Worldwide events; zarb e jamhoor newspaper; 133 issue; 21 27 jul, 2013

Liberation Day Guam - Jul 21

HUNGARY

The Second Battle of Guam (July 21 — August 10, 1944) was the American capture of the Japanese held island of Guam, a United States territory (in theMariana Islands) during the Pacific campaign of World War II.

Background Guam is the largest of the Marianas, 30 miles (48 km)

long and 9 miles (14 km) wide. It had been a United States possession since its capture from Spain in 1898 until it was captured by the Japanese on December 10, 1941, following the Attack on Pearl Harbor. It was not as heavily fortified as the other Mariana Islands such as Saipan that had been Japanese possessions since the end of World War I, but by 1944 it had a large Japanese garrison.

The Allied plan for the invasion of the Marianas called for heavy preliminary bombardment, first by carrier aircraft and planes based in the Marshall Islandsto the east, then once air superiority was gained, close bombardment by battleships. Guam was chosen as a target because its large size made it suitable as a base for supporting the next stage of operations towards thePhilippines, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands; the deep-water harbor at Aprawas suitable for the largest ships; and the two airfields would be suitable forB-29 Superfortress bombers.

The invasion of Saipan was scheduled for June 15, 1944, with landings on Guam tentatively set for June 18. The original timetable was optimistic, however. A large Japanese carrier attack and stubborn resistance by the unexpectedly large garrison on Saipan led to the invasion of Guam being postponed for a month.

Battle

Guam, ringed by reefs, cliffs, and heavy surf, presents a formidable challenge for an attacker. But despite the obstacles, on July 21, the Americans landed on both sides of the Orote peninsula on the western side of Guam, planning to cut off the airfield. The 3rd Marine Division landed near Agana to the north of Orote at 08:28, and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade landed near Agat to the south. Japanese artillery sank 20 LVTs, and inflicted heavy casualties on the Americans, especially on the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, but by 09:00 men and tanks were ashore at both beaches. The 77th Infantry Division had a more difficult landing. Lacking amphibious vehicles, they had to wade ashore from the edge of the reef where they were dropped by their landing craft. The men stationed in the two beachheads were pinned down by vicious Japanese fire, making initial progress inland quite slow.

By nightfall the Americans had established beachheads about 2,000 meters deep. Japanese counter-attacks were made throughout the first few days of the battle, mostly at night, using infiltration tactics. Several times they penetrated the American defenses and were driven back with heavy loss of men and equipment. Lieutenant GeneralTakeshi Takashina was killed on July 28, and Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata took over the command of the defenders.

Supply was very difficult for the Americans in the first days of the battle. Landing ships could not come closer than the reef, several hundred yards from the beach, and amphibious vehicles were scarce. However, the two beachheads were joined up on July 25, and the Orote airfield and Apra harbor were captured by July 30.

The counterattacks against the American beachheads, as well as the fierce fighting, had exhausted the Japanese.

At the start of August they were running out of food and ammunition and had only a handful of tanks left. Obata withdrew his troops from the south of Guam, planning to make a stand in the mountainous central and northern part of the island. But with resupply and reinforcement impossible because of American control of the sea and air around Guam, he could hope to do no more than delay the inevitable defeat for a few days.

Rain and thick jungle made conditions difficult for the Americans, but after an engagement at Mount Barrigada from August 2 to August 4, the Japanese line collapsed; the rest of the battle was a pursuit to the north. As in other battles of the Pacific War, the Japanese refused to surrender, and almost all were killed. On August 10, after 3 long weeks of bloody and ferocious fighting, organized Japanese resistance ended, and Guam was declared secure. The next day, Obata committed ritual suicide.

Aftermath A few Japanese soldiers held out in the jungle. On December 8, 1945, three U.S. Marines were ambushed and

killed. On January 24, 1972, Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi was discovered by hunters. He had lived alone in a cave for 27 years.

After the battle, Guam was turned into a base for Allied operations. Five large airfields were built by the Seabees, and B-29 bombers flew from the island to attack targets in the Western Pacific and on mainland Japan.

Four U.S. Marines were awarded the Medal of Honor for their heroic actions during the Battle of Guam: PFC Luther Skaggs Jr., PFC Frank Witek(posthumously), PFC Leonard F. Mason (posthumously) and Captain (later General) Louis H. Wilson, Jr..

Liberation Day continues to be celebrated on Guam every July 21.

National Day Belgium - Jul 21

Leopold I (Leopold George Christian Frederick; German: Leopold Georg Christian Friedrich; Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, later Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Saxony; 16 December 1790 – 10 December 1865) was from 21 July 1831 the first King of the Belgians, following Belgium's independence from the Netherlands. He was the founder of the Belgian line of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

His children includedLeopold II of Belgium and Empress Carlota of Mexico. He was also an uncle of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.

He was born in Coburg and died in Laeken.

Early life He was the youngest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-

Coburg-Saalfeld, and CountessAugusta ReussEbersdorf, and later became a prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha after Saxe-Coburg acquired Gotha from Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in 1836 and yielded Saalfeld toSaxe-Meiningen.

In 1795, as a mere child, Leopold was appointed colonel of the Izmaylovsky Guards Regiment in Russia. Seven years later, he became a major general.

When Napoleonic troops occupied the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg in 1806 Leopold went to Paris. Emperor Napoleon I offered him the position of adjutant, but he refused. Instead, he took up a military career in the Imperial Russian Cavalry. He campaigned against Napoléon and distinguished himself at the Battle of Kulm at the head of his cuirassier division.

In 1815, at the age of 25, Leopold reached the rank of lieutenant general in the Imperial Russian Army.

In Carlton House on 2 May 1816, he married Princess Charlotte of Wales, the only legitimate child of the British Prince Regent (later King George IV of the United Kingdom) and therefore second in line to the British throne, and was created a British field-marshal and Knight of the Garter. On 5 November 1817, Princess Charlotte delivered a stillborn son; she herself died the following day. Had she lived, she would have become Queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her father, and Leopold presumably would have assumed the role later taken by his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, as Prince Consort of the United Kingdom, and never been chosen to reign as King of the Belgians. Despite Charlotte's death, the Prince Regent granted Prince Leopold the British style of Royal Highness by Order in Council on 6 April 1818.

In 1828–1829, Leopold was involved romantically during several months with the actress Caroline Bauer, who enjoyed a striking resemblance with Charlotte. Caroline was a cousin of his advisor Baron Christian Friedrich von Stockmar. She came over to England with her mother and took up residence at Longwood House a few miles from Claremont House. Halfway through 1829, the liaison was over, and the mistress and her mother returned to Berlin.

Many years later, in memoirs published after her death, she declared that she and Leopold had engaged into a morganatic marriage and that he had bestowed upon her the title of Countess Montgomery. He would have broken this marriage when the possibility arose that he could become King of Greece. The son of Baron von Stockmar denied that these events ever happened, and sure enough no records were found of a civil or religious marriage, nor of an ennobling of the actress.

Hungarian-Serbian enhance cooperation in agriculture sector (Online 15 Jul) Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs of the Ministry of Rural Development Gyula Budai and his negotiating partner, State Secretary of the Serbian Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management Danilo Golubovic agreed at their Sunday meeting in Gornji Breg (Felsőhegy), Vojvodina, to further increase cooperation in agriculture between Hungary and Serbia.

The two politicians met at the Carpathian Basin Harvest Festival and discussed further opportunities for cooperation between the two countries.

Gyula Budai informed Hungarian news agency MTI about the meeting and the Harvest Festival in a telephone interview.

He informed the press that the possibility of marketing high quality, traditional foods produced in Vojvodina, such as honey and sausages, in Hungary had been discussed, something that Hungarian farmers' associations in Vojvodina are also keen to support. State Secretary Golubovic also stated that Serbia

Birthday of King Sobhuza Swaziland - Jul 22

Ngwenyama Sobhuza II (July 22, 1899 – August 21, 1982) was the Paramount Chief and later King of Swaziland. He was the son of Ngwane V.

Dia Nacional de Galicia ("National Day of Galicia") is when the autonomous community of Galicia in Spain celebrates its national holiday. It falls on the 25th of July.

It is also called Día da Patria Galega ("Day of the Galician Fatherland"), or simply Día de Galicia ("Galicia Day"). Yet, the official full denomination is the "National Day of Galicia", as established by the Galician government in 1979.

of the celebration History The origins of the celebration can be traced back to 1919, when

the Assembly of the Galicianist organization Irmandades da Fala met in the Galician capital, Santiago de Compostela. It was then decided to celebrate the National Day on the 25th of July of the following year. The date was chosen as it is the day dedicated to Saint James, patron saint of both Galicia and the Galician capital city.

It was celebrated openly until the Francoist dictatorship (19391977), when any display of non-Spanish nationalism was prohibited. During that time the National Day would still be celebrated as such by the Galician emigrant communities abroad. In Galicia, the Galicianists would gather with the pretext of offering a Mass for Galician poetess and literary icon Rosalia de Castro. Curiously enough, the Francoist regime institutionalized the religious celebration of Saint James as the "patron saint of Spain".

