yaucothat in the early 20th century would become the separate municipality of Guánica. The government of Puerto Rico holds a commemorative ceremony every year, the most recent of which was held at the Puerto Rico Department of State headquarters building, the "Edificio de la Real Intendencia", in Old San Juan with the mayor of Yauco, Abel Nazario, as the keynote speaker and Supreme Court Associate Justice Edgardo Rivera Garcia in charge of the reading of the Constitution's Preamble.
Galicia National Day Spain - Jul 25
Dia Nacional de Galicia ("National Day of Galicia") is when the autonomous community of Galicia in Spain celebrates its national holiday. It falls on the 25th of July. It is also called Día da Patria Galega ("Day of the Galician Fatherland"), or simply Día de Galicia ("Galicia Day"). Yet, the official full denomination is the "National Day of Galicia", as established by the Galician government in 1979.
History of the celebration
The origins of the celebration can be traced back to 1919, when the Assembly of the Galicianist organization Irmandades da Fala met in the Galician capital, Santiago de Compostela. It was then decided to celebrate the National Day on the 25th of July of the following year. The date was chosen as it is the day dedicated to Saint James, patron saint of both Galicia and the Galician capital city. It was celebrated openly until the Francoist dictatorship (1939-1977), when any display of non-Spanish nationalism was prohibited. During that time the National Day would still be celebrated as such by the Galician emigrant communities abroad. In Galicia, the Galicianists would gather with the pretext of offering a Mass for Galician poetess and literary icon Rosalia de Castro. Curiously enough, the Francoist regime institutionalized the religious celebration of Saint James as the "patron saint of Spain". Nonetheless, from 1968 Galicianists attempted to celebrate the day in Compostela, still during the dictatorship. The Partido Socialista de Galicia ("Galician Socialist Party") and theUnión do Povo Galego ("Galician People's Union") called for public political demonstrations every 25th of July. These demonstrations would invariably result in riots with the Spanish police. Even during the first years of democracy, after 1977, any demonstration organised by the Asemblea Nacional-Popular Galega and the BN-PG (later transformed into the Galician Nationalist Bloc) would still be forbidden. It is only during the mid-1980s when the National Day started to, gradually, be celebrated with some degree of normality. Although, the events from the late 1960s onwards transformed the National Day celebrations into a date with deep political implications. At present, Galician political parties (mostly nationalist, but not only) organise large demonstrations at the capital city and/or a number of activities to commemorate the day. The political and institutional activities are normally all based in Santiago de Compostela, and the day is an official public holiday celebrated with solemnity by the Galician government. Apart from that, a number of festivities take place from the night of the 24th until high hours in the morning of the 26th, celebrated by many.
Guanacaste Day Costa Rica - Jul 25
The annexation of Guanacaste also known as Guanacaste Day is celebrated in Costa Rica on 25th July every year.
History
Guanacaste was annexed From Nicaragua in the year 1824. This moment has had significant impact on the history of the region in general. Guanacaste has always been a major coffee exporting region along with the rest of Costa Rica. In 1823, the regions of Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras declared themselves as independent nations. But while Costa Rica Prospered the other nations were war torn. Guanacaste hence, in 1824, requested that they be annexed and made a part of Costa Rica, instead of Nicaragua. The natives of Guanacaste believed in Costa Rican values and that it held a brighter future for them, than under Nicaraguan rule.
Celebrations
Hence the annexation of Guanacaste is viewed as the triumph of democracy. This day is grandly celebrated in Costa Rica and is deeply entrenched in their systems. Numerous celebrations are planned and hosted on this day, throughout the country. Parades and traditional folk dances are performed while children are educated on the strong family values and traditional values of Costa Rica. Another aspect of the celebrations is the bullfights that occur. In addition, the whole week leading to July 25th, is lined with parades to the parks at the centres of the various towns, by all primary and secondary schools. Public dances are held and the whole nation rejoices in festivities.
Republic Day Tunisia - Jul 25
Like most of the nations Tunisia tasted her independence in middle of the 20th century, in the year of 1956. In 1942 – 43, during Second World War, Tunisia happened to be a land of major political interest for the allied forces.
