Feast of St. Maron Lebanon - F e b 0 9
St. Maron is a public holiday in Lebanon. Lebanon celebrate St. Maron’s Feast Day on every 9th of February each year. St. Maron led a spiritual movement in Syria and Lebanon which sprung a different branch of Catholicism which is now called The Maronite Catholic Church. St. Maron gained loyal supporters during his time and still enjoys followers until today.
History
Maron, or St. Maron is a Christian missionary who lived around 350 – 410 AD. He established a Christian movement where he converted most of non-Christians in Lebanon and encouraged them to discover the Christian faith. He spent most of life doing missionary both to Christians and non-Christians of his time. He was known in his performance of healing rituals, miracles, and taught non-believers to follow an ascetic way of life. Because of this, he attracted many people to follow his footstep and from there he established what we now call Maronite Catholic Church. It was believed that St. Maron stayed in a mountain in Syria in a place called “Kefar-Nabo” where the movement started. The spread of Christianity in Lebanon is accounted to the works of Abraham of Cyrrhus, one of St. Maron’s disciples which is now known as the “Apostle of Lebanon.” Abraham of Cyrrhus began converting people of Lebanon into Christianity when he started introducing the Maron’s way of life. Through this discipline, he had successfully converted a great number of people in the country to become catholic and subsequently follow Maron’s teachings. St. Maron became popular when he converted a temple in the mountain in Syria into a Christian Church that then laid the foundation for the spread of Christianity to Lebanon. His death in 410 did not end St. Maron’s missionary work. Just like Jesus Christ, his followers carried on the values and teachings of St. Maron and continued his preaching until today. So far, the Maronite Catholic Church has produced more than 20 saints where three or four of them are women.
Celebrations During the holiday, government establishments are closed and only few private establishments are open as a sign
of observance to this special day. Maronites celebrate The Feast of St. Maron in their respective churches with special luncheon services and various entertainment activities. During luncheon, traditional Lebanese food such as Tabbouleh, Kibbe Nayye, and salad with various are served but food are not limited the ones stated.
Armed Forces Day Leberia - F e b 1 1
Liberia holds a yearly respect of the Armed Forces Day and is regarded as a public national holiday in the country. Celebrated every 11th day of February, Armed Forces Day program is witnessed by government officials including the President and the vice President of the state.
History
The National defense Law of 1956 was the sole basis of the creation of the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL). Before it was called the AFL, it was known as the Liberia Frontier Force which was founded in 1908. The main purpose on why this military group was created was to protect the country against the territorial attacks of the British and the French. The Frontier Force was originally composed of 500 military men who guarded the borders in the locality. From the time it was founded, The Armed Forces of Liberia went through a lot of reform and amendment which gave an unconstructive impact on its integrity as a troop of national defense. It also came to a point where instead of battling against the territorial rule of the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Doe Regime utilized the Armed Forces as one of its prime protectors. Upon the establishment of the Interim Government of National Unity, the citizens insisted for the restructuring of the Armed Forces. This decision was granted by the office which later on, found a lot of glitches and anomalies in the Armed Forces when it comes to professionalism and reliability. During the reconstitution of the Armed Forces, the UN International Peacekeeping Force was one of the associations who started the goal to discharge, neutralize and reconstitute the military group. Presently, the Armed Forces of Liberia is organized into two infantry battalions and support units.
Celebrations The celebration of the Liberian Armed Forces Day is being observed religiously every February 11 as a day to com-
memorate and give respect to the people behind the shaping and reorganizing of the country’s military force. Part of this celebration is the awarding and honoring of the military men who have been dedicated into serving the country. The merit and medals are awarded by the Liberian President during the ceremonial celebration of the holiday.
National Foundation Day Japan - F e b 1 1
National Foundation Day (建国記念の日 kenkoku kinen-no-hi) is a national holiday in Japan celebrated annually on February 11. On this day, Japanese celebrate the founding of the nation and the imperial line by its legendary first emperor, Jimmu, who according to legend established his capital in Yamato in 660 BC.
History
The origin of National Foundation Day is New Year's Day in the traditional lunisolar calendar. On that day, the foundation of Japan by Emperor Jimmu was celebrated based onNihonshoki (日本書紀), which states that Emperor Jimmu ascended to the throne on the first day of the first month. In the Meiji period, the Japanese government designated the day as a national holiday. This coincided with the switch from the lunisolar calendar to the Gregorian calendar in 1873. In 1872, when the holiday was originally proclaimed, it was January 29 of the Gregorian calendar, which corresponded to Lunar New Year of 1873. Contrary to the government's expectation, this led people to see the day as just Lunar New Year, instead of National Foundation Day. In response, the government moved the holiday to February 11 of the Gregorian calendar in 1873. The government stated that it corresponded to Emperor Jimmu's regnal day but did not publish the exact method of computation. In its original form, the holiday was named Empire Day (紀元節,Kigensetsu). It is thought that the Meiji Emperor may have wanted to establish this holiday to bolster the legitimacy of the imperial family following the abolition of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The national holiday was supported by those who believed that focusing national attention on the emperor would serve a unifying purpose. Publicly linking his rule with the mythical first emperor, Jimmu, and thus Amaterasu, the Meiji Emperor declared himself the one, true ruler of Japan. With large parades and festivals, in its time, Kigensetsu was considered one of the four major holidays of Japan. Given its reliance on Shinto mythology and its reinforcement of the Japanese nobility, Kigensetsu was abolished following World War II. Ironically, February 11 was also the day when General MacArthur approved the draft version of the model Constitution in 1946. The commemorative holiday was re-established as National Foundation Day in 1966. Though stripped of most of its overt references to the Emperor, National Foundation Day was still a day for expressing patriotism and love of the nation in the 1950s.
Current practice
In contrast with the events associated with earlier Kigensetsu, celebrations for National Foundation Day are relatively muted. Customs include the raising of Japanese flags and reflection on the meaning of Japanese citizenship. The holiday is still relatively controversial however, and very overt expressions of nationalism or even patriotism are rare.
Youth Day Cameroon - F e b 1 1
Cameroon celebrates National Youth Day every year on the 11th of February. During this day, various youth groups come together to organize workshops, parades, and other programs which points out to important issues for the youth. Representatives from various youth associations from each industry such as sports, social media, technology, business, and the academe from various educational institutions encourage the youth to engage themselves in fruitful activities which support fellow youth in their fight to defending and promoting social justice, avoiding violence, and building a community that is safe for each of them.
History
Cameroon establishes the National Youth Day in 1966 to mobilize the society by engaging the youth in important decision-making strategies and political advocacy and movement. However, it is marred by various political issues including the removal of highly controversial Plebiscite Day to Youth Day under the leadership of Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, the first president of Cameroon (1960-1982) which charged the latter’s government in marginalizing the Anglophone Cameroonian group in the country. The establishment of Youth Day in the country is brought about by the recommendation provided by the Commissionership for Youth and Popular Education in Yaoundé after its observance to the 1965 Youth Day celebration in Buea, Cameroon’s Southwest Province.
Celebrations National Youth Day in Cameroon is marked with festivities and public band exhibitions. Government-sponsored con-
gress and conferences may take place at the Ministry of Youth Affairs in Yaounde. Representatives from various youth associations, National Youth Council and private individuals join together yearly to discuss important legal and moral issues concerning the youth of Cameroon. Various activities may be held which includes and not limited to tree-planting activities, cultural immersion and other types of community service. Youth also organize public talks discussing important issues such as climate change, and evaluation of current youth rights violation in the country.
Anniversary of Lateranensi Pacts Vatican City State - F e b 1 1
The Lateran Treaty was one of the Lateran Pacts of 1929 or Lateran Accords, agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, signed on February 11, 1929, and ratified by the Italian parliament on June 7, 1929, settling the "Roman Question". Italy was then under a Fascist government; the succeeding democratic governments have all upheld the treaty. In 1947, the Lateran Pacts were incorporated into the democratic Constitution of Italy.
History During the unification of Italy in the mid-19th Century, the Papal States resis-
ted incorporation into the new nation, even as all the other Italian countries joined it; Camillo Cavour's dream of proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy from the steps of St. Peter's Basilica did not come to pass. The nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupied Romagna (the eastern portion of the Papal States) in 1860, leaving only Latium in the Pope's domains. Latium, including Rome itself, was occupied and annexed in 1870. For the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the Pope became known as the "Roman Question". Negotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Italy and the Holy See, and culminated in the agreements of the Lateran Pacts, signed— the Treaty says—for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister and Head of Government, and for Pope Pius XI by Pietro Gasparri, Cardinal Secretary of State, on February 11, 1929. The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, hence the name by which they are known. The agreements included a political treaty which created the state of the Vatican City and guaranteed full and independent sovereignty to the Holy See. The Pope was pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations and to abstention from mediation in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties. In the first article of the treaty, Italy reaffirmed the principle established in the 4 March 1848 Statute of the Kingdom of Italy, that "the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Religion is the only religion of the State". The attached financial agreement was accepted as settlement of all the claims of the Holy See against Italy arising from the loss of temporal power in 1870. The sum thereby given to the Holy See was actually less than Italy declared it Francesco Pacelli was would pay under the terms of theLaw of Guarantees of 1871, by which the Italian the right-hand man for government guaranteed to Pope Pius IX and his successors the use of, but not Pietro Gasparri during sovereignty over, the Vatican and Lateran Palaces and a yearly income of the Lateran Treaty nego3,250,000 lire as indemnity for the loss of sovereignty and territory. The Holy See, on the grounds of the need for clearly manifested independence from any political tiations power in its exercise of spiritual jurisdiction, had refused to accept the settlement offered in 1871, and the Popes thereafter until the signing of the Lateran Treaty considered themselves prisoners in the Vatican, a small, limited area inside Rome. To commemorate the successful conclusion of the negotiations, Mussolini commissioned the Via della Conciliazione (Road of the Conciliation), which would symbolically link the Vatican City to the heart of Rome. The Constitution of the Italian Republic, adopted in 1947, states that relations between the State and the Catholic Church "are regulated by the Lateran Treaties". In 1984, an agreement was signed, revising the concordat. Among other things, both sides declared: "The principle of the Catholic religion as the sole religion of the Italian State, originally referred to by the Lateran Pacts, shall be considered to be no longer in force". The Church's position as the sole state-supported religion of Italy was also ended, replacing the state financing with a personal income tax called the otto per mille, to which other religious groups, Christian and non-Christian, also have access. In 2013, the other religious groups with access are ten. The revised concordat regulated the conditions under which civil effects are accorded to church marriages and to ecclesiastical declarations of nullity of marriages. Abolished articles included those concerning state recognition of knighthoods and titles of nobility conferred by the Holy See, the undertaking by the Holy See to confer ecclesiastical honours on those authorized to perform religious functions at the request of the State or the Royal Household, and the obligation of the Holy See to enable the Italian government to present political objections to the proposed appointment of diocesan bishops. In 2008, it was announced that the Vatican would no longer immediately adopt all Italian laws, citing conflict over right-to-life issues following the trial and ruling of the Eluana Englaro case.
