Page: 1
Independence Day NICARAGUA - Sep 15
Nicaragua (US /ˌnɪkəˈrɑːɡwə/ nik-ə-RAHgwə) officially the Republic Nicaragua of (Spanish:República de pronounced Nicaragua, [reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa] ), is the largest country in Central America. Nicaragua is bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. Nicaragua is located at the center of the Central American isthmus that forms a land bridge between North and South America. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east; Nicaragua's Caribbean coast is part of the Western Caribbean Zone. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands, wet, cooler central highlands, and the Caribbean Lowlands. On the Pacific side of the country are the two largest fresh water lakes in Central America—Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. Surrounding these lakes and extending to their northwest along the rift valley of the Gulf of Fonseca are fertile lowland plains, whose soil is highly enriched with ash from nearby volcanoes. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The Central American Volcanic Arc runs through the spine of the country, earning Nicaragua its notably famous nickname: The Land of Lakes and Volcanoes. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and the territory became associated with the Viceroyalty of New Spain and later the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Alongside the Spanish, the British established a protectorate on the eastern seaboard beginning in the middle of the 17th century, and ending roughly two centuries later with the rise of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada in the coast. The eastern seaboard retains itscolonial heritage; English and Jamaican Patois are commonly spoken and the culture in the Atlantic region identifies as being more Caribbean. In 1821, Nicaragua achieved its independence from Spain and joined the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823, later leaving the Federal Republic in 1838. Nicaragua increasingly became a subject of substantial interest because of its geographic position for a canal that would service the Windward Passage. Roughly a century after operations of the Panama Canal commenced and one hundred and eighty five years after the initial plans for the Nicaraguan Canal waterway, the prospect of a Nicaraguan ecocanal has remained the subject of interest, with its construction in Corn s and o he A an c Coas progress. Eighteen years after leaving the federal Republic it also became the center of was a Br sh pro ec ora e un William Walker's Golden Circle filibustering in was ceded a ong w h he res o Central America. Since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political he Mosqu o Coas o N caragua unrest, military intervention on behalf of the United States, dictatorship and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that lead to the Nicaraguan Revolution. Although the Somoza family ruled the country in the form of a dictatorship for forty years, Nicaragua was among the first countries to sign the United Nations Charter in 1945. Prior to the revolution, Nicaragua was one of Central America's wealthiest and most developed countries. The revolutionary conflict, paired with Nicaragua's 1972 earthquake reversed the country's prior economic standing. Despite the harsh economic effects of both phenomena, Nicaragua is a representative democratic republic which has experienced economic growth and political stability in recent years. In 1990, Nicaragua elected Violeta Chamorro as its president, making it the first country in the Americas and in Latin American history to democratically elect a female head of state and the second country in the Western Hemisphere to do so, following Iceland's democratic election of Vigdís Finnbogadóttir. The population in Nicaragua, hovering at approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Roughly one quarter of the nation's population lives in the capital city, Managua, making Managua the second largest city and metropolitan area in Central America (following Guatemala City). Other major cities include León, Chinandega, Granada, Matagalpa and Jinotega. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast, Europeans, Africans, Asians and people of Middle Eastern origin. The main language is Spanish, although native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo and Rama, as well as English Creole. Of the Spanish-speaking countries in Central America, Nicaragua is where the use of the voseo form of address is most widespread. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art, cuisine, literature, and music. Nicaragua has earned recognition and various colloquial names in reference to its geographic location, cultural achievements and recent economic development. Nicaragua's biological diversity, warm tropical climate, and active volcanoes make it an increasingly popular destination for tourists, surfers, biologists, and volcanologists. The country has also been dubbed The Land of Poets, due to various literary contributions of renown Nicaraguan writers, including Rubén Darío, Ernesto Cardenal and Gioconda Belli.
Etymology The origin of the name "Nicaragua" is somewhat unclear; one theory is that it is a portmanteau
coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, chief of the most populous indigenous tribe and agua, the Spanish word for water. Another theory is that it may have meant "surrounded by water" or "sweet sea" in an indigenous language. The surrounding water might refer to the country's two largest lakes, Lake Nicaragua—which is the largest in Central America and 19th largest in the world—and Lake Managua. Alternatively, it might refer to its being bounded on the east and the west by oceans.
History
Pre-Columbian history:
In pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area located between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions and within the influence of the IsthmoColombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, such as the ones found on the island of Zapmembers o he atera in Lake Nicaragua and petroglyphs Found ng found on Ometepe island. The Pipil migrated Deu sche C ub n N caragua 1901 to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 B.C. By the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture to the Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya, and by language to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms. Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibchalanguage groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and nearby areas. They lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. Joined by waters, the people of eastern Nicaragua traded with, and were influenced by, other native peoples of the Caribbean. Round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were commonly crafted and used in eastern Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chiefNicarao, or Nicaragua. The wealthy ruler lived in Nicaraocali, site of the present-day city of Rivas. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. Without women in their parties, the Spanish conquerors took Niquirano and Chorotega wives and partners, beginning the multi-ethnic mix of native and European stock now known as mestizo, which constitutes the great majority of population in western Nicaragua.Within three decades after European contact, what had been an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted. Scientists and historians estimate approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new infectious diseasescarried by the Spaniards, such as smallpox and measles, to which the Indians had no immunity. The indigenous people of the Caribbean coast escaped the epidemics due to the remoteness of their area. Their societies continued more culturally intact as a result.
Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election. Somoza was 35 at the time. Nicaragua declared war on Germany on December 8, 1941, during World War II. Although war was formally declared, no soldiers were sent to the war, but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans, the best-known of which was theMontelimar estate which today operates as a privately owned luxury resort and casino. In 1945 Nicaragua was among the first countries to ratify the United Nations Charter. Throughout his years as dictator, "Tacho" Somoza 'ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm'. He had three main sources for his power: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the U.S. Somoza used the National Guard to force Sacasa to resign, and took control of the country in 1937, destroying any potential armed resistance. Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power. Despite his complete control, on September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency. He died eight days later. After his father's death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country. He is remembered by some for being moderate, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick Gutiérrez whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as noth- Augus o César Sand no ing more than a puppet of the Somozas". Somoza's brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick. Nicaragua experienced economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s largely as a result of industrialization, and became one of Central America's most developed nations. Due to its stable and high growth economy, foreign investments grew, primarily from U.S. companies such as Citigroup, Sears, Westinghouse, Coca Cola, Bank of America, Chase Manhattan Bank, "Morgan Guaranty Trust and Wells Fargo Bank. Other investors included London Bank and the Bank of Montreal. The capital city of Managua suffered a major earthquake in 1972 which destroyed nearly 90% of the city, creating major losses,and leveling a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see the 1972 earthquake that devastated Managua as the final 'nail in the coffin' for Somoza. Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident. Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation, and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result. In 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth. Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN). The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty.
Nicaraguan Revolution:
In 1961 Carlos Fonseca turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with 2 others founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). Fonseca turned to the KGB and Cuba's DGI for arms and assistance. The FSLN was a tiny party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza's utter hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be aSandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandin a we e mu h onge A e he 1972 ea hqua e and Somo a b a en o up on m hand ng o e e a d and e u a o ebu d Managua he an o he Sand n a we e ooded w h oung d a e ed N a aguan who no onge had an h ng o o e The e e onom p ob em p ope ed he San ugg e aga n Somo a b ead ng man m dd e and uppe a N a aguan d n a n he o ee he Sand n a a he on hope o emo ng he b u a Somo a eg me n De embe 1974 a g oup o FSLN n an a emp o dnap U S Amba ado Tune She on he d ome Managuan pa goe ho age a e ng he ho o me Ag u u e M n e o e Ma a Ca o un he Somo an go e nmen me he demand o a a ge an om and ee an po o Cuba Somo a g an ed h hen ub equen en h Na ona Gua d ou n o he oun de o oo o he pe pe a o o he dnapp ng ha we e de bed b opponen dnapp ng a e o Wh e ea h ng he Na ona Gua d p aged age and m o h age Th ed o he Roman Ca ho p oned o u ed aped and e e u ed hund ed o Chu h w hd aw ng an and a uppo o he Somo a eg me A ound h me Ch ean p e den Sa ado A ende wa emo ed om powe n a m a oup ha p omp ed A ende o a e h own e a he p e den a pa a e ame unde e W h gh w ng Augu o P no he n powe n Ch e e e a hund ed omm ed Ch ean e o u ona e o ned he Sand n a a m n N a agua On anua 10 1978 Ped o oaqu n Chamo o he ed o o he na ona new pape La P en a and a den opponen o Somo a wa a a na ed Th be e ed o ha e ed o he e eme gene a d appo n men w h Somo a The p anne and pe pe a o o he mu de we e a he on E Ch gu n The K d h ghe e he on o he Somo a eg me and n uded he d a o he P e den o Hou ng Co ne o Hue he A o ne Gene a and Ped o Ramo a Cuban e pa a e and o e a who omme a ed b ood p a ma uppo ed b ome o he popu a e e emen o he Ca ho Chu h and e The Sand n a n ud ng Panama Me o Co a R a and Vene ue a oo powe n g ona go e nmen u 1979 The Ca e adm n a on e u ng o a un a e a de ded o wo w h he new wa ound o be a ng n u go e nmen wh e a a h ng a p o on o a d o e u e en nown a Lo Do e he gen e n ne ghbo ng oun e A g oup o p om nen Twe e denoun ed he Somo a eg me and a d ha he e an be no d a ogue w h So mo a be au e he he p n pa ob a e o a a ona unde and ng h ough he ong da e ed o eng hen So h o o Somo mo d a ogue w h he d a o h p ha e on mo a ed he oun and e en ua ended up n Pa agua whe e he wa a a na ed n Sep embe 1980 a eged b membe o he A gen n an Re o u ona Wo e Pa ea ed a Coun o un a To beg n he a o e ab h ng a new go e nmen he Sand n a e membe Sand n a m an Dan e O ega and o Na ona Re on u on made up o Se g o Ram e Me ado a membe o Lo Do e bu ne man A Mo e Ha an no e on o Robe o Ca e a and V o e a Ba o de Chamo o he w dow o Ped o oaqu n Chamo o Sand n a uppo e hu omp ed h ee o he e membe o he un a The non Sand n a Robe o and Chamo o a e e gned be au e he had e a ua powe n he un a Sand n a ma o gan a on we e a o powe u n ud ng he Sand n a Wo e Fede a on Cen a Sand n a de T aba ado e he Lu a Amanda E p no a A o a on o N a aguan Women A o a ón de Mu e e N a agüen e Lu a Amanda E p no a and he Na ona Un on o Fa me and Ran he Un ón Na ona de Ag u o e Ganade o On he A an Coa a ma up ng a o o u ed n uppo o he Sand n a Th e en o en o e oo ed n h o e abou he Sand n a e o u on A g oup o C eo e ed b a na e o B ue e d De e Hoo e nown a Commande Abe a ded a Somo a owned bu o ga n a e o ood gun and mone be o e head ng o o o n Sand n a gh e who ne o E Rama The B a Sand n a e u ned o B ue e d on u 19 had be a ed he w hou a gh The B a Sand n a we e ha enged b a g oup o 1979 and oo he me o Sand n a gh e The en u ng ando be ween he wo g oup w h he B a Sand n a o up ng he Na ona Gua d ba a he ua e and he me o g oup o up ng he Town Ha Pa a o ga e he e o u on on he A an Coa a a a d men on wh h wa ab en om o he pa The B a Sand n a we e a ed n he powe ugg e w h he Pa a o o he oun g oup b he a a o he S món Bo a n e na ona B gade om Co a R a One o he b gade membe an A o Co a R an a ed Ma n W gh nown a Ka a u be ame nown o he ou ng pee he he made wh h n uded e emen o B a Powe deo og n h a emp o un e a he b a m a ha had o med n B ue e d The n o du on o a a a e emen n o he e o u on wa no we omed b he Sand n a Na ona D e o a e wh h e pe ed Ka a u and he e o he b gade om N a agua and en hem o Panama
Sand n s as and he Con ras