History
By then, the leading body of the great British army, after winning the Battle of el-Alamein, stepped into Tunisia from the southern part of the continent. The United States and other allies retreated from the west. Commander General Rommel of Axis forces in the Northern part of the continent had been hoping for a parallel defeat on the allied forces in Tunisia, as Germany did against France in late 1940. The allies were insisted to evade to Egypt prior to the battle. In essence, this battle of Tunisia happened to be a sheer test for the Allied forces. They calculated that to win this battle against Axis, they would have to be more organised and would have to regain their selves from the ailments the German – Italian forces would incur, as soon as possible. On the 19th February, 1943, General Rommel attacked the Allies in Kasserine Pass of Western Tunisia; the Allies got divided through the renowned Mareth line of March 20, 1943. Later on the allied forces organised themselves on 8th April and few says later, the German – Italian army gave in. Hence, United States, Great Britain, Free French and the Polish Government won a terrific confrontation in Tunisia by that time. Since then, Tunisia was dominated by the French Government, until July 25, in the year of 1956; President Habib Bourguiba dictated a firm authoritarian territory. He ruled for long 31 years, suppressing Islamic fundamentalism, and setting women rights up- which, as a matter of fact, did not match any other Arab nations. In this way Tunisia overcame all her insurmountable barriers witnessed by dazzling historical facts. Thus, the populace of Tunisia has all the reason to celebrate this memorable republic day with honour and pride!
Celebrations
The day begins with a flag hoisting, parades, fireworks and a bullfight. Various exhibitions and fairs are also conducted on this eve where native food, national items and crafts are sold. After the celebration on 25th July, they conduct family get-togethers the next day. Many families also go for an outing in the interiors of the country.
Independence Day Liberia - Jul 26
Liberia officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open to a plateau of drier grasslands. The country possesses 40% of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. Liberia has a hot equatorial climate, with significant rainfall during the May to October rainy season and harsh harmattan winds the remainder of the year. Liberia covers an area of 111,369 km2 (43,000 sq mi) and is home to about 3.7 million people. English is the official language, while over 30 indigenous languages are spoken within the country. Along with Ethiopia, Liberia is one of the two modern countries in Sub-Saharan Africa without roots in the European colonization of Africa. Beginning in 1820, the region was colonized by freed American slaves with the help of the American Colonization Society, a private organization that believed ex-slaves would have greater freedom and equality in Africa. Slaves freed from slave ships were also sent there instead of being repatriated to their countries of origin. In 1847, these colonists founded the Republic of Liberia, establishing a government modeled on that of the United States and naming the capital city Monrovia after James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States and a prominent supporter of the colonization. The colonists, known as Americo-Liberians, led the political and economic sectors of the country. The country began to modernize in the 1940s following investment by the United States during World War II and economic liberalization under President William Tubman. Liberia was a founding member of the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity. A military coup overthrew the Americo-Liberian leadership in 1980, marking the beginning of political and economic instability and two successive civil wars that left approximately 250,000 people dead and devastated the country's economy. A 2003 peace deal led to democratic elections in 2005. Today, Liberia is recovering from the lingering effects of the civil war and related economic dislocation, with about 85% of the population living below the international poverty line.
History
The Pepper Coast has been inhabited at least as far back as the 12th century, perhaps earlier. Mende-speaking people expanded westward from Sudan, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward towards the Atlantic ocean. The Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest recorded arrivals.This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375 and later in 1591 with the Songhai Empire. Additionally, inland regions underwent desertification, and inhabitants were pressured to move to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai Empires. Shortly after the Manesconquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount region. The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Manes to stop further influx of Vai. People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast. Between 1461 and late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch and British traders had contacts and trading posts in the region. The Portuguese named the area Costa da Pimenta, meaning Pepper Coast but later translated as Grain Coast, because of the abundance of grains of melegueta pepper. European traders would barter various commodities and goods with local people. When the Kru began trading with Europeans, they initially traded in commodities, but later they actively participated in the African slave trade. In 1820, the American Colonization Society (ACS) began sending black volunteers to the Pepper Coast to establish a colony for freed American blacks. These free African Americans came to identify themselves as