Independence Day St. Lucia - F e b 2 2
Saint Lucia is an island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the island of Saint Vincent, northwest of Barbados and south of Martinique. It covers a land area of 620 km2 (238 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 173,765 (2009 census). Its capital is Castries. The island nation has been the home of two Nobel laureates, Arthur Lewis and Derek Walcott. It is the nation with the second most such honorees per capita after the Faroe Islands. One of the Windward Islands, it was named after Saint Lucy of Syracuse by the French, the first European colonizers. They signed a treaty with the native Carib peoples in 1660. England took control of the island from 1663 to 1667; in ensuing years, it was at war with France 14 times and rule of the island changed frequently (7 times French and British each). In 1814, the British took definitive control of the island. Because it switched so o en be ween B sh and F ench con o Sa n Luc a was a so known as he He en o he Wes nd es Sa n Luc a has a ega sys em based on B sh common aw The ud c a y s ndependen and conduc s gene a y a pub c a s The nanc a sec o has wea he ed he g oba nanc a c s s bu he eces s on has hu ou sm Rep esen a ve gove nmen came abou n 1924 w h un ve sa su age om 1953 F om 1958 o 1962 he s and was a membe o he Fede a on o he Wes nd es F na y on Feb ua y 22 1979 Sa n Luc a became an nde penden s a e o he Commonwea h o Na ons The s and na on ce eb a es h s eve y yea w h a pub c ho day s a so a membe o La F ancophon e
History
Eu opeans s anded on he s and n e he 1492 o 1502 du ng Spa n s ea y exp o a on o he Ca bbean The s and was s se ed by he F ench who s gned a ea y w h he oca Ca bs n 1660 L ke he Eng sh and Du ch he F ench began o deve op he s and o he cu va on o suga cane on ex ens ve p an a ons A e he seven yea wa be ween G ea B a n and he F ance Span sh coa on was b ough o an end by he ea y o Pa s 10 Feb ua y 1763 n wh ch he s gna o es ag eed o an exchange o co on a e o es When he B sh acqu ed he s and y ng o use he Ca bs as abou e s hey mpo ed ens aved A cans as wo ke s Many o he Ca bs d ed because o ack o mmun y o Eu as an d seases such as sma pox and meas es and as a esu o be ng ove wo ked and ma ea ed by he Eu opeans Ca bbean cond ons we e ha d and many s aves d ed as we The B sh con nued o mpo s aves un hey abo shed he ade due o he s ave and Ca b evo u ona y wa s aga ns hem By ha me peop e o e hn c A can and Ca b descen g ea y ou numbe ed hose o e hn c Eu opean back g ound The ea e Sa n Luc a was much con es ed by he wo Eu opean powe s un he B sh secu ed n 1814 was o ned he Wes nd es Fede a on 1958–62 when he co ony was pa o he B sh W ndwa d s ands co ony d sso ved n 1967 Sa n Luc a became one o he s x membe s o he Wes nd es Assoc a ed S a es w h n e na se gove nmen n 1979 ga ned u ndependence unde S John Comp on Comp on o he conse va ve Un ed Wo ke s pa y UWP was aga n p me m n s e om 1982 o 1996 when he was succeeded by Vaughn Lew s Kenny An hony o he Labou Pa y was p me m n s e om 1997 o 2006 when he UWP aga n ed by Comp on won con o o pa amen n May 2007 a e Comp on su e ed a se es o m n s okes F nance and Ex e na A a s M n s e S ephenson K ng became ac ng p me m n s e He became p me m n s e a e Comp on d ed n Sep embe 2007
People Power Day Philippines - F e b 2 2
The Peop e Powe Revo u on a so known as he EDSA Revo u on and he Ph pp ne Rev o u on o 1986 was a se es o popu a non v o en evo u ons and p aye u mass s ee demons a ons n he Ph pp nes ha oc cu ed n 1986 wh ch ma ked he es o a on o he coun y s democ acy became a sub sequen nsp a on o he Revo u ons o 1989 ha ended commun s d c a o sh ps n Eas e n Eu ope s some mes e e ed o as he Ye ow Revo u on due o he p esence o ye ow bbons du ng he a va o Ben gno Aqu no J These p o es s we e he cu m na on o a ong campa gn o c v es s ance by he peop e aga ns he 20 yea unn ng au ho a an e p ess ve eg me o hen p es den Fe d nand Ma cos and made news head nes as he evo u on ha su p sed he wo d The ma o y o he demons a ons ook p ace a Ep an o de os San os Avenue known mo e common y by s ac onym EDSA n Quezon C y Me o po an Man a and nvo ved ove 2 000 000 F p no c v ans as we as seve a po ca m a y and e g ous gu es such as Ca d na Ja me S n The p o es s ue ed by a es s ance and oppos on o yea s o co up gove nance by Ma cos occu ed om Feb ua y 22–25 1986 when Ma cos ed Ma acañang Pa ace o he Hawa and conceded o Co azon Aqu no as he eg ma e P es den o he Ph pp nes
Background and History
Fe d nand Ma cos was e ec ed p es den n 1965 de ea ng ncumben D osdado Macapaga by a ve y s m ma g n Du ng h s me Ma cos was ve y ac ve n he n a on o pub c wo ks p o ec s and he n ens ca on o ax co ec ons Ma cos and h s gove nmen c a med ha hey bu mo e oads han a h s p edecesso s comb ned and mo e schoo s han any p ev ous adm n s a on Am ds cha ges o vo e buy ng and a audu en e ec on Ma cos was e e ec ed n 1969 h s me de ea ng Se g o Osmeña J Ma cos s second e m o he p es dency howeve was ma ed by a ega ons o w desp ead g a and co up on The nc eas ng d spa y o wea h be ween he ve y wea hy and he ve y poo wh ch made up he ma o y o he coun y s popu a on ed o he se o c me and c v un es a ound he coun y These ac o s nc ud ng he o ma on o he New Peop e s A my an a med evo ha ca ed o he ed s bu on o wea h and and e o m n he Ph pp nes and a b oody Mus m sepa a s movemen n he sou he n s and o M ndanao ed by he Mo o Na ona L be a on F on con bu ed o he ap d se o c v d scon en and un es n he Ph pp nes Ma cos was ba ed om unn ng o a h d e m as p es den n 1973 so on Sep embe 23 1972 by v ue o a p es den a p oc ama on No 1081 he dec a ed ma a aw c ng s ng c v d sobed ence as us ca on Th ough h s dec ee Ma cos se zed eme gency powe s g v ng h m u con o o he Ph pp ne m a y and he au ho y o supp ess he eedom o speech he eedom o he p ess and many o he c v be es Ma cos a so d sso ved he Ph pp ne Cong ess and shu down med a es ab shmen s c ca o he Ma cos gove nmen Ma cos a so o de ed he mmed a e a es o h s po ca opponen s and c cs Among hose a es ed we e Sena e P es den Jov o Sa onga Sena o Jose D okno and Sena o Ben gno Aqu no J he s aunches o h s c cs and he man who was g oomed by he oppos on o bea Ma cos n he 1973 e ec ons Ma cos wou d a so abo sh he Ph pp nes 1935 cons u on and ep ace w h a pa amen a y s y e gove nmen he Ba asang Pambansa a ong w h a new cons u on w en by h m W h p ac ca y a o h s po ca opponen s a es ed and n ex e Ma cos p e emp ve dec a a on o ma a aw n 1972 and he a ca on o h s new cons u on h ough po ca coe c on enab ed h m o e ec ve y eg m ze h s gove nmen and ho d on o powe o ano he 14 yea s beyond h s s wo e ms as p es den A a pe od when he Co d Wa was s a po ca ea y Ma cos s d c a o sh p ensu ed he po ca suppo o he Un ed S a es by Ma cos p om se o s amp ou commun sm n he Ph pp nes and by assu ng he Un ed S a es o s con nued use o m a y and nava bases n he Ph pp nes Th oughou h s p es dency Fe d nand Ma cos had se up a eg me n he Ph pp nes ha wou d g ve h m u ma e powe ove he m a y and he na ona easu y as we as se up a pe sona y cu Fo ow ng h s dec a a on o ma a aw on Sep embe 21 1972 Ma cos mmed a e y began o embezz e money om he gove nmen and o de he m a y o k any po ca compe on aga ns h m As a esu he Ph pp ne economy began o umb e g ea y and he na on os s com pe ve edge n Sou heas As a He a so o de ed many s o es ho e s schoo s un ve s es and o he pub c p aces o p ace h s P es den a p c u e p om nen y o o he w se he ac es we e shu down The med a equen y eu og zed Ma cos h ough pub c se v ce announcemen s and news epo s Even b boa d adve semen s ac oss he coun y we e ep aced w h h s p opaganda messages on us y ng h s eg me s ac ons Ma cos a so o de ed he shu down and akeove s o bus nesses n he coun y hen pu hese bus nesses e he unde he gove nmen con o o unde he con o o Ma cos c on es Seve a g oups o peop e howeve even w h n he gove nmen consp ed h oughou he e m o he Ma cos eg me o ove h ow h m They we e ed by he popu a pub c gu e nca ce a ed oppos on sena o Ben gno N noy Aqu no J who Ma cos accused as ean ng o a e w ng so u on Wh e ga n ng popu a y amongs he F p no peop e o h s s ance aga ns Ma cos Aqu no was even ua y o ced o seek ex e n he Un ed S a es o hea h and sa e y easons Howeve n 1983 N noy Aqu no announced o h s p ans o e u n o he Ph pp nes as a cha enge o Ma cos s gove nmen W h n he m a y and he po ce d s u s oned un o o ce s s en y conveyed he g evances Th s ed o he o ma on o he Re o m he A med Fo ces Movemen RAM So d e o he F p no Peop e SFP and Young O ce s Un on YOU RAM wh ch was ead by g adua es o he Ph pp ne M a y Academy C ass o 71 L Co G ngo Honasan L Co V c o Ba ac and L Co Edua do Kapunan ound an a y and men o n he De ense Sec e a y Juan Ponce En e
World Thinking Day Worldwide - F e b 2 2
Feb ua y 22 s Wo d Th nk ng Day o us Th nk ng Day o G Gu des and G Scou s a ound he wo d s a day o h nk abou he mean ng o Gu d ng and Scou ng and abou Scou s and Gu des n a he coun es o he wo d Many oops use as an oppo un y o s udy abou o he coun es and cu u es Dona ons a e co ec ed o he Th nk ng Day Fund wh ch suppo s p o ec s o he p Gu des and Scou s a ound he wo d Feb ua y 22 was chosen as was he b hday o Scou ng ounde Robe Baden Powe and o O ave Baden Powe h s w e and Wo d Ch e Gu de On he nea es weekend o Wo d Th nk ng Day G Gu des and G Scou s om ac oss he wo d come oge he on Scou L nk o cha w h each o he and ce eb a e he Founde s O he s a e nvo ved w h Th nk ng Day on he A TDOTA us ng ama eu ad o Some Wo d Assoc a on o G Gu des and G Scou s membe o gan za ons use as an oppo un y o do p o ec s w h he w n o gan za on such as Canada and Dom n ca One ad on s ha eve y Scou o Gu de ex Scou o ex Gu de p aces a cand e n he w ndow ha n gh a dusk Th s s my e Gu d ng L gh m go ng o e sh ne s a so a ad on o send e e s o pos ca ds o o he Scou and Gu des be o e Th nk ng Day n 2009 2010 and 2011 a pos ca d campa gn was o gan zed by he R ng deu sche P ad nde ve bände R ng Deu sche P ad nde nnenve bände Lë zebue ge Gu den a Scou en Sw ss Gu de and Scou Movemen P ad nde und P ad nde nnen L ech ens e ns and P ad nde und P ad nde nnen Ös e e chs
How it started Th nk ng Day was s c ea ed n 1926 a
he ou h G Gu de G Scou n e na ona Con e ence he d a G Scou s o he USA s Camp Ed h Macy now ca ed Ed h Macy Con e ence Cen e Con e ence a endees dec ded ha he e shou d be a spec a day o G Scou s and G Gu des om a ound he wo d o h nk o each o he and g ve hanks and app ec a on o he s s e G Scou s The de ega es chose Feb ua y 22 as he da e o Th nk ng Day because was he mu ua b hday o Lo d Baden Powe ounde o he Boy Scou movemen and h s w e O ave who se ved as Wo d Ch e Gu de To emphas ze he g oba aspec o Th nk ng Day membe s a he 30 h Wo d Con e ence he d n e and n 1999 changed he name om Th nk ng Day o Wo d Th nk ng Day
Army Day Tajikistan - F e b 2 3
The Na ona A my s he g ound o ce o he m a y o Ta k s an C ea ed sho y a e he Ta k c v wa n Feb ua y 1993 he A my has s unde gone heavy e o ms and bu dup a ned by pe sonne om Russ a F ance nd a and he Un ed S a es s ove seen by he Ta k De ense M n s y Many un s a e o me m as nc ud ng seve a ha ough he gove nmen du ng he Ta k c v wa as pa o he Un ed Ta k Oppos on
