Worldwide events; zarb e jamhoor newspaper; 165 issue; 02 08 mar, 2014

Battle of Adowa Ethiopia - M a r 0 2

The Battle of Adwa (usually known as Adowa, or sometimes by the Italian name Adua) was fought on 1 March 1896 between Ethiopia and Italy near the town of Adwa, Ethiopia, in Tigray. It was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War, securing Ethiopian sovereignty and ending Italian attempts at its conquest for another three and a half decades.

Background As the 20th century approached, most of 19th-century

Africa had been carved up among the various European powers. The two independent exceptions were the tiny Republic of Liberia on the west coast of the continent and the ancient Ethiopian Empire in the strategic Horn of Africa. The Kingdom of Italy was a relative newcomer to the colonial scramble for Africa. Italy had only two recently-obtained African territories, both located near Ethiopia on the Horn of Africa: Eritrea and Somalia. Both were impoverished. Italy sought to improve its position in Africa by conquering Ethiopia, which would join its two territories.

In 1889, the Italians signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Emperor Menelik II. A disputed article of the treaty made the Ethiopian Empire a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. As a result, Italy and Ethiopia faced off in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War. In late 1895, after advancing deep into Ethiopian territory, a small Italian-led unit was defeated by a much larger Ethiopian group at the Battle of Amba Alagi. The Italians were forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray, where the two main armies faced each other.

By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, EmperorMenelik's army would begin to melt away. However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act. On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri met with hisbrigadiers Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale. Dabormida exclaiming, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00.His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight.

The battle

The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling 17,878 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. However, it is likely that even fewer men fought in this battle on the Italian side: Harold Marcus notes that "several thousand" soldiers were needed for support and to guard the lines of communication to the rear, so he estimates the Italian army to have consisted of 14,923 effectives. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean askari led by Italian officers. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers The landscape of Adwa.

Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these included elite Bersaglieri, Alpini and Cacciatori units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed "di formazione" battalions for service in Africa.

As Chris Prouty describes: They [the Italians] had inadequate maps, old model guns, poor communication equipment and inferior footgear for the rocky ground. (The newer Carcano Model 91 rifles were not issued because Baratieri, under constraints to be economical, wanted to use up the old cartridges.) Morale was low as the veterans were homesick and the newcomers were too inexperienced to have any esprit de corps. There was a shortage of mules and saddles.

Estimates for the Ethiopian forces under Menelik range from a low of 73,000 to a high of 100,000, outnumbering the Italians by an estimated five or six times. The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu Betul, Ras Welle Betul, Ras Mengesha Atikem, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Ras Alula Engida, Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael,Fitawrari Gebeyyehu, and Negus Tekle Haymanot Tessemma. In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of traditional peasant followers who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries.

Most of the army was composed of riflemen, a significant percentage of which were in Menelik's reserve; however, the army was also composed of a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lances. Also, in the Ethiopian Army there was a small team of Russian advisers and volunteers of the officer the Kuban Cossack army N.S. Leontiev. On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped. David Levering Lewisstates that the Italian battle plan called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains — Dabormida commanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center — with a reserve under Ellena following behind Arimondi.

The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the… soldiers as deadly as razored shears. Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others. He was to position himself on the summit known as Kidane Meret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet the Ethiopians.

However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Their sketchy maps caused Albertone to mistake one mountain for Kidane Meret, and when a scout pointed out his mistake, Albertone advanced directly into Ras Alula's position.

Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day (2 March). The Emperor had risen early to begin prayers for divine guidance when spies from Ras Alula, his chief military advisor, brought him news that the Italians were advancing. The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu beside him, ordered his forces forward. Negus Tekle Haymanot commanded the right wing, Ras Alula the left, and Rasses Makonnen and Mengesha the center, with Ras Mikael at the head of the Oromo cavalry; the Emperor and his consort remained with the reserve. The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire.

Albertone's askari brigade was the first to encounter the onrush of Ethiopians at 6:00, near Kidane Meret, where the Ethiopians had managed to set up their mountain artillery (so Menelik's adviser colonel Leonid Artamonov testifies, it was 42 Russian mountain guns with a team of fifteen advisers, but Britannic historians prefer another version about Hotchiss and Maxim pieces either captured from the Egyptians or purchased from French and other European suppliers). His heavily outnumbered askaris held their position for two hours until Albertone's capture, and under Ethiopian pressure the survivors sought refuge with Arimondi's brigade. Arimondi's brigade beat back the Ethiopians who repeatedly charged the Italian position for three hours with gradually fading strength until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 Shewans and swamped the Italian defenders. Two companies of Bersaglieri who arrived at the same moment could not help and were cut down.

Dabormida's Italian brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida began a fighting retreat towards friendly positions. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael slaughtered his brigade, while shouting Ebalgume! Ebalgume! ("Reap! Reap!"). Dabormida's remains were never found, although his brother learned from an old woman living in the area that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars".

The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. Menelik watched as Gojjam forces under the command of Tekle Haymonot made quick work of the last intact Italian brigade. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.

According to UNESCO General History of Africa - VII Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935, the battle of Adowa was a remarkable victory for Ethiopian painting depicting Menelik, King of Shoa and Emperor of Ethiopia: the battle of Adwa.

"During the battle, 261 Italian officers, 2918 Italian non-commissioned officers and men, and about 2000 askaris, or local troops, were killed. In addition, 954 Italian soldiers were permanently missing; and 470 Italians and 958 askaris were wounded. Total Italian casualties amounted to over 40 percent of the fighting force, which was almost completely routed and lost all its artillery, besides 11000 rifles. As a result of Menelik's victory, the Italians agreed, on 26 October, to the Peace Treaty of Addis Ababa, which annulled the Treaty of Wuchale and recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia".

Immediate aftermath

The Italians suffered about 7,000 killed and 1,500 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, with 3,000 taken prisoner; Ethiopian losses have been estimated around 4,000–5,000, but with 8,000 wounded. In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport.

As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians." The 3,000 Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity. However, 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. Augustus Wylde records when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was still visible, "a rotting heap of ghastly remnants." Further, many had not survived their punishment, Wylde writing how the neighborhood of Adwa "was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of the streams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death put an end to their sufferings." There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatment of the askari prisoners.

Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was described by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news: When news of the calamity reached Italy there were street demonstrations in most major cities. In Rome, to prevent these violent protests, the universities and theatres were closed. Police were called out to disperse rock-throwers in front of Prime Minister Crispi's residence. Crispi resigned on 9 March. Troops were called out to quell demonstrations in Naples. In Pavia, crowds built barricades on the railroad tracks to prevent a troop train from leaving the station.

The Association of Women of Rome, Turin, Milan and Pavia called for the return of all military forces in Africa. Funeral masses were intoned for the known and unknown dead. Families began sending to the newspapers letters they had received before Adwa in which their menfolk described their poor living conditions and their fears at the size of the army they were going to face. King Umberto declared his birthday (14 March) a day of mourning. Italian communities in St. Petersburg, London, New York, Chicago, Buenos Aires andJerusalem collected money for the families of the dead and for the Italian Red Cross.

The Russian support for Ethiopia led to the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission. The Russian mission was a military mission conceived as a medical support for the Ethiopian troops. It arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menelik's Adwa victory.

Ethiopian failure to follow up victory

One question much asked – both then and long afterward – is why did Emperor Menelik fail to follow up his victory and drive the routed Italians out of their colony? The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the deceptive Treaty of Wuchale. In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence. In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall. At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observes that "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources." Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade" that stayed his hand.

As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, the Italians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. This time the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemical warfare, the Ethiopian forces were soundly defeated by May 1936. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire and Ethiopian patriot forces.

Significance

"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze. "Though apparent to very few historians at the time, these defeats were the Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam. beginning of the decline of Europe as the center of world politics."

On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian-anglophile Bahru Zewde observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa;".

The Russian Empire enthusiastically paid victory compliments to the Ethiopian army. One of the documents of that time states, "The Victory immediately gained the general sympathy of Russian society and it continued to grow."

