Death of Gen Jose de San Martin Argentina - Aug 17 José Francisco de San Martín (c. 1778 – 17 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire. Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes, in modern Argentina, he left his mother country at the early age of seven and studied in Málaga, Spain. In 1808, after joining Spanish forces in the Peninsular War against the French, San Martín started making contact with South American supporters of independence from Spain. In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires from England and offered his services to theUnited Provinces of South America, present-day Argentina. After the Battle of San Lorenzo of 1813, and some time on command of the Army of the North (Spanish:Ejército del Norte) during 1814, he began to put into action his plan to defeat the Spanish forces that menaced the United Provinces from Upper Peru, making use of an alternative path to the Viceroyalty of Peru. This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of the Andes, in Cuyo Province, Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile, and prevailed over the Spanish forces at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maipú (1818), thus liberating Chile from royalist rule. Then he set sail to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru, by sea. On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martín was appointed Protector of Peru (Protector del Perú), and Peruvian independence was officially declared on 28 July. On 22 July 1822, after a closed-door meeting with fellow libertadorSimón Bolívar at Guayaquil, Ecuador, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martín unexpectedly left the country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moved to France in 1824. The details of the 22 July meeting would be a subject of debate by later historians. San Martín is regarded as a national hero of Argentina and, together with Simon Bolívar, one of the liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Orden del Libertador General San Martín), created in his honor, is the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government.
National Day Indonesia - Aug 17 The Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independencewas an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Indonesia and theDutch Empire, and an internal social revolution. It took place betweenIndonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' recognition of Indonesia's independence in 1949. One of the largest revolutions of the twentieth century, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch forces were not able to prevail over the Indonesians, but were strong enough to resist being expelled. Although Dutch forces could control the towns and cities in Republican heartlands onJava and Sumatra, they could not control villages and the countryside. Thus, the Republic of Indonesia ultimately prevailed as much through international diplomacy as it did through Indonesian determination in the armed conflicts on Java and other islands. The revolution destroyed the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indieswhich had ruled from the other side of the world. It also significantly changed racial castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers (raja). It did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, though a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce.
Background
Indonesian nationalism and movements supporting independence from Dutch colonialism, such asBudi Utomo, the Indonesian National Party (PNI), Sarekat Islam, and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), grew rapidly in the first half of the twentieth century. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad ("People's Council") in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule. Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the educational reforms of the Dutch Ethical Policy. The occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands, under German occupation, had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and within only three months of their initial attacks, the Japanese had occupied the Dutch East Indies. In Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra (Indonesia's two dominant islands), the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Although this was done more for Japanese political advantage than from altruistic support of Indonesian independence, this support created new Indonesian institutions (including local neighbourhood organisa- A defiant Sutomo, one of the most tions) and elevated political leaders such as Sukarno. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese de- revered revolutionary leaders. This fastroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, ad- mous photo represents for many who took part, both Dutch and Indonesian, ministrative, and political infrastructure. With Japan on the brink of losing the war, the Dutch sought to the very soul of the revolutionary re-establish their authority in Indonesia and asked that the struggle Japanese Army "preserve law and order" in Indonesia. The Japanese, however, were in favour of helping Indonesian nationalists prepare for self-government. On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his apparent collaboration with the Japanese.
declared Independence Under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda ('youth')
groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimedIndonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KINP) elected Sukarno asPresident, and Hatta as Vice President.
Euphoria of revolution:
It was mid-September before news of the declaration of independence spread to the outer islands, and many Indonesians far from the capital Jakarta did not believe it. As the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as proRepublican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted; it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, and the Dutch were too weakened by World War II. The Japanese, on the other hand, were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down their arms Bendera Pusaka, the first Indonesian and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by hand- flag, is raised on 17 August 1945. ing weapons to Japanese-trained Indonesians. The resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemudajoined pro-Republic struggle groups (badan perjuangan). The most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun (PETA) and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit. In the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. By September 1945, control of major infrastructure installations, including railway stations and trams in Java's largest cities, had been taken over by Republican pemuda who encountered little Japanese resistance. To spread the revolutionary message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers, and graffiti proclaimed the nationalist sentiment. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up. Republican newspapers and journals were common in Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and Surakarta, which fostered a generation of writers known as angkatan 45('generation of 45') many of whom believed their work could be part of the revolution. Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment; some wanted passionate armed struggle; others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a revolutionary struggle to be led and won by the Indonesian pemuda. Sukarno and Hatta, in contrast, were more interested in planning out a government and institutions to achieve independence through diplomacy. Pro-revolution demonstrations took place in large cities, including one led by Tan Malaka in Jakarta with over 200,000 people, which Sukarno and Hatta, fearing violence, successfully quelled. By September 1945, many of the self-proclaimed pemuda, who were ready to die for '100% freedom', were getting impatient. It was common for ethnic 'out-groups' – Dutch internees, Eurasian, Ambonese and Chinese – and anyone considered to be a spy, to be subjected to intimidation, kidnap, robbery, and sometimes murder, even organised massacres. Such attacks would continue to some extent for the course of the revolution. As the level of violence increased across the country, the Sukarno- and Hatta-led Republican government in Jakarta urged calm. However, pemuda in favour of armed struggle saw the older leadership as dithering and betraying the revolution, which often led to conflict amongst Indonesians.
Formation of the Republican government:
By the end of August, a central Republican government had been established in Jakarta. It adopted a constitution drafted during the Japanese occupation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. With general elections yet to be held, a Central Indonesian National Committee (KINP) was appointed to assist the President. Similar committees were established at provincial and regency levels. Questions of allegiance immediately arose amongst indigenous rulers. Central Javanese principalities, for example, immediately declared themselves Republican, while many raja ('rulers') of the outer islands, who had been enriched from their support of the Dutch, were less enthusiastic. Such reluctance among many outer islands was sharpened by the radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes Islamic nature of the Java-centric Republican leadership. Support did, however, come from South Sulawesi (including the King of Bone, who still recalled battles against the Dutch from early in the century), and from Makassarese and Bugis raja, who supported the Republican Governor of Jakarta, a Menadonese Christian. Many Balinese raja accepted Republican authority. Fearing the Dutch would attempt to re-establish their authority over Indonesia, the new Republican Government and its leaders moved quickly to strengthen the fledgling administration. Within Indonesia, the newly formed government, although enthusiastic, was fragile and focused in Java (where focused at all). It was rarely and loosely in contact with the outer islands, which had more Japanese troops (particularly in Japanese naval areas), less sympathetic Japanese commanders, and fewer Republican leaders and activists.In November 1945, a parliamentary form of government was established and Sjahrir was appointed Prime Minister. In the week following the Japanese surrender, the Giyugun (PETA) and Heiho groups were disbanded by the Japanese. Command structures and membership vital for a national army were consequently dismantled. Thus, rather than being formed from a trained, armed, and organised army, the Republican armed forces began to grow in September from usually younger, less trained groups built around charismatic leaders. Creating a rational military structure that was obedient to central authority from such disorganisation, was one of the major problems of the revolution, a problem that remains through to contemporary times. In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch. A thirty year-old former school teacher, Sudirman, was elected 'commander-in-chief' at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945.