Nonetheless, from 1968 Galicianists attempted to celebrate the day in Compostela, still during the dictatorship. The Partido Socialista de Galicia ("Galician Socialist Party") and theUnión do Povo Galego ("Galician People's Union") called for public political demonstrations every 25th of July. These demonstrations would invariably result in riots with the Spanish police. Even during the first years of democracy, after 1977, any demonstration organised by the Asemblea Nacional-Popular Galega and the BN-PG (later transformed into the Galician Nationalist Bloc) would still be forbidden. It is only during the mid-1980s when the National Day started to, gradually, be celebrated with some degree of normality. Although, the events from the late 1960s onwards transformed the National Day celebrations into a date with deep political implications. At present, Galician political parties (mostly nationalist, but not only) organise large demonstrations at the capital city and/or a number of activities to commemorate the day.

The political and institutional activities are normally all based in Santiago de Compostela, and the day is an official public holiday celebrated with solemnity by the Galician government. Apart from that, a number of festivities take place from the night of the 24th until high hours in the morning of the 26th, celebrated by many.

Guanacaste Day Costa Rica - Jul 25

The annexation of Guanacaste also known as Guanacaste Day is celebrated in Costa Rica on 25th July every year.

History was Guanacaste

annexed From Nicaragua in the year 1824. This moment has had significant impact on the history of the region in general. Guanacaste has always been a major coffee exporting region along with the rest of Costa Rica. In 1823, the regions of Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras declared themselves as independent nations. But while Costa Rica Prospered the other nations were war torn. Guanacaste hence, in 1824, requested that they be annexed and made a part of Costa Rica, instead of Nicaragua.

The natives of Guanacaste believed in Costa Rican values and that it held a brighter future for them, than under Nicaraguan rule.

Martyr's Day Armenia - Jul 23

Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenian: Եղեռնի զոհերի հիշատակի օր) or Genocide Memorial day, is a national holiday in Armenia and is observed

by Armenians in dispersed communities around the world on April 24. It is held annually to commemorate the victims of the Armenian Genocide from 1915 to 1923. In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, hundreds of thousands of people walk to the Tsitsernakaberd Genocide Memorial to lay flowers at the eternal flame.

The date 24 April commemorates the Armenian notables deported from the Ottoman capital in 1915, of hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and community leaders, most of whom would be executed, which was a precursor to the ensuing events.

National Hot Dog Day U.S. - Jul 23

Hot Dog Days are informal events that are celebrated in communities throughout the hotdog-eating world, including the USA, Canada, Great Britain and Australia. Their origin is obscure. As the name suggests the festivals revolve around eating hot dogs, but usually there are many other activities such as wiener dog races, root beer chugging contests and face painting. Often the proceeds from a hot dog day are given to charity. Industry groups, such as National Hot Dog & Sausage Council in the USA, which designates July as National Hot Dog Month and July 22 as National Hot Dog Day 2009, encourage, sponsor, and support the events. The council also gives advice on hot-dog eating etiquette, which aren't considered strict, as most Hot Dog Day style events do not adhere to them.

Notable Hot Dog Festivals Alfred Village Hot Dog Day:

Hot Dog Day is celebrated in the spring in the village of Alfred, New York. It has been celebrated since 1972, when students first proposed it. The event is focused on the hot dog, a food popular among college students for its cheapness and ease of preparation. Hot Dog Day itself is usually the third Saturday in April, although many students celebrate the entire "hot dog week", running from that Wednesday to that Sunday.

Hot Dog Day, which is organized primarily by students from Alfred Universityand Alfred State College, raises money for local charities and community organizations, such as Alfred's fire department and Montessori school.

Events typically include a parade, ice cream social, "fun run", mud Olympics, hot dog eating contests, carnival and live music. Main Street, which is closed to traffic, hosts most of these activities, along with food choices such as a chicken barbecue and numerous hot dog stands. Hot Dog Day is often the time chosen for alumni reunions for Alfred's two colleges.

Revolution Day Egypt - Jul 23

Revolution Day refers to the public holiday in Egypt on 23 July, the anniversary of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. It is the biggest secular public holiday in Egypt.

Annual celebrations marking the Revolution begin on the preceding evening, as the evening of 22 July 1952 was when the Free Officers Movement led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser commenced the military coup d'état that launched the Revolution, and ultimately led to the abdication of King Farouk (the penultimate King of Egypt and Sudan). The public holiday itself is characterised by large and elaborate celebrations, including televised concerts with heavily nationalistic themes, and military parades.

Bolivar Day - Jul 24 Venezuela, Ecuador

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Blanco(July 24, 1783 – December 17, 1830), commonly known as Simón Bolívar, was a Venezuelan military and political leader. Together with José de San Martín, he played a key role in Hispanic-Spanish America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire, and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in American history.

Following the triumph over the Spanish Monarchy, Bolívar participated in the foundation of the first union of independent nations in Hispanic-America, a republic, which was named Gran Colombia, of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Bolívar remains regarded in Hispanic-America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary, and liberator.

During his lifetime, he led Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia to independence, and helped lay the foundations for democratic ideology in much of Latin America.

The surname Bolívar derives from the Bolívar aristocrats who came from a small village in the Basque Country, Spain, called La Puebla de Bolívar. His father came from the male line of the de Ardanza family. His maternal grandmother, however, was descended from some families from the Canary Islands that settled in the country.

The Bolívars settled in Venezuela in the sixteenth century. His first South American Bolívar ancestor was Simón de Bolívar (or Simon de Bolibar; the spelling was not standardized until the nineteenth century), who lived and worked with the governor of the Santo Domingo from 1550 to 1570. When the governor of Santo Domingo was reassigned to Venezuela in 1589, Simón de Bolívar came with him. As an early settler in Caracas Province, he became prominent in the local society and he and his descendants were granted estates, encomiendas, and positions in the Caracas cabildo.

The social position of the family is illustrated by the fact that when the Caracas Cathedral was built in 1594, the Bolívar family had one of the first dedicated side chapels. The majority of the wealth of Simón de Bolívar's descendants came from the estates. The most important of these estates was a sugar plantation with an encomienda that provided the labor needed to run the estate. In later centuries, slave and free black labor would have replaced most of the encomienda labor. Another portion of Bolívar wealth came from the silver, gold, and more importantly, copper mines in Venezuela. In 1632, small gold deposits first were mined in Venezuela, leading to further discoveries of much more extensive copper deposits. From his mother's side, the Palacios family, Bolívar inherited the copper mines at Cocorote. Native American and African slaves provided the majority of the labor in these mines.

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, copper exploitation became so prominent in Venezuela that it became known as Cobre Caracas ("Caracas copper"). Many of the mines became the property of the Bolívar family. Bolívar's grandfather, Juan de Bolívar y Martínez de Villegas, paid 22,000 ducats to the monastery at Santa Maria de Montserrat in 1728 for a title of nobility that had been granted by the king, Philip V of Spain, for its maintenance. The crown never issued the patent of nobility, and so the purchase became the subject of lawsuits that were still going on during Bolívar's lifetime, when independence from Spain made the point moot. (If successful, Bolívar's older brother, Juan Vicente, would have become the Marqués de San Luis and Vizconde de Cocorote.) Bolívar was able to use his family's immense wealth to finance his revolutionary efforts.

Jose Barbosa Day Puerto Rico - Jul 24

Dr. José Celso Barbosa (July 27, 1857 – September 21, 1921) was a medical Physician, sociologist, and political leader of Puerto Rico. Known within Puerto Rico's New Progressive Party as "The father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico movement", Barbosa was also the first Puerto Rican earn a medical degree in the United States.

Early Years

Barbosa was born in the city of Bayamón,Puerto Rico; he received both his primary and secondary education in Puerto Rico. He was the first person who had both black ancestry and white ancestry to attend Puerto Rico's prestigious Jesuit Seminary. After graduating from the Seminary, Barbosa tutored private students to save money to attend college. In 1875, he moved to New York to attend prep school where he learned English in a year.

Originally Barbosa wished to become a lawyer, but after a bout of pneumonia in New York City, his doctor recommended he study medicine rather than law. In 1877, he was admitted to the medical school of the University of Michigan, where he graduated valedictorian of the class of 1880. He returned to the island where he set up his practice in his native hometown.

First Puerto Rican with an American medical degree The Spanish government did not recognize Barbosa's medical de-

gree as it was not from one of the European universities. It took the intervention of the American consul to the island for Barbosa's degree to be recognized. Barbosa was the first person in the island with an American medical degree. He practiced medicine all over the island, and introduced the novel idea of employers paying a fee for the future health care needs of their employees (a very early health insurance system). In 1893, Barbosa founded the first Puerto Rican cooperative and named it "El Ahorro Colectivo".

Political career Barbosa was a member of the Autonomous Party led by Román Bal-

dorioty de Castro but left because of ideological differences.

In 1898, when the United States bombarded and blockaded San Juan during the Spanish–American War, Barbosa together with other doctors who lived in Bayamon, traveled to the town of Cataño and boarded a ferry headed towards San Juan. Barbosa, as member of the Red Cross, went to the aid of the wounded Puerto Rican and Spanish soldiers.