The unique outlook which polyethnic Russia exhibited to its ally Ethiopia disturbed many supporters of European nationalism during the twentieth century. The Russian Cossack captain Nicholas Leontjev with team of volunteers of participated in the battle as an advisor to Menelik.

This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African movement. As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains, After the victory over Italy in 1896, Ethiopia acquired a special importance in the eyes of Africans as the only surviving African State. After Adowa, Ethiopia became emblematic of African valour and resistance, the bastion of prestige and hope to thousands of Africans who were experiencing the full shock of European conquest and were beginning to search for an answer to the myth of African inferiority.

On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. One student of Ethiopia, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935". Levine also noted that the victory "gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adopting techniques imported from the modern West - resistances with which both Menelik and Ras Teferi/Haile Selassie would have to contend".

Peasants' Day - M a r 0 2 Myanmar/Burma

Myanmar, also known as Burma, celebrates Peasants’ Day yearly every 2nd of March. It is incidentally the General Ne Win’s seizure of power in 1962.

Ne Win is a military commander and politician of Myanmar. He served two terms as the country’s Prime Minister from 1958 to 1960 and another on 1962 to 1974. He was also the country’s head of state from 1962 to 1981. He also head one of the country’s powerful political party Socialist Programme Party from 1964 until 1988. The party was the only party allowed to exist during Ne Win’s strict military rule until he was ousted as a result of social unrest happened on 1988 known as the 8888 Uprising.

During this day, various talks and development programs are laid down, discussed, and revealed for the improvement of the peasant sector which is the country’s flagship economy.

History

The peasant sector occupies around 70 percent of Myanmar’s population and undoubtedly the most productive workforce in the country. Because of this, Myanmar recognizes the powerful role of farmers in driving the country’s economic output. However, it is the farming sector which usually suffers whenever a power struggle happens in the country because rebels usually flew to the jungles of Myanmar to avoid prosecution and seek protection.

The country has long been wanting to transform its country into a developed nation with plans of improving the industrial sector of the society, however, inadequate funding, corruption, and political instability halts the region from realizing its truest potential.

The entire peasantry before 1965 experienced usury and inappropriate use of agricultural land. Farming lands were rented and many of the farmers cannot keep up with the rising cost of land rent. During this time, laws were passed to protect the farmers against this practice and led to massive land reformation and among them is the passing of protecting farmers against land renting. These acts were all made under the military administration of Ne Win and continue until today. Most of monumental reformation happened during Ne Win’s term and continued until his resignation on 1988 after a popular uprising.

Today, Myanmar still focuses on the development of new technologies and laws to protect farmers from unfair land treatment and support their various causes as the whole country’s economy depends heavily on this sector.

Celebrations During the holiday, Myanmar’s local leaders organize talks about reforms in peasantry around the country and present issues that challenges the development of the agricultural field. Since this is a national holiday, public companies are closed while some private companies may remain open.

Families and individuals may choose to remain inside home or visit the local parks, pagodas and temples in the area. Also, trade and cultural shows organized around the country showcasing traditional crafts, culture, and arts.

Te x a s Inde pe nde nc e D a y U.S. - Mar 02

The Texas Declaration of Independence was the formal declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. It was adopted at the Convention of 1836 at Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 2, 1836, and formally signed the following day after errors were noted in the text.

Background

In October 1835, settlers in Mexican Texas launched the Texas Revolution.

However, within Texas, many struggled with understanding what was the ultimate goal of the Revolution. Some believed that the goal should be total independence from Mexico, while others sought the reimplementation of the Mexican Constitution of 1824 (which offered greater freedoms than the centralist government declared in Mexico the prior year). To settle the issue, a convention was called for March 1836.

This convention differed from the previous Texas councils of 1832, 1833, and the 1835 Consultation. Many of the delegates to the 1836 convention were young men who had only recently arrived in Texas, although many of them had participated in one of the battles in 1835. Most of the delegates were members of the War Party and were adamant that Texas must declare its independence from Mexico. Forty-one delegates arrived in Washington-on-theBrazos on February 28.

Declaration of Establishment of Authority of the People Libya - M a r 0 3

On March 2, Libyans celebrate Declaration of Jamahiriya Day, also known as Declaration of the People's Authority Day . In observance of this public holiday, schools and businesses are closed throughout the country. Citizens attend speeches and rallies in honor of the founding of the Jamahiriya, which has no official translation. The term, which is derived from the Arab word for republic, roughly means "state of the masses," "people's authority," or "people's power."

The term Jamahiriya was created by Libyan leader Colonel Muammar Qaddafi, who defined it as a "state run by the people without a government" and characterized it as a political advancement for all humankind. This political philosophy is sometimes termed the Third Universal Theory and is an amalgamation of socialism and Islam. On September 1, 1969, Qaddafi staged a coup d'État, overthrowing the Libyan monarchy and establishing a socialist, Islamic republic. Upon taking power he changed the name of the country to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.

In theory, under Jamahiriya, Libya would be ruled by the people themselves through local councils. In practice, however, Libya is governed by an authoritarian state.

Martyr's Day Malawi - M a r 0 3

Every year, Malawi, formerly known as Nyasaland, a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, celebrates Martyr’s Day every third day of March yearly to commemorate the popular uprising in Malawi protesting British colonial rule.

This resistance has caused the lives of more than forty men during the revolution. It is this day when the country mourns those whose lives were perished just to liberate the country from the foreign rule.

HUNGARY Hungary considers Pakistan an important partner (Online 24 Feb) Hungary considers Pakistan an important partner in its goal to build strong relations with the Asian nations, the Political Director of the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs said in an interview to Pakistan’s The Express Tribune, published on 24 February 2014.

Mr Takács told the English-language daily on the occasion of his recent

Celebrations

Martyrs’ Day is considered as a national holiday in Malawi. During the celebration, public offices including schools and some private companies are closed. The government conduct ceremonial speeches to commemorate those whose lives were lost during the rebellion leading to the independence of the state. The president and other public officials attend local gatherings remembering the fallen heroes including the laying of wreaths on monuments dedicated to the popular personalities of the liberation.

National Anthem Day U.S. - M a r 0 3

"The Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort McHenry", a poem written in 1814 by the 35-year-old lawyer and amateur poet, Francis Scott Key, after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by the British Royal Navy ships in Chesapeake Bay during the Battle of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812.

The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men's social club in London. "The Anacreontic Song" (or "To Anacreon in Heaven"), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key's poem and renamed "The Star-Spangled Banner", it would soon become a well-known American patriotic song.

With a range of one and a half octaves, it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.

"The Star-Spangled Banner" was recognized for official use by the Navy in 1889, and by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.

Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia" served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, 'Tis of Thee", whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen", the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs would emerge to compete for popularity at public events, among them "The Star-Spangled Banner".

National Day Bulgaria - Mar 03

In Bulgarian historiography, the term Liberation of Bulgaria is used to denote the events of theRusso-Turkish War of 1877-78 that led to the re-establishment of Bulgarian state with the Treaty of San Stefano of 3 March 1878, after the complete conquest of the Second Bulgarian Empire, which finished in 1396. According to this treaty, the Ottoman Empire was deprived of a big part of its territory, which were given to the client state - Bulgaria.

In the same year, at Berlin congress, Treaty of Berlin (1878) was adopted, according to which, the territories of the Bulgarian state, created as of San Stefano's treaty were divided into three parts: the first part was the Principality of Bulgaria which functioned independently but nominally within the Ottoman Empire, this was limited to Moesia and neighbouring areas of the capital Sofia; the second part created was to be an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire - Eastern Rumelia; the third and the largest part - Macedonia and Lozengrad were given back to the Ottoman Empire, also some outlands were given to Serbia and Romania. The seized territories from Bulgaria after Berlin congress - most of Macedonia, Thrace, etc. were with an ethnic Bulgarian majority. On September 6, 1885, Eastern Rumelia became part of Princiapality of Bulgaria after a bloodless unification, though still de jure within the Ottoman Empire.

The third Bulgarian state gained full sovereignty from the Ottoman Empire on 22 September 1908 when declaring independence.