Day of the Failed Aug, 1991 Coup Russia - Aug 19
The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt (19–21 August 1991), also known as the August Putsch or August Coup (Russian: Августовский путч, Translit: Avgustovsky Putch), was an attempt by a group of members of the Soviet Union's government to take control of the country from Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. The coup leaders were hard-line members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty that he had negotiated which decentralised much of the central government's power to the republics. They were opposed, mainly in Moscow, by a short but effective campaign of civil resistance. Although the coup collapsed in only two days and Gorbachev returned to government, the event destabilised the Soviet Union and is widely considered to have led to both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Background Since assuming power in 1985, Gorbachev had embarked on an ambitious program of reform, embodied in the twin
concepts of perestroika and glasnost, meaning economic/political restructuring and openness, respectively. These moves prompted resistance and suspicion on the part of hardline members of the establishment. The reforms also unleashed some forces and movements that Gorbachev did not expect. Specifically, nationalist agitation on the part of the Soviet Union's non-Russian minorities grew, and there were fears that some or all of the union republics might secede. In 1991, the Soviet Union was in a severe economic and political crisis. There were shortages of almost all products, and people had to stand in long lines to buy even essential goods. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Georgia had already declared their independence from the Soviet Union. In January 1991, there was an attempt to return Lithuania to the Soviet Union by force. About a week later, there was a similar attempt by local pro-Soviet forces to overthrow the Latvian authorities. There were continuing armed ethnic conflicts in Nagorny Karabakh and South Ossetia. Russia declared its sovereignty on 12 June 1990 and thereafter limited the application of Soviet laws, in particular the laws concerning finance and the economy, on Russian territory. The Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR adopted laws which contradicted Soviet laws (the so-called "war of laws"). In the unionwide referendum on 17 March 1991, boycotted by the Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova, the majority of the residents of the rest of the republics expressed the desire to retain the renewed Soviet Union. Following negotiations, eight of the nine republics (exceptUkraine) approved the New Union Treaty with some conditions. The treaty would make the Soviet Union a federation of independent republics with a common president, foreign policy, and military. The Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan were to sign the Treaty in Moscow on 20 August 1991.
conspiracy The On 11 December 1990, the Chairman of the KGB, Vladimir Kryuchkov, made a "call for order" over Central television
in Moscow. That day, he asked two KGB officers to prepare a plan of measures that could be taken in case a state of emergency was declared in the USSR. Later, Kryuchkov involved the USSR Defense Minister, Dmitriy Yazov, the Internal Affairs Minister, Boris Pugo, the Prime Minister, Valentin Pavlov, the Vice President, Gennady Yanayev, the deputy Chief of the USSR Defence Council Oleg Baklanov, the head of Gorbachev's secretariat, Valeriy Boldin, and a CPSU Central Committee Secretary Oleg Shenin in the conspiracy. The conspirators hoped that President Mikhail Gorbachev could be persuaded to declare the state of emergency and to "restore order". On 23 July 1991, a number of party functionaries and literati published in the hardline newspaper 'Sovetskaya Rossiya' as a prime factor to an anti-Perestroika manifesto entitled A Word to the People. On 29 July 1991, Gorbachev, Russian President Boris Yeltsin and Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev discussed the possibility of replacing such hardliners as Pavlov, Yazov, Kryuchkov and Pugo with more liberal figures. This conversation was eavesdropped on by the KGB and became known to Vladimir Kryuchkov who had placed Gorbachev under close surveillance as Subject 110 several months earlier. On 4 August 1991, Gorbachev went on holiday to his dacha in Foros in the Crimea. He planned to return to Moscow on 20 August 1991, when the union treaty was to be signed. On 17 August the conspirators met in a KGB guesthouse in Moscow. There they read about the new union treaty, which they believed would pave the way to the Soviet Union's breakup, and decided that it was time to act. On 18 August, Sunday, Oleg Baklanov, Valeriy Boldin, Oleg Shenin, and Deputy USSR Defense Minister General Valentin Varennikov flew to the Crimea for a meeting with Gorbachev. Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin and Varennikov demanded that Gorbachev either declare a state of emergency or resign and name Vice President Gennady Yanayev as acting president so as to allow the conspirators "to restore order" in the country. Gorbachev has always claimed that he refused point blank to accept the ultimatum. Varennikov has insisted that Gorbachev said: "Do what you think is needed, damn you!" However, those present at the dacha at the time testified that Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin, and Varennikov had been clearly disappointed and nervous after the meeting with Gorbachev. With Gorbachev's refusal, the conspirators ordered that he remain confined to the Foros dacha; at the same time the dacha's communication lines (which were controlled by the KGB) were shut down. Additional KGB security guards with orders not to allow anybody to leave the dacha were placed at its gates. The conspirators ordered 250,000 pairs of handcuffs from a factory in Pskov to be sent to Moscow and 300,000 arrest forms. Kruchkov doubled the pay of all KGB personnel, called them back from holiday, and placed them on alert. The Lefortovo prison was emptied to receive prisoners.
The August Coup
After the return of Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin and Varennikov from the Crimea the conspirators met in the Kremlin. Gennady Yanayev, Valentin Pavlov and Oleg Baklanov signed the so-called "Declaration of the Soviet Leadership" in which they declared the state of emergency on "some" (unspecified) territories of the USSR and announced that the State Committee of the State of Emergency (Государственный Комитет по Чрезвычайному Положению, ГКЧП, or Gosudarstvenniy Komitet po Chrezvichaynomu Polozheniyu, GKChP) had been created "to manage the country and to effectively maintain the regime of the state of emergency". The GKChP included the following members: Gennady Yanayev • Valentin Pavlov • Vladimir Kryuchkov • Dmitriy Yazov • Boris Pugo • Oleg Baklanov • Vasily Starodubtsev, chairman of the USSR Peasant Union • Alexander Tizyakov, president of the Association of the State Enterprises and Conglomerates of In• dustry, Transport, and Communications Gennady Yanayev signed the decree naming himself as acting USSR president on the pretext of Gorbachev's inability to perform presidential duties due to "illness". These eight collectively became known as the "Gang of Eight". The GKChP banned all newspapers in Moscow, except for nine communist-controlled newspapers. The GKChP also issued a populist declaration which stated that "the honour and dignity of a Soviet man must be restored", promised that "the new union treaty will be discussed by all the people", that "the streets of the cities will be purged of crime", and that the GKChP will focus on solving the problem of food shortages. At the same time, the GKChP assured the citizens that it supported "genuine democratic processes" and reforms, and supported free enterprise.
19 August:
"Declaration of the Soviet Leadership", the decree of Yanayev and the GKChP documents were broadcast by the state radio and television starting from 7 a.m. Radio Rossii radio station and Televidenie Rossii TV channel controlled by the Russian SFSR authorities and "Ekho Moskvy", the only independent political radio station were cut off the air. Tanks, IFVs and APCs of Tamanskaya motorized infantry divisionand Kantemirovskaya tank division rolled into Moscow. Paratroopers also took part in the operation. Four Russian SFSR people's deputies(who were considered the most "dangerous") were detained by the KGB and held on an army base near Moscow. The conspirators considered detaining Russian SFSR president Boris Yeltsin upon his arrival from a visit to Kazakhstan on 17 August, or after that when he was on his dacha near Moscow, but for some reason they did not do so. The failure to arrest Yeltsin was to prove fatal to their plans. Boris Yeltsin arrived at the White House, Russia's parliament building, on 19 August at 9:00. He, together with the Russian SFSR Prime Minister Ivan Silayev and the acting Chairman of Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR Ruslan Khasbulatov, issued a declaration in which it was stated that a reactionary anti-constitutional coup had taken place. The military was urged not to take part in the coup. The declaration called for a general strike with the demand to let Mikhail Gorbachev address the people. This declaration was distributed around Moscow in the form of flyers. In the afternoon the citizens of Moscow began to gather around the White House and to erect barricades around it. In response Gennady Yanayev declared the state of emergency in Moscow at 16:00. Yanayev declared at the press conference at 17:00 that Gorbachev was "resting". He said: "Over these years he has got very tired and needs some time to get his health back." Yanayev said GKChP was committed to continuing the reforms. However, his weak posturing, trembling hands and shaky expressions made his words unconvincing. Meanwhile, Major Evdokimov, chief of staff of a tank battalion of the Tamanskaya motorized infantry division who had orders to guard the White House, declared his loyalty to the leadership of the Russian SFSR. Yeltsin climbed one of the tanks and addressed the crowd. Unexpectedly, this episode was included in the evening news program broadcast by the state TV.
