Dayak Festival Malaysia - Jun 01
Gawai Dayak is a festival celebrated by Dayaks in Sarawak and West Kalimantan which is officially public holidays on 31 May and 1 June every year in Sarawak, Malaysia. It is both a religious and social occasion. The idea for Gawai Dayak started war back in 1957 in a radio forum held by Tan Kingsley and Owen Liang, a radio programme organiser. This generated a lot of interest among the Dayak community. Up till 1962, the British colonial government refused to recognize the Dayak Day but instead called it the Sarawak Day which was meant to be celebrated by all Sarawakians as a national day. The first Gawai was hosted by Datuk Michael Buma, a Betong native, at his house at Siol Kandis, Kuching on June 1, 1963, before it was officially gazetted on 25 September 1964 as a public holiday in place of Sarawak Day after the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. It was first celebrated on 1 June 1965 and became a symbol of unity, aspiration and hope for the Dayak community. Today, it is an integral part of the Dayak social life. It is a thanksgiving day marking a bountiful harvest and a time to plan for the new farming season or other endeavors ahead.
HUNGARY New sure start children’s centre opened
EPP's election victory should not lead to automatic nominations: PM Orbán
Independence Day Samoa - Jun 01
Samoa officially the Independent State of Samoa (Samoan: Malo Sa'oloto Tuto'atasi o Sāmoa), formerly known as Western Samoa, is a country encompassing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and one of the biggest islands in Polynesia, Savai'i. The capital city, Apia, and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu. Samoa was admitted to the United Nations on 15 December 1976. The entire island group, inclusive of American Samoa, was called "Navigators Islands" by European explorers before the 20th century because of the Samoans' seafaring skills.
History
The oldest date so far from pre-historic remains in Samoa has been calculated by New Zealand scientists to a likely true age of circa 3,000 years ago from a Lapita site atMulifanua during the 1970s. The origins of the Samoans is closely linked to modern research about Polynesia in various scientific disciplines such as genetics, linguistics and anthropology. Scientific research is ongoing although a number of different theories exist; including one proposing that the Samoans originated from Austronesian predecessors during the terminal eastward Lapita expansion period from Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE. The Samoan origins are currently being reassessed due to new scientific evidence and carbon dating findings from 2003 and onwards. Intimate sociocultural and genetic ties were maintained between the eastern Lapitacolonies and the archaeological record supports oral tradition and native genealogies that indicate inter-island voyaging and intermarriage between prehistoric Samoans, Fijians, and Tongans. Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century. Jacob Roggeveen (1659–1729), a Dutchman, was the first known European to sight the Samoan islands in 1722. This visit was followed by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811), who named them the Navigator Islands in 1768. Contact was limited before the 1830s which is when English missionaries and traders began arriving. Mission work in Samoa had begun in late 1830 by John Williams, of the London Missionary Society arriving in Sapapali'i from The Cook Islands and Tahiti. By that time, the Samoans had gained a reputation of being savage and warlike, as violent altercations had occurred between natives and French, British, German and American forces, who, by the late nineteenth century, valued Samoa as a refuelling station for coal-fired shipping and whaling. According to Barbara A. West, "The Samoans were also known to engage in 'headhunting,' a ritual of war in which a warrior took the head of his slain opponent to give to his leader, thus proving his bravery." The Germans in particular began to show great commercial interest in the Samoan Islands, especially on the island of 'Upolu where German firms monopolised copra and cocoa bean processing; the United States laid its own claim and formed alliances with local native chieftains, most conspicuously on the islands of Tutuila and Manu'a (which were later formally annexed to the USA as American Samoa). Britain also sent troops to protect British business enterprise, harbour rights, and consulate office. There followed an eight-year civil war, where each of the three powers supplied arms, training, and in some cases, combat troops to the warring Samoan parties. The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a larger-scale war seemed imminent, until a massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict. The Second Samoan Civil War was a conflict that reached a head in 1898 when Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States were locked in dispute over who should have control over the Samoa Islands. The Siege of Apia occurred during the Second Samoan Civil War in March 1899 at Apia. Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. Over the course of several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were defeated. American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899; including the USS Philadelphia. Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities; with the partitioning of the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899.
20th century:
The Tripartite Convention of 1899 partitioned the Samoan Islands into two parts: the eastern island group became a territory of the United States (the Tutuila Islands in 1900 and officially Manu'a in 1904) and is today known as American Samoa; the western islands, by far the greater landmass, became known as German Samoa after Britain vacated all claims to Samoa and accepted termination of German rights in Tonga and certain areas in the Solomon Islands and West Africa. By 1912 the German administration had apparently achieved its longterm objective of understanding the traditional forces in Samoa politics Studio photo depicting preparawhile maintaining a semblance of local participation in government. tion of the Samoa 'ava ceremony There was no more Tupu (King), nor even alii sili (similar to a gover- c. 1911. nor), but the two Fautua (Advisors) were appointed. Tumua and Pule (traditional governments of Upolu and Savaii) were for a time silent; all decisions on matters affecting lands and titles were under the control of the Governor. To complete the process, theFa’alupega for all Samoa was revised. In a culture based on oratory, the Fa’alupega is a formal greeting which acknowledges those being greeted and their status. The Fa’alupega, which had been nationally accepted from at least the late 19th century (and probably for much longer than that), was as follows: "Tulouna a Tumua ma Pule, Tulouna a Itu’au ma Alataua, Tulouna a Aiga-i-le-Tai, Ma le Va’a-o-Fonoti, Tulouna a Tama ma a latou aiga Po’o aiga ma a latou tama". This firstly recognised the authority and identity of principal districts of Samoa through their spokesmen –Tumua ma Pule, Itu’au ma Alataua, Aiga-i-le-Tai, and the Va'a-o-Fonoti – and the highest titles which were bestowed by these groups. It concludes with the recognition of the great maximal descent groups of Samoa and their "sons" who had People in attendance at Tupua Tamesese's funeral. been chosen to hold the highest titles. The new Fa’alupega of German Samoa, which in its first line recognises the Kaiser (Kaisa), apparently required Malietoa Tanumafili and Tupua Tamasese to be sworn on oath to become advisors to the governing council: "Tulouna a lana Maiesitete le Kaisa o le tupu mamalu o lo tatou malo kasialika aoao. Tulouna a lana afioga le kovana kasialika o le sui o le kaisa I Samoa nei. Susu mai Malietoa, Afio mai Tupua Ua fa’amanatuiana ai aiga e lua I o oulua tofiga Kasialika o le Fautua. Tulouna a le vasega a Faipule Kasialika o e lagolago malosi I le Malo. Afifio mai le nofo a vasega o tofiga Kasialika o e usu fita I le tautua I le malo". The first German Governor, Wilhelm Solf, later went on to become Secretary for the Colonies of Imperial Germany. New Zealand troops landed on 'Upolu unopposed on 29 August 1914 and seized control from the German authorities, following a request by Britain for New Zealand to perform their "great and urgent imperial service." From the end of World War I until 1962, New Zealand controlled Samoa as a Class C Mandate under trusteeship through the League of Nations, then through the United Nations. There followed a series of New Zealand administrators who were responsible for two major incidents. In the first incident, approximately one fifth of the Samoan population died in the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919. In 1919 The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of the 'SS Talune' from Auckland on 7 November 1918. The NZ administration allowed the ship to berth in breach of quarantine; within seven days of this ship's arrival influenza became epidemic in Upolu and then spread rapidly throughout the rest of the territory. The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by the Mau (which literally translates as "strongly held opinion"), a non-violent popular movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai'i, led by Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe, an orator chief deposed by Solf. In 1909, Lauaki was exiled to Saipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915. By 1918, Samoa had population of some 38,000 Samoans and 1,500 Europeans. By the late 1920s the resistance movement against colonial rule had gathered widespread support during the mistreatment of the Samoan people by the New Zealand administration. One of the Mau leaders was Olaf Frederick Nelson, a half Samoan and half Swedish merchant. Nelson was eventually exiled during the late 1920s and early 1930s, but he continued to assist the organisation financially and politically. In accordance with the Mau's non-violent philosophy, the newly elected leader, High Chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi, led his fellow uniformed Mau in a peaceful demonstration in downtown Apia on 28 December 1929. The New Zealand police attempted to arrest one of the leaders in the demonstration. When he resisted, a struggle developed between the police and the Mau. The officers began to fire randomly into the crowd and a Lewis machine gun, mounted in preparation for this demonstration, was used to disperse the demonstrators. Chief Tamasese was shot from behind and killed while trying to bring calm and order to the Mau demonstrators, screaming "Peace, Samoa". Ten others died that day and approximately 50 were injured by gunshot wounds and police batons. That day would come to be known in Samoa as Black Saturday. The Mau grew, remaining steadfastly non-violent, and expanded to include a highly influential women's branch. After repeated efforts by the Samoan people, Western Samoa gained independence in 1962 and signed a Friendship Treaty with New Zealand. Samoa, the first smallisland country in the Pacific to become independent, joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. In 2002, New Zealand's prime minister Helen Clark, on a trip to Samoa, formally apologised for New Zealand's role in the events of 1918 and 1929. In July 1997 the government amended the constitution to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa. The US territory of American Samoa protested the move, asserting that the change diminished its own identity. As of 2012 American Samoans still use the terms Western Samoa and Western Samoans to describe the independent State of Samoa and its inhabitants. Travel writer Paul Theroux noted marked differences between the societies in Samoa and American Samoa.