History Ta k s an s he on y
o me Sov e epub c ha d d no o m s a med o ces om o d So v e A my un s ns ead he Russ an De ense M n s y ook d ec command o he Sov e un s he e o c ng he Ta k eg me o bu d an a my om v ua y no h ng Du ng he 1990s he a my was sma and had e amoun s o na ve Ta ks n The a my a ed o e ec ve y de end he eg me wh ch esu ed n a c v hey wa The eg me was dependen on o he Cen a As an coun es and C S s a es on secu y o he po n ha dec ded o w hd aw he o ces he eg me wou d co apse Du ng he Ta k c v wa 1992–1993 he Russ an gove nmen had a ound 22 000 o 25 000 oops s a oned n Ta k s an o he p he eg me as pa o a de ense ag eemen wh ch s why he Ta k gove nmen was ab e o su v ve he wa The wa was o en hough o have been s a ed by s am c undamen a s s bu mo e accu a e y was a wa be ween he eg ona c ans and e hn c g oups The Ta k eg me began assemb ng he own a my n Feb ua y 1993 The s un s we e d awn om he m as who ough n he c v wa a ow ng hem o keep he deo og es and o g na commande s Tha caused hem o e use o accep o de s om h ghe au ho es and o sk m shes o b eak ou be ween un s n ea y 1996 a ebe on occu ed by he F s B gade o he P es den a Gua d a e hey ough and de ea ed he 11 h B gade Though hey we e u ma e y de ea ed n an a emp o ake Dushanbe he eade escaped o nea by Uzbek s an By he m d 1990s he Na ona A my numbe ed o a ound 3 000 The ma o y o he o ce co ps we e Russ an mos y ve e ans o he wa n A ghan s an The M n s y o De ense o Russ a con nued p ov d ng ma e a suppo o he Na ona A my was espec a y d cu o he A my o c ea e s own m a y o ce due o he ac ha many Ta ks p e e ed o se ve n he Russ an A my due o he h ghe pay Because o m a y oppos on n he coun y he eg me had he a ges m a y bu dup n he Cen a As an eg on As o 1997 Ta k s an had wo mo o zed e b gades one o hem s a a n ng b gade a spec a ope a ons b gade and de achmen a p ma y n ended o he p o ec on o he u ng eg me and a comb ned av a on squad on Ta k s an u he had a bas c se o un s and sub un s ha p ov de ope a ona echn ca and og s c suppo Russ a p ov ded much suppo owa d he c ea on o he na ona a my and a ned command and eng nee pe sonne An ns u e o h ghe m a y educa on was c ea ed n Ta k s an Howeve desp e he a ge budge mos y om Russ an axpaye money and he adequa e a n ng o pe sonne he c ea on o he na ona a my was p o ceed ng ve y s ow y The a my bene ed om seve a Un ed Ta k Oppos on un s ha we e expe enced om gh ng gove nmen o ces du ng he c v wa bu as o 2006 we e poo y ma n a ned and unded A ha me he a my had 44 ma n ba e anks 34 a mo ed n an y gh ng veh c es 29 a mo ed pe sonne ca e s 12 p eces o owed a e y 10 mu p e ocke aunche s 9 mo a s and 20 su ace o a m ss es The Ta k s an a my n 2007 had wo mo o zed e b gades one moun a n b gade one a e y b gade one a bo ne assau b gade one a bo ne assau de achmen and one su ace o a m ss e eg men The a bo ne as sau b gade s an e e spec a o ces un wh ch Ta k s an has made a sepa a e b anch om he na ona a my he Mob e Fo ces Some oops a e a ned by Ch na F ance nd a Russ a and he Un ed S a es The Peacekeep ng Ope a ons o PKO Ba a on became one o he bes un s o he Na ona A my due o be ng a ned by he Na ona Gua d o he Un ed S a es n a pa ne sh p p og am The US n ended o he ba a on o be sen as a peace keepe un a ong w h o he Un ed Na ons o ces pe haps n 2013 The na ona a my s be ng un n a Sov e s y e The Ame can a ne s a e wo k ng on se ng up a non comm ss oned o ce co ps w h n he a my o a n en s ed pe sonne hough s a p ocess ha w ake me and o he me be ng he o ce s a n en s ed pe sonne
National Day - F e b 2 3 Brunei Darussalam
B une an o ch op ca coun y oca ed on he no he n coas o Bo neo n Sou heas As a s se o ce eb a e s wen y s x h Na ona Day on Feb ua y 23 2010 The B une ans ded ca ed o ma n a n ng a s ong sense o cu u e and h s o y ma k he u n dependence om B a n w h nume ous even s and h s o ca p esen a ons each Na ona Day
History
Fo 96 yea s B une was a p o ec o a e o B a n s be eved ha he s B sh con ac w h he peop e o he eg on came n 1839 when B sh exp o e James B ooke a ved o he c y o Kuch ng Sa awak hen a pa o he Su ana e o B une Upon h s a va he ound ha he se emen was gh ng an up s ng aga ns he Su an o B une B ooke was hes an o he p bu upon e u n ng aga n n 1941 he ag eed o a d he Su an s head o gove nmen Ra ah Muda Hass m Ra ah Hass m who had p om sed B ooke con o o Sa awak n vague ove u es n 1839 made s m a p om ses o B ooke Howeve he s ua on n Sa awak wo sened as a c ue oca ba ch e Pange an Maco a h ea ened bo h he we be ng o he c zens and o B ooke Add ona y Ra ah Hass m made e e o o make good on he p om ses made o B ooke Th ngs came o a head when on Sep embe 24 1841 B ooke and 200 oya s s a med hemse ves and demanded he Ra ah d dn u n ove con o o Sa awak o B ooke B ooke aud ence w h he Ra ah B ooke dec a ed ha wou d be o ced o a ack Maco a and ake con o h mse Ra ah Hass m qu ck y d ew up he documen s mak ng B ooke gove no o Sa awak He a e was appo n ed as Ra ah by he Su an on Augus 18 1842 Con c be ween he Su an and B ooke ed o he de ea o he Su an n 1943 The B sh a acked he Su an aga n n 1946 and he Su an a e ceded mo e e o y o he B sh w h hopes o peace These even s ed o u he B sh con o o he eg on un na y B une became a B sh p o ec o a e n 1888 As decades passed and p os pe y g ew con o s ow was w es ed om B a n A new cons u on n 1959 made B une a se gove n ng s a e eav ng on y ma e s o de ense o B a n W h much an a e B une s ndependence was na y ga ned on Janua y 1 1984 hough B sh p o ec on d dn end un Feb ua y 23 Thus on Feb ua y 23 1984 he s Na ona Day was ce eb a ed n Banda Se Begawan he cap a o B une
Celebrations On Feb ua y 23 2010 B une w
ce eb a e s wen y s x h Na ona Day L ke mos yea s he ce eb a ons a e co o u and aucous Un ke as yea howeve he gove nmen o B une has dec eed ha he e w be no ad ona e d pe o mances We w on y have pa ades by he p va e and gove nmen sec o s assoc a ons o gan za ons co eges and o he h ghe educa ona ns u ons sa d a ep esen a ve o he M n s e o Cu u e You h and Spo s New ogos a e c ea ed o he Na ona Day es v es and he ogo o 2010 s mu ace ed n add on o he new ogo he g an ve s on o he B une na ona ag ho s ed on Feb ua y 7 w be hono ed M n a u e ags a e o be d s bu ed as we n add on o h s o ca p esen a ons and pub c d sp ays he peop e o B une yp ca y assemb e o mass p aye s and ead ngs o s am c sc p u e n mosques h oughou he coun y
Republic Day Guyana - F e b 2 3
Mash aman o en abb ev a ed o Mash s an an nua es va ha ce eb a es Guyana becom ng a Re pub c n 1970 The es va usua y he d on 23 Feb ua y – Guyanese Repub c Day – nc udes a pa ade mus c games and cook ng and s n ended o commemo a e he B h o he Repub c The wo d Mash aman s de ved om an Ame nd an an guage and n ans a on means he ce eb a on o s p obab y he mos co ou u o a ob we done a he coun y s es va s The e a e spec acu a cos ume compe ons oa pa ades masque ade bands and danc ng n he s ee s o he accompan men o s ee d um mus c and ca ypsos Masque ades equen he s ee s pe o m ng ac oba c dance ou nes a v v d em nde o Guyana s A can he age Ca ypso compe ons w h he w y soc a commen a es a e ano he n eg a pa o Mash and h s cu m na es n he co ona on o a K ng o Queen o he pa cu a yea
Origin The Jaycees o L nden had s nce Guyana became ndependen
n 1966 been o gan z ng an ndependence Ca n va n Mackenz e When Guyana became a Repub c n Feb ua y 1970 hey o med a Jaycees Repub c Ce eb a ons Comm ee Bas Bu che was se ec ed as Cha man bu due o h s be ng se ec ed o ou Aus a a w h he Wes nd es C cke Team J m B ackman was appo n ed as he Depu y o ca y on A b oad based comm ee nc ud ng esou ce pe sonne such as Wo dswo h McAnd ew A hu Seymou and Ad an Thompson began he o gan za on o he Ca n va ac v es The sea ch o a name o ep ace Ca n va began and was sugges ed by Bas Bu che ha an Ame nd an name be chosen Th s was ag eed o and seve a nd v dua s nc ud ng M A an F ed kou an Ame nd an we e con ac ed M F ed kou he d d scuss ons w h h s g and a he who exp a ned a ype o Fes va ha was he d by Ame nd ans wheneve hey ga he o ce eb a e a spec a even Th s even he sa d was ke Mus e Many o Mash meh n Ame nd an and sounded n A awak ke Mash aman S eps we e aken o con m h s Ad an Thompson conc uded ha s nce no one cou d have con med o den ed ha he A awak wo d o Fes va was Mash aman hen he Fes va cou d be ca ed Mash aman On 23 Feb ua y 1970 he Fes va ca ed Mash a man was a huge success w h peop e d awn om a Reg ons o Guyana o L nden we com ng Guyana s s a us as a epub c w h ove h ee days o o c and un A e w ness ng he mass ve c owds g e and eve o compe on M Dav d S ngh a Gove nmen O c a he d d scuss on w h he Jaycees Comm ee abou b ng ng he even o Geo ge own he na on s cap a App ova was a so g ven by he hen P es den Fo bes Bu nham o Mash o be a Na ona Even o he Repub c ce eb a on Mash ac v es we e o a ed n L nden Be b ce and Geo ge own bu due o sponso sh p he Cos ume Bands con es ema ned n Geo ge own
Celebration W h Guyana be ng as a ge as
s peop e ave om m es ou o own o be a pa o he ce eb a ons ch d en ood and a because hey see h s day as a day o ce eb a on The Mash Day dep c s a h ve o ac v y om V ss n gen and v ng s ee s a he way o he Na ona Pa k w h an a o expec ancy Thousands o peop e summon o he s ee s o pa c pa e n he annua Mash aman ce eb a ons wh ch has been a pa o Guyanese cu u e o ove 30 yea s Mash aman Day s cons de ed o be he u ma e pa y and you day Bo h men and women a ke d ess up n cos umes ha a e b gh and co o u When comes o cos umes on Mash Day eve y s he name o he game he mo e es ve and ve y he cos ume he be e
Defender of the Fatherland Day Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine - F e b 2 3
De ende o he Fa he and Day s a ho day obse ved n Russ a Uk a ne Be a us and seve a o he o me epub cs s ce eb a ed on Feb ua y 23 o he Sov e Un on
History The ho day ma ks he da e n 1918 du ng he Russ an C v
Wa when he s mass d a n o he Red A my occu ed n Pe og ad and Moscow was o g na y known as Red A my Day n 1949 was enamed Sov e A my and Navy Day Fo ow ng he a o he Sov e Un on n 1991 he ho day was g ven s cu en name
Celebrations
O c a y as he name sugges s he ho day ce eb a es peop e who a e se v ng o we e se v ng he Russ an A med Fo ces bo h men and women bu uno c a y na ona y has a so mo e ecen y come o nc ude he ce eb a on o men as a who e and o ac as a coun e pa o n e na ona Women s Day on Ma ch 8 The ho day s ce eb a ed w h pa ades and p ocess ons n hono o ve e ans and women a so g ve sma g s o he Russ an men n he ves espec a y husbands o boy ends a he s and sons As a pa o he wo kp ace cu u e women o en g ve g s o he ma e co wo ke s Consequen y n co oqu a usage he ho day s o en e e ed o as Men s Day
Variations n Ta k s an he ho day s known as Ta k Na ona A my Day
n Chechnya and ngushe a h s ho day s ce eb a ed w h m xed ee ngs because Feb ua y 23 1944 s he da e o he mass depo a ons o Chechens and ngush o Cen a As a See a so Ope a on Len Popu a on ans e n he Sov e Un on The en e ho day s ex eme y con ove s a o Chechens and ngush because o he da e