20 August:
At noon General Kalinin, the commander of Moscow military district who had been appointed by Yanayev military commandant of Moscow, declared the curfew in Moscow from 23:00 to 5:00, effective from 20 August. This was understood as the sign that the attack on the White House was imminent. The defenders of the White House prepared themselves. Some of them were armed but most of the volunteers were unarmed. The tank company which had been under command of Major Evdokimov who had declared his loyalty to the leadership of the Russian SFSR was moved from the White House in the evening. The makeshift White House defense headquarters was headed by General Konstantin Kobets, a Russian SFSR people's deputy. He had at his disposal a number of generals and senior officers (some of them retired) who volunteered for the defense of the White House. In the afternoon of 20 August Kryuchkov, Yazov and Pugo finally decided to attack the White House. This decision was supported by other GKChP members. KGB general Ageyev, the deputy of Kryuchkov, and Army general Achalov, the deputy of Yazov, planned "Operation Grom" (Thunder) which was to be carried out by Alpha Group and Vympel Group, the KGB's special forces, with the support of the paratroopers, Moscow OMON, Dzerzhinsky division of Internal Troops, three tank companies and a helicopter squadron. Alpha Group commander General Viktor Karpukhin and other senior officers of Alpha Group together with General Alexander Lebed, deputy commander of the Airborne Troops, mingled through the crowds near the White House and assessed the possibility of undertaking such an operation. After that, Viktor Karpukhin and Vympel Group commander Colonel Beskov tried to convince Ageyev that the operation would become a failure resulting in bloodshed. Alexander Lebed, with the consent of Pavel Grachev, the commander of the Airborne Troops, returned to the White House and secretly informed the defense headquarters that the attack would begin at 2:00.
21 August:
At about 1:00, not far from the White House, a group of IFVs of Tamanskaya motorized infantry division was blocked in a tunnel by barricades made of trolleybuses and street cleaning machines. Dmitriy Komar climbed one IFV and tried to "blind" the observation slit with a piece of tarpaulin but either fell to his death from the IFV or was shot. Then Vladimir Usov, who tried to help him, was shot (possibly unintentionally by a ricocheting bullet). At about the same time a third young man, Ilya Krichevskiy, was also shot under unclear circumstances. Several other men were wounded. The IFV was set on fire by the crowd but no soldiers were killed. Alpha Group and Vympel Group did not move to the White House as had been planned. When Yazov learned about this, he ordered the troops to pull out from Moscow. The troops began to move from Moscow at 8:00. The GKChP members met in the Defence Ministry and, not knowing what to do, decided to send a delegation to the Crimea in order to meet with Mikhail Gorbachev for negotiations. Vladimir Kryuchkov, Dmitriy Yazov, Oleg Baklanov, Alexander Tizyakov, chairman of the USSR Supreme Soviet Anatoliy Lukianov and Deputy CPSU General Secretary Vladimir Ivashko flew to the Crimea. At 5 P.M. the delegation arrived at the Foros dacha but Mikhail Gorbachev refused to meet with it. Instead Gorbachev, after communication with the dacha was restored, declared void all the decisions of GKChP and dismissed its members from their state offices.The USSR General Prosecutors Office started the investigation of the coup attempt.
Independence Day Afghanistan - Aug 19
Afghan Independence Day is celebrated in Afghanistan on 19 August to commemorate the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919. The treaty granted independence from Britain; although Afghanistan was never officially a part of the British Empire. The British fought three wars with Afghanistan. The First Anglo-Afghan War 1839–1842 led to the massacre of the entire British invading force by Afghan forces in the city Jalalabad. But the new British forces reinvaded shortly, defeated the Afghan forces, rescued the POWs and successfully withdrew. The Second Anglo-Afghan War 1878–80 led to the British victory over the Afghan army in Kandahar, bringing the Afghan rebellion to an end. The war left the British in control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. The Third Anglo-Afghan War 1919 led the British to achieve the reaffirmation of Durand Line and give up on their imperialist ambition to conquer Afghanistan and Afghanistan declared its independence. The event is recognized throughout Afghanistan and also celebrates Afghan culture and national pride. It is celebrated every year. In some Afghan Diaspora communities where many of the world's millions of Afghan refugees live, Afghan Independence Day is referred to and celebrated as Afghan Refugee Day. On this day Afghan refugees exchange presents and participate in traditional Afghan games and activities to celebrate both their Afghan heritage and their refugee experience.
National Aviation Day U.S. - Aug 19
The National Aviation Day (August 19) is a United States national observation that celebrates the development of aviation. The holiday was established in 1939 by Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who issued a presidential proclamation which designated the anniversary of Orville Wright's birthday to be National Aviation Day (Mr. Wright, born in 1871, was still alive when the proclamation was first issued, and would live another nine years). The proclamation was codified (USC 36:A:I:118), and it allows the sitting US President to proclaim August 19 as National Aviation Day each year, if desired. His/her proclamation may direct all federal buildings and installations to fly the US flag on that day, and may encourage citizens to observe the day with activities that promote interest in aviation.
Revolution of 1945 Vietnam - Aug 19
On August 19, 1945, the Việt Minh under Hồ Chí Minh began the August General Uprising Tổng Khởi Nghĩa, which was soon renamed the August Revolution (Vietnamese: Cách mạng tháng Tám). Whether or not this series of events should be called a "revolution" is disputable; what is clear is that, from August 19 onwards, demonstrations and uprisings against French colonial rule broke out in cities and towns throughout Vietnam. Given that Japan had surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, the Japanese forces in Indochina stepped aside and allowed nationalist groups to take over public buildings in most of the major cities. While the Japanese allowed the nationalist groups free run of the country, they kept former French officials imprisoned. This uprising is also referred to as the uprising by the Indochinese Communist Party. Given minor supplies by the United States of America, the Việt Minh were tactically allied with US forces against the Japanese.
March to August
On March 9, 1945, the Imperial Japan overthrew the Vichy French administration of Jean Decoux in French Indochina. French officials and soldiers were arrested. The Japanese reinstated Bảo Đại as Emperor and created a puppet government. On April 30, 1945, the cooperation between US officials and the Vietnamese communists was demonstrated when Major Archimedes Patti, of the US Office of Strategic Services, met with Hồ Chí Minh and received a message of warmth and solidarity from Hồ; shipments of arms and instructors were increased. On August 14, 1945, the Japanese surrendered to the Allies. In Indochina, the Japanese officials took advantage of the situation to cause additional problems for the Allies. Violating the surrender agreements, they helped Vietnamese nationalist groups, including the Việt Minh, to take over public buildings in various cities. On August 19, 1945, Việt Minh revolutionaries successfully seized power in Hanoi, which was later made the capital city of the independent Vietnam. On August 25, 1945, Bảo Ðại was forced to abdicate in favour of Hồ and the Việt Minh.
Proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945. However, only a few days later
Nationalist Chinese forces under General Lu Han began to occupy Việtnam north of the 16th parallel under the pretext of disarming the Japanese. The Việt Minh did not resist. In Vietnam south of the 16th parallel, a British occupation force arrived in October 1945. Both forces of occupation had been specified by the Potsdam Conference. Hồ Chí Minh and the Việt Minh began negotiations with the French in late 1945. The Việt Minh were willing at this point to negotiate for something less than independence. Politically, they distrusted the occupying Nationalist Chinese both from ideological and historical viewpoints. In early 1946, the French army returned to northern Vietnam with the initial cooperation of the Việt Minh and rapidly reestablished its authority. Having achieved this aim, relations between Hồ Chí Minh and the French gradually broke down. The Việt Minh then set about launching the rural insurrection that began the First Indochina War, known to most Vietnamese as the French-Resisting War.
Constitution Day Hungary - Aug 20
A day when the constitution of a country is made it’s a public holiday in the country. This day is known as a Constitution Day. It is celebrated to show the honor and respects to the constitution of the country. Hungary celebrates this day on August 20 every year. August 20 is also known as St. Stephen Day in Hungary.