Lincoln's Birthday U.S. - F e b 1 2
Ab aham L nco n Feb ua y 12 1809 – Ap 15 1865 was he16 h P es den o he Un ed S a es se v ng om Ma ch 1861 un h s as sass na on n Ap 1865 L nco n success u y ed he Un ed S a es h ough s g ea es cons u ona m a y and mo a c s s – he Ame can C v Wa – p ese v ng he Un on wh e end ng s ave y and p omo ng econom c and nanc a mode n za on Rea ed n a poo am y on he wes e n on e L nco n was mos y se educa ed and became a coun y awye a Wh g Pa y eade no s s a e eg s a o du ng he 1830s and a one e m membe o he Un ed S a es House o Rep esen a ves du ng he 1840s A e a se es o deba es n 1858 ha gave na ona v s b y o h s op pos on o he expans on o s ave y L nco n os a Sena e ace o h s a ch va S ephen A Doug as L nco n a mode a e om a sw ng s a e secu ed he Repub can Pa y p es den a nom na on n 1860 W h a mos no suppo n he Sou h L nco n swep he No h and was e ec ed p es den n 1860 H s e ec on was he s gna o seven sou he n s ave s a es o dec a e he secess on om he Un on and o m he Con ede acy The depa u e o he Sou he ne s gave L nco n s pa y m con o o Cong ess bu no o mu a o comp om se o ec onc a on was ound L nco n exp a ned n h s second naugu a add ess Bo h pa es dep eca ed wa bu one o hem wou d make wa a he han e he Na on su v ve and he o he wou d accep wa a he han e pe sh and he wa came When he No h en hus as ca y a ed beh nd he na ona ag a e he Con ed e a e a ack on Fo Sum e on Ap 12 1861 L nco n concen a ed on he m a y and po ca d mens ons o he wa e o H s goa was now o eun e he na on As he Sou h was n a s a e o nsu ec on L nco n exe c sed h s au ho y o sus pend habeas co pus a es ng and empo a y de a n ng housands o suspec ed secess on s s w hou a L nco n ave ed B sh ecogn on o he Con ede acy by sk u y hand ng he T en a a n a e 1861 H s e o s owa d he abo on o s ave y nc ude ssu ng h s Emanc pa on P oc ama on n 1863 encou ag ng he bo de s a es o ou aw s ave y and he p ng push h ough Cong ess he Th een h Amendmen o he Un ed S a es Cons u on wh ch na y eed a he s aves na onw de n Decembe 1865 L nco n c ose y supe v sed he wa e o espec a y he se ec on o op gene a s nc ud ng command ng gene a U ysses S G an L nco n b ough eade s o he ma o ac ons o h s pa y n o h s cab ne and p essu ed hem o coope a e Unde L nco n s eade sh p he Un on se up a nava b ockade ha shu down he Sou h s no ma ade ook con o o he bo de abraham nco n s ave s a esa he s a o he wa ga ned con o o commun ca ons w h gunboa s on he sou he n ve sys ems and ed epea ed y o cap u e he Con ede a e cap a a R chmond V g n a Each me a gene a a ed L nco n subs u ed ano he un na y G an succeeded n 1865 An excep ona y as u e po c an deep y nvo ved w h powe ssues n each s a e L nco n eached ou o Wa De moc a s and managed h s own e e ec on n he 1864 p es den a e ec on As he eade o he mode a e ac on o he Repub can pa y L nco n ound h s po c es and pe sona y we e b as ed om a s des Rad ca Repub cans demanded ha she ea men o he Sou h Wa Democ a s des ed mo e comp om se Coppe heads desp sed h m and econc ab e secess on s s p o ed h s dea h Po ca y L nco n ough back w h pa onage by p ng h s op ponen s aga ns each o he and by appea ng o he Ame can peop e w h h s powe s o o a o y H s Ge ysbu g Ad d ess o 1863 became he mos quo ed speech n Ame can h s o y was an con c s a emen o Ame ca s ded ca on o he p nc p es o na ona sm epub can sm equa gh s be y and democ acy A he c ose o he wa L nco n he d a mode a e v ew o Recons uc on seek ng o eun e he na on speed y h ough a po cy o gene ous econ c a on n he ace o nge ng and b e d v s veness S x days a e he su ende o Con ede a e command ng gene a Robe E Lee howeve L nco n was assass na ed by ac o and Con ede a e sympa h ze John W kes Boo h L nco n s dea h was he s assass na on o a U S p es den and sen he na on n o mou n ng L nco n has been cons s en y anked by scho a s and he pub c as one o he h ee g ea es U S p es den s he o he s be ng Geo ge Wash ng on and F ank n D Rooseve
life Early Ab aham L nco n was bo n Feb ua y 12 1809
he second ch d o Thomas L nco n and Nancy L nco n née Hanks n a one oom og cab n on he S nk ng Sp ng Fa m n Ha d n Coun y Ken ucky now LaRue Coun y He s de scended om Samue L nco n who a ved n H ngham Massachuse s om No o k Eng and n he 17 h cen u y L nco n s pa e na g and a he and namesake Ab aham had moved h s am y om V g n a o Ken ucky whe e he was ambushed and k ed n an nd an a d n 1786 w h h s ch d en nc ud ng L nco n s a he Thomas ook ng on Thomas was e o make h s own way on he on e L nco n s mo he Nancy was he daugh e o Lucy Hanks and was bo n n wha s now M ne a Coun y Wes V g n a hen pa o V g n a Lucy moved w h Nancy o Ken ucky Nancy Hanks ma ed Thomas who became a espec ed c zen He bough and so d seve a a ms nc ud ng Knob C eek Fa m The am y a ended a Sepa a e Bap s s chu ch wh ch had es c ve mo a s anda ds and opposed a coho danc ng and s ave y Thomas en oyed cons de ab e s a us n Ken ucky—whe e he sa on u es app a sed es a es se ved on coun y s ave pa o s and gua ded p sone s By he me h s son Ab aham was bo n Thomas owned wo 600 ac e 240 ha a ms seve a own o s ves ock and ho ses He was among he ches men n he coun y Howeve n 1816 Thomas os a o h s and n cou cases because o au y p ope y es The am y moved no h ac oss he Oh o R ve o ee e non s ave e o y and made a new s a n wha was hen Pe y Coun y bu s now Spence Coun y nd ana L nco n a e no ed ha h s move was pa y on accoun o s ave y bu ma n y due o and e d cu es n nd ana when L nco n was n ne h s mo he Nancy d ed o m k s ckness n 1818 A e he dea h o L nco n s mo he h s o de s s e Sa ah ook cha ge o ca ng o h m un he a he ema ed n 1819 Sa ah a e d ed n he 20s wh e g v ng b h o a s bo n son Thomas L nco n s new w e was he w dow Sa ah Bush Johns on he mo he o h ee ch d en L nco n became ve y c ose o h s s epmo he and e e ed o he as Mo he As a p e een he d d no ke he ha d abo assoc a ed w h on e e Some n h s am y and n he ne ghbo hood o a me cons de ed h m o be azy As he g ew n o h s eens he w ng y ook espons b y o a cho es expec ed o h m as one o he boys n he househo d and became an adep axeman n h s wo k bu d ng a ences He a a ned a epu a on o b awn and audac y a e a ve y com pe ve w es ng ma ch o wh ch he was cha enged by he enowned eade o a g oup o u ans he C a y s G ove boys L nco n a so ag eed w h he cus oma y ob ga on o a son o g ve h s a he a ea n ngs om wo k done ou s de he home un age 21 n a e yea s L nco n occas ona y oaned h s a he money L nco n became nc eas ng y d s an om h s a he n pa because o h s a he s ack o educa on Wh e young L nco n s o ma educa on con s s ed app ox ma e y o a yea s wo h o c asses om seve a ne an eache s he was mos y se educa ed and was an av d eade and o en sough access o any new books n he v age He ead and e ead he K ng James B b e Aesop s Fab es Bunyan s P g m s P og ess De oe s Rob nson C usoe and F ank n s Au ob og aphy n 1830 ea ng a m k s ckness ou b eak a ong he Oh o R ve he L nco n am y moved wes whe e hey se ed on pub c and nMacon Coun y no s ano he ee non s ave s a e n 1831 Thomas e oca ed he am y o a new homes ead n Co es Coun y no s was hen ha as an amb ous 22 yea o d L nco n dec ded o seek a be e e and s uck ou on h s own Canoe ng down he Sangamon R ve L nco n ended up n he v age o New Sa em n Sangamon Coun y n he sp ng o 1831 h ed by New Sa em bus nessman Den on O u and accompan ed by ends he ook goods by a boa om New Sa em o New O eans v a he Sangamon no s and M ss ss pp ve s A e a v ng n New O eans—and w ness ng s ave y s hand—he wa ked back home
Darwin Day Worldwide - F e b 1 2
Da w n Day s a ecen y ns u ed ce eb a on n ended o commemo a e he ann ve sa y o he b h o Cha es Da w n on Feb ua y 12 1809 The day s used o h gh gh Da w n s con bu on o sc ence and o p omo e sc ence n gene a
History The ce eb a on o Da w n s wo k and
bu es o h s e have been o gan zed spo ad ca y s nce h s dea h on Ap 19 1882 a age 73 Even s ook p ace a Down House n Downe on he sou he n ou sk s o London whe e Da w n and membe s o h s am y ved om 1842 un he dea h o Emma Da w n n 1896 n 1909 mo e han 400 sc en s s and d gn a es om 167 coun es me n Camb dge o honou Da w n s con bu ons and o d scuss v go ous y he ecen d scove es and e a ed heo es con es ng o accep ance Th s was a w de y e po ed even o pub c n e es A so n 1909 on Feb ua y 12 he 100 h b h ann ve sa y o Da w n and he 50 h ann ve sa y o he pub ca on o The O g n o Spec es we e ce eb a ed by he New Yo k Academy o Sc ences a he Ame can Museum o Na u a H s o y A b onze bus o Da w n was unve ed On June 2 1909 he Roya So c e y o New Zea and he d a Da w n Ce eb a on The e was a ve y a ge a en dance On Novembe 24–28 1959 The Un ve s y o Ch cago he d a ma o we pub c zed ce eb a on o Da w n and he pub ca on o On he O g n o Spec es Sc en s s and academ cs some mes ce eb a ed Feb ua y 12 w h Phy um Feas even s—a mea w h oods om as many d e en phy a as hey cou d manage a eas as ea y as 1972 1974 and 1989 n Canada n he Un ed S a es Sa em S a e Co ege n Massachuse s has he d a Da w n Fes va an nua y s nce 1980 and n 2005 eg s e ed Da w n Fes va as a se v ce ma k w h he US Pa en and T adema k O ce The Human s Commun y o Pa o A o Ca o n a was mo va ed by D Robe S ephens n a e 1993 o beg n p an n ng o an annua Da w n Day ce eb a on s s pub c Da w n Day even was a ec u e by D Dona d Johanson d scove e o he ea y hom n d Lucy sponso ed by he S an o d Human s s s uden g oup and he Human s Commun y on Ap 22 1995 The Human s Commun y con nues s annua ce eb a on o Da w n sc ence and human y on Feb ua y 12 ndependen y n 1997 P o esso Mass mo P g ucc n a ed an annua Da w n Day even w h s uden s and co eagues a he Un ve s y o Tennessee The even nc uded seve a pub c ec u es and ac v es as we as a eache s wo kshop mean o he p e emen a y and seconda y schoo eache s be e unde s and evo u on and how o com mun ca e o he s uden s as we as how o dea w h he p essu es o en p aced on hem by he c ea on sm movemen
Darwin Day Program and Darwin Day Celebration n he a e 1990s wo Da w n en hus as s Amanda Cheswo h and Robe S ephens co ounded an uno c a e o
o p omo e Da w n Day n 2001 Cheswo h moved o New Mex co and nco po a ed he Da w n Day P og am S ephens became Cha man o he Boa d and P es den o h s nonp o co po a on w h Mass mo P g ucc as V ce P es den and Amanda Cheswo h as membe o he Boa d Sec e a y and Execu ve D ec o S ephens p esen ed he ob ec ves o he o gan za on n an a c e ed Da w n Day An n e na ona Ce eb a on n 2002 Cheswo h comp ed and ed ed a subs an a book en ed Da w n Day Co ec on One he S ng e Bes dea Eve The ob ec ves o he book we e o show he mu d sc p na y each o Cha es Da w n and o me d aca dem c wo k w h popu a cu u e n 2004 he New Mex co co po a on was d sso ved and a s asse s ass gned o he Da w n Day Ce eb a on a non p o o gan za on nco po a ed n Ca o n a n 2004 by D Robe S ephens and o he s and he M ss on S a e men was expanded Da w n Day Ce eb a on edes gned he Web s e Da w nDay o g om a s a c p esen a on o n o ma on abou he Da w n Day P og am o a comb na on o educa on abou Da w n and he Da w n Day Ce eb a on o gan za on nc ud ng au oma ed eg s a on and pub ca on o p anned and pas ce eb a o y Even s and he au oma ed eg s a on o peop e who wan o ece ve ema ngs o make pub c dec a a on o suppo o Da w n Day The webs e s now ope a ed by he n e na ona Da w n Day Founda on an au onomous p og am o he Ame can Human s Assoc a on
Events Va ous even s a e conduc ed on Da w n Day a ound
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Revolution Day (1979) Iran - F e b 1 1
Despite economical growth, there was much opposition against the Mohammad Reza Shah, and how he used the secret police, the Savak, to control the country. Strong Shi'i opposition against the Shah, and the country came close to a situation of civil war. The opposition was lead by Ayatollah Khomeini, who lived in exile in Iraq and later in France. His message was distributed through music cassettes, which were smuggled into Iran in small numbers, and then duplicated, and spread all around the country. This was the beginning of Iranian revolution. On January 16 1979, the Shah left Iran. Shapour Bakhtiar as his new prime minister with the help of Supreme Army Councils couldn't control the situation in the country anymore. Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran on February 1. Ten days later Bakhtiar went into hiding, eventually to find exile in Paris. Processes against the supporters of the Shah started, and hundreds were executed. On April 1, after a landslide victory in a national referendum in which only one choice was offered (Islamic Republic: Yes or No), Ayatollah Khomeini declared an Islamic republic with a new Constitution reflecting his ideals of Islamic government. Ayatollah Khomeini became supreme spiritual leader (Valy-e-Faqih) of Iran. Subsequently many demonstrations were held in protest to the new rules, like extreme regulations on women's code of dress. On November 4: Iranian Islamic Students stormed the US embassy, taking 66 people, the majority Americans, as hostages. 14 were released before the end of November. In November: The republic's first Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan resigned. In 1980 Abolhassan Beni Sadr was elected for president. On September 22: Iraq massively invaded Iran, in the belief that Iran is too weak military to fight back. Iraq was claiming territories inhabited by Arabs (Southwestern oilproducing province of Iran called Khouzestan), as well as Iraq's right over Shatt el-Arab (Arvandroud). Some battles were won in the favor of Iraq, but a supposedly weakened Iranian army achieved surprising defensive success. In 1981, on January 20, the hostages in the US embassy were released, after long negotiations, where USA concedes to transfer money, as well as export military equipment to Iran. In June, Beni Sadr was removed from power by Ayatollah Khomeini, and fleed to France in July. Former prime minister Mohammad Ali Rajai was elected president. In August 30, President Rajai and his prime minister were killed in a bombing. In October, Hojatoleslam Seyed Ali Khamenei was elected president. Khamenei was one of the founders of the Islamic Republican Party, which dominated the Majlis (the national legislature) after the 1979 revolution. He was appointed to the Council of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, and between 1979 and 1981 he was a member of the Majlis, serving as deputy minister of defense, commander of the Revolutionary Guard, and representative on the Supreme Council of Defense. He also served several times as general secretary of the Islamic Republic Party. By summer of 1982, Iraq's initial territorial gains had been recaptured by Iranian troops that were stiffened with Revolutionary Guards. The Iraqi forces were driven out of Iran. The war extended to shooting of boats in the Persian Gulf, in an attempt to hurt the other country's oil exports. As required by the constitution, he resigned the presidency in 1989. On 20 August 1988, a cease fire was signed between Iran and Iraq. Both parties accepted UN Resolution 598. Following Ayatollah Khomeini's death on 3 June 1989 of a heart attack, Khamenei assumed the role of supreme spiritual leader. The Assembly of Experts (Ulama) met in emergency session on June 4 and elected President Khamenei the new Valy-eFaqih (supreme spiritual leader), simultaneously promoting him to the status of aya- Aya o ah Khome n ounder o tollah. And Hojatoleslam Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, speaker of the Majles Is am c Repub c (parliament) was elected as a president. He graduated in the late 1950s as a Hojatoleslam, a Shiite clerical rank just below that of ayatollah. Opposed, like his mentor, to the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Rafsanjani became the exiled Khomeini's chief agent in Iran, was arrested on several occasions, and spent three years in prison (1975-1977) for his activities. In 1990-1991 Iran condemned both Iraq's invasion in Kuwait and the allied forces actions against Iraq. Rafsanjani was re-elected in 1993 but stepped down in 1997, since the Iranian constitution limits the president from seeking a third term. From 1995 was total ban on trade with Iran by USA. In 1997 Hojatoleslam Mohammad Khatami was elected president by gaining almost 70 percent of the votes cast. He pursued political reform and opposed censorship. He is considered to be reformist towards democratization of Iran's society and willing to normalize the relation with west and reduce tensions in the region. Although popular among much of the Iranian public, these policies met considerable opposition from conservatives who controlled the legislature and judiciary. Hojatoleslam Mohammad Khatami was again re-elected as president in 2001 election by greater mandate of Iranian people (almost 78% of the vote cast). On 24 June 2005 Dr. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected as Iran's sixth president. He swept to the presidential post with a stunning 17,046,441 votes out of a total of 27,536,069 votes cast in the runoff election.