The ferry trip which crossed San Juan Bay was dangerous due to cannon fire. Barbosa and those with him were recommended by the Spanish government to be decorated with theCruz de la Orden del Mérito Naval (The Cross of the Order of Naval Merit) for their bravery.

On July 4, 1899, Barbosa formed the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party as a reaction to the outcome of the Spanish-American War, in which Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States; he became known as the father of the "Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement.

Later years On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named Barbosa, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón,José de

Diego, Manuel Camuñas and Andrés Crosas as part of an Executive Cabinet under U.S. appointed Governor Charles H. Allen. The Executive Cabinet also included six American members.Barbosa served in Executive Cabinet until 1917 and as a member of the first Puerto Rican Senate from 1917 to 1921. In 1907, he established the newspaper "El Tiempo", the first bilingual newspaper on the island. José Celso Barbosa died in San Juan on September 21, 1921. He was laid to rest in Santa Maria Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery in Old San Juan. His daughter Pilar Barbosa would one day become a renowned historian, the Official Historian of Puerto Rico from 1993 to 1997 and a political activist who would carry on her father's work.

Recognition In honour of Barbosa's accomplishments, Puerto Rico has declared his birthday, July 27, an official holiday. Barbosa's

house in Bayamón has been converted into a museum in which many of his awards, certificates, books and other artifacts of interest are exhibited. On August 1, 2006, President George W. Bush signed Public Law 109-253, the Dr. Jose Celso Barbosa Post Office Building Designation Act, to designate the facility of the U.S. Postal Service at 100 Avenida RL Rodriguez in Bayamon, Puerto Rico, as the Dr. Jose Celso Barbosa Post Office Building.

Pioneer Day (Utah) U.S. - Jul 24

Pioneer Day is an official holiday celebrated on July 24 in the U.S. state of Utah, with some celebrations in regions of surrounding states originally settled by Mormon pioneers. It commemorates the entry of Brigham Young and the first group of Mormon pioneers into the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, where the Latter-day Saints settled after being forced from Nauvoo, Illinois and other locations in the eastern United States.Parades, fireworks, rodeos, and other festivities help commemorate the event. Similar to July 4th, most governmental offices and many businesses are closed on Pioneer Day. In addition to being an official holiday in Utah, Pioneer Day is considered a special occasion by many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). On Pioneer Day, some Latter-day Saints walk portions of the Mormon Trail or reenact entering the Salt Lake Valley by handcart. Latter-day Saints throughout the United Statesand around the world may celebrate July 24 in remembrance of the LDS Churches' pioneer era, with songs, dances, and pioneer related activities.

While the holiday has strong links to the LDS Church, it is a celebration of everyone, regardless of faith and nationality, who emigrated to the Salt Lake Valley during the pioneer era, which is generally considered to have ended with the 1869 arrival of the transcontinental railroad. Notable non-LDS American pioneers from this period include Episcopal Bishop Daniel Tuttle, who was responsible for Utah's first non-Mormon schools (Rowland Hall-St. Mark's) and first public hospital (St. Mark's) in the late 1800s. The Intertribal Powwow at Liberty Park in Salt Lake Cityhonors the rich cultural heritage and contributions of the area's American Indians, helping Utahns to gain a deeper understanding of the region's history.

The holiday generates a great deal of road traffic; Utah Department of Public Safety statistics demonstrate that Pioneer Day has the second highest holiday traffic fatality rate in Utah, with the earlier July 4 Independence Day having the highest rate.

History

The earliest precursor to Pioneer Day celebrations in Utah occurred on July 24, 1849, when the Nauvoo Brass Band led a commemoration of the second anniversary of the Latter-day Saints entering the Salt Lake Valley.

The first celebration of Pioneer Day in 1857 was interrupted with news of the approach of Johnson's Army, heralding the beginning of the Utah War. During the following occupation of the Utah Territory by federal troops, Pioneer Day was not celebrated. Once PresidentAbraham Lincoln initiated a hands-off policy on Utah in 1862 during the American Civil War Pioneer Day was once again observed, and expanded into the surrounding areas as the Mormon Corridor spread throughout the Intermountain West. In 1880, Latter-day Saints commemorated the Golden Jubilee of the church's formal organization in 1830; tens of thousands of people in hundreds of communities participated in very enthusiastic festivities.

In the years that followed, federal enforcement efforts of anti-polygamy laws (including the 1882 Edmunds Act) resulted in greatly subdued celebrations. The 1886 commemoration was particularly notable for its mourning theme, with the Salt Lake Tabernacle decorated in black instead of the usually colorful bunting, and the eulogizing of Latter-day Saints who were in hiding or imprisoned for polygamy offenses. By 1897, the celebration included not only the 50th anniversary of the initial arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, but also the end of the polygamy issue, the completion of the Salt Lake Temple, and statehood for Utah.

The centennial in 1947 and the sesquicentennial in 1997 were especially large celebrations in Utah. One writer indicated that the 1947 celebrations seemed to incorporate the entire year, with July 24 only being an apex to the events.

Constitution Day Puerto Rico - Jul 25

Law #1 of August 4, 1952 of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico establishes a full state holiday on July 25 of every year, to be known as Puerto Rico Constitution Day. The holiday commemorates the fact that the Constitution of Puerto Rico, approved on July 3, 1952, was promulgated by Governor Luis Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. Up to then, July 25 had been a holiday in Puerto Rico, known as "Occupation Day", to commemorate the arrival of United States military forces on July 25, 1898 in an area of the municipality of Yaucothat in the early 20th century would become the separate municipality of Guánica.

The government of Puerto Rico holds a commemorative ceremony every year, the most recent of which was held at the Puerto Rico Department of State headquarters building, the "Edificio de la Real Intendencia", in Old San Juan with the mayor of Yauco, Abel Nazario, as the keynote speaker and Supreme Court Associate Justice Edgardo Rivera Garcia in charge of the reading of the Constitution's Preamble.

(Online 19 Jul) Prime Minister Viktor Orbán gave an interview to Wall Street Journal, talking about economic policy, the new constitution and the European Union.

The Prime Minister stated that in 2010, there were a lot of bad trends, such as rising government debt, but now Hungary is one of the few countries where government debt is falling. In terms of the budget deficit, the country is now out of the EU’s excessive deficit procedure, while foreign trade is increasing and the external account is in surplus, he pointed out. The Prime Minister also added that the number of taxpayers has risen to some 4 million as opposed to only 1.8 million in 2010, and incomes are rising in real terms due to low inflation, salary increases and cuts in public utility rates.

Talking about the country’s opening to the East policy, he pointed out that the French and the Germans are 15 years ahead in this respect, and therefore it is natural for Hungary to want to catch up. Without raw materials or major energy sources, the country has to be open, innovative and modern.

On the role of the state as an actor in the economy, Prime Minister Orbán differentiated between times of pros-

perity and times of crisis. He said that generally the role of the state should be limited, but even then vital sectors such as natural gas pipelines or the electricity network should be properly regulated or kept and operated by the state. However in times of crisis, its role is to help the economy out of the crisis and Hungary’s strategy is to achieve this through creating jobs.

The Prime Minister emphasised that the revenue structure of the budget cannot be changed until government debt is reduced to below 50% of GDP, meaning that until then the targeted tax system will remain in place. How long this would take depends on the performance of the eurozone, he stated.

Speaking about the new Constitution, Prime Minister Orbán pointed out that Hungary was the last country in the region to adopt a democratic constitution. This constitution states that the economy is based on labour and freedom of business and requires a balanced, transparent and sustainable budget, while placing limits on public debt, he highlighted. The aim is to turn an entitlement-based society into a merit-based one, the Prime Minister added.

Discussing the possibility of Hungary joining the euro zone, the Prime Min-

ister pointed out the opportunities that go with being outside the zone, such as flexibility and broader room for manoeuvre. “To join the euro will require a strong, unified majority,” he said, since the constitution would have to be amended, which defines Hungary’s currency as the forint. This guarantees that it will not be a divisive issue, he added, stating that “whether Hungary joins will depend greatly on how well the new, integrated eurozone functions”.

Asked about the Tavares report, Prime Minister Orbán called what the European Parliament did “very dangerous”, as it is part of a stealthy, federative shift aimed at modifying the fragile balance between the EU and nation-states, a balance Hungary wishes to protect. The mainstream of European political thinking today is motivated by the notion of progress, declaring [historical] roots as enemies of freedom, which should be abandoned. However “without roots we are lost,” he stated. The Hungarian Prime Minister emphasised that Hungary is open to discussion on this issue as well, “but not in a way in which the mainstream defines what is modern or European”.

Hungary wins bid to host the 2021 World Aquatics Championships (Online 19 Jul) The International Swimming Federation FINA decided on Friday to award Hungary the right to host the 2021 World Aquatics Championships.

Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán participated at the presentation of Hungary's bid to host the event, which includes swimming, open water swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo.

After having hosted several European

championships, the 2021 event will be Hungary's first world aquatics championships.

The Prime Minister reassured FINA that the Hungarian Government would provide every guarantee for a successful event and the new 21st century facility on the banks of the Danube would be a worthy venue. He emphasised that there will be elections in Hungary next year, but their outcome will in no way influence the

determination of Hungarians to organise a successful world championship in 2021.