History
It was Hungary’s first king, St. Stephen, that laid the state’s foundation by transforming the wanderer and Hungarians (pagan Magyar) into Christianity. Until the 10th century’s end, it was seen that seven of the tribes from Hungary manier times attacked & robbed the European Nations. After being defeated, the Hungarians finally came up with a decision to not raid anymore. They ultimately decided to settle down and came up with the strong state. King Stephen used his powers to set the various churches and asked the Catholic priest to bring Christianity ahead. Thus, it was all due to the efforts of the St .Stephen that Hungary became a strong state. It was on August 20, that the first king of the Hungary was canonized. Thus, this day remains as the national day and remained until 1945. As the communist revolted against this celebration since it was based on religion. It was in 1990 again that the Hungarian parliament made the constitution and declared this day as a national day once again.
Celebrations The day, August 20, begins with state ceremonies, which launches the program for the day. It is a day when the
foundation of this country took place. This function is usually held in the Kossuth Square, which is located in front of the Hungary Parliament and Heroes’ Square. There is not only a state program but many others are held in the morning and the evening for the family to have a nice time throughout the day. The first event that takes place is the Hungarian flag hoisting on Kossuth Square. Leading marching bands perform on that day. There is a scope of even learning the techniques of making tents and bows as Hungarian use to make. An archery show is also organized; dances are performed in front of the Hungary Parliament. Foods, which are made on this day, are awesome. They include ox and poultry are roasted on the open fire. Many confectioneries make different cakes from different recipes and the best one is cut to celebrate the occasion. Many other festivals and events, such as Red Bull Air Race, the Bread Festival, the Wheel Festival, water & air parade, which took place above Danube. And many more commence on this day. Fireworks are the most attractive feature on this day. There are many unique dance shows, which are performed by the dancers when the fireworks take place. The choreography of the dance is based on showing the foundation of the Hungary. The performance ends with the coronation of the first king of Hungary, St Stephen.
Birth of Crown Princess Mette Marit Norway - Aug 19
Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway (born Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby 19 August 1973), is the wife of Crown Prince Haakon of Norway.
Background and education Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby was born in Kristiansand, Norway,
as the daughter of Sven O. Høiby, who worked as a journalist in a local paper, and Marit Tjessem. Her parents divorced, and her father would later marry Renate Barsgård. She has a sister and two older brothers; her stepbrother Trond Bernsten—by her mother's 1994 marriage to Rolf Berntsen—died in the 2011 Norway attacks. She grew up in Kristiansand, in the southern part of Norway. She spent many weekends and holidays in the nearby valley of Setesdal and at the seaside, where she learned to sail. During her youth she was active in the local youth club Slettheia, where she was also an activity leader. As a teenager she played volleyball, qualifying as referee and coach. After starting at Oddernes upper secondary school in Kristiansand, Mette-Marit spent six months at Wangaratta High School located in North East Victoria in Australia, as an exchange student with the exchange organisation Youth For Understanding. Later, she attended Kristiansand katedralskole, where she passed her final examinations in 1994. After another break from her studies, Mette-Marit attended Bjørknes Private School and then took the examen philosophicum (the preliminary university examination) at Agder University College. Since becoming Crown Princess Mette-Marit has undertaken several university level courses. By her own admission, Mette-Marit experienced an unconventional phase before she met Crown Prince Haakon Magnus. As a part-time student, she took longer than usual to complete her high school education before going on to take preparatory university courses at Agder. She then worked for a year at a café, Cafe Engebret, in Oslo. In the late 1990s, Mette-Marit frequently attended the Quart Festival, Norway's largest rock festival, in her hometown of Kristiansand. As a result, she met Crown Prince Haakon, since he used to attend the festival as well.
Royal duties and further education In October, 2005, Crown Princess Mette-Marit accompanied
Crown Prince Haakon, King Harald and Queen Sonja to the United Kingdom on a royal tour to mark the centenary of Norway's independence. During 2002 and 2003, the Princess undertook development studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, apparently without graduating. She was also accepted as an intern at NORAD, the Norwegian government's development organisation. At present, Mette-Marit is attending lectures at the faculties of arts and social sciences at the University of Oslo. The Crown Princess is a UNAIDS Special Representative and visited Geneva to learn more about the organisation and Malawi because of this post. In 2007 the Crown Princess extended her commitment as a UNAIDS Special Representative for another two years. The Crown Princess and her husband attended the International AIDS Conference in Toronto in August 2006 as part of this role, serving as Jury member to the UNAIDS family-led Red Ribbon Award. Along with UNAIDS, the Crown Princess is president of various other organisations. They are The Norwegian Scouting Association, the Amandus Film Festival, Kristiansand's International Children's Film Festival, Risor Festival of Chamber Music, FOKUS Forum for Women and Development Questions, Norwegian Design Council, Red Cross Norway, The Norwegian Council for Mental Health, the Full Rigged Ship Sorlandet, and the Oslo International Church Music Festival. Since her engagement, the Crown Princess has travelled to Luxembourg, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Germany, Canada, Russia, North Korea, Portugal, Monaco, France, Austria, Hungary, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Poland, Switzerland, India, Thailand, the Netherlands, Japan, Jordan, Bahrain, Nepal, Mexico, Malawi and Malaysia. On December 2008, she received the Annual Petter Dass award, which recognises a person that helps to unite people and God. Mette-Marit released the CD Sorgen og gleden with religious psalms: the Crown Princess wrote in the booklet "psalms are a link between me and God, between me and life". She is godmother to Prince Christian of Denmark, Prince Odysseas-Kimon of Greece and Denmark and Emma Tallulah Behn. The Crown Princess was personally affected by the July 2011 terrorist attacks in Norway: her stepbrother, 51-yearold police officer Trond Berntsen, was among those killed on Utøya.
Humanitarian Fund The Crown Prince and Crown Princess' Humanitarian Fund was established in 2001 in connection with the wedding
of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess. The couple announced that they wished for donations to the fund as wedding gifts. The fund allocates funds to humanitarian projects in Norway and abroad. In Norway the fund mainly focuses on projects aimed at improving conditions for children and young people. Abroad the fund mainly focuses on projects related to health and education.
Grant recipients • 2008
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Fundación Xochiquetzal Fundasion Šusital, Nicaragua 2007 The good childhood: A collaboration between the Norwegian municipality Karasjok and Lovozero mu nicipality in Russia 2006 The Church City Mission: A youth project directed by the PMV Centre for health, dialogue and devel opment (Oslo, Norway) The AIDS Centre, “Project Bus”, Petrozavodsk, Republic of Karelia, Russia 2005 Right to Play: A sports and health project (Uganda) 2004 Yirga Alem Hospital Fistula Unit (Ethiopia) Rehabilitation of child soldiers (Democratic Republic of Congo) 2003 Norwegian People’s Aid project ”Følgesvennen”, providing companions and provisional guardians to asylum seekers (Asker, Norway) Norwegian Red Cross project “Leksehjelpen”, offering help with homework to pupils from minority back grounds (Oslo, Norway) 2002 National Community of Women Living with Aids (Uganda) Education through Sport (Zambia) 2001 The Vard Model (Haugesund, Norway) Basic education in Alefa Takusa (Ethiopia) Prevention of HIV/AIDS (Mozambique)
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Amandus Film Festival Kristiansand International Children’s Film Festival Risør Festival of Chamber Music FOKUS – Forum for Women and Development The Norwegian Design Council The Norwegian Red Cross The Norwegian Council for Mental Health Full-rigged Ship Sørlandet Oslo International Church Music Festival
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Miss Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby (1973–2001) Her Royal Highness The Crown Princess of Norway (Since 2001)
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Patronages The Norwegian Guide and Scout Association
Titles
Honours • Norway Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav
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Norway The Royal House Centenary Medal Norway Olav Vs Centenary Medal Norway Royal Family Order of King Harald V of Norway Austria Grand Cross of the Decoration of Honour for Merit Brazil Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross Bulgaria Grand Cross of the Order Of The Balkan Mountains Estonia 1st class of Terra Mariana Italy Grand Cross of the Italian Order of Merit Japan Grand Cross of the Order of the Precious Crown Poland Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Portugal Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique Spain Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Sweden Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star Luxembourg Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau
National Homeless Animals Day U.S. - Aug 20
In 1992, the International Society for Animal Rights (ISAR) introduced National Homeless Animals’ Day as a means of bringing to light the increasing societal problem of pet over-population and the resulting overwhelming number of homeless animals. Because of the growing number of animal protection organizations around the world participating in National Homeless Animals Day, ISAR formally changed the name to International Homeless Animals’ Day. ISAR has reserved the third Saturday of August as an annual day to commemorate National Homeless Animals’ Day. Organizations all over the world hold activities in an effort to raise awareness about pet over-population and the homelessness of animals, to pay Tribute to shelter/rescue workers who work tirelessly to help homeless animals, and to Memorialize those animals who have lost their lives to homelessness.