After the victory of 1979's Revolution
Mehdi Bazargan became the first prime minister of the revolutionary regime in February 1979. Bazargan, however, headed a government that controlled neither the country nor even its own bureaucratic apparatus. Central authority had broken down. Hundreds of semi-independent revolutionary committees, not answerable to central authority, were performing a variety of functions in major cities and towns across the country. Factory workers, civil servants, whitecollar employees, and students were often in control, demanding a say in running their organizations and choosing their chiefs. Governors, military commanders, and other officials appointed by the prime minister were frequently rejected by the lower ranks or local inhabitants. A range of political groups, from the far left to the far right, from secular to ultra-Islamic, were vying for political power, pushing rival agendas, and demanding immediate action from the prime minister. Clerics led by Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti established the Islamic Republican Party (IRP). The party emerged as the organ of the clerics around Ayatollah Khomeini and the major political organization in the country. Not to be outdone, followers of more moderate senior cleric Ayatollah Shariatmadari established the Islamic People's Republican Party (IPRP) in 1979, which had a base in Azarbaijan, Shariatmadari's home province. Moreover, multiple centers of authority emerged within the government. As the supreme leader, Ayatollah Khomeini did not consider himself bound by the government. He made policy pronouncements, named personal representatives to key government organizations, established new institutions, and announced decisions without consulting his prime minister. The prime minister found he had to share power with the Revolutionary Council, which Ayatollah Khomeini had established in January 1979 and which initially was composed of clerics close to Ayatollah Khomeini, secular political leaders identified with Bazargan, and two representatives of the armed forces. With the establishment of the provisional government, Bazargan and his colleagues left the Akbar Hashem Ra san an council to form the cabinet. They were replaced by Ayatollah Khomeini aides from the Paris period, such as Abolhassan Bani Sadr and Sadeq Qotbzadeh, and by protégés of Ayatollah Khomeini's clerical associates. The cabinet was to serve as the executive authority. But the Revolutionary Council was to wield supreme decision- making and legislative authority. Differences quickly emerged between the cabinet and the council over appointments, the role of the revolutionary courts and other revolutionary organizations, foreign policy, and the general direction of the Revolution. Bazargan and his cabinet colleagues were eager for a return to normalcy and rapid reassertion of central authority. Clerics of the Revolutionary Council, more responsive to the Islamic and popular temper of the mass of their followers, generally favored more radical economic and social measures. They also proved more willing and able to mobilize and to use the street crowd and the revolutionary organizations to achieve their ends. In July 1979, Bazargan obtained Ayatollah Khomeini's approval for an arrangement he hoped would permit closer cooperation between the Revolutionary Council and the cabinet. Four clerical members of the council joined the government, one as minister of interior and three others as undersecretaries of interior, education, and defense, while Bazargan and three cabinet colleagues joined the council. (All eight continued in their original positions as well.) Nevertheless, tensions persisted. Even while attempting to put in place the institutions of the new order, the revolutionaries turned their attention to bringing to trial and punishing members of the former regime whom they considered responsible for carrying out political repression, plundering the country's wealth, implementing damaging economic policies, and allowing foreign exploitation of Iran. A revolutionary court set to work almost immediately in the school building in Tehran where Ayatollah Khomeini had set up his headquarters. Revolutionary courts were established in provincial centers shortly thereafter. The Tehran court passed death sentences on four of the shah's (Mohammad Reza Shah) generals on February 16, 1979; all four were executed by firing squad on the roof of the building housing Ayatollah Khomeini's headquarters. More executions, of military and police officers, SAVAK agents, cabinet ministers, Majlis deputies, and officials of the shah's regime, followed on an almost daily basis. The activities of the revolutionary courts became a focus of intense controversy. On the one hand, left-wing political groups and populist clerics pressed hard for "revolutionary justice" for miscreants of the former regime. On the other hand, lawyers' and human rights' groups protested the arbitrary nature of the revolutionary courts, the vagueness of charges, and the absence of defense lawyers. Bazargan, too, was critical of the courts' activities. At the prime minister's insistence, the revolutionary courts suspended their activities on March 14, 1979. On April 5, new regulations governing the courts were promulgated. The courts were to be established at the discretion of the Revolutionary Council and with Ayatollah Khomeini's permission. They were authorized to try a variety of broadly defined crimes, such as "sowing corruption on earth," "crimes against the people," and "crimes against the Revolution." The courts resumed their work on April 6. On the following day, despite international pleas for clemency, Amir Abbas Hoveida, the shah's prime minister for twelve years, was put to death. Attempts by Bazargan to have the revolutionary courts placed under the judiciary and to secure protection for potential victims through amnesties issued by Ayatollah Khomeini also failed. Beginning in August 1979, the courts tried and passed death sentences on members of ethnic minorities involved in antigovernment movements. Some 550 persons had been executed by the time Bazargan resigned in November 1979. Bazargan had also attempted, but failed, to bring the revolutionary committees under his control. The committees, whose members were armed, performed a variety of duties. They policed neighborhoods in urban areas, guarded prisons and government buildings, made arrests, and served as the execution squads of the revolutionary tribunals. The committees often served the interests of powerful individual clerics, revolutionary personalities, and political groups, however. They made unauthorized arrests, intervened in labor-management disputes, and seized property. Despite these abuses, members of the Revolutionary Council wanted to bring the committees under their own control, rather than eliminate them. With this in mind, in February 1979 they appointed Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Mahdavi-Kani head of the Tehran revolutionary committee and charged him with supervising the committees countrywide. Mahdavi-Kani dissolved many committees, consolidated others, and sent thousands of committeemen homes. But the committees, like the revolutionary courts, endured, serving as one of the coercive arms of the revolutionary government. In May 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini authorized the establishment of the Pasdaran (Pasdaran-e Enghelab-e Islami, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps or Revolutionary Guards). The Pasdaran was conceived by the men around Ayatollah Khomeini as a military force loyal to the Revolution and the clerical leaders, as a counterbalance for the regular army, and as a force to use against the guerrilla organizations of the left, which were also arming. Disturbances among the ethnic minorities accelerated the expansion of the Pasdaran. Two other important organizations were established in this formative period. In March Ayatollah Khomeini established the Foundation for the Disinherited. The organization was to take charge of the assets of the Pahlavi Foundation and to use the proceeds to assist low-income groups. The new foundation in time came to be one of the largest conglomerates in the country, controlling hundreds of expropriated and nationalized factories, trading firms, farms, and apartment and office buildings, as well as two large newspaper chains. The Crusade for Reconstruction (Jihad-e Sazandegi or Jihad), established in June, recruited young people for construction of clinics, local roads, schools, and similar facilities in villages and rural areas. The organization also grew rapidly, assuming functions in rural areas that had previously been handled by the Planning and Budget Organization (which replaced the Plan Organization in 1973) and the Ministry of Agriculture. Trouble broke out among the Turkomans, the Kurds, and the Arabic-speaking population of Khozestan in March 1979. The disputes in the Turkoman region of Gorgan were over land rather than claims for Turkoman cultural identity or autonomy. Representatives of left-wing movements, active in the region, were encouraging agricultural workers to seize land from the large landlords. These disturbances were put down, but not without violence. Meanwhile, in Khozestan, the center of Iran's oil industry, members of the Arabic-speaking population organized and demanded a larger share of oil revenues for the region, more jobs for local inhabitants, the use of Arabic as a semi-official language, and a larger degree of local autonomy. Because Arab states, including Iraq, had in the past laid claim to Khozestan as part of the "Arab homeland," the government was bound to regard an indigenous movement among the Arabic-speaking population with suspicion. The government also suspected that scattered instances of sabotage in the oil fields were occurring with Iraqi connivance. In May 1979, government forces responded to these disturbances by firing on Arab demonstrators in Khorramshahr. Several demonstrators were killed; others were shot on orders of the local revolutionary court. The government subsequently quietly transferred the religious leader of the Khozestan Arabs, Ayatollah Mohammad Taher Shobayr al Khaqani, to Qom, where he was kept under house arrest. These measures ended further protests. The Kurdish uprising proved more deep-rooted, serious, and durable. The Kurdish leaders were disappointed that the Revolution had not brought them the local autonomy they had long desired. Scattered fighting began in March 1979 between government and Kurdish forces and continued after a brief cease-fire; attempts at negotiation proved abortive. One faction, led by Ahmad Moftizadeh, the Friday prayer leader in Sanandaj, was ready to accept the limited concessions offered by the government, but the Kurdish Democratic Party, led by AbdolRahman Qasemloo, and a more radical group led by Shaykh Ezz-o-Din Hossaini issued demands that the authorities in Tehran did not feel they could accept. These included the enlargement of the Kurdestan region to include all Kurdish-speaking areas in Iran, a specified share of the national revenue for expenditure in the province, and complete autonomy in provincial administration. Kurdish was to be recognized as an official language for local use and for correspondence with the central government. Kurds were to fill all local government posts and to be in charge of local security forces. The central government would remain responsible for national defense, foreign affairs, and central banking functions. Similar autonomy would be granted other ethnic minorities in the country. With the rejection of these demands, serious fighting broke out in August 1979. Ayatollah Khomeini, invoking his powers as commander in chief, used the army against other Iranians for the first time since the Revolution. No settlement was reached with the Kurds during Bazargan's prime ministership. Because the Bazargan government lacked the necessary security forces to control the streets, such control passed gradually into the hands of clerics in the Revolutionary Council and the IRP, who ran the revolutionary courts and had influence with the Pasdaran, the revolutionary committees, and the club-wielding hezbollahis, or "partisans of the party of God." The clerics deployed these forces to curb rival political organizations. In June the Revolutionary Council promulgated a new press law and began a crackdown against the proliferating political press. On August 8, 1979, the revolutionary prosecutor banned the leading left-wing newspaper, Ayandegan. Five days later hezbollahis broke up a Tehran rally called by the National Democratic Front, a newly organized left-of-center political movement, to protest the Ayandegan closing. The Revolutionary Council then proscribed the front itself and issued a warrant for the arrest of its leader. Hezbollahis also attacked the headquarters of the Fadayan organization and forced the Mojahedin to evacuate their headquarters. On August 20, forty-one opposition papers were proscribed. On September 8, the two largest newspaper chains in the country, Kayhan and Ettelaat, were expropriated and transferred to the Foundation for the Disinherited. In June and July 1979, the Revolutionary Council also passed a number of major economic measures, whose effect was to transfer considerable private sector assets to the state. It nationalized banks, insurance companies, major industries, and certain categories of urban land; expropriated the wealth of leading business and industrial families; and appointed state managers to many private industries and companies.
Consolidation of the Revolution
As the government eliminated the political opposition and successfully prosecuted The Iran-Iraq War, it also took further steps to consolidate and to institutionalize the achievements of the Revolution. The government took several measures to regularize the status of revolutionary organizations. It reorganized the Pasdaran and the Crusade for Reconstruction as ministries (the former in November 1982 and the latter in November 1983), a move designed to bring these bodies under the aegis of the cabinet, and placed the revolutionary committees under the supervision of the minister of interior. The government also incorporated the revolutionary courts into the regular court system and in 1984 reorganized the security organization led by Mohammadi Reyshahri, concurrently the head of the Army Military Revolutionary Tribunal, as the Ministry of Information and Security. These measures met with only limited success in reducing the considerable autonomy, including budgetary independence, enjoyed by the revolutionary organizations. An Assembly of Experts (not to be confused with the constituent assembly that went by the same name) was elected in December 1982 and convened in the following year to determine the successor to Ayatollah Khomeini. Ayatollah Khomeini's own choice was known to be Ayatollah Montazeri. The assembly, an eighty-three-member body that is required to convene once a year, apparently could reach no agreement on a successor during either its 1983 or its 1984 session, however. In 1985 the Assembly of Experts agreed, reportedly on a split vote, to name Ayatollah Montazeri as Ayatollah Khomeini's "deputy" (qaem maqam), rather than "successor" (ja-neshin), thus placing Ayatollah Montazeri in line for the succession without actually naming him as the heir apparent. Elections to the second Majlis were held in the spring of 1984. The IFM, doubting the elections would be free, did not participate, so the seats were contested only by candidates of the IRP and other groups and individuals in the ruling hierarchy. The campaign revealed numerous divisions within the ruling group, however, and the second Majlis, which included several deputies who had Mohammad Kha am served in the revolutionary organizations, was more radical than the first. The second Majlis convened in May 1984 and, with some prodding from Ayatollah Khomeini, gave Mir-Hossein Mousavi a renewed vote of confidence as prime minister. In 1985 it elected Hojatoleslam Khamenei, who was virtually unchallenged, to another four-year term as president. Bazargan, as leader of the IFM, continued to protest the suppression of basic freedoms. He addressed a letter on these issues to Ayatollah Khomeini in August 1984 and issued a public declaration in February 1985. He also spoke out against the war with Iraq and urged a negotiated settlement. In April 1985 Bazargan and forty members of the IFM and the National Front urged the UN secretary general to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict. In retaliation, in February 1985, the hezbollahis smashed the offices of the party, and the party newspaper was once again shut down. Bazargan was denounced from pulpits and was not allowed to run for president in the 1985 elections. There were, however, increasing signs of factionalism within the ruling group itself over questions of social justice in relation to economic policy, the succession, and, in more muted fashion, foreign policy and the war with Iraq. The debate on economic policy arose partly from disagreement over the more equitable distribution of wealth and partly from differences between those who advocated state control of the economy and those who supported private sector control. Divisions also arose between the Majlis and the Council of Guardians, a group composed of senior Islamic jurists and other experts in Islamic law and empowered by the Constitution to veto, or demand the revision of, any legislation it considers in violation of Islam or the Constitution. In this dispute, the Council of Guardians emerged as the collective champion of private property rights. In May 1982, the Council of Guardians had vetoed a law that would have nationalized foreign trade. In the fall of 1982, the council forced the Majlis to pass a revised law regarding the state takeover of urban land and to give landowners more protection. In January of the following year, the council vetoed the Law for the Expropriation of the Property of Fugitives, a measure that would have allowed the state to seize the property of any Iranian living abroad who did not return to the country within two months. In December 1982, the Council of Guardians also vetoed the Majlis' new and more conservative land reform law. This law had been intended to help resolve the issue of land distribution, left unresolved when the land reform law was suspended in November 1980. The suspension had also left unsettled the status of 750,000 to 850,000 hectares of privately owned land that, as a result of the 1979-80 land seizures and redistributions, was being cultivated by persons other than the owners, but without transfer of title. The debate between proponents of state and of private sector control over the economy was renewed in the winter of 1983-84, when the government came under attack and leaflets critical of the Council of Guardians were distributed. Undeterred, the council blocked attempts in 1984 and 1985 to revive measures for nationalization of foreign trade and for land distribution, and it vetoed a measure for state control over the domestic distribution of goods. As economic conditions deteriorated in 1985, there was an attempt in the Majlis to unseat the prime minister. Ayatollah Khomeini, however, intervened to maintain the incumbent government in office. These differences over major policy issues persisted even as the Revolution was institutionalized and the regime consolidated its hold over the country. The differences remained muted, primarily because of Ayatollah Khomeini's intervention, but the debate threatened to grow more intense and more divisive in the post-Khomeini period. Moreover, while in 1985 Ayatollah Montazeri appeared slated to succeed Ayatollah Khomeini as Iran's leader, there was general agreement that he would be a far less dominant figure as head of the Islamic Republic than Ayatollah Khomeini has been.