The term is, however, partially inaccurate, as it only refers to the liberation of Bulgaria from Ottoman rule, the second liberation of Bulgaria. After the conquest of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018, the first liberation of Bulgaria, led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire, happened in the year 1185 as a consequence of the Uprising of Asen and Peter against the Byzantine Empire.

Foundation Day N or folk Is la nd - M a r 0 6

Foundation Day is a designated date on which celebrations mark the founding of a nation or state. This day is for countries that came into existence without the necessity of gaining Independence. Older countries that use some other event of special significance as their national day. This signals the use of a ”class” of National Days, that are equally important in the foundation of the nation, and a ”class” of less important official public holidays. This holiday can be symbolized by the date of becoming republic or a significant date for a patron saint or a ruler (birthday, accession, removal, etc.) as the starting point of the nation's history. Often the day is not called "Foundation Day" but serves and can be considered as one.

Foundation Day on Norfolk Island on March 6, commemorating the First Fleet settlement under Philip Gidley King in 1788.

and the Middle East.

The Political Director also drew attention to bilateral cooperation in technology transfer, agriculture and the pharmaceuticals sector, but most notably, in the energy sector, including the 15-year presence of Hungarian oil and gas company MOL in Pakistan.

Hungary aims to achieve full employment: PM

Public employment program is a gateway to the world of work (Online 25 Feb) The Government's public employment program is a gateway to the world of work, Prime MinViktor Orbán said in ister Vásárosnamény, at the opening of a new 1.8 billion forint (EUR 5.8m) data processing centre. He also stated that public workers must be supported and thanked for accepting the opportunity to "work rather than live off benefits".

The data centre offers 291 new jobs and so far has received 947 job applications, including 235 registered jobseekers, the Prime Minister pointed

out. This could serve as an excellent example of how people can move on from the world of public work into the world of full-time jobs, he stated. He also warned that public employment programs and those participating in them should not be looked down upon, because anyone who degrades public work also degrades the dignity of those participating in the program.

Prime Minister Orbán said that if his government is re-elected in April, opportunities will be available to everyone who wants to work and not live off benefits, whether they are pro-

vided by the state, the economy, or the government via fostered jobs schemes.

National Police Chief Károly Papp also addressed the event, emphasising that by introducing the concept of objective responsibility to ensure strict compliance to traffic regulations, the police have achieved significant results in reducing the number of road traffic accidents. This effort was recognised by the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC) in 2012, when Hungary was awarded the Road Safety PIN Award.

National Unity Day Sudan - Mar 03

Sudan celebrates Unity Day yearly every 3rd of March. It is a celebration of peace and unity in all regions of Sudan, particularly the North and parts of South which suffered heavy strife during the civil war. Although the Addis Ababa Agreement made in Ethiopia slightly ended the civil war, the signing of the accord was instrumental in the establishment of the present day Unity Day celebration in the country.

The two-decade war between North and South Sudan ended in 2005, ultimately forming a unity government. But at present, the United Nation has become wary about the increasing tensions happening between the North and autonomous south after the latter calls for a total independence from the North through a separation referendum happening in 2011.

A referendum is underway which will decide on the faith of the two sides and the nation as a whole.

History

Sudan has long been under the rule of Britain until its formal independence in 1956. The independence is a product of an agreement between Britain and Egypt to give Sudan the opportunity for self-governance and national identity in 1953.

The start of the first parliament in 1954 concentrated most of the development and progress in the North while neglecting most parts of the South. This unequal distribution of development interest in the region later formed a lasting cancer dividing Sudan into an Arab-laden north and mainly Christian and ethnic Nilotic people of South.

The 17 year long war ended on 1972 (1955-1972) after the South was given autonomy on its internal affairs after the signing of Addis Ababa agreement in Ethiopia. However, another war broke out in 1983 after the two regions once again suffered from another political and military tension.

The newly drafted constitution in 2005 temporarily ended the civil war while waiting for final referendum in 2005.

Currently, the International Criminal Court (ICC) charged the current president Omar al-Bashir on charges of crimes against humanity and war particularly due to widespread genocide on the Southern region of Sudan. The country has severed international and diplomatic relations with its neighbouring African countries including Chad.

Sudan is member to the some international organizations including the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU), the Arab League, and Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), among others.

Celebrations Sudan celebrates Unity Day with public cultural shows, parades, and events. Public and private companies including

students from various schools participate in cultural shows and parades in the street which commemorates the unity of the entire region and the preservation of peace and fuelling progress. Since Unity Day is a national holiday, government offices do not operate and while some private offices may choose to close.

Hina Matsuri Japan - Mar 03

The Japanese Doll Festival (雛祭り Hina-matsuri), or Girls' Day, is held on March 3.Platforms covered with a red carpet are used to display a set of ornamental dolls (雛人形hinaningyō) representing the Emperor, Empress, attendants, and musicians in traditional court dress of the Heian period.

Origin and customs

The custom of displaying dolls began during the Heian period. Formerly, people believed the dolls possessed the power to contain bad spirits. Hinamatsuri traces its origins to an ancient Japanese custom called hina-nagashi ( 雛流しlit. "doll floating"), in which straw hina dolls are set afloat on a boat and sent down a river to the sea, supposedly taking troubles or bad spirits with them. The Shimogamo Shrine (part of the Kamo Shrine complex in Kyoto) celebrates the Nagashibina by floating these dolls between the Takano and Kamo Rivers to pray for the safety of children. People have stopped doing this now because of fishermen catching the dolls in their nets. They now send them out to sea, and when the spectators are gone they take the boats out of the water and bring them back to the temple and burn them.

The customary drink for the festival is shirozake, a sake made from fermented rice. A colored hina-arare, bite-sized crackers flavored with sugar or soy sauce depending on the region, and hishimochi, a diamond-shaped colored rice cake, are served. Chirashizushi (sushi rice flavored with sugar, vinegar, topped with raw fish and a variety of ingredients) is often eaten. A salt-based soup called ushiojiru containing clams still in the shell is also served. Clam shells in food are deemed the symbol of a united and peaceful couple, be- Seven-tiered Hina doll set cause a pair of clam shells fits perfectly, and no pair but the original pair can do so.

Families generally start to display the dolls in February and take them down immediately after the festival. Superstition says that leaving the dolls past March 4 will result in a late marriage for the daughter.

Photo: Péter Komka (Online 27 Feb) The goal of the Hungarian government is to achieve full employment in Hungary, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán told a local gathering in Ózd, in northern Hungary, on Thursday.

Speaking amid the ruins of the hall of a former metallurgical plant before placing a time capsule for a planned 2.5 billion forint digital archive, the Prime Minister said the world owed every person at least the opportunity to maintain themselves and their families from their own work. The question is whether "we can organise the

country in such a way that this becomes reality," he said. Whereas unemployment has fallen to below 9 percent there is still work to do, the Prime Minister stated, adding that the aim of building "a Hungary in which everyone can make a living from wages" had not changed.

Prime Minister Orbán said the digital archive will serve the whole of Hungary. Some 1,000 degree-holders in 160 public institutions throughout the country are currently work on digitising various cultural assets to make them

available from faraway locations.

The Hungarian National Digital Archive and Film Institute (MaNDA) was established on 6 June 2011 and its task, similarly to that of the former Hungarian National Film Archives, is to digitally record all Hungarian cultural assets, thus making them available through a central interface. A related cooperation agreement was signed with the city of Ózd in 2011 and the 7,000 square metre logistics centre complex will be a protected industrial monument.

Stable family legislation created by the Government (Online 28 Feb) According to the Minister of State of the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice, the Government established a firm legislation on family law in the recent years and the new Civil Code, which will enter into force on 15 March, focuses on the interests of children. Bence Rétvári spoke about these matters at the press conference in Budapest held this Friday; pointing out that due to the new rules, conditions became more predictable and supportive of childbearing.

He mentioned as well that significant number of rules related to families referring to family tax system and obligations of children regarding their parents are also

entailed in a Cardinal Act, which enhances predictability.