Photo: Károly Árvai (Online 29 May) Péter Garai, Deputy State Secretary for Social Inclusion of the Ministry of Human Resources, opened the Bódvalenke Sure Start Children’s Centre known as Freskófalu (Fresco Village) on Thursday. The Deputy State Secretary said in his speech that there are currently children’s centres in more than 110 localities throughout the country. Sure Start Children’s Centres are being established in the country’s most disadvantaged regions as well as in disadvantaged localities or districts with large Roma populations. Both the Ministry of Human Resources and the Hungarian Reformed Church charity service played a major role in the establishment of the Bódvalenke Sure Start Children’s Centre. Minister of Human Resources Zoltán Balog offered a con-
tribution to the debit of his own allocation to enable the aid organisation to purchase the property and to begin renovation work. The Hungarian Reformed Church charity service then began a collection to raise the funds necessary for the completion of the refurbishment, and finally succeeded in bringing construction to a successful conclusion with a contribution from the international charity organisation H. Stepic CEE. The facility will be operated by the Multi-Purpose Association of the Edelény Micro-Region as part of the Social Renewal Operational Programme financed from the Széchenyi Plan for one year. The Association will spend some HUF 14 million on the remuneration of staff members, the operation of the facility and the materials and equipment
necessary for the sessions organised for children. The Hungarian Reformed Church foundation will take over the operation of the facility as of May 2015. Sure Start was the first programme to become a locally funded scheme in 2012 after the end of the aid project initially supported by the Norway Grants and the European Union; 41 out of the Children’s Centres completing the EU project were awarded funding in 2012, and 43 in 2013. In the wake of the professional reforms and further development completed after the change of government in 2010, the network of Sure Start Children’s Centres has become a model programme.
(Online 28 May) Leaders of the European Union need to make decisions concerning the next few years of the community before personnel questions are put on the agenda, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán said in Brussels on Tuesday. Regarding the next President of the European Commission, he stated that the European People's Party's victory at the recent European elections should not "automatically lead to concrete nominations". He insisted that cardinal issues
should be resolved first, adding that "constitutional identity" was the most important such issue for Hungary. He argued that European institutions have recently overstepped the boundaries of their authority defined by EU law, a practice that "we must put an end to". That is why, he pointed out, Hungary does not support automatic nominations. Terms of the EU treaty must be observed with the "implacability of the law" and disingenuous attempts to change the treaty must be stopped,
he said. He insisted that if the European Council approved of the nomination of the winning party's candidate to the post, it would put in place an automatism, which would be equal to changing the treaty without authorisation. Concerning critical remarks by European Socialists and Liberals over his Fidesz party, Prime Minister Orbán called for more respect to "Europe's nation states, its parties, and sometimes, their leaders, too".
Minister Soltész hands over “Familyfriendly Workplace” awards
Hungary condemns terrorist acts in Nigeria (Online 27 May) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemns the recent acts of terrorism in Nigeria; any form of terrorism is unacceptable and constitute serious crimes. The Ministry expresses its sympathy with the families of more than hundred victims of a dual bomb attack in
the Nigerian city of Jos last week. The Ministry is deeply concerned about the recent continual acts of terrorism and has already expressed this several times. Hungary and Nigeria had recently celebrated the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic rela-
tions, giving hope that cooperation between the two countries can further develop. Security and peace must be restored in Nigeria without delay and the local government must make every effort to prevent terrorist attacks.
Hungary calls on Sudan to drop death sentence of woman charged with apostasy (Online 29 May) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Hungary calls upon Sudan to withdraw a sentence under which a woman charged with apostasy would be executed. The Ministry also calls upon the Sudanese party to observe fundamental human rights in terms of religious freedoms, in line with international
human rights agreements Sudan is signatory of. The 27 year-old pregnant woman was sentenced to death by a Khartoum court despite protests from several western embassies that called on Sudanese authorities to respect the right to freedom of religion. Amnesty International has reported
that the woman, who has since given birth, and her twenty-month-old son are being kept behind bars. She was raised as a Christian by her Orthodox Christian mother after the Muslim father left the family. She has married a Christian man from South Sudan and refused the court’s order to recant her faith.
Ve hic le m a nuf a c t ur ing is t he e ngine be hind H unga r y 's e c onom y (Online 29 May) The 710 firms in the car manufacturing industry operating in Hungary generate nearly one-fifth of the country's industrial output and 18 percent of its exports, State Secretary for Foreign Affairs and External Economic Relations Péter Szijjártó said on Wednesday, addressing a ceremony marking the production of the one-millionth startstop system by Continental Automotive Hungary. Continental Automotive Hungary employs 2,800 workers and 500 engi-
neers at its Budapest and Veszprém (West Hungary) plants. The State Secretary underlined the role of German vehicle-industry firms in the Hungarian economy, noting that three German car manufacturers and 15 major German vehicle-parts makers are currently operating in the country. Also on Wednesday, the financial director of Mercedes-Benz Manufacturing Hungary announced that Daimler's plant in Kecskemét (Central Hungary) generated net revenue
of EUR 2.1 billion last year. The plant turned out 109,000 cars last year and is launching a third shift to meet growing demand for the new CLA model. The plant is currently employing over 3,500 people and it is expected to produce 145,000 carsa-year. According to 2013 statistics, with 1.9 million engines produced last year, Hungary is now the fourth biggest engine manufacturer in Europe, behind only Germany, France and the United Kingdom.