Upon a um ng o e n 1981 U S P e den Rona d Reagan ondemned he FSLN o o n ng e o u ona mo emen n o he La n Ame an oun e w h Cuba n uppo ng Ma u h a E Sa ado Reagan wa a o on e ned abou he g ow ng So e and Cuban p e en e n N a agua and he So e hope o u n N a agua n o a e ond Cuba Unde he om he Reagan Do ne h adm n a on au ho ed he C A o ha e pa am a o e e D on beg n nan ng a m ng and a n ng ebe ome o whom we e e e Spe a A he emnan o Somo a Na ona Gua d a an Sand n a gue a ha we e b anded oun e e o u ona b e on a e o u ona o n Span h Th wa ho ened o Con a a abe he an o a o e ho e o emb a e Edén Pa o a and man o he n d genou gue a o e una o a ed w h he Somo a a o e ed he Sand n a The Con a ope a ed ou o amp n he ne ghbo ng oun e o Hondu a o he no h and Co a p a n gue a wa a e he we e engaged n a ampa gn o e o In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now R a o he ou h A wa Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama. On his fourth voyage, Colum- nom abo age n an a emp o omba he Sand n a go e nmen and d up ed h pp ng b bus explored the Misquitos Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The first attempt to conquer p an ng unde wa e m ne n N a agua Po o Co n o an a on ondemned b he Wo d a ega The U S a o ough o p a e e onom p e u e on he Sand n a and he Cou what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January Reagan adm n a on mpo ed a u ade emba go 1520. on nued n p e o he a ha mpa a ob e e González claimed to have converted some 30,000 indigenous peoples and discovered a pos- U S uppo o h N a aguan n u gen om n e na ona g oup ng u h a heEu opean E onom Commun e g ou g oup en sible transisthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys, o mon o he e e on and ob e e om demo a na on u h a Canada and he Re González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao ee and an estimated 3,000 led by chief Diriangén. González later returned to Panama where Gov- pub o e and on uded ha he N a aguan gene a e e on o 1984 we e omp e e ernorPedro Arias Dávila tried to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of and a The Reagan adm n a on d pu ed he e e u de p e he a ha he go e nmen o he Un ed S a e ne e had an ob e e n N a agua a he me gold. González escaped to Santo Domingo. e e on we e no a o e ogn ed a eg ma e be au e A u o C u he and da e nom The It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded. Conquistana ed b he Coo d nado a Demo á a N a agüen e omp ng h ee gh w ng po a dorFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua's principal towns in 1524: pa e n he e e on He w hd ew om he e e on due o he go e n Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location east of pa e d d no pa ued n Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and attacked against incursions by men a o e pon e o he do umen A S ep Towa d Demo a F ee E e on The do umen wa a ng he go e nmen o e e ab h a gh eedom o 1982 the other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with pee h eedom o o gan a on e ea e o a po a p one ea e o ho e aga n Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the Ruins of León Viejo. he oppo on ng he en o h p on he med a and abo h ng a he aw o a ng human The clash among Spanish forces did not impede their devastation of the indigenous population gh and civilization. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains. By 1529, a e and ep e ng po the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadors came out winners, while they A he Sand n a mo ed u he n he d e on o ea ng a Ma a oppo on oppo on o he eg me n ea ed Hea handed a b he M n o executed or murdered others. Pedrarias Dávila was a winner—although he had lost control of n e o gu ded b So e Cuban Bu ga an and Ea Ge man ad e e u o e n he Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit oun de a o added e u o he on a numbe nep e onom po e wh h e u ed diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony. n h pe n a on and ood ho age a o on bu ed o d on en La ge So e a m h p The land was parceled out to the conquistadors, who were most interested in the western porn ud ng T 55 an o he a mo ed eh e and H nd he op e we e u ed n an n tion. They enslaved many indigenous people as labor to develop and maintain estates there. men ea ng o en oun e n u gen ampa gn Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, some were killed in warfare. The great majority were sold as slaves, whipped, and shipped to other Spanish colonies in the New World, A e he U S Cong e p oh b ed ede a und ng o he Con a n 1983 he Reagan adm n a on on nued o ba he Con a b o e e ng a m o an and hanne ng he p o at a significant profit to the newly landed aristocracy. Many of the indigenous people died as a eed o he Con a he an–Con a a a When h heme wa e ea ed Reagan result of infectious disease, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subadm ed ha he new abou he an an a m o ho age dea ng bu p o e ed gno an e sistence. abou he p o eed und ng he Con a o h Na ona Se u Coun a de L Co O e No h oo mu h o he b ame 1988 U S Sena e Comm ee on Fo e gn Re a on epo on Con a d ug In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Sena o ohn Ke n on uded ha en o U S po ma e we e no mmune o he dea ha d ug mone Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided o u on o he Con a und ng p ob em A o d ng o he Na ona Se u into administrative "parties" with León as the capital. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, wa a pe e destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León. A h e O e No h had been n on a w h Manue No ega a Panaman an gene a and he During the American Revolutionary War, Central America was subject to conflict between Britain de a o m a d a o o Panama om 1983 o 1989 when he wa o e h own and ap u ed ed o d ug a ng and m and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing com- b a U S n ad ng o e He wa a en o he Un ed S a e munities in present-day Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua. Horatio Nelson led expeditions p oned n 1992 n Augu 1996 San o e Me u New epo e Ga Webb pub hed a e e ed Da A against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and the San Juan in 1780, which had temporary sucan e n ng he o g n o a o a ne n Ca o n a o he Con a F eedom o n o ma on cess before being abandoned due to disease. In turn, the Spanish colonial leaders could not A nqu e b he Na ona Se u A h e and o he n e ga o unea hed a numbe o completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast. how ng ha Wh e Hou e o a n ud ng O e No h new abou and up The Captaincy General of Guatemala was dissolved in September 1821 with the Declaration do umen ng o und he Con a Sen ohn Ke epo n of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and Nicaragua became part of the First Mexican Em- po ed u ng mone a ed a d ug a he u e Depa men and Reagan pire. After the monarchy of the First Mexican Empire was overthrown in 1823, Nicaragua joined 1988 ed o he ame on u on ma o med a ou e the newly formed United Provinces of Central America, which was later renamed as the Federal den ed he a ega on e n ega d o he a e o N a agua Un ed S a e n 1984 The n e na ona Cou o u Republic of Central America. Nicaragua finally became an independent republic in 1838. ound he Un ed S a e o Ame a wa unde an ob ga on o ma e epa a on o he Repub Rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada characterized au ed o N a agua b e a n b ea he o ob ga on unde u the early years of independence and often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the o N a agua o a n u oma n e na ona aw and ea aw omm ed b he Un ed S a e o Ame a Un ed 1840s and 1850s. Invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer and filibuster named William Walker set himself up as president of S a e howe e e e ed and d d no omp w h he udgemen unde he Conna Amend after conducting a farcical in 1856. Costa Rica, Honduras andUn other Nicaragua, n consequence my Gove nmen election des es ha he Gove nmen o he edCentral S a es men pa o he ond ona pa pa on o USA n he n e na ona ou o u e wh h e u d on d pu e w h ega d o ma e ha a e e en a w h n he countries to drive Walker Nicaragua after can whichCa period American w h united s o ces secu y out o ofhe p ope iny 1857, o Ame zens ofn ude om C gua an ee u d on o he Un ed S a e o Ame a a de e m ned b he Un ed S a e o Ame a of Conservative rule sensued. three agua and ha ex end p o ec on o a he nhab an s o he Repub c N ca decades Great Britain, which had claimed the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate since 1655, delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. The Mosquito Coast remained an autonomous area until 1894. José Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from The N a aguan gene a e e on 1990 aw he de ea o he Sand n a b a oa on o an 1893 – 1909, negotiated the annexation of the Mosquito Coast to the rest of Nicaragua. In his Sand n a om he e and gh o he po a pe um pa e ed b V o e a Chamo o he w dow o Ped o oaqu n Chamo o The de ea ho ed he Sand n a a nume ou p e honor, the region was named Zelaya Department. o and he p e e e on a e had a a ed In the 19th century, Nicaragua attracted many immigrants, primarily from Europe. In particular, e e on po had nd a ed a u e Sand n a owd o e e a hund ed hou and peop e The une pe ed e u wa ub e o e en e families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium emigrated to set up businesses with and ommen Commen a o u h a Noam Chom and B an W on a bu ed money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses, such as cof- ana he ou ome o he U S Con a h ea o on nue he wa he Sand n a e a ned powe fee and sugar cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks. he gene a wa wea ne o he N a aguan popu a on and he ab ma N a aguan e o Throughout the late 19th century, the United States (and several European powers) considered ua on nom a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua, linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. A bill was m n h boo G e Wa a Chan e a ng he put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, which failed to pass it; construction of P O Rou e oun e ed he US en e ed un a ad an age o u ng a e e ou e o pa end abou how Sand n a on o o he the Panama Canal was begun instead. an em p e en ed UNO uppo e om a end ng a e how Sand n a dom na on o he a m o ed o d e o o e o O ega and how Sand n a bu eau a ep $3 3 m on In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against o U S ampa gn a d om ge ng o UNO wh e Dan e O ega pen m on dona ed b o e ea peop e and m on and m on mo e om he N a aguan ea u President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, o o e O ega wa a h e ed w h 55% ma Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate E po o N a aguan epo ed Chamo o o V o e a Chamo o wa he ema e P e den o N a agua and a o he woman foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were o be popu a e e ed o h po on n an Ame an na on E po ng on n ed Dan e sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya O ega ha he e e on e u we e eg ma e and we e n umen a n h de on o a ep he o e o he peop e and ep down a he han o d he e e on O ega owed ha he wou d resigned later that year. In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, go e n de de aba o om be ow n o he wo d due o h w de p ead on o o n u on be ab e o ma n a n on o General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua and Sand n a nd dua n a go e nmen agen e he wou d with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation and go e n e en w hou be ng p e den asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insur- Chamo o ame o o e w h an e onom n u n The pe ap a n ome o N a agua had been edu ed b o e 80% du ng he 1980 and a huge go e nmen deb had a ended o rection he replied that he could not and that... due o he nan a and o a o o he Con a wa w h he Sand n US$12 b on p ma a ed go e nmen Mu h o he u p e o he U S and he on a o e Chamo o d d no d man e he Sand n a Popu a A m a hough he name wa hanged o he N a aguan A m Chamo o ma n on bu on o N a agua wa he d a mamen o g oup n he no h Th p o ded he ab wh h he oun had a ed U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning e n and en a a ea o he oun o o e en ea in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, n he ne e e on he N a aguan gene a e e on 1996 Dan e O ega and he Sand n a which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed o he FSLN we e aga n de ea ed h me b A no do A emán o he Con u ona L be a Pa PLC canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses. Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, n he 2001 e e on he PLC aga n de ea ed he FSLN w h En que Bo año w nn ng he another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines. P e den P e den Bo año ub equen b ough o wa d a ega on o mone aunde ng he and o up on aga n o me P e den A emán The e p e den wa on ed and en From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against en ed o 20 ea n p on o embe emen mone aunde ng and o up on L be a mem the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the ea ed ang and a ong w h establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse be who we e o a o A emán and a o membe o ong e pped he p e den a powe o P e den Bo año and h to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern moun- Sand n a pa amen membe a ng o h e gna on and h ea en ng mpea hmen tains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years. When the Ameri- m n e cans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard), a combined military and The Sand n a a eged ha he uppo o Bo año wa o when U S Se e a o S a e ow mo on oup d é a police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Co n Powe o d Bo año o eep h d an e om he FSLN Th Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He wa a e ed pa a due o p e u e om he Cen a Ame an p e den who owed no o e ogn e an mo emen ha emo ed Bo año he U S he OAS and he Eu opean Un on was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan a o oppo ed he ow mo on oup d é a The p opo ed on u ona hange o be n o Bautista Sacasa. anua 2007 a e he After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly du ed n 2005 aga n he Bo año adm n a on we e de a ed un elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla ac- en an e o he new go e nmen One da be o e he we e due o be en o ed he Na ona anua 2008 tivities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed A emb po poned he en o emen un band of 100 men for a year. But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza Be o e he gene a e e on on 5 No embe 2006 he Na ona A emb pa ed a b u he e ng abo on n N a agua 52 0 9 ab a n ng 29 ab en P e den En que Bo año to order the assassination of Sandino.Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza uppo ed h mea u e and gned he b n o aw on 17 No embe 2006 A a e u invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 ega w h no e ep on a ong by soldiers of the National Guard. Hundreds of men, women, and children from Sandino's agri- N a agua one o e oun e n he wo d whe e abo on w h Ch e Ma a and E Sa ado and he Va an C cultural colony were executed later. Leg a e and p e den a e e on oo p a e on No embe 5 2006 Dan e O ega e u ned o he p e den w h 37 99% o he o e Th pe en age wa enough o w n he p e den Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest one being the hereditary ou gh due o a hange n e e o a aw wh h owe ed he pe en age equ ng a uno e e dictatorship of the Somoza family for much of the 20th century. The Somoza family came to on om 45% o 35% w h a 5% ma g n o o power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional, or the National Guard, to replace the U.S. marines that had long reigned in the country.