Restoration of Independence Day Estonia - Aug 20
The Estonian Sovereignty Declaration was issued on November 16, 1988. By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily. The republic's Supreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union that November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989). Despite the emergence of the Popular Front and the Supreme Soviet as a new lawmaking body, since 1989 the different segments of the indigenous Estonian population had been politically mobilized by different and competing actors. The Popular Front's proposal, to declare the independence of Estonia as a new, so-called "third republic" whose citizens would be all those living there at the moment found less and less support over time. A grassroots Estonian Citizens' Committees Movement launched in 1989 with the objective of registering all prewar citizens of the Republic of Estonia and their descendants in order to convene a Congress of Estonia. Their emphasis was on the illegal nature of the Soviet system and that hundreds of thousands of inhabitants of Estonia had not ceased to be citizens of the Estonian Republic which still existed de jure, recognized by the majority of Western nations. Despite the hostility of the mainstream official press and intimidation by Soviet Estonian authorities, dozens of local citizens' committees were elected by popular initiative all over the country. These quickly organized into a nation-wide structure and by the beginning of 1990, over 900,000 people had registered themselves as citizens of the Republic of Estonia. The spring of 1990 saw two free elections and two alternative legislatures developed in Estonia. On 24 February 1990, the 464-member Congress of Estonia (including 35 delegates of refugee communities abroad) was elected by the registered citizens of the republic. The Congress of Estonia convened for the first time in Tallinn March 11– 12, 1990, passing 14 declarations and resolutions. A 70-member standing committee (Eesti Komitee) was elected with Tunne Kelam as its chairman. In March 1991 a referendum was held on the issue of independence. This was somewhat controversial, as holding a referendum could be taken as signalling that Estonian independence would be established rather than "re"-established. There was some discussion about whether it was appropriate to allow the Russian immigrant minority to vote, or if this decision should be reserved exclusively for citizens of Estonia. In the end all major political parties backed the referendum, considering it most important to send a strong signal to the world. To further legitimise the vote, all residents of Estonia were allowed to participate. The result vindicated these decisions, as the referendum produced a strong endorsement for independence. Turnout was 82%, and 64% of all possible voters in the country backed independence, with only 17% against. Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence. In the March 18, 1990 elections for the 105-member Supreme Soviet all residents of Estonia were eligible to participate, including all Soviet-era immigrants from the U.S.S.R. and approximately 50,000 Soviet troops stationed there. The Popular Front coalition, composed of left and centrist parties and led by former Central Planning Committee official Edgar Savisaar, gained a parliamentary majority. On May 8, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia (created the previous day) restored the Republic of Estonia. Through a strict, non-confrontational policy in pursuing independence, Estonia managed to avoid the violence which Latvia and Lithuania incurred in the bloody January 1991 crackdowns and in the border customs-post guard murders that summer. During the August coup in the U.S.S.R., Estonia was able to maintain constant operation and control of its telecommunications facilities, thereby offering the West a clear view into the latest coup developments and serving as a conduit for swift Western support and recognition of Estonia's "confirmation" of independence on August 20, 1991. August 20 remains a national holiday in Estonia because of this. Following Europe's lead, the United States formally reestablished diplomatic relations with Estonia on September 2, and the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet offered recognition on September 6. Since the debates about whether the future independent Estonia would be established as a new republic or a continuation of the first republic were not yet complete by the time of the August coup, while the members of the Supreme Soviet generally agreed that independence should be declared rapidly, a compromise was hatched between the two main sides: instead of "declaring" independence, which would imply a new start, or explicitly asserting continuity, the declaration would "confirm" Estonia as a state independent of the Soviet Union, and willing to reestablish diplomatic relations of its own accord. The full text of the statement is available at. After more than 3 years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of Russia withdrew from Estonia. Since fully regaining independence Estonia has had 12 governments with 8 prime ministers: Mart Laar, Andres Tarand, Tiit Vähi, Mart Siimann, Siim Kallas, Juhan Parts, and Andrus Ansip. The PMs of the interim government (1990–1992) were Edgar Savisaar andTiit Vähi. Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. Estonia opened accession negotiations with the European Union in 1998 and joined in 2004, shortly after becoming a member of NATO.
The King & People's Revolution Morocco - Aug 20
There are many public holidays, which are celebrated in Morocco all throughout the year. During public holidays the offices, schools, and other working places remain closed and the population enjoys these holidays by celebrating the special occasions. August 20 is the day celebrated by the Moroccan in remembrance of King Mohammad V’s return to Morocco after a period of exile in Madagascar. His return to Morocco marks a great revolution. The wide spread negotiation resulted in the Morocco’s Independence. Thus, August 20 came to be popularly known as the King & People’s Revolution day, marking a historical landmark for the residents of Morocco.
History
This day, makes one remember about the great struggle that the Alaouite Throne and the Moroccan people had undergone for their freedom. French authorities exiled the Late King Mohammed V and the Royal Family. The reason the French Authorities gave for exiling the king was that the king refused to stop the action of the national movement and he also denied signing the pact that asked for French domination over Morocco. The Moroccan people revolted against these actions of the French Colonizers in order to save their homeland. They all stood united with the king and supported him wholeheartedly. This was quite surprising for the French colonizers. August 20 caused the start for the end of colonialism in Morocco. This struggle for independence continued for a long time and they demanded the return of their exiled king. Althoough they got the liberation, the King was still not happy there were many problems relating to economic and social development. A lot of struggle was occuring to overcome all of these problems. Thus, the struggle continued to save the economy and social development of the country. The King inspired the people and led to the progress, security and development of the country. Although he does not exist anymore, he is still remembered for his great contribution to the liberation of Morocco. He was the one who led the stepping-stone for the liberation of Morocco. This brought about the revolution and thus this day came to be known as the King & People’s Revolution day.
Celebrations
Morocco celebrates The King & People’s Revolution day with great joy and enthusiasm. This was the day that they got freedom from colonization and it was due to the effort of the King Mohammed V. It was the day when the king returned from his exile and all the people were full of happiness and joy when they got their king back. There are many events, which take place in this celebration. Music can be heard playing all around. The music has an influence on the tradition and culture of Arab, Amazigh, African, and Andalusian tribes. It makes use of a number of traditional instruments such as flute, shawn, etc. Foods made in the Morocco are very spicy and delicious. Dancing, feasting and fasting are all a part of the Morocco festival and celebrations. All the people come together on this day to show their honor and respect to the King.
Mohammed VI's Birthday Morocco - Aug 21
St. Stephen's Day Hungary - Aug 20
Saint Stephen I (Hungarian: I. (Szent) István) (Latin: Sanctus Stephanus) (Esztergom, 967/969/975 – 15 August 1038, Esztergom-Szentkirály or Székesfehérvár, Hungary), born Vajk, was Grand Prince of the Hungarians (997–1000) and the first King of Hungary (1000–1038). He greatly expanded Hungarian control over the Carpathian Basin during his lifetime, broadly established Christianity in the region, and is generally considered to be the founder of the Kingdom of Hungary. Pope Gregory VII canonized Stephen I, together with his son, Saint Emeric of Hungary and Bishop Gerard of Csanád, on 20 August 1083. Stephen became one of the most popular saints in Hungary, and 20 August, which was also his feast day until 1687, iscelebrated as a state holiday commemorating the foundation of the nation.