Flag Day Mexico - F e b 2 4
D a de a Bande a F ag Day s a na ona ho day n Mex co F ag Day s ce eb a ed eve y yea on Feb ua y 24 s nce s mp emen a on n 1937 was es ab shed by he P es den o Mex co Gen e a Láza o Cá denas be o e he monumen o Gene a V cen e Gue e o s o p edge a eg ance o he Mex can ag on Ma ch 12 1821 When he P edge s ec ed s cus oma y o sa u e he ag w h he a sed a m Be amy Sa u e wh e speak ng When he ag s be ng pa aded he a m s he d ac oss he ches pa m pa a e o he g ound
National Day Kuwait - Feb 25
F om he beg nn ng She kh Muba ak A Sabah ea zed he h ea app oach ng om he O oman Emp e he g ea es s am c gove nmen a ha me so he ook a dec s ve s ep o p o ec h s coun y om d ec o nd ec O oman n e ven on n Feb ua y 1897 he asked o mee Co one Meade he B sh Po ca Res den n he A ab an Gu o ask o B sh p o ec on o p even he dom nance by he O oman Emp e ove h s coun y Though he pos on o Kuwa was mpo an o B sh n e es s and h s mpo ance had been known s nce 1775 G ea B a n d d no des e o p o ec Kuwa because o he equ ed m a y and nanc a comm men s no o men on s n c na on no o d s u b s e a ons w h he O oman Emp e oweve n 1898 many e emen s nc ed B a n o econs de s po cy owa ds Kuwa Such as he O oman m a y ac v es nea Bas a and he Russ an and Ge man p ans ha we e h ea en ng B sh n e es s n he eg on o he A ab an Gu Thus on he bas s o a dec s on om Lo d Cu zon he B sh v ce oy n nd a B sh Po ca Res den Mead conc uded a p o ec o a e ag eemen w h he u e o Kuwa She kh Muba ak A Sabah on Janua y 23 1899 wh ch de ned Kuwa as An ndependen Coun y Unde B sh P o ec on B a n p om sed o p o ec She kh Muba ak and h s he s and n u n he a e ag eed o conc ude no ea es w h o he powe s o adm no o e gn agen s and o cede no pa o Kuwa s e o y w hou B sh consen Th s ag eemen m ed he gh s o Kuwa o dea conc us ve y w h s ands w hou B sh app ova Howeve he ag eemen d d no g ve B a n he gh o n e vene n he n e na a a s o Kuwa n Novembe 1914 B a n ecogn zed Kuwa as an n dependen em a e ha en oyed B sh p o ec on S nce 1934 Kuwa B sh e a ons wen beyond he A ab do ma n They we e n uenced by o he g ea e n e na ona n uence due o he compe on o Ame can compan es n d ng o o n Kuwa and o he em a es o he A ab an Gu On he n e na scene Kuwa w nessed advances bo h e a ed o he u e and he oca adm n s a on n 1921 he S a e Consu a ve Counc was o med by appo n men The second na ona egu a schoo was es ab shed and ca ed A Ahmad ya Schoo was g ven he name o he u e o Kuwa a ha me She kh Ahmad A Jabe A Sabah The s na ona egu a schoo had been n augu a ed n Decembe 1911 was ca ed A Muba ak ya Schoo a e he name o he u e o Kuwa She kh Muba ak A Sabah The mun c pa y was ounded n 1930 The membe s o he c y counc we e e ec ed n 1932 when Kuwa w nessed he s e ec on n s h s o y L e was d cu n h s pe od Th s was due o he ac ha he ad ona economy o Kuwa ke any o he coun y o em a e n he A ab an Gu and he A ab an Pen nsu a was c ose y based on he sea D v ng o pea s sh ng sh pbu d ng and ne s as we as o he ac v es e a ed o he dese such as he d ng we e he p o ess ons p eva ng a ha me Kuwa soc e y showed s sympa hy o he cases o he A ab Na on w h he Pa es n an case a he op n 1936 Kuwa w nessed a dona on campa gn ca ed ou by he Kuwa peop e o Pa es ne n Decembe 1934 She kh Ahmad A Jabe A Sabah he u e o Kuwa a ha me s gned an ag eemen o o d ng w h he Kuwa O Company Ang o Ame can Company n 1936 1938 he p ma y d ng ope a ons p oved ha Kuwa ands we e ch n o a ma e ha d ama ca y n c eased he mpo ance o he coun y Conce n ng he gove nmen n June 1938 Kuwa w nessed he e ec on o he s eg s a ve counc ha was he d om Ju y o Decembe 1938 n June 1946 he s sh pmen o Kuwa o was expo ed n he a e o es 1949 a cons uc on movemen s a ed n Kuwa w h he bu d ng o some pub c u es a new hosp a and oads S mu aneous y w h h s econom c cu u a and popu a on deve opmen Kuwa p oceeded owa ds p og ess and ndependence s nce he beg nn ng o he es The econom c n e ec ua and cu u a movemen ou shed n Kuwa and he numbe o he e a e peop e and he schoo s nc eased n add on mo e educa ona m ss ons we e sen o he un ve s es a ove he wo d n h s pe od Kuwa soc e y had o ace many n e na and ex e na cha enges as Kuwa evo ved om a poo coun y o a ch one en oy ng g ea nanc a po en a y A many d e en eve s o p oduc on was a u n ng po n o Kuwa a ma e wh ch n ens ed B sh n e es n Kuwa as s n e na ona mpo ance nc eased A he beg nn ng o he es Kuwa w nessed deve opmen and e o ma on n he oca adm n s a on The H gh Execu ve Comm ee was o med n 1954 hen he Sup eme Counc and he O ga n za ona Au ho y n 1956 n add on o gove nmen a oca counc s such as he Educa on Counc C y Counc and Hea h Counc
Declaring independence She kh Abdu ah A Sa em A Sabah ea zed ha he p o ec o a e ag eemen
was no onge app op a e a e he changes ha had aken p ace n he cond ons o Kuwa A ha me Kuwa was head ng o ndependence and had a eady aken a ge s des on s way The Kuwa peop e no onge accep ed he es c ons mposed by he p o ec o a e ag eemen hough hey ea zed ve y we ha h s p o ec o a e had many advan ages n h s pe od Ye c cums ances had changed wh ch necess a ed cance a on o he ag eemen Thus he u e o Kuwa She kh Abdu ah A Sa em A Sabah exp essed h s des e o ep ace he o d ag eemen w h a new endsh p ag eemen ha wen a ong w h he deve opmen and changes ha had aken p ace
Independence Day (1918) Estonia - F e b 2 4
o Es on a Es on an Ees c a y he Repub c o Es on a Es on an Ees Vaba k s a s a e n he Ba c eg on o No he n Eu ope s bo de ed o he no h by he Gu o F n and o he wes by he Ba c Sea o he sou h by La v a 343 km and o he eas by Lake Pe ps and he Russ an Fede a on 338 6 km Ac oss he Ba c Sea es Sweden n he wes and F n and n he no h The e o y o Es on a cove s 45 227 km2 17 462 sq m and s n uenced by a empe a e sea sona c ma e The Es on ans a e a F nn c peop e and he o c a anguage Es on an s c ose y e a ed o F nn sh Es on a s a democ a c pa a men a y epub c d v ded n o 15 coun es The cap a and a ges c y s Ta nn W h a popu a on o s one o he eas 1 34 m on popu ous membe s o he Eu o pean Un on Eu ozone and NATO Es on a has he h ghes GDP pe pe son among o me Sov e epub cs Es on a s s ed as a H gh ncome Economy by he Wo d Bank as an advanced economy by he n e na ona Mone a y Fund and he coun y s an OECD membe The Un ed Na ons s s Es on a as a deve oped coun y w h a Human Deve opmen ndex o Ve y H gh The coun y s a so anked h gh y o p ess eedom econom c eedom democ acy and po ca eedom and educa on
Etymology One heo y s ha he mode n name o Es on a o g na ed
om he Aes desc bed by he Roman h s o an Tac us n h s Ge man a ca 98 AD On he o he hand anc en Scand nav an sagas e e o a and ca ed E s and c ose o heDan sh Ge man Du ch Swed sh and No weg an e m Es and o he coun y Ea y La n and o he anc en ve s ons o he name a e Es a and Hes a Es hon a was a common a e na e Eng sh spe ng p o o ndependence
History
Preh s ory
Ev dence has been ound o hun ng and sh ng commun es ex s ng a ound 6500 BC nea he own o Kunda n no he n Es on a Bone and s one a e ac s s m a o hose ound a Kunda have been d scove ed e sewhe e n Es on a as we as n La v a no he n L huan a and n sou he n F n and The Kunda cu u e be ongs o he m dd e s one age o Meso h c pe od The end o he B onze Age and he ea y on Age we e ma ked by g ea cu u a changes The mos s gn can was he ans on o a m ng wh ch has ema ned a he co e o he economy and cu u e Be ween he 1s o 5 h cen u es AD es den a m ng was w de y es ab shed he popu a on g ew and se emen expanded Cu u a n uences om he Roman Emp e eached Es on a The s men on o he peop e nhab ng p esen day Es on a s by he Roman h s o an Tac us who n h s book Ge man a ca AD 98 desc bes he Aes be Tac us men ons he e m o ambe n an appa en y La n sed o m g esum c La v an g sas Th s s he on y wo d o he anguage eco ded om an qu y n sp e o h s po n he Aes a e gene a y cons de ed he ances o s o he a e Ba c peop es A mo e oub ed and wa dden m dd e on Age o owed w h ex e na dange s com ng bo h om he Ba c bes who a acked ac oss he sou he n and bo de and om ove seas Seve a Scand nav an sagas e e o e a a o y campa gns aga ns Es on a Es on an p a es conduc ed s m a a ds aga ns he V k ngs The pagan a de s who sacked he Swed sh own o S g una du ng he ea y M dd e Ages n 1187 we e Es on ans n he 1s cen u es AD po ca and adm n s a ve subd v s ons began o eme ge n Es on a Two a ge subd v s ons appea ed he p ov nce Es on an k he kond and he and Es on an maakond The p ov nce comp sed seve a e de sh ps o v ages Nea y a p ov nces had a eas one o ess The de ense o he oca a ea was d ec ed by he h ghes o c a he k ng o e de By he 13 h cen u y he o ow ng ma o ands had deve oped n Es on a Reva a Ha umaa Saa emaa H umaa Läänemaa A empo s Saka a Ugand Jogen agana Soopoo se Va ga Mõhu Nu mekund Jä vamaa and V umaa Es on a e a ned a pagan e g on cen ed a ound a de y ca ed Tha ap a The Ch on c e o Hen y o L von a men ons Tha ap a as he supe o god o Oese ans nhab an s o Saa emaa s and a so we known o V on an bes n no he n Es on a
M dd e Ages
A he beg nn ng o he 13 h cen u y Lemb u o Leho a a ch e a n o Saka a sough o un y he Es on an peop e and hwa Dan sh and Ge man c conques du ng he L von an C usade He managed o assemb e an a my o 6 000 Es on an men om d e en coun es bu he was k ed du ng he Ba e o S Ma hew s Day n Sep embe 1217 n 1228 n he a e ma h o he L von an C usade o he 1560s Es on a became pa o Te a Ma ana es ab shed on 2 Feb ua y 1207 as a p nc pa y o he Ho y Roman Emp e and p oc a med by pope nnocen n 1215 as a sub ec o he Ho y See The sou he n pa s o he coun y we e conque ed by L von an B o he s o he Swo d who o ned he Teu on c O de n 1237 and became s b anch known as L von an O de The Duchy o Es on a was o med n he no he n pa s o he coun y as a d ec dom n on o he K ng o Denma k om 1219 un 1346 when was so d o he Teu on c o de and became pa o he O dens aa n 1343 he peop e o no he n Es on a and Saa emaa ebe ed aga ns he Ge man u e n he S Geo ge s N gh Up s ng wh ch was pu down by 1345 Reva known as Ta nn s nce 1918 ga ned Lübeck R gh s n 1248 and o ned an a ance o ad ng gu ds ca ed he Hansea c League a he end o he 13 h cen u y A e he Teu on c O de e n o dec ne o ow ng s de ea n he Ba e o G unwa d n 1410 and he de ea o he L von an O de n heBa e o Sw en a on 1 Sep embe 1435 he L von an Con ede a on ag eemen was s gned on 4 Decembe 1435 The G and Duchy o Moscow and Tsa dom o Russ a a emp ed unsuccess u nvas ons n 1481 and 1558 The L von an Con ede a on ceased o ex s du ng he L von an Wa 1558–82 The wa s had educed he Es on an popu a on om abou 250–300 000 peop e be o e he L von an Wa o 120–140 000 n he 1620s
Re orma on and Swed sh Es on a