The Spanish conquest:
Colonization to independence:
Independence Day C O S TA R I C A - S e p 1 5
Costa Rica officially the Republic of Costa Rica (Spanish: Costa Rica orRepública de Costa Rica, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkosta ˈrika]) is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the south, the Pacific Ocean to the west and south and the Caribbean Sea to the east. Costa Rica, which means "Rich Coast", constitutionally abolished its army permanently in 1949. It is the only Latin American country included in the list of the world's 22 older democracies. Costa Rica has consistently been among the top Latin American countries in the Human Development Index, ranked 62nd in the world in 2010, and is cited by the UNDP as one of the countries that have attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels. The country is ranked third in the world, and first among the Americas, in terms of the 2010 Environmental Performance Index. In 2007, the Costa Rican government announced plans for Costa Rica to become the first carbon-neutral country by 2021. According to the New Economics Foundation, Costa Rica ranks first in the Happy Planet Index and is the "greenest" country in the world.
History
Economic growth:
Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian region. The northwest of the country, Nicoya Peninsula, was the southernmost reach of the Nahuatl culture when the Spanishconquistadors arrived in the 16th century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. The impact of the peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through miscegenation, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama.
United States intervention (1909–1933):
The Somoza Dynasty (1936–1979):
A pre Co omb an ncense burner w h a c r oc od e d 500 – 1350 AD r om C os a R c a
Independence:
Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica, even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León. Like other Central Spanish nations, Costa Rica considered annexation to the short-lived First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide, but, after its collapse in 1823, Costa Rica became instead a province of the new Federal Republic of Central America, which theoretically existed from 1823 to 1839, but which exercised a very loose authority over its constituent provinces, particularly the poor and remote Costa Rica. In 1824, the Costa Rican capital was moved to San José, leading to a brief outburst of violence over rivalry with the old capital, Cartago. While civil wars raged both among the provinces of the Federal Republic of Central America and between political factions within individual provinces, Costa Rica remained largely at peace. In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica's reluctance to become politically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration.
Economic growth:
Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in the early 19th century, and was first shipped to Europe in 1843, soon becoming Costa Rica's first major export. Coffee production would remain Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century. Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas. Since the main market for the coffee was in Europe, it soon became a high priority to develop a transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890. Most Afro-Costa Ricans, who constitute about 3% of the country's population, descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway. United States convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreignowned corporations (including the United Fruit Company) began to hold a major role in the national economy.
20th century:
Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability compared with many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917–19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century. The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether, and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the junta relinquished its power on November 8, 1949, to the new democratic government. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 13 presidential elections, the latest in 2010. All of them have been widely regarded by the international community as peaceful and transparent.
Patriot Day U S - S e p 11
In the United States, Patriot Day occurs on September 11 of each year, designated in memory of the 2,977 killed in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Most Americans who were alive during the events refer to the day as "Nine-Eleven (9/11)", "September Eleventh", or some variation thereof. Initially, the day was called the Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001. U.S. House of Representatives Joint Resolution 71 was approved by a vote of 407–0 on October 25, 2001. It requested that the President designate September 11 of each year as "Patriot Day". President George W. Bush signed the resolution into law on December 18, 2001 (as Public Law 107-89). It is a discretionary day of remembrance. On September 4, 2002, President Bush used his authority created by the resolution and proclaimed September 11, 2002 as Patriot Day. On this day, the President directs that the American flag be flown at half-staff at individual American homes, at the White House, and on all U.S. government buildings and establishments, home and abroad. The President also asks Americans to observe a moment of silence beginning at 8:46 A.M. (Eastern Daylight Time), the time the first plane struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.
History A bill to make September 11 a mourning day was introduced in the U.S. House on October 25, 2001, by Republican
Vito Fossella (R-NY) with 22 co-sponsors, among them eleven Democrats and eleven Republicans. It passed the House by a vote of 407–0, with 25 members not voting, and passed the Senate unanimously on November 30. It was signed by President Bush, without ceremony, on December 18 as Public Law No. 107-89. Its original co-sponsors in the House were: Gary Ackerman (D-NY) Rick Boucher (D-VA) Eliot L. Engel (D-NY) Phil English (R-PA) Randy Forbes (R-VA) Benjamin A. Gilman (R-NY) Felix Grucci, Jr. (R-NY) Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) Steve Israel (D-NY) Peter T. King (R-NY) Ray LaHood (R-IL) Nita Lowey (D-NY) Carolyn B. Maloney (D-NY) Michael R. McNulty (D-NY) Jim Moran (D-VA) Jerrold Nadler (D-NY) John E. Peterson (R-PA) Thomas M. Reynolds (R-NY) Ed Schrock (R-VA) Don Sherwood (R-PA) Ed Towns (D-NY) James T. Walsh (R-NY)
Preservation of the Ozone Layer Worldwide - Sep 16
Sep embe 16 wa de gna ed b he Un ed Na on Gene a A emb a he n e na ona Da o he P e e a on o he O one La e Th de gna on wa made on De embe 19 1994 n ommemo a on o he da e n 1987 on wh h na on gned he Mon ea P o o o on Sub an e ha Dep e e he O one La e
Heroes' Day ANGOLA - Sep 17
1990s and he Pos Sand n s a era
n Ango a Na ona He oe Da Sep embe 17 he b h and da o he na ona he o Ago nho Ne o
History Ago nho Ne o
wa bo n n Sep embe 17 1922 n he age o o o n Bengo p o n e Ango a Ne o omp e ed hoo and h gh hen wo ed o he Po ugue e Co on a Hea h Se e un 1947 He a e ed o Po uga o ud med ne when he wa p o ded w h und b h home age Wh e ud ng n Ne o Po uga made end w h o he uden om A a and o med an A a u u a o e Yea a e membe o h g oup be ame eade o an o on a mo emen n A a o ume o poe n 1948 and h wa o owed b au ho e a e ng h m o he Ago nho pub hed h me A e e o a e o owed wh h n e up ed h ud e n 1956 he o ned he Mo men o Popu a da L be a ão de Ango a MPLA Popu a Mo emen o he L be a on o Ango a He wa a owed o omp e e h ud e n 1958 The he e u ned o Ango a w h h new w e Ma a Eugén a da S a n Ango a he e up a e n g ne o og med a p a ampa gn aga n he Po ugue e o on a Ago nho Ne o wa a e ed aga n n une 6 1960 be au e o h end and uppo e whe e ed upon b he po e when he o how he adm n a on o Ango a Pa en uppo 30 we e ed and 200 mo e we e n u ed Po ugue e au ho e he d h m n e e n Cape Ve de and na n L bon he e he w o e a e ond o ume o poe The Po ugue e au ho e e ea ed Ne o n o hou e a e n L bon o ow ng u a ned n e na ona p e u e Ne o a e e aped and wen o Mo o o and hen Za e – o n ng he Ango an L be a on mo emen n e e He a e be ame p e den o he MPLA n 1962 n 1974 Po uga unde wen he Re o u ão do C a o Ca na on Re o u on Ma e o Cae ano wa emo ed oup d é a and ed a ea a e o a demo a e e on Po uga A an o on e aw a eade b a m a e n ng On 11 No embe 1975 he MPLA de a ed ndependen e n Ango a n No embe 11 Ago nho Ne o wa p o a med p e den Ago nho Ne o d ed n 10 Sep embe 1979 n Mo ow Ru a whe e he had a e ed o e e e ea men
TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS AND ACTIVITIES e p epa ed o he e eb a on o wh h n ude a e e ng ng o A da ong p og am o a An hem and pa o
P edge
The e a e o owed b dan ng
ng ng mu
Honduras (Spanish: República de Honduras, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe onˈduɾas]; literally Republic of Honduras) is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize. The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea. Honduras was home to several important indigenous cultures, most notably the Maya. Much of the country was conquered by Spain who introduced its predominant language and many of its customs in the sixteenth century. It became independent in 1821 and has been a republic since the end of Spanish rule. Its size is just over 112,492 km² with an estimated population of almost eight million. Its capital is Tegucigalpa. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone. It is notable for its production of minerals, tropical fruit, and recently for exportation of clothing for the international market.
Etymology Higueras – a reference to the gourds that come from the Ji
Spanish colonization:
During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (i.e., Mexico), but which in practice operated as a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law to trade with its southern neighbors in Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e., Colombia), and the lack of resources, such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719. Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for forced labor, which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land, preventing the establishment of large haciendas. For all these reasons, Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.
Independence Day HONDURAS - Sep 15
and pa ade
he Na ona
caro tree, many of which were found floating in the waters off the northwest coast of Honduras. Honduras – literally "depths" in Spanish. Columbus is tradi tionally quoted as having written"Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras" (English: "Thank God we have come out of those depths") while along the northeastern coast. However, William Davidson notes that there is no form of this quotation in the primary documents of Colum bus's voyage, and that it in fact comes from accounts over a century later. Honduras from fondura, a Leonese language word meaning anchorage which is one of the first words for the region to appear on a map in the second decade of the 16th century applied to the bay of Trujillo. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province. Prior to 1580, Honduras referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part.
History
Pre-Colonial Period:
In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Honduras's borders was that based in Copán. Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic, the early 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Ch'orti', isolated from their Choltian linguistic peers to the west. Remains of other PreColumbian cultures are found throughout the coun- M a y a n S t e l a e , a n e m try. Archaeologists have b l e m a t i c s y m b o l o f t h e studied sites such as Naco Mayan civiand La Sierra in the Naco H o n d u r a n Valley, Los Naranjos on liza tion a t C opa n. Lake Yojoa, Yarumela in the Comayagua Valley, La Ceiba and Salitron Viejo (both now under the Cajon Dam reservoir), Selin Farm and Cuyamel in the Aguan valley, Cerro Palenque, Travesia, Curruste, Ticamaya, Despoloncal in the lower Ulua river valley, and many others.
Conquest Period:
On his fourth and the final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European to visit the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras. Columbus landed near the modern town of Trujillo, in vicinity of the the Guaimoreto Lagoon. In 1524 the Spanish arrived on Honduras led by Hernan Cortes, bring forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the following two decades, first Fortaleza de San Fernando by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those de Omoa is a Fort built by the loyal of Francisco Montejo Spanish to protect the coast but most particularly by those following Alvarado. In of Honduras from English piaddition to Spanish re- rates. sources, the conquerors relied heavily armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans and Mexica armies of thousands who lived on in the region as garrisons. Resistance to conquest was led in particularly by Lempira,and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spain's vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala. Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals. The Spanish ruled the region for approximately three centuries.
Colonial Period:
Honduras was organized as a province of the "Kingdom of Guatemala" and the capital was fixed, first at Trujillo on the Atlantic coast, and later at Comayagua, and finally at Tegucigalpa in the central part of the country. Silver mining was a key factor in the Spanish conquest and settlement of Honduras. Initially the mines were worked by local people through the encomienda system, but as disease and resistance made this less available, slaves from other parts of Central America were brought in, and following the end of the local slave trading period at the end of the sixteenth century, African slaves, mostly from Angola were obtained. After about 1650, very few slaves or other outside workers arrived in Honduras. Although the Spanish conquered the southern or Pacific portion of Honduras fairly quickly they were less successful in the northern or Atlantic side. They managed to found a few towns along the coast, at Puerto Caballos and Trujillo in particular, but failed to conquer the eastern portion of the region and many pockets of independent indigenous people as well. The Miskito Kingdom, located in the northeast was particularly effective in resisting conquest. The Miskitos, in turn found support from northern European privateers, pirates and especially the English colony of Jamaica, which placed much of it under their protection after 1740.