Americo-Liberian, developing a cultural tradition infused with American notions of racial supremacy, and political republicanism. The ACS, a private organization supported by prominent American politicians such as Henry Clay and James Monroe, believed repatriation was preferable to emancipation of slaves. Similar organizations established colonies in Mississippiin-Africa and the Republic of Maryland, which were later annexed by Liberia. On July 26, 1847, the settlers issued a Declaration of Independence and promulgated aconstitution, which, based on the political principles denoted in the United States Constitution, created the independent Republic of Liberia. The leadership of the new nation consisted largely of the Americo-Liberians. The 1865 Ports of Entry Act prohibited foreign commerce with the inland tribes. In 1877, the Americo-Liberian True Whig Party was the most powerful political power in the country. Competition for office was usually contained within the party, whose nomination virtually ensured election. Pressure from the United Kingdom and France led to a loss of Liberia's claims to extensive territories, which were annexed by adjoining countries. Economic development was hindered by the decline of markets for Liberian goods in the late 19th century and by indebtedness on a series of international loans. In Liberia's early years, the Americo-Liberian settlers periodically encountered stiff and sometimes violent opposition from indigenous Africans who were excluded from citizenship until 1904. In the mid-20th century, Liberia gradually began to modernize with American assistance. Both the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport were built by U.S. personnel through the Lend-Lease program during World War II. President William Tubmanencouraged foreign investment in the country, resulting in the second-highest rate of economic growth in the world during the 1950s. Liberia also began to take a more active role in international affairs. It was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and became a vocal critic of the South African apartheid regime. Liberia also served as a proponent both of African independence from the European colonial powers and of PanAfricanism, helping to found the Organization of African Unity. On April 12, 1980, a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group overthrew and killed President William R. Tolbert, Jr.. Doe and the other plotters later executed a majority of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members. The coup leaders formed the People's Redemption Council(PRC) to govern the country. A strategic Cold War ally, Doe received significant financial backing from the United States while critics condemned the PRC for corruption and political repression. After the country adopted a new constitution in 1985, Doe was elected president in subsequent elections that were internationally condemned as fraudulent. On November 12, 1985, a failed counter-coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, whose soldiers briefly occupied the national radio station. Government repression intensified in response, as Doe's troops executed members of the Gio and Mano ethnic groups in Nimba County. The National Patriotic Front of Liberia, a rebel group led by Charles Taylor, launched an insurrection in December 1989 against Doe's government with the backing of neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire, triggering the First Liberian Civil War.By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital, and Doe was captured and executed that month by rebel forces. The rebels soon split into various factions fighting one another, and the Economic Community Monitoring Groupunder the Economic Community of West African States organized a military task force to intervene in the crisis. From 1989 to 1996 one of Africa's bloodiest civil wars ensued, claiming the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and displacing a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries. A peace deal between warring parties was reached in 1995 leading to Taylor's election as president in 1997. Under Taylor's leadership, Liberia became internationally known as a pariah state due to his use of blood diamonds and illegal timberexports to fund the Revolutionary United Front in the Sierra Leone Civil War. The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 whenLiberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, a rebel group based in the northwest of the country, launched an armed insurrection against Taylor. In March 2003, a second rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast. Peace talks between the factions began in Accra in June of that year, and Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for crimes against humanity that same month. By July 2003, the rebels had launched an assault on Monrovia. Under heavy pressure from the international community and the domestic Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peacemovement, Taylor resigned in August and went into exile in Nigeria, and a peace deal was signed later that month. The United Nations Mission in Liberia began arriving in September 2003 to provide security and monitor the peace accord, and an interim government took power the following October. The subsequent 2005 elections were internationally regarded as the most free and fair in Liberian history. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, aHarvard-trained economist and former Minister of Finance, was elected as the first female president in Africa. Upon her inauguration, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from Nigeria and immediately handed him over to the SCSL for trial in The Hague. In 2006, the government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil war.