Biography Early years:
He was born as Vajk in the town of Esztergom. His father was Grand Prince Géza of Hungary; his mother was Sarolt, daughter of Gyula of Transylvania a Hungarian nobleman who had been baptized in Greece. Though Sarolt was baptized into the Orthodox Christian faith at her father's court in Transylvania by the Greek bishop Hierotheos,she did not persist in the religion. According to his legends, Vajk was baptized a Christian by Saint Adalbert of Prague. He was given the baptismal name Stephen (István) in honour of the original early Christian Saint Stephen. The baptised name was possibly chosen on purpose, as it means not only "crown" as mentioned, but also "norm, standard" in Hebrew. So the mission of St. Stephen was to grant a norm to Hungary through the Holy Crown (also called the Doctrine of the Holy Crown). However, another reason could be thought of: that Stephen, as fiancé of a woman from the diocese of Passau, simply wanted to do honour to the then-major saint of Passau, Saint Stephen, after whom the Passau Cathedral is named up to today. When Stephen reached adolescence, Great Prince Géza convened an assembly where they decided that Stephen would follow his father as the monarch of the Hungarians. This decision, however, contradicted the Magyar tribal custom that gave the right of succession to the eldest close relative of the deceased ruler. Stephen married Giselle of Bavaria, the daughter of Henry II the Wrangler in or after 995. By this marriage, he became the brother-in-law of the future Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. Giselle arrived at her husband's court accompanied by German knights.
Ruling prince of the Hungarians:
In 997, his father died and a succession struggle ensued. Stephen claimed to rule the Magyars by the principle of Christian divine right, while his uncle Koppány, a powerful pagan chieftain in Somogy, claimed the traditional right of agnatic seniority. Eventually, the two met in battle near Veszprém and Stephen, victorious, assumed the role of Grand Prince of the Hungarians. Stephen's victory came about primarily thanks to his German retinue led by the brothers Pázmány and Hont. The nearly contemporary deed of foundation of the Abbey of Pannonhalma clearly described the battle as a struggle between the Germans and the Magyars. Thus, Stephen strengthened his power in Transdanubia, but several parts of Hungary still did not accept his rule. According to Hungarian tradition, Pope Silvester II, with the consent of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, sent a magnificent jeweled gold crown to Stephen along with an apostolic cross and a letter of blessing officially recognizing Stephen as the Christian king of Hungary. Later this tradition was interpreted as the papal recognition of the independence of Hungary from the Holy Roman Empire. The date of Stephen's coronation is variously given as Christmas Day, 1000 or 1 January 1001. Stephen I is closely tied to the Crown of St. Stephen and the Doctrine of the Holy Crown which marks a unique tradition of the Kingdom of Hungary. According to Hartwick's legend, during his coronation Stephen dedicated the crown to the Holy Virgin, thereby sealing a contract between God and the crown (which is therefore considered a "holy" crown). This contract is also the basis for the Doctrine of the Holy Crown and the basis for the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. The actual crown which survives today was probably never worn by the king himself as it has been dated as originating in the 12th century. The origin of the crown, however, is hotly dis- Saint Stephen I in Budapest puted.
First King of Hungary:
According to the much argued Chronicon Pictum, the first king of the Hungarians is Attila the Hun. However, the codex repeats itself as Stephen I is also cited as the first king of the Hungarians. Also argued by historians is the exact meaning of the phrase in the Remonstrances to Emerick from St Stephen: "Regale ornamentum scito esse maximum: sequi antecessores reges et honestos imitari parentos", which translates to: "The greatest deed for the kingdom is to follow the old kings and to imitate parents". This might mean that Stephen is referring to the "old kings" which could only be Attila and Nimrod. It might also mean that the constitution of the kingdom itself was not employed by St Stephen, but by his ancestors. What is confirmed is that, after (or just before) his coronation, Stephen I founded several dioceses, namely, the dioceses of Veszprém, Győr, Kalocsa, Vác, and Bihar. He also established the Archdiocese of Esztergom. Thus he set up an ecclesiastical organisation independent of the German archbishops. He also began to organize a territory-based administration by founding several counties (comitatus, megye)in his kingdom. Stephen discouraged pagan customs and strengthened Christianity by means of various laws. In his first decree, issued at the beginning of his rule, he ordered that each ten villages would be obliged to build a church. He invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom. Saint Astricus served as his adviser and Saint Gerard Sagredo as the tutor for his son Emeric (also rendered as Imre). Around 1003, Stephen invaded and occupied Transylvania, a territory ruled by his maternal uncle, Gyula, a semi-independent chieftain. After this victory, Stephen organized the Diocese of Transylvania. In the next few years he also occupied the lands of the Black Magyars in the southern part of Transdanubia, and there organized the Diocese of Pécs. Shortly afterwards, it is believed that he made an agreement withSamuel Aba, the chieftain of the Kabar tribes settled in the Mátra region, who married Stephen's sister. In his brother-in-law's domains, Stephen founded the Diocese of Eger. Finally, Stephen occupied the domains of Ajtony, a semi-pagan chieftain who had been ruling over the territories of the later Banat. Here Stephen set up the Diocese of Csanád.
External politics:
In his external politics Stephen I allied himself with his brother-inlaw, the Emperor Henry II against Prince Boleslaw I of Poland, who had extended his rule over the territories between the Morava and Váh Rivers. Stephen sent troops to the emperor's army, and in the Peace of Bautzen, in 1018, the Polish prince had to hand over the occupied territories to Stephen. Shortly afterwards, Stephen sent troops to help Boleslaw I in his campaign against Kievan Rus'. In 1018, Stephen lead his armies against Bulgaria, in alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Basil II, and collected several relics during his campaign. After the death of Henry II ( 3 July 1024), Stephen broke with the German alliance, because the new Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad II claimed supremacy over the Kingdom of Hungary, while Stephen demanded the Duchy of Bavaria for his son Emeric who was the nearest relative of the deceased Emperor Henry II (who himself had been the last male descendant of the old dukes of Bavaria). In 1027, Stephen had Bishop Werner of Strasbourg, the envoy sent by Conrad II to the Byzantine Empire, arrested at the frontier. In 1030, the emperor lead his armies against Hungary, but Stephen's troops forced them to retreat. Stephen and Emperor Conrad II concluded peace negotiations in 1031, and the territories between the Leitha (Hungarian: (Lajta)) and Fischa Rivers were ceded to Hungary.
His last years:
Stephen intended to retire to a life of holy contemplation and hand the kingdom over to his son Emeric, but Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031. In Stephen's words of mourning: By God's secret decision death took him, so that wickedness would Statue of King Stephen I of Hungary not change his soul and false imaginations would not deceive his and Queen Giselle in Veszprém (Hungary) mind – as the Book of Wisdom teaches about early death. Stephen mourned for a very long time over the loss of his son, which took a great toll on his health. He eventually recovered, but never regained his original vitality. Having no children left, he could not find anyone among his remaining relatives who was able to rule the country competently and be willing to maintain the Christian faith of the nation. He did not want to entrust his kingdom to his cousin, Duke Vazul, whom he suspected to be following pagan customs. The disregarded duke took part in a conspiracy aimed at the murder of Stephen I, but the assassination attempt failed and Vazul had his eyes gouged out and molten lead poured in his ears. Without a living heir, on his deathbed, King St. Istvan raised with his right hand the Holy Crown of Hungary, and prayed to the Blessed Virgin Mary, asking her to take the Hungarian people as her subjects and become their queen. King Stephen died on the feast day which commemorates the bodily assumption into heaven of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, in the year 1038, at Esztergom-Szentkirály orSzékesfehérvár, where he was buried. His nobles and his subjects were said to have mourned for three straight years afterwards.