The FINA board made the decision and the official announcement in Barcelona, the city that will host this year's World Aquatics Championships starting on Saturday. The board also decided that Hungary would host the World Junior Swimming Championships in 2017.

Hungary aims to become one of Europe's production centres

and activities Traditions Hence the annexation of Guanacaste is viewed as the triumph of democracy. This day is grandly celebrated in Costa

Rica and is deeply entrenched in their systems. Numerous celebrations are planned and hosted on this day, throughout the country. Parades and traditional folk dances are performed while children are educated on the strong family values and traditional values of Costa Rica. Another aspect of the celebrations is the bullfights that occur. In addition, the whole week leading to July 25th, is lined with parades to the parks at the centres of the various towns, by all primary and secondary schools. Public dances are held and the whole nation rejoices in festivities.

Republic Day Tunisia - Jul 25

Like most of the nations Tunisia tasted her independence in middle of the 20th century, in the year of 1956. In 1942 – 43, during Second World War, Tunisia happened to be a land of major political interest for the allied forces.

History By then, the leading body of the great British

army, after winning the Battle of el-Alamein, stepped into Tunisia from the southern part of the continent. The United States and other allies retreated from the west.

Commander General Rommel of Axis forces in the Northern part of the continent had been hoping for a parallel defeat on the allied forces in Tunisia, as Germany did against France in late 1940. The allies were insisted to evade to Egypt prior to the battle. In essence, this battle of Tunisia happened to be a sheer test for the Allied forces. They calculated that to win this battle against Axis, they would have to be more organised and would have to regain their selves from the ailments the German – Italian forces would incur, as soon as possible.

On the 19th February, 1943, General Rommel attacked the Allies in Kasserine Pass of Western Tunisia; the Allies got divided through the renowned Mareth line of March 20, 1943. Later on the allied forces organised themselves on 8th April and few says later, the German – Italian army gave in. Hence, United States, Great Britain, Free French and the Polish Government won a terrific confrontation in Tunisia by that time. Since then, Tunisia was dominated by the French Government, until July 25, in the year of 1956; President Habib Bourguiba dictated a firm authoritarian territory. He ruled for long 31 years, suppressing Islamic fundamentalism, and setting women rights up- which, as a matter of fact, did not match any other Arab nations.

In this way Tunisia overcame all her insurmountable barriers witnessed by dazzling historical facts. Thus, the populace of Tunisia has all the reason to celebrate this memorable republic day with honour and pride!

Celebrations

The day begins with a flag hoisting, parades, fireworks and a bullfight. Various exhibitions and fairs are also conducted on this eve where native food, national items and crafts are sold. After the celebration on 25th July, they conduct family get-togethers the next day. Many families also go for an outing in the interiors of the country.

Biography Sobhuza succeeded Ngwane V as Paramount Chief of Swaziland on De-

cember 10, 1899, when he was only a few months old. His grandmother, Labotsibeni Mdluli, acted as regent until December 22, 1921. His nominal reign of 82 years, 9 months is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the longest documented reign of any monarch since antiquity. Only Pepi II Neferkare of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed.

Sobhuza's personal reign of over 60 years (1921–82) saw Swaziland's independence fromGreat Britain in 1968, after which he was styled King of Swaziland. When the kingdom became independent, it was considered possible that the existing tribal government could be modified into a constitutional monarchy. This existed for some time, until April 12, 1973, when he repealed the constitution and dissolved parliament, making himself absolute ruler.

King Sobhuza continued the tribal practice of keeping many wives. According to the Swaziland National Trust Commission, King Sobhuza II married 70 wives, who gave him 210 children between 1920 and 1970 (i.e. three children per wife, on average). About 180 children survived infancy, and ninety-seven sons and daughters are alive today. When he died he had over 1000 grandchildren.

In the early 1980s he attempted to gain control over KaNgwane, a Bantustan set up by theSouth African apartheid government.

Sobhuza died in 1982, having Prince Sozisa appointed Dlamini to serve as 'Authorized Person', advising a regent after his death. The first regent was Queen Dzeliwe, but after a power struggle Sozisa deposed her and replaced her by Queen Ntombi, while at the same time Ntombi and Sobhuza's young son Mswati was designated as Crown Prince. Mswati was crowned as king in 1986.

A son-in-law was King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu of the Zulu Nation, who married Sobhuza's daughter Mantfombi Dlamini.

A daughter-in-law is Zenani Mandela, the daughter of former South African President Nelson Mandela of a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty, who is married to one of Sobhuza's many sons.

of State Budai noted that the recent visit to Serbia by President of the Republic János Áder had given significant impetus to the development of bilateral relations.

With regard to the 12th Carpathian Basin Harvest Festival held in Felsőhegy, Gyula Budai informed MTI that he had opened the Festival jointly with his Serbian counterpart. 25-30 harvesting teams arrived from around Vojvodina, Hungary and Transylvania for the Festival. At the event, the Ministry of State met with members of Hungarian farmers' associations in Vojvodina and with Hungarian members of the Serbian Parliament from Vojvodina.

The Minister of State indicated that he had invited his Serbian colleague to this year's National Agriculture and Food Industry Exhibition (OMÉK), to be held in Budapest in September, and had agreed to continue negotiations there.

Galicia National Day Spain - Jul 25

King of the Belgians

Leopold turned down the throne of Greece. After Belgium asserted its independence from the Netherlands on 4 October 1830, the Belgian National Congress considered several candidates and eventually asked Leopold to become King of the newly-formed country. He was elected on 4 June and accepted and became "King of the Belgians" on 26 June 1831. He swore allegiance to the constitution in front of the Saint Jacob's Church at Coudenbergh Place in Brussels on 21 July 1831. This day became the Belgian national holiday.Jules Van Praet would become his personal secretary.

Less than two weeks later, on 2 August, the Netherlands invaded Belgium. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in 1839, the two countries signed the Treaty of London establishing Belgium's independence.

With the opening of the railway line between Brussels and Mechelen on 5 May 1835, one of King Leopold's fondest hopes—to build the first railway in continental Europe—became a reality.

In 1840, Leopold arranged the marriage of his niece, Queen Victoria, the daughter of his sister, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, to his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, son of his brother, Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Even before she succeeded to the throne, Leopold had been advising the then-Princess Victoria by letter, and after her accession, he was one of the great influences on her in the early days of her monarchy.

In 1842, Leopold tried unsuccessfully to pass laws to regulate female and child labor. A wave of revolutions passed over Europe after the deposition of his father-in-law, King Louis-Philippe, from the French throne in 1848. Belgiumremained neutral, mainly because of Leopold's diplomatic efforts.

He was the 649th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1816, the 947th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1835 and the 35thGrand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword.

On 11 October 1850, Leopold again lost a young wife, as Queen Louise-Marie died of tuberculosis at age 38.

Leopold also had two sons, George and Arthur, by a mistress, Arcadia Meyer (née Claret). George was born in 1849 (before the death of Queen Louise-Marie), and Arthur was born in 1852. After Leopold's death, each of the two sons was created Freiherr von Eppinghoven (in 1862), and in 1863 Arcadia was created Baronin von Eppinghoven.

On 10 December 1865, the King died in Laeken at the age of 74. He lies buried in the Royal Vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken.

would like to see the stronger presence of Hungarian agricultural enterprises in Vojvodina and welcome Hungarian investors. In this respect, Serbia is open both to the establishment of 100 percent Hungarian owned enterprises and joint ventures.

According to the Ministry's Parliamentary State Secretary, Hungary's wideraging experience means it could provide significant help to Serbia within the field of agriculture towards the Balkan nation's recently started EU accession process. Hungary could share its experiences with regard to EU accession negotiations, in addition to which it could inform Serbia about the most important agriculture-related opportunities in the upcoming 2014-2020 EU financial period.

For this reason, the Ministry of Rural Development is organising an information forum in Vojvodina with the participation of several other Hungarian ministries, aimed at preparing Hungarian farmers in the region for EU membership. Minster

Hungary is now out of the EU’s excessive deficit procedure: PM Orbán

Independence Day Liberia - Jul 26

Liberia officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open to a plateau of drier grasslands. The country possesses 40% of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. Liberia has a hot equatorial climate, with significant rainfall during the May to October rainy season and harsh harmattan winds the remainder of the year. Liberia covers an area of 111,369 km2 (43,000 sq mi) and is home to about 3.7 million people. English is the official language, while over 30 indigenous languages are spoken within the country.

Along with Ethiopia, Liberia is one of the two modern countries in Sub-Saharan Africa without roots in the European colonization of Africa. Beginning in 1820, the region was colonized by freed American slaves with the help of the American Colonization Society, a private organization that believed ex-slaves would have greater freedom and equality in Africa. Slaves freed from slave ships were also sent there instead of being repatriated to their countries of origin. In 1847, these colonists founded the Republic of Liberia, establishing a government modeled on that of the United States and naming the capital city Monrovia after James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States and a prominent supporter of the colonization. The colonists, known as Americo-Liberians, led the political and economic sectors of the country.