The Re o ma on n Eu ope o c a y began n 1517 w h Ma n Lu he 1483–1546 and h s 95 Theses The Re o ma on esu ed n g ea change n he Ba c eg on deas en e ed he L von an Con ede a on ve y qu ck y and by he 1520s hey we e we known Language educa on e g on and po cs we e g ea y ans o med The Chu ch se v ces we e now g ven n he oca ve nacu a ns ead o La n as was p ev ous y used Du ng he L von an Wa n 1561 no he n Es on a subm ed o Swed sh con o Sou he n Es on a n 1560s o med an au onomous Duchy o L von a n he Po sh L huan an Commonwea h unde o n con o o he Po sh C own and he G and Duchy con a n ng wo vo vodesh ps o p esen day Es on a Do pa Vo vodesh p Ta u eg on and Pa nawa Vo vodesh p Pä nu eg on n 1629 ma n and Es on a came en e y unde Swed sh u e Es on a was adm n s a ve y d v ded be ween he p ov nces o Es on a n he no h and L von a n sou he n Es on a and no he n La v a a d v s on wh ch pe s s ed un he ea y 20 h cen u y n 1631 he Swed sh k ng Gus a Ado o ced he nob y o g an he peasan y g ea e gh s a hough se dom was e a ned K ng Cha es X w hd ew a ge nob e es a es o he Swed sh C own e ec ve y u n ng se s o ax pay ng a me s n 1632 a p n ng p ess and un ve s y we e es ab shed n he c y o Do pa known as Ta u s nce 1918 Th s pe od s known n Es on an h s o y as he Good O d Swed sh T me The s eady g ow h o he popu a on con nued un he ou b eak o he p ague n 1657 The G ea Fam ne o 1695– 97 k ed some 70 000 peop e – a mos 20% o he popu a on
Russ an Emp re
Fo ow ng he Cap u a on o Es on a and L von a du ng he G ea No he n Wa he Swed sh emp e os Es on a o Russ a by he T ea y o Nys ad Howeve he uppe c asses and he h ghe m dd e c ass ema ned p ma y Ba c Ge man The wa devas a ed he popu a on o Es on a bu ecove ed qu ck y A hough he gh s o peasan s we e n a y weakened se dom was abo shed n 1816 n he p ov nce o Es on a and n 1819 n L von a A e he Russ an evo u on o 1917 Ta nn ema ned unde Sov e con o un 24 Feb ua y 1918 when Es on an ndepend ence was dec a ed
Dec ara on o ndependence
As a esu o he abo on o se dom and he ava ab y o educa on o he na ve Es on an speak ng popu a on an ac ve Es on an na ona s movemen deve oped n he 19 h cen u y began on a cu u a eve esu ng n he es ab shmen o Es on an anguage e a u e hea e and p o ess ona mus c and ed on o he o ma on o he Es on an na ona den y and he Age o Awaken ng Among he eade s o he movemen we e Johann Vo dema Jannsen Jakob Hu and Ca Robe Jakobson S gn can accomp shmen s we e he pub ca on o he na ona ep c Ka ev poeg n 1862 and he o gan za on o he s na ona song es va n 1869 n esponse o a pe od o Russ ca on n a ed by he Russ an emp e n he 1890s Es on an na ona sm ook on mo e po ca ones w h n e ec ua s s ca ng o g ea e au onomy and a e comp e e ndependence om he Russ an Emp e Fo ow ng he Bo shev k akeove o powe n Russ a a e he Oc obe Revo u on o 1917 and Ge man v c o es aga ns he Russ an a my be ween he Russ an Red A my s e ea and he a va o advanc ng Ge man oops he Comm ee o E de s o he Maapäev ssued he Es on an Dec a a on o ndependence n Pä nu on 23 Feb ua y and n Ta nn on 24 Feb ua y 1918 A e w nn ng he Es on an Wa o ndependence aga ns bo h Sov e Russ a and he Ge man F e ko ps and Ba sche Landesweh vo un ee s he Ta u Peace T ea y was s gned on 2 Feb ua y 1920 The Repub c o Es on a was ecogn sed de u e by F n and on 7 Ju y 1920 Po and on 31 Decembe 1920 A gen na on 12 Janua y 1921 and by he Wes e n A es on 26 Janua y 1921 Es on a ma n a ned s ndependence o wen y wo yea s n a y a pa amen a y democ acy he pa amen R g kogu was d sbanded n 1934 o ow ng po ca un es caused by he g oba econom c c s s Subsequen y he coun y was u ed by dec ee by Kons an n Pä s who became P es den n 1938 he yea pa amen a y e ec ons esumed
Norriture Rituelle des sources têt d' l'eau - F e b 2 2 Haiti
Fo AATW s Feb ua y 25 Song a day we ocus on Ha an Vodou he v b an ye con ove s a be e sys em ha m xes A can nsp ed sp wo sh p w h Ca bbean Ch s an y Ha an vodou ua s o hono he many wa h ve on ua d umm ng chan ng and he occas ona possess on On Feb ua y 25 h vodou p ac one s obse ve Nou u e R ue e des sou ces ê d eau Man e Te D o wh ch hono s wa e and he sou ces o ve s Fo oday s song we pos sess ou se ves w h C apeaud T nge e a song om ou Ca bbean season wh ch e s he a e o og a ho se and he d cu ous compe on o mp ess a woman
Revolution Day Suriname - F e b 2 5
n he a e 1970s Su name s economy con n ued o s agna e Unemp oymen was h gh and mos o he popu a on had ncomes a he m n mum subs s ence eve On Feb 25 1980 a e he gove nmen s e usa o sanc on ade un on ac v y w h n he a med o ces a g oup o noncomm ss oned a my o ce s se zed con o o he gove nmen The coup was we comed by mos o he popu a on The Na ona M a y Counc Na ona e M a e Raad NMR ns a ed a e he coup ca ed on he mode a e w ng o he PNR o o m a cab ne composed mos y o c v ans A e he new cab ne p oc a med ha Su name wou d e u n o democ acy n wo yea s he Du ch gove nmen ag eed o nance an eme gency deve opmen p og am A e he m a y coup n 1980 gove nmen expend u es ose d ama ca y pa cu a y de ense spend ng The economy mo eove s ead y de e o a ed as a esu o he sus pens on o o e gn a d he s agna on o p va e o e gn nves men and he dec ne o he expo espec a y baux e sec o The coun y s domes c a a s con nued o be s a ned e ec ng an unce a n and ense e a onsh p be ween he m a y w h de ac o powe and he nom na c v an gove nmen ed by a p es den The m a y eade s n a y w hou a c ea po ca deo ogy began o ake a conc a o y app oach owa d e w ng ad ca ac ons c ose o he NMR wh ch ed o he o ma on n Augus 1981 o he Revo u ona y F on headed by L eu enan Co one Dés RVP he PNR and some Bou e se The F on nc uded he Revo u ona y Peop e s Pa y Revo u ona e Vo kspa o he ade and a m wo ke s un ons By he o ow ng yea howeve as m a y eade s showed ew s gns o w ngness o su ende con o ade un ons bus ness assoc a ons and p o ess ona g oups began o p oc a m he d scon en The con c eached a c max n Decembe 1982 when 15 p om nen c v ans we e execu ed The Ne he ands and he Un ed S a es mmed a e y suspended deve opmen a d n Feb ua y 1983 a e w ng coa on was ab e o o m a gove nmen bu a s ke n he v a baux e ndus y and he h ea o a gene a s ke ed o s d sm ssa by he m a y w h n one yea Ra ds by he Su namese L be a on A my a gue a g oup be e known as he Jung e Commando JC and con s s ng ma n y o Ma oons d s up ed baux e m n ng and ed o he k ng o many Ma oon c v ans by he Na ona A my housands o Ma oons subsequen y ed o F ench Gu ana The de e o a ng econom c and po ca s ua on o ced he m a y o open a d a ogue w h he eade s o he p nc pa po ca pa es ha had ope a ed be o e he coup n 1985 a Na ona Assemb y was o med a new Cab ne o M n s e s was ns a ed he o ow ng yea and a new cons u on was app oved n a e e endum on Sep 30 1987 E ec ons he d on Nov 25 1987 esu ed n he de ea o he po ca w ng o he m a y The F on o Democ acy and Deve opmen F on voo Democ a c en On w kke ng FDO a coa on o he VHP NPS and KTP o med a new gove nmen n 1988 he Su namese and F ench gove nmen s he a e as he sove e gn o ne ghbou ng F ench Gu ana began peace nego a ons w h he JC on he epa a on o he Ma oons and he nco po a on o he JC n o he po ce o ce An ag eemen s gned n Ju y 1989 was opposed by he m a y as we as by he Tucayana a g oup o nd ans a med by he m a y On Dec 24 1990 m a y eade s once aga n se zed con o o he gove nmen n esponse o po ca p essu e om he Un ed S a es he Ne he ands F ance and he O gan za on o Ame can S a es e ec ons we e he d on May 25 1991 The New F on o Democ acy and Deve opmen wh ch nc uded he o d F on and he Su name Labou Pa y Su naamse Pa van de A be d SPA won a ma o y o sea s n he Na ona Assemb y and e ec ed Rona d Vene aan p es den The new gove nmen qu ck y passed an ac ha o c a y dep ved he m a y o a po ca powe and n 1992 s gned an ag eemen w h he JC and he Tucayana ega d ng he epa a on o Ma oons om F ench Gu ana Vene aan sough o e n n bo h n a on and he budge de c bu h s e o m e o s we e hampe ed by a b oa ed bu eauc acy and by coca ne a ck ng n wh ch he Su name m a y and commande n ch e Bou e se we e mp ca ed Bou e se had e a ned b oad appea n Su name he se ved as p es den o heNa ona Democ a c Pa y Na ona e Democ a sche Pa NDP and was w de y v ewed as he ea powe beh nd Ju es W denbosch who was e ec ed p es den o he coun y n 1996 n 1997 he gove nmen o he Ne he ands ssued an a es wa an o Bou e se on cha ges o d ug smugg ng bu Su name a ed o ex ad e h m n 1999 he was conv c ed n absen a and sen enced o 16 yea s n p son Du ng W denbosch s adm n s a on 1996–2000 Su name was bese w h econom c p ob ems—an n e na ona Mone a y Fund epo dec a ed he coun y p ac ca y bank up —and a de e o a on o soc a se v ces Fac ng p o es s W denbosch ca ed o ea y e ec ons and n 2000 Vene aan e u ned o he p es dency Unde h s gu d ance he economy mp oved he a med o ces we e depo c zed and oans we e nego a ed w h he Ne he ands and he n e Ame can Deve opmen Bank o nance hea h educa on and soc a p og ams Vene aan was e e ec ed p es den n 2005 n a spec a sess on o he Na ona Assemb y a e no cand da e c a med a wo h ds ma o y n he gene a e ec ons Tens ons w h n he SPA s a ed eg s a ve p og ess howeve Mo eove n he ea y 21s cen u y Su name aced seve a seem ng y n ac ab e p ob ems a ong w h w den ng soc a and econom c n equa es he e ex s ed a vas c m na economy ha nc uded d ug a ck ng and go d smugg ng The coun y a so os a ong s and ng ma me bo de d spu e w h ne ghbou ng Guyana wh ch ga ned p om s ng o ch zones om Su name n he u ng n 2007 Bou e se was b ough o a n Su name on cha ges o o de ng he 1982 mu de s o 15 opponen s o h s eg me The a wh ch me w h a numbe o de ays was s unde way n May 2010 when Bou e se s NDP won he mos sea s n e ec ons o he Na ona Assemb y Less han wo mon hs a e n Ju y he Na ona Assemb y e ec ed Bou e se p es den o Su name Bou e se s c cs specu a ed ha h s b d o he p es dency was mo va ed by a des e o ha he ongo ng mu de a n Ap 2012 w h he a o he p es den s unde way he pa amen passed an amendmen o a 1989 b ha g an ed mmun y o human gh s v o a ons comm ed du ng Bou e se s ea e m a y u e nc ud ng he pe od o he 1982 mu de s
Special Holiday Choiseul Province Solomon Islands - Feb 25
The Cho seu P ov nce s one o he n ne p ov nces n So omon s ands es sou heas o Bouga nv e pa o Papua New Gu nea wes o San a sabe and no h o Ve a a Ve a Ko om bang a & New Geo g a n he 2009 na ona census s popu a on s 26 372 The p ov nce cons s s o h ee ma o s ands wh ch a e Cho seu Vaghena and Rob Roy Cho seu s and wh ch s com mon y known as Lau u o he na ves has and a ea o 3 294 squa e k ome es 1 272 sq m Vaghena a 243 squa e k ome es 94 sq m and Rob Roy a 200 squa e k ome es 77 sq m Ta o s and a 1 5 squa e k ome es 0 58 sq m s he cap a o he p ov nce On 25 Feb ua y 1992 a sepa a e Cho seu p ov nce was c ea ed by sepa a on om he Wes e n P ov nce
Libe r a tion D a y Kuwait - Feb 26
Eve y yea as de om he Na ona Day Kuwa a so ce eb a es s L be a on Day eve y 26 h o Feb ua y Th s o c a pub c ho day s ce eb a ed n hono o he coun y s ndependence om aq a e he s Gu Wa
History F om he me Kuwa
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George Washington's Birthday U.S. - F e b 2 2