Minister of State of the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice also mentioned that rules related to adoption became simplified; hence the rate of adoptions grew by 15 percent. He pointed out the importance of the new law; these children could also have families.

As Bence Rétvári noted, the state must provide opportunity to children to really be born. He referred to a research conducted by the University of Semmelweis in 2013, which showed there were hardly any young people who did not want to have children and 70 to 80 percent out of them would like to live in a marriage.

He said that although the period of marriage and childbearing is increasingly extended, but on the long run definitely the marriage is the most popular form of unions; adding the Fundamental Law protects the institution of marriage as a community formed between a man and a woman. Bence Rétvári highlighted the provisions as well of the Civil Code related to family, protection of marriage and best interests and rights of children. In addition, in the wake of the Government’s actions, child support system has been expanded and many more types of support are available, as he pointed it out.

Int e r na tiona l t our is m e x hibit ion “Tr a v e l 2 0 1 4 ” ope ne d in B uda pe s t (Online 27 Feb) The tourism fair was opened at the Budapest Fair Center by Minister of State for Economic Planning Coordination István Komoróczki, who in his welcome speech pointed out that tourism traffic in Hungary hit a new record high last year, as – according to preliminary data – in 2013 8.8 million guests spent 22.8 million nights in the country.

He stated that as one of the growth engines of the Hungarian economy the tourism sector has been significantly contributing to the country’s economic performance and employment.

In addition to the 5 percent growth recorded last year in the number of guests and tourism nights, revenues at accommodation establishments were also up by 10 percent. As average prices increased by 3 percent in 2013 and gross revenue per available room (REVPAR) soared by some 10 percent, these facts are indicating that the profitability of enterprises active in the sector has improved.

István Komoróczki stressed that along with improved profitability another key trend is the steady

growth of domestic tourism, which development also confirms the success of the SZÉP (Széchenyi Recreation) Card introduced in 2011.

The Minister of State said that in 2007-2013 1132 tourism projects won EU funding of altogether HUF 290bn. He added that the Ministry is in the midst of drafting the financial framework for the 2014-2020 development period, and some HUF 250-300bn of development resources is projected to be allocated for tourism.

He underlined that tourism is not merely a service sector division, as it widens people’s intellectual horizons and develops in them inclusion and tolerance.

The exhibition, open between 27 February and 2 March, has three special guests: Pécs, Tunisia, as well as Matyóföld with its rich cultural heritage.

Ambassador of Tunisia HE Abderraouf Betbaieb stated that the two countries are making efforts to reopen a direct flight between Budapest and Tunis.

At the opening ceremony, the awards of the Hungarian Tourism Ltd were also presented.

Deputy State Secretary for Tourism Viktória Horváth said that the almost 10 percent growth of the sector has been the result of the efforts of people working in tourism. She emphasised that it has been a great achievement to overcome hurdles over the past years and turn the sector from laggard into top performer.

She said stressed she is expecting the current upward trend in place for the past years to continue and remarked that SZÉP Cards add 25 percent to domestic tourism growth, excluding their multiplier effect.

CEO of Hungarian Deputy Tourism Plc Gergely Horváth said that last year marked a positive U-turn regarding tourism.

He pointed out that Hungarians tend to make several short trips and they make on average threeday excursions, which is a good result from an international perspective. Some 400 thousand people are employed within the sector, but the division’s key economic role makes it crucial for all the ten million residents of Hungary.

The Communist dictatorship is a common European heritage

Placement

The Kantō region and Kansai region have different placement orders of the dolls from left to right, but the order of dolls per level are the same.

The term for the platform in Japanese is hina dan (雛壇). The layer of covering is called dankake (段掛) or simply hi-mōsen (緋毛氈), a red carpet with rainbow stripes at the bottom.

First platform, the top:

The top tier holds two dolls, known as imperial dolls (内裏雛 (だいり びな) dairi-bina). These are the Emperor (御内裏様 Odairi-sama) holding a ritual baton (笏 shaku) and Empress (御雛様Ohime-sama) holding a fan. The words dairi means "imperial palace", and hime means "girl" or "princess".

The dolls are usually placed in front of a gold folding screen byōbu (屏風) and placed beside green Japanese garden trees.

Optional are the two lampstands, called bonbori (雪洞), and the paper or silk lanterns that are known as hibukuro ( 火袋), which are usually decorated with cherry or ume blossom patterns.

Complete sets would include accessories placed between the two figures, known as sanbō kazari(三 方 飾 ), composing of two vases of artificial peach branch kuchibana (口 花).

The traditional arrangement had the male on the right, while modern arrangements had him on the left (from the viewer's perspective).

Second platform:

The second tier holds three court ladies sannin kanjo (三人官女). Each holds sake equipment. From the viewer's perspective, the standing lady on the right is the long-handled sake-bearerNagae no chōshi (長柄の銚子), the standing lady on the left is the backup sake-bearer Kuwae no chōshi (加えの銚子), and the only lady in the middle is the seated sake bearer Sanpō (三方).

Accessories placed between the ladies are takatsuki (高坏), stands with round table-tops for seasonal sweets, excluding hishimochi.

Third platform:

The third tier holds five male musicians gonin bayashi (五人囃子). Each holds a musical instrument except the singer, who holds a fan.

Left to right, from viewer's perspective, they are the: Small drum Taiko (太 鼓 ), 1. seated, Large drum Ōtsuzumi (大 鼓 ), 2. standing, Hand drum Kotsuzumi (小 鼓 ), 3. standing, Flute Fue (笛), or Yokobue (横笛 4. ), seated, Hinamatsuri store display in Los Angeles, California Singer Utaikata (謡い方), hold- featuring all 7 tiers.

5. ing a folding fan sensu (扇子), standing.

Fourth platform:

Two ministers (daijin) may be displayed on the fourth tier: the Minister of the Right (右大臣 Udaijin) and the Minister of the Left (左大臣Sadaijin). The Minister of the Right is depicted as a young person, while the Minister of the Left is much older. Also, because the dolls are placed in positions relative to each other, the Minister of the Right will be on the viewer's left and the Minister of the Left will be on the viewer's right. Both are sometimes equipped with bows and arrows.

Between the two figures are covered bowl tables kakebanzen (掛盤膳), also referred to as o-zen (お膳), as well as diamond-shaped standshishidai (菱台) bearing diamond-shaped ricecakes hishimochi (菱餅). Hishidai with felineshaped legs are known as nekoashigata hishidai(猫足形菱台).

Just below the ministers: on the rightmost, a mandarin orange tree Ukon no tachibana (右近の橘), and on the leftmost, a cherry blossom tree Sakon no sakura (左近の桜).

Fifth platform:

The fifth tier, between the plants, holds three helpers or samurai as the protectors of the Emperor and Empress.

From left to right (viewer's perspective): Maudlin drinker nakijōgo (泣き上戸), 1.

Cantankerous drinker okorijōgo (怒り上戸), and 2.

Merry drinker waraijōgo (笑い上戸) 3.

Other platforms:

On the sixth and seventh tiers, a variety of miniature furniture, tools, carriages, etc., are displayed.

Sixth platform:

These are items used within the palatial residence. tansu (箪笥) : chest of (usually five) drawers, sometimes with swinging outer covering doors. nagamochi (長持) : long chest for kimono storage. hasamibako (挟箱) : smaller clothing storage box, placed on top of nagamochi. kyōdai (鏡台) : literally mirror stand, a smaller chest of drawer with a mirror on top. haribako (針箱) : sewing kit box.

Elsewhere

The Hinamatsuri is also celebrated in Florence (Italy), with the patronage of the Embassy of Japan, the Japanese Institute and the historical Gabinetto Vieusseux.

of Hinamatsuri Song The song is sung as a celebration of the festival. Its lyrics are as follows: Ākyāri o-tsuke māsho bonborini O-hānā o-agemasho momo no hana Gonin-bayashi no fue taiko Kyō wa tano shi hinamatsuri

Collectors

Joseph Alsop, in his pioneering work on the history of art collection provides, the following definition: “To collect is to gather objects belonging to a particular category the collector happens to fancy; and art collecting is a form of collecting in which the category is, broadly speaking, works of art.” (Scott, 2008). Japanese dolls, Hina are broken down into several subcategories. Two of the most prominent are Girl’s Day, hina-ningyo, and the Boy’s Day musha-ningyo, or display dolls, sagu-ningyo, gosho-ningyo, and isho-ningyo (Scott, 2008). Collections can be categorized by the material they are made of such as wood dolls kamo-ningyo and nara-ningyo and, clay forms such as fushimi-ningyo and Hakata ningyo.