The New Constitution
Ayatollah Khomeini had charged the provisional government with the task of drawing up a draft constitution. A step in this direction was taken on March 30 and 31, 1979, when a national referendum was held to determine the kind of political system to be established. Ayatollah Khomeini rejected demands by various political groups and by Ayatollah Shariatmadari that voters be given a wide choice. The only form of government to appear on the ballot was an Islamic republic, and voting was not by secret ballot. The government reported an overwhelming majority of over 98 percent in favor of an Islamic republic. Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran on April 1, 1979. The Ayatollah Khomeini regime unveiled a draft constitution on June 18. Aside from substituting a strong president, on the Gaullist model, for the monarchy, the constitution did not differ markedly from the 1906 constitution and did not give the clerics an important role in the new state structure. Ayatollah Khomeini was prepared to submit this draft, virtually unmodified, to a national referendum or, barring that, to an appointed council of forty representatives who could advise on, but not revise, the document. Ironically, as it turned out, it was the parties of the left who most vehemently rejected this procedure and demanded that the constitution be submitted for full-scale review by a constituent assembly. Ayatollah Shariatmadari supported these demands. A newly created seventy-three-member Assembly of Experts convened on August 18, 1979, to consider the draft constitution. Clerics, and members and supporters of the IRP dominated the assembly, which revamped the constitution to establish the basis for a state dominated by the Shia clergy. The Assembly of Experts completed its work on November 15, and the new Constitution of the Islamic Republic was approved in a national referendum on December 2 and 3, 1979, once again, according to government figures, by over 98 percent of the vote. In October 1979, when it had become clear that the draft constitution would institutionalize clerical domination of the state, Bazargan and a number of his cabinet colleagues had attempted to persuade Ayatollah Khomeini to dissolve the Assembly of Experts, but Ayatollah Khomeini refused. Now opposition parties attempted to articulate their objections to the Constitution through protests led by the IPRP. Following the approval of the Constitution, Ayatollah Shariatmadari's followers in Tabriz organized demonstrations and seized control of the radio station. A potentially serious challenge to the dominant clerical hierarchy fizzled out, however, when Ayatollah Shariatmadari wavered in his support for the protesters, and the pro-Khomeini forces organized massive counterdemonstrations in the city in 1979. In fear of condemnation by Ayatollah Khomeini and of IRP reprisals, the IPRP in December 1979 announced the dissolution of the party. Few foreign initiatives were possible in the early months of the Revolution. The Bazargan government attempted to maintain correct relations with the Persian Gulf states, despite harsh denunciations of the Gulf rulers by senior clerics and revolutionary leaders. Anti-American feeling was widespread and was fanned by Ayatollah Khomeini himself, populist preachers, and the left-wing parties. Bazargan, however, continued to seek military spare parts from Washington and asked for intelligence information on Soviet and Iraqi activities in Iran. On November 1, 1979, Bazargan met with President Carter's national security adviser, Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, in Algiers, where the two men were attending Independence Day celebrations. Meanwhile, the shah, who was seriously ill, was admitted to the United States for medical treatment. Iranians feared that the shah would use this visit to the United States to secure United States support for an attempt to overthrow the Islamic Republic. On November 1, 1979, hundreds of thousands marched in Tehran to demand the shah's extradition, while the press denounced Bazargan for meeting with a key United States official. On November 4, young men who later designated themselves "students of the Imam's line," occupied the United States embassy compound and took United States diplomats hostage. Bazargan resigned two days later; no prime minister was named to replace him. The Revolutionary Council took over the prime minister's functions, pending presidential and Majlis elections. The elections for the new president were held in January 1980; Bazargan, fearing further personal attacks, did not run. The three leading candidates were Jalal oDin Farsi, representing the IRP, the dominant clerical party; Abolhassan Bani Sadr, an independent associated with Ayatollah Khomeini who had written widely on the relationship of Islam to politics and economics; and Admiral Ahmad Madani, a naval officer who had served as governor of Khozestan Province and commander of the navy after the Revolution. Farsi, however, was disqualified because of his Afghan origin, leaving Bani Sadr and Madani as the primary challengers. Bani Sadr was elected by 75 percent of the vote.
The Bani Sadr Presidency
Bani Sadr's program as president was to re-establish central authority, gradually to phase out the Pasdaran and the revolutionary courts and committees and to absorb them into other government organizations, to reduce the influence of the clerical hierarchy, and to launch a program for economic reform and development. Against the wishes of the IRP, Ayatollah Khomeini allowed Bani Sadr to be sworn in as president in January 1980, before the convening of the Majlis. Ayatollah Khomeini further bolstered Bani Sadr's position by appointing him chairman of the Revolutionary Council and delegating to the president his own powers as commander in chief of the armed forces. On the eve of the Iranian New Year, on March 20, Ayatollah Khomeini issued a message to the nation designating the coming year as "the year of order and security" and outlining a program reflecting Bani Sadr's own priorities. Nevertheless, the problem of multiple centers of power and of revolutionary organizations not subject to central control persisted to plague Bani Sadr. Like Bazargan, Bani Sadr found he was competing for primacy with the clerics and activists of the IRP. The struggle between the president and the IRP dominated the political life of the country during Bani Sadr's presidency. Bani Sadr failed to secure the dissolution of the Pasdaran and the revolutionary courts and committees. He also failed to establish control over the judiciary or the radio and television networks. Ayatollah Khomeini himself appointed IRP members Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti as chief justice and member Ayatollah AbdolKarim Mousavi-Ardabili as prosecutor general (also seen as attorney general). Bani Sadr's appointees to head the state broadcasting services and the Pasdaran were forced to resign within weeks of their appointments. Parliamentary elections were held in two stages in March and May 1980, amid charges of fraud. The official results gave the IRP and its supporters 130 of 241 seats decided (elections were not completed in all 270 constituencies). Candidates associated with Bani Sadr and with Bazargan's IFM each won a handful of seats; other left-of-center secular parties fared no better. Candidates of the radical left-wing parties, including the Mojahedin Khalq, the Fadayan Khalq, and the Tudeh Party, won no seats at all. IRP dominance of the Majlis was reinforced when the credentials of a number of deputies representing the National Front and the Kurdish-speaking areas, or standing as independents, were rejected. The consequences of this distribution of voting power soon became evident. The Majlis began its deliberations in June 1980. Hojatoleslam Ali Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani, a cleric and founding member of the IRP, was elected Majlis speaker. After a two-month deadlock between the president and the Majlis over the selection of the prime minister, Bani Sadr was forced to accept the IRP candidate, Mohammad Ali Rajai. Rajai, a former street schoolteacher, was a Beheshti protégé. The designation of cabinet ministers was delayed because Bani Sadr refused to confirm cabinet lists submitted by Rajai. In September 1980, Bani Sadr finally confirmed fourteen of a list of twenty-one ministers proposed by the prime minister. Some key cabinet posts, including the ministries of foreign affairs, labor, commerce, and finance, were filled only gradually over the next six months. The differences between president and prime minister over cabinet appointments remained unresolved until May 1981, when the Majlis passed a law allowing the prime minister to appoint caretakers to ministries still lacking a minister. The president's inability to control the revolutionary courts and the persistence of revolutionary temper were demonstrated in May 1980, when executions, which had become rare in the previous few months, began again on a large scale. Some 900 executions were carried out, most of them between May and September 1980, before Bani Sadr left office in June 1981. In September the chief justice finally restricted the authority of the courts to impose death sentences. Meanwhile a remark by Ayatollah Khomeini in June 1980 that "royalists" were still to be found in government offices led to a resumption of widespread purges. Within days of Ayatollah Khomeini's remarks some 130 unofficial purge committees were operating in government offices. Before the wave of purges could be stopped, some 4,000 civil servants and between 2,000 and 4,000 military officers lost their jobs. Around 8,000 military officers had been dismissed or retired in previous purges. The Kurdish problem also proved intractable. The rebellion continued, and the Kurdish leadership refused to compromise on its demands for local autonomy. Fighting broke out again in April 1980, followed by another cease-fire on April 29. Kurdish leaders and the government negotiated both in Mahabad and in Tehran, but, although Bani Sadr announced he was prepared to accept the Kurdish demands with "modifications," the discussions broke down and fighting resumed. The United States hostage crisis was another problem that weighed heavily on Bani Sadr. The "students of the Imam's line" and their IRP supporters holding the hostages were using the hostage issue and documents found in the embassy to radicalize the public temper, to challenge the authority of the president, and to undermine the reputations of moderate politicians and public figures. The crisis was exacerbating relations with the United States and West European countries. President Carter had ordered several billion dollars of Iranian assets held by American banks in the United States and abroad to be frozen. Bani Sadr's various attempts to resolve the crisis proved abortive. He arranged for the UN secretary general to appoint a commission to investigate Iranian grievances against the United States, with the understanding that the hostages would be turned over to the Revolutionary Council as a preliminary step to their final release. The plan broke down when, on February 23, 1980, the eve of the commission's arrival in Tehran, Ayatollah Khomeini declared that only the Majlis, whose election was still several months away, could decide the fate of the hostages. The shah had meantime made his home in Panama. Bani Sadr and Foreign Minister Qotbzadeh attempted to arrange for the shah to be arrested by the Panamanian authorities and extradited to Iran. But the shah abruptly left Panama for Egypt on March 23, 1980, before any summons could be served. In April the United States attempted to rescue the hostages by secretly landing aircraft and troops near Tabas, along the Dasht-e Kavir desert in eastern Iran. Two helicopters on the mission failed, however, and when the mission commander decided to abort the mission, a helicopter and a C-130 transport aircraft collided, killing eight United States servicemen. The failed rescue attempt had negative consequences for the Iranian military. Radical factions in the IRP and left-wing groups charged that Iranian officers opposed to the Revolution had secretly assisted the United States aircraft to escape radar detection. They renewed their demand for a purge of the military command. Bani Sadr was able to prevent such a purge, but he was forced to reshuffle the top military command. In June 1980, the chief judge of the Army Military Revolutionary Tribunal announced the discovery of an antigovernment plot centered on the military base in Piranshahr in Kurdestan. Twenty-seven junior and warrant officers were arrested. In July the authorities announced they had uncovered a plot centered on the Shahrokhi Air Base in Hamadan. Six hundred officers and men were implicated. Ten of the alleged plotters were killed when members of the Pasdaran broke into their headquarters. Approximately 300 officers, including two generals, were arrested, and warrants were issued for 300 others. The government charged the accused with plotting to overthrow the state and seize power in the name of exiled leader Bakhtiar. Ayatollah Khomeini ignored Bani Sadr's plea for clemency and said those involved must be executed. As many as 140 officers were shot on orders of the military tribunal; wider purges of the armed forces followed. In September 1980, perhaps believing the hostage crisis could serve no further diplomatic or political end, the Rajai government indicated to Washington through a diplomat of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) that it was ready to negotiate in earnest for the release of the hostages. Talks opened on September 14 in West Germany and continued for the next four months, with the Algerians acting as intermediaries. The hostages were released on January 20, 1981, concurrently with Ronald Reagan's taking the oath of office as president of United State. The United States in return released US$11 to US$12 billion in Iranian funds that had been frozen by presidential order. Iran, however, agreed to repay US$5.1 billion in syndicated and nonsyndicated