His legacy
Following Stephen's death, his nephew Peter Urseolo (his appointed heir) and his brother-in-law Samuel Aba contended for the crown. Nine years of instability followed until Stephen's cousin Andrew I was crowned King of Hungary in 1047 to re-establish the Árpád dynasty. Hungarian historiography saw Peter and Samuel as members of the Árpád dynasty, and both are counted among the Árpád kings. Shortly after Stephen's death, healing miracles were said to have occurred at his tomb. Stephen was canonized by Pope Gregory VII as Saint Stephen of Hungary in 1083, along with his son, Saint Emeric and Bishop Gerhard (Hungarian: Szent Gellért). Thus Saint Stephen became the first canonized confessor king, a new category of saint. He is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary, kings, children who are dying, masons, stonecutters, and bricklayers. St Stephen is not mentioned in the Tridentine Calendar. His feast day was added to the General Roman Calendar only in 1631, and only as a commemoration on 20 August, the feast of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. In 1687, it was moved to 2 September and remained there until the 1969 revision of the Roman Catholic calendar of saints. Then the feast of Saint Joachim on 16 August was moved and the date became available for another celebration, so the feast of Saint Stephen of Hungary was moved to that date, the day immediately after his death. Some traditionalist Catholics continue to observe pre-1970 versions of the General Roman Calendar. In the local calendar of the Church in Hungary, the feast is observed on 20 August, the day on which his sacred relics were translated to King Stephen's statue in his homethe city of Buda. It is a public holiday in Hungary. During the period town, Esztergom ofCommunist rule in Hungary, St. Stephen's Day was referred to as the anniversary of the Stalinist constitution of 1949 and "The celebration of the new bread — the end of the harvest". The king's right hand, known as the Holy Right, is kept as a relic. Hungarians interpreted the incorruptibility of his right arm and hand - with which he had held the Holy Crown aloft from his deathbed when asking our Lady to be the Queen of the Hungarians - as a sign that the Blessed Virgin Mary had accepted the king's offer to her of the Hungarian people, and she remains officially their queen. The incorrupt arm was divided among European royalty, but the Holy Right of King Saint Stephen was placed in a town built solely for the purpose of keeping it, the town in Transylvania called "Szent Jobb", or Holy Right. Later, the Holy Right was transferred to where it is today, the Basilica of King Saint Stephen in Budapest. Apart from the Holy Right, only some bone fragments remain, which are kept in churches throughout Hungary. Hungarian Catholics honor the first king of their country with annual processions, at which the Holy Right is exhibited. The canonization of Saint Stephen was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in the year 2000. The Holy Crown, popularly attributed to St. Stephen, was removed from the country in 1945 for safekeeping, and entrusted to the United States government. It was kept in a vault at Fort Knox until 1978, when it was returned to the nation by order of President Jimmy Carter. It has been enshrined in the Hungarian parliament building in Budapest since 2000.
Quote My dearest son, if you desire to honor the royal crown, I advise, I counsel, I urge you above all things to main-
tain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God, and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession. Failing to do this, you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church. Indeed, in the royal palace, after the faith itself, the Church holds second place, first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members, the apostles and holy fathers, And though she always produced fresh offspring, nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient. However, dearest son, even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians less a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness, indolence or neglect. My beloved son, delight of my heart, hope of your posterity, I pray, I command, that at very time and in everything, strengthened by your devotion to me, you may show favor not only to relations and kin, or to the most eminent, be they leaders or rich men or neighbors or fellow-countrymen, but also to foreigners and to all who come to you. By fulfilling your duty in this way you will reach the highest state of happiness. Be merciful to all who are suffering violence, keeping always in your heart the example of the Lord who said: “I desire mercy and not sacrifice”. Be patient with everyone, not only with the powerful, but also with the weak. Finally be strong lest prosperity lift you up too much or adversity cast you down. Be humble in this life that God may raise you up in the next. Be truly moderate and do not punish or condemn anyone immoderately. Be gentle so that you may never oppose justice. Be honorable so that you never voluntarily bring disgrace upon anyone. Be chaste so that you may avoid all the foulness that so resembles the pangs of death. All these virtues I have noted above make up the royal crown and without them no one is fit to rule here on earth or attain to the heavenly Kingdom.
Artistic representation
King Stephen of Hungary has been a popular theme in art, especially from the 19th century on, with the development of nationalism. Paintings such as The Baptism of Vajk (1875) by Gyula Benczúr and many statues representing the king all over Hungary testify to Stephen's importance in Hungarian national thought. The last complete opera by the Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel is István király (King Stephen) (1885). The best known representations of St. Stephen in music are Ludwig van Beethoven's King Stephen Overture, and the 1983 rock opera István, a király The Holy Right, the king's right hand (Stephen, the King) by Levente Szörényi and János Bródy. Szörényi's Veled, Uram! (With You, my Lord!) (2000) was a sequel to István király.
National Flag Day Ukraine - Aug 23
On the 23d of August, just before the Independence Day, Ukraine celebrates National Flag Day of Ukraine. Today you could see flags everywhere: on the buildings and the balconies, on the flagpoles, etc. Such a celebration in the history of nations is quite young. For example, the Day of the Swedish flag Flag is celebrated since 1983, the Day of Canada – since 1995, Mexico – 1937, in the Russian Federation, the National Flag Day has been operating since 1994, in the Republic of Belarus since 1995. In Ukraine, after the publication of the relevant Presidential Decree, the Flag Day appeared on Aug. 23, 2004. Ukrainian government asked people to fly the Ukrainian flag at their homes and flats on this day. The next day, on the August 24th Ukraine celebrates the Independence Day.
Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade & its Abolition Worldwide - Aug 23
International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, August 23 of each year, the day designated by UNESCO to memorialize the transatlantic slave trade. That date was chosen by the UNESCO Executive Board's adoption of resolution 29 C/40 at its 29th session. Circular CL/3494 of July 29, 1998 from the Director-General invited Ministers of Culture to promote the day. The date is significant because, during the night of August 22 to August 23, 1791 on the island of Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti), an uprising began which set forth events which were a major factor in the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. UNESCO Member States organize events every year on that date, inviting participation from young people, educators, artists and intellectuals. As part of the goals of the intercultural UNESCO project, "The Slave Route", it is an opportunity for collective recognition and focus on the "historic causes, the methods and the consequences" of slavery. Additionally, it sets the stage for analysis and dialogue of the interactions which gave rise to the transatlantic trade in human beings between Africa, Europe, the Americas and the Caribbean. The International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition was first celebrated in a number of countries, in particular in Haiti (23 August 1998) and Senegal (23 August 1999). A number of cultural events and debates were organized. In 2001 the Mulhouse Textile Museum in France conducted a fabric workshop entitled "Indiennes de Traite" (a type of calico) used as currency in trade for Africans. The International Slavery Museum opened its doors on August 23, 2007 in Liverpool where Slavery Remembrance Day events have been conducted since 2004.
PHOTO NEWS
Mohammed VI, (Arabic: سداسلا دمحم) (born 21 August 1963) is the present King of Morocco and Amir al-Mu'minin (commander of the faithful). He ascended to the throne on 23 July 1999 upon the death of his father.
Education
On the day of his birth, he was appointed Heir Apparent and Crown Prince. His father, King Hassan II, was keen on giving him a religious and political education from an early age. At the age of four, he started attending the Qur'anic school at the Royal Palace, and received a religious and traditional education. After primary and secondary studies at Royal College and after he received his Baccalaureate in 1981, Mohammed obtained in 1985 a Bachelor's degree in law at the College oflaw of the Mohammed V University at Agdal in Rabat. His research paper dealt with "the Arab-African Union and the Strategy of the Kingdom of Morocco in matters of International Relations". He has also frequented the Imperial College and University of Rabat. In the same year of 1985 he was appointed President of the Pan Arab Games and commissioned Colonel Major of the Royal Moroccan Army on 26 November, and Coordinator of the Offices and Services of the Royal Armed Forces until 1994. In 1987 he obtained his first Certificat d'Études Supérieures (CES) in political sciences and in July 1988 he obtained a Diplôme d'Études Approfondies DEA in public law. In November 1988 he trained in Brussels with Jacques Delors, then President of the European Commission. He obtained his doctorate in law (PhD) with distinction on 29 October 1993 from the FrenchUniversity of Nice Sophia Antipolis for his thesis on "EEC-Maghreb Relations". Mohammed was promoted to the rank of Major General on 12 July 1994, the same year he became President of the High Council of Culture and Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Moroccan Army until 1999, the year he succeeded his father on 23 July, being enthroned at Rabat on 30 July. He received an honorary degree (doctor honoris causa) from George Washington University on 22 June 2000 for his promotion of democracy in Morocco.