George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799) was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander in chief of the Continental Army in 1775–1783, and he presided over the writing of the Constitution in 1787. As the unanimous choice to serve as the first President of the United States (1789–1797), he developed the forms and rituals of government that have been used ever since, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address. As President, he built a strong, well-financed national government that avoided war, suppressed rebellion and won acceptance among Americans of all types, and Washington is now known as the "Father of his country". In Colonial Virginia, Washington was born into the provincial gentry in a wealthy, well connected family that owned tobacco plantations using slave labor. He was home schooled by his father and older brother, but both died young, and he became attached to the powerful Fairfax clan, who promoted his career as a surveyor and soldier. Strong, brave, eager for combat and a natural leader, young Washington quickly became a senior officer of the colonial forces, 1754–58, during the first stages of the French and Indian War. Indeed, his rash actions helped precipitate the war. Washington's experience, his military bearing, his leadership of the Patriot cause in Virginia, and his political base in the largest colony made him the obvious choice of the Second Continental Congress in 1775 as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army to fight the British in the American Revolution. He forced the British out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the dead of winter, he defeated the enemy in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause. Because of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. Negotiating with Congress, governors, and French allies, he held together a tenuous army and a fragile nation amid the threats of disintegration and invasion. Historians give the commander in chief high marks for his selection and supervision of his generals, his encouragement of morale, his coordination with the state governors and state militia units, his relations with Congress, and his attention to supplies, logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies. Washington is given full credit for the strategies that forced the British evacuation of Boston in 1776 and the surrender at Yorktown in 1781. After victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned rather than seize power, and returned to his plantation at Mount Vernon, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to republican government. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention that drafted the United States Constitution in 1787 because of his dissatisfaction with the weaknesses of Articles of Confederation that had time and again impeded the war effort. Washington became the first President of the United States in 1789. He attempted to bring rival factions together to unify the nation. He supported Alexander Hamilton's programs to pay off all state and national debt, implement an effective tax system, and create a national bank, despite opposition from Thomas Jefferson. Washington proclaimed the U.S. neutral in the wars raging in Europe after 1793. He avoided war with Britain and guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795, despite intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although never officially joining the Federalist Party, he supported its programs. Washington's "Farewell Address" was an influential primer on republican virtue and a stern warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. Washington had a vision of a great and powerful nation that would be built on republican lines using federal power. He sought to use the national government to improve the infrastructure, open the western lands, create a national university, promote commerce, found a capital city (later named Washington, D.C.), reduce regional tensions and promote a spirit of nationalism. "The name of American," he said, must override any local attachments. At his death, Washington was hailed as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen". The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but for many years the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence and delayed building the Washington Monument. As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history, Washington became an international icon for liberation and nationalism. His symbolism especially resonated in France and Latin America. Historical scholars consistently rank him as one of the two or three greatest presidents.
Early life (1732–1753)
The first child of Augustine Washington (1694–1743) and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington (1708–1789), George Washington was born on their Pope's Creek Estate near present-day Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. According to the Julian calendar (which was in effect at the time), Washington was born on February 11, 1731 (O.S.); according to the Gregorian calendar, which was adopted in Britain and its colonies in 1752, he was born on February 22, 1732.[Note 1] Washington's ancestors were from Sulgrave, England; his great-grandfather, John Washington, had immigrated to Virginia in 1657.George's father Augustine was a slave-owning tobacco planter who later tried his hand in iron-mining ventures. In George's youth, the Washingtons were moderately prosperous members of the Virginia gentry, of "middling rank" rather than one of the leading families. Washington was the first-born child from his father's marriage to Mary Ball Washington. Six of his siblings reached maturity including two older half-brothers, Lawrence and Augustine, from his father's first marriage to Jane Butler Washington and four full-siblings, Samuel, Elizabeth (Betty), John Augustine and Charles. Three siblings died before becoming adults: his full-sister Mildred died when she was about one, his half-brother Butler died while an infant and his half-sister Jane died at the age of 12 when George was about 2. George's father died when George was 11 years old, after which George's half-brother Lawrence became a surrogate father and role model. William Fairfax, Lawrence's father-in-law and cousin of This 1772 painting by Peale of Virginia's largest landowner, Thomas, Lord Fairfax, was also a formative influence. Washington spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County near Fredericksburg. Washington as colonel of the Lawrence Washington inherited another family property from his father, a plantation on the Virginia Regiment, is the earliPotomac River which he later named Mount Vernon. George inherited Ferry Farm upon his est known portrait father's death, and eventually acquired Mount Vernon after Lawrence's death. The death of his father prevented Washington from crossing the Atlantic to receive an education at England's Appleby School, as his older brothers had done. He attended school in Fredericksburg until age 15. Talk of securing an appointment in the Royal Navy was dropped when his mother learned how hard that would be on him. Thanks to Lawrence's connection to the powerful Fairfax family, at age 17 George was appointed official surveyor for Culpeper County in 1749, a well-paid position which enabled him to purchase land in the Shenandoah Valley, the first of his many land acquisitions in western Virginia. Thanks also to Lawrence's involvement in the Ohio Company, a land investment company funded by Virginia investors, and Lawrence's position as commander of the Virginia militia, George came to the notice of the new lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. Washington was hard to miss: at about six feet two inches (188 cm; estimates of his height vary), he towered over most of his contemporaries. In 1751, Washington traveled to Barbados with Lawrence, who was suffering from tuberculosis, with the hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence's health. Washington contracted smallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly scarred, but immunized him against future exposures to the dreaded disease. Lawrence's health did not improve: he returned to Mount Vernon, where he died in 1752. Lawrence's position as Adjutant General (militia leader) of Virginia was divided into four offices after his death. Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February 1753, with the rank of major in the Virginia militia. Washington also joined the Freemasons in Fredericksburg at this time.
French and Indian War (1754– 1758) In 1753, the French began expanding their military control into the "Ohio Country", a ter-
ritory also claimed by the British colonies of Virginia and Pennsylvania. These competing claims led to a war in the colonies called the French and Indian War (1754–62), and con- Washington enlarged the house tributed to the start of the global Seven Years' War (1756–63). Washington was at the center of its beginning. The Ohio Company was one vehicle through which British in- at Mount Vernon after his marvestors planned to expand into the territory, opening new settlements and building trading riage posts for the Indian trade. Governor Dinwiddie received orders from the British government to warn the French of British claims, and sent Major Washington in late 1753 to deliver a letter informing the French of those claims and asking them to leave. Washington also met with Tanacharison (also called "Half-King") and other Iroquois leaders allied to Virginia at Logstown to secure their support in case of conflict with the French; Washington and Tanacharison became friends and allies. Washington delivered the letter to the local French commander, who politely refused to leave. Governor Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio Country to protect an Ohio Company group building a fort at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania but before he reached the area, a French force drove out the company's crew and began construction of Fort Duquesne. A small detachment of French troops led by Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, was discovered by Tanacharison and a few warriors east of presentday Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Along with their Mingo allies, Washington and some of his militia unit then ambushed the French. What exactly happened during and after the battle is a matter of some controversy, but the immediate outcome was that Jumonville was injured in the initial attack and then was killed...whether tomahawked by Tanacharison in cold blood or somehow shot by another onlooker with a musket as the injured man sat with Washington is not completely clear. The French responded by attacking and capturing Washington at Fort Necessity in July 1754. However, he was allowed to return with his troops to Virginia. Historian Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode demonstrated Washington's bravery, initiative, inexperience and impetuosity. These events had international consequences; the French accused Washington of assassinating Jumonville, who they claimed was on a diplomatic mission. Both France and Britain were ready to fight for control of the region and both sent troops to North America in 1755; war was formally declared in 1756.