loans owed to United States and foreign banks and to place another US$1 billion in an escrow account, pending the settlement of claims filed against Iran by United States firms and citizens. These claims, and Iranian claims against United States firms, were adjudicated by a special tribunal of the International Court of Justice at The Hague, established under the terms of the Algiers Agreement. As of 1987, the court was still reviewing outstanding cases, of which there were several thousand. The hostage settlement served as a further bone of contention between the Rajai government, which negotiated the terms, and Bani Sadr. The president and the governor of the Central Bank (Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran--established originally in 1960 as Bank Markazi Iran), a presidential appointee, charged the Iranian negotiators with accepting terms highly disadvantageous to Iran. One incentive to the settling of the hostage crisis had been that in September 1980 Iran became engaged in full-scale hostilities with Iraq. The conflict stemmed from Iraqi anxieties over possible spill over effects of the Iranian Revolution. Iranian propagandists were spreading the message of the Islamic Revolution throughout the Persian Gulf, and the Iraqis feared this propaganda would infect the Shia Muslims who constituted a majority of Iraq's population. The friction between Iran and Iraq led to border incidents, beginning in April 1980. The Iraqi government feared the disturbed situation in Iran would undo the 1975 Algiers Agreement concluded with the shah (not to be confused with the 1980 United States-Iran negotiations). There is also evidence the Iraqis hoped to bring about the overthrow of the Ayatollah Khomeini regime and to establish a more moderate government in Iran and also to annex Khozestan province to Iraq. On September 17, President Saddam Hossein of Iraq abrogated the Algiers Agreement. Five days later Iraqi troops and aircraft began a massive invasion of Iran (see The Iran-Iraq War). The war did nothing to moderate the friction between Bani Sadr and the Rajai government with its clerical and IRP backers. Bani Sadr championed the cause of the army; his IRP rivals championed the cause of the Pasdaran, for which they demanded heavy equipment and favorable treatment. Bani Sadr accused the Rajai government of hampering the war effort; the prime minister and his backers accused the president of planning to use the army to seize power. The prime minister also fought the president over the control of foreign and domestic economic policy. In late October 1980, in a private letter to Ayatollah Khomeini, Bani Sadr asked Ayatollah Khomeini to dismiss the Rajai government and to give him, as president, wide powers to run the country during the war emergency. He subsequently also urged Ayatollah Khomeini to dissolve the Majlis, the Supreme Judicial Council, and the Council of Guardians so that a new beginning could be made in structuring the government. In November Bani Sadr charged that torture was taking place in Iranian prisons and that individuals were executed "as easily as one takes a drink of water." A commission Ayatollah Khomeini appointed to investigate the torture charges, however, claimed it found no evidence of mistreatment of prisoners. There were others critical of the activities of the IRP, the revolutionary courts and committees, and the club-wielding hezbollahis who broke up meetings of opposition groups. In November and December, a series of rallies critical of the government was organized by Bani Sadr supporters in Mashhad, Esfahan, Tehran, and Gilan. In December, merchants of the Tehran bazaar who were associated with the National Front called for the resignation of the Rajai government. In February 1981, Bazargan denounced the government at a mass rally. A group of 133 writers, journalists, and academics issued a letter protesting the suppression of basic freedoms. Senior clerics questioned the legitimacy of the revolutionary courts, widespread property confiscations, and the power exercised by Ayatollah Khomeini as faqih. Even Ayatollah Khomeini's son, Hojatoleslam Ahmad Khomeini, initially spoke on the president's behalf. The IRP retaliated by using its hezbollahi gangs to break up Bani Sadr rallies in various cities and to harass opposition organizations. In November it arrested Qotbzadeh, the former foreign minister, for an attack on the IRP. Two weeks later, the offices of Bazargan's paper, Mizan, were smashed. Ayatollah Khomeini initially sought to mediate the differences between Bani Sadr and the IRP to prevent action that would irreparably weaken the president, the army, or the other institutions of the state. He ordered the cancellation of a demonstration called for December 19, 1980, to demand the dismissal of Bani Sadr as commander in chief. In January 1981, he urged nonexperts to leave the conduct of the war to the military. The next month he warned clerics in the revolutionary organizations not to interfere in areas outside their competence. On March 16, after meeting with and failing to persuade Bani Sadr, Rajai, and clerical leaders to resolve their differences, he issued a tenpoint declaration confirming the president in his post as commander in chief and banning further speeches, newspaper articles, and remarks contributing to factionalism. He established a three-man committee to resolve differences between Bani Sadr and his critics and to ensure that both parties adhered to Ayatollah Khomeini's guidelines. This arrangement soon broke down. Bani Sadr, lacking other means, once again took his case to the public in speeches and newspaper articles. The adherents of the IRP used the revolutionary organizations, the courts, and the hezbollahi gangs to undermine the president. The three-man committee appointed by Ayatollah Khomeini returned a finding against the president. In May, the Majlis passed measures to permit the prime minister to appoint caretakers to ministries still lacking a minister, to deprive the president of his veto power, and to allow the prime minister rather than the president to appoint the governor of the Central Bank. Within days the Central Bank governor was replaced by a Rajai appointee. By the end of May, Bani Sadr appeared also to be losing Ayatollah Khomeini's support. On May 27, Ayatollah Khomeini denounced Bani Sadr, without mentioning him by name, for placing himself above the law and ignoring the dictates of the Majlis. On June 7, Mizan and Bani Sadr's newspaper, Enqelab-e Eslami, were banned. Three days later, Ayatollah Khomeini removed Bani Sadr from his post as the acting commander in chief of the military. Meanwhile, gangs roamed the streets calling for Bani Sadr's ouster and death and clashed with Bani Sadr supporters. On June 10, participants in a Mojahedin rally at Revolution Square in Tehran clashed with hezbollahis. On June 12, a motion for the impeachment of the president was presented by 120 deputies. On June 13 or 14, Bani Sadr, fearing for his life, went into hiding. The speaker of the Majlis, after initially blocking the motion, allowed it to go forward on June 17. The next day, the Mojahedin issued a call for "revolutionary resistance in all its forms." The government treated this as a call for rebellion and moved to confront the opposition on the streets. Twenty-three protesters were executed on June 20 and 21, as the Majlis debated the motion for impeachment. In the debate, several speakers denounced Bani Sadr; only five spoke in his favor. On J w m m M m m T m m m T m m B S m m m
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Us ng he anguage o he aw cou s o he ua s o cou y ove a H gh Cou o Love was es ab shed n Pa s on Va en ne s Day n 1400 The cou dea w h ove con ac s be aya s and v o ence aga ns women Judges we e se ec ed by women on he bas s o a poe y ead ng The ea es su v v ng va en ne s a 15 h cen u y ondeau w en by Cha es Duke o O éans o h s w e wh ch commences Je su s des a d amou anné Ma es dou ce Va en née —Cha es d O éans Rondeau V nes 1–2 A he me he duke was be ng he d n he Towe o London o ow ng h s cap u e a he Ba e o Ag ncou 1415 Va en ne s Day s men oned ue u y by Ophe a n Ham e 1600–1601 To mo ow s Sa n Va en ne s day A n he mo n ng be me And a ma d a you w ndow To be you Va en ne Then up he ose and donn d h s c o hes And dupp d he chambe doo Le n he ma d ha ou a ma d Neve depa ed mo e —W am Shakespea e Ham e Ac V Scene 5 John Donne used he egend o he ma age o he b ds as he s a ng po n o h s Ep ha am on ce eb a ng he ma age o E zabe h daugh e o James o Eng and and F ede ck V E ec o Pa a ne on Va en ne s Day Hay e B shop Va en ne whose day h s s A he Ay e s hy D ocese And a he ch p ng Que s e s And o he b ds a hy pa sh one s Thou ma yes eve y yea e The Ly ck La k and he g aue wh spe ng Doue The Spa ow ha neg ec s h s e o oue n Ch d dressed The housho d b d w h he edd s omache DayVa en ne s Thou maks he B ackb d speede as soone hemed c o h ng As do h he Go d nch o he Ha cyon The Husband Cock ookes ou and soone s spedd And mee s h s w e wh ch b ngs he ea he bed Th s day mo e chee u y han eve sh ne Th s day wh ch m gh n ame hy se e o d Va en ne —John Donne Ep ha am on Vpon F ede ck Coun Pa a ne and he Lady E zabe h ma yed on S Va en nes day The ve se Roses a e ed echoes conven ons aceab e as a back as Edmund Spense s ep c The Fae e Queene 1590 She ba h d w h oses ed and v o e s b ew And a he swee es ow es ha n he o es g ew The mode n c ché Va en ne s Day poem can be ound n he co ec on o Eng sh nu se y hymes Gamme Gu on s Ga and 1784 The ose s ed he v o e s b ue The honey s swee and so a e you Thou a e my ove and am h ne d ew hee o my Va en ne The o was cas and hen d ew And Fo une sa d shou d be you
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n 1797 a B sh pub she ssued The Young Man s Va en ne W e wh ch con a ned sco es o sugges ed sen men a ve ses o he young ove unab e o compose h s own P n e s had a eady begun p oduc ng a m ed numbe o ca ds w h ve ses and ske ches ca ed mechan ca va en nes and a educ on n pos a a es n he nex cen u y ushe ed n he ess pe sona bu eas e p ac ce o ma ng Va en nes Tha n u n made poss b e o he s me o exchange ca ds anonymous y wh ch s aken as he eason o he sudden appea ance o acy ve se n an e a o h e w se p ud sh y V c o an Pape Va en nes became so popu a n Eng and n he ea y 19 h cen u y ha hey we e assemb ed n ac o es Fancy Va en nes we e made w h ea ace and bbons w h pape ace n oduced n he m d 19 h cen u y n he UK us unde ha o he popu a on spend money on he Va en nes and a ound 1 3 b on pounds a e spen yea y on ca ds owe s choco a es and o he g s w h an es ma ed 25 m on ca ds be ng sen The e nven on o Sa n Va en ne s Day n he 1840s has been aced by Le gh E c Schm d As a w e nG aham s Ame can Mon h y obse ved n 1849 Sa n Va en ne s Day s becom ng nay has become a na ona ho yday n he Un ed S a es he s mass p o duced va en nes o embossed pape ace we e p oduced and so d sho y a e 1847 by Es he How and 1828–1904 o Wo ces e Massachuse s He a he ope a ed a a ge book and s a one y s o e bu How and ook he nsp a on om an Eng sh Va en ne she had ece ved om a bus ness assoc a e o he a he n gued w h he dea o mak ng s m a Va en nes How and began he bus ness by mpo ng pape ace and o a deco a ons om Eng and The Eng sh p ac ce o send ng Va en ne s ca ds was es ab shed enough o ea u e as a p o dev ce n E zabe h Gaske s M Ha son s Con ess ons 1851 bu s n w h my exp ana ons The va en ne know no h ng abou s n you handw ng sa d he co d y S nce 2001 he G ee ng Ca d Assoc a on has been g v ng an annua Es he How and Awa d o a G ee ng Ca d V s ona y S nce he 19 h cen u y handw en no es have g ven way o mass p oduced g ee ng ca ds The m d 19 h cen u y Va en ne s Day ade was a ha b nge o u he comme c a zed ho days n he Un ed S a es o o ow n he second ha o he 20 h cen u y he p ac ce o exchang ng ca ds was ex ended o a manne o g s n he Un ed S a es Such g s yp ca y nc ude oses and choco a es packed n a ed sa n hea shaped box n he 1980s he d amond ndus y began o p omo e Va en ne s Day as an occas on o g v ng ewe y The U S G ee ng Ca d Assoc a on es ma es ha app ox ma e y 190 m on va en nes a e sen each yea n he US Ha o hose va en nes a e g ven o am y membe s o he han husband o w e usua y o ch d en When you nc ude he va en ne exchange ca ds made n schoo ac v es he gu e goes up o 1 b on and eache s become he peop e ece v ng he mos va en nes n some No h Ame can e emen a y schoo s ch d en deco a e c ass ooms exchange ca ds and a e g ven swee s The g ee ng ca ds o hese s uden s some mes men on wha hey app ec a e abou each o he The se o n e ne popu a y a he u n o he m enn um s c ea ng new ad ons M ons o peop e use eve y yea d g a means o c ea ng and send ng Va en ne s Day g ee ng messages such as e ca ds ove coupons o p n ab e g ee ng ca ds An es ma ed 15 m on e va en nes we e sen n 2010
Similar days celebrating love n he Wes Europe