NABLUS, WEST BANK - AUGUST 15: Palestinian protesters throw stones at Israeli forces.--AA
Social reform and liberalization Shortly after he took the throne, he addressed his nation via televi-
sion, promising to take on poverty and corruption, while creating jobs and improving Morocco's human rights record. Mohammed VI is generally opposed by Islamist conservatives, and some of his reforms have angered fundamentalists. He also created a new family code, or Mudawana, which granted women more power. The law came into effect in February, 2004. In December 2010 Wikileaks published diplomatic cables which alleged high-level corruption involving the King himself. Mohammed VI also created the so-called Instance Equité et Réconciliation (IER), a commission, which was supposed to research human rights violations under Hassan II. The commission was however not allowed to report about human rights violations until 1999, when Mohammed was enthroned. This move was welcomed by many as a move towards democracy, but also criticized because reports of human rights violations could not name the perpetrators. According to human rights organisations, abuses still exist in Morocco. The2011 Moroccan protests were motivated by corruption and general discontentment towards politicians in general and by the desire of better life conditions motivated by the economic crisis. The King has answered the protesters with the promise of further reforms. In a speech delivered on 9 March 2011 the King said that parliament would receive "new powers that enable it to discharge its representative, legislative, and regulatory mission". In addition to the powers of the judiciary being granted indepedence from the King. And the king announced that he was impaneling a committee of legal scholars to produce a draft constitution by June.
Wealth The king and his family hold stock in the ONA Group, a holding company with a diverse portfolio (mining, food pro-
cessing, retail and financial services, etc.) Mohammed is estimated by Forbes magazine to be worth $2 billion and the Moroccan Royal Family has one of the largest fortunes in the world. His palace's daily operating budget is reported by Forbes to be $960,000, owing much of it to the expense of clothes and car repair.
Family Mohammed, who was born in Rabat, has one brother, Prince Moulay Rachid, and three sisters, Princess Lalla
HASEKE, SYRIA - AUGUST 15: Iraqi Yazidis, fleeing from assaults of army groups led by Islamic State (IS), take shelter at Newroz refugee camp.--AA
Meryem, Princess Lalla Asma, and Princess Lalla Hasna. On 21 March 2002 in Rabat, he married Salma Bennani (now H.R.H. Princess Lalla Salma) in Rabat, and she was granted the personal title of Princess with the style of Her Royal Highness on her marriage. They have two children, Crown Prince Moulay Hassan, who was born on 8 May 2003, and Princess Lalla Khadija, who was born on 28 February 2007.
Decorations Grand Officer of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (7 July 1977)
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Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (27 October 1980) Grand Cross of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (7 March 1987) Grand Cross of the Order of the Republic of Tunisia (x August 1987) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (18 March 1997) with Collar (11 April 2000) Collar of the Order of Hussein ibn 'Ali of Jordan (x March 2000) Grand Collar of the Order of the Seventh of November of Tunisia (x May 2000) Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France (19 March 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of National Merit of Mauritania (x April 2000) Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali of Mali with Collar (14 June 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain with Collar (16 September 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of Oumayid of Syria (9 April 2001) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Lebanon of the Lebanon Special Class (13 June 2001) Grand Cross of the Order of Abu Bakar Siddiq of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Move ment (29 June 2001) Grand Collar of the Order of al-Khalifa of Bahrain (28 July 2001) Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great of Kuwait (22 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of the Independence of Qatar (25 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of the Nile of Egypt (28 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of Pakistan First Class (Nishan-e-Pakistan) of Pakistan (19 July 2003) Grand Cross of the Order of Valour of the Cameroon of the Cameroon (17 June 2004) Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (21 June 2004) Grand Cross of the National Order of the Niger of the Niger (24 June 2004) Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold I of Belgium (5 October 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil (26 November 2004) Medal of Honour of the Congress of Peru of Peru (1 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile (3 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin of Argentina (7 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle of Mexico (11 February 2005) Grand Cross of the Order of Burkinabé of Burkina Faso (1 March 2005) Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (28 November 2005) Grand Cross of the Order of the Republic of The Gambia (20 February 2006) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Congo of the Congo-Brazzaville (22 February 2006) Grand Cross of the Order of the National Heroes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of CongoKinshasa (28 February 2006)
KHARKOV, UKRAINE - AUGUST 15: A convoy of trucks carrying humanitarian aid for the people in southeastern Ukraine where the government launched "anti-terror" operations against armed separatists seeking to break away from Ukraine following the annexation of Crimea into Russia in March.--AA
National Flag Day Russia - Aug 22 August 22, Russia celebrates National Flag Day. The date only became a holiday in 1994 to commemorate the events of 1991 when the three-color flag was first hoisted over the white marble building of the Russian government to replace the Soviet red flag with hammer and sickle. The holiday may be young but the history of the white-blue-red flag dates back four centuries. Russia adopted its first national flag more than three hundred years ago. The “father” of tricolor flag was Peter the First. January, 20 1705 he issued the order, according to it any merchant vessel should have white-blue-red flag. The flag surrendered its place to the red banner after the revolution of 1917 but came back in August 1991. A law passed in 2000 stipulated that the state flag be used only for official purposes and on public holidays. But last year a new law allowed the use of the flag in any situation that wished to demonstrate the feeling of patriotism. The state flag has since been taken to the North Pole, the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, the tallest peaks, remote corners of the world and even to outer space. The day is not on the list of official holidays or days off, but since 1994 has been celebrated annually.
DONETSK, UKRAINE - AUGUST 15: 26 released Ukrainians including Pro-Russian separatists held by Russian army hold a media conference at Tsentralny Hotel in Donetsk.--AA
Black Ribbon Day Lithuania - Aug 23
The European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism (known as the International Black Ribbon Day and under other names in some countries), which is observed on 23 August, was designated by the European Parliament in 2008/2009 as "a Europe-wide Day of Remembrance for the victims of all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, to be commemorated with dignity and impartiality," and has been observed annually by the bodies of the European Union since 2009. The European Parliament's2009 resolution on European conscience and totalitarianism, co-sponsored by the European People's Party, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, The Greens–European Free Alliance, and the Union for Europe of the Nations, called for its implementation in all of Europe. The establishment of 23 August as an international remembrance day for victims of totalitarianism was also supported by the 2009 Vilnius Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly. August 23 was chosen to coincide with the date of the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, in which the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany agreed to divide Eastern Europe between themselves, an event described by the European Parliament's President Jerzy Buzek in 2010 as "the collusion of the two worst forms of totalitarianism in the history of humanity." The purpose of the Day of Remembrance is to preserve the memory of the victims of mass deportations and exterminations, while promoting democratic values with the aim of reinforcing peace and stability in Europe. August 23 is also officially recognised by Canada where it is known as Black Ribbon Day.
Lithuania Lithuania in 2009 officially renamed "Black Ribbon Day" (August 23) to "European Day of Remembrance for Victims
of Stalinism and Nazism, and Day of the Baltic Way". On this day, as on other days of mourning, Lithuanian flags are displayed outside all public buildings decorated with black ribbons.
ANKARA, TURKEY - AUGUST 15: Turkish Prime Minister and Presidentelect Recep Tayyip Erdogan (C) greets the people after Friday Prayer at Aksa Mosque in Kecioren district of Ankara, Turkey on August 15, 2014..--AA