Braddock disaster 1755:
In 1755, Washington was the senior American aide to British General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Monongahela expedition. This was the largest British expedition to the colonies, and was intended to expel the French from the Ohio Country. The French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock, who was mortally wounded in the Battle of the Monongahela. After suffering devastating casualties, the British retreated in disarray; however, Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnants of the British and Virginian forces to an organized retreat.
Commander of Virginia Regiment:
Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755 with a commission as "Colonel of the Virginia Regiment and Commander in Chief of all forces now raised in the defense of His Majesty's Colony" and gave him the task of defending Virginia's frontier. The Virginia Forensic reconstruction of Regiment was the first full-time American military unit in the colonies (as opposed to parttime militias and the British regular units). Washington was ordered to "act defensively Washington at age 45 or offensively" as he thought best. In command of a thousand soldiers, Washington was a disciplinarian who emphasized training. He led his men in brutal campaigns against the Indians in the west; in 10 months units of his regiment fought 20 battles, and lost a third of its men. Washington's strenuous efforts meant that Virginia's frontier population suffered less than that of other colonies; Ellis concludes "it was his only unqualified success" in the war. In 1758, Washington participated in the Forbes expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. He was embarrassed by a friendly fire episode in which his unit and another British unit thought the other was the French enemy and opened fire, with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the mishap. Washington was not involved in any other major fighting on the expedition, and the British scored a major strategic victory, gaining control of the Ohio Valley, when the French abandoned the fort. Following the expedition, Washington retired from his Virginia Regiment commission in December, 1758. He did not return to military life until the outbreak of the revolution in 1775.
Lessons learned:
Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for, in these years the young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills. He closely observed British military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question. Washington learned to organize, train, drill, and discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics. He gained an understanding of overall strategy, especially in locating strategic geographical points. Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results; other historians tend to ascribe Washington's position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service.[Note 2] He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too short-term compared to regulars. On the other hand, his experience was limited to command of at most 1000 men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and Philadelphia.
Between the wars: Mount Vernon (1759–1774) Washington rallying his troops On January 6, 1759, Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis.
Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax, the at the Battle of Princeton wife of a friend. Nevertheless, George and Martha made a compatible marriage, because Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a slave plantation. Together the two raised her two children from her previous marriage, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called "Jackie" and "Patsy" by the family. Later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together — his earlier bout with smallpox in 1751 may have made him sterile. Washington proudly may not have been able to admit to his own sterility while privately he grieved over not having his own children. The newly wed couple moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up the life of a planter and political figure. Washington's marriage to Martha greatly increased his property holdings and social standing, and made him one of Virginia's wealthiest men. He acquired one-third of the 18,000 acre (73 km²) Custis estate upon his marriage, worth approximately $100,000, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children, for whom he sincerely cared. He frequently bought additional land in his own name and was granted land in what is now West Virginia as a bounty for his service in the French and Indian War. By 1775, Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (26 km2), and had increased the slave population there to more than 100 persons. As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses, beginning in 1758. Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting was a favorite leisure activity. He also enjoyed going to dances and parties, in addition to the theater, races, and cock fights. Washington also was known to play cards, backgammon, and billiards. Like most Virginia planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop. Extravagant spending and the unpredictability of the tobacco market meant that many Virginia planters of Washington's day were losing money. (Thomas Jefferson, for example, would die deeply in debt.) Washington began to pull himself out of debt by diversifying his business interests and paying more attention to his affairs. By 1766, he had switched Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be sold in America, and diversified operations to include flour milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning, and weaving. Patsy Custis's death in 1773 from epilepsy enabled Washington to pay off his British creditors, since half of her inheritance passed to him. A successful planter, he was a leader in the social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those he considered "people of rank." As for people not of high social status, his advice was to "treat them civilly" but "keep them at a proper distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in proportion as you sink in authority.". In 1769 he became more politically active, presenting the Virginia Assembly with legislation to ban the importation of goods from Great Britain. In 1754 Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised land bounties to the soldiers and Depiction by John Trumbull of officers who volunteered to serve during the French and Indian War. Washington tried for years to get the lands promised to him and his men. Governor Norborne Berkeley fi- Washington resigning his comnally fulfilled that promise in 1769-1770, with Washington subsequently receiving title to mission as commander-in-chief 23,200 acres near where the Kanawha River flows into the Ohio River, in what is now western West Virginia.
American Revolution (1775–1787)
Although he expressed opposition to the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until protests of the Townshend Acts(enacted in 1767) became widespread. In May 1769, Washington introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Mason, calling for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed. Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax Resolves" were adopted, which called for the convening of a Continental Congress, among other things. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.
Commander in chief:
After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston in April 1775, the colonies went to war. Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war. Washington had the prestige, military experience, charisma and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a strong patriot. Virginia, the largest colony, deserved recognition, and New England—where the fighting began—realized it needed Southern support. Washington did not explicitly seek the office of commander and said that he was not equal to it, but there was no serious competition. Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. Nominated by John Adams of Massachusetts, Washington was then appointed Major General and Commander-in-chief. Washington had three roles during the war. In 1775-77, and again in 1781 he led his men against the main British forces. Although he lost many of his battles, he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war's end. He plotted the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress. Second, he was charged with organizing and training the army. He recruited regulars and assigned General von Steuben, a German professional, to train them. He was not in charge of supplies, which were always short, but kept pressuring Congress and the states to provide essentials. Washington had the major voice in selecting generals for command, and in planning their basic strategy. His achievements were mixed, as some of his favorites (like John Sullivan) never mastered the art of command. Eventually he found capable officers, like General Nathaniel Greene, and his chief-of-staff Alexander Hamilton. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and consequently they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes, at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781), came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops. Third, and most important, Washington was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown—the representative man of the Revolution. His enormous stature and political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. By voluntarily stepping down and disbanding his army when the war was won, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs. And yet his constant reiteration of the point that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic amateurs helped overcome the ideological distrust of a standing army.
Victory at Boston:
Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts in July 1775, during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. American troops raided British arsenals, including some in the Caribbean, and some manufacturing was attempted. They obtained a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) by the end of 1776, mostly from France. Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston in March 1776 and Washington moved his army to New York City. Although highly disparaging toward most of the Patriots, British newspapers routinely praised Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander. These articles were bold, as Washington was enemy general who commanded an army in a cause that many Britons believed would ruin the empire.
Defeat at New York City and Fabian tactics:
In August 1776, British General William Howe launched a massive naval and land Forensic recreation of Washington at campaign designed to seize New York. The Continental Army under Washington the time of his first inauguration as engaged the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly independent United States at the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. The Amer- president icans were badly outnumbered, many men deserted, and Washington was badly beaten. Subsequently, Washington was forced to retreat across the East River at night. He did so without loss of life or materiel. Washington retreated north from the city to avoid encirclement, enabling Howe to take the offensive and capture Fort Washington on November 16 with high Continental casualties. Washington then retreated across New Jersey; the future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to expiring enlistments and the string of losses. On the night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a comeback with a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in western New Jersey. He led his army across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up his victory at Trenton with another over British regulars at Princeton in early January. The British retreated back to New York City and its environs, which they held until the peace treaty of 1783. Washington's victories wrecked the British carrot-and-stick strategy of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms. The Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence. These victories alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot victory, however, since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted during the harsh winter. Washington and Congress reorganized the army with increased rewards for staying and punishment for desertion, which raised troop numbers effectively for subsequent battles. Historians debate whether or not Washington preferred a Fabian strategy to harass the British, with quick shark attacks followed by a retreat so the larger British army could not catch him, or whether he preferred to fight major battles. While his southern commander Greene in 178081 did use Fabian tactics, Washington, only did so in fall 1776 to spring 1777, after losing New York City and seeing much of his army melt away. Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples. By summer 1777, however, Washington had rebuilt his strength and his confidence and stopped using raids and went for large-scale confrontations, as at Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth and Yorktown.
1777 campaigns:
In the late summer of 1777 the British under John Burgoyne sent a major invasion army south fromQuebec, with the intention of splitting off rebellious New England. General Howe in New York took his army south to Philadelphia instead of going up the Hudson River to join with Burgoyne near Albany. It was a major strategic mistake for the British, and Washington rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe, while closely following the action in upstate New York. In pitched battles that were too complex for his relatively inexperienced men, Washington was defeated. At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington, and marched into the American capital at Philadelphia unopposed on September 26. Washington's army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile, Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army at Saratoga, New York. It was a major turning point militarily and diplomatically. France responded to Burgoyne's defeat by entering the war, openly allying with America and turning the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide war. Washington's loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This attempt failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind him.
Valley Forge:
Washington's army of 11,000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. Over the next six months, the deaths in camp numbered in the thousands (the majority being from disease), with historians' death toll estimates ranging from 2000 to 2500 to over 3000 men. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by Baron von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in 1778, shadowed by Washington. Washington attacked them at Monmouth, fighting to an effective draw in one of the war's largest battles. Afterwards, the British continued to head towards New York, and Washington moved his army outside of New York.
Victory at Yorktown:
In the summer of 1779 at Washington's direction, General John Sullivan carried out a scorched earth campaign that destroyed at least 40Iroquois villages throughout present-day central and upstate New York; the Indians were British allies who had been raiding American settlements on the frontier. In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by General Comte Donatien de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid in the war effort. The Continental Army having been funded by $20,000 in French gold, Washington delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 17, 1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental North America.
Demobilization:
Washington could not know that after Yorktown the British would not reopen hostilities. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782-83. The treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'état. Washington dispelled unrest among officers by squelching the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783, and Congress came up with the promise of a five years bonus. By the Treaty of Paris (signed that September), Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers. On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession. At Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief. Historian Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe. King George III called Washington "the greatest character of the age" because of this.
1787: Constitutional Conven- Equestrian statue (1860, Clark Mills) inWashington Circle, Washington, tion Washington's retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He made an exploratory D.C.
trip to the western frontier in 1784, was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, and was unanimously elected president of the Convention. He participated little in the debates (though he did vote for or against the various articles), but his high prestige maintained collegiality and kept the delegates at their labors. The delegates designed the presidency with Washington in mind, and allowed him to define the office once elected. After the Convention, his support convinced many to vote for ratification; the new Constitution was ratified by all thirteen states.
Presidency (1789–1797)
The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously as the first president in 1789, and again in the 1792 election; he remains the only president to have received 100 percent of the electoral votes. John Adams, who received the next highest vote total, was elected Vice President. At his inauguration, Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States of America on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City. The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, already wealthy, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary. The president, aware that everything he did set a precedent, attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names suggested. Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he talked regularly with department heads and listened to their advice before making a final decision. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them." Washington reluctantly served a second term. He refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president.