Number of people in employment exceeds 4.1 million in Hungary (Online 29 May) According to the flash report of the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH), positive employment trends are continuing. In the period February-April 2014, the number of those aged 15-74 years in employment increased by 238 thousand, from 3 million 869 thousand one year ago to 4 million 107 thousand. In this period, the number of those in employment was 375 thousand more in comparison to the corresponding period of 2010. Although part of this growth is attributable to the effect of public work programmes and migration, thanks to the Government’s successful employment stimulus schemes, such as the First Job Guarantee Programme, housing subsidy or the programme support-
ing the creation of SME jobs, the private sector’s share of employment growth is increasing. As far as the gender aspect of employment is concerned, indicators for both men and women have improved. The employment rate of men aged 15-64 years was up by 4.9 percentage points to 67.5 percent in comparison to the corresponding period of the previous year. The employment rate of women aged 15-64 years exceeded 55 percent for the second consecutive month. In February-April 2014, this indicator for women was 55.5 percent, the highest figure ever. Thus, the gap between the EU and Hungarian averages has been narrowing, from 8.5 percent five years ago to 3-3.5
percent. In Hungary, the number of people without a job was down year-on-year by 116 thousand in the period February-April 2014. The unemployment rate has thus declined further: the unemployment rate of those aged 15-74 years improved to 8.1 percent in the observed period. This is the best Q1 data since 2008 when this indicator was at 8 percent. Lower taxes on labour, the Job Protection Action Plan, measures to stimulate economic activity and the positive trend reversal of 2013 have all contributed to the record-high growth in employment. Microeconomic data are also confirming Hungary’s economic upturn.
Photo: Ministry of Human Resources (Online 29 May) State Minister for Social and Family Affairs Miklós Soltész handed over on Wednesday in Budapest “Family-friendly Workplace” awards to 43 institutions and enterprises in four categories. There were over 300 applicants for the awards, which were divided into four categories: government institutions, large, medium and small businesses. Each category had a special prize for one winner while the rest received a plaque denoting their achievement. In the government institutions category this year’s special award winner is the municipality of Budapest’s 16th district, the Szeged Science University, the University of Debrecen, the Márianosztra Prison, the municipality of Tapolca and that of Budapest’s
23rd district, the Unified Welfare Institutions of Miskolc, the Cultural Institutions of Ózd, the Heves County government offices, the Budapest Municipality Home for the Elderly, the Óbuda Rehabilitation Centre, the Mayor’s office of Jászberény and other institutions. The special award for the large enterprises category went to BT ROC Kft., in the medium enterprises category to the GAK Kft. and in the small enterprises category to Vision-Software Kft. Other small enterprises receiving the award included the Fonó Music House and two agricultural firms. At the awarding ceremony Soltész gave a short overview of the government’s family policy achievements over the past four years saying that
due to a change in approach more and more employers are making efforts to create family-friendly workplaces. He said that between 2011 and 2013 the fertility rate rose to 1.34 from 1.26, the number of marriages is rising and that of divorces and abortions is declining. Deputy Minister of State for Families and Inclusion Policy said that creating family-friendly workplaces is primarily an executive decision and is less dependent on available funds. He also said that family-friendly workplaces are good for the employees who can spend more time with their families while employers in turn gain more devoted employees.
Commemoration and gala on the Day of National Unity (Online 30 May) This year, the Day of National Unity will be remembered for the fourth time on the 4th of June; date of the signing of the Treaty of Trianon. The programmes of the national event are built again around the cross-border unity of the Hungarian culture to strengthen the ties between Hungarians living in- and outside of the country. According to the Parliament’s decision, the focus of the day is not on the tragic experience of loss, but rather the reality of the mind-lifting experience of belonging together. The Parliament declared the 4th of June, the day of the signing of the Treaty of Trianon as the Day of Na-
tional Unity on May 31, 2010. The Parliament stated that it is treated as a duty to warn the living members as well as the future generations of the Hungarian nation to remember the national tragedy caused by the Treaty of Trianon forever and work for the strengthening of national belonging; while keeping in mind our mistakes causing harm in members of other nations and learn from all these with drawing strength from the examples of national unity and results of national revival during the struggles of the past ninety years. On June 4 Zsolt Semjén, Deputy Prime Minister responsible for Na-
tional Policy will deliver a ceremonial welcome speech at the commemoration starting 10:00 AM. The show will see the performance of Hungarian folk musicians and dancers from abroad, who participate in the talent management programme of the House of Hungarians; as well as reciters from around the Carpathian Basin. A gala will be held from 7:00 PM under the title ‘Tradition for Life: Our Heritage from the Carpathian Basin’; at which Zoltán Balog, Minister of Human Resources will give a welcome speech.
21st century:
From 7 September 2009, the government has changed the driving orientation for motorists and Samoans now drive on the left hand side of the road. This brings Samoa into line with many other countries in the region. Samoa is the first country in recent years, and the first in the 21st century, to switch to driving on the left. At the end of December 2011, Samoa jumped forward by one day, omitting 30 December from the local calendar, when the nation moved to the west of the International Date Line. This was designed to help the nation boost its economy by doing business with Australia and New Zealand. Before this change, Samoa was 21 hours behind Sydney, but the change means it is now three hours ahead. The previous timezone was agreed on 4 July 1892, to work in line with American traders based in California.
Madaraka Day Kenya - Jun 01
Madaraka Day, 1 June, commemorates the day that Kenya attained internal self-rule in 1963, preceding full independence from the United Kingdom on 12 December 1963.
Republic Day Italy - Jun 02
A constitutional referendum was held in Italy on 2 June 1946, a key event ofItalian contemporary history. Until 1946, Italy was a kingdom ruled by the House of Savoy, kings of Italy since the Risorgimento and previously rulers of Savoy. However, Benito Mussolini, enjoying the support of the reigning monarch, imposed fascism after the 28 October 1922 March on Rome, eventually engaging Italy in World War II alongside Nazi Germany. In 1946, Italy became a republicafter the results of a popular referendum. Monarchists advanced suspicions of fraud that were never proved. A Constituent Assembly was elected at the same time.