In the nineteenth century ningyo were introduced to the West. Doll collecting has since become a popular pastime in the West (Scott, 2008). Famous well known collectors from the West include individuals such as James Tissot (1836–1902), Jules Adeline (1845–1909), Eloise Thomas (1907–1982), and Samuel Pryor (1898–1985). James Tissot was known to be a religious history painter. In 1862, after attending a London Exhibition, he was drawn to Japanese Art. During the 1860s Tissot, was known as one of most important collectors of Japanese art in Paris. His collections included kosode-style kimonos, paintings, bronze, ceramics, screens and a number bijan-nigyo (dolls from late Edo period) (Scott, 2008). Adeline was known as a working artist and he is also known as “Mikika”. Adeline produced many works throughout his career as a working artist. He is best known for his “etchings” and received the Cross of the Legion of Honor for his Vieuex-Roven “Le Parvis Notre-Dame”. Unlike Tissot, Adeline is recognized as a true collector. A majority of Adeline’s collection consisted of ningyo, and only a few prints.

During the Meiji Era, three men became pioneers in collecting ningya, Kurihara Sokosut (1851-113), Nishizawa, Senko (1864–1914), and Tsuboi Shogoro (1863–1913). The three men are referred to as “Gangu san Ketsu” (The Three great toy collectors). They introduced a systematic approach to collecting ningyo, in an effort to preserve and document the various forms of ningyo (Scott, 2008). Shimizu Seifu, an artist and calligrapher, put his artistic ability to use by creating an illustrated catalog of his own collection of 440 ningyo dolls. The illustration was published in (1891) under the title “Unai no tomo”. Nishizawa Senko, a banker, gathered a significant collection on hina-ningyo.

He was an active researcher, collector of stories, documents, and information relating to the development of hinaningyo during the Edo period. Senko’s son Tekiho (1889–1965) inherited his collection but, a great portion of the collection was lost in the Kanto earthquake of 1932. (Scott, 2008). Tsuboi Shogoro, the first appointed Professor of Anthropology at the Tokyo Imperial University (Yamashita, Bosco, & Seymour, 2004), was the most trained of the three, and he brought a scientific element to the collecting of ningyo. Dolls have been a part of Japanese culture for many years; and the phenomenon of collecting them is still practiced. Many collections are preserved in museums including thePeabody Essex Museum, Kyoto National Museum, and the Yodoko Guest House.

Missionary Day - M a r 0 5 French Polynesia

French Polynesia observes annual celebration of Missionary Day every 5th of March. The holiday marks the celebration of the first missionaries who entered the shore of the French Colonial Island or ‘Arrivée de l’Evangile’ in French in 1797.

History The entire French Polynesian islands were not established

until 1889 when it was put under French administration as its legal protectorate. The whole islands sprawling for about 5.2 million square kilometres is located in the eastern South Pacific which is almost the size of Europe excluding the Eurasia. There are only around 250,000 people who currently inhabit the island.

Various evidences proves that the island was inhabited by the first Polynesians back in AD 300, specifically the Marquesas Islands, and AD 800 at the Society Islands. Several Europeans came into the islands including Portuguese explorer sailing for the Spanish crown, Ferdinand Magellan. Magellan first sailed to the Island on 1521 passing through Pukapuka, Jakob Roggeveen (Bora Bora) in 1772, Samuel Wallis in 1767, including the French navigator Louis Antoine de Bougainville in 1768 and James Cook in 1769.

Spanish priests were among the first Christian missionaries who came in the French Polynesia’s shores; particularly the island of Tahiti in 1774 but permanent settlement of missionaries did not happen until 1797 by the ministers of the London Missionary Society. The declaration of France protectorate status on the island gave way to the missionary practice in the island in 1842. The momentous event culminating to allowing missionary work in the region is now widely celebrated as Missionary Day in French Polynesia.

Celebrations During the holiday, various events and cultural shows are held in the street particularly the traditional re-enactment

of the arrival of the first missionaries in the island in 1797 at the Willy Bambridge Stadium complex in Papeete, in Tahiti, as well as on Afareaitu in Moorea. Concerts and various stage shows are free for public to enjoy.

Customs Chiefs Day Vanuatu - M a r 0 5

In Vanuatu’s calendar of events, Chief’s Day is celebrated annually every 5th of March. The country observes the holiday to recognize the power on chieftains or locally known as ‘Jifs’ on matters concerning politics, economy, judiciary, among others.

History Vanuatu is an Island nation spread across the South Pacific

Ocean just east of Northern Australia. This archipelago, of volcanic origin, was inhabited by Melanesian people, a region south of Vanuatu, before the Islands were occupied by the Europeans in 1880, particularly by the French and British, and claimed the archipelago under a British-French ‘condominium’ status as allowed by the International law. The condominium status allowed sharing of powers by the two countries.

The two European superpowers called the country the ‘New Hebrides.’ The continued sharing of power over the region continued until a call for liberation in 1970 eventually brought independence to the country in 1980.

Chieftainship is still a popular figure in Vanuatu although the government is formed around parliamentary democracy backed up by a constitution. ‘Malvatu Mauri’ is the lead National Council of Chiefs in the country with a leader elected by the representatives of the district council of chiefs. The primary purpose of this council is to feed the prevailing government with guide or direction that touch base on the interest of the ni-Vanuatu language and culture.

The chiefs in each village are highly regarded to have authority on all matters of Vanuatu life. They form the smallest political unit of Vanuatu society and are the most influential in the clan. To recognize the Jifs in their critical role in the country’s political system and in Vanuatu’s way of life, the Custom Chief’s Day was proclaimed to be celebrated every 5th of March yearly in 1977.

Celebrations Lavish feast is done in each village in celebrating the Custom Chief’s Day. Each village hold their own festivity during

the holiday including cultural shows and programs in public entertainment centres. Organized sports activities and matches are also held. Public entertainments such as carnivals are also available during the holiday.

Independence Day Ghana - M a r 0 6

History In 1953, Malawi and its neighbour country Nyasaland

(present day Malawi), formed a confederation called Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, in an effort to halt the discriminatory policy applied against the African population in Rhodesia and for fear that it may also spread and eventually be adopted in Nyasaland. Dr. Hastings Kamuz Banda became one of the prominent figures of the revolt who immediately became the first president of Malawi in 1966, two years after the declaration of Independence of Malawi.

The popular revolt started when John Chilembwe, a US trained Malawian soldier, revolted against the British in 1915 when African soldiers were forced to serve the British colonial army. Chilembwe, along with other brave men during that time, began taking offensives against the British colonial government forces during that time. The war ended only when Chilembwe was assassinated along the borders of the Portuguese-controlled African republic Mozambique and the country in the same year.

Numerous wars and power struggles happened in the Nyasaland and Rhodesia region after the initial war ensued which led to the then Queen of England in 1959 declaring state of emergency on these African protectorate territories in an effort to finally put an end to the rebellion. The first president installed during that time was sent for exile in Zimbabwe and put behind bars during the rebellion.

One of the most momentous incidents during the rebellion is the massacre that happened in northern lakeshore in Nkhatabay where, more or less, 30 people have died. The British colonial army gunned down and killed unarmed African natives who were peacefully demanding negotiations for the eventual independence of the Nyasaland. The rather peaceful negotiation turned out to be a bloody massacre of people who were killed by riffle bullets and some drowned in Lake Malawi.

After the dissolution of The Federation (1963), Nyasaland finally gained independence from the government of Britain and was renamed Malawi. The country prospered during Banda’s rule until he was deposed in 1994 after a new president was elected (Bakili Muluzi) under the new multiparty system.

visit to Pakistan that the two countries’ officials usually meet annually but they now seek to “elevate” their meetings to a higher level.