Independence Day Maldives - Jul 26
Maldives officially Republic of Maldives (Dhivehi: ެގޭޖްއާރިހެވިދ ާޔްއިރޫހްމުޖ, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), also referred to as the Maldive Islands, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean formed by a double chain of twenty-six atolls oriented northsouth off India's Lakshadweep Islands, between Minicoy Island and Chagos Archipelago. It stands in the Laccadive Sea, about 700 kilometres (430 mi) south-west of Sri Lanka and 400 kilometres (250 mi) south-west of India. During the colonial era, the Dutch referred to the country as "Maldivische Eilanden" in their documentation, while "Maldive Islands" is the anglicised version of the local name used by the British, which later came to be written "Maldives". The Maldives was dominated from the mid sixteenth century by colonial powers - by Portugal, the Netherlands, and the British. In 1965, the Maldives gained independence from the British, becoming a republic. It was then ruled by a sultanate and an authoritarian government. After protests and political pressure for democracy, the first free elections in the history of the Maldives were held in 2008, leading to the election of Mohamed Nasheed. However following the 20112012 Maldives Crisis and accompanying coup d'état, Nasheed was forced to resign in February 2012. Vice President Mohammed Waheed Hassan Manik was thus sworn in as the new president. The archipelago is located on top of the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean. Maldives also form a terrestrial ecoregion together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. The atolls of Maldives encompass a territory spread over roughly 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi), making it one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries. Its population of 328,536 (2012) inhabits 200 of its 1,192 islands. Maldives' capital and largest city Malé had a population of 103,693 in 2006. It is located at the southern edge of North Malé Atoll, in the Kaafu Atoll. It is also one of the Administrative divisions of the Maldives. Traditionally it was the King's Island where the ancient Maldive Royal dynasties were enthroned. Maldives is the smallest Asian country in both population and land area. With an average ground level of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, it is the planet's lowest country.It is also the country with the lowest natural highest point in the world, at 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in); the Maldives' forecast inundation is a great concern for the Maldivian people.
Etymology
The name Maldives may derive from Mahal'deeb, in Sanskrit or maalai theevu (மாலை தீவு ) in Tamil. The Maldivian people were called Dhivehin. The word Dheeb/Deeb (archaic Dhivehi, related to Sanskrit dvīpa (द्वीप)) means "island", and Dhives (Dhivehin) means "islanders" (i.e., Maldivians). During the colonial era, the Dutch referred to the country as Maldivische Eilanden in their documentation, while Maldive Islands is the anglicised version of the local name used by the British, which later came to be written as "Maldives". The ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva ("Island of Women", महिलादिभ) in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning "garland". The Mahawamsa is derived from an even older Sinhala word dating back to the 2nd century BC. Some theorise that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning "garland of islands". In Malayalam, "Garland of Islands" can be translated as Maladhweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). In Tamil, "Garland of Islands" can be translated asMalaiTheevu (மாலைத்தீவு). None of these names is mentioned in any literature, but classical Sanskrit texts dating back to theVedic period mention the "Hundred Thousand Islands" (Lakshadweepa), a generic name which would include not only the Maldives, but also the Laccadives, Aminidivi Islands, Minicoy and the Chagos island groups. Some medieval travellers such as Ibn Batuta called the islands Mahal Dibiyat ( )تأيبد لحمfrom the Arabic word Mahal ("palace"), which must be how the Berber traveller interpreted the local name, having been through Muslim North India, where Perso-Arabic words were introduced into the local vocabulary . This is the name currently inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat. The name Maldives also might have come from the Sinhalese word මාල දිවයින Maala Divaina ("Necklace Islands"), perhaps referring to the shape of the archipelago. The same name is still used today by Sinhalese when referring to the Maldives, and it is widely believed that ancient Sinhalese were amongst the first settlers on the island archipelago.
History
Ancient history and settlement:
Comparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs indicate that the first settlers were Dravidian people from Tamil Nadu in the Sangam period (300 BC–AD 300), most probably fishermen from the southwest coasts of what is now the south of the Indian Subcontinent and the western shores of Sri Lanka. One such community is the Giraavaru people descended from ancient Tamils. They are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule inMalé. They are considered to be the islands' earliest settler community. A strong underlying layer of Dravidian population and culture survives in Maldivian society, with a clear Dravidian-Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kinship terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Malabari sea faring culture led to Malayali settling of the Laccadives, and the Maldives were evidently viewed as an extension of that archipelago. Some argue (from the presence of Jat, Gujjar Titles and Gotra names) that Sindhisalso accounted for an early layer of migration. Seafaring from Debal began during the Indus valley civilisation. The Jatakas and Puranasshow abundant evidence of this maritime trade; the use of similar traditional boat building techniques in Northwestern South Asia and the Maldives, and the presence of silver punch mark coins from both regions, gives additional weight to this. There are minor signs of Southeast Asian settlers, probably some adrift from the main group of Austronesian reed boat migrants that settled Madagascar.There are some signs of Arab inhabitants, mostly in the southernmost atolls, who probably settled in the height of the Islamic era. The earliest