Domestic issues:
Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they would not be formed, fearing conflict that would undermine republicanism. His closest advisors formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda, but Washington typically favored Hamilton over Jefferson, and it was Hamilton's agenda that went into effect. The Residence Act of 1790, which Washington signed, authorized the President to select the specific location of the permanent seat of the government, which would be located along the Potomac River. The Act authorized the President to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for this seat. Washington personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791, the commissioners named the permanent seat of government "The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia" to honor Washington. In 1800, the Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal government moved to the site according to the provisions of the Residence Act. In 1791, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into full-scale defiance of federal authority known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and several other states. The governors sent the troops and Washington took command, marching into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting, as Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.
Foreign affairs:
In 1791, shortly after the Haitian Revolution broke out, Washington's administration, at French request, agreed to send money, arms, and provisions to the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) to assist distressed colonists. This aid formed part of the US repayment of Revolutionary War loans, and eventually amounted to about $400,000. In spring 1793 a major war broke out between conservative Britain and its allies and revolutionary France, launching an era of large-scale warfare that engulfed Europe until 1815. Washington, with cabinet approval, proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called "Citizen Genêt," to America. Genêt was welcomed with great enthusiasm and propagandized the case for France in the French war against Britain, and for this purpose promoted a network of new Democratic Societies in major cities. He issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so they could capture British merchant ships. Washington demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced the societies. Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution. John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington's strong support mobilized public opinion and proved decisive in securing ratification in the Senate by the necessary two-thirds majority. The British agreed to depart from their forts around the Great Lakes, subsequently the U.S.Canadian boundary had to be re-adjusted, numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty delayed war with Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with Britain. The treaty angered the French and became a central issue in many political debates.
Farewell Address:
Washington's Farewell Address (issued as a public letter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of republicanism. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. He called morality "a necessary spring of popular government". He said, "Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle." Washington's public political address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warned against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He warned against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into longterm "entangling" alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding foreign affairs.
Retirement (1797–1799)
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to farming and other business interests, including his distillery which produced its first batch of spirits in February 1797. As Chernow (2010) explains, his farm operations were at best marginally profitable. The lands out west yielded little income because they were under attack by Indians and the squatters living there refused to pay him rents. However most Americans assumed he was truly rich because of the wellknown "glorified façade of wealth and grandeur" at Mount Vernon. Historians estimate his estate was worth about $1 million in 1799 dollars, equivalent to about $18 million in 2009 purchasing power. On July 4, 1798, Washington was commissioned by President John Adams to be lieutenant general and Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war with France. He served as the senior officer of the United States Army between July 13, 1798, and December 14, 1799. He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise, but did not take the field. His second in command, Hamilton, led the army.
Death:
On Thursday December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his farms on horseback, in snow, hail and freezing rain - later that evening eating his supper without changing from his wet clothes. Friday morning, he awoke with a severe sore throat (either quinsy or acute epiglottitis) and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed. Sometime around 3 am that Saturday morning, he awoke his wife and said he felt ill. The illness progressed until Washington's death at home around 10pm on Saturday December 14, 1799, aged 67. His last words were "'Tis well." Throughout the world, men and women were saddened by Washington's death. Napoleon ordered ten days of mourning throughout France; in the United States, thousands wore mourning clothes for months. To protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived. On December 18, 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Congress passed a joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the United States Capitol for his body, supported by Martha. In December 1800, the United States House passed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to build the mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid that had a base 100 feet (30 m) square. Southern opposition to the plan defeated the measure because they felt it was best to have his body remain at Mount Vernon. In 1831, for the centennial of his birth, a new tomb was constructed to receive his remains. That year, an attempt was made to steal the body of Washington, but proved to be unsuccessful. Despite this, a joint Congressional committee in early 1832 debated the removal of Washington's body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol, built by Charles Bullfinch in the 1820s. Yet again, Southern opposition proved very intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the fear of Southerners when he said: “ Remove the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors, from Mount Vernon and from his native State, and deposit them in this capitol, and then let a severance of the Union occur, and behold the remains of Washington on a shore foreign to his native soil. ” This ended any talk of the movement of his remains, and he was moved to the new tomb that was constructed there on October 7, 1837, presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia. After the ceremony, the inner vault's door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac.
Legacy
First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and enduring scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding; his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting...Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence and virtue always felt his fostering hand. The purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues...Such was the man for whom our nation mourns. Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government, and the presidency in particular, and was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778. Washington's Birthday (celebrated on Presidents' Day), is a federal holiday in the United States. During the United States Bicentennial year, George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade ofGeneral of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976. This restored Washington's position as the highest-ranking military officer in U.S. history.
Cherry tree:
Apocryphal stories about Washington's childhood include a claim that he skipped a silver dollar across the Potomac River at Mount Vernon, and that he chopped down his father's cherry tree, and admitted the deed when questioned; "I can't tell a lie, Pa." The anecdote was first reported by biographer Parson Weems, who after Washington's death interviewed people who knew him as a child. The Weems version was very widely reprinted throughout the 19th century, for example in McGuffey Readers. Moralistic adults wanted children to learn moral lessons from the past from history, especially as taught by great national heroes like Washington. After 1890 however, historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every story, and there was no evidence apart from Weems' report. Joseph Rodman in 1904 noted that Weems plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction set in England; no one has found an alternative source for the cherry tree story, but Weems' credibility is questioned.
U.S. postage issues:
George Washington appears on contemporary US currency, including the one-dollar bill and the US quarter. On US postage stamps however, Washington appears numerous times and in many different denominations. He appears on one of the first postage stamps issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1847, along with Benjamin Franklin. Beginning in 1908, the US Post Office issued the longest running series of definitive stamps in the history of the US Post office when it issued the Washington-Franklin Issues, a series of more than 250 postage stamps bearing Washington's and Franklin's engravings. Washington has been depicted on U.S. postage stamps more than all other notable Americans combined, including Abraham Lincoln and Benjamin Franklin.
Monuments and memorials:
Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Republicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. Predating the obelisk on the National Mall by several decades, the first public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827. Today, Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States. He appears on contemporary currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter coin, and on U.S. postage stamps. Along with appearing on the first postage stamps issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1847, Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington Monument, one of the most well known American landmarks, was built in his honor. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia, was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with voluntary contributions from all 52 local governing bodies of the Freemasons in the United States. Many places and entities have been named in honor of Washington. Washington's name became that of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., one of two national capitals across the globe to be named after an American president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a United States President. George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis were named for him, as was Washington and Lee University(once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington's large endowment in 1796.Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland (established by Maryland state charter in 1782) was supported by Washington during his lifetime with a 50 guineas pledge and with service on the college's Board of Visitors and Governors until 1789 (when Washington was elected President). Countless American cities and towns feature a Washington Street among their thoroughfares. The Confederate Seal prominently featured George Washington on horseback, in the same position as a statue of him in Richmond, Virginia. London hosts a standing statue of Washington, one of 22 bronze identical replicas. Based on Jean Antoine Houdon's original marble statue in the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia, the duplicate was given to the British in 1921 by the Commonwealth of Virginia. It stands in front of the National Gallery at Trafalgar Square.
Papers of George Washington
The serious collection and publication began with the pioneer work of Jared Sparks in the 1830s, Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799 (1931–44) is a thirty-seven volume set edited by John C. Fitzpatrick. It contains over 17,000 letters and documents and is online. The definitive letterpress edition was begun by the University of Virginia in 1968, and today comprises 52 published volumes, with more to come. It contains everything written by Washington, or signed by him, together with most of his incoming letters. The collection is online.
Personal life
heir Bushrod Washington, son of George's younger brother John Augustine Washington. After his uncle's death, Bushrod became an Associate Justice on the US Supreme Court. George's relationship with his mother, Mary Ball Washington, however, was apparently somewhat difficult and strained. As a young man, Washington had red hair. A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. Washington did not wear a wig; instead, he powdered his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well known unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction. Washington suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life. He lost his first adult tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became President. John Adams claims he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but modern historians suggest the mercury oxide, which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria, probably contributed to the loss. He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood. Contrary to popular belief, none of the sets were made from wood. The set made when he became President was carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs. The hippo ivory was used for the plate, into which real human teeth and bits of horses' and donkeys' teeth were inserted. Dental problems left Washington in constant pain, for which he took laudanum. This distress may be apparent in many of the portraits painted while he was still in office, including the one still used on the $1 bill.
Slavery:
On the death of his father in 1743, the 11-year-old inherited 10 slaves. At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis in 1759, he personally owned at least 36 (and the widow's third of her first husband's estate brought at least 85 "dower slaves" to Mount Vernon). Using his wife's great wealth he bought land, tripling the size of the plantation, and additional slaves to farm it. By 1774, he paid taxes on 135 slaves (this does not include the "dowers"). The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772, although he later received some slaves in repayment of debts. Washington also used white indentured servants; in April 1775, he offered a reward for the return of two runaway white servants. One historian claims that Washington desired the material benefits from owning slaves and wanted to give his wife's family a wealthy inheritance. Before the American Revolution, Washington expressed no moral reservations about slavery, but in 1786, Washington wrote to Robert Morris, saying, "There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery." In 1778, he wrote to his manager at Mount Vernon that he wished "to get quit of negroes". Maintaining a large, and increasingly elderly, slave population at Mount Vernon was not economically profitable. Washington could not legally sell the "dower slaves," however, and because these slaves had long intermarried with his own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up families. As president, Washington brought seven slaves to New York City in 1789 to work in the first presidential household. Following the transfer of the national capital to Philadelphia in 1790, he brought nine slaves to work in the President's House. At the time of his death, there were 317 slaves at Mount Vernon– 123 owned by Washington, 154 "dower slaves," and 40 rented from a neighbor. Dorothy Twohig argues that Washington did not speak out publicly against slavery, because he did not wish to create a split in the new republic, with an issue that was sensitive and divisive.
Independence Day - F e b 2 7 Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries. Both by area and population, the Dominican Republic is the second largest Caribbean nation (after Cuba), with 48,442 square kilometres (18,704 sq mi) and an estimated 10 million people. Taínos inhabited what is now the Dominican Republic since the 7th century. Christopher Columbus landed on it in 1492, and it became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, namely Santo Domingo, the country's capital and Spain's first capital in the New World. Santo Domingo can boast of some of the firsts in the Americas, including the one of the oldest universities (the oldest being Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in Mexico, the first cathedral, and castle, the latter two in the Ciudad Colonial area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. After three centuries of Spanish rule, with French and Haitian interludes, the country became independent in 1821 under the rule of a former colonial judge who maintained the system of slavery and limited rights for the mostly mulatto and black population. The ruler, José Núñez de Cáceres, intended that the Dominican Republic be part of the nation of Gran Colombia, but he was quickly removed by the Haitian government and "Dominican" slave revolts. Victorious in theDominican War of Independence in 1844, Dominicans experienced mostly internal strife, and also a brief return to Spanish rule, over the next 72 years. The United States occupation of 1916–1924, and a subsequent, calm and prosperous six-year period under Horacio Vásquez Lajara, were followed by the dictatorship of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina until 1961. The civil war of 1965, the country's last, was ended by a U.S.-led intervention, and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy, and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time after 1996. The Dominican Republic has the second largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for sugar production, the economy is now dominated by services. The country's economic progress is exemplified by its advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems. The country also has "marked income inequality". International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants. Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues; the total population of Haitian origin is estimated at 800,000. A large Dominican diaspora exists, most of it in the United States, where it numbers 1.3 million. They aid national development as they send billions of dollars to their families, accounting for one-tenth of the Dominican GDP. The Dominican Republic has become the Caribbean's largest tourist destination; the country's year-round golf courses are among the top attractions. In this mountainous land is located the Caribbean's highest mountain, Pico Duarte, as is Lake Enriquillo, the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest elevation. Quisqueya, as Dominicans often call their country, has an average temperature of 26 °C (78.8 °F) and great biological diversity. Music and sport are of the highest importance in Dominican culture, with merengue as the national dance and song and baseball the favorite sport.