Wh e send ng ca ds owe s choco a es and o he g s s ad ona n he UK Va en ne s Day has va ous eg ona cus oms n No o k a cha ac e ca ed Jack Va en ne knocks on he ea doo o houses eav ng swee s and p esen s o ch d en A hough he was eav ng ea s many ch d en we e sca ed o h s mys ca pe son n Wa es many peop e ce eb a e Dydd San es Dwynwen S Dwynwen s Day on Janua y 25 ns ead o o as we as Va en ne s Day The day commemo a es S Dwynwen he pa on sa n o We sh ove s n F ance a ad ona y Ca ho c coun y Va en ne s Day s known s mp y as Sa n Va en n and s ce eb a ed n much he same way as o he wes e n coun es n Spa n Va en ne s Day s known as San Va en n and s ce eb a ed he same way as n he UK a hough n Ca a on a s a ge y supe seded by s m a es v es o ose and o book g v ng on La D ada de San Jo d Sa n Geo ge s Day n Po uga s mo e common y e e ed o as D a dos Namo ados Love s Day Day o hose ha a e n ove w h each o he n Denma k and No way Va en ne s Day 14 Feb s known as Va en nsdag s no ce eb a ed o a a ge ex en bu s a ge y mpo ed om Ame can cu u e and some peop e ake me o ea a oman c d nne w h he pa ne o send a ca d o a sec e ove o g ve a ed ose o he oved one The cu owe ndus y n pa cu a s s wo k ng on p omo ng he ho day n Sweden s ca ed A a h ä ans dag A Hea s Day and was aunched n he 1960s s no an o c a ho day by he owe ndus y s comme c a n e es s and due o he n uence o Ame can cu u e bu s ce eb a on s ecogn zed and sa es o cosme cs and owe s o h s ho day a e on y exceeded by hose o Mo he s Day n F n and Va en ne s Day s ca ed Ys ävänpä vä wh ch ans a es n o F end s day As he name nd ca es h s day s mo e abou emembe ng a you ends no on y you oved ones n Es on a Va en ne s Day s ca ed Sõb apäev wh ch has he same mean ng n S oven a a p ove b says ha S Va en ne b ngs he keys o oo s so on Feb ua y 14 p an s and owe s s a o g ow Va en ne s Day has been ce eb a ed as he day when he s wo k n he v neya ds and n he e ds commences s a so sa d ha b ds p opose o each o he o ma y on ha day Neve he ess has on y ecen y been ce eb a ed as he day o ove The day o ove s ad ona y Ma ch 12 heSa n G ego y s day Ano he p ove b says Va en n – p v spom ad n Va en ne — s sa n o sp ng as n some p aces espec a yWh e Ca n o a Sa n Va en ne ma ks he beg nn ng o sp ng n Roman a he ad ona ho day o ove s s D agobe e wh ch s ce eb a ed on Feb ua y 24 s named a e a cha ac e om Roman an o k o e who was supposed o be he son o Baba Doch a Pa o h s name s he wo d d ag dea wh ch can a so be ound n he wo dd agos e ove n ecen yea s Roman a has a so s a ed ce eb a ng Va en ne s Day desp e a eady hav ng D agobe e as a ad ona ho day Th s has d awn back ash om seve a g oups ns u ons and na ona s o gan za ons ke Noua D eap ǎ who condemn Va en ne s Day o be ng supe c a comme c a s and mpo ed Wes e n k sch n L huan a and La v a s common o peop e o pu s cke s on aces and c o h ng o a end o a e a ve The ho day was s ce eb a ed a e he wo coun es ga ned ndependence om Sov e Un on n 1990 Va en ne s Day s ca ed Ημ ρα ου Αγ ου Βαλ ν νου n G eece and Cyp us wh ch ans a es n o S Va en nes day Ac ua y n O hodox chu ch he e s an o he Sa n p o ec he peop e a e n ove bu o G eeks Va en ne s Day s mo e popu a Acco d ng o Jew sh ad on he 15 h day o he mon h o Av – Tu B Av usua y a e Augus s he es va o ove n anc en mes g s wou d wea wh e d esses and dance n he v neya ds whe e he boys wou d be wa ng o hem M shna Taan h end o Chap e 4 n mode n s ae cu u e h s s a popu a day o p onounce ove p opose ma age and g ve g s ke ca ds o owe s
La n Amer ca
n some La n Ame can coun es Va en ne s Day s known as D a de Amo y a Am s ad Day o Love and F end s a so common o see peop e sh p Fo examp e Mex co Cos a R ca Ecuado and Pue o R co as we as o he s ends pe o m ac s o app ec a on o he n Gua ema a s known as he D a de Ca ño A ec on Day n B az he D a dos Namo ados Love s Day o Boy ends G ends Day s ce eb a ed on June 12 p obab y because s he day be o e Sa n An hony s day known he e as he ma age sa n when ad ona y many s ng e women pe o m popu a ua s ca eds mpa as n o de o nd a good husband o boy end Coup es exchange g s choco a es ca ds and owe bouque s The Feb ua y 14 s Va en ne s Day s no ce eb a ed a a ma n y o cu u a e be o e o a e Ca n va — ha can a anywhe e om ea y and comme c a easons s nce usua y a s oo Feb ua y o ea y Ma ch n Venezue a n 2009 P es den Hugo Chávez sa d n a mee ng o h s suppo e s o he upcom ng e e endum vo e on Feb ua y 15 ha s nce on he 14 h he e w be no me o do ng no h ng no h ng o nex o no h ng maybe a e k ss o some h ng ve y supe c a he ecommended peop e o ce eb a e a week o ove a e he e e endum vo e n mos o La n Ame ca he D a de amo y a am s ad and he Am go sec e o Sec e end a e qu e popu a and usua y ce eb a ed oge he on he 14 o Feb ua y one excep on s Co omb a whe e s ce eb a ed eve y h d Sa u day o Sep embe The a e cons s s o andom y ass gn ng o each pa c pan a ec p en who s o be g ven an anonymous g s m a o he Ch s mas ad on o Sec e San a
Eas As a
Thanks o a concen a ed ma ke ng e o Va en ne s Day s ce eb a ed n some As an coun es w h S ngapo eans Ch nese and Sou h Ko eans spend ng he mos money on Va en ne s g s n Sou h Ko ea s m a o Japan women g ve choco a e o men on Feb ua y 14 and men g ve non choco a e candy o women on Ma ch 14 Wh e Day On Ap 14 B ack Day hose who d d no ece ve any h ng on he 14 h o Feb o Ma ch go o a Ko ean es au an o ea b ack nood es 자장면 a angmyeon and mou n he s ng e e Ko eans a so ce eb a e Pepe o Day on Novembe 11 when young coup es g ve each o he Pepe o cook es The da e 11 11 s n ended o esemb e he ong shape o he cook e The 14 h o eve y mon h ma ks a ove e a ed day n Ko ea a hough mos o hem a e obscu e F om Janua y o Decembe Cand e Day Va en ne s Day Wh e Day B ack Day Rose Day K ss Day S ve Day G een Day Mus c Day W ne Day Mov e Day and Hug Day Ko ean women g ve a much h ghe amoun o choco a e han Japanese women n Ch na he common s ua on s he man g ves choco a e owe s o bo h o he woman ha he oves n Ch nese Va en ne s Day s ca ed s mp ed Ch nese 情人节 ad ona Ch nese 情人節 p ny n q ng én é The so ca ed Ch nese Va en ne s Day s he Q x Fes va ce eb a ed on he seven h day o he seven h mon h o he una ca enda commemo a es a day on wh ch a egenda y cowhe de and weav ng ma d a e a owed o be oge he Mode n Va en ne s Day s a so ce eb a ed on Feb ua y 14 o he so a ca enda each yea n Ta wan he s ua on s he eve se o Japan s Men g ve g s o women on Va en ne s Day and women e u n hem on Wh e Day n he Ph pp nes Va en ne s Day s ca ed A aw ng mga Puso o Hea s Day s usua y ma ked by a s eep n c ease n he p ces o owe s
Japan
n Japan Mo ozo L d n oduced he ho day o he s me n 1936 when an an adve semen a med a o e gne s La e n 1953 began p omo ng he g v ng o hea shaped choco a es o he Japanese con ec one y com pan es o owed su he ea e n 1958 he se andepa men s o e an a Va en ne sa e Fu he campa gns du ng he 1960s popu a zed he cus om The cus om ha on y women g ve choco a es o men appea s o have o g na ed om he ypo o a choco a e company execu ve du ng he n a campa gns n pa cu a o ce ad es g ve choco a e o he co wo ke s Un ke wes e n coun es g s such as g ee ng ca ds cand es owe s o d nne da es a e uncommon and mos o he ac v y abou he g s s abou g v ng he gh amoun o choco a e o each pe son Japanese choco a e compan es make ha he annua sa es du ng h s me o he yea Many women ee ob ged o g ve choco a es o a ma e co wo ke s excep when he day a s on a Sunday a ho day Th s s known as g choko 義理チョコ om g ob ga on and choko choco a e w h unpopu a co wo ke s ece v ng on y u a ob ga o y chō g choko cheap choco a e Th s con as s w h honme choko 本命チョコ avo e choco a e choco a e g ven o a oved one F ends espec a y g s may exchange choco a e e e ed o as omo choko 友チョコ om omo mean ng end n he 1980s he Japanese Na ona Con ec one y ndus y Assoc a on aunched a success u campa gn o make Ma ch 14 a ep y day whe e men a e expec ed o e u n he avou o hose who gave hem choco a es on Va en ne s Day ca ng Wh e Day o he co o o he choco a es be ng o e ed A p ev ous a ed a emp o popu a ze h s ce eb a on had been done by a ma shma ow manu ac u e who wan ed men o e u n ma shma ows o women Men a e expec ed o e u n g s ha a e a eas wo o h ee mes mo e va uab e han he g s ece ved n Va en ne s Day No e u n ng he g s pe ce ved as he man p ac ng h mse n a pos on o supe o y even excuses a e g ven Re u n ng a p esen o equa va ue s cons de ed as a way o say ha you a e cu ng he e a onsh p O g na y on y choco a e was g ven bu now he g s o ewe y accesso es c o h ng and nge e a e usua Acco d ng o he o c a webs e o Wh e Day he co o wh e was chosen because s he co o o pu y evok ng pu e swee een ove and because s a so he co o o suga The n a name was A n Ko ae u Wh e Day Answe Love on Wh e Day n Japan he oman c da e n gh assoc a ed o Va en ne s Day s ce eb a ed on Ch s mas Eve n a 2006 su vey o peop e be ween 10 and 49 yea s o age n Japan O con S y e ound he 1986 Sayu Kokushō s ng e Va en ne K ss o be he mos popu a Va en ne s Day song even hough so d on y 317 000 cop es The s n g es bea n he ank ng we e numbe one se ng Love Love Love om D eams Come T ue 2 488 630 cop es and Va en ne s Rad o om Yum Ma su oya 1 606 780 cop es The na song n he op ve was My Funny Va en ne by M es Dav s
S m ar As an rad ons
n Ch nese cu u e he e s an o de obse vance e a ed o ove s ca ed The N gh o Sevens Ch nese 七夕 p ny n Q X Acco d ng o he egend he Cowhe d s a and he Weave Ma d s a a e no ma y sepa a ed by he m ky way s ve y ve bu a e a owed o mee by c oss ng on he 7 h day o he 7 h mon h o he Ch nese ca enda n Japan a s gh y d e en ve s on o 七夕 ca ed Tanaba a has been ce eb a ed o cen u es on Ju y 7 G ego an ca enda has been cons de ed by Wes e ne s as s m a o S Va en ne s Day bu s no e a ed o and s o g ns a e comp e e y d e en n nd a n he an qu y he e was a ad on o ado ng Kamadeva he o d o ove exemp ca ed by he e o c ca v ngs n he Kha u aho G oup o Monumen s and by he w ng o he Kamasu a ea y o ovemak ng Th s ad on was os a ound he M dd e Ages when Kamadeva was no onge ce eb a ed and pub c d sp ays o sexua a ec ons became owned upon A ound 1992 Va en ne s Day s a ed ca ch ng n nd a w h spec a TV and ad o p og ams and even ove e e compe ons The econom c be a za on a so he ped he Va en ne ca d ndus y n mode n mes H ndu and s am c ad ona s s cons de he ho day o be cu u a con am na on om he Wes esu o he g oba za on n nd a Sh v Sena and he Sangh Pa va have asked he o owe s o shun he ho day and he pub c adm ss on o ove because o hem be ng a en o nd an cu u e These p o es s a e o gan zed by po ca e es bu he p o es e s hemse ves a e m dd e c ass H ndu men who ea ha he g oba za on w des oy he ad ons n h s soc e y a anged ma ages H ndu o n am es u me mo he s see Housew e# nd a e c Desp e hese obs ac es Va en ne s Day s becom ng nc eas ng y popu a n nd a Howeve e s and be a c ques o Va en ne s Day ema n s ong n nd a Va en ne s Day has been s ong y c c zed om a pos co on a pe spec ve by n e ec ua s om he nd an e The ho day s ega ded as a on o Wes e n mpe a sm neoco on a sm and he exp o a on o wo k ng c asses h ough comme c a sm by mu na ona co po a ons S ud es have shown ha Va en ne s Day p omo es and exace ba es ncome nequa y n nd a and a ds n he c ea on o a pseudo wes e n zed m dd e c ass As a esu he wo k ng c assesand u a poo become mo e d s connec ed soc a y po ca y and geog aph ca y om he hegemon c cap a s powe s uc u e They a so c c ze ma ns eam med a a acks on nd ans opposed o Va en ne s Day as a o m o demon za on ha s des gned and de ved o u he he Va en ne s Day agenda
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The Pang ong Ag eemen was s gned and passed on Feb ua y 12 1947 a e wh ch on Janua y 4 1948 Myanma ach eved s u ndependence unde he B sh co ony o mo e han a cen u y One o s a ms was o p omo e equa y be ween he Bu mese p a n peop e and he non Bu mese h s bes n Bu ma The pass ng o he Pang ong Ag eemen dep c ed un y om s peop e and made hem who e as a na on desp e he ac a abuse and d sc m na on ha hey unde wen om he B sh co ony The Pang ong Ag eemen was s gned by he mos powe u o c a s o he gove nmen who p onee ed he aw o make he coun y a democ a c gove nmen wh ch was ed by he eade o he na on Gene a Bogyoke Aung San and h s o owe s Howeve sho y a e he s gn ng o he ag eemen Gene a Aung San was sho and k ed eav ng he coun y g ev ng o he oss o he a he o he na on
n Egyp Egyp ans ce eb a e Va en ne s Day on Feb ua y 14 n an he Sepanda mazgan o Es andegan s an age o d ad ona ce eb a on o ove endsh p and Ea h has no h ng n common w h he Sa n Va en ne ce e b a on excep o a supe c a s m a y n g v ng a ec on and g s o oved ones and s o g ns and mo va ons a e comp e e y un e a ed has been p og ess ve y o go en n avo o he Wes e n ce eb a on o Va en ne s Day The Assoc a on o an s Cu u a and Na u a Phenomena has been y ng s nce 2006 o make Sepanda mazgan a na ona ho day on 17 Feb ua y n o de o ep ace he Wes e n ho day n s ae he Tu B Av s cons de ed o be he Jew sh Va en ne s Day o ow ng he anc en ad ons o cou sh p on h s day Today h s s ce eb a ed as a second ho day o ove by secu a peop e bes des Sa n Va en ne s Day and sha es many o he cus oms assoc a ed w h Sa n Va en ne s Day n wes e n soc e es
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National Day Serbia - Feb 15
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om 1804 un 1815 The evo u on comp sed wo sepa a e up s ngs wh ch ga ned au onomy om he O oman Emp e and even ua y u n dependence n 1835 Du ng he F s Se b an Up s ng ed by Duke Ka ađo đe Pe ov ć Se b a was ndependen o a mos a decade be o e he O oman a my was ab e o eoccupy he coun y Sho y a e h s heSecond Se b an Up s ng began Led by M oš Ob enov ć ended n 1815 w h a comp om se be ween Se b an evo u ona es and O oman au ho es L kew se Se b a was one o he s na ons n he Ba kans o abo sh euda sm The Conven on o Acke man n 1826 he T ea y o Ad anop e n 1829 and na y he Ha Sha ecogn zed he suze a n y o Se b a The s Se b an Cons u on was adop ed on 15 Feb ua y 1835 Fo ow ng he c ashes be ween he O oman a my and Se bs n Be g ade n 1862 and unde p essu e om he G ea Powe s by 1867 he as Tu k sh so d e s e he P nc pa y By enac ng a new cons u on w hou consu ng he Po e Se b an d p oma s con med he de ac o ndependence o he coun y n 1876 Se b a dec a ed wa on he O oman Emp e p oc a m ng s un ca on w h Bosn a The o ma ndependence o he coun y was n e na ona y ecogn zed a he Cong ess o Be n n 1878 wh ch o ma y ended heRusso Tu k sh Wa h s ea y howeve p o h b ed Se b a om un ng w h Bosn a by p ac ng unde Aus o Hunga an occupa on F om 1815 o 1903 he P n c pa y o Se b a was u ed by he House o Ob enov ć excep om 1842 o 1858 when was ed by P nce A eksanda Ka ađo đev ć n 1882 Se b a became a K ngdom u ed by K ng M an n 1903 o ow ng he May Ove h ow he House o Ka ađo đev ć descendan s o he evo u ona y eade Ka ađo đe Pe ov ć assumed powe The 1848 ev o u on n Aus a ead o he es ab shmen o he au onomous e o y o Se b an Vo vod na By 1849 he eg on was ans o med n o he Vo vodesh p o Se b a and Bana o Temeschwa
HUNGARY National Flag Day Canada - F e b 1 5
Hungary's image in the international media improved in 2013
H unga r y on it s wa y to be c om ing R +D hub: PM Or bá n
Flag Day, officially named National Flag of Canada Day, is observed annually on February 15, commemorating the inauguration of the Flag of Canada on that date in 1965. The day is marked by flying the flag, occasional public ceremonies, and educational programs in schools. It is not a public holiday, although there has been discussion about creating one.