Background
The Italian referendum was intended only to determine whether the head of stateshould come from a family dynasty or be elected by popular vote. Democracywas not a new concept in Italian politics. The Kingdom of Piedmont had become a constitutional monarchy with the liberalizing reforms of King Charles Albert's famous Albertine Statute in 1848. Suffrage, initially limited to select citizens, was gradually expanded; in 1911, the government of Giovanni Giolitti introduced universal suffrage for male citizens. In this period, the provisions of the Statute were often not observed, however. Instead, the elected Chamber and the Head of Government took major roles. At the beginning of the 20th century, many observers thought that, by comparison to other countries, Italy was developing in the direction of a modern democracy. Essential issues that needed to be resolved included the relationship of the Kingdom with the Roman Catholic Church. A crisis arose in Italian society as a result of the First World War, social inequalities, and the consequent tension between Marxist and other left-wing parties on one side and conservative liberals on the other. This crisis led to the advent of Fascism, which destroyed freedoms and civil rights and established a dictatorship, breaking the continuity of the still fragile new parliamentary tradition. The support of the ruling elite and especially the monarchy was crucial for the seizure of power by Benito Mussolini. After the March on Rome, King Victor Emmanuel IIIrefused to sign a decree to declare a state of siege, and asked Mussolini to form a new government. The King's decisions were made in accordance with the Statuto, but in opposition to the parliamentary practices of the Italian liberal state, the Fascist Party having a little number of MPs only. After the invasion of Italy by Allied forces in 1943, Italy and its government were split in two. Mussolini's Grand Fascist Council, with the co-operation of the King, overthrew Mussolini and established a new government headed by Marshal Pietro Badoglio.Germany, concerned with the new government's intentions to negotiate peace with the Allies, invaded and occupied Northern Italy. German paratroopers rescued Mussolini from the hilltop hotel in which he had been imprisoned by the new government. Under pressure from Adolf Hitler, Mussolini established the Italian Social Republic to administer the German-occupied territory. Mussolini declared that the monarchy had been overthrown, and began to establish the apparatus of the new state. The Italian Social Republic was headquartered in the town of Salò, and is commonly known as the Republic of Salò. Southern Italy, meanwhile, was nominally under the control of the new legitimist government of Badoglio, continuing as the Kingdom of Italy. Rome descended into chaos as fighting erupted between Mussolini loyalists and supporters of the new government, as well as leftist opponents of fascism who emerged from hiding. The King and the Badoglio government left Rome to seek the protection of the Allied forces that occupied the South. With half of Italian territory occupied by the Germans and the rest by the Allies, the restoration of civil rights was abandoned due to the complete disorder in the country. The pre-Fascist-era parties had been disbanded, had only clandestine limited activity and had become out of touch with the population. Consequently, the relationships between these parties, and the balance of power was left to be decided at a later, quieter time. Some political forces organized the Resistance and received a strong popular consensus, but it was impossible to determine what they represented without an election, which could not be held because of the chaotic situation. Almost all the Resistance was anti-monarchist. A temporary alliance between them and the Badoglio government was created by the decision ofJoseph Stalin and Palmiro Togliatti, secretary of the Italian Communist Party, to postpone the problem of the state organisation and focus all efforts on the struggle against Hitler's puppet state in the North. At the end of the war, Italy was a severely damaged country, with innumerable victims, a destroyed economy, and a desperate general condition. The defeat left the country deprived of the Empire it had fought for in the past two decades, and occupied by foreign soldiers. For some years after 1945, internal, politically motivated fighting continued. The emergence of political forces to replace fascism could not occur until the internal conflict ended and elections could be held. After fighting had died down, a few months were needed before attention could be given to institutional matters. The first important question regarded the royal family, blamed by many for the fascist regime, the war, and the defeat. Republican traditions in Italy traditionally hark back to the Roman Republic and the Medieval Communes but remained largely theoretical, as in the conclusion of Machiavelli's Il Principe. The struggle for a Republican Italy independent of foreign powers had been started by Giuseppe Mazzini in the 19th century. The movement Giustizia e Libertà, which continued the traditional Mazzinian ideology, was the second important force during the resistance. It posed the question of the form of the state as a fundamental precondition to developing any further agreements with the other parties. Giustizia e Libertà joined the Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale (National Liberation Committee, CLN). The various competing political factions agreed that a popular referendum would be held to determine the future choice of Head of State.
Aftermath The new republican constitution was released together with a group of minor dispositions, the 13th of which prescribed that the male descendants of the Savoy family have to stay in perpetual exile. This disposition was abolished in October 2002, and Vittorio Emanuele, Umberto II's son, entered Italy with his family in the following December, for a short formal visit to the Pope. The abolition of the exile followed an extensive political and juridical discussion that lasted several decades.
Day of Botev and heroes died for Bulgarian freedom Bulgaria - Jun 02
Every year on June 2 at noon, for three minutes the air raid sirens across Bulgaria sound in alarm. Cars stop, pedestrians bow their heads and students rise at their desks. Everyone observes a moment of dignified silence. The sirens have long since stopped warning of imminent danger – there are no enemy airplanes over Sofia, no foreign armies marching across the Thracian plains. The sirens sound to remind us of those Bulgarians who died for Bulgaria’s freedom and present-day peace. On June 2 Bulgaria remembers the armies of khan Tervel, who defended Europe against the Arabs, the defenders of Medieval Tarnovo, the heroes of the April uprising, the martyrs of Shipka, the young Bulgarian flying aces who defended Sofia from English bombers, as well as countless other known and unknown Bulgarians who laid their lives in the name of our sovereignty. On June 2, 1876, Hristo Botev, one of the most celebrated Bulgarians in history, was killed in battle in the crags of Stara Planina near Vratza. A poet, a journalist and a revolutionary, Botev was also extremely intelligent and fervent in his ideals. Deeply convinced of the need for the armed liberation of Bulgaria and a sympathizer of the Paris Commune, Botev takes an active role in the planning activities of the revolutionary committees outside Bulgaria’s borders.
Martyr's Day Uganda - J u n e 0 3
The Uganda Martyrs were Christian converts who were murdered for their faith in the historical kingdom of Buganda, now part of Uganda.
Charles Lwanga and his companions Saint Charles (Carl) Lwanga and his com-
panions, Martyrs of Uganda, were a group of Christians (both Roman Catholics and Anglicans) who were murdered by Mwanga II, the Kabaka (King) of Buganda, between 1885 and 1887. These deaths were part of a three-way religious struggle for political control of the Buganda royal court. In 1877, the Church Missionary Society in London had sent Protestant missionaries to the court, followed two years later by the French Catholic White Fathers. These two competed with each other and the Zanzibarbased Muslim traders for converts and influence. By the mid-1880s, many members of the Buganda court had converted and become proxies for the religious and nationalist conflict being played out in the court. Kabaka Mwanga II, upon his ascent to the throne, attempted to destroy the foreign influences he felt threatened the Buganda state, but was instead deposed by armed converts in 1888. Anglican James Hannington, the Protomartyr, had been dispatched to be the bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, but he was executed with his companions before they could enter Buganda. Twenty-two of the martyrs were Roman Catholics and were canonized by Pope Paul VI on October 18, 1964. Although the Anglicans were not canonized in the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope did mention them. Their feast day is June 3. They were: Achileo Kiwanuka 1. Adolphus Ludigo-Mukasa 2. Ambrosius Kibuuka 3. Anatoli Kiriggwajjo 4. Anderea Kaggwa 5. 6. Antanansio Bazzekuketta 7. Bruno Sserunkuuma 8. Charles Lwanga 9. Denis Ssebuggwawo Wasswa 10. Gonzaga Gonza 11. Gyavira Musoke 12. James Buuzaabalyaawo 13. John Maria Muzeeyi 14. Joseph Mukasa Balikuddembe 15. Kizito 16. Lukka Baanabakintu 17. Matiya Mulumba 18. Mbaga Tuzinde 19. Mugagga Lubowa 20. Mukasa Kiriwawanvu 21. Nowa Mawaggali 22. Ponsiano Ngondwe The Ugandan Martyrs were featured in the film Millions.
The two martyrs of Paimol The martyrs, Blessed Daudi Okelo and Blessed Jildo Irwa, were two young catechists from Uganda. They belonged
to the Acholi tribe, a subdivision of the large Luo group. They lived and were martyred in the years immediately following the foundation of the mission of Kitgum by the Comboni Missionaries in 1915.