The country began to modernize in the 1940s following investment by the United States during World War II and economic liberalization under President William Tubman. Liberia was a founding member of the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity. A military coup overthrew the Americo-Liberian leadership in 1980, marking the beginning of political and economic instability and two successive civil wars that left approximately 250,000 people dead and devastated the country's economy. A 2003 peace deal led to democratic elections in 2005. Today, Liberia is recovering from the lingering effects of the civil war and related economic dislocation, with about 85% of the population living below the international poverty line.

History

The Pepper Coast has been inhabited at least as far back as the 12th century, perhaps earlier. Mende-speaking people expanded westward from Sudan, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward towards the Atlantic ocean.

The Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest recorded arrivals.This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375 and later in 1591 with the Songhai Empire. Additionally, inland regions underwent desertification, and inhabitants were pressured to move to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai Empires. Shortly after the Manesconquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount region. The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Manes to stop further influx of Vai. People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast. Between 1461 and late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch and British traders had contacts and trading posts in the region. The Portuguese named the area Costa da Pimenta, meaning Pepper Coast but later translated as Grain Coast, because of the abundance of grains of melegueta pepper. European traders would barter various commodities and goods with local people. When the Kru began trading with Europeans, they initially traded in commodities, but later they actively participated in the African slave trade.

In 1820, the American Colonization Society (ACS) began sending black volunteers to the Pepper Coast to establish a colony for freed American blacks. These free African Americans came to identify themselves as Americo-Liberian, developing a cultural tradition infused with American notions of racial supremacy, and political republicanism. The ACS, a private organization supported by prominent American politicians such as Henry Clay and James Monroe, believed repatriation was preferable to emancipation of slaves. Similar organizations established colonies in Mississippi-in-Africa and the Republic of Maryland, which were later annexed by Liberia. On July 26, 1847, the settlers issued a Declaration of Independence and promulgated aconstitution, which, based on the political principles denoted in the United States Constitution, created the independent Republic of Liberia.

The leadership of the new nation consisted largely of the Americo-Liberians. The 1865 Ports of Entry Act prohibited foreign commerce with the inland tribes. In 1877, the Americo-Liberian True Whig Party was the most powerful political power in the country. Competition for office was usually contained within the party, whose nomination virtually ensured election. Pressure from the United Kingdom and France led to a loss of Liberia's claims to extensive territories, which were annexed by adjoining countries. Economic development was hindered by the decline of markets for Liberian goods in the late 19th century and by indebtedness on a series of international loans. In Liberia's early years, the Americo-Liberian settlers periodically encountered stiff and sometimes violent opposition from indigenous Africans who were excluded from citizenship until 1904.

In the mid-20th century, Liberia gradually began to modernize with American assistance. Both the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport were built by U.S. personnel through the Lend-Lease program during World War II. President William Tubmanencouraged foreign investment in the country, resulting in the second-highest rate of economic growth in the world during the 1950s. Liberia also began to take a more active role in international affairs. It was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and became a vocal critic of the South African apartheid regime. Liberia also served as a proponent both of African independence from the European colonial powers and of Pan-Africanism, helping to found the Organization of African Unity.

On April 12, 1980, a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group overthrew and killed President William R. Tolbert, Jr.. Doe and the other plotters later executed a majority of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members. The coup leaders formed the People's Redemption Council(PRC) to govern the country. A strategic Cold War ally, Doe received significant financial backing from the United States while critics condemned the PRC for corruption and political repression. After the country adopted a new constitution in 1985, Doe was elected president in subsequent elections that were internationally condemned as fraudulent. On November 12, 1985, a failed counter-coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, whose soldiers briefly occupied the national radio station. Government repression intensified in response, as Doe's troops executed members of the Gio and Mano ethnic groups in Nimba County.

The National Patriotic Front of Liberia, a rebel group led by Charles Taylor, launched an insurrection in December 1989 against Doe's government with the backing of neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire, triggering the First Liberian Civil War.By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital, and Doe was captured and executed that month by rebel forces. The rebels soon split into various factions fighting one another, and the Economic Community Monitoring Groupunder the Economic Community of West African States organized a military task force to intervene in the crisis. From 1989 to 1996 one of Africa's bloodiest civil wars ensued, claiming the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and displacing a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries. A peace deal between warring parties was reached in 1995 leading to Taylor's election as president in 1997.

Under Taylor's leadership, Liberia became internationally known as a pariah state due to his use of blood diamonds and illegal timberexports to fund the Revolutionary United Front in the Sierra Leone Civil War. The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 whenLiberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, a rebel group based in the northwest of the country, launched an armed insurrection against Taylor. In March 2003, a second rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast. Peace talks between the factions began in Accra in June of that year, and Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for crimes against humanity that same month. By July 2003, the rebels had launched an assault on Monrovia. Under heavy pressure from the international community and the domestic Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peacemovement, Taylor resigned in August and went into exile in Nigeria, and a peace deal was signed later that month. The United Nations Mission in Liberia began arriving in September 2003 to provide security and monitor the peace accord, and an interim government took power the following October.

The subsequent 2005 elections were internationally regarded as the most free and fair in Liberian history. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, aHarvard-trained economist and former Minister of Finance, was elected as the first female president in Africa. Upon her inauguration, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from Nigeria and immediately handed him over to the SCSL for trial in The Hague. In 2006, the government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil war.

Independence Day Maldives - Jul 26

Maldives officially Republic of Maldives (Dhivehi: ‫ެގޭޖްއާރިހެވިދ‬ ް ‫ރ‬ ޫ ‫އ‬ ި ‫ޔ‬ ް ,ާ Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), also referred to as ‫ހމުޖ‬ the Maldive Islands, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean formed by a double chain of twenty-six atolls oriented northsouth off India's Lakshadweep Islands, between Minicoy Island and Chagos Archipelago. It stands in the Laccadive Sea, about 700 kilometres (430 mi) south-west of Sri Lanka and 400 kilometres (250 mi) south-west of India. During the colonial era, the Dutch referred to the country as "Maldivische Eilanden" in their documentation, while "Maldive Islands" is the anglicised version of the local name used by the British, which later came to be written "Maldives".

The Maldives was dominated from the mid sixteenth century by colonial powers - by Portugal, the Netherlands, and the British. In 1965, the Maldives gained independence from the British, becoming a republic. It was then ruled by a sultanate and an authoritarian government. After protests and political pressure for democracy, the first free elections in the history of the Maldives were held in 2008, leading to the election of Mohamed Nasheed. However following the 20112012 Maldives Crisis and accompanying coup d'état, Nasheed was forced to resign in February 2012. Vice President Mohammed Waheed Hassan Manik was thus sworn in as the new president.

The archipelago is located on top of the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean. Maldives also form a terrestrial ecoregion together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. The atolls of Maldives encompass a territory spread over roughly 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi), making it one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries. Its population of 328,536 (2012) inhabits 200 of its 1,192 islands. Maldives' capital and largest city Malé had a population of 103,693 in 2006. It is located at the southern edge of North Malé Atoll, in the Kaafu Atoll. It is also one of the Administrative divisions of the Maldives. Traditionally it was the King's Island where the ancient Maldive Royal dynasties were enthroned.

Maldives is the smallest Asian country in both population and land area. With an average ground level of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, it is the planet's lowest country.It is also the country with the lowest natural highest point in the world, at 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in); the Maldives' forecast inundation is a great concern for the Maldivian people.

Etymology The name Maldives may derive from Mahal'deeb, in Sanskrit or maalai theevu (மாலை தீவு ) in Tamil. The Maldivian

people were called Dhivehin. The word Dheeb/Deeb (archaic Dhivehi, related to Sanskrit dvīpa (द्वीप)) means "island", and Dhives (Dhivehin) means "islanders" (i.e., Maldivians). During the colonial era, the Dutch referred to the country as Maldivische Eilanden in their documentation, while Maldive Islands is the anglicised version of the local name used by the British, which later came to be written as "Maldives".

The ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva ("Island of Women", महिलादिभ) in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning "garland". The Mahawamsa is derived from an even older Sinhala word dating back to the 2nd century BC. Some theorise that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning "garland of islands". In Malayalam, "Garland of Islands" can be translated as Maladhweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). In Tamil, "Garland of Islands" can be translated asMalaiTheevu (மாலைத்தீவு). None of these names is mentioned in any literature, but classical Sanskrit texts dating back to theVedic period mention the "Hundred Thousand Islands" (Lakshadweepa), a generic name which would include not only the Maldives, but also the Laccadives, Aminidivi Islands, Minicoy and the Chagos island groups.

Some medieval travellers such as Ibn Batuta called the islands Mahal Dibiyat (‫ )تأيبد لحم‬from the Arabic word Mahal ("palace"), which must be how the Berber traveller interpreted the local name, having been through Muslim North India, where Perso-Arabic words were introduced into the local vocabulary . This is the name currently inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat.

The name Maldives also might have come from the Sinhalese word මාල දිවයින Maala Divaina ("Necklace Islands"), perhaps referring to the shape of the archipelago. The same name is still used today by Sinhalese when referring to the Maldives, and it is widely believed that ancient Sinhalese were amongst the first settlers on the island archipelago.