History
The Maple Leaf flag replaced the Canadian Red Ensign, which had been, with various successive alterations, in conventional use as a Canadian national flag since 1868. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Lester Pearson, resolutions recommending the new flag were passed by the House of Commons on December 15, 1964, and by the Senate two days later. The flag was proclaimed by Elizabeth II,Queen of Canada, on January 28, 1965, and took effect "upon, from and after" February 15. National Flag of Canada Day was instituted in 1996 by an Order in Council from Governor General Roméo LeBlanc, on the initiative of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. At the first Flag Day ceremony in Hull, Quebec, Chrétien was confronted by demonstrators against proposed cuts to the unemployment insurance system, and while walking through the crowd grabbed by the neck and pushed aside a protester who had approached him. In 2010, on the flag's 45th anniversary, federal ceremonies were held to mark Flag Day at Winnipeg, St. John's, Ottawa, and at Whistler and Vancouver in conjunction with the XXI Olympic Winter Games. In 2011, Prime Minister Stephen Harper observed Flag Day by presenting two citizens, whose work honored the military, with Canadian flags which had flown over the Peace Tower. It was announced as inaugurating an annual recognition of patriotism.
Name It was decided National Flag Day would not be an acceptable name for the date, given the multiple uses of the word
"nation" or "national" in Canada; some aboriginal peoples call themselves First Nations and various institutions in the province of Quebec are designated as "national" — the National Assembly of Quebec, for example. The resulting inclusion of the words "of Canada" disambiguated exactly what nation was being referred to, but created a title that could be interpreted as suggesting there is a national flag for Canada Day. National Flag Day and Flag Day are used in common parlance.
Photo: Károly Árvai
Photo: Balázs Mohai, MTI ( On l i n e 0 6 Fe b )
journalists.
This printed outlets in countries, to reach a better Zsolt Antal, the positive rating in head of the French press. Nézőpont's media The Deputy State monitoring secSecretary added tion, told a press th a t i t w a s a ch a l - co n fe r e n ce . l e n g e t o h a n d l e Ab o u t 5 - 6 p e r ce n t the articles pub- of articles had a l i sh e d b y th e N e w positive content in Yo r k Ti m e s r e l a t - b o t h years, ing to anti-Semi- whereas the pro-
Status I n t e r n a t i o n a l made it possible 12 It has been suggested that Flag Day should be declared a national statutory holiday, as there are no such days off
between New Year's Dayand Good Friday, except Family Day in Alberta, Ontario, and Saskatchewan, and Louis Riel Day in Manitoba. That suggestion grew louder as the flag celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2005. On Flag Day in 2007, New Democratic Party Member of Parliament Peggy Nashintroduced a private member's bill to make Flag Day a federal statutory holiday, leaving it to the provinces to decide if the holiday would be marked in their respective jurisdictions.
H u n g a r y s i g n s FAT C A a s t h e first country in the region
media interest in Hungary intensifi e d a n d th e co u n try's image in the foreign media improved overall last year compared to 2012, a report released on Thursday by the Nézőpont re-
(Online 06 Feb) A whole network of scientific research centres must be established so as to make Hungary a research and development hub as well as manufacturing a centre, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán said, addressing the ELI laser centre’s stone foundation laying ceremony in Szeged, South Hungary. Hungary, the Czech Republic and Romania won a joint bid in October 2009 to run the EU Extreme Light Infrastructure (ELI) project, which Hungary will host at
He expressed his hope that several new research centres would be built that would turn Hungary into a hub for Research and Development. Funding for science has increased consince siderably 2010 thanks to a plan drafted by the within the MTA of a framework long-term strategy, he added. Gábor Szabó, Rector of the University of Szeged, stressed at the event that the establishment of the research centre may ensure Europe's continues su-
with a budget of HUF 37 billion, 85 percent of which will be EU funding. A further HUF 24.3 billion will be earfor marked purchasing and fitting research equipment during the 2014-2020 EU financial period. The second phase of the project is scheduled to finish by 2018. The aim of the project is to establish a European unique institute research based on laser technology, in which both laser impulses and the other light sources generated with their help are
Photo: Gergely Botár (Online 06 Feb) Charge d’Affaires of the Embassy of the United States of America M. André Goodfriend and Minister of State for Taxation and Financial Affairs Gábor Orbán signed an agreement today between the governments of Hungary and the United States of America to implement the U.S. Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA). Enacted by the United States Congress in 2010, FATCA targets tax evasion by U.S. taxpayers who use foreign financial accounts. The agreement signed today provides the necessary legal
framework for effective implementation of FATCA by financial institutions. This agreement is an example of how the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Hungarian government cooperate to combat tax evasion. “Today’s signing marks a significant step forward in our countries’ efforts to work collaboratively to combat offshore tax evasion – an objective that mutually benefits our two countries,” said the Chargé d’Affaires. “We appreciate Hungary’s commitment to enhancing our bilateral cooperation to improve international tax compliance.”
Minister of State Gábor Orbán noted, “Hungary is the first country from the region to sign this agreement. The Agreement provides a solution for our financial markets to comply with the FATCA regime and helps us to combat tax avoidance through its provisions on reciprocal information exchange. As the U.S. Department of Treasury is engaged in negotiations with more than 100 countries and the automatic exchange of information is prepared to be a new global standard, we are at the beginning of a new kind of cooperation.”
Photo: Balázs Mohai, MTI search institute shows. Deputy State Secretary for International Communications, Ferenc Kumin highlighted the positive tendencies in his presenta ti o n a s w e l l . Ferenc Kumin, the D e p u ty Sta te Se c retary in charge of foreign press relations, confirmed the survey's conclusion that international media attention was most intensive towards Hungary in March, focussing on the fourth
ti sm , w h i ch w a s a frequent issue, w h i l e th e y d i d n o t speak at all of a quite serious issue that happened in Romania, when an anti-Semitic song was played on p u b l i c te l e vi si o n . A ‘demonic’ topic w a s th e i ssu e o f a military-style child r e n ’s c a m p i n Mogyoród, which the press portrayed as a place where extremist parents send their children to receive military training, although
portion of articles reflecting negatively on the country dropped to 33 percent last year from 43 percent in 2012, he said. The proportion of articles with a neutral content increased. Most articles were published in Germ a n y. T h e m o s t positive articles appeared in the Polish media, praising the introd u cti o n o f r e l i g i o n classes in primary schools and government meas-
For e ign M inis t e r M a r t ony i ope ns a ne w c ons ula r of f ic e in Slov e nia
Photo: György Varga clared that the policy of opening – both towards the neighbouring countries and globally – was one of the priorities of Hungarian foreign policy. The opening of the consular office in Lendava was a major step in this direction, and with this step, Hungary has also lived up to a promise made many years ago when the Slovenian Consulate General was opened in Szentgotthárd in 1998, he added. On the same day, before the opening of the consular office, Foreign Minis-
ter Martonyi and his Slovenian counterpart, Karl Erjavec, took part in a meeting, in Szentgotthárd, Hungary, to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the entering into effect of the Hungarian-Slovenian minority protection agreement. Both sides agreed that their exemplary cooperation in the field of minority protection had not only improved the situation of minorities in the two countries but had also significantly contributed to the bolstering of bilateral relations in general.
H igh qua lit y a dm inis t r a t ion inc r e a s e s c om pe t it iv e ne s s
Photo: Zsolt Burger (Online 05 Feb) “High quality, welland mannered quick administration increases competitiveness” – said Minister of Public Administration and Justice during the handover ceremony of the governmental one-stop-shop at Balatonfűzfő this Tuesday. Tibor Navracsics stated that the purpose of the renewal in public administration was to let entrepreneurs and employees solve their administrative matters simply and rapidly and at the same time “let them feel that control
achieve that citizens don’t have to pay extra attention to their matters, as the time spend during administration is wasted in the sense of economy and family life. Regarding the onestop-shop of Balatonfűzfő, he said that the concept in mind was to link preexisting administrative offices to the system and to create modern executive points with a wider scope, making available the possibility of solving problems for citizens from home. He added further-
Minister, near fifty one-stop-shops will open all around the country at such places, where there are preexisting administrative offices and the number of clients makes it viable. Zoltán Kovács, Agent of Government for Veszprém County emphasized in his ceremonial speech that the new one-stop-shops are feasible in accordance with the 21st Century and they are up to date and all-encompassing, so the clients don’t have to go from office to office with their cases to get
the University of Szeged. The Prime Minister pointed out the recent completion of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences' (MTA) research centre for natural sciences and of the data centre of the European Organisation for Nuclear Research, known as CERN.
premacy within the field of laser physics. The centre will directly employ a staff of 400 but could indirectly contribute to the creation of 45000 jobs. In the first phase will involve the construction of the centre and the partial installation of the laser technology
available to international researchers. The facility is expected to enable outstanding scientific results not only with relation to research on ultrarapid basic physics processes, but also within the fields of biology, medicine and materials sciences.
Germany is Hungary's number one partner: János Martonyi
Photo: Balázs Mohai, MTI
(Online 05 Feb) Both the Hungarian and the Slovenian foreign ministers visited Lendava (Lendva) where Foreign Minister János Martonyi officially opened the new consular office of the Hungarian embassy in Slovenia on 4 February. Both the Hungarian and the Slovenian foreign ministers visited Lendava (Lendva) where Foreign Minister János Martonyi officially opened the new consular office of the Hungarian embassy in Slovenia on 4 February. Mr. Martonyi de-
Photo: Károly Árvai
a m e n d m e n t to th e C o n sti tu ti o n . Th i s w a s th e m o st ta l ke d - a b o u t to p i c i n h i s d e p a r tm e n t, after which the i ssu e o f h o m e l e ss people arose duri n g th e e n d o f th e y e a r. H e a t t r i b uted the improvem e n t o f H u n g a r y's i m a g e i n th e i n te rnational media to positive developin the ments e c o n o m y. P a r t o f success was that department the m a n a g e d to i n te n sify its presence community on websites and establish a better working relationwith Buship dapest-based
i t w a s a m i r r o r e sof tablishment militaryother children's style camps throughout the world, such as i n th e U SA. The institute conducted a second survey on Hungary's perception w i th i n th e i n te r n a tional media in 2013, after having concluded a similar study in the p r e vi o u s ye a r. with Compared 2012's examinaof 3,659 tion items reported by 40 media outlets in seven countries, this year's analysis covered 6,800 articles in online and 57
to help ures foreign troubled currency debtors, h e sa i d . The largest numb e r o f p o si ti ve r e ports appeared in May and June, when favourable on GDP data g r o w th a n d l o w i n flation was rel e a se d . Mr. Antal said that tw o o f th e l e a d i n g international new age nci es, R eu te rs Bloomberg, and carried the largest n u m b e r o f r e p o r ts H u n g a r y, about co n ce rn i n g mo stl y economy-related issues in a neutral to n e .
(Online 06 Feb) Minister Foreign János Martonyi paid an official visit to Berlin on 5 February to hold talks with his counterGerman part, Frank-Walter Steinmeier. Mr. Martonyi declared that Germany is Hungary's number one partner, with "major German investments having been realised" in the country in recent years. Should there be disputed questions between the two countries in the future, "we will discuss them intensively, in an earnest and friendly atmosphere, just as behe said. fore," Frank-Walter Steinmeier also stated that "critical disputes" about politilegal and cal, economic changes Hungary had in been settled, and "it can be established satisfaction with that ties will be furdeveloped", ther and German compawill create nies more jobs in Hun-
gary. Asked if the issue of the upgrade of the Paks nuclear power plant was raised during the talks, Martonyi János stressed that the decision on expansion aimed to ensure that Hungary's energy security be maintained. The decision had no global policy background or content, he said. Short of sufficient fossil fuel reserves and funds for tapping renewable enresources, ergy Hungary would face the danger of being left without power after the closure of the existing four blocks of the Paks nuclear power plant. "This is a risk no responsible government or parliament take," he can added. Expanding the plant with Russian involvement is dictated by "economic, financial and technological reaJános sons", said, Martonyi adding that Hungary's choice of a
Russian contractor did by no means signal that the counhad turned try overly towards Russia. The talks between the two foreign ministers also focused on Ukraine. Minister said Steinmeier "there is some hope for a political solution or at least such solutions cannot be excluded." As long as the opposing sides are negotiating, there is no need for EU sanctions. Should the Kiev government hamper talks, the EU "might to impose have sanctions", the German Foreign Minisstated. Mr. ter claimed Martonyi that Hungary did not see "sanctions as practicable" against Ukraine in the current situation, but in the case outlined by Mr. Steinmeier there would be a need for "a package of powsanctions" erful rather than "mosquito bites".