written history of the Maldives is marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people, who were descended from the exiled MagadhaPrince Vijaya from the ancient city known as Sinhapura. He and his party of several hundred landed in Sri Lanka, and some in the Maldives circa 543 to 483 BC. According to the Mahavansa, one of the ships that sailed with Prince Vijaya, who went to Sri Lanka around 500 BC, went adrift and arrived at an island called Mahiladvipika, which is the Maldives. It is also said that at that time, the people from Mahiladvipika used to travel to Sri Lanka. Their settlement in Sri Lanka and the Maldives marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo-Aryan language Dhivehi, which is most similar in grammar, phonology, and structure toSinhala, and especially to the more ancient Elu language, which has less Pali. Alternatively, it is believed that Vijaya and his clan came from western India – a claim supported by linguistic and cultural features, and specific descriptions in the epics themselves, e.g. that Vijaya visited Bharukaccha (Bharuch in Gujarat) in his ship on the voyage down south. Philostorgius, a late antique Greek historian, wrote of a hostage among the Romans, from the island called Diva, which is presumed to be the Maldives, who was baptised Theophilus. Theophilus was sent in the 350s to convert the Himyarites to Christianity, and went to his homeland from Arabia; he returned to Arabia, visited Axum, and settled in Antioch. Buddhism came to the Maldives at the time of Emperor Ashoka's expansion, and became the dominant religion of the people of the Maldives until the 12th century AD. The ancient Maldivian Kings promoted Buddhism, and the first Maldive writings and artistic achievements, in the form of highly developed sculpture and architecture, are from that period. Before embracing Buddhism as their way of life, Maldivians had practised an ancient form ofHinduism, ritualistic traditions known as Śrauta, in the form of venerating the Surya (the ancient ruling cast were of Aadheetta or Suryavanshi origins). The first archaeological study of the remains of early cultures in the Maldives began with the work of H.C.P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was shipwrecked on the islands in 1879, and returned several times to investigate ancient Buddhist ruins. He studied the ancient mounds, called havitta or ustubu (these names are derived from chaitiya and stupa) (Dhivehi: )ަތްއިވަހby the Maldivians, which are found on many of the atolls. Although Bell asserted that the ancient Maldivians had followed Theravada Buddhism, many local Buddhist archaeological remains now in the Malé Museum in fact also display elements of Mahayana and Vajrayana iconography. In the early 11th century, the Minicoy and Thiladhunmathi, and possibly other northern Atolls, were conquered by the medieval Chola Tamil emperor Raja Raja Chola I, thus becoming a part of the Chola Empire. According to a legend from Maldivian folklore, in the early 12th century AD, a medieval prince named Koimala, a nobleman of the Lion Race from Sri Lanka, sailed to Rasgetheemu island (literally "Town of the Royal House", or figuratively "King's Town") in the North Maalhosmadulu Atoll, and from there to Malé, and established a kingdom. By then, theAadeetta (Sun) Dynasty (the Suryavanshi ruling cast) had for some time ceased to rule in Malé, possibly because of invasions by the Cholas of Southern India in the tenth century. Koimala Kalou (Lord Koimala), who reigned as King Maanaabarana, was a king of the Homa(Lunar) Dynasty (the Chandravanshi ruling cast), which some historians call the House of Theemuge. The Homa (Lunar) dynasty sovereigns intermarried with the Aaditta (Sun) Dynasty. This is why the formal titles of Maldive kings until 1968 contained references to "kula sudha ira", which means "descended from the Moon and the Sun". No official record exists of the Aadeetta dynasty's reign. Since Koimala's reign, the Maldive throne was also known as the Singaasana (Lion Throne). Before then, and in some situations since, it was also known as the Saridhaaleys (Ivory Throne). Some historians credit Koimala with freeing the Maldives from Tamil Chola rule. Several foreign travellers, mainly Arabs, had written about a kingdom of the Maldives ruled over by a queen. This kingdom pre-dated Koimala's reign. al-Idrisi, referring to earlier writers, mentions the name of one of the queens, Damahaar, who was a member of theAadeetta (Sun) dynasty. The conversion to Islam is mentioned in the ancient edicts written in copper plates from the end of the 12th century AD. There is also a locally well-known legend about a foreign saint (an Iranian from the city of Tabriz) who subdued a demon known as Rannamaari. Dhovemi Kalaminja, who succeeded Koimala, converted to Islam in the year AD 1153. Over the centuries, the islands have been visited, and their development influenced, by sailors and traders from countries on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The main export of medieval Maldivians was cowrie shell, which they cultivated by floating branches of coconut palms in the sea, to which the shells attached themselves. The Maldives were the first landfall for traders from Basrah, sailing to Sri Lankaor Southeast Asia. In the Maldives, ships could take on fresh water, fruit and the delicious, basket-smoked red flesh of the black bonito, a delicacy exported to Sindh, China and Yemen. The people of the archipelago were described as gentle, civilised and hospitable. They produced brass utensils as well as fine cotton textiles, exported in the form of sarongs and turban lengths. These local industries must have depended on imported raw materials. The other essential product of the Maldives was coir, the fibre of the dried coconut husk. Cured in pits, beaten, spun and then twisted into cordage and ropes, coir's salient quality is its resistance to saltwater. It stitched together and rigged the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean. Maldivian coir was exported to Sindh, China, Yemen, and the Persian Gulf. "It is stronger than hemp," wrote Ibn Battuta, "and is used to sew together the planks of Sindhi and Yemeni dhows, for this sea abounds in reefs, and if the planks were fastened with iron nails, they would break into pieces when the vessel hit a rock. The coir gives the boat greater elasticity, so that it doesn't break up."