History

Ancient history and settlement:

Comparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs indicate that the first settlers were Dravidian people from Tamil Nadu in the Sangam period (300 BC–AD 300), most probably fishermen from the southwest coasts of what is now the south of the Indian Subcontinent and the western shores of Sri Lanka. One such community is the Giraavaru people descended from ancient Tamils. They are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule inMalé. They are considered to be the islands' earliest settler community. A strong underlying layer of Dravidian population and culture survives in Maldivian society, with a clear Dravidian-Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kinship terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Malabari sea faring culture led to Malayali settling of the Laccadives, and the Maldives were evidently viewed as an extension of that archipelago. Some argue (from the presence of Jat, Gujjar Titles and Gotra names) that Sindhisalso accounted for an early layer of migration. Seafaring from Debal began during the Indus valley civilisation. The Jatakas and Puranasshow abundant evidence of this maritime trade; the use of similar traditional boat building techniques in Northwestern South Asia and the Maldives, and the presence of silver punch mark coins from both regions, gives additional weight to this. There are minor signs of Southeast Asian settlers, probably some adrift from the main group of Austronesian reed boat migrants that settled Madagascar.There are some signs of Arab inhabitants, mostly in the southernmost atolls, who probably settled in the height of the Islamic era.

The earliest written history of the Maldives is marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people, who were descended from the exiled MagadhaPrince Vijaya from the ancient city known as Sinhapura. He and his party of several hundred landed in Sri Lanka, and some in the Maldives circa 543 to 483 BC. According to the Mahavansa, one of the ships that sailed with Prince Vijaya, who went to Sri Lanka around 500 BC, went adrift and arrived at an island called Mahiladvipika, which is the Maldives. It is also said that at that time, the people from Mahiladvipika used to travel to Sri Lanka. Their settlement in Sri Lanka and the Maldives marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo-Aryan language Dhivehi, which is most similar in grammar, phonology, and structure toSinhala, and especially to the more ancient Elu language, which has less Pali.

Alternatively, it is believed that Vijaya and his clan came from western India – a claim supported by linguistic and cultural features, and specific descriptions in the epics themselves, e.g. that Vijaya visited Bharukaccha (Bharuch in Gujarat) in his ship on the voyage down south.

Philostorgius, a late antique Greek historian, wrote of a hostage among the Romans, from the island called Diva, which is presumed to be the Maldives, who was baptised Theophilus. Theophilus was sent in the 350s to convert the Himyarites to Christianity, and went to his homeland from Arabia; he returned to Arabia, visited Axum, and settled in Antioch.

Buddhism came to the Maldives at the time of Emperor Ashoka's expansion, and became the dominant religion of the people of the Maldives until the 12th century AD. The ancient Maldivian Kings promoted Buddhism, and the first Maldive writings and artistic achievements, in the form of highly developed sculpture and architecture, are from that period. Before embracing Buddhism as their way of life, Maldivians had practised an ancient form ofHinduism, ritualistic traditions known as Śrauta, in the form of venerating the Surya (the ancient ruling cast were of Aadheetta or Suryavanshi origins).

The first archaeological study of the remains of early cultures in the Maldives began with the work of H.C.P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was shipwrecked on the islands in 1879, and returned several times to investigate ancient Buddhist ruins. He studied the ancient mounds, called havitta or ustubu (these names are derived from chaitiya and stupa) (Dhivehi: ‫ )ަތްއިވަހ‬by the Maldivians, which are found on many of the atolls. Although Bell asserted that the ancient Maldivians had followed Theravada Buddhism, many local Buddhist archaeological remains now in the Malé Museum in fact also display elements of Mahayana and Vajrayana iconography.

In the early 11th century, the Minicoy and Thiladhunmathi, and possibly other northern Atolls, were conquered by the medieval Chola Tamil emperor Raja Raja Chola I, thus becoming a part of the Chola Empire.

According to a legend from Maldivian folklore, in the early 12th century AD, a medieval prince named Koimala, a nobleman of the Lion Race from Sri Lanka, sailed to Rasgetheemu island (literally "Town of the Royal House", or figuratively "King's Town") in the North Maalhosmadulu Atoll, and from there to Malé, and established a kingdom. By then, theAadeetta (Sun) Dynasty (the Suryavanshi ruling cast) had for some time ceased to rule in Malé, possibly because of invasions by the Cholas of Southern India in the tenth century. Koimala Kalou (Lord Koimala), who reigned as King Maanaabarana, was a king of the Homa(Lunar) Dynasty (the Chandravanshi ruling cast), which some historians call the House of Theemuge. The Homa (Lunar) dynasty sovereigns intermarried with the Aaditta (Sun) Dynasty. This is why the formal titles of Maldive kings until 1968 contained references to "kula sudha ira", which means "descended from the Moon and the Sun". No official record exists of the Aadeetta dynasty's reign.

Since Koimala's reign, the Maldive throne was also known as the Singaasana (Lion Throne). Before then, and in some situations since, it was also known as the Saridhaaleys (Ivory Throne). Some historians credit Koimala with freeing the Maldives from Tamil Chola rule.

Several foreign travellers, mainly Arabs, had written about a kingdom of the Maldives ruled over by a queen. This kingdom pre-dated Koimala's reign. al-Idrisi, referring to earlier writers, mentions the name of one of the queens, Damahaar, who was a member of theAadeetta (Sun) dynasty.

The conversion to Islam is mentioned in the ancient edicts written in copper plates from the end of the 12th century AD. There is also a locally well-known legend about a foreign saint (an Iranian from the city of Tabriz) who subdued a demon known as Rannamaari. Dhovemi Kalaminja, who succeeded Koimala, converted to Islam in the year AD 1153.

Over the centuries, the islands have been visited, and their development influenced, by sailors and traders from countries on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The main export of medieval Maldivians was cowrie shell, which they cultivated by floating branches of coconut palms in the sea, to which the shells attached themselves.

The Maldives were the first landfall for traders from Basrah, sailing to Sri Lankaor Southeast Asia. In the Maldives, ships could take on fresh water, fruit and the delicious, basket-smoked red flesh of the black bonito, a delicacy exported to Sindh, China and Yemen. The people of the archipelago were described as gentle, civilised and hospitable.

They produced brass utensils as well as fine cotton textiles, exported in the form of sarongs and turban lengths.

These local industries must have depended on imported raw materials.

The other essential product of the Maldives was coir, the fibre of the dried coconut husk. Cured in pits, beaten, spun and then twisted into cordage and ropes, coir's salient quality is its resistance to saltwater. It stitched together and rigged the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean. Maldivian coir was exported to Sindh, China, Yemen, and the Persian Gulf.

"It is stronger than hemp," wrote Ibn Battuta, "and is used to sew together the planks of Sindhi and Yemeni dhows, for this sea abounds in reefs, and if the planks were fastened with iron nails, they would break into pieces when the vessel hit a rock. The coir gives the boat greater elasticity, so that it doesn't break up."

British protectorate, 1887–1965:

Although governed as an independent Islamic sultanate from 1153 to 1968, the Maldives was a British protectorate from 1887 until 25 July 1965. On 16 December 1887, the Sultan of the Maldives signed a contract with the British Governor of Ceylon turning the Maldives into aBritish protected state, thus giving up the islands' sovereignty in matters of foreign policy, but retaining internal self-government. The British government promised military protection and non-interference in local administration in exchange for an annual tribute, so that the islands were akin to an Indian princely state.

In 1953, there was an abortive attempt to form a republic, but the sultanate survived. In 1957 the British established an air base in the strategic southernmost atoll of Addu, paying £2000 a year, employing hundreds of locals. Nineteen years later, the British government (Labour’s Harold Wilson) gave up the base, as it was too expensive to maintain.

In 1959, objecting to Ibrahim Nasir's centralism, the inhabitants of the three southernmost atolls protested against the government. They formed the United Suvadive Republic and elected Abdullah Afeef as president and chose Hithadhoo as capital of this republic.

End of protectorate, 1965:

During the 1950s and 1960s, the British presence east of Suez was in a steep decline. On 26 July 1965 an agreement was signed on behalf of His Majesty the Sultan by Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan, Prime Minister; and on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen by Sir Michael Walker, British Ambassador designate to the Maldive Islands, which ended the British responsibility for the defense and external affairs of the Maldives. The islands thus achieved full political independence. The Ceremony took place at the British High Commissioner's Residence in Colombo. After this the sultanate continued to operate for another three years under Muhammad Fareed Didi, who declared himself King, rather than Sultan.

Republic, 1968:

On 15 November 1967, a vote was taken in parliament to decide whether the Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or become a republic. Of the 44 members of parliament, forty voted in favour of a republic. On 15 March 1968, a national referendum was held on the question, and 93.34% of those taking part voted in favour of establishing a republic. The republic was declared on 11 November 1968, thus ending the 853-year-old monarchy, which was replaced by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. As the King had held little real power, this was seen as a cosmetic change and required few alterations in the structures of government. The official name of the country was changed from Maldive Islands to the Maldives.

Tourism began to be developed on the archipelago by the beginning of the 1970s. The first accurate census was held in December 1977 and showed 142,832 persons residing in Maldives. However, political infighting during the '70s between Nasir's faction and other political figures led to the 1975 arrest and exile of elected prime minister Ahmed Zaki to a remote atoll. Economic decline followed the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, an important export. With support for his administration faltering, Nasir fled to Singapore in 1978, with millions of dollars from the treasury.