(Online 07 Feb) The Ministry of Rural Development's Deputy State Secretary for Parliamentary, Social and International Relations Katalin Tóth attended an event organised by the Farmers' Circle of Democratic the Community of Hungarians in Croatian town of Karanac (Karancs) to mark the first anniversary of the founding organisation, at which she stressed the importance of transferring knowledge and experience relating to the European Union to Hungarian communities living neighbouring in countries. At the meeting of the Farmers' Circle, Ms. Tóth reminded those present that the organisation had been established as a result of the aspirations, which are also supported by the Ministry of Rural Development, according to which rural Hungarians living in every country of the Carpathian Basin should have an institutionalised system of representation and advocacy. It is these organisations that
form the basis and organisational background for cooperaon rural tion development with cross-border Hungarians. The system of organisations that form the network represent a guarantee for the unified transformation and transferral of Hungarian interests into concrete measures, in which the role of coordinator must by undertaken by the new National Chamber of Agricultural Economics. In addition to greeting the Farmers' Circle, the Deputy State Secretary also hel a lecture on opportunities for cooperation on rural development within Carpathian the Basin and on the recent experiences. She stressed the importance of the fact that Croatia, as a new member of the European Union, and within it the Hungarian people of the Drávaszög region, as a significant minority, can rely on the knowledge that Hungary is capable of and willing to provide. It of course does so while focusing on comprehen-
sive national policy goals, because rural development plays, and will continue to play, a key role in helping Hungarians lead a successful life in the land of their birth. According to Katalin Tóth, this is precisely why the Minof Rural istry is Development continuing to do everything possible ensure that to cross-border Hungarian farmers receive information in Hungarian, whether through funding proconferfessional ences and training courses, promoting the organisation of field trips or supplying partner organiwith sations specialised magaand textzines books. In addition, trademarking and increasing consumer awareness of characteristic products is also important, a fine example of which was the success achieved by the cross-border Hungarian stand at last year's Hungarian Agriculture and Food Industry Exhibition (OMÉK), the Deputy State Secretary said in closing.
Hungarian producers popular at world's largest fruit & vegetable Expo C r o a t i a n F a r m e r s c a n c o n t i n u e to rely on Hungarian Funding (Online 06 Feb) The the fruit & vegetable million euros, while Hungarian exhibitors were wellreceived at the world's largest fruit & vegetable expo, the Fruit Logistica in Berlin, at which Hungary could be the featured guest in 2016, the President of the Hungarian Fruit and Vegetable Interprofessional Organisation and Product Board (FruitVeB) told Hungarian news agency MTI at the expo that opened on Wednesday. The Hungarian exhibitors were wellreceived at the world's largest fruit & vegetable expo, the Fruit Logistica in Berlin, at which Hungary could be the featured guest in 2016, the President of the Hungarian Fruit and Vegetable Interprofessional Organisation and Product Board (FruitVeB) told Hungarian news agency MTI at the expo that opened on Wednesday. Béla Mártonffy stressed that the objective of the organisation during the new, seven-year EU financial period was to increase the average annual quantity of produce by 1 million tons to 3.5 million tons. In view of the fact that
sector is very labour intensive, this could mean the creation of 100 thousand new jobs. To reach this goal it is important to be present at professional forums that provide an opportunity to increase exports, such as the Fruit Logistica, and so the Organisation is working together with the Agricultural Marketing Centre and the Hungarian Embassy in Berlin to ensure that Hungary acquires the status of guest country at the 2016 expo, Mr. Mártonffy said. The Berlin expo is also important because Germany is the number one market for the products of the Hungarian fruit & vegetable sector, with about a quarter of the sector's total exports going to the German market, he added. According to preliminary figures, around 75-80 million euros worth of Hungarian fruits and vegetables were exported to Germany, while total exports for the sector equalled some 350 million euros. Vegetable exports to Germany were stable in 2013, equalling some 39
fruit exports achieved an all time high, according to estimates. The most popular products include stone fruits, various nuts, melon and frozen fruits, the FruitVeB president said. 15 companies are promoting the sector at the Hungarian national stand at the Fruit Logistica expo, including several farmers' organisations that represent many thousands of producers. Visitors to the Hungarian stand during the opening day of the exhibition, which runs until Friday, included German Minister for Food and Agriculture H a n s - P e t e r Friedrich and Christian Göke, Managing Director of Messe Berlin GmbH, the company that operates the Berlin expo centre. Some 2600 exhibitors from 84 countries are promoting their products at the Fruit Logistica expo this year, and the organisers are expecting a total of some 58 thousand visitors from 120 countries; this year's guest country is Argentina.
St r a t e gic Pa r tne r s hip A gr e e m e nt s igne d wit h K nor r -B r e m s e
Successful debut of Hungarian startup strategy in Sweden
Photo: Zsolt Burger over their matters belong to them, not to administrators”. As the Tibor Navracsics disclosed, the transformation of administration, both public and state, was an effort of the Government to tie administrators closer to clients and
more that the network of one-stop-shops in public administration will be further expanded with several more branches where it is reasonable because of attention and demand. According to the announcement of the
their official matters solved. He remarked that the road leading to this point was long since the trust of citizens in public administration did fall during the period preceding the change of government in 2010.
Hungary and Slovenia mark bilateral minority protection agreement anniversary
(Online 06 Feb) Hungary’s policy for assisting innovative start-ups has made a successful debut in Sweden, Minister of State for Parliament and Economic Strategy Zoltán Cséfalvay told MTI, calling from Sweden following a Hungarian innovation forum. The Minister of State emphasised that Hungarian presentations on the start-up development programme were received with great interest by Swedish participants. He stressed that in 2014-2020 some HUF 140bn will be made avaialable for developing the Hungarian start-up scene. At the forum, Hungarian start-ups also introduced themselves and through their own examples showed the progress which had taken place in this field over the past three-four
years, he added. The forum was held in Stockholm, which was one of the locations in European cities where presentations have been held thus far and which will be continued in the future. These events are expected to place Hungary, especially Budapest, on the European start-up map and to convince investors active in this field that Hungarian start-ups deserve their attention. Ericsson Hungary was also present at the forum. The Sweden-based global conglomerate, which has a large development centre in Hungary employing some 1200 engineers, has been a good example for showing favourable opportunities Hungary is offering with regard to innovation cooperation between enterprises and universities. The Minister of
State noted that negotiations were also held with the company’s representatives on further development options in Hungary. Zoltán Cséfalvay also said that at the forum and related meetings they also discussed that an incubation system, created for developing budding enterprises, has been operating successfully in Sweden and a similar one is under construction in Hungary. The Minister of State stressed that concerning this project Hungary would welcome the contribution of Swedish partners. He also met with Sweden’s Minister of Trade Ewa Björling, and along with Swedish-Hungarian trade relations they reviewed current issues of EuropeanAmerican economic relations as well as topics related to digital economy.
Photo: NGM (Online 07 Feb) The Government concluded a Strategic Partnership Agreement with Knorr-Bremse Hungary, a leading manufacturer of rail and road vehicle braking systems, which was signed by Minister for National Economy Mihály Varga and Knorr-Bremse AG Chairman Michael Buscher at the company’s Budapest headquarters. Following the signing of the Agreement, the new test facility of Knorr-Bremse was opened, in which braking systems are examined at a temperature of -75 degrees Celsius. Prior to the signing of the document, Mihály Varga pointed out that
fulfilled expectations. Strategic partners have implemented investment projects totalling HUF 650bn over the past years, steadily expanding in Hungary and forging close relations with Hungarian suppliers, he said and expressed hope that investment, cooperation in the field of research, innovation and education as well as a business-friendly regulatory environment will result in accelerating economic growth. Mihály Varga added that the development of the Knorr-Bremse Corporation has been fitting well with the Government’s economic policy objectives. Nowadays, he continued, we are wit-
sued not only the Government but KnorrBremse as well. Germany is Hungary’s number one economic partner, the Minister emphasised. Hungarian exports to Germany in 2012 and in the initial ten months of 2013 were up by 1.1 percent and 3.7 percent, respectively. Naturally, Hungary has been also seeking to discover new markets, especially in the east, for Hungarian exporters. Michael Buscher emphasised that while most enterprises froze investment at the onset of the crisis, Knorr-Bremse continued the development of its local facilities. In 2010, the company
nessing the change of an era also in the field of industrial technologies, and the international market competition has never been this fierce and it has never impacted as many countries as it does today. This competition will create winners and losers, and it is important for Hungary to emerge triumphantly in the end and become a strong country the people of which can earn a living through work, the Minister stressed. The Minister also spoke about the deal brokered with Russian on the financing of the two new blocks of the Paks power plant. Mihály Varga stated that German enterprises have been significantly contributing to Hungarian economic growth, especially those which have expanded output capacity even during the crisis years. The objective of the coming years is to keep up this trend, he stressed. Increasing the number of Hungarian suppliers has been a policy pur-
opened a new production site for the rail division in Budapest and in the same year the decision was made for the construction of a new factory in Kecskemét. Over the past five years, the corporation has invested more than EUR 100 million in Hungary, he said. R&D is a crucial factor of success within the car industry and KnorrBremse spends EUR 250 million a year on it. The company has development centres also in Budapest, which employ more than 100 development engineers, some of whom design control software and others are responsible for the design of mechatronic components, Michael Buscher added. He also stressed that the company intends to bring Hungarian suppliers into the production chain, who may supply not only the local factories but entire Europe with highquality components.
Fifty billion for well-managed local governments
Photo: Zsolt Burger (Online 04 Feb) Both Hungary and Slovenia are dedicated to advancing further in building bilateral relations, bolstering Central European cooperation and working together to find solutions to European and global problems, Foreign Minister János Martonyi declared in the town of Szentgotthárd on 4 February. Both Hungary and Slovenia are dedicated to advancing further in building bilateral relations, bolstering Central European cooperation and working together to find solutions to European and global problems, Foreign Minister János Martonyi declared in the town of Szentgotthárd on 4 February. Foreign Minister János Martonyi and his Slovenian counterpart, Karl Erjavec, took part in a memorial meeting in Szentgotthárd, Hungary, to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the entering into effect of the HungarianSlovenian minority protection agreement. Mr. Martonyi stressed that Hungary had been among the first countries to recognise the independent Slovenia in 1994 and concluded with it a basic treaty that was
also followed by the signing of a bilateral minority protection agreement. The agreement was path-breaking twenty years ago and served as a model for subsequent similar agreements, János Martonyi said, adding that it had been important for the development of international minority protection legislation. He called it particularly important that the bilateral agreement recognised and simultaneously codified the protection of individual as well as collective minority rights. Following the commemorative meeting, the two foreign ministers will be going to Lendava (Lendva), Slovenia, to attend the opening of a Hungarian consular office there. The Hungarian Foreign Minister stated that the policy of international opening is at the very heart of Hungarian foreign policy, which is also reflected in the reopening of diplomatic missions throughout the world. At the same time, Hungary wants to be more open towards its neighbours, the Central European region and the entire world. János Martonyi claimed that „if a
country wants to become open to the world, it must first and foremost be open towards its immediate environment.” The event in Lendava will be a step forward in that direction, and the Hungarian community in Slovenia has long demanded the opening of a Hungarian consular office in the city, around which many ethnic Hungarians live. Slovenian Foreign Minister Karl Erjavec said that both Hungary and Slovenia put great emphasis on minority protection, and had done much in the past several years to ensure minority protection on the basis of the bilateral agreement. "The fact that the two countries' foreign ministers are celebrating the anniversary together indicates the agreement's importance," he said. The Slovenian Foreign Minister highly appreciated Hungary's efforts to guarantee the protection of the Slovenian minority, noting the settlement of education matters and the possibility in the near future of sending a representative of the Slovenian minority to sit in Hungary's next parliament.
(Online 06 Feb) Local governments that managed their resources well and required little or no consolidation will receive HUF 50 billion in funding over the next four years – Minister of State for local governments András Tállai said. The decision affects 1176 settlements, including 1018 with less than 2000 inhabitants. These local governments will receive half of the four-year budget by the end of March. The financial sup-
port can be used to perform compulsory tasks, such as road and bridge maintenance and construction, and the modernisation of institutions – Mr. Tállai said. The level of funding was calculated based on the number of inhabitants and the degree of consolidation required was also taken into consideration. The smallest affected settlement has 18 inhabitants, is located in Zala county and will receive HUF 1.5 mil-
lion, while the largest settlement has 1990 inhabitants, is located in S z a b o l c s - S z a tm á r county and will receive HUF 20 million. The State Secretary emphasised that the Government has fulfilled its promise to help indebted settlements exit the debt-trap and at the same time provide financial compensation to those who have managed their finances successfully.
Anti-corruption report of the European Commission acknowledges Hungarian efforts (Online 04 Feb) The Hungarian Government is pleased to see the acceptance of the European Commission’s report on the fight against corruption. A great step towards battling such phenomena, as it raises awareness regarding harmful factors disrupting societies Europe-wide and the same time it shows the good practices what different countries have taken in the matter, being good examples for others. The report acknowledges that with the Fifth Amendment of the Fundamental Law, Hungary managed the worries raised beforehand by Brussels regarding justice. The whole nation should be proud that the European Commission recognized the preventive measures taken by the government as being true results of its initiated fight against corruption. The report emphasizes that Hungary strengthened its integrity training system; for
which the innovative learning processes are supported by training programs and specific methodology. Since September 2013, knowledge on prevention of corruption and integrity became part of public administration courses and trainings covering topics of integrity and ethics have begun; which will empower 9,000 administrative and senior government officials. Anti-corruption measures are shown in the National Curriculum as well, which took effect in the autumn of 2013. In this spirit, addressing the problem of community and social corruption forms an important part of the education of ethics in all high school grades. The battle against corruption has not ended yet though. The Government of Hungary is still committed to follow the steps taken towards the economic and moral well-being of citizens with the termination of the disrupting effect of corrup-
tion. In this sense party funding regarding political campaigns were tightened. The Government acknowledges the report as a leap forward, although it would be useful to see more detailed analyses to come with a deeper involvement of countries during preparation sessions. It is clearly seen in the report that Hungary faces similar problems as any other country in the EU. The respective indicators do not deviate significantly from the mean scores of the EU member countries. It has to be noted that some figures show more favorable settings as the EU average. Clearly the gratuities in healthcare are the greatest challenges, but it is comforting that the population of Hungary trusts public institutions more than most of the EU citizens. The greatest rise of trust for such institutions was in Hungary since the compilation of the survey in 2011.
Photo: NGM Knorr-Bremse has long-term plans in Hungary, proven by the almost 100-year history of the company and those large-scale investment projects which Knorr-Bremse has implemented over the past years despite the crisis. Michael Buscher emphasised that the company has been the Government’s partner in industrial development, because this is a crucial field for the Hungarian economy. The signing of the Agreement is a key milestone for KnorrBremse, an enterprise which has been present in Hungary for almost a century. Mihály Varga pointed out that Knorr-Bremse has been active in the country since the 1920s and it has become a decisive factor within the vehicle manufacturing sector. As the Minister stressed the Government decided in 2012 to elevate partnership to a higher level with large enterprises active in Hungary, and results have thus far