Independence and the nineteenth century:
Honduras became independent from Spain in 1821 and was for a time under the Mexican Empire. After 1838 it was an independent republic and held regular elections. Comayagua was the capital of Honduras until 1880, when it was transferred to Tegucigalpa. In the decades of 1840 and 1850 Honduras participated in several failed attempts to restore Central American unity, such as the Confederation of Central America (1842–1845), the covenant of Guatemala (1842), the Diet of Sonsonate ( 1846), the Diet of Nacaome (1847) and National Representation in Central America (1849–1852). Although Honduras eventually adopted the name Republic of Honduras, the unionist ideal never waned, and Honduras was one of the Central American countries that pushed hardest for the policy of regional unity. Since independence, nearly 300 small internal rebellions and civil wars have occurred in the country, including some changes of government. Liberal policies favoring international trade and investment began in the 1870s, and soon foreign interests became involved first in shipping, especially tropical fruit (most notably bananas) from the north coast, and then in railway building. In 1888, a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, Tegucigalpa, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula, resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city.
International influence in the 20th century:
In the late nineteenth century United States-based infrastructure and fruit growing companies were granted substantial land and exemptions to develop the northern regions. As a result, thousands of workers came to the north coast to work in the banana plantations and the other industries that grew up around the export industry. The banana exporting companies, dominated by Cuyamel Fruit Company (until 1930),United Fruit Company, and Standard Fruit Company, built an enclave economy in northern Honduras, controlling infrastructure and creating self-sufficient, tax exempt sectors that contributed relatively little to economic growth. In addition to drawing many Central American workers to the north, the fruit companies also encouraged immigration of workers from the English-speaking Caribbean, notably Jamaica and Belize, who introduced an African descended, English speaking and largely Protestant population into the country, though many left after changes in the immigration law in 1939. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Honduras joined the Allied Nations on 8 December 1941. Along with twenty-five other governments, Honduras signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942. Constitutional crises in the 1940s led to reforms in the 1950s, and as a result of one such reform, workers were given permission to organize, which led to a general strike in 1954 that paralyzed the northern part of the country for more than two months, but which led to more general reforms. In 1969, Honduras and El Salvador fought what would become known as the Football Warfutbal. There had been border tensions between the two countries after Oswaldo López Arellano, a former president of Honduras, blamed the deteriorating economy on the large number of immigrants from El Salvador. From that point on, the relationship between the two countries grew acrimonious and reached a low when El Salvador met Honduras for a three-round football elimination match as a preliminary to the World Cup. Tensions escalated, and on 14 March 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack on the Honduras army. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire, which took effect on 20 July and brought about a withdrawal of Salvadoran troops in early August. Contributing factors to the conflict were a boundary dispute and the presence of thousands of Salvadorans living in Honduras illegally. After the week-long football war, many Salvadoran families and workers were expelled. El Salvador had agreed on a truce to settle the boundary issue, but Honduras later paid war damage costs for expelled refugees. Hurricane Fifi caused severe damage while skimming the northern coast of Honduras on 18 and 19 September 1974. Melgar Castro (1975–78) and Paz Garcia (1978–82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras. In 1979, the country returned to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo assumed power. Roberto Suazo won the elections with a promise to carry out an ambitious program of economic and social development in Honduras in order to tackle the country's recession. President Roberto Suazo Cordoba launched ambitious social and economic development projects, sponsored by American development aid. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. During the early 1980s, the United States established a continuing military presence in Honduras with the purpose of supporting the Contra guerillas fighting the Nicaraguan government and also developed an air strip and a modern port in Honduras. Though spared the bloody civil wars wracking its neighbors, the Honduran army quietly waged a campaign against MarxistLeninist militias such as Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement, notorious for kidnappings and bombings, and many non-militants. The operation included a CIA-backed campaign of extrajudicial killings by governmentbacked units, most notably Battalion 316. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused such massive and widespread destruction that former Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed that fifty years of progress in the country were reversed. Mitch obliterated about 70% of the crops and an estimated 70–80% of the transportation infrastructure, including nearly all bridges and secondary roads. Across the country, 33,000 houses were destroyed, an additional 50,000 damaged, some 5,000 people killed, 12,000 injured – for a total loss estimated at $3 billion USD.
21st century:
The 2008 Honduran floods were severe and around half the country's roads were damaged or destroyed as a result. In 2009, a constitutional crisis culminated in a transfer of power from the president to the head of Congress. Countries all over the world, the OAS, and the UN formally and unanimously condemned the action as a coup d'étatand refused to recognize the de facto government, though a document submitted to the United States Congress declared the ouster to be legal according to the opinion of the lawyers consulted by the Library of Congress. In any event the Honduran Supreme Court also ruled the proceedings to be legal.
Page: 2
Independence Day E L S A LVA D O R - S e p 1 5
El Salvador (ɛl ˈsælvədɔr/; Spanish: República de El Salvador, literally meaning Republic of The Savior) is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country and in all of Central America. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean to the west, toughed in between Guatemala to the north and Honduras to the east, with its eastern-most region lying on the Gulf of Fonseca across from Nicaragua. As of 2009, El Salvador has a population of approximately 5,744,113 people, composed predominantly of Mestizo, mixed biracial Native American/European ancestry and White/Caucasian. The colón was the official currency of El Salvador from 1892 to 2001, when it adopted the U.S. Dollar. In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and in the top 3 in Central America (behind Costa Rica and Panama); because of this, the country is currently undergoing rapid industrialization. El Salvador was explored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century, the country broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union consisting of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua – named the Federal Republic of Central America. When the latter dissolved in 1841, El Salvador then joined the Greater Republic of Central America in 1896 with Honduras and Nicaragua; which later dissolved in 1898. El Salvador has a long history, with origins dating back to the Spanish conquest of the Pipil people of Cuzcatlán, which means The Place of Precious Diamonds and Jewels. The people from El Salvador are variably referred to as Salvadoran or Salvadorian, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage.
History
Pre-Columbian:
In pre-Columbian times, the territory was inhabited by various Native Americans, including the Pipil, a Nahuatl-origin population that occupied the central and western regions of the territory; Lenca who settled in the east of the country. But the larger domain until the Spanish conquest of the kingdom was Cuzcatlán. The Maya inhabited El Salvador with ruins such as Tazumal, Joya De Ceren, San Andres, Casa Blanca, Cihuatan, and Chalchuapa.
Discovery:
In 1520 the indigenous population of the territory had been reduced by 50% due to the smallpox epidemic that affected the mesoamerican area. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño, lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on Meanguera island which he named Petronila in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31, 1522. There after discovered Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River. This was the first Salvadoran territory visited by the Spaniards.
Conquest of Cuzcatlán:
The Spanish Conquistadores led by Pedro de quintanilla and his brother Gonzalo arrived between 1524 and 1525 from the area comprising the present Republic of Guatemala after participating in the conquest of Mexico and crossed the Rio Paz (Peace River) into what is now the Republic of El Salvador. The Pipil had no treasure but held land that had rich and fertile soil, good for farming. This both disappointed and garnered attention from the Spaniards who were shocked not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador like they did in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico. Pedro de Alvarado led the first effort by Spanish forces to extend their dominion to the nation of Cuzcatlán (El Salvador), in June 1524. On June 8, 1524, the conquerors arrived in the neighborhoods of Acajutla at a village called Acaxual. There, a battle culminated according to records, witnessing full fields of military people, and the Pipils wearing cotton armor (of three fingers of thickness according to Alvarado), and armed with long lances. This circumstance would be crucial in the development of the battle. Alvarado approached the Pipils with a crossbow shot”, but the natives did not move. The conqueror noticed the proximity of nearby hill, and knew that it could be a hiding place for his rivals. Alvarado pretended that his army had given up the battle and had retreated. The Pipils that suddenly rushed on the invaders giving Alvarado to opportunity to succeed in an implacable defeat. The Pipils that fell to the ground could not get back on their feet, by the weight and the hindrance of their cotton armor, which aided the slaughter by the Spanish of them. In words of Alvarado: “the destruction was so great that in just a short time there were none which were left alive… ”. However, Alvarado's army were not completely unscathed. In the battle Alvarado himself was struck by a sling in the leg, fracturing his (femur). According to local tradition the sling that hit the conquistador was by a Pipil (Tatoni) a Prince, named Atonal. The infection lasted about eight months and it left him partially crippled for the rest of his life. In spite of it, he continued the conquest campaign with relish. Spaniard efforts were firmly resisted by the indigenous people known as the Pipil and their Mayan speaking neighbors. Despite Alvarado's initial success in the Battle of Acajutla, the indigenous people of Cuzcatlán, who according to tradition were led by a warlord called Atlacatl, defeated the Spaniards and forced them to withdraw to Guatemala. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded on his left thigh, remaining handicapped for the rest of his life. He abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the task. Two subsequent expeditions were S p a n i s h b u i l t S a n t a A n a C a t h e required (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) to bring the Pipil under Spanish control. In 1525 the conquest dr a l of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established. They faced much resistance from the Pipiles and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas. Finally, with more forces, the Spanish established the garrison town of San Miguel, headed by Luis de Moscoso, explorer and conquistador in 1526. Maya-Lenca woman, Princess Antu Silan Ulap, who organized resistance to the domination of the Conquistadores who were in search of profits and riches. Antu Silan Ulap was the crown Princess of the Lencas. Under Crown Princess Antu Silan Ulap I, daughter of Asisilcan Nachan I y Lady of Uluazapa, Monarch of the Lencas. Her kingdom saw the invasion headed by Luis de Moscoso. Her way of dealing with the Spanish was to organize. She went from village to village uniting all the Lencas towns in present day El Salvador and Honduras. Through surprise and large numbers they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy the garrison. For ten years, the Lencas kept the Spanish from being able to build a permanent settlement. The Spanish returned with more forces, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Mexico and Guatemala. They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá. Antu Silan Ulap continued leading the forces until, late in pregnancy, she slipped out of the conflicted area to a safe haven, Tihuilotal, to give birth to twins, a baby girl and a baby boy, the children were Atonim Silan I, daughter of princess Antu Silan Ulap I and Prince Salaiki Kanul from Sesori. They had two sons and a daughter who lived in the mountains near the lake Olomega and Maquigue, in this way they escaped the hunters. Tihuilotal is a little southwest of the present city of La Unión, near the source of the sacred Managuara River. She handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira). Lempira was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and he used their weapons, captured in battle. Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in El Salvador and Honduras until finally he was killed in battle and the remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills. The Spanish were able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537.
Spanish rule/Colony and Independence:
In the early sixteenth century, the Spanish conquistadors ventured into ports to extend their dominion to the area. They called the land "Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo" ("Province of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior of the World"), which was subsequently abbreviated to "El Salvador (The Savior)". During the colonial period, El Salvador was part of the General Captaincy of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala. The Salvadoran territory was divided into the Mayor of Sonsonate and San Salvador, the latter being built as a Quartermaster in the late eighteenth century. In 1811 and 1814 there were major uprisings against Spanish rule that expressed concern for the independence of the Creoles. Finally, the Central American nations won their independence from Spain on September 15, 1821. On January 5, 1822, the Central American provinces, despite the opposition of the elite Salvadoran and Guatemalan intellectuals, joined the Mexican Empire. In 1823, as the rule of Agustín de Iturbide (Agustin I) fell apart, the five countries of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) formed the United Provinces of Central America, which lasted until 1838 and was finally dissolved in 1841. Towards the end of 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from the Spanish Crown. The most important internal factor was the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities. The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the eighteenth century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively. On the 5th of November 1811, Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado, rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement. This insurrection was suppressed and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail. Another insurrection was launched in 1814, and again it was suppressed. Finally, on September 15, 1821, in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the 'Acta de Independencia' (Deed of Independence) which released all of the Captaincy of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule and declared its Independence. In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with the fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote for joining Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces (Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture). The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the process whereby land became concentrated in the hands of an oligarchy of few families. A succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, throughout the last half of the nineteenth century generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop, on the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, on the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, on the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displacedcampesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labor for the coffee fincas (plantations), and on the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force.
20th century:
The economy was based on coffee growing after the mid-19th century and, as the world market for indigo withered away, C e l e b r a t i o n o f 1 8 4 y e a r s o f i n prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated. El Salvador president Tomas Regalado came to power by force in d e p e n d e n c e i n E l S a l v a d o r, a t 1898 and his regime lasted until 1903. He reinitiated designating presidential successors. Up until 1913 El Salvador had been politically stable, but there was popular discontent as well, president Araujo was killed and there are many hypotheses the Liceo Salvadoreño, a school for his murder. in Sa n Sa lv a dor. Araujo was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927. Pio Romero Bosque, ex-Minister of the Government, succeeded president Jorge Melendez and in 1930 he announced free elections in which Ing. Arturo Araujo came to power on March 1, 1931. His government only lasted nine months. His Labor Party lacked political and government experience and many Labor party members used government offices inefficiently. In that year, Farabundo Martí came back from exile that was ordered by Romero Bosque, sending him toWashington, D.C. and spending time with U.S. President Herbert Hoover. He was visited by some local leftists. President Romero Bosque sent him away before the upcoming 1930 presidential elections for his communist activities. President Araujo faced popular discontent as people expected economic reforms and land. Demonstrations started since the first week of his government in front of the National Palace. His Minister of War was General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez and his National Police Director Rochac, the president's brother-in-law. A coup d'état was organized by junior officers and the first strike started in the First Regiment of Infantry across from the National Palace in downtown San Salvador and only the First Regiment of Calvary and the National Police was loyal to the president and defended him (the National Police had been paid its payroll), but later that night on December 1931, after hours of military fight and outnumbered surrendered to the military revolution. The Directorate (composed of officers) hid behind a shadowy figure, whose name (as told by Thomas Anderson in his book Matanza) wasRodolfo Duke, a rich man and also General Martínez. The causes of the revolt were mainly supposed to be due to the discontent of the army for not being paid by President Araujo for some months. Araujo left the National Palace and later tried to organize to defeat the revolt, but was unable. The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized the government of Vice President Martínez who agreed to have later presidential elections (Martínez resigned in 1934 six months before the presidential elections to be able to run for the presidency and then as the only candidate won the election ruling from 1935 to 1939 and then 19391943 and finally started his 4th term in 1944 but resigned in May after the General strike; Martínez said he was going to respect the Constitution which said he could not be reelected, but he did not). From December 1931, the year of the coup in which Martínez came to power, there was brutal suppression of rural resistance. The most notable event was the February 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising, led by Farabundo Martí and with leaders like Abel Cuenca, and other academic people like Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata. Only Abel Cuenca survived, the other freedom fighters were killed by the government. It was later referred to as La Matanza (the massacre), because President Martinez massacred tens of thousands of peasants.
The PDC and the PCN parties:
In 1960, two political parties were born and are still active in the El Salvador politics; the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN). Both share ideals, but one represents the middle class and the latter the Army. Opposition leader José Napoleón Duarte from the PDC was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the Jose Adalberto Rivera regime (this president allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly). Duarte later ran for president but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections with UNO (National Opposition Union). The official PCN was declared winner with ex-Minister of Interior Col. Arturo Armando Molina. Duarte, at some officers' request, supported a revolt for the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled. Duarte came back to the country in 1979 to enter politics after working in Venezuela projects as an engineer.
The October 1979 coup d'état:
In October 1979, a coup d'état brought Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway because of Duarte's stolen election. Nevertheless, the oligarchy opposed agrarian reform and a junta formed with young liberal elements from the Army such as Gral. Majano and Gral. Gutierrez (reference needed) as well as progressives such as Ungo and Alvarez. Due to the pressure of the staunch oligarchy and the inability to control the Army in repressing its own people because they were fighting for their right to unionize, agrarian reform, better wages, health, freedom of expression, this Junta was dissolved. In the meantime the guerrilla movement was spreading in all sectors of the Salvadoran society. Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block). The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second Junta to change the political environment and stop the spread of a leftist insurrection. Napoleon Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new Junta. However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the Junta was seen as opportunistic by the general population. He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection movement and this resulted in the Salvadoran Civil War (1980–1992).
Civil War (1980 to 1992):
The Salvadoran Civil War was predominantly fought between the government of El Salvador and a coalition of four leftist groups and one communist group known as the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN). Subversive activity started with "El Grupo" (a group that later would be called E.R.P.) and also the FPL that initiated activities after Cayetano Carpio (its leader) broke in ideology from now extinct El Salvador's Communist Party (PCES). In 1970, the FPL guerrilla force was small and did not have military training. Later the FPL was one of the largest organizations inside of the FMLN coalition. In the beginning of the conflict, the PCES did not believe in taking power by force, but through elections. The ERP split off, creating the RN (National Resistance) after ERP leaders killed the leftist poet Roque Dalton, whom they believed had spied for the American CIA. Approximately 75,000 people were killed in the war. The Salvadoran Civil war was fought in the context of the global Cold War, with the United States backing the right wing military Salvadoran government. The United States is reputed to have poured some 5 billion dollars into the war. Some go as far as proclaiming that the formation of Mara Salvatrucha, the criminal gang originating in Los Angeles, is a repercussion of that conflict. On January 16, 1992 the government of El Salvador represented by president Alfredo Cristiani and the guerrillas represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups such as Shafick Handal, Joaquin Villalobos, Salvador Sanchez Ceren, Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho signed the Peace Agreements ending a 12-years civil war in the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico. The international community was present, and there was wide admiration because after the signature of the president he stood up and shook hands with all the now ex-guerrilla commanders. The Peace Agreements included reduction of the Army, the dissolution of the National Police, Treasury Police, National Guard, and the Civilian Defense, a paramilitary group. The organization of a new Civil Police and the end of impunity with which the government would leave recommendation to a Commission of the Truth.
End of the 20th century:
From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favored the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) party, voting in ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca) until 2009, when Mauricio Funes was elected president from the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FLMN) party. Economic reforms since the early 1990s have brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of its export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level, while crime remains a major problem for the investment climate. This all ended in 2001 and support for ARENA weakened. There is internal turmoil in the ARENA party while the FMLN party is growing and united.
21st century:
The unsuccessful attempts of the left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate. On March 15, 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN party. He was inaugurated on June 1, 2009. One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government.
Independence Day G U AT E M A L A - S e p 1 5
Guatemala (pronounced /ˌɡwɑːtəˈmɑːlə/ Spanish: República de Guatemala, Spanish pronunciation: [reˈpuβlika ðe ɣwateˈmala]) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. Its area is 108,890 km² (42,043 mi²) with an estimated population of 13,276,517. A representative democracy, its capital is Guatemala de la Asunción, also known as Guatemala City. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The former Mayan civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization, which continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish. The Mayans lived in Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, the southern part of Mexico and northern parts of El Salvador before European settlers arrived.
Etymology
The origin of the name "Guatemala" is unclear, but several theories exist. "Guatemala" is derived from "Goathemala," which means "the land of the trees" in the Maya-Toltec language.Another theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl expression "Cuauhtitlan," meaning "between the trees." "Cuauhtitlan" was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. Lastly, there is a theory that it is the Spanish corruption of a Nahoa word "coactmoct-lan," meaning "land of the snake eating bird."
History
Pre-Columbian:
The first evidence of human settlers in Guatemala goes back to at least 12000 BC. There is evidence that may put this date as early as 18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast. Archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the pre-Classic period (2000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD), and the Calistic from 900 to 1500 AD. Until recently, the Pre-Classic was regarded as a formative period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts, and few permanent buildings, but this notion has been challenged by recent discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, from 1000 BC; ceremonial sites at Miraflores and El Naranjo from 801 BC; the earliest monumental masks; and the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, El Tintal, Wakná and El Mirador. El Mirador was by far the most populated city in pre-Columbian America Both the El Tigre and Monos pyramids encompass a volume greater than 250,000 cubic meters. Mirador was the first politically organized state in America, named the Kan Kingdom in ancient texts. There were 26 cities, all connected by Sacbeob (highways), which were several kilometers long, up to 40 meters wide, and two to four meters above the ground, paved with stucco, that are clearly distinguishable from the air in the most extensive virgin tropical rain forest in Mesoamerica. The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization, and is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala, although the largest concentration is in Petén. This period is characterized by heavy city-building, the development of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures. This lasted until around 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. Scientists debate the cause of the Classic Maya Collapse, but gaining currency is the Drought Theory discovered by physical scientists studying lakebeds, ancient pollen, and other tangible evidence. A series of prolonged droughts in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya, who were primarily reliant upon regular rainfall. The Post-Classic period is represented by regional kingdoms, such as the Itzá and Ko'woj in the lakes area in Petén, and the Mam, Ki'ch'es, Kack'chiquel, Tz'utuh'il, Pokom'chí, Kek'chi and Chortí in the Highlands. These cities preserved many aspects of Mayan culture, but would never equal the size or power of the Classic cities. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected from Honduras, Guatemala, Northern El Salvador and to as far as central Mexico, more than 1000 km (625 miles) from the Maya area. Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to result from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest.
Colonial:
After arriving in what was named the New World, the Spanish started several expeditions to Guatemala, beginning in 1519. Before long, Spanish contact resulted in an epidemic that devastated native populations. Hernán Cortés, who had led the Spanish conquest of Mexico, granted a permit to Captains Gonzalo de Alvarado and his brother, Pedro de Alvarado, to conquer this land. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Kaqchikel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' (Quiché) nation. Alvarado later turned against the Kaqchikel, and eventually held the entire region under Spanish domination. Several families of Spanish descent subsequently rose to prominence in colonial Guatemala, including the surnames de Arrivillaga, Arroyave, Alvarez de las Asturias, González de Batres, Coronado, Gálvez Corral, Mencos, Delgado de Nájera, de la Tovilla, and Varón de Berrieza. During the colonial period, Guatemala was an Audiencia and a Captaincy General (Capitanía General de Guatemala) of Spain, and a part ofNew Spain (Mexico). It extended from the modern Mexican states of Tabasco and Chiapas (including the then separate administration of Soconusco) to Costa Rica. This region was not as rich in minerals (gold and silver) as Mexico and Peru, and was therefore not considered to be as important. Its main products were sugarcane, cocoa, blue añil dye, red dye from cochineal insects, and precious woods used in artwork for churches and palaces in Spain. The first capital was named Tecpan Guatemala, founded on July 25, 1524 with the name of Villa de Santiago de Guatemala and was located near Iximché, the Kaqchikel capital city. It was moved to Ciudad Vieja on November 22, 1527, when the Kaqchikel attacked the city. On September 11, 1541 the city was flooded when the lagoon in the crater of the Agua Volcano collapsed due to heavy rains and earthquakes, and was moved 4 miles (6 km) to Antigua, on the Panchoy Valley, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This city was destroyed by several earthquakes in 1773–1774, and the King of Spain granted the authorization to move the capital to the Ermita Valley, named after a Catholic church to the Virgen de El Carmen, in its current location, founded on January 2, 1776.
Independence and 19th century:
On September 15, 1821, the Captaincy-general of Guatemala (formed by Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras) officially proclaimed its independence from Spain and its incorporation into the Mexican Empire, which was dissolved two years later. This region had been formally subject to New Spain throughout the colonial period, but as a practical matter was administered separately. All but Chiapas soon separated from Mexico after Agustín I from Mexico was forced to abdicate. The Guatemalan provinces formed the United Provinces of Central America, also called the Central American Federation (Federacion de Estados Centroamericanos). That federation dissolved in civil war from 1838 to 1840. Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. During this period a region of the Highlands, Los Altos, declared independence from Guatemala, but was annexed by Carrera, who dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church. Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador. From 1898 to 1920, Guatemala was ruled by the dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera, whose access to the presidency was helped by the United Fruit Company. It was during his long presidency that the United Fruit Company became a major force in Guatemala.
1944 to present day:
On July 4, 1944, Dictator Jorge Ubico Castañeda was forced to resign his office in response to a wave of protests and a general strike. His replacement, General Juan Federico Ponce Vaides, was later also forced out of office on October 20, 1944 by a coup d'état led by Major Francisco Javier Arana and Captain Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán. About 100 people were killed in the coup. The country was led by a military junta made up of Arana, Arbenz, and Jorge Toriello Garrido. The Junta called Guatemala's first free election, which was won with a majority of 85 percent by the prominent writer and teacher Juan José Arévalo Bermejo, who had lived in exile in Argentina for 14 years. Arévalo was the first democratically elected president of Guatemala to fully complete the term for which he was elected. His "Christian Socialist" policies, inspired by the U.S. New Deal, were criticized by landowners and the upper class as "communist." This period was also the beginning of the Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR, which was to have a considerable influence on Guatemalan history. From the 1950s through the 1990s, the U.S. government directly supported Guatemala's army with training, weapons, and money. In 1954, Arévalo's freely elected Guatemalan successor, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état. He considered himself a socialist. After his land reform, the CIA intervened because it feared that a socialist government would become a Soviet beachhead in the Western Hemisphere. Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas was installed as president in 1954 and ruled until he was assassinated by a member of his personal guard in 1957. Substantial evidence points to the role of the American United Fruit Company (which changed its name in 1970 to Chiquita Brands International Inc) as instrumental in this coup, as the land reforms of Jacobo Arbenz were threatening the company's interests in Guatemala and it had several direct ties to the White House and the CIA. (See United Fruit Company – History in Central America). In the election that followed, General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes assumed power. He is most celebrated for challenging the Mexican president to a gentleman's duel on the bridge on the south border to end a feud on the subject of illegal fishing by Mexican boats on Guatemala's Pacific coast, two of which were sunk by the Guatemalan Air Force. Ydigoras authorized the training of 5,000 anti-Castro Cubans in Guatemala. He also provided airstrips in the region of Petén for what later became the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961. Ydigoras' government was ousted in 1963 when the Guatemalan Air Force attacked several military bases. The coup was led by his Defense Minister, Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia. In 1966, Julio César Méndez Montenegro was elected president of Guatemala under the banner "Democratic Opening." Mendez Montenegro was the candidate of the Revolutionary Party, a center-left party which had its origins in the post-Ubico era. It was during this time that rightistparamilitary organizations, such as the "White Hand" (Mano Blanca), and the Anticommunist Secret Army, (Ejército Secreto Anticomunista), were formed. Those organizations were the forerunners of the infamous "Death Squads". Military advisers from the United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets) were sent to Guatemala to train troops and help transform its army into a modern counter-insurgency force, which eventually made it the most sophisticated in Central America. In 1970, Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio was elected president. A new guerrilla movement entered the country from Mexico, into the Western Highlands in 1972. In the disputed election of 1974, General Kjell Laugerud García defeated General Efraín Ríos Montt, a candidate of the Christian Democratic Party, who claimed that he had been cheated out of a victory through fraud. On February 4, 1976, a major earthquake destroyed several cities and caused more than 25,000 deaths. In 1978, in a fraudulent election, General Romeo Lucas García assumed power. The 1970s saw the birth of two new guerrilla organizations, The Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP) and the Organization of the People in Arms (ORPA), who began and intensified by the end of the seventies, guerrilla attacks that included urban and rural guerrilla warfare, mainly against the military and some of the civilian supporters of the army. In 1979, the U.S. president, Jimmy Carter, ordered a ban on all military aid to the Guatemalan Army because of the widespread and systematic abuse of human rights. In 1980, a group of indigenous K'iche' took over the Spanish Embassy to protest army massacres in the countryside. The Guatemalan government launched an assault that killed almost everyone inside as a result of a fire that consumed the building. The Guatemalan government claimed that the activists set the fire and immolated themselves. However, the Spanish ambassador, who survived the fire, disputed this claim, claiming that the Guatemalan police intentionally killed almost everyone inside and set the fire to erase traces of their acts. As a result of this incident, the government of Spain broke diplomatic relations with Guatemala. This government was overthrown in 1982. General Efraín Ríos Montt was named President of the military junta, continuing the bloody campaign of torture, forced disappearances, and "scorched earth" warfare. The country became a pariah state internationally. Ríos Montt was overthrown by General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who called for an election of a national constitutional assembly to write a new constitution, leading to a free election in 1986, which was won by Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party. In 1982, the four guerrilla groups, EGP, ORPA, FAR and PGT, merged and formed the URNG, influenced by the Salvadoran guerrilla FMLN, the Nicaraguan FSLN and Cuba's government, in order to become stronger. As a result of the Army's "scorched earth" tactics in the countryside, more than 45,000 Guatemalans fled across the border to Mexico. The Mexican government placed the refugees in camps inChiapas and Tabasco. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberta Menchú for her efforts to bring international attention to the government-sponsoredgenocide against the indigenous population. The Guatemalan Civil War ended in 1996 with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government, negotiated by the United Nations through intense brokerage by nations such as Norway and Spain. Both sides made major concessions. The guerrilla fighters disarmed and received land to work. According to the U.N.-sponsored truth commission the ("Commission for Historical Clarification"), government forces and state-sponsored paramilitaries were responsible for over 93% of the human rights violations during the war. During the first ten years, the victims of the state-sponsored terror were primarily students, workers, professionals, and opposition figures, but in the last years they were thousands of mostly rural Mayan farmers and non-combatants. More than 450 Mayan villages were destroyed and over 1 million people became displaced within Guatemala or refugees. Over 200,000 people, mostly Mayan, were killed during the civil war. In certain areas, such as Baja Verapaz, the Truth Commission considered that the Guatemalan state engaged in an intentional policy of genocide against particular ethnic groups in the Civil War. In 1999, U.S. president Bill Clinton stated that the United States was wrong to have provided support to Guatemalan military forces that took part in the brutal civilian killings. Since the peace accords, Guatemala has witnessed successive democratic elections, most recently in 2007. The past government has signed free trade agreements with the United States and the rest of Central America through CAFTA, and other agreements with Mexico. In 2007 elections were held in Guatemala. The National Unity of Hope and its president candidate Álvaro Colom won the presidency as well as the majority of the seats in congress. The current average age in Guatemala is 19.4 years old, 18.9 for males and 20 years for females. This is the lowest median age of any country in the Western Hemisphere and comparable to most of central Africa and Afghanistan. This median age is significant in that it is indicative of low life expectancy as a result of disease, underdevelopment and minimal formal education. Further, indications of widespread under reported violence and longer-term social attitudes have curiously perpetuated systemic violence towards women. In addition, drug traffic involvement may co-relate with age demographic mortality in urban areas of Guatemala.
Día de la Independencia MEXICO - Sep 16
The United Mexican States (Spanish: commonly known as Mexico (pronounced ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México [ˈmexiko]), is afederal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 112 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city. In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as theOlmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base inMéxico-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party. Mexico has one of the world's largest economies, and is considered both a regional power and middle power., In addition, Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD (since 1994), and a firmly established upper-middle income country. Mexico is considered a newly industrialized country and an emerging power. It has the thirteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity. The economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners, especially the United States. Mexico ranks fifth in the world and first in the Americas by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites with 31, and in 2007 was the tenth most visited country in the world with 21.4 million international arrivals.
Etymology
TAfter New Spain won independence from Spain, it was decided that the new country would be named after its capital, Mexico City, which was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Aztec capital of México-Tenochtitlan. The name comes from the Nahuatl language, but its meaning is not well known. Anáhuac is the term used by the Aztecs to refer to the territory they dominated, e.g. the empire as a whole, including tributary peoples; and as such was among the terms proposed for the name of the new country prior to independence, as in, for example, Congress of Anáhuac, another name for the Congress of Chilpancingo. Mēxihco was the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica, and surrounding territories which became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence (compare Latium). It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley which became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result, or vice versa. The suffix -co is almost certainly the Nahuatl locative, turning the word into a place name. Beyond that, the etymology is uncertain. It has been suggested that it is derived from Mextli or Mēxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Aztecs, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mēxihco means "Place where Huitzilopochtli lives". Another hypothesis suggests that Mēxihcoderives from a portmanteau of the Nahuatl words for "moon" (mētztli) and navel (xīctli). This meaning ("Place at the Center of the Moon") might then refer to Tenochtitlan's position in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form m a g e o M e x c o Te n o c h an of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericans pareidolically associated with the moon. Still another hypothesis suggests r om he C ode x Me ndoza that it is derived from Mēctli, the goddess of maguey. The name of the city-state was transliterated to Spanish as México with the phonetic value of the <x> in Medieval Spanish, which represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ]. This sound, as well as the voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒ], represented by a <j>, evolved into a voiceless velar fricative [x] during the sixteenth century. This led to the use of the variant Méjico in many publications in Spanish, most notably in Spain, whereas in Mexico and most other Spanish– speaking countries México was the preferred spelling. In recent years the Real Academia Española, which regulates the Spanish language, determined that both variants are acceptable in Spanish but that the normative recommended spelling is México. The majority of publications in all Spanish-speaking countries now adhere to the new norm, even though the alternative variant is still occasionally used. In English, the <x> in Mexico represents neither the original nor the current sound, but the consonant cluster [ks]. The official name of the country has changed as the form of government has changed. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos—or the variants Estados Unidos mexicanos and Estados-Unidos Mexicanos, all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The term República Mexicana, "Mexican Republic" was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws.
History
Ancient cultures:
The earliest human remains in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to ca. 21,000 BCE. Around 9,000 years ago, ancient indigenous peoples domesticated corn and initiated an agricultural revolution, leading to the formation of many complex civilizations. Between 1,800 and 300 BCE, many matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as: the Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan,Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purepecha, Totonac, Toltec and Aztec: Mexica, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations are credited with many inventions and advancements in fields such as architecture (pyramid-temples), mathematics, astronomy, medicine and theology. The Aztecs were noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale. At its peak, Teotihuacan, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas, had a population of more than 150,000 people. Estimates of the population before the Spanish conquest range from 6 million to 25 million. At the time of Spanish contact, Teotihuacan was no longer occupied, although the site was well-known; the population of the Aztec Empire and its immediate predecessors had become centered on Lake Texcoco, also in the Valley of Mexico, where the island city of Tenochtitlan was founded in 1325.
New Spain:
In the early 16th century, from the landing of Hernán Cortés, the Aztec civilization was invaded and conquered by the Spaniards. Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors, smallpox ravaged Mesoamerica in the 1520s, killing millions of Aztecs, including the emperor, and was credited with the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec empire. The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under the name of New Spain. Mexico City was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico were created during the colonial period.
Independence:
On September 16, 1810, independence from Spain was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato. The first insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militia captain Juan Aldama and "La Corregidora" Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured andexecuted by firing squad in Chihuahua, on July 31, 1811. Following his death, the leadership was assumed by priest José María Morelos, who occupied key southern cities. In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on November 6, signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". Morelos was captured and executed on December 22, 1815. In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 ViceroyJuan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero. Instead, Iturbide approached Guerrero to join forces, and in 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the "Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of Iguala". Agustín de Iturbide immediately proclaimed himself emperor of the M g u e H d a g o y C o s a First Mexican Empire. A revolt against him in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, a Republican Constitution was " The Fa he r o M e x c o" drafted and Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the newly born country. The first decades of the post-independence period were marked by economic instability, which led to the Pastry War in 1836, and a constant strife between liberales, supporters of a federal form of government, and conservadores, proposals of a hierarchical form of government. General Antonio López de Santa Anna, a centralist and two-time dictator, approved the Siete Leyes in 1836, a radical amendment that institutionalized the centralized form of government. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country, and three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán. Texas successfully achieved independence and was annexed by the United States. A border dispute led to the Mexican-American War, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years; the War was settled via theTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which forced Mexico to give up over half of its land to the U.S., including Alta California, New Mexico, and the disputed parts of Texas. A much smaller transfer of territory in what is today southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico — the Gadsden Purchase — occurred in 1854. The Caste War of Yucatán, the Mayan uprising that began in 1847, was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts. Maya rebels, or Cruzob, maintained relatively independent enclaves until the 1930s. Dissatisfaction with Santa Anna's return to power led to the liberal "Plan of Ayutla", initiating an era known as La Reforma, after which a new Constitution was drafted in 1857 that established a secular state, federalism as the form of government, and several freedoms. As the conservadores refused to recognize it, the Reform War began in 1858, during which both groups had their own governments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by the Liberals, led by Amerindian President Benito Juárez. In the 1860s Mexico underwent a military occupation by France, which established the Second Mexican Empire under the rule of Habsburg ArchdukeFerdinand Maximilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and the conservadores, who later switched sides and joined the liberales. Maximilian surrendered, was tried on June 14 and was executed on June 19, 1867. Porfirio Díaz, a republican general during the French intervention, ruled Mexico from 1876–1880 and then from 1884– 1911 in five consecutive reelections, period known as the Porfiriato, characterized by remarkable economic achievements, investments in the arts and sciences, but also of economic inequality and political repression.
20th century to present:
A likely electoral fraud that led to Diaz's fifth reelection sparked the 1910 Mexican Revolution, initially led by Francisco I. Madero. Díaz resigned in 1911 and Madero was elected president but overthrown and murdered in a coup d'état two years later directed by conservative general Victoriano Huerta. That event re-ignited the civil war, involving figures such as Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who formed their own forces. A third force, the constitutional army led by Venustiano Carranza, managed to bring an end to the war, and radically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many of the social premises and demands of the revolutionaries into what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 population of 15 million. Assassinated in 1920, Carranza was succeeded by another revolutionary hero, Álvaro Obregón, who in turn was succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles. Obregón was reelected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assume power. In 1929, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), later renamed theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and started a period known as the Maximato, which ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, who implemented many economic and social reforms, and most significantlyexpropriated the oil industry into Pemex on March 18, 1938, but sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Cárdenas' radical measure. Between 1940 and 1980, Mexico experienced a substantial economic growth that some historians call the "Mexican miracle". Although the economy continued to flourish, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, the PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive (see the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre, which claimed the life of around 30–800 protesters). Electoral reforms and high oil prices followed the administration of Luis Echeverría, mismanagement of these revenues led to inflation and exacerbated the 1982 Crisis. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared, and the government defaulted on its debt. President Miguel de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation. In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in PRI's monopolistic position. In Baja California, Ernesto Ruffo Appel was elected as governor. In 1988, electoral fraud prevented leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas from winning the national presidential elections, giving Carlos Salinas de Gortari the Presidency and leading to massive protests in Mexico City. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchange rate, controlled inflation and culminated with the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect on January 1, 1994. The same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization. In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeeded by Ernesto Zedillo, the Mexican economy collapsed, with a rapid rescue packaged authorized by U.S. President Bill Clinton and major macroeconomic reforms started by president Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999. In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential elections, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however,contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government".
Independence Day PAPUA NEW GUINEA - Sep 16
Papua New Gu nea PAP oo ə new G N ee pɑ pu ə PAH poo ə o pæp u ə PAP ew ə To P n Papua N ug n PNG o a he ndependen S a e o Papua New Gu nea a oun n O ean a o up ng he ea e n ha o he and o New Gu nea and nume ou o ho e and he we e n po on o he and a pa o he ndone an p o n e o Papua o a ed n he ou hwe e n Pa and We Papua O ean n a eg on de ned n e he ea 19 h en u a Me ane a The ap a Po Mo e b u ua d Papua New Gu nea one o he mo e e oun e on Ea h w h o e 850 nd genou anguage and a ea a man ad ona o e e ou o a popu a on o u unde e en m on a o one o he mo u a a on 18% o peop e e n one o he wo d ea u ban en e The oun e p o ed u u a and geog aph a and man und o e ed pe e o p an and an ma a e hough o e n he n e o o Papua New Gu nea The ma o o he popu a on e n ad ona o e e and p a e ub en e ba edag u u e The e o e e and an ha e ome e p a now edgemen w h n he na on on u ona amewo The PNG Con u on P eamb e 5 4 e p e e he w h o ad ona age and ommun e o ema n a ab e un o Papua New Gu nean o e and o a e ep o be a en n he p e e a on A e be ng u ed b h ee e e na powe n e 1884 Papua New Gu nea ga ned ndependen e om Au a a n ema n a Commonwea h ea m o He Ma e E abe h Queen o Papua New Gu nea Man peop e e 1975 n e eme po e w h abou one h d o he popu a on ng on e han US$1 25 pe da
History
Human ema n ha e been ound wh h ha e been da ed o abou 50 000 BC a hough h an e ma e The e an en nhab an p obab had he o g n n Sou h ea A a hem e e o g na ng n A a 50 000 o 70 000 ea ago New Gu nea wa one o he and ma e a e A a and Eu a a o be popu a ed b mod e n human w h he m g a on a app o ma e he ame me a ha o Au a a Ag u u e wa ndependen de e oped n he New Gu nea h gh and a ound 7000 BC ma ng one o he ew a ea o o g na p an dome a on n he wo d A ma o m g a on o Au one an pea ng peop e ame o oa a eg on ough 500 BC and h o e a ed w h he n odu on o po e p g and e a n h ng e hn que Mo e e en n he 18 h en u he wee po a o en e ed New Gu nea ha ng been n odu ed o he Mo u a omSou h Ame a b he o a dom nan o on a powe Po uga The a h ghe op e d om wee po a o ga den ad a an o med ad ona ag u u e wee po a o a ge upp an ed he p e ou A u s r a a n o r c e s a a c k J a p a n ap e a o and ga e e o a gn an n ea e n pop ese pos ons dur ng he Ba e u a on n he h gh and A hough headhun ng and ann ba m ha e been p a o B una Gona J a nua r y 7 1 9 4 3 a e ad a ed n he pa he o u ed n man pa o he oun Fo e amp e n 1901 on Goa ba and n he Gu o Papua a m ona Ha Daun e ound 10 000 u n he and Long Hou e A o d ng o he w e Ma anna To go n The mo u do umen ed n an e o ann ba m a a o a n u on ome om New Gu nea whe e head hun ng and ua ann ba m u ed n e a n o a ed a ea n o he e e and e en e and ea e a e w h n e a n o a g oup L e wa nown n he We abou he and un he n ne een h en u a hough Span h and Po ugue e e p o e had en oun e ed a ea a he een h en u Dom o ge de Mene e and Yñ go O de Re e T ade om Sou hea A a had a o been ng New Gu nea a ong a 5 000 ea ago o e ng b d o pa ad e p ume The oun dua name e u om omp e adm n a e h o be o e ndependen e The wo d papua de ed om pepuah a Ma a wo d de b ng he Me ane an ha and New Gu nea Nue a Gu nea wa he name o ned b he Span h e p o e Yñ go O de Re e who n 1545 no ed he e emb an e o he peop e o ho e he had ea e een a ong he Gu nea oa o A a The no he n ha o he oun ame n o Ge man hand n 1884 a Ge man New Gu nea Du ng Wo d Wa wa o up ed b Au a a wh h had begun adm n e ng B h New Gu nea he ou he n pa a he e named Papua n 1904 A e Wo d Wa Au a a wa g en a manda e o adm n e he o me Ge man New Gu nea b he League o Na on Papua b on a wa deemed o be an E e na Te o o he Au a an Commonwea h hough a a ma e o aw ema ned a B h po e on an ue wh h had gn an e o he oun po ndependen e ega em Th d e en e n ega a u mean ha Papua and New Gu nea had en e epa a e adm n a on bo h on o ed b Au a a The New Gu nea ampa gn 1942–1945 wa one o he ma o m a ampa gn o Wo d Wa App o ma e 216 000 apane e Au a an and U S o d e a o and a men d ed du ng he New Gu nea Campa gn The wo e o e we e omb ned n o he Te o o Papua and New Gu nea a e Wo d Wa wh h a e wa mp e e ed o a Papua New Gu nea Howe e e a n a u e on nued o ha e app a on on n one o he wo e o e a ma e on de ab omp a ed oda b he ad u men o he o me bounda among on guou p o n e w h e pe o oad a e and anguage g oup o ha u h a u e app on one de on o a bounda wh h no onge e The adm n a on o Papua be ame open o Un ed Na on o e gh and a pea e u ndependen e om Au a a o u ed on Sep embe 16 1975 and o e e ema n Au a a ema n he a ge b a e a a d dono o Papua New Gu nea Papua New Gu nea wa adm ed o membe h p n he Un ed Na on on 10 O obe 1975 A e e on e o n 1975–76 on Bouga n e and e u ed n an e e en h hou mod a on o he d a Con u on o Papua New Gu nea o a ow o Bouga n e and he o he e gh een d o ha e qua ede a a u a p o n e The e o e u ed and a med 20 000 e om 1988 un wa e o ed n 1997 Fo ow ng he e o he au onomou Bouga n e e e ed o eph Kabu a p e den He wa u eeded b depu ohn Tab naman who e ma ned eade un he e e on o De embe 2008 w h ame Tan eme g ng a he w nne An Ch ne e o ng n o ng en o hou and o peop e b o e ou n Ma 2009 The n a pa o h wa a gh be ween Ch ne e and Papua New Gu nean wo e a a n e a o wh h wa be ng bu b a Ch ne e ompan he unde ng ea on o he p o e wa a e en men aga n he numbe o ma bu ne e be ng un b Ch ne e
Catalan National Day S PA I N - S e p 11
On Sep embe 11 he Span h eg on o Ca a on a ommemo a e he 1714 S ege o Ba e ona de ea du ng he Wa o he Span h Su e on A o e on o he uppo o he a m o Hab bu g A hdu e Cha e o he h one o Spa n n u on and gh o he e o e o he C own o A agon we e abo hed b he o ou Bou bon mona h n ne w h he po a e o u on o u ng n o he pa o Eu ope a he ame me n 1980 he e o ed Gene a a de Ca a un a eg ona go e n ng bod o Ca a on a p o a med he 11 h o Sep embe a he Ca a an Na ona Da Ca a an La D ada Na ona de Ca a un a Ea e n Ca a an ə ð aðə nə u na də ə ə uɲə We e n Ca a an a ð aða na o na de a a uɲa Sepa a o gan a on and po a pa e ad ona a o a o e ng a he monumen o Ra ae Ca ano a and Gene a Mo ague o he gh aga n he Bou bon a m Ca a an na ona a o mee a he Fo a de e Mo e e whe e he pa homage o he de ende o who d ed du ng he ege and we e bu ed he e Th oughou he da he e a e ommun and ana h po a demon a on on e and o a ed e eb a on e en Man en wa e en e e ande e ade ega ag wh h ha e been adop ed n p o o a on a a mbo o he epa a d da n o he un o he Span h na on
Our Lady Mary of Sorrows SLOVAKIA - Sep 15
he So ow u Ou Lad o So ow La n Bea a Ma a V go Pe do en Mo he o Mo he o So ow La n Ma e Do o o a a me u Do o o a and Ou Lad o he Se en So ow o Ou Lad o he Se en Do ou a e name b wh h he B e ed V g n Ma e e ed o n e a on o o ow n he e A Ma e Do o o a a o a e ub e o Ma an a n he Ca ho Chu h The Se en So ow o Ma a e a popu a Roman Ca ho de o on The e o med a on on he Se en So ow a e de o ona p a e wh h on e amp e n ude he Se e o a o he Chap e o he Se en So ow o Ou Lad A o he e a o e pond ng de o on o he Se en o o e e o he om Ma The e m So ow u and mma u a e Hea o Ma b ned de o on o bo h he mma u a e Hea and he Se en So ow o Ma a u ed b heF an an Te a Be he Pe
Seven Sorrows The Se en So ow o Do o a e e en
n he e o he B e ed V g n Ma wh h a e a popu a de o on and a e equen dep ed n a a ommon de o on o Ca ho o a da one Ou Fa he and e en Ha Ma o ea h The P ophe o S meon Lu e 2 34 35 o he C um on 1 o Ch The F gh n o Eg p Ma hew 2 13 2 The Lo o he Ch d e u n he Temp e Lu e 2 43 45 3 Ma Mee e u on he Wa o Ca a Lu e 23 26 4 e u D e on he C o ohn 19 25 5 6 Ma Re e e he Bod o e u n He A m Ma hew 27 57 59 7 The Bod o e u P a ed n he Tomb ohn 19 40 42 The e 7 So ow hou d no be on u ed w h he 5 So ow u M e e o he Ro a No e ha he So ow oun ed a one o he o u M e e o he Ro a
Devotions to the Seven Sorrows Wes ern Chr s an y
The ea o he Ou Lad So ow o o g wa na ed b a p o n a nod o Co ogne n 1413 a a e pon e o he ono a Hu e wa de g na ed o he a e F da he h d Sun a e da Ea e had he e Commemo a o angu ae e do o B Ma ae V Be o e he M a r y s u r r o u n d e d b y h e S e v e n 16 h en u Sor r ows he ea wa e eb a ed on n pa o No he n Eu ope Ea e n 1233 e en ou h n Tu an ounded he Se e O de a o nown a he Se e F a o he O de o he Se an o Ma F e ea a e he oo up he o ow o Ma and ng unde he C o a he p n pa de o on o he o de O e he en u e e e a de o on and e en o de a o e a ound med a on on Ma So ow n pa u a The Se e de e oped he wo mo ommon de o on o Ou Lad So ow name he Ro a o he Se en So ow and he B a S apu a o he Se en Do ou o Ma The B a a mbo o he Con a e n o Ou Lad o So ow wh h S apu a a o a ed w h he Se e O de Mo de o ona apu a ha e equ e men ega d ng o namen a on o de gn The de o on o he B a S apu a equ e on ha be made o b a woo en o h
Eas ern Chr s an y
On Feb ua 2 he ame da a he G ea Fea o he Mee ng o he Lo d O hodo Ch an and Ea e n Ca ho ommemo a e a wonde wo ng on o he Theo o o Mo he o God nown a he So en ng o E o S meon P ophe Hea dep he V g n Ma a he momen ha S meon he R gh eou a Yea a wo d ha p e e h ough h own ou a o Lu e 2 35 She and w h he hand up a ed n p a e and e en wo d p e e he hea nd a e o he e en o ow Th one o he ew O hodo on o he Theo o o wh h do no dep he n an e u The e a n Re o e mu h o ow ng Mo he o God u n ou o ow n o o and o en he a o u ed hea o e men
Liturgical feast
a a o he Ma e Do o o a wa e up n 1221 a he mona e o The S hönau E pe a n Med e anean oun e pa h one ad ona a a ue o Ou Lad o So ow n p o e on on he da ead ng o Good F da No ea n he honou wa n uded n S P u V 1570 T den ne Ca enda Va an app o a o he e eb a on o a ea n hono o Ou Lad o So ow wa g an ed o he Se e o de n 1667 B n e ng he ea n o he Roman Ca ho a enda o a n n 1814 Pope P u V e ended he e eb a on o he who e o he La n Chu h wa a gned o he h d Sunda n Sep embe n 1913 Pope P u X mo ed he ea o Sep embe 15 he da a e he Fea o he C o ob e ed on ha da e n onne on w h h ea wo p o e on a e he d n Ma a one n Żebbuġ on Sep embe 15 and ano he n S Pau Ba on he o ow ng Sunda The ma n pa he o Ma a e eb a e he ea on he a F da a da o a ng The mo popu a p o e be o e Good F da whe e on he d n Va e a The ea a o a pub ho da n S o a a who e pa on Ou Lad o So ow Ano he ea o g na ng n he e en een h en u wa e ended o he e eb a ed on F da n who e o he La n Chu h n 1727 wa o g na he d he an Pa on Wee one wee be o e Good F da n 1954 gh owe han he an o he Sep embe 15 ea n o ma o doub e he Gene a Roman Ca enda n 1962 he ea wa edu ed o a om memo a on B 1969 he Va an had ome o on de a dup a on o he Sep embe 15 ea and he Pa on Wee ea wa om ed n ha ea e on o he Roman Ca ho a enda o a n Ea h e eb a on wa a ed a ea o The Se en So ow o he B e ed V g n Ma The Sep embe 15 ea ha now omb ne and on nue bo h o hem nown a he Fea o Ou Lad o So ow Bea ae Ma ae V g n Pe do en The equen e nown a S aba Ma e ma be ung a ma on ha da
Artistic representations Ou Lad o So ow dep ed a Ma e Do o o a Mo he
o So ow o Roman Ca ho Ma an a ha been he ub e o ome e wo Ma e Do o o a one o he h ee ommon a ep e en a on o a o ow u V g n Ma he o he wo be ng S aba Ma e he e and he mo he and P e à n h onog aph Ou Lad o Se en So ow a me mp ep e en ed n a ad and angu hed mode b he e he e p e on be ng ha o ea and adne n o he ep e en a on he V g n Ma dep ed w h e en wo d n he hea a e e en e o he p ophe o S meon a he P e en a on
Patronages
he pa on a n o Ou Lad o So ow So a a he Cong ega on o Ho C o he age o Mo a d Ba and he Mo e eg on o a he a e o M pp USA n he Ph pp ne he e o Do o e and Que on San And e Ca anduane Tu umba C o San Fe nando Pampanga and Lan a o e Cana and Ma e Do o o a Be n Lan w
Mayflower Day US - Sep 16
The e e e Eng and on Sep embe 6 1620 Od S e Sep embe 16 New S e and a e a g ue ng 66 da ou ne ma ed b d ea e wh h a med wo e he h p d opped an ho n de he hoo p o Cape Cod P o n e own Ha bo on No e m b e 11 No embe 21 The Ma owe wa o g na de ned o he mou h o he Hud on R e nea p e en da New Yo C a he no he n edge o e wa e ab hed w h he 1607 Eng and V g n a o on wh h ame own Se emen Howe e he Ma owe wen o ou e a he w n e app oa hed and ema ned n Cape Cod Ba On Ma h 21 31 1621 a u ng pa enge who had nhab ed he h p du ng he w n e mo ed a ho e a P mou h and on Ap 5 15 he Ma owe a p a e omm oned e e e u ned o Eng and n 1623 a ea a e he dea h o ap a n Ch ophe one he Ma owe wa mo e d man ed o ap umbe n Ro he h he London The Ma owe ha a amou p a e n Ame an h o a a mbo o ea Eu opean o on a on o he u u e Un ed S a e W h he e g on op p e ed b he Eng h Chu h and go e nmen Eng h D en e a ed P g m who omp ed abou ha o he pa enge on he h p de ed a e whe e he ou d p a e he e g on ee Th mbo o e g ou eedom e ona e n U S o e and he o o he Ma owe a ap e o an Ame an h o e boo Ame an who e oo a e a eab e o New Eng and o en be e e hem e e o be de ended om ba Ma owe pa enge The ma n e o d o he o age o he Ma owe and he d po on o he P mou h Co on ome om W am B ad o d who wa a gu d ng o e and a e he go e no o he o on
Ship The Ma owe wa
u ed p ma a a a go h p n o ed n a e ade o good o en w ne be ween Eng and and o he Eu opean oun e p n pa F an e bu a o No wa Ge man and Spa n L e man h p o he me u h a he San a Ma a he Ma owe wa mo e a a a w h h ee ma qua e gged on he o ema and ma nma bu a een gged on he m enma A ea be ween 1609 and 1622 wa ma e ed b Ch ophe one who wou d ommand he h p on he amou an a an o age and ba ed nRo he h he London Eng and A e he amou o age o he Ma owe he h p e u ned o Eng and e d man ed o ap umbe n Ro he h he n 1623 on a ea a e one dea h n Ma h 1622 The Ma owe Ba n u ou de he Qua e age a d o be bu om he e m o o dan nBu ngham h e Eng and be bu h e apo pha De a o he h p d men on a e un nown bu e ma e ba ed on oad we gh and he p a e o 180 on me han h p o da ugge an e ma ed eng h o 90–110 ee 27 4–33 5 m and a w d h o abou 25 ee 7 6 m The h p had a ew o wen e o h a ong w h o he h ed pe onne howe e he name o on e a e nown n ud ng ohn A den W am B ad o d who penned ou on a oun o he Ma owe o age w o e ha ohn A den wa h ed o a oope ba e ma e a Sou h Hamp on whe e he h p u ed and be ng a hope u ong man wa mu h de ed bu e o h owne ng o go o a when he ame he e bu he a ed and ma ed he e
Pilgrims voyage n a he p an wa o he o age o be made n wo
e e he o he be ng he ma e Speedwe wh h had an po ed ome o he P g m emba ng on he o age om De ha en n he Ne he and o Sou hamp on Eng and The o age o he h p depa ed Sou hamp on on Augu 5 15 1620 bu he Speedwe de e oped a ea and had o be e ed a Da mou h on Augu 17 27 On he e ond a emp he h p ea hed he A an O ean bu aga n we e o ed o e u n o P mou h be au e o he Speedwe ea wou d a e be e ea ed ha he e wa n a no h ng w ong w h he Speedwe The P g m be e ed ha he ew had h ough a pe o e ng he h p and he beha o n ope a ng abo aged he o age n o de o e ape he ea ong omm men o he on a A e eo gan a on he na da o age wa made b he Ma owe a one ea ng om a e nea o he Ma owe S ep n P mou h Eng and on Sep embe 6 16 W h 102 pa enge p u ew ea h am wa a o ed a e on ned amoun o pa e o pe ona be ong ng The Ma owe opped o a New n n Co nwa o a e on wa e The n ended de na on wa an a ea nea he Hud on R e n No h V g n a Howe e he h p wa o ed a o ou e b n emen wea he and d ed we no h o he n ended V g n a e emen A a e u o he de a he e e d d no a e n Cape Cod un a e he on e o a ha h New Eng and w n e The e e u ma e a ed o ea h V g n a whe e he had a ead ob a ned pe m on om he London Compan o e e due o d u e na ga ng he ea he ou wa e o he ou hea o ne o Cape Cod To e ab h ega o de and o que n ea ng e w h n he an he e e w o e and gned he Ma owe Compa a e he h p d opped an ho a he p o Cape Cod on No embe 11 21 n wha now P o n e own Ha bo The e e upon n a e ng an ho e p o ed he now o e ed a ea and d o e ed an emp Na e Ame an age The u ou e e dug up ome a a made mound ome o wh h o ed o n wh e o he we e bu a e Na han e Ph b a m ha he e e o e he o n and oo ed and de e a ed he g a e pa ng on w h he o a Ph b goe on o a ha a he mo ed down he oa o wha now Ea ham he e p o ed he a ea o Cape Cod o e e a wee oo ng and ea ng na e o e a he wen He hen w e abou how he de ded o e o a e o P mou h a e a d u en oun e w h he o a na e Ame an he Nau e a F En oun e Bea h n De embe 1620 Howe e B ad o d H o o P mou h P an a on e o d ha he oo ome o he o n o how he o he ba a he boa ea ng he e Then a e he oo wha he needed om ano he o e o g a n pa ng he o a ba n mon h wh h he g ad e e ed A o he e wa ound mo e o he o n and o he bean o a ou o o he o n and bean he b ough awa pu po ng o g e hem u a a on when he hou d mee w h an o hem a abou ome mon h a e wa d he d d o he good on en Du ng he w n e he pa enge ema ned on boa d he Ma owe u e ng an ou b ea o a on ag ou d ea e de bed a a m u e o u pneumon a and ube u o When ended he e we e on 53 pa en ge u mo e han ha a e L ew e ha o he ew d ed a we n p ng he bu hu a ho e and on Ma h 21 31 1621 he u ng pa enge e he Ma owe On Ap 5 15 1621 he Ma owe e a om P mou h o e u n o Eng and whe e he a ed on Ma 6 16 1621
Passengers
The Ma owe e Eng and w h 102 pa enge p u ew One bab wa bo n en ou e and a e ond wa bo n du ng he w n e o 1620 1621 when he ompan w n e ed aboa d h p n P o n e own Ha bo One h d d ed du ng he o age and he e wa one b h du ng he on u on o he o on Man o he pa enge we e P g m ee ng pe en e g ou pe e u on bu ome we e h ed hand e an o a me e u ed b London me han o he o g na n ended de na on n V gna The e we e he ea e pe manen Eu opean e e n New Eng and
Second Mayflower
A e ond h p a ed he Ma owe 2 made a o age om London o P mou h Co on n 1629 a ng 35 pa enge man om he P g m on g ega on n Le den ha o gan ed he o age Th wa no he ame h p ha made he o g na o age w h he e e Th o age began n Ma and ea hed P mou h n Augu Th h p a o made he o ng om Eng and o Ame a n 1630 1633 1634 and 1639 a emp ed he p aga n n 1641 depa ng London n O obe o ha ea unde ma e ohn Co e w h 140 pa enge bound o V g n a ne e a ed On O obe 18 1642 a depo on wa made n Eng and ega d ng he o
Mayflower II
A e Wo d Wa an e o began o eena he o age o he Ma owe W h oope a on be ween P o e Ma owe and P mo h P an a on an a u a e ep a o he o g na de gned b na a a h e W am A Ba e wa aun hed Sep embe 22 1956 om De on Eng and and e a n he p ng o 1957 Cap a ned b A an V e he o age ended n P mou h Ha bo a e 55 da on une 13 1957 o g ea a a m