D-Day U.S. - June 06
D-Day is a term often used in military parlance to denote the day on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. "D-Day" often represents a variable, designating the day upon which some significant event will occur or has occurred; see Military designation of days and hours for similar terms. On the same principle, equivalent terms are Dagen D (Swedish),Dan D (Slovenian), E eguna (Basque), Jour J (French), Lá L (Irish), Tag X(German), and ZiuaZ (Romanian). The initial D in D-Day has been given various meanings in the past, while more recently it has obtained the connotation of "Day" itself, thereby creating the phrase "Day-Day", or "Day of Days". The best known D-Day is June 6, 1944 — the day of the Normandy landings — initiating the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II. However, many other invasions and operations had a designated D-Day, both before and after that operation. The terms D-Day and H-Hour are used for the day and hour on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. They designate the day and hour of the operation when the day and hour have not yet been determined, or where secrecy is essential. For a given operation, the same D-Day and H-Hour apply for all units participating in it. When used in combination with numbers, and plus or minus signs, these terms indicate the point of time preceding or following a specific action. Thus, H−3 means 3 hours before H-Hour, and D+3 means 3 days after D-Day. (By extension, H+75 minutes is used for H-Hour plus 1 hour and 15 minutes.) Planning papers for large-scale operations are made up in detail long before specific dates are set. Thus, orders are issued for the various steps to be carried out on the D-Day or H-Hour minus or plus a certain number of days, hours, or minutes. At the appropriate time, a subsequent order is issued that states the actual day and times. In spacecraft launchings, NASA utilizes the term 'T-Time' for the timing of the launch sequence down to the second (rather than M-Minute and S-Second), as in the expression "T minus 10 seconds and counting" for their countdown clock. When referencing a local time zone, "Zulu" refers to Universal Co-ordinated Time (formerly Greenwich Mean Time).
History
The earliest use of these terms by the U.S. Army that the United States Army Center of Military History has been able to find was during World War I.In Field Order Number 9, First Army, American Expeditionary Forces, dated 7 September 1918: "The First Army will attack at H hour on D day with the object of forcing the evacuation of the St. Mihiel Salient." D-Day for the invasion of Normandy by the Allies was originally set for June 5, 1944, but bad weather and heavy seas caused Gen. Dwight D Eisenhower to delay until June 6 and that date has been popularly referred to ever since by the short title "D-Day". Because of the connotation with the invasion of Normandy, planners of later military operations sometimes avoided the term to prevent confusion. For example, Douglas MacArthur's invasion of Leyte began on "A-Day", and the invasion of Okinawa began on "L-Day". The Allies' proposed invasions of Japan would have begun on "X-Day" (on Kyūshū, scheduled for November 1945) and "Y-Day" (on Honshū, scheduled for March
Memorial Day S o u t h K o r e a - June 06
The South Korean (officially the Republic of Korea) Memorial Day (Korean: 현충일 (顯忠日), Hyeonchung-il) is held every June 6 to commemorate men and women who died while in military service, during the Korean War and other significant wars or battles. On this day, a memorial ceremony is held in the National Cemetery in Seoul. Also, the South Korean flag is flown at half-staff.
Pushkin's Birthday Russia - June 06
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (6 June 1799 – 10 February 1837) was a Russian author of the Romantic era who is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature. Pushkin was born into Russian nobility in Moscow. His matrilineal great grandfather – Abram Gannibal – was brought over as a slave from Africa and had risen to become an aristocrat. Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. While under the strict surveillance of the Tsar's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov. His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, was serialized between 1825 and 1832. Notoriously touchy about his honour, Pushkin fought as many as twenty-nine duels, and was fatally wounded in such an encounter with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès. Pushkin had accused D'Anthès, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment of attempting to seduce the poet's wife, Natalya Pushkina.
Flag Day Sweden - June 06
National Day of Sweden (Sveriges nationaldag) is a national holiday so observed inSweden on 6 June every year. The day was renamed and justified as the national day by Riksdagen, the Swedish parliament, in 1983. Previously it was commemorated as Svenska flaggans dag (Swedish flag day).
History The tradition of celebrating this date began 1916 at the Stockholm Olympic
Stadium, in honour of the election of King Gustav Vasa in 1523, as this was considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Some question the validity of this as a national holiday, as it was not observed as a holiday until decades later. However this event does signify the end of the Danish-ruled Kalmar Union, so in a sense it is a marking of Swedish independence, though the event occurred so long ago that it does not have as strong of a presence in the social consciousness as does, for example, Norway's Syttende Mai (17 May). In 2005 it became an official Swedish public holiday, taking that honour from Whit Monday. This change led to fewer days off from work (more working-days) as the 6th of June will periodically fall on the weekend, unlike Whit Monday, which was always celebrated on a Monday. This has in turn led to complaints from some Swedish unions.
1919 Commemoration (Sette Giugno) Malta - June 07
Sette Giugno (from Italian for "Seventh June" is a Maltese national holiday celebrated annually on 7 June. It commemorates events which occurred on that day in 1919 when, following a series of riots by the Maltese population, British troops fired into the crowd, killing four.
Historical setting
In the aftermath of World War I, with the disruptions in agriculture and industry across the whole of the continent, the Maltese colonial government failed to provide an adequate supply of basic food provisions for the islands. The cost of living increased dramatically after the war. Imports were limited, and as food became scarce prices rose; this made the fortune of farmers and merchants with surpluses to trade. The dockyard and government workers found that wage increases were not keeping up with the increase in the cost of food. The dockyard workers formed a union in 1916, and in 1917 organised a strike after being offered a 10 per cent pay increase which was generally regarded as failing to keep up with the cost of living. Some segments of the society did well economically. There was a wide spread belief amongst the populace that grain importers and flour millers were making excessive profits over the price of bread. Merchants controlling other commodities also made large profits from the war, in spite of price regulations. Political developments were also a fundamental cause of the uprising. The first meeting of the National Assembly, held on February 25, 1919, approved a resolution which reserved for Malta all the rights given to other nations by the Versailles peace conference; this would have meant independence from the British Empire. This resolution, tabled by the extremist nationalist faction led by Dr. Enrico Mizzi, was opposed to an original resolution by Dr. Filippo Sceberras which asked solely for responsible government. This moderate resolution was removed in order to secure unanimity, and to prevent a break between the moderate and extremist factions. Extremism was also present in the crowds that, on February 25, attacked shopkeepers which had remained open during the meeting of the Assembly, such as the shop "A la Ville de Londres." The police forces had not stopped these attacks, and this played in the hands of the extremist currents in the Assembly.
Archbishop Janani Luwum When commemorating the martyrs of Uganda, the Church of England includes Archbishop Janani Luwum, who was The Sette Giugno A few days before the June 7 National Assembly meeting, the Secretary of State for the Colonies had informed Dr. murdered in 1977 by Idi Amin's henchmen; they also commemorate Luwum separately on February 17.
Mabo Day Australia-June 03
Mabo Day occurs annually on 3 June. It commemorates Eddie Koiki Mabo (c. 29 June 1936–21 January 1992) a Torres Strait Islander whose campaign for Indigenous land rights led to a landmark decision of the High Court of Australia that, on 3 June 1992, overturned the legal fiction of terra nullius which had characterised Australian law with regards to land and title since the voyage of James Cook in 1770. Mabo Day is a gazetted bank holiday in Queensland. In 2010 a campaign was launched to make it a national holiday in Australia It has been suggested that Mabo Day is more significant to Australians than the Queen's Birthday (a national holiday in Australia), since it 'marks the day that nonindigenous Australians were given the opportunity to reverse the damage caused by the colonisation process'. In 2002, on the tenth anniversary of the High Court decision, Mabo's widow, Bonita Mabo, called for a national public holiday on 3 June. On the eleventh anniversary, in 2003, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) launched a petition to make 3 June an Australian Public Holiday. Eddie Mabo Jnr, for the Mabo family, said: We believe that a public holiday would be fitting to honour and recognise the contribution to the High Court decision of not only my father and his co-plaintiffs, James Rice, Father Dave Passi, Sam Passi and Celuia Salee, but also to acknowledge all Indigenous Australians who have empowered and inspired each other. To date we have not had a public holiday that acknowledges Indigenous people and which recognises our contribution, achievements and survival in Australia. A public holiday would be a celebration all Australians can share in with pride – a celebration of truth that unites Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians and a celebration of justice that overturned the legal myth of terra nullius - Mabo symbolises truth and justice and is a cornerstone of Reconciliation.
Constitution Day Denmark - June 05
On June 5, Denmark celebrates Constitution Day. It is held to commemorate the both the original constitution created in 1849 and the amended constitution in 1953.
History A complex series of political and diplomatic
issues occurred in and around Denmark in the late 1830s that awakened thoughts of independence in the people in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The two duchies were intertwined through the 1460 Treaty of Ribe which prohibited the two from being separated. Both duchies were heavily German, and Denmark’s talks of pulling Schleswig into Denmark while leaving Holstein behind caused increased tensions between Denmark and the German Confederation. On January 28, 1848, King Christian VIII proclaimed that a new constitution would be created that would incorporate both duchies into Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein appealed to the German Confederation seeking incorporation into its structure. These differing opinions led to an uprising that forced the next King, Frederick VII, to rescind the constitutional idea, amending it to a more liberal format that would include only Schleswig. Differences in opinion and the inclusion of Prussia in the situation lead to the First War of Schleswig. During this war, on June 5, 1849, Denmark finally signed into law a new constitution making Denmark a constitutional monarchy. To the disgruntlement of some Danes, however, both Schleswig and Holstein were given their own constitutions that brought control of the regions to a wealthy class of German landowners. The rights to the two duchies would in 1864 eventually be given up by Denmark upon its defeat in the Second War of Schleswig. Later in the mid-20th century, a significant number of changes were proposed for Denmark’s constitution, and on June 5, 1953, the new constitution was signed into law. Changes included the allowance of female succession to the throne, the addition of a unicameral legislature, and the granting of colonial status to Greenland.
Celebrations Denmark’s Constitution Day typically sees politicians giving speeches about the state of government in the country. Many businesses shut down after noon.
Father's Day Denmark - June 05
Father's Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. Many countries celebrate it on the third Sunday of June but it is also celebrated widely on other days. Father's Day complements Mother's Day, a celebration honoring mothers. In Denmark, Father's Day is celebrated on June 5. It coincides with Constitution Day, which is a public holiday.
Sceberras that the incoming governor for the islands, Lord Plumer, was to study the situation and report back to London with regards to the possibility of giving the Maltese a larger say in the administration of their country. The followers of Enrico Mizzi stated that the Imperial government could not be trusted, with the result that the two currents of thought were also reflected in the crowds outside. University students were mostly linked to the extremist camp, and these had staged a protest of their own on May 16, 1919. The police forces were threatening strikes, as were the postal employees. On Saturday, June 7, 1919, the National Assembly was to meet for the second time in the Giovine Malta building. The police had foreseen the possibility of unrest, and on June 5 asked for a number of soldiers to be posted in Castille. As stated later by the Commission inquiring on the June 7 uprisings, “Evidently the Police did not appreciate the gravity of the situation.” The first spark of unrest centred on the Maltese flag defaced with the Union Jack flying above the “A la Ville de Londres.” Unlike the previous meeting, the shop was now closed. This did not prevent the crowd from itself forcing inside, to remove the flag along with the staff. This incident sparked the uprising. The death of the President of the Court some days earlier had required all governmental departments to fly the union jack at half mast, including the Bibliothèque buildings in Pjazza Regina and the meteorological office. The crowd proceeded to the Officers Club, insisting that the club’s door had to be closed. Window panes were broken, while officers inside were insulted. Police officers trying to restrain the mob were also assaulted. The crowd then proceeded back in front of the Bibliothèque, shouting for the Union Jack to be taken away; this was promptly removed by the men in duty. The crowd moved on to the meteorological offices, housed in a Royal Air Force turret. After breaking the glass panes, the mob entered the offices ransacking and destroying everything inside. Some individuals climbed onto the turret, removing the Union Jack and throwing it into the street. The crowd burned the flag along with furniture taken from the offices nearby. The mob then moved back to Palace square, where it began to insult the soldiers detached in front the Main Guard buildings. The N.C.O., which was responsible for the watch, closed the doors of the buildings, as were the doors of the Magisterial Palace across the square. In Strada Teatro, the offices of the Daily Malta Chronicle were broken into, with pieces of metal placed in the workings of the presses to break them down. While this was happening, other crowds were attacking the homes of perceived supporters of the imperial government and profiteering merchants in Strada Forni. The Police forces’ acting-commissioner then called for military support. At 17.30, sixty-four soldiers from the Composite Battalions entered the Courts which housed the headquarters of the police force. Later historians criticised the use of such a small number of soldiers to counter a crowd made up of thousands, which was attacking locations in Strada Teatro, Strada Forni and had now progressed towards Strada Santa Lucia. Six soldiers, under the command of Major Ritchie, the G.S.O., and Captain Ferguson, made their way towards Strada Forni to defend the house of Anthony Cassar Torreggiani, a leading importer, which was under attack by the crowd. Furniture was being thrown outside from the windows. In the National Assembly, which was unaware of the uprising outside, the moderates were gaining the upper hand. The moderates were bent on accepting the message of the Secretary for the Colonies as a genuine step towards improving the situation, and had to be recognised as such. Ten soldiers led by Lieutenant Shields approached the offices of the Chronicle, surrounded by a crowd which began to throw objects and stones at the soldiers. The same happened in Strada Forni, were six soldiers were trying to stem a crowd of thousands. Ritchie sent Ferguson to bring reinforcements. With the revolver stolen, and with uniform rent, the captain reached a troop of twenty-four soldiers which was then directed to Strada Forni. The soldiers were posted along the street, facing in both directions. It is important to note that the troops were not to shoot without being ordered to do so. The soldiers took their positions, aiming at the crowd – which then retreated. The report of the inquiring commission then proceeded to state that a shot was heard from the direction of a window of the Cassar Torreggiani house. At face value, this gives the impression that the Maltese were the first to shoot during the uprising. At that moment, eyewitnesses reported that one of the soldiers shot a round into the crowd, with the rest of the troop following. The first victim of the uprising, Manwel Attard, fell in front of the Cassar Torregiani house. Other individuals were injured. Ġużè Bajjada was hit near Strada Teatro; the Maltese flag he was carrying fell underneath him. The officer in charge began shouting for the firing to cease. Meanwhile, in the Chronicle offices, Lieutenant Shields ordered his men outside, since there was an evident smell of gas in the building. Shields feared making the soldiers exit the office one by one, since the crowd outside would certainly attack them. On the other hand, they could not remain inside. To clear a way out, Shields ordered a soldier to shoot low, away from the crowd. This shot hit Lorenzo Dyer, who tried to run away. Since the injury was serious, he was lifted by the crowd and carried to Palace square. During this initial uprising, three were dead and fifty injured. The proceedings in the National Assembly were interrupted as persons injured in the streets were brought inside. Some of the delegates went out of the buildings, while others ran to the balcony. The Assembly passed a quick motion in order to have a resolution to present to the Imperial government. Count Alfredo Caruana Gatto then addressed the crowds, asking them to restrain themselves from further violence. The Assembly then sent a delegation to the Lieutenant Governor, asking for the troops to be removed for the crowds to retreat. The Governor accepted, and Caruana Gatto addressed the crowd again, which complied and began to fall back. The day after, disturbances continued with crowds attacking the palace of Colonel Francia, who also owned a flour milling machine.Royal Malta Artillery soldiers were used to protect Francia’s house, but these were loath of using force against their own countrymen. The crowd forced its way in, and threw furniture, silverware and other objects outside. In the evening, one hundred and forty navy marines arrived, clearing the house and street from the crowds. Carmelo Abela was in one of the side doorways of Francia’s house, calling for his son. Two marines proceeded to arrest him, and after resisting, a marine ran him through in the stomach with a bayonet. Abela died on June 16.