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom began his 30-year role as President in 1978, winning six consecutive elections without opposition. His election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom's priority to develop the poorer islands. Tourism flourished and increased foreign contact spurred development. However, Gayoom's rule was controversial, with some critics saying Gayoom was an autocrat who quelled dissent by limiting freedoms and political favouritism.

A series of coup attempts (in 1980, 1983, and 1988) by Nasir supporters and business interests tried to topple the government without success. While the first two attempts met with little success, the 1988 coup attempt involved a roughly 200-person mercenary force of the PLOTE Tamil militant group who seized the airport and caused Gayoom to flee from house to house until the intervention of 1600Indian troops airlifted into Malé restored order. The November 1988 coup was headed by Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee, a small businessman. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra and flew them over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) to the Maldives. The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless operation, labelled Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy.

Photo: Gergely Botár (Online 18 Jul) State Secretary for External Economic Relations and Foreign Affairs Péter Szijjártó declared that Hungary is aiming to become one of the production centres of Europe so that it can be in the strongest position possible following the crisis. According to the State Secretary, this goal was served by the Government’s economic policy measures, and this is why measures have been implemented to restore budget discipline and decrease government debt.

The State Secretary pointed out that increasing employment, and so the number of taxpayers, had been a major challenge. He said that the educational system had been reorgan-

ised and both vocational training and higher education had been restructured to comply with the demands of the labour market.

With regard to bureaucratic downsizing, he emphasized that the purchasing power of real wages and pensions has increased, public utility rates and government debt have decreased and the budget deficit is being constantly kept under three percent, and these are results that only very few countries within the European Union have been able to achieve.

As he stated, economic policies must be shaped carefully in line with the surrounding economic environment, adding that it is incorrect to speak about a global economic crisis, be-

cause in Asian countries, where economic development is good, there is no crisis.

The State Secretary pointed out that nothing will be the same after the crisis and so new economic tools will be necessary to achieve success. He declared that the country had successfully overcome the challenges it faced, because government debt has decreased and competitiveness has increased while the country’s political and social stability have been maintained, as underpinned by the fact that last year foreign direct capital investment (FDI) totaled 78.5 billion euros.

Utilisation of Shale Gas would transform the EU energy sector: Sándor Fazekas (Online 18 Jul) "The large-scale utilisation of shale gas would require the European Union to rethink the issue of renewable energy; this was put forward by several speakers during the informal meeting of EU environment ministers", Sándor Fazekas told MTI. The Minister for Rural Development was attending the informal meeting of European Union environment ministers in Vilnius, capital of Lithuania, current holder of the EU presidency.

According to the Minister, the most interesting issue on the agenda from Hungary's perspective related to the extraction of shale gas; these hydrocarbons could contribute to reducing the EU's, and therefore Hungary's, dependence on imports. Mr. Fazekas reminded the press of the "extraordinary value" of the natural gas treasure found in Makó, which is also classed as an unconventional hydrocarbon, because it lies at great depth, 5-7 km deep, and can only be extracted using unconventional methods.

According to Hungary's standpoint, prospecting for unconventional hydrocarbons, and especially shale gas, requires extreme care, and safe and

environmentally friendly solutions must be found for their extraction.

The extraction of gas found at great depths uses rock-fracturing technology (fracking), which involves injecting water and various additives into the rock at high pressure.

The Minister indicated that it is very difficult to estimate the possible environmental danger posed by the extraction of gas from great depths. As an example, he mentioned that fact that in Pennsylvania, surface water strata were polluted during the extraction of shale gas. These activities could also cause earth movements and a danger of earthquakes. At the same time, the extraction of shale gas also requires the establishment of many more wells, which brings up questions related to landscape protection and conservation, Sándor Fazekas indicated.

The Minister stressed that it would be advisable for Hungary to wait for the use of proven technologies for the extraction of shale gas. He reminded the press that Hungary has 75 years of tradition and experience with regard to the traditional extraction of hydrocarbons. The state has issues

several permits for prospecting at the Makó gas field, and processes are currently underway in the area, the Minister said.

Sándor Fazekas also said that several EU member states are showing extreme caution with regard to the issue, and would like to wait for more practical data on extraction. Others are totally against fracking, with many requesting a moratorium on the issue.

According to Minister Fazekas, Hungary is currently representing a neutral standpoint on the issue; it cannot take on a negative stance, because the shale gas reserves found in Hungary would be enough to supply the country with gas for centuries to come.

According to estimates, Hungarian shale gas assets total 2000 billion cubic metres, while Hungary's annual gas requirements are some 10 billion cubic metres, he emphasised. The Minister stressed that the Ministry of Rural Development was analysing the issue in detail, would be asking experts to perform the required studies, and also wishes to make use of the shale gas extraction experiences of other countries.

Hungary improved relations with neighbours: János Martonyi

Photo: Endre Véssey (Online 16 Jul) Hungary has by and large significantly improved its relations with neighbouring countries over the past three years, Foreign Minister János Martonyi said on Tuesday.

He told the annual meeting of diplomats in Budapest that building trust is a time-consuming task but hope should never be abandoned. For a long time, there seemed to be no hope of progress in Serbia's case, but eventually the country recognised the collective rights of minorities, and the two presidents have recently made gestures of reconciliation, he added.

The Government has never intended to keep silent about disputed issues, but it is often more useful not to ratchet up tensions, he added.

The better Hungary can cooperate with neighbouring countries, and the

more successful Central European cooperation becomes, the more conditions are likely to improve for ethnic Hungarians beyond the borders, Martonyi said.

He said the current government had offered simplified Hungarian citizenship applications "with an almost complete national consensus." This measure has been of major importance yet tensions in central Europe has been absent besides a dispute in the case of Slovakia which it is hoped will soon be resolved, he added.

Issues raised by the European Commission regarding Hungary are likely to be settled soon, Mr Martonyi said.

These can be resolved because instead of making general ideological and political statements, they address concrete issues, he added.

Commenting on a report on funda-

mental rights in Hungary by rapporteur Rui Tavares approved by the European Parliament, he said it expressed a political stance and Hungary has therefore responded by expressing its own political stance. If the EU's systems are gradually dismantled, the entire system and the balance of institutions will be endangered, he added.

Commenting on the EU's Eastern Partnership programme, he said it is in the interest of Central Europe that the EU take a marked step forward.

Also, if Europe wants to get stronger it should establish partnership cooperation with Russia. The Eastern Partnership programme should not be considered a scheme that stands in the way of EU-Russia relations, he added.

India important for Asia policy: Hungary (Online 15 Jul) As the world’s largest democracy, India plays a crucial role in Hungary’s Asia policy, Minister of Foreign Affairs János Martonyi said in Budapest on 15 July 2013, after meeting Indian Minister of External Affairs Salman Khurshid.

Relations between Hungary and India are progressing well and the two countries share common values, Mr. Martonyi told a press conference. Bilateral ties have been strengthened, as witnessed by the more frequent mutual visits and the fact that Prime Minister

Viktor Orbán is scheduled to visit India in October, he stated.

The Minister will also attend the Asia– Europe (ASEM) meeting in the autumn, the last of which was held in Gödöllő (north of Budapest) in 2011. Indian companies have 1.5 billion US dollars of investments in Hungary and this figure is only set to grow, Martonyi said.

He welcomed India’s pledge to provide more opportunities for Hungarian companies in infrastructure developments.

Mr. Khurshid said the visit by Prime Minster Orbán and his business dele-

gation would be an important event, giving the opportunity to further advance economic ties. Minister Khurshid said he would visit Balatonfüred, a lakeside town in west Hungary, later in the day, where he would plant a tree next to the one planted there in 1968 by his grandfather, Zakir Hussain, the third president of India.

Mr. Khurshid came to Hungary on a three-day visit on 14 July, and he will be the foreign guest at this year’s annual meeting of Hungarian ambassadors at the foreign ministry on 16 July 2013.

Revolution Day Cuba - Jul 27

On July 26, 1953, Cuba exploded into revolution when Fidel Castroand about 140 rebels attacked the federal garrison at Moncada. Although the operation was wellplanned and had the element of surprise, the greater numbers and weapons of the army soldiers, coupled with some remarkably bad luck afflicting the attackers, made the assault a near-total failure for the rebels. Many of the rebels were captured and executed, and Fidel and his brother Raúl were put on trial. They lost the battle but won the war: the Moncada assault was the first armed action of the Cuban Revolution, which would triumph in 1959.

Background

Fulgencio Batista was a military officer who had been president from 1940 to 1944 (and who had held unofficial executive power for some time before 1940). In 1952, Batista ran again for president, but it appeared that he would lose. Together with some other high-ranking officers, Batista smoothly pulled off a coup that removed President Carlos Prío from power. The elections were cancelled.

Fidel Castro was a charismatic young lawyer who was running for Congress in Cuba’s 1952 elections and according to some historians, he was likely to win. After the coup, Castro went into hiding, knowing intuitively that his past opposition to different Cuban governments would make him one of the “enemies of the state” that Batista was rounding up.