History
The Taínos:
The Arawakan-speaking Taínos moved into Hispaniola, displacing earlier inhabitants, c. AD 650. They engaged in farming and fishing, and hunting and gathering. The fierce Caribs drove the Taínos to the northeastern Caribbean during much of the 15th century. The estimates of Hispaniola's population in 1492 vary widely, including one hundred thousand, three hundred thousand, and four hundred thousand to two million. Determining precisely how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is next to impossible, as no accurate records exist. By 1492 the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms. The Spanish arrived in 1492. After initially friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagarix, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island. Nevertheless, within a few years after 1492 the population of Taínos had Alcázar de Colón, located in Santo declined drastically, due to smallpox and other diseases that ar- Domingo, is the oldest Viceregal resrived with the Europeans, and from other causes discussed below. idence in America. The decline continued, and by 1711 the Taínos numbered just 21,000. The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864. Still, Taíno biological heritage survived to an important extent, due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony had Taíno wives, and many present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry. Remnants of the Taino culture include their cave paintings, as well as pottery designs which are still used in the small artisan village of Higüerito, Moca.
Spanish rule:
Christopher Columbus arrived on Hispaniola on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to America. He claimed the island for Spain and named it La Española. In 1496Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy on the island. The colony was the springboard for the further Spanish conquest of America and for decades the headquarters of Spanish power in the hemisphere. Christopher was buried in Santo Domingo upon his death in 1506. The Taínos nearly disappeared, above all, from European infectious diseases to which they had no immunity. Other causes were abuse, suicide, the breakup of family, starvation, enslavement, forced labor, torture, war with the Spaniards, changes in lifestyle, and miscegenation. Laws passed for the Indians' protection (beginning with the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513) were never truly enforced. Yet as stated above, the Taínos did survive. Some scholars believe that las Casas exaggerated the Indian population decline in an effort to persuade King Carlos to intervene, and that encomenderos also exaggerated it, in order to receive permission to import more African slaves. Moreover, censuses of the time omitted the Indians who fled into remote communities, where they often joined with runaway Africans (cimarrones), producing Zambos. Also, Mestizos who were culturally Spanish were counted as Spaniards, some Zambos as black, and some Indians as Mulattos. Santo Domingo's population saw a spectacular increase during the 18th century, as it rose from some 6,000 in 1737 to about 125,000 in 1790. Approximately, this was composed of 40,000 white landowners, 25,000 black or mulatto freedmen, and 60,000 slaves. After its conquest of the Aztecs and Incas, Spain neglected its Caribbean holdings. French buccaneers settled in western Hispaniola, and by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded the area to France. France created the wealthy colony Saint-Domingue there, with a population 90% slave, and overall four times as populous (500,000 to 125,000) as the Spanish area at the end of the 18th century.
French rule:
France came to own the island in 1795, when by the Peace of Basel Spain ceded Santo Domingo as a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars. At the time, Saint-Domingue's slaves, led by Toussaint Louverture, were in revolt against France. In 1801 they captured Santo Domingo, thus controlling the entire island; but in 1802 an army sent by Napoleon captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. However, Toussaint Louverture's lieutenants, and yellow fever, succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue, which in 1804 the rebels made independent as the Republic of Haiti. Eastwards, France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of Great Britain(Spain's ally) and Haiti, returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control.
Ephemeral independence and Haitian occupation:
After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various groups, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. He requested the new state's admission to Simón Bolívar's republic of Gran Colombia, but Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, invaded just nine weeks later, in February 1822. As Toussaint Louverture had done two decades earlier, the Haitians abolished slavery. But they also nationalized most private property, including all the property of landowners who had left in the wake of the invasion; much Church property; as well as all property belonging to the former rulers, the Spanish Crown. Boyer also placed more emphasis on cash crops grown on large plantations, reformed the tax system, and allowed foreign trade. The new system was widely opposed by Dominican farmers, although it produced a boom in sugar and coffee production. All levels of education collapsed; the university was shut down, as it was starved both of resources and students, with young Dominican men from 16 to 25 years old being drafted into the Haitian army. Boyer's occupation troops, who were largely Dominicans, were unpaid, and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people. Many whites fled Santo Domingo for Puerto Rico and Cuba (both still under Spanish rule), Venezuela, and elsewhere. In the end the economy faltered and taxation became more onerous. Rebellions occurred even by Dominican freedmen, while Dominicans and Haitians worked together to oust Boyer from power. Anti-Haitian movements of several kinds — pro-independence, pro-Spanish, pro-French, pro-British, pro-United States — gathered force following the overthrow of Boyer in 1843.
Independence:
In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention. Matías Ramón Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios (the members of La Trinitaria), declared the independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher from El Seibo, who became general of the army of the nascent Republic. The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions occurring in 1844, 1845–49, 1849–55, and 1855–56. Meanwhile, archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States.
The voluntary colony and the Restoration republic:
In 1861, after imprisoning, silencing, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana signed a pact with the Spanish Crown and reverted the Dominican nation to colonial status, the only Latin American country to do so. His ostensible aim was to protect the nation from another Haitian annexation. But opponents launched the War of the Restoration in 1863, led by Santiago Rodríguez, Benito Monción, and Gregorio Luperón, among others. Haiti, fearful of the re-establishment of Spain as colonial power on its border, gave refuge and supplies to the revolutionaries. The United States, then fighting its own Civil War, vigorously protested the Spanish action. After two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in 1865. Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. It was now Báez's turn to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States, where two successive presidents were supportive. U.S. President Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed Blacks. The treaty, which included U.S. payment of $1.5 million for Dominican debt repayment, was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870 on a vote of 28–28, two-thirds being required. Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was thence in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux. "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, enjoyed a period of popularity. He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. Heureaux became rampantly despotic and unpopular. In 1899 he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants, both from the Old World and the New. From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay Heureaux's debts, faced the threat of military intervention by France and other European creditor powers.
U.S. interventions and occupation:
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal, as the canal was already under construction. He made a small military intervention to ward off the European powers, proclaimed his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and in 1905 obtained Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, then the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic, and assumed responsibility for said debt. After six years in power, President Ramón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux) was assassinated in 1911. The result was several years of great political instability and civil war. U.S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time. A political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling Dominicans to choose a president or see the U.S. impose one. A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president (1899–1902) Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power. To achieve a more broadly supported government, Jimenes named opposition individuals to his Cabinet. But this brought no peace and, with his former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U.S. offer of military aid Juan Pablo Duarte is widely considered the architect of against Arias, Jimenes resigned on May 7, 1916. Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. U.S. the Dominican Republic and Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and had control of the country two months its independence from Haitlater. The military government established by the U.S., led by Rear Admiral ian rule in 1844. Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by Dominicans. U.S. naval officers had to fill some cabinet posts, as Dominicans refused to serve in the administration. Censorship and limits on public speech were imposed. The guerrilla war against the U.S. forces was met with a vigorous, often brutal response. But the occupation regime, which kept most Dominican laws and institutions, largely pacified the country, revived the economy, reduced the Dominican debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. Opposition to the occupation continued, however, and after World War I it increased in the U.S. as well. There, President Warren G. Harding(1921–23), Wilson's successor, worked to end the occupation, as he had promised to do during his campaign. U.S. government ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. The victor was former president (1902–03) Horacio Vásquez Lajara, who had cooperated with the U.S. He was inaugurated on July 13, and the last U.S. forces left in September. Vásquez gave the country six years of good government, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in a peaceful atmosphere.
The Trujillo Era:
In February 1930, when Vásquez attempted to win another term, opponents rebelled, in secret alliance with the commander of the National Army (the former National Guard), General Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, by which the latter remained 'neutral' in face of the rebellion. Vásquez resigned. Trujillo then stood for election himself, and in May was elected president virtually unopposed, after a violent campaign against his opponents. There was considerable economic growth during Trujillo's long and iron-fisted regime, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. There was progress in healthcare, education, and transportation, with the building of hospitals and clinics, schools, and roads and harbors. Trujillo also carried out an important housing construction program and instituted U.S. Marines during the 1916 occua pension plan. He finally negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti in 1935, and achieved the end of the 50-year customs agree- pation ment in 1941, instead of 1956. He made the country debt-free in 1947, a proud achievement for Dominicans for decades to come. This was accompanied by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition. Moreover, Trujillo's megalomania was on display in his renaming after himself the capital city Santo Domingo to "Ciudad Trujillo" (Trujillo City), the nation's—and the Caribbean's—highest mountain Pico Duarte (Duarte Peak) to "Pico Trujillo", and many towns and a province. Some other places he renamed after members of his family. By the end of his first term in 1934 he was the country's wealthiest person, and one of the wealthiest in the world by the early 1950s; near the end of his regime his fortune was an estimated $800 million. In 1937 Trujillo (who was himself one-quarter Haitian), in an event known as the Parsley Massacre or, in the Dominican Republic, as El Corte (The Cutting), ordered the Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. The Army killed an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians over six days, from the night of October 2, 1937 through October 8, 1937. To avoid leaving evidence of the Army's involvement, the soldiers used machetes rather than bullets. The soldiers of Trujillo were said to have interrogated anyone with dark skin, using the shibboleth perejil (parsley) to tell Haitians from Dominicans when necessary; the 'r' of perejil was of difficult pronunciation for Haitians. As a result of the massacre, the Dominican Republic agreed to pay Haiti US$750,000, later reduced to US$525,000. On November 25, 1960 Trujillo killed three of the four Mirabal sisters, nicknamed Las Mariposas (The Butterflies). The victims were Patria Mercedes Mirabal (born on February 27, 1924), Argentina Minerva Mirabal (born on March 12, 1926), and Antonia María Teresa Mirabal (born on October 15, 1935). Minerva was an aspiring lawyer who was extremely opposed to Trujillo's dictatorship since Trujillo had begun to make rude sexual advances towards her. The sisters have received many honors posthumously, and have many memorials in various cities in the Dominican Republic. Salcedo, their home province, changed its name to Provincia Hermanas Mirabal (Mirabal Sisters Province). The International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on the anniversary of their deaths. For a long time, the US and the Dominican elite supported the Trujillo government. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition, the massacre of Haitians, and Trujillo's plots against other countries. The US believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils. The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president, Rómulo Betancourt, a fierce critic of Trujillo. Trujillo was assassinated on May 30, 1961.
Post-Trujillo:
In February 1963, a democratically elected government under leftist Juan Bosch took office but was overthrown in September. In April 1965, after 19 months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt broke out. Days later, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, concerned that Communists might take over the revolt and create a "second Cuba", sent the Marines, followed immediately by the Army's 82nd Airborne Division and other elements of the XVIIIth Airborne Corps in Operation Powerpack. "We don't propose to sit here in a rocking chair with our hands folded and let the Communist set up any government in the western hemisphere", Johnson said. The forces were soon joined by comparatively small contingents from the Organization of American States. All these remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections in 1966 won by Joaquín Balaguer, who had been Trujillo's last puppet-president. Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties, ostensibly to keep pro-Castro or pro-communist parties out of power. His rule was further criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, Rafael Leónidas Trujillo ruled the Dominican Republic from 1930 to completed in a subsequent tenure in 1992.
1978 to present:
1961.
In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco. Under the PRD presidents, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of relative freedom and basic human rights. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986, and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, this last time just defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing on international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. This time Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD (also founded by Bosch). Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy, with growth averaging 7.7% per year, a drop in unemployment, and stable exchange and inflation rates. In 2000 the PRD's Hipólito Mejía won the election. This was a time of economic troubles, and Mejía was defeated in his re-election effort in 2004 by Fernández, who won re-election in 2008. Fernández and the PLD are credited with initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, such as the construction of the Metro Railway ("El Metro"). On the other hand, his administrations have also been accused of corruption.