Aftermath
The riots reflected the unsatisfactory nature of economic and political life in Malta. Economically the island had become a fortress in which few prospered when military spending was high. Strategically, the imperial fortress was so important that political development was stifled. The day after the attack, censorship was reinstated for political articles. In the morning flowers and other tributes were placed in the streets where the victims died. The deaths and injuries of so many people did not halt the uprisings. Another group attacked the flour mills owned by Cassar Torreggiani in Marsa, while other trading houses were raided in the outlying villages. A Military Court was opened to investigate the uprising on June 16, with a court martial instituted to investigate thirtytwo people that took part in the uprisings. For legislative matters, the Sette Giugno underlined the urgency of reform. The new Governor, Lord Plumer, recommended liberal concessions to the Maltese. The House of Commons of the United Kingdom stressed that Malta was to have "control of purely local affairs", with the Colonial Secretary sending a detailed description of the proposed constitution to the National Assembly. On April 30, 1921, the Amery-Milner Constitution was proclaimed; political censorship enforced after the uprising was repealed on June 15, 1921. The first election held under the new constitution was held in October 1921, with the Prince of Walesinaugurating the new representative chambers on November 1, 1921. The bodies of the four victims of the Sette Giugno put in their tomb in the Addolorata Cemetery on November 9, 1924. On June 7, 1986 the Sette Giugno monument was inaugurated at St. George Square (Palace Square), Valletta. The Maltese Parliament declared the day to be one of the five national days of the island, on March 21, 1989, with the first official remembrance of the day occurring on June 7, 1989.
Relocation of Monument Recently, following the renovation of St. George Square (Palace Square), the monument was removed from the square and kept stored for quite some time. Due to great public appeal against the storage of such a nationally important monument, it was recently placed in Hastings Gardens, Valletta.
Govt. denounces a social network for misuse of personal data (Online 26 May) Monika Balatoni, Minister of State for Public Diplomacy and Relations of the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice announced that the Ministry denounces a social network site for the suspicion of crime of misusing personal data at a press conference in Budapest this Friday. The Ministry made the complaint because a parent reached out to the institution that they are powerless against the cyberbullying of their daughter with someone posting on the web in the name of their children with her photograph; and when proceedings were initiated the child was threatened on the street. The family has already filed a complaint for harassment at the police and now the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice takes a role in the case with accusation because of misuse of personal data. Monika Balatoni said to the Hungarian News Agency that while investigation is compli-
cated because of the social network site Ask.fm is being operated on a foreign server; she nevertheless indicated that she is confident they can accomplish to find the responsible through international ways; as the site causes serious problems in other countries too. She noted that Ask.fm is a community site where virtually anyone can log in and ask questions anonymously on the page of a member, but doing so are those as well who are abusing others by registering with the data and photographs of other persons and thus humiliate unsuspecting young people; therefore among whom more have committed suicide in other countries. She spoke on the fact that cyberbullying claims many victims but perpetrators are hard to find; that is why international cooperation is considered very important in similar cases. She drew attention on the fact too that according to the information of the Ministry of Public Ad-
ministration and Justice, currently nobody in the world verifies content on Ask.fm. The Minister of State said that cyberbullying will be the subject of a conference to be organized in Budapest during this autumn; where they would like to see among other things that participants are standing for an EUwide guideline and controlling on data protection. To her words, adopting such legislation could achieve that more effective action may be taken against cyberbullies. Monika Balatoni insisted that cyberbullying today is “a living and major problem”; not only in the world or in Europe but in Hungary as well. She added that to this end was the programme ‘The Internet Does Not Forget’ launched to see young people being unafraid of the World Wide Web while knowing what kind of information they should not give out on themselves when using social networking sites.
Union Dissolution Norway - J u n e 0 7
The parliament of Norway broke the personal union with Sweden under the House of Bernadotte on 7 June 1905. After some months of tension and fear of war between the two neighbouring nations, negotiations between the two governments led to Norway's recognition by Sweden as an independent constitutional monarchy on 26 October 1905. On that date, King Oscar II renounced his claim to the Norwegian throne, effectively dissolving the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway. This event was quickly followed by Prince Carl of Denmark's accession to the Norwegian throne on 18 November the same year, taking the name Haakon VII.
Background Norwegian nationalistic aspirations in 1814 were frustrated by Sweden's victory in a brief, but decisive war that resulted
in Norway entering into a personal union with Sweden. The Norwegian constitution was largely kept intact, allowing for an independent Norwegian state with its own parliament, judiciary, and executive powers. Foreign relations were, however, conducted by the King through the Swedish ministry of foreign affairs. There were largely feelings of goodwill between the two peoples, and the common Kings generally tried to act in the interest of both Kingdoms. However over the years, a divergence of Norwegian and Swedish interests became apparent. In particular, Norwegians felt that their foreign policy interests were inadequately served by Sweden's ministry of foreign affairs. There were several driving factors behind the growing conflict: Norway's economy was more dependent on foreign trade and therefore more sensitive to the protectionist measures the Swedes were adopting. Norway had an affiliation with the United Kingdom; Sweden had an affiliation with Germany. Swedish King Oscar II's, disappointment with Norway had reached critical mass - calling for the excommunication of Norway and the later celebration of Tolfte Maj (May 12) throughout Sweden. Norway had greater interests outside of Europe than Sweden. In addition, Norwegian politics were increasingly dominated by liberal tendencies characterized by the growth of Parliamentarism, whereas Swedish politics tended more toward the conservative, with the king exercising greater discretionary political power. When free trade between the countries was restricted in 1895 through the abolition of the "Interstate laws" (Mellomrikslovene), the economic reasons for the continued union were also diminished. The conflict came to a head over the socalled "consul affair," in which successive Norwegian governments insisted that Norway establish its own consular offices abroad rather than rely on the common consuls appointed by the Swedish foreign minister. As the long-standing practice for the conduct of joint foreign policy had been that a Swede always hold the office of foreign minister, the Swedish government and king rejected this The Norwegian Storting passes the "revolutionary" insistence as an abdication of the throne's resolution right to set foreign policy. While Norway's Liberal Party had pioneered an uncompromising position through the so-called "fist policy," the Conservative Party also came to adopt a strong policy in favour of at least de facto independence and equality within the personal union. Although both parties made efforts to resolve the issue through negotiations, Norwegian public opinion became gradually more entrenched. Both Sweden and Norway increased military expenditures. Norway modernized the frontier forts at Kongsvinger and Fredriksten and built a series of new forts along the border.