Mr Takács pointed our the Hungarian Government’s foreign affairs strategy of Opening to the East, under which it is seeking to “re-launch and rejuvenate” ties with a number of countries around the world, especially in Asia

Ghana is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word Ghana means "Warrior King" and is derived from the ancient Ghana Empire.

Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms, including the inland Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Akyem, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Fante among others. Non-Akan states created by the Ga and Ewe also existed as did states by the Gonja, Dagomba and others. Prior to contact with Europeans trade between the Akan and various African states flourished due to Akan's gold wealth. Trade with European states began after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established the Gold Coast Crown colony in 1874 over parts but not all of the country.

The Gold Coast achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1957, becoming the second sub-Saharan African nation to do so, after Liberia who had gained independence over a century before on 26 July 1847.

The name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana, which once extended throughout much of west Africa. Ghana is a member of the United Nations, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Economic Community of West African States, the African Union, and an associate member of La Francophonie. Ghana is the third largest producer of cocoa in the world after Indonesia and Ghana is also home to Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake in the world by surface area. The economy of Ghana has been listed as The World's Fastest Growing Economy in 2011 with an economic growth of about 20.146% for the year 2011 in economic research led by Economy Watch with data coming from the IMF's tracker of GDP Growth in constant prices in the national currency.

Etymology

The word Ghana means Warrior King and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval West African Ghana Empire.

Geographically, the Ghana Empire was approximately 500 miles (800 km) north and west of modern Ghana, and it ruled territories in the area of the Sénégal River and east towards the Niger River, in modern Senegal, Mauritania and Mali.

Ghana was adopted as the legal name for the Gold Coast combined with British Togoland upon gaining autonomy on 6 March 1957.

History

There is archaeological evidence showing that humans have lived in presentday Ghana since the Bronze Age. However, until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghana's area was largely unoccupied. Although the area of present-day Ghana has experienced many population movements, the major ethnic groups in Ghana today were firmly settled by the 16th century. By the early 11th century, the Akan were firmly established in a state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region region is named. The Mole-Dagbane as well as the Mossi states were well established by the 16th century, with the Gonja state being established by the 17th Century.

From the 13th century, numerous groups emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan States, mainly based on 16th – 17th Century Akangold trading. These states included Denkyira, Akwamu, and Akyem. By the Terracotta 19th century, most of modern Ghanaian territory was included in the Empire of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-Saharan Africa prior to colonial rule. The Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralized kingdom with an advanced, highly specialized bureaucracy centred inKumasi. It is said that at its peak, the Asantehene could field 500,000 troops, and it had some degree of military influence over all of its neighbours.

Early European contact by the Portuguese, who came to Ghana in the 15th century, focused on the extensive availability of gold. The Portuguese first landed at a coastal city inhabited by the Fante nation-state, and named the place Elmina. In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in 3 years. The Portuguese aim was to trade for Akan gold.

By 1598, the Dutch had joined them, building forts at Komeda and Kormantsi. In 1617, they captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders had joined in by the mid17th century, largely English, Danes and Swedes. English merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it the Gold Coast, while French merchants, impressed with the trinkets worn by the coastal people, named the area to the west "Côte d'Ivoire", or Ivory Coast.

More than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, British and Spanish merchants. The Gold Coast was known for centuries as 'The White Man's Grave', because many of the Europeans who went there died of malaria and other tropical diseases. After the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate.

Following conquest by the British in 1896 until independence in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana, excluding the Volta Region (British Togoland), was known as the Gold Coast.

Many wars occurred between the colonial powers and the various nation-states in the area, including the 1806 Ashanti-Fante War, and the continuous struggle by the Ashanti against the British in many wars. The Ashanti defeated the British a few times, but eventually lost with the Ashanti-British War in the early 1900s. Even under colonial rule, the chiefs and people often resisted the policies of the British; however, moves toward decolonization intensified after World War II. In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) called for "self-government within the shortest possible time."After rioting increased in 1948, the members of the United Gold Coast Convention were arrested, including future prime minister and president Kwame Nkrumah. Later, Nkrumah formed his own party, the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto "self government now." He began a 'Positive Action' campaign and gained the support of rural and working class people. He was again imprisoned for being the leader of a party that caused boycotts, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience. After winning a majority in the Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was released and appointed leader of government business. After further negotiations with Britain, on 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m. Nkrumah declared Ghana "free forever".

The Flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and the black star, became the new flag in 1957. Designed by, Theodosia Salome Okoh, the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the mineral wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich agriculture, and the black star is the symbol of African emancipation. Formed from the merger of the Gold Coast and British (formerly German) Togoland by a United Nations sponsored plebiscite in 1956, Ghana became the second sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence in 1957 after Liberia who had gained its independence over a century before on 26 July 1847.

Kwame Nkrumah, first prime minister, and then president of the modern Ghanaian state, as an anti-colonial leader, sought a united Africa that would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement." He merged the teachings of Garvey and the African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana.

Ghana's principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Nkrumah's implementation of Pan-Africanism.

Although his goal of African unity was never realised, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he is now known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Organisation of African Unity, which was succeeded in 2002 by the African Union. His achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebrations, and the day was instituted as a public holiday. Dr. Nkrumah's government was subsequently overthrown by the military while he was abroad in February 1966. Former Central Intelligence Agency employee John Stockwell alleges that the CIA had an effective hand in forcing the coup.

A series of subsequent coups from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings in 1981.

These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981, and the banning of political parties. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, and many Ghanaians migrated to other countries.

Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan with the International Monetary Fund, changing many old economic policies, and the economy began to recover. A new constitution restoring multiparty politics was promulgated in 1992; Rawlings was elected as president then, and again in 1996. The Constitution of 1992 prohibited him from running for a third term, so his party, the National Democratic Congress, chose his Vice President, John Atta Mills, to run against the opposition parties. Winning the 2000 elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party was sworn into office as president in January 2001, and beat Mills again in 2004, thus also Independence Arch, Ghana serving two terms as president.

In 2009, John Atta Mills took office as President of Ghana with a difference of about 40,000 votes (0.46%) between his party, the National Democratic Congress and the New Patriotic Party, marking the second time that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected leader to another, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy.

In 2011, John Atta Mills won the NDC congress when he ran against Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings for the National Democratic Congress flagbearership. He won by 2,771 votes, representing 96.9% of the total votes cast.

(Online 27 Feb) “The Communist dictatorship is a common European heritage and it must be shown that that it’s not just Eastern European history” – said Minister of Human Resources Zoltán Balog at the press conference held marking the 25th anniversary of the Austrian-Hungarian border opening this Wednesday.

The Minister emphasized that the happenings of the era of political change should be transmitted to children and grandchildren authentically; to make them understand how precious freedom is.

As he added, the anniversary events of this year could help in this sense. Zoltán Balog stated that the culture of remembrance is important; this is indicated by the fact that most historical anniversaries are accompanied by disputes.

Zoltán Balog said that 1989 is a memorable period and Germans are necessary in remembrance as well, as Germany had not only lived through two dictatorships, but also liberation from those oppressive systems. He sees that Germans could help in mediating the transition process and opening of borders as not a Central Europe-specific memory, because they know the importance of events.

The Minister emphasized that “in Hungary, we often feel that we’re not understood” and this lack of understanding is the consequence of those 40 years which “we spent behind the Iron Curtain”.

Monika Balatoni, the Minister of State for Public Diplomacy and Relations of the Ministry of Public and Justice Administration stressed that for the healthy de-

velopment of society the events of the anniversary are much needed in order to make this Memorial Year “discoverable” for young people.

The Minister of State considers the Memorial Year a tremendous opportunity, so after the opening of country borders “the opening of spiritual borders” could happen and families should speak freely about the times before the transition. Thus, she said, from the world full of lies you can get where you can talk openly about the past.

Mária Schmidt, General Director of the House of Terror Museum spoke about the fact that 1989 is a real pride of the Hungarian nation and a shared success of the region. It is a huge thing that the countries have defeated communism and regained national selfdetermination. So far, according to her opinion, this has not been emphasized well enough, although “we could be rightly proud of it”. As she said, when developing programs of the Memorial Year, primary focus was on those young people who have not lived during the events of that time.

Father Imre Kozma, the President of the Hungarian Maltese Charity Service recalled at the press conference that in 1994, the German ambassador in Budapest said Hungary has the biggest heart, because the country helped the bigger, greater, richer one while did not expect anything in return.

The 1989 anniversary series of events are under the patronage of János Áder, President of the Republic of Hungary.

The series of events began in last December with the opening of the exhibition ‘First tear in the Iron

Curtain’ in Berlin. In January the ‘Common success’ online campaign was launched, which processes the happenings in Hungarian and English language via a blog and a Facebook page.

Under the name ‘89 After’ a genre-free song contest will be held, the winning song will accompany the events throughout the year. Opening in late April, a caricature exhibition will be shown on the transition, later on a documentary film will be presented and a poster campaign will be launched. From June a website in Hungarian and German language will provide information on the series of events.

Several events are commemorating 16 June 1989. On the Heroes’ Square a festive concert and memorial service will be held and artists coming from the Visegrád Countries will perform at the Academy of Music.

On August 19, the anniversary of the Pan-European Picnic, concerts and theatrical performances will be organized in Sopron. A bicycle route will open to the public at the Austrian-Hungarian border.

In July the VOLT Festival and in August the Sziget Festival will commemorate the anniversary with concerts and thematic programs.

In September, the Hungarian Institute for International Affairs will hold a conference on the opening of borders and the Hungarian Embassy in Berlin will set up a copy of the statue of the Iron Curtain in front of the House of Terror Museum during the fall.

The year-long series of events will culminate in a gala at the opera house in Timisoara.

Russia to lift ban on Hungarian pork imports (Online 26 Feb) Russia is expected to lift the ban on the import of Hungarian live pigs, pork meat and pork products in midMarch, Chief Veterinarian Endre Kardeván announced.

The Ministry of Rural Development's Minister of State for Food Chain Supervision and Agricultural Administration made the announcement at a meeting with the country's county chief veterinarians on Wednesday. Mr. Kardeván reminded those present that the Customs Union established between the Russian Federation, Belarus and Ukraine has stopped imports of pork from the EU, including Hungary, after an outbreak of African swine fever was registered in Lithuania. The disease's pathogen has since been found in Polish wild boar.

Talks began between the EU's animal health authorities and the director of Rosselhoznadzor, Russia's food industry and agricultural product supervisory authority, in the interests of finding a solution to the situation, which was also a subject of discussion at both the recent meeting of EU agriculture ministers and a chief veterinarians' workshop. Pints of view seem to be converging with regard to a possible solution to the problem in talks between Russia and the EU, the Minister of State noted.

Mr. Kardeván referred to the fact that a continued ban is expected to only be valid for regions in which the disease has been detected. Import would be allowed for the other regions, countries, country regions of the EU, provid-

ing the given regions conform to an audit performed by the Russian authorities and the Customs Union.

Hungary is in a favourable position in this regard, Mr. Kardeván said, because Russian food safety inspectors have been conducting a previously planned monitoring throughout the country for the past week and a half, during the course of which they are examining 21 Hungarian pork production plants, export companies, meat processing plants and pig farms. This means that there is an increasing chance that Hungary will be placed back on the list somewhat earlier and will be able to export live pigs and pork to Russia. Exports are expected to begin again in mid-March, the Minster of State said.

Hungarian communities are bound to live together (On l i n e 2 5 Fe b ) “Th e co mmu nities of Hungary are condemned to live together” – stressed Deputy Prime Minist e r Ti b o r N a v r a c s i c s a t t h e premiere of the book titled ‘ Be tw e e n mi n o ri ty a n d ma j o ri ty – th e H u n g a ri a n a n d J e w i sh /Isra e l i e th n i c a n d c u l tu ra l experiences of the past centuries’ in Budapest, this Tu e sd a y.

At th e e ve n t h e l d b y th e Ba l assi Institute, the Deputy Prime Minister pointed out that a tendency can be observed regarding the development of civilization that the resolution of conflicts between communities gains insti tu ti o n a l fra m e w o rk s.

Ti b o r N a v r a c s i c s s t a t e d t h a t “ e ve n i f i t i s s o me ti m e s d i ffi cu l t to l i ve to g e th e r, i t i s p o s sible”, for which, according to him, much goodwill is needed.

As h e sa i d , “th e mo st b e a u ti fu l a n d tra g i c sto ry” o f l i vi n g

together with minorities is the history of the Jewish community in Hungary and the Hungarian-Jewish coexistence or the relationship of th e Je w i sh D i a s p o r a w i th th e mo th e r co u n try.

He spoke of that the 20th C e n tu ry i s th e ce n tu r y o f n a ti o n a l i s m, w h i ch i s o n e o f th e most exciting topics among coexistence of people. The fo rma ti o n o f a co mm u n i ty b e gins when it defines itself f a c i n g a n o t h e r c o m m u n i t y, b u t a s h e a d d e d , t h e n i t ’s e a sy to g e t fr o m h e re to co n fl i cts .

H e re mi n d e d th a t th e b o o k i s based on the conference org a n i se d th r e e ye a r s a g o – o n which he observed patronage – a n d a s fa r a s th e l i s t o f a u thors and subjects are concerned, the palette is very co l o u rfu l . Th e b o o k e n ta i l s a musicological work, correspondences, processing of archives and a dissertation in

political science regarding th e re l a ti o n sh i p b e tw e e n m a j o ri ty a n d mi n o ri ty.

Pál Hatos, the General Director of Balassi Institute has sa i d th a t th e i n sti tu ti o n i s re sponsible for “presenting Hungarian cultural heritage and making it interact with other traditions”. He said that “we need to break with the ‘ w e a re a l o n e ’ a p p ro a c h ”, b e c a u s e t h a t ’s t h e o n l y r e a l w a y i n o rd e r to se e th e H u n garian culture being descri b e d to o th e rs .

H e co mme n te d o n th a t a ve ry serious tragedy did happen i n th e re l a ti o n sh i p o f H u n g a rians and the Jewish community in 1944 and the preceding decades; because the Hungarian state denied h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f i ts citizens, who have been dep ri v e d n o t o n l y o f th e i r p ro p e rty b u t a l so th e i r l i ve s.

World Day of Prayer Worldwide - M a r 0 6

The World Day of Prayer is an international ecumenical Christian laywomen’s initiative. It is run under the motto “Informed Prayer and Prayerful Action,” and is celebrated annually in over 170 countries on the first Friday in March. The movement aims to bring together women of various races, cultures and traditions in a yearly common Day of Prayer, as well as in closer fellowship, understanding and action throughout the year.

History

The Women's World Day of Prayer started in the USA in 1884.

When Mary Ellen James called for a day of prayer in 1887, she was not planning a great worldwide movement, destined to become the largest ecumenical movement in the world organised and led by women. She was simply reacting, as a Christian, to the society in which she lived. The wife of a Presbyterian minister in New York and the mother of seven children, Mary Ellen was aware of the problems faced by many women around her, particularly new immigrants to America - the awful slums with their poverty, unemployment, poor housing, lack of health or educational facilities. Something had to be done.

Two years later, two Baptists called together a Day of Prayer for the World Mission. The Day of Prayer initiated by these two women expanded to neighboring countries, then on to Europe and other continents.

Since 1927 the day is known as Women’s World Day of Prayer.

Aims

Through the World Day of Prayer, women are encouraged to become aware of the other countries and cultures and no longer live in isolation. They are also encouraged take up the burdens of other people, to sympathize with the problems of other countries and cultures and pray with and for them. They are further encouraged to become aware of their talents and use them in the service of society. The World Day of Prayer aims to demonstrate that prayer and action are inseparable and that both have immeasurable influence in the world.

Program

Every year, worship service focuses on a different country and a specific theme. World Day of Prayer National/Regional Committees of that country prepare the order of worship on these themes to be used on the next World Day of Prayer.

On the first Friday of March, then, in services all over the world that country becomes the focus of prayer and understanding. Through preparation and participation in the worship service, women worldwide learn how their sisters of other countries, languages and cultures understand the biblical passages in their context. They learn of the concerns and needs of those women and to empathize and feel in solidarity with them.

International Women's Day Worldwide - M a r 0 8

International Women's Day (IWD), originally is called International Working Women’s Day, is marked on March 8 every year. In different regions the focus of the celebrations ranges from general celebration of respect, appreciation and love towards women to a celebration for women's economic, political and social achievements. Started as a Socialist political event, the holiday blended in the culture of many countries, primarily Eastern Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet bloc.

In many regions, the day lost its political flavour, and became simply an occasion for men to express their love for women in a way somewhat similar to a mixture of Mother's Day and St Valentine's Day. In other regions, however, the original political and human rights theme designated by the United Nations runs strong, and political and social awareness of the struggles of women worldwide are brought out and examined in a hopeful manner.

History

The first national Women's Day was observed on 28 February 1909 in the United States following a declaration by the Socialist Party of America. In August 1910, an International Women's Conference was organized to precede the general meeting of the Socialist Second International in Copenhagen.

Inspired in part by the American socialists, German Socialist Luise Zietz proposed the establishment of an annual 'International Woman's Day' (singular) and was seconded by Clara Zetkin, although no date was specified at that conference. Delegates (100 women from 17 countries) agreed with the idea as a strategy to promote equal rights, including suffrage, for women. The following year, on 18 March, 1911, IWD was marked for the first time, by over a million people in Austria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire alone, there were 300 demonstrations In Vienna, women paraded on the Ringstrasse and carried banners honouring the martyrs of the Paris Commune.

Women demanded that women be given the right to vote and to hold public office. They also protested against employment sex discrimination. Americans continued to celebrate National Women's Day on the last Sunday in February.

In 1913 Russian women observed their first International Women's Day on the last Sunday in February (by Julian calendar then used in Russia). In 1917 demonstrations marking International Women's Day in St.Petersburg on the last Sunday in February (which fell on 8 March on theGregorian calendar) initiated the February Revolution.

Following the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Alexandra Kollontai persuaded Lenin to make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union, and it was established, but was a working day until 1965. On May 8, 1965 by the decree of the USSRPresidium of the Supreme Soviet International Women's Day was declared a non working day in the USSR "in commemoration of the outstanding merits of Soviet women in communistic construction, in the defense of their Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War, in their heroism and selflessness at the front and in the rear, and also marking the great contribution of women to strengthening friendship between peoples, and the struggle for peace. But still, women's day must be celebrated as are other holidays."

From its official adoption in Russia following the Soviet Revolution in 1917 the holiday was predominantly celebrated in communist and socialist countries. It was celebrated by the communists in China from 1922, and by Spanish communists from 1936. After the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949 the state council proclaimed on December 23 that March 8 would be made an official holiday with women in China given a half-day off.

In the West, International Women's Day was first observed as a popular event after 1977 when the United Nations General Assembly invited member states to proclaim March 8 as the UN Day for Women's Rights and International Peace.

In modern culture The day is an official holiday in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Burkina Faso,Cambodia, China (for women

only), Cuba, Georgia, Guinea-Bissau, Eritrea, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Macedonia (for women only), Madagascar (for women only), Moldova,Mongolia, Montenegro, Nepal (for women only), Russia, Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and Zambia.

In some countries, such as Cameroon, Croatia, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria the day is not a public holiday, but is widely observed nonetheless. On this day it is customary for men to give the women in their lives – mothers, wives, girlfriends, daughters, colleagues, etc. – flowers and small gifts. In some countries (such as Bulgaria and Romania) it is also observed as an equivalent of Mother's Day, where children also give small presents to their mothers and grandmothers.

In Armenia, after the collapse of the Soviet Union celebrations of IWD were abandoned. Instead, April 7 was introduced as state holiday of ‘Beauty and Motherhood’. The new holiday immediately became popular among Armenians, as it commemorates one of the main holidays of the Armenian Church, the Annunciation. However, people still kept celebrating IWD on March 8 as well. Public discussion held on the topic of two ‘Women’s Days’ in Armenia resulted in the recognition of the so called ‘Women’s Month’ which is the period between March 8 and April 7.

In Italy, to celebrate the day, men give yellow mimosas to women.Yellow mimosas and chocolate are also one of the most common March 8 presents in Russia and Albania.

In many countries, such as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria,Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova,Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, the custom of giving women flowers still prevails. Women also sometimes get gifts from their employers. Schoolchildren often bring gifts for their teachers, too.

In countries like Portugal groups of women usually celebrate on the night of 8 March in "women-only" dinners and parties. In Pakistan working women in formal and informal sectors celebrate International Women's Day every year to commemorate their ongoing struggle for due rights, despite facing many cultural and religious restrictions. Some women working for change in society use IWM to help the movement for women's rights. In Poland, for instance, every IWD includes large feminist demonstrations in major cities.

In 1975, which was designated as International Women’s Year, the United Nations gave official sanction to, and began sponsoring, International Women's Day. The 2005 Congress (conference) of the British Trades Union Congress overwhelmingly approved a resolution calling for IWD to be designated a public holiday in the United Kingdom.

Since 2005, IWD has been celebrated in Montevideo, either on the principal street, 18 de Julio, or alternatively through one of its neighbourhoods. The event has attracted much publicity due to a group of female drummers, La Melaza, who have performed each year.

Today, many events are held by women's groups around the world. The UK-based marketing company Aurora hosts a free worldwide register of IWD local events so that women and the media can learn about local activity. Many governments and organizations around the world support IWD. 70% of those living in poverty are women, Oxfam GB encourages women to Get Together on International Women's Day and fundraise to support Oxfam projects, which change the lives of women around the world. Thousands of people hold events for Oxfam on International Women's Day, join the celebration by visiting the website and registering your event! - International Women's Day, what better excuse to Get Together!

Controversies

In some cases International Women's Day has led to questionable practices that discriminated against men. For example Tower Hamlets Council closed off one of its libraries to all males to "celebrate" the occasion, forcing them to travel elsewhere, going as far as even banning male staff from the premises.

In Communist Czechoslovakia, huge Soviet-style celebrations were held annually. After the fall of Communism, the holiday, generally considered to be one of the major symbols of the old regime, fell into obscurity. International Women's Day was re-established as an official "important day" by the Parliament of the Czech Republic only recently, on the proposal of the Social Democrats and Communists. This has provoked some controversy as a large part of the public as well as the political right see the holiday as a relic of the nation's Communist past. In 2008, the Christian conservative Czechoslovak People's Party's deputies unsuccessfully proposed the abolition of the holiday. However, some non-government organizations consider the official recognition of International Women's Day as an important reminder of women's role in the society.

International Women's Day sparked violence in Tehran, Iran on March 4, 2007, when police beat hundreds of men and women who were planning a rally. Police arrested dozens of women and some were released after several days of solitary confinement and interrogation. Shadi Sadr Mahbubeh Abbas- Female members of the Australian gholizadeh and several more community activists were Builders Labourers Federation march on released on March 19, 2007, ending a fifteen day hunger strike. International Women's Day 1975 in

Apocrypha

Sydney

A popular apocryphal story which surfaced in French Communist circles claimed that women from clothing and textile factories had staged a protest on 8 March 1857 in New York City. The story alleged that garment workers were protesting against very poor working conditions and low wages and were attacked and dispersed by police. It was claimed that this event led to a rally in commemoration of its 50th anniversary in 1907. Temma Kaplan explains that "neither event seems to have taken place, but many Europeans think March 8, 1907 inaugurated International Women's Day." Speculating about the origins of this 1857 legend, Liliane Kandel and Françoise Picq suggested it was likely that (in recent times) some felt it opportune to detach International Women's Day from its basis in Soviet history and ascribe to it a more "international" origin which could be painted as more ancient than Bolshevism and more spontaneous than a decision of Congress or the initiative of those women affiliated to the Party.