Planning the Assault

Batista’s government was quickly recognized by various Cuban civic groups, such as the banking and business communities. It was also recognized internationally, including by the United States. After the elections were cancelled and things had calmed down, Castro tried to bring Batista to court to answer for the takeover, but failed. Castro decided that legal means of removing Batista would never work. Castro began plotting an armed revolution in secret, attracting to his cause many other Cubans disgusted by Batista’s flagrant power grab.

Castro knew that he needed two things to win: weapons and men to use them. The assault on Moncada was designed to provide both. The barracks were full of weapons, enough to outfit a small army of rebels. Castro reasoned that if the daring attack were successful, hundreds of angry Cubans would flock to his side to help him bring Batista down.

Batista’s security forces were aware that several groups (not only Castro’s) were plotting armed insurrection, but they had little resources and none of them seemed a serious threat to the government. Batista and his men were much more worried about rebellious factions within the army itself as well as the organized political parties that had been favored to win the 1952 elections.

The Plan

The date for the assault was set for July 26, because July 25 was the festival of St. James and there would be parties in the nearby town. It was hoped that at dawn on the 26th, many of the soldiers would be missing, hung over, or even still drunk inside the barracks. The insurgents would drive in wearing army uniforms, seize control of the base, help themselves to weapons, and leave before other armed forces units could respond. The Moncada barracks are located outside of the city of Santiago, in the Oriente province. In 1953, Oriente was the poorest of Cuba’s regions, and the one with the most civil unrest. Castro hoped to spark an uprising, which he would then arm with Moncada weapons.

All aspects of the assault were meticulously planned. Castro had printed copies of a manifesto, and ordered that they be delivered to newspapers and select politicians on July 26 at exactly 5:00 am. A farm close to the barracks was rented, where weapons and uniforms were stashed. All of those who participated in the assault made their way to the city of Santiago independently, and stayed in rooms that had been rented beforehand. No detail was overlooked as the rebels tried to make the attack a success.

The Attack

In the early morning of July 26, several cars drove around Santiago, picking up rebels. They all met at the rented farm, where they were issued uniforms and weapons, mostly light rifles and shotguns. Castro briefed them, as no one except a few high-ranking organizers knew what the target was to be. They loaded back in the cars and set off. There were 138 rebels set to attack Moncada, and another 27 sent to attack a smaller outpost in nearby Bayamo.

Despite the meticulous organization, the operation was a fiasco almost from the start. One of the cars suffered a flat tire, and two cars got lost in the streets of Santiago. The first car to arrive had gotten through the gate and disarmed the guards, but a two-man routine patrol outside of the gate threw the plan off and the shooting started before the rebels were in position.

The alarm sounded and the soldiers began a counterattack. There was a heavy machine gun in a tower which kept most of the rebels pinned down in the street outside the barracks. The few rebels who had made it in with the first car fought for a while, but when half of them were killed they were forced to retreat and join their comrades outside.

Seeing that the attack was doomed, Castro ordered a retreat and the rebels quickly scattered. Some of them simply threw down their weapons, took off their uniforms, and faded into the nearby city. Some, including Fidel and Raúl Castro, were able to escape. Many were captured, including 22 who had occupied the federal hospital. Once the attack was called off, they had tried to disguise themselves as patients but were found out. The smaller Bayamo force met a similar fate as they, too were captured or driven off.

Aftermath

Nineteen federal soldiers had been killed and the remaining soldiers were in a murderous mood. All of the prisoners were massacred, although two women who had been part of the hospital takeover were spared. Most of the prisoners were tortured first, and news of the barbarity of the soldiers soon leaked to the general public. It caused enough of a scandal for the Batista government that by the time Fidel, Raúl and many of the remaining rebels were rounded up in the next couple of weeks, they were jailed and not executed.

Batista made a great show out of the trials of the conspirators, allowing journalists and civilians to attend. This would prove to be a mistake, as Castro used his trial to attack the government. Castro said that he had organized the assault in order to remove the tyrant Batista from office, and that he was merely doing his civic duty as a Cuban in standing up for democracy. He denied nothing, but instead took pride in his actions. The people of Cuba were riveted by the trials and Castro became a national figure. His famous line from the trial is “History will absolve me!”

In a belated attempt to shut him up, the government locked Castro down, claiming he was too ill to continue with his trial. This only made the dictatorship look worse when Castro got word out that he was fine and able to stand trial. His trial was eventually conducted in secret, and despite his eloquence, he was convicted and sentenced to 15 years in prison.

Batista made another tactical mistake in 1955 when he buckled to international pressure and released many political prisoners, including Castro and the others who had participated in the Moncada assault. Freed, Castro and his most loyal comrades went to Mexico to organize and launch the Cuban Revolution.

Legacy Castro named his insurgency “the 26th of July Movement” after the date of the Moncada assault. Although it was

initially a failure, Castro was ultimately able to make the most out of Moncada. He used it as a recruiting tool: although many political parties and groups in Cuba railed against Batista and his crooked regime, only Castro had done anything about it. This attracted many Cubans to the movement who may have otherwise not gotten involved.

The massacre of the captured rebels also severely damaged the credibility of Batista and his top officers, who were now seen as butchers, especially once the rebels’ plan – they had hoped to take the barracks without bloodshed – became known. It allowed Castro to use Moncada as a rallying cry, sort of like “Remember the Alamo!” This is more than a little ironic, as Castro and his men had attacked in the first place, but it became somewhat justified in the face of the subsequent atrocities.

Although it failed in its goals of acquiring weapons and arming the unhappy citizens of Oriente Province, Moncada was, in the long run, a very important part of the success of Castro and the 26th of July Movement.

Victory Day - Jul 27 North Korea

The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953[a]) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japanfrom 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.

The failure to hold free elections throughout the Korean Peninsula in 1948 deepened the division between the two sides; the North established a communist government, while the South established a capitalist one. The 38th parallel increasingly became a political border between the two Korean states. Although reunification negotiations continued in the months preceding the war, tension intensified. Cross-border skirmishes and raids at the 38th Parallel persisted.

The situation escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. It was the first significant armed conflict of the Cold War. In 1950 the Soviet Union boycotted the United Nations security council, in protest at representation of China by the Kuomintang / Republic of China government, which had taken refuge in Taiwan following defeat in the Chinese Civil War. In the absence of a dissenting voice from the Soviet Union, who could have vetoed it, the United States and other countries passed a security council resolution authorizing military intervention in Korea.

The United States of America provided 88% of the 341,000 international soldiers which aided South Korean forces in repelling the invasion, with twenty other countries of the United Nations offering assistance. Suffering severe casualties, within two months the defenders were pushed back to a small area in the south of the Korean Peninsula, known as the Pusan perimeter. A rapid U.N. counter-offensive then drove the North Koreans past the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River, when the People's Republic of China(PRC) entered the war on the side of North Korea. Chinese intervention forced the Southern-allied forces to retreat behind the 38th Parallel. While not directly committing forces to the conflict, the Soviet Union provided material aid to both the North Korean and Chinese armies. The active stage of the war ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement was signed. The agreement restored the border between the Koreas near the 38th Parallel and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two Korean nations. Minor outbreaks of fighting continue to the present day.

With both North Korea and South Korea sponsored by external powers, the Korean War was a proxy war. From a military science perspective, it combined strategies and tactics of World War I and World War II: it began with a mobile campaign of swift infantry attacks followed by air bombing raids, but became a static trench war by July 1951.

Mao Zedong's decision to involve China in the Korean War was a conscientious effort to confront the most powerful country in the world, undertaken at a time when the regime was still consolidating its own power after winning theChinese Civil War. Mao primarily supported intervention not to save North Korea or to appease the Soviet Union, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after UN forces crossed the 38th parallel.

Mao's secondary motive was to improve his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng.

China emerged from the Korean War united by a sense of national pride, despite the war's enormous costs. The Chinese people were educated to believe that the war was initiated by the United States and Korea, and not by a fraternal communist state in the north. In Chinese propaganda, the Chinese war effort was portrayed and accepted as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and

by Western powers over the previous hundred years in order to promote the image of the PLA and the CCP. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war (for China) was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai-shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control until the present day.

The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952 and the foundation for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations was laid.

The beginning of racial integration efforts in the U.S. military began during the Korean War, where African Americans fought in integrated units for the first time. Among the 1.8 million American soldiers who fought in the Korean War there were more than 100,000 African Americans.

Post-war recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first post-war decade, but later industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world's fastest growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).

Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.

In a February 2002 Gallup-Korea poll, one-third of South Koreans viewed the United States favorably.

In addition a large number of mixed race 'G.I. babies' (offspring of U.S. and other western soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race. Children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in Korean society.

Thousands were adopted by American families in the years following the war, when their plight was covered on television. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 removed race as a limiting factor in immigration, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest growing Asian groups in the United States.

In 2011, some former members of Chinese People's Volunteer Army, who had battled there, revisited North Korea. Afterwards they said that they were "very sad", unsatisfied with the post-war development of North Korea. "(We) liberated them, but they're still struggling for freedom", said Qu Yingkui.