Prelude to dissolution In early 1905, Christian Michelsen formed a coalition government consisting of liberals and conservatives, whose only
stated objective was to establish a separate Norwegian corps of consuls. The law was passed by the Norwegian parliament. As expected and probably as planned, King Oscar II refused to accept the laws, and the Michelsen government resigned. When the king declared himself unable to form a cabinet under the present circumstances, aconstitutional crisis broke out on 7 June 1905. The Norwegian position was that the impasse had resulted in a de facto dissolution of the union. Norway considers 7 June to be the date that it regained its independence, even though Norway had possessed the legal status of an independent state since 1814. The text of the unanimous declaration, remarkable for the fact that the declaration of the dissolution was an aside to the main clause, read: Since all the members of the cabinet have resigned their positions; since His Majesty the King has declared his inability to obtain for the country a new government; and since the constitutional monarchy has ceased to exist, the Storting hereby authorizes the cabinet that resigned today to exercise the powers held by the King in accordance with the Constitution of Norway and relevant laws - with the amendments necessitated by the dissolution of the union with Sweden under one King, resulting from the fact that the King no longer functions as a Norwegian King. Initially reacting to this declaration as a rebellious act, the Swedish government indicated an openness to a negotiated end to the union, insisting among other things on a Norwegian plebiscite. Besides internal changes within Norway, a major key factor that allowed Norway to break from Sweden was the emerging Swedish social democratic movement. In the early years of the 20th century, Hjalmar Branting led the Social Democrats in op- The peace monument posing a war to keep Norway united with Sweden. When the crisis came in 1905, he coined the slogan "Hands off Norway, King!" The Social Democrats organized erected on the city resistance to a call-up of reserves and a general strike against a war. Basically, the square on the 50th anmajority of Sweden supported a free state of Norway as much as the people of Nor- niversary of the dissoluway did. tion of the union The plebiscite was held on 13 August and resulted in an overwhelming 368,208 between Norway and votes (99.95%) in favour of dissolution against 184 (0.05%) opposed. The govern- Sweden ment thereby had confirmation of the dissolution. 85 percent of Norwegian men had cast their votes, but no women (universal suffrage was not extended to women until 1913, but Norwegian feminists collected more than 200,000 signatures in favour of dissolution). Polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen weighed in heavily for dissolving the union and travelled to the United Kingdom, where he successfully lobbied for British support for Norway's independence movement.
Negotiations in Karlstad
On 31 August, Norwegian and Swedish delegates met in the Swedish city of Karlstad to negotiate the terms of the dissolution. Although many prominent right-wing Swedish politicians favoured a hard-line approach to the issue, historical scholars have found that the Swedish King had determined early on that it would be better to lose the union than risk a war with Norway. The overwhelming public support among Norwegians for independence had convinced the major European powers that the independence movement was legitimate, and Sweden feared it would be isolated by suppressing it; also, there was little appetite for creating additional ill will between the countries, closely related as they were (and are). Even as the negotiations made progress, military forces were quietly deployed on both sides of the border between Sweden and Norway, though separated by two kilometres. Public opinion among Norwegian leftists favoured a war of independence if necessary, even against Sweden's numerical superiority. On 23 September, the negotiations closed. On 9 October the Norwegian parliament voted to accept the terms of the dissolution; on 13 October the Swedish parliament followed suit. Although Norway had considered itself independent since 7 June, Sweden formally recognised Norwegian independence on 26 October when Oscar II renounced his and any of his descendants' claims to the Norwegian throne.
Choosing a Norwegian King
In its resolution of 7 June, the Storting had invited King Oscar II to allow one of his younger sons to assume the Norwegian throne, called the Bernadotte offer. The offer was an attempt from the Norwegian government to demonstrate that their unilateral declaration of independence would not change the fact that Norway would remain a monarchy. In this way, Norway aimed to gather support from the other large European countries which, with the exception of France, were mostly monarchic. Unlike the declaration of independence, the Bernadotte offer was controversial in the Norwegian government. Five socialists in the parliament voted against monarchy, and the finance minister Gunnar Knudsen, a republican member of the cabinet, resigned over this issue. It was known that King Oscar II was not amenable to accepting the The new king Haakon VII arrives Bernadotte offer, but the issue remained unsettled until the offer was for- in Oslo with Crown Prince Olav mally declined by the king when he renounced his claim on 26 October. on his arm and is greeted on the The King's rejection of the Bernadotte offer had been anticipated months pier by Prime Minister Christian earlier, and already during the summer a Norwegian delegation ap- Michelsen. proached the 33-year-old Prince Carl of Denmark, the second son of the Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark. The Norwegian parliament had considered other candidates but ultimately chose Prince Carl, partly because he already had a son to continue the line of succession, but more significantly because Carl was married to Maud of Wales, the daughter of King Edward VII. By bringing in a king with a British-born queen, it was hoped that Norway could court Britain's support. Prince Carl impressed the delegation in many ways, not the least because of his sensitivity to the liberal and democratic movements that had led to Norway's independence. Though the Norwegian constitution stipulated that the Storting could choose a new king if the throne were vacant, Carl was aware that many Norwegians — including leading politicians and high-ranking military officers — favoured a republican form of government. Attempts to persuade the prince to accept the throne on the basis of Parliament's choice failed; Carl insisted that he would accept the crown only if the Norwegian people expressed their will for monarchy by referendum and if the parliament then elected him king. On 12 and 13 November, in the second constitutional plebiscite in three months, Norwegian voters decided by a nearly 79 percent majority (259,563 to 69,264) to establish a monarchy instead of a republic. Many who favoured a republic in principle voted for a monarchy because they felt it would help the newly-independent Norwegian nation gain legitimacy among the European monarchies. Following the November plebiscite affirming Norwegians' desire for a monarchy, the parliament by an overwhelming majority offered Carl a clear mandate to the Norwegian throne on 18 November, and the prince accepted the same evening, choosing the name Haakon, a traditional name used by Norwegian kings. The last king with that name was Haakon VI, who died in the year 1380. The new king therefore became Haakon VII, King of Norway. His two-year-old son Alexander, the heir apparent, was renamed Olav and became Crown Prince Olav. The new royal family arrived in the capital Kristiania (later renamed Oslo) on 25 November. Haakon VII was sworn in as king of Norway on 27 November.
Important individuals in the dissolution
The following individuals played a role in the events surrounding the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian writer and the 1903 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. Hjalmar Branting, Swedish politician. Sigurd Bødtker, Norwegian theatre critic. Christopher Bruun, Norwegian priest and educator Karl Sigwald Johannes Bull, Norwegian military officer and politician. Wilhelm Christopher Christophersen, Norwegian diplomat. Øvre Richter Frich, Norwegian reporter, newspaper editor and crime writer. Arne Garborg, Norwegian writer. Haakon VII of Norway, known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, he was the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution. Thomas Heftye, Norwegian military officer, engineer, sports official and politician. Gunnar Heiberg, a Norwegian poet, playwright, journalist and theatre critic. Frederik Hilfling-Rasmussen, Danish-born Norwegian photographer. Sigurd Ibsen, Norwegian author, lawyer and statesman, who served as Prime Minister of Norway in Stockholm (1903– 1905). Maud of Wales, British-born princess, Queen of Norway as spouse of King Haakon VII. Christian Michelsen, Norwegian shipping magnate and statesman, and first Prime Minister of an independent Norway in 1905. Fridtjof Nansen, Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and the 1922 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
Importance of the events of 1905
In many ways, the events of 1905 formed a sequel to the events of 1814, but there were some important differences: Whereas the 1814 independence movement in large part was driven by political opportunism among the national elite, the 1905 movement was a result of political trends largely driven by elected officials with massive popular support. In 1905, Norway was not put in play by war as a territorial prize. By 1905, Norwegians had established many of the institutions and infrastructure of a sovereign, independent state. By 1905, European statesmanship was more inclined to favour Norwegian independence than in 1814. Much has been made of the supremacy of diplomacy in averting war between Sweden and Norway in 1905. In truth, the Norwegians had much more to fight for than the Swedes if it had come to war. Both parties recognized that their geographical proximity made long-term hostility untenable under any circumstance. Many documents related to the specific events of 1905 were destroyed during and following those years. Some historians speculate that foreign interests played a stronger role than what had previously been assumed; in particular, that Great Britain influenced the dissolution in order to reduce German influence over Atlantic ports. Although Sweden's close relationship with Germany did not last long, Norway's independence immediately put it inside the British sphere of influence.