British protectorate, 1887–1965:
Although governed as an independent Islamic sultanate from 1153 to 1968, the Maldives was a British protectorate from 1887 until 25 July 1965. On 16 December 1887, the Sultan of the Maldives signed a contract with the British Governor of Ceylon turning the Maldives into aBritish protected state, thus giving up the islands' sovereignty in matters of foreign policy, but retaining internal self-government. The British government promised military protection and noninterference in local administration in exchange for an annual tribute, so that the islands were akin to an Indian princely state. In 1953, there was an abortive attempt to form a republic, but the sultanate survived. In 1957 the British established an air base in the strategic southernmost atoll of Addu, paying £2000 a year, employing hundreds of locals. Nineteen years later, the British government (Labour’s Harold Wilson) gave up the base, as it was too expensive to maintain. In 1959, objecting to Ibrahim Nasir's centralism, the inhabitants of the three southernmost atolls protested against the government. They formed the United Suvadive Republic and elected Abdullah Afeef as president and chose Hithadhoo as capital of this republic.
End of protectorate, 1965:
During the 1950s and 1960s, the British presence east of Suez was in a steep decline. On 26 July 1965 an agreement was signed on behalf of His Majesty the Sultan by Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan, Prime Minister; and on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen by Sir Michael Walker, British Ambassador designate to the Maldive Islands, which ended the British responsibility for the defense and external affairs of the Maldives. The islands thus achieved full political independence. The Ceremony took place at the British High Commissioner's Residence in Colombo. After this the sultanate continued to operate for another three years under Muhammad Fareed Didi, who declared himself King, rather than Sultan.
Republic, 1968:
On 15 November 1967, a vote was taken in parliament to decide whether the Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or become a republic. Of the 44 members of parliament, forty voted in favour of a republic. On 15 March 1968, a national referendum was held on the question, and 93.34% of those taking part voted in favour of establishing a republic. The republic was declared on 11 November 1968, thus ending the 853-year-old monarchy, which was replaced by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. As the King had held little real power, this was seen as a cosmetic change and required few alterations in the structures of government. The official name of the country was changed from Maldive Islands to the Maldives. Tourism began to be developed on the archipelago by the beginning of the 1970s. The first accurate census was held in December 1977 and showed 142,832 persons residing in Maldives. However, political infighting during the '70s between Nasir's faction and other political figures led to the 1975 arrest and exile of elected prime minister Ahmed Zaki to a remote atoll. Economic decline followed the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, an important export. With support for his administration faltering, Nasir fled to Singapore in 1978, with millions of dollars from the treasury. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom began his 30-year role as President in 1978, winning six consecutive elections without opposition. His election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom's priority to develop the poorer islands. Tourism flourished and increased foreign contact spurred development. However, Gayoom's rule was controversial, with some critics saying Gayoom was an autocrat who quelled dissent by limiting freedoms and political favouritism. A series of coup attempts (in 1980, 1983, and 1988) by Nasir supporters and business interests tried to topple the government without success. While the first two attempts met with little success, the 1988 coup attempt involved a roughly 200-person mercenary force of the PLOTE Tamil militant group who seized the airport and caused Gayoom to flee from house to house until the intervention of 1600Indian troops airlifted into Malé restored order. The November 1988 coup was headed by Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee, a small businessman. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra and flew them over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) to the Maldives. The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless operation, labelled Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy.