77 Issue | Zarb-e-Jamhoor e-Newspaper | 24-30 Jun, 2012

Battle of Carabobo Day Venezuela - J u n 2 4

The Battle of Carabobo, 24 June 1821, was fought between independence fighters, led by Simón Bolívar, and the Royalist forces, led by Spanish Field Marshal Miguel de la Torre. Bolívar's decisive victory at Carabobo led to the independence of Venezuela.

History The Royalists occupied the road leading from Valen-

cia to Puerto Cabello. As Bolívar's force of 6,500 approached the Royalist position, Bolívar divided his force and sent half on a flanking maneuver through rough terrain and dense foliage. De la Torre likewise split his force and sent half to deal with this flank attack. Hitting the Patriots with musket fire, the Royalists held back the attack for a while. The Venezuelan infantry failed and retreated, but the men of the "British Legions", among them many members of the former King's German Legion, fought hard and took the hills. They sustained about 50% of Bolívar's casualties. The Patriots eventually broke through the Royalist lines on the flank and marched towards the rear of de La Torre's force. The Spanish infantry formed squares and fought to the end under the attack of the Patriot cavalry. The rout was so bad that only some 400 of one infantry regiment managed to reach safety at Puerto Cabello. With the main Royalist force in Venezuela crushed, independence was ensured. Subsequent battles included a key naval victory for the independence forces on 24 July 1823 at the Battle of Lake Maracaibo and in November 1823 José Antonio Páez occupied Puerto Cabello, the last Royalist stronghold in Venezuela.

Commemoration 24 June is celebrated as Battle of Carabobo Day .This day is also called "Army Day" in Venezuela.

Countryman's Day Peru - J u n 2 4

Celebrated every year on June 24, Countryman’s Day is one of the most fascinating festivals of South America.

Better known as Inti Raymi or The Festival of the Sun, it’s celebrated all over Peru. The festival occurs during the winter solstice in Cuzco wherein people gather together to pray to the sun god to provide them with good crops.

History

After the Spanish invaded Peru, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo abolished the Peruvian’s ancient ritual in the year 1572, citing that the ritual sacrifice of a llama to a god was against the tenants of the Catholic Church. As a result, the celebrations moved into the underground.

The practice managed to survive, reaching its modern form we see today. In fact, Initi Raymi is the second largest festival in South America. Thousands gather in the ancient city of Cuzo from all over the world for this very colorful festival, making it a major tourist attraction.

In the modern day festival a huge stage act of the Incan ritual is enacted. Hundred of stage actors from all over the country are brought in and are auditioned to represent various historical figures. The roles of the Sapa Inca and his wife the Mama Occla are considered to be of great honor.

The rituals start with a prayer to the Qorikancha square in front of the Santo Domingo church, which was built over the ancient Temple of the Sun. The Sapa Inca invokes the blessings of the Sun and then he carried on golden throne to ancient fortress of Sacsayhuaman along with the several high priests.

The Sapa Inca climbs on the sacred altar, followed by speeches from the priests and representatives of the Suyos.

Once this is complete, a white llama is “sacrificed”, enacted in a very realistic fashion with its “heart” held out in honor of Pachamama. The priests read the blood stains to see what the future holds for the Inca’s. As the sun begins to set, the Sapa Inca and the priests are carried on to Cuzco where several straw fires are set up and people dance around and celebrate in joy.

CUSTOMS AND ACTIVITIES TRADITIONS, Countryman’s Day is also celebrated as Indians Day or Peasants Day.

Discovery Day (Newfoundland & Labrador) Canada - J u n 2 4

Discovery Day is the name of several holidays commemorating the discovery of land, gold, and other significant national discoveries.

History In Yukon, Canada Discovery Day is a public holiday on the third Monday

in August commemorating the anniversary of the discovery of gold in 1896, which started the Klondike Gold Rush.

In Newfoundland and Labrador, it is observed on the Monday nearest June 24 and commemorates John Cabot's discovery in 1497.

Féte Nationale (Quebec) Canada - J u n 2 4

In Quebec, June 24 or Quebec's National Holiday, St. John the Baptist Day is officially a paid statutory public holiday covered under the Act Respecting Labour Standards. In 1977, an Order in Council by Lieutenant Governor Hugues Lapointe, on the advice of René Lévesque, declared June 24 the national holiday in Quebec.

The following year, the National Holiday Organizing Committee was created. The committee initially entrusted the organization of the events to the Société des festivals populaires du Québec. In 1984, on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the SSJB, the organization of the celebrations was entrusted to the Mouvement national des Québécoises et des Québécois (MNQ).

After it became a statutory holiday, June 24 was officially a holiday for all Quebecers rather than only those of French-Canadian or Catholic origins. Celebrations were gradually secularized, primarily due to actions taken by the MNQ, and June 23 and 24 became as we now know them. While the religious significance of the civic celebration is gone, the day remains popularly called la St-JeanBaptiste or simply la St-Jean and is still observed in churches.

In 2010, Franco-Ontarian New Democratic MP Claude Gravelle introduced a private member's bill in the House of Commons to recognize St John the Baptist Day as a federal holiday in Canada.

Midsummer Festival (St John's Day ) Latvia, Estonia - J u n 2 4

Latvia

In Latvia, Midsummer is called Jāņi (Jānis being Latvian for John) or Līgo svētki (svētki = festival). It is a national holiday celebrated on a large scale by almost everyone in Latvia and by people of Latvian origin abroad. Celebrations consist of a lot of traditional and mostly Pagan elements - eating Jāņu cheese, drinking beer, singing hundreds of Latvian folk songs dedicated to Jāņi, burning bonfire to keep light all through the night and jumping over it, wearing wreaths of flowers (for the women) and leaves (for the men) together with modern commercial products and ideas. Oak wreaths are worn by men named Jānis in honor of their name day. Small oak branches with leaves are attached to cars in Latvia during the festivity. Jāņi has been a strong aspect of Latvian culture throughout history, originating in pre-Christian Latvia.

In the western town of Kuldīga, revellers mark the holiday by running naked through the town at three in the morning. The event has taken place for the past seven years.

Runners are rewarded with beer, and police are on hand in case any "puritans" attempt to interfere with the naked run.

Estonia

"Jaanipäev" ("John's Day" in English) was celebrated long before the arrival of Christianity in Estonia, although the day was given its name by the crusaders. The arrival of Christianity, however, did not end pagan beliefs and fertility rituals surrounding this holiday. In 1578, Balthasar Russow wrote in his Livonian Chronicle about Estonians who placed more importance on the festival than going to church. He complained about those who went to church, but did not enter, and instead spent their time lighting bonfires, drinking, dancing, singing and following pagan rituals. Midsummer marks a change in the farming year, specifically the break between the completion of spring sowing and the hard work of summer hay-making.

Understandably, some of the rituals of Jaanipäev have very strong folkloric roots. The best-known Jaanik, or midsummer, ritual is the lighting of the bonfire and jumping over it. This is seen as a way of guaranteeing prosperity and avoiding bad luck. Likewise, to not light the fire is to invite the destruction of your house by fire. The fire also frightened away mischievous spirits who avoided it at all costs, thus ensuring a good harvest. So, the bigger the fire, the further the mischievous spirits stayed away.

Estonians celebrate "Jaaniõhtu" on the eve of the Summer Solstice (June 23) with bonfires. On the islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, old fishing boats may be burnt in the large pyres set ablaze. On Jaaniõhtu, Estonians all around the country will gather with their families, or at larger events to celebrate this important day with singing and dancing, as Estonians have done for centuries. The celebrations that accompany Jaaniõhtu carry on usually through the night, they are the largest and most important of the year, and the traditions are almost identical to Finland (read under Finland) and similar to neighbours Latvia and Sweden (read under Sweden).

Since 1934, June 23 is also national Victory Day of Estonia and both 23rd and 24th are holidays and flag days. The Estonian flag is not lowered in the night between these two days.

Fatherland Liberation War Day North Korea - Jun 25

The Korean War (Hangul: 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea(supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.

The failure to hold free elections throughout the Korean Peninsula in 1948 deepened the division between the two sides; the North established a communist government, while the South established a capitalist one. The 38th parallel increasingly became a political border between the two Korean states. Although reunification negotiations continued in the months preceding the war, tension intensified. Cross-border skirmishes and raids at the 38th Parallel persisted.

The situation escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. It was the first significant armed conflict of the Cold War. In 1950 the Soviet Union boycotted the United Nations security council, in protest at representation of China by theKuomintang / Republic of China government, which had taken refuge in Taiwan following defeat in the Chinese Civil War. In the absence of a dissenting voice from the Soviet Union, who could have vetoed it, USA and other countries passed a security council resolution authorizing military intervention in Korea.

The United States of America provided 88% of the 341,000 international soldiers which aided South Korean forces in repelling the invasion, with twenty other countries of the United Nations offering assistance. Suffering severe casualties, within two months the defenders were pushed back to a small area in the south of the Korean Peninsula, known as the Pusan perimeter. A rapid U.N. counter-offensive then drove the North Koreans past the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River, when the People's Republic of China(PRC) entered the war on the side of North Korea. Chinese intervention forced the Southern-allied forces to retreat behind the 38th Parallel. While not directly committing forces to the conflict, the Soviet Union provided material aid to both the North Korean and Chinese armies. The active stage of the war ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement was signed. The agreement restored the border between the Koreas near the 38th Parallel and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two Korean nations. Minor outbreaks of fighting continue to the present day.

With both North Korea and South Korea sponsored by external powers, the Korean War was a proxy war. From a military science perspective, it combined strategies and tactics of World War I and World War II: it began with a mobile campaign of swift infantry attacks followed by air bombing raids, but became a static trench war by July 1951.

Background Terminology:

In the United States, the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action" as it was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. Colloquially, it has been referred to in the United States as The Forgotten War or The Unknown War because the issues concerned were much less clear than in previous and subsequent conflicts, such as World War II and the Vietnam War. In South Korea the war is usually referred to as "625" or the 6–2–5 Upheaval(yug-i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June. In North Korea the war is officially referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng). Alternatively, it is called the "ChosǒnWar" (Chosǒn chǒnjaeng). In the People's Republic of China the war is officially called the War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea(simplified Chinese: 抗美 援朝战争; traditional Chinese: 抗美援朝戰爭; pinyin:Kàngměiyuáncháo zhànzhēng), although the term "Joseon War" (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜战争; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn zhànzhēng) is also used in unofficial capacity.

Japanese rule (1910–1945):

Upon defeating the Qing Dynasty in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–96), the Empire of Japan occupied the Korean Empire – a peninsula strategic to its sphere of influence. A decade later, defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.

Korean nationalists and the intelligentsia fled the country, and some founded the Provisional Korean Government in 1919, which was headed by Syngman Rhee in Shanghai. This government-in-exile was recognized by few countries. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean Hundreds of thousands of South Kocommunists led and were the primary agents of internal and external reans fled south in mid-1950 after the warfare against the Japanese.

North Korean army invaded.

Korea under Japanese rule was considered to be part of the Empire of Japan as an industrialized colony along with Taiwan, and both were part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In 1937, the colonial Governor-General, General Jirō Minami, commanded the attempted cultural assimilationof Korea's 23.5 million people by banning the use and study of Korean language, literature, and culture, to be replaced with that of mandatory use and study of their Japanese counterparts. Starting in 1939, the populace was required to use Japanese names under the Sōshi-kaimei policy. In 1938, the Colonial Government established labor conscription.

In China, the National Revolutionary Army and the Communist People's Liberation Army helped organize refugee Korean patriots and independence fighters against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China.

The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in theBurma Campaign (December 1941 – August 1945).

The Communists, led by Kim Il-sung, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.

During World War II, the Japanese used Korea's food, livestock, and metals for their war effort. Japanese forces in Korea increased from 46,000 soldiers in 1941 to 300,000 in 1945. Japanese Korea conscripted 2.6 million forced laborers controlled with a collaborationist Korean police force; some 723,000 people were sent to work in the overseas empire and in metropolitan Japan. By 1942, Korean men were being conscripted into the Imperial Japanese Army. By January 1945, Koreans comprised 32% of Japan's labor force. In August 1945, when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, around 25% of those killed were Koreans. At the end of the war, other world powers did not recognize Japanese rule in Korea and Taiwan.

Meanwhile, at the Cairo Conference (November 1943), Nationalist China, the United Kingdom, and the United States decided "in due course Korea shall become free and independent". Later, the Yalta Conference (February 1945) granted to the Soviet Union European "buffer zones"—satellite statesaccountable to Moscow—as well as an expected Soviet pre-eminence in China and Manchuria, in return for joining the Allied Pacific War effort against Japan.

Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945):

Toward the end of World War II, as per a US-Soviet agreement, the Soviet Union declared war against Japan on 9 August 1945. By 10 August, the Red Army occupied the northern part of the Korean peninsula as agreed, and on 26 August halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces in the south.

On 10 August 1945, with the 15 August Japanese surrender near, the Americans doubted whether the Soviets would honor their part of the Joint Commission, the US-sponsored Korean occupation agreement.

A month earlier, Colonel Dean Rusk and Colonel Charles H. Bonesteel III divided the Korean peninsula at the 38th parallel after hurriedly deciding that the US Korean Zone of Occupation had to have a min- The U.S. Air Force attacking railroads imum of two ports. south of Wonsan on the eastern coast Explaining why the occupation zone demarcation was positioned at of North Korea. the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by US forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops", especially when "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area."The Soviets agreed to the US occupation zone demarcation to improve their negotiating position regarding the occupation zones in Eastern Europe, and because each would accept Japanese surrender where they stood.

Chinese Civil War (1945–1949):

After the end of Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Communists and the Chinese Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with materiel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of material while thousands of Korean "volunteers" served in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.

The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 to 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they would later play a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea. The Chinese support cre- General Douglas MacArthur, ated a deep division between the Korean Communists, and Kim Il-Sung's au- UN Command CiC (seated), thority within the Communist party was challenged by the Chinese faction led observes the naval shelling of

by Pak Il-yu, who was later purged by Kim. Incheon from the USS Mt. After the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest McKinley, 15 September threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China's century of hu- 1950. miliation beginning in the early 19th century, American support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.

Korea divided (1945–1949):

At the Potsdam Conference (July–August 1945), the Allies unilaterally decided to divide Korea—without consulting the Koreans—in contradiction of the Cairo Conference.

On 8 September 1945, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge of the United States arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea via the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48). He established control by restoring to power the key Japanese colonial administrators and their Korean police collaborators. The USAMGIK refused to recognise the provisional government of the short-lived People's Republic of Korea (PRK) because he suspected it was communist. These policies, voiding popular Korean sovereignty, provoked civil insurrections and guerrilla warfare. On 3 September 1945, Lieutenant General Yoshio Kozuki, Commander, Japanese Seventeenth Area Army, contacted Hodge, telling him that the Soviets were south of the 38th parallel at Kaesong. Hodge trusted the accuracy of the Japanese Army report In December 1945, Korea was administered by a United States–Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference (1945). The Koreans were excluded from the talks. The commission decided the country would become independent after a five-year trusteeship action facilitated by each régime sharing its sponsor's ideology. The Korean populace revolted; in the south, some protested, and some rose in arms; to contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 Combat in the streets of Seoul December 1945.

On 23 September 1946 an 8,000-strong railroad worker strike began in Pusan. Civil disorder spread throughout the country in what became known as the Autumn uprising. On 1 October 1946, Korean police killed three students in the Daegu Uprising; protesters counter-attacked, killing 38 policemen. On 3 October, some 10,000 people attacked the Yeongcheon police station, killing three policemen and injuring some 40 more; elsewhere, some 20 landlords and pro-Japanese South Korean officials were killed. The USAMGIK declared martial law.

The right-wing Representative Democratic Council, led by nationalist Syngman Rhee, opposed the Soviet–American trusteeship of Korea, arguing that after 35 years (1910–45) of Japanese colonial rule most Koreans opposed another foreign occupation. The USAMGIK decided to forego the five year trusteeship agreed upon in Moscow, given the 31 March 1948 United Nations election deadline to achieve an anti-communist civil government in the US Korean Zone of Occupation.

On 3 April what began as a demonstration commemorating Korean resistance to Japanese rule ended with the Jeju massacre of as many as 60,000 citizens by South Korean soldiers.

On 10 May, South Korea convoked their first national general elections that the Soviets first opposed, then boycotted, insisting that the US honor the trusteeship agreed to at the Moscow Conference.

North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August 1948.

The resultant anti-communist South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, elected a president, the American-educated strongman Syngman Rhee on 20 July 1948. The elections were marred by terrorism and sabotage resulting in 600 deaths. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Russian Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a Communist North Korean government led by Kim Il-sung. President Rhee's régime expelled communists and leftists from southern national politics. Disenfranchised, they headed for the hills, to prepare for guerrilla war against the US-sponsored ROK Government.

As nationalists, both Syngman Rhee and Kim Il-Sung were intent upon reunifying Korea under their own political system.

With Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong fighting over the control of the Korean Peninsula, the North Koreans gained support from both the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.

They escalated the continual border skirmishes and raids and then prepared to invade. South Korea, with limited matériel, could not match them. During this era, at the beginning of the Cold War, the US government assumed that all communists, regardless of nationality, were controlled or directly influenced

by Moscow; thus the US portrayed the civil war in Korea as a Soviet hegemonic maneuver.

In October 1948, South Korean left-wing soldiers rebelled against the government's harsh clampdown in April on Jeju island in theYeosu-Suncheon Rebellion.

The Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948. U.S. troops withdrew from Korea in 1949, leaving the South Korean New Zealand artillery crew in action army relatively ill-equipped. On 24 December 1949, South Korean forces killed 86 to 88 people in the Mungyeong massacre and blamed the crime on communist marauding bands.

Aftermath Mao Zedong's decision to involve China in the Korean War was a conscientious effort to confront the most powerful

country in the world, undertaken at a time when the regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao primarily supported intervention not to save North Korea or to appease the Soviet Union, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after UN forces crossed the 38th parallel. Mao's secondary motive was to improve his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng.

China emerged from the Korean War united by a sense of national pride, despite the war's enormous costs. The Chinese people were educated to believe that the war was initiated by the United States and Korea, and not by a fraternal communist state in the north. In Chinese propaganda, the Chinese war effort was portrayed and accepted as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under-equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations

by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years in order to promote the image of the PLA and the CCP. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war (for China) was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai-shek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control until the present day.

The Korean War affected other participant combatants.

Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952 and the foundation for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations was laid.

The beginning of racial integration efforts in the U.S. military began during the Korean War, where African Americans fought in integrated units for the first time. Among the 1.8 million American soldiers who fought in the Korean War there were more than 100,000 African Americans.

Post-war recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first post-war decade, but later industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world's fastest growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita The KPAF shot down some 16 B-29 SuperGDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in fortress bombers in the war. the world (Ghana was 86th).

Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. In a February 2002 Gallup-Korea poll, one-third of South Koreans viewed the United States favorably.

In addition a large number of mixed race 'G.I. babies' (offspring of U.S. and other western soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race. Children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in Korean society. Thousands were adopted by American families in the years following the war, when their plight was covered on television. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 removed race as a limiting factor in immigration, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreansbecame one of the fastest growing Asian groups in the United States.

In 2011, some former members of Chinese People's Volunteer Army, who had battled there, revisited North Korea.

Afterwards they said that they were "very sad", unsatisfied with the post-war development of North Korea. "(We) liberated them, but they're still struggling for freedom", said Qu Yingkui.

Independence Day Mozambique - Jun 25

Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Portuguese: Moçambique or República de Moçambique), is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest.

The capital city is Maputo, formerly known as Lourenço Marques.

Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, Bantuspeaking peoples migrated from farther north and west. Swahili, and later also Arab, commercial ports existed along the coasts until the arrival of Europeans. The area was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonized by Portugal in 1505. Mozambique became independent in 1975, and became the People's Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. It was the scene of an intensecivil war lasting from 1977 to 1992.

Mozambique is endowed with rich and extensive natural resources. The country's economy is based largely on agriculture, but with industry, mainly food and beverages, chemical manufacturing, aluminium and petroleum production, is growing fast. The country's tourism sector is also growing. South Africa is Mozambique's main trading partner and source of foreign direct investment. Portugal, Spain, and Belgium are also among the country's most important partners. Since 2001 Mozambique is one of the world's top ten for annual average GDP growth. However, Mozambique still has one of the lowest GDP per capita, one of the worst human development index and one of the highest inequality in the world, as well as having the world's lowest life expectancy.

The only official language of Mozambique is Portuguese, with roughly half of the population speaking it as a second language and few as a first language. Languages widely spoken natively include Swahili, Makhuwa, and Sena. The largest religion in Mozambique is Christianity, with significant Muslim and African traditional religious minorities. Mozambique is a member of the African Union, Commonwealth of Nations, theCommunity of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and Southern African Development Community.

History

Bantu migrations:

Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through The Island of Mozambique is a small coral island at the the Zambezi River valley and then mouth of Mossuril Bay on the Nacala coast of northern gradually into the plateau and coastal Mozambique, first explored by Europeans, in the late areas. They established agricultural 1400s communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them the technology for iron making, a metal which they used to make weapons for the conquest of their neighbors. Cities in Mozambique during the Middle Ages (5th to the 16th century) were not sturdily built, so there is little left of many medieval cities such as the trading port Sofala.

Swahili and Arabs:

Swahili and Arab commercial settlements existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries.

Several Swahili trade ports dotted the coast of the country before the arrival of Arabs which had been trading with Madagascar and the Far East.

Portuguese rule:

From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east.

The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society in the Indian Ocean world. The Portuguese gained control of the Island of Mozambique and the port city of Sofala in the early 16th century, and by the 1530s, small groups of Portuguese traders and prospectors seeking gold penetrated the interior regions, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River and tried to gain exclusive control over the gold trade. The Portuguese attempted to legitimize and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation ofprazos (land grants) tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. While prazos were originally developed to be held by Portuguese, through intermarriage they became African Portuguese or African Indian centres defended by large African slave armies known as Chikunda. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery. Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab traders, and Portuguese and French traders as well. Many Mozambican slaves were supplied by tribal chiefs who raided warring tribes and sold their captives to the prazeiros.

Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. The Portuguese were able to wrest much of the coastal trade from Arabs between 1500 and 1700, but, with the Arab seizure of Portugal's key foothold at Fort Jesus on Mombasa Island (now in Kenya) in 1698, the pendulum began to swing in the other direction. As a result, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonisation of Brazil.

During these wars, the Mazrui and Omani Arabsreclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south. Many prazos had declined by the mid-19th century, but several of them survived. During the 19th century other European powers, particularly the British (British South Africa Company) and theFrench (Madagascar), became increasingly involved in the trade and politics of the region around the Portuguese East African territories.

By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like the Mozambique Company, the Zambezia Company and theNiassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by the British, which established railroad lines to neighbouring countries. Although slavery had been legally abolished in Mozambique, at the end of the 19th century the Chartered companies enacted a forced labor policy and supplied cheap—often forced—African labor to the mines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. The Zambezia Company, the most profitable chartered company, took over a number of smaller prazeiro holdings, and established military outposts to protect its property. The chartered companies built roads and ports to bring their goods to market including a railroad linking present day Zimbabwe with the Mozambican port of Beira.

Due to their unsatisfactory performance and the shift, under the corporatist Estado Novo regime of Oliveira Salazar, towards a stronger Portuguese control of Portuguese empire's economy, the companies' concessions were not renewed when they ran out. This was what happened in 1942 with the Mozambique Company, which however continued to operate in the agricultural and commercial sectors as a corporation, and had already happened in 1929 with the termination of the Niassa Company's concession. In 1951, the Portuguese overseas colonies in Africa were rebranded as Overseas Provinces of Portugal.

Independence movement:

As communist and anti-colonial ideologies spread out across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of Mozambican independence. These movements claimed that since policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of Mozambique's Portuguese population, little attention was paid to Mozambique's tribal integration and the development of its native communities. According to the official guerrilla statements, this affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans. Statistically, Mozambique's Portuguese whites were indeed wealthier and more skilled than the black indigenous majority.

As a response to the guerrilla movement, the Portuguese government from the 1960s and principally the early 1970s, initiated gradual changes with new socioeconomic developments and egalitarian policies for all. The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) initiated a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule in September 1964.

This conflict — along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies of Angola and Portuguese Guinea — became part of the so-called Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). From a military standpoint, the Portuguese regular army maintained control of the population centres while the guerrilla forces sought to undermine their influence in rural and tribal areas in the north and west. As part of their response to FRELIMO, the Portuguese government began to pay more attention to creating favourable conditions for social development and economic growth.

After 10 years of sporadic warfare and Portugal's return to democracy through a leftist military coup in Lisbon which replaced Portugal'sEstado Novo regime for a military junta (the Carnation Revolution of April 1974), FRELIMO took control of the territory. Within a year, most of the 250,000 Portuguese in Mozambique had left – some expelled by the government of the nearly independent territory, some fleeing in fear – and Mozambique became independent from Portugal on June 25, 1975. In an act of vengeance, a law had been passed by the then relatively unknown Armando Guebuza in the FRELIMO party ordering the Portuguese to leave the country in 24 hours with only 20 kilograms of luggage. Unable to salvage any of their assets, most of them returned to Portugal.

National Flag Day Romania - Jun 26

The national flag of Romania (Romanian: Drapelul României) is a tricolour with vertical stripes: beginning from the flagpole, blue, yellow and red. It has a widthlength ratio of 2:3.

The Constitution of Romania provides that “The flag of Romania is tricolour; the colors are arranged vertically in the following order from the flagpole: blue, yellow, red”. The proportions, shades of color as well as the flag protocol were established by law in 1994 and extended in 2001.

The flag is coincidentally very similar to the civil flag of Andorra and the state flag of Chad. The similarity with Chad’s flag, which differs only in having a darker shade of blue (indigo rather than cobalt), has caused international discussion. In 2004, Chad asked the United Nations to examine the issue, but then-president of Romania Ion Iliescu announced no change would occur to the flag. The flag of Moldova is related to the Romanian tricolour, except it has a 1:2 ratio, a lighter shade of blue, a slightly different tint of yellow, and the Moldavian coat of arms in the middle. The flag of Belgium uses black rather than blue.

Flag Day

Law no. 96 of 20 May 1998 proclaimed 26 June as the Day of the National Flag of Romania. It was on this day in 1848 that Decree no. 1 of the Wallachian Provisional Government was issued, making the red-yellow-blue tricolour the national flag.

On Flag Day, public authorities and other state institutions are obliged by law to organize cultural/educational programs and events, with a patriotic or scientific character, devoted to Romanian history, as well as specific military ceremonies, organized within units of the Ministry of National Defense and the Ministry of the Internal Affairs.

Independence Day Djibouti - Jun 27

Djibouti officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east. Djibouti, which had a population of 818,159 at the 2009 census, is one of the least populous countries in Africa.

Islam is the largest religion in the country, practiced by 94% of the population. The land was known as Obock and French Somaliland (Côte française des Somalis) in the 19th century; in 1967, it changed its name to Afars and Issas after new treaties with France. The territory was declared an independent nation in 1977 and changed its name to the "Republic of Djibouti" after its principal city. Djibouti joined the United Nations on September 20, 1977.While Djibouti is an independent sovereign state, it maintains deep French relations, and through various military and economic agreements with France, it receives continued security and economic assistance.

History

Through close contacts with the adjacent Arabian Peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar ethnic groups in the region became among the first populations on the continent to embrace Islam.

From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura was called Obock and was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans, local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region. In 1894,Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region French Somaliland. It lasted from 1896 until 1967, when it was renamed theTerritoire Français des Afars et des Issas(TFAI) ("French Territory of the Afars and the Issas").

In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.

In 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual reunion with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France. However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed toTerritoire français des Afars et des Issas.

In 1977, a third referendum took place. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999).

Djibouti is a Somali, Afar and Muslim country, which regularly takes part in Islamic affairs. It is also a member of the Arab League, as well as the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD).

Constitution Day Ukraine - Jun 28

President Victor Yushchenko took part in a ceremony of presentation of national decorations on the occasion of Constitution Day. “After the things we have done in terms of formation of the constitutional field, we must proceed to next important step. We must have a constitution that would forever guarantee us democracy, freedom, and protect us from the risks of a totalitarian model”, – said Victor Yushchenko speaking at the ceremony.

History

Constitution Day is a holiday to honor the constitution of the Ukraine. Constitution Day celebrates the anniversary of the signing or adoption of the Constitution of the Ukraine in 1996.

The president and the parliament decide on this day to enforce, reinforce, form, accept, and reject constitutional changes, along with a consented plebiscite.

The people are given the sole authority to decide on the major amendments that are carried out in the parliament, confirming Ukraine as an ideal democratic nation.

Ukraine is a sovereign, secular nation with a comprehensive democratic system of constitution. The constitution of Ukraine was established on 28th June, 1996. So every year, this day – June 28th is celebrated as the ‘Constitution Day’ in Ukraine, to honor the country’s constitution, on the anniversary of signing and promulgation of the national law system and various significant amendments.

TRADITIONS AND ACTIVITIES

Cities and towns honour Constitution Day on June 28 with performances and special events. The Constitution Day is a national holiday across the country. As it is rather new, there is nothing particular or traditional being carried out in order to celebrate it. The Hymn of Ukraine will be broadcasted on all the radios and TV channels or even sung in public gatherings by the people. Fireworks, various public concerts and musical events by popular Ukrainian artists are held across the country to commemorate this day.

Vidovdan (Orthodox) Serbia - Jun 28

Conflict and civil war:

The new government, under president Samora Machel, gave shelter and support to South African (African National Congress) and Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe African National Union) liberation movements while the governments of first Rhodesia and later South Africa (at that time still operating the Apartheid laws) fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called theMozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Starting shortly after the independence, the country was plagued from 1977 to 1992 by a long and violent civil war between the opposition forces of anti-Communist RENAMO rebel militias and the Marxist FRELIMO regime - the Mozambican Civil War. Hence, civil war, combined with sabotage from the neighbouring white-ruled state of Rhodesia and the Apartheid regime of South Africa, ineffective policies, failed central planning and the resulting economic collapse, characterized the first decades of Mozambican independence. Marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals and Mozambicans of Portuguese heritage, a collapsed infrastructure, lack of investment in productive assets, and government nationalisation of privately owned industries. During most of the civil war, the FRELIMO-formed central government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. In one time RENAMO proposed the peace agreement based on secession of their controlled northern and western territories to found an independent Republic of Rombesia, but FRELIMO refused considering to stand own power in whole country. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighbouring states, and several million more were internally displaced.

On October 19, 1986, Samora Machel was on his way back from an international meeting in Zambia in the presidential Tupolev Tu-134aircraft when the plane crashed in the Lebombo Mountains, near Mbuzini. There were ten survivors, but President Machel and thirty-three others died, including ministers and officials of the Mozambique government.

The United Nations' Soviet Union delegation issued a minority report contending that their expertise and experience had been undermined by the South Africans. Representatives of the Soviet Union advanced the theory that the plane had been intentionally diverted by a false navigational beacon signal, using a technology provided by military intelligence operatives of the South African government.

Machel's successor, Joaquim Chissano, produced big changes in the country, starting the reforms, changing from Marxism to Capitalism and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords, first brokered by the CCM, the Christian Council of Mozambique (Council of Protestant Churches) and then taken over by Community of Sant'Egidio. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique.

By 1993 more than 1.5 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighbouring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia,Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa.

Statehood Day Slovenia - Jun 25

Statehood Day (Slovene: Dan državnosti) is a holiday that occurs on every 25 June in Slovenia to commemorate the country's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. Although the formal declaration of independence did not come until 26 June 1991, Statehood Day is considered to be June 25 since that was the date on which the initial acts regarding independence were passed and Slovenia became independent.

Slovenia's declaration jumpstarted the Ten-Day War, which it eventually won, with its former overseer Yugoslavia.

Statehood Day is not to be confused with Slovenia's Independence and Unity Day, which is celebrated each year on December 26 in honour of the 26 December 1990 official proclamation of the results of the plebiscite in which 88.5% of all Slovenian voters were in favor of Slovenia becoming a sovereign nation.

Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia at the same time, and also celebrates its Statehood Day on June 25. However, Croatia celebrates Independence Day on a different day, October 8.

Statehood Day Croatia - Jun 25

Statehood Day is a holiday that occurs every year on June 25 in Croatia to celebrate the country's 1991 declaration of independence from Yugoslavia. The Statehood Day is an official holiday, a day off work in Croatia.

After the independence referendum held on May 19th, 1991, the Croatian Parliament formally proclaimed independence with Ustavna odluka o suverenosti i samostalnosti Republike Hrvatske, lit. the Constitutional decision on sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia.

The Statehood Day used to be May 30, marking the day when in 1990 the first post-Communist multi-party Parliament was constituted. There was some controversy in the public regarding which date is more suitable for the day of the statehood. Since 2002, June 25 has prevailed as the Statehood Day, and May 30 is marked a minor holiday, one that is not an off-day.

This holiday is not to be confused with Croatia's Independence Day, which is marked each year on October 8. The independence was proclaimed on June 25, but due to the negotiation of the Brioni Agreement, a three-month moratorium was placed on the implementation of the decision, and the Parliament cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia in October.

Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia at the same time, and its Statehood Day coincides with the Croatian Statehood Day, on June 25.

Typical state activities on the occasion involve speeches by the President of Croatia and other dignitaries, as well as commemoration of the Croatian War of Independence.

Independence Day Madagascar - Jun 26

Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, French: République de Madagascar) is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (the fourthlargest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by human settlement.

Initial human settlement of Madagascar occurred from 350 BCE and 550 CE byAustronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into eighteen or moresub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting socio-political alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, the majority of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy collapsed when the island was conquered and absorbed into the French colonial empire in 1896, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed Republics. Since 1992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in a popular uprising in 2009 the last elected president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina in a move widely viewed by the international community as a coup d'état.

In 2011, the population of Madagascar was estimated at around 21.9 million, 90% of whom live on less than two dollars per day. Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs orChristianity. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Ravalomanana these investments produced substantial economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. Current and future generations in Madagascar are faced with the challenge of striking a balance between economic growth, equitable development and natural conservation.

History

Early period:

Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo in successive waves throughout the period between 350 BCE and 550 CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans.Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastalrainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands. Arabs first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries, and a wave of Bantu-speaking East African migrants arrived around 1000 CE and introduced zebuwhich were kept in large herds.

Irrigated rice paddies emerged in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom by 1600 and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 400 and 1000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were expelled from the highlands by Merina kings Andriamanelo,Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany(ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.

Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement. The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island.The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.

From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.

Kingdom of Madagascar:

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina(1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga, and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities, with the intention of bringing the entire island under his control, an ambition largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–1828). Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy languageusing the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–1861), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter.

Succeeding his mother, Radama II (1861–1863) attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony (1852–1865) and an alliance of noble courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen Rasoherina (1863–1868) the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister—a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864– 1895), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II (1868–1883) and Queen Ranavalona III (1883–1897) in succession.

Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as Prime Minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved, and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British Common Law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.

French colonization:

Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War. At the war's end, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and dissolved the 103-year-old Merina monarchy, sending the royal family into exile on Reunion Island and in Algeria.

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896, but many of the 500,000 liberated slaves remained in their former masters' homes as servants. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s the island was identified by Nazi leadership as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews, and during the Second World War was the site of a battle between the Vichygovernment and the British. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. In 1958, there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.

Independent state:

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–1972), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.

Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a Major General in the army, was appointed interim President and Prime Minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava was appointed to succeed him but was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after him for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards.

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally in 1991. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–1996), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade for economic development. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms, but only gradual progress was made during his second tenure, which lasted from 1996 to 2001.

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka.

The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7% per year under his administration. In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. By early 2012, a fixed date for presidential elections had not been set by the Rajoelina administration.

International Day Against Drug Abuse & Trafficking Worldwide - Jun 26

The International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking is a United Nations International Day against drug abuse and theillegal drug trade. It has been held annually since 1988 on 26 June, a date chosen to commemorate Lin Zexu's dismantling of the opium trade in Humen, Guangdong, just before the First Opium War in China. The observance was instituted by General Assembly Resolution42/112 of 7 December 1987.

The UN's 2007 World Drug Report puts the value of the illegal drug trade at US$322 billion a year.

International Day in Support of Victims of Torture Worldwide - Jun 26

The United Nations International Day in Support of Victims of Torture – 26 June is held annually on 26 June to speak out against the crime of torture and to honour and support victims and survivors throughout the world.

History The day was selected

by the United Nations General Assembly for two reasons. First, on 26 June 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed – the first international instrument obliging UN members to respect and promote human rights.

Second, 26 June 1987 was when the United Nations Convention Against Torture came into effect.

The decision to annually observe the International Day in Support of Victims of Torture was taken by the UN General Assembly at the proposal of Denmark, which is home to the world-renowned International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims (IRCT).

The first 26 June events were launched in 1998. Since then, dozens of organisations in dozens of countries mark the day each year with events, celebrations and campaigns.

On 16 July 2009, the International Day in Support of Victims of Torture was chosen as a public holiday in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Global Campaign

Every year the IRCT monitors the campaign plans of organisations around the world and towards the end of the year publishes the 26 June Global Report where it describes the events held in commemoration of the day. According to the latest 26 June Global Report (2010), at least 38 countries around the world commemorated the day with conferences, workshops, peaceful rallies, cultural and musical events, events for children, etc.

Vidovdan (Serbian Cyrillic: Видовдан) is a Serbian religious holiday, St. Vitus Day, whose feast is on June 28 (Gregorian Calendar, June 15 according to the Julian Calendar, in use by the Serbian Orthodox Church.

Also, Serbian Orthodox Church is designated as a memorial day to Saint Prince Lazar and the Serbian holy martyrs who gave their lives to defend their faith during the epic Battle of Kosovo against Ottoman Empire on June 28, 1389. It is a Slava (Patron saint feast day) of St. Vitus, connected in Serbian culture to the Battle of Kosovo, among other events. The feast day is sacred to ethnic Serbs (Serbian Orthodox Christians), who transformed the pagan Slavic god (deity) of war, fertility and abundance "Svetovid"(Vid) into the Sicilian martyr (St. Vitus) -who exorcized the evil out of Diocletian's son, at the time of the final Christianization of the Serbs during the rule of Basil I (867 - 886) by Byzantine missionairies of Constantinople Cyril and Methodius. Through the centuries, Serbian historical events such as the Battle of Kosovo became sources for spiritual strength and patriotism. It was not a coincidence that Gavrilo Princip assassinated the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Vidovdan, triggering theFirst World War. Vidovdan has long been considered a date of special importance to ethnic Serbs and the Balkans, the following events each took place on Vidovdan, but are expressed here in the Gregorian Calendar Vidovdan has long been considered a date of special importance to ethnic Serbs and in the Balkans, with the following events each taking place on Vidovdan, but are expressed here in the Gregorian Calendar: on June 28, 1389, the Ottoman Empire fought against Serbia in the Battle of Kosovo, and Serbian Prince Lazar was slain in battle. Ottoman Sultan Murad I was killed by Serbian knight Miloš Obilić. on June 28, 1914 the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian crown prince, Franz Ferdinand, triggers the First World War. on June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, ending World War I. on June 28, 1921, the Serbian King Alexander I proclaimed the new Constitution of theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, known thereafter as the Vidovdan Constitution(Vidovdanski ustav). on June 28, 1948, the Cominform published, on the initiative of its Soviet delegates Zhdanov, Malenkov and Suslov, in a "Resolution on the State of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia" their condemnation of the Yugoslavian communist leaders - this happening is seen as the date that marks the final split between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. on June 28, 1989, on the 600th anniversary of the battle of Kosovo, Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević delivered the Gazimestan speech at the site of the historic battle. on June 28, 2001, Slobodan Milošević was deported to ICTY to stand trial. on June 28, 2006, Montenegro was announced as the 192nd member state of the United Nations. on June 28, 2008 was the inaugural meeting of the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija.

In Bulgaria it is called Vidovden (Видовден) or Vidov Den (Видов ден) and is particularly well known in (Shopluk), the western part of the country.

Vidovdan was referred to in the song "Oro"; Serbia's entry in the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest, performed by Jelena Tomasevic.

World War 1 Day U.S. - Jun 28

World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or theGreat War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world'sgreat powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies(based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany,Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history.More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of great technological advances in firepower without corresponding advances in mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.

Long-term causes of the war included the imperialistic foreign policies of the great powers of Europe, including the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire, the British Empire, theFrench Republic, and Italy. The assassination on 28 June 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by aYugoslav nationalist in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina was the proximate trigger of the war. It resulted in a Habsburg ultimatum against the Kingdom of Serbia. Several alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked, so within weeks the major powers were at war; via their colonies, the conflict soon spread around the world.

On 28 July, the conflict opened with the Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, followed by the German invasion of Belgium, Luxembourg and France; and a Russian attack against Germany. After the German march onParis was brought to a halt, the Western Front settled into a static battle of attrition with a trench line that changed little until 1917. In the East, the Russian army successfully fought against the Austro-Hungarian forces but was forced back from East Prussia and Poland by the German army. Additional fronts opened after the Ottoman Empire joined the war in 1914, Italy and Bulgaria in 1915 and Romania in 1916. The Russian Empire collapsed in March 1917, and Russia left the war after the October Revolution later that year. After a 1918 German offensive along the western front, United Statesforces entered the trenches and the Allies drove back the German armies in a series of successful offensives. Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries at this point, agreed to a cease-fire on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day. The war had ended in victory for the Allies.

Events on the home fronts were as tumultuous as on the battle fronts, as the participants tried to mobilize their manpower and economic resources to fight a total war. By the end of the war, four major imperial powers — the German,Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires — ceased to exist. The successor states of the former two lost a great amount of territory, while the latter two were dismantled entirely. The map of central Europe was redrawn into several smaller states. The League of Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict.

The European nationalism spawned by the war and the breakup of empires, the repercussions of Germany's defeat and problems with the Treaty of Versailles are agreed to be factors contributing toWorld War II.

Independence Day Seychelles - Jun 29

Seychelles, officially the Republic of Seychelles (French: République des Seychelles; Creole: Repiblik Sesel), is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some 1,500 kilometres (932 mi) east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar.

Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius,Rodrigues, Agalega and Réunion to the south, Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest. Seychelles, with an estimated population of 86,525, has the smallest population of any African state. It also has the highest Human Development Index in Africa.

History

Scholars assume that Austronesian seafarers, and later Maldivian and Arab traders were the first to visit the uninhabited Seychelles. Remains of Maldivian mariner presence from the 12th century were found in Silhouette Island. The earliest recorded sighting by Europeans took place in 1502 by the Portuguese Admiral Vasco da Gama, who passed through the Amirantes and named them after himself (islands of the Admiral).

A transit point for trade between Africa and Asia, the islands were occasionally used bypirates until the French began to take control starting in 1756 when a Stone of Possession was laid by Captain Nicholas Morphey. The islands were named after Jean Moreau de Séchelles, Louis XV’s Minister of Finance.

The British contested control over the islands between 1794 and 1810. Jean Baptiste Quéau de Quincy, French administrator of Seychelles during the years of war with the United Kingdom, declined to resist when armed enemy warships arrived. Instead, he successfully negotiated the status of capitulation to Britain which gave the settlers a privileged position of neutrality.

Britain eventually assumed full control upon the surrender of Mauritius in 1810, formalised in 1814 at the Treaty of Paris. Seychelles became a crown colony separate from Mauritiusin 1903. Elections were held in 1966 and 1970. Independence was granted in 1976 as arepublic within the Commonwealth. In 1977, a coup d'état ousted the first president of the republic, James Mancham, who was replaced by France Albert René. The 1979constitution declared a socialist one-party state, which lasted until 1991. The first draft of a new constitution failed to receive the requisite 60% of voters in 1992, but an amended version was approved in 1993.

St. Peter & St. Paul Day International - Jun 29

The Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, or the Solemnity of Saints Peter and Paul, is a liturgical feast in honour of the martyrdom in Rome of the apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, which is observed on 29 June. The celebration is of ancient origin, the date selected being the anniversary either of their death or of the translation of their relics.

In the Roman Catholic Church

In the Roman Catholic calendar of saints, it is celebrated as a solemnity. In the General Roman Calendar of 1962, it is a firstclass feast. It is a holy day of obligation in the universal Church.

In England and Wales the feast is observed as a holy day of obligation while in the United States and Canada, it is not. In Malta it is a public holiday and in Maltese known as L-Imnarja.

This is the day of the liturgical year on which those newly created metropolitan archbishops receive the primary symbol of their office, the pallium, from the pope.

In Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches For Eastern Orthodox and some Eastern Catholic Christians this feast also marks the end of the Apostles' Fast (which

began on the Monday following All Saints' Sunday, i.e., the second Monday after Pentecost). It is considered a day of recommended attendance, whereon one should attend the All-Night Vigil (or at least Vespers) on the eve, and the Divine Liturgy on the morning of the feast (there are, however, no "Days of Obligation" in the Eastern Church). For those who follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 29 June falls on the Gregorian Calendar date of 12 July.

In the Russian Orthodox tradition, Macarius of Unzha's Miracle of the Moose is said to have occurred during the Apostles' Fast and the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul that followed it.

Ecumenical importance

In recent decades, this feast, along with that of Saint Andrew, has been of importance to the modern ecumenical movement as an occasion on which the pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople have officiated at services designed to bring their two churches closer to intercommunion. This was especially the case during the pontificate of Pope John Paul II, as reflected in his encyclical Ut Unum Sint.

Among Doukhobors

Although the Doukhobors do not venerate saints per se, the Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul has traditionally been a day of celebration for them. Since 1895, it has acquired a new significance as a commemoration of the Burning of the Arms, the Doukhobors' destruction of their weapons, as a symbol of their refusal to participate in governmentsponsored killing. It is celebrated now by their descendants as simply "Peters Day", sometimes referred to as the Doukhobor Peace Day.

National Salvation Revolution Day Sudan - Jun 30

The Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC) was the authority by which the military government of Sudan under Lt. Gen. Omar al-Bashir exercised power.

The RCC came to power following the June 1989 coup.

Lt. Gen. Bashir was the chairman of the Council, as well as Prime Minister, defence minister and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. All fifteen members of the council were military officers. No regulations about the selection and tenure of its members have been made public.

The RCC exercised legislative as well as some executive authority. It appointed committees to draft various legal decrees. The RCC has not published any rules of procedures over its deliberations.

It banned political activity and arrested opposition members and closed down newspapers.

The RCC dissolved itself in October 1993. Its powers were devolved to the President and the Transitional National Assembly.

Independence Day - Jun 30 Congo (Democratic Republic of)

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (French: République démocratique du Congo), commonly referred to as DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa or the DRC, is a country located in Central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area since the accession of South Sudan as an independent country and the eleventh largest in the world. With a population of over 71 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the nineteenth most populous nation in the world, the fourth most populous nation in Africa, as well as the most populous officially Francophone country.

It borders the Central African Republic and South Sudan to the north; Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi in the east; Zambia and Angola to the south; the Republic of the Congo, the Angolan exclave of Cabinda, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west; and is separated fromTanzania by Lake Tanganyika in the east. The country has access to the ocean through a 40-kilometre (25 mi) stretch of Atlantic coastline at Muanda and the roughly 9 km wide mouth of the Congo River which opens into the Gulf of Guinea.

The Second Congo War, beginning in 1998, devastated the country and is sometimes referred to as the "African world war" because it involved nine African nations and some twenty armed groups. Despite the signing of peace accords in 2003, fighting continues in the east of the country. In eastern Congo, the prevalence of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world. The war is the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, killing 5.4 million people since 1998. The vast majority died from conditions of malaria, diarrhea, pneumonia and malnutrition.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo was formerly, in chronological order, the Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Congo-Léopoldville, Congo-Kinshasa, and Zaire (Zaïre in French). These former names are sometimes referred to as unofficial names, with the exception of Mobutu's discredited Zaire, along with various abbreviations such as DR Congo and DRC. Though it is located in the Central African UN subregion, the nation is also economically and regionally affiliated with Southern Africa as a member of theSouthern African Development Community (SADC).

History

Early history:

A wave of early people was identified in the northern and north-western parts of central Africa during the second millennium BC. They produced food (pearl millet), maintained domestic livestock and developed a kind of arboriculture mainly based on the oil palm. From 1,550 BC to 50 BC, starting from a nucleus area in south Cameroon on both banks of the Sanaga River, the first Neolithic peopling of northern and western central Africa can be followed southeastwards and southwards.

In D.R. Congo, the first villages in the vicinity of Mbandaka and the Lake Tumba are known as the Imbonga Traditions, from around 650 BC. In Lower Congo, north of the Angolan border, it is the 'Ngovo Tradition' around 350 BC that shows the arrival of the Neolithic wave of advance.

In Kivu, across the country to the east, the Urewe Tradition villages first appeared about 650 BC. The few archaeological sites known in Congo are a western extension of the Ureweculture which has been found chiefly in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and western Kenya andTanzania. From the start of this tradition, the people knew iron smelting, as is evidenced by several iron-smelting furnaces excavated in Rwanda and Burundi.

The earliest evidence further to the west is known in Cameroon and near to the small town ofBouar in Central Africa.

Though further studies are needed to establish a better chronology for the start of iron production in Central Africa, the Cameroonian data places iron smelting north of the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests around 650 BC to 550 BC. This technology developed independently from the previous Neolithic expansion, some 900 years later. As fieldwork done by a German team shows, the Congo River network was slowly settled by food-producing villagers going upstream in the forest. Work from a Spanish project in the Ituri area further east suggests villages reached there only around 1,150 BC. The Bantu-speaking Neolithic and then iron-producing villagers added to and displaced the indigenous Pygmy populations (also known in the region as the "Batwa" or "Twa") into secondary parts of the country. Subsequent migrations from the Darfur and Kordofan regions of Sudan into the north-east, as well as East Africans migrating into the eastern Congo, added to the mix of ethnic groups. The Bantu-speakers imported a mixed economy made up of agriculture, small-stock raising, fishing, fruit collecting, hunting and arboriculture before 3,500 BP; iron-working techniques, possibly from West Africa, a much later addition. The villagers established the Bantu language family as the primary set of tongues for the Congolese.

The process in which the original Upemba society transitioned into the Kingdom of Luba was gradual and complex.

This transition ran without interruption, with several distinct societies developing out of the Upemba culture prior to the genesis of the Luba. Each of these kingdoms became very wealthy due mainly to the region's mineral wealth, especially in ores. The civilization began to develop and implement iron and copper technology, in addition to trading in ivory and other goods. The Luba established a strong commercial demand for their metal technologies and were able to institute a long-range commercial net (the business connections extended over 1,500 kilometres (930 miles), all the way to the Indian Ocean). By the 16th century, the kingdom had an established strong central government based on chieftainship. The Eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab/Zanzibari slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip.

The African Congo Free State (1877–1908):

European exploitation, exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. It was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium.

Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. In a succession of negotiations, Leopold – professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairman of the Association Internationale Africaine – played one European rival against another.

Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property and named it the Congo Free State. Leopold's regime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa). It took years to complete. Nearly all such projects were aimed at increasing the capital which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony, leading to exploitation of Africans.

Belgian Congo (1908–1960):

In 1908, the Belgian parliament, despite initial reluctance, bowed to international pressure (especially that from Great Britain) and took over the Free State as a Belgian colony from the king. From then on, it was called the Belgian Congo and was under the rule of the elected Belgian government. The government improved significantly and a considerable economic and social progress was achieved. The white colonial rulers had, however, generally a condescending, patronizing attitude against the indigenous peoples, which led to bitter resentment.

During World War II, the Congolese army achieved several victories against the Italians in North Africa.

Independence and Political crisis (1960–1965):

In May 1960, a growing nationalist movement, the Mouvement National Congolais or MNC Party, led by Patrice Lumumba, won the parliamentary elections. The party appointed Lumumba as Prime Minister. The parliament elected as President Joseph Kasavubu, of the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO) party. Other parties that emerged included the Parti Solidaire Africain (or PSA) led by Antoine Gizenga, and the Parti National du Peuple (or PNP) led by Albert Delvaux and Laurent Mbariko. (Congo 1960, dossiers du CRISP, Belgium) The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name "République du Congo" ("Republic of Congo" or "Republic of the Congo" in English). Shortly after independence, the provinces of Katanga (led by Moise Tshombe) and South Kasaiengaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership. Most of the 100,000 Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country, opening the way for Congolese to replace the European military and administrative elite.

Zaire (1971–1997):

The new president Mobutu Sese Seko had the support of the United States because of his staunch opposition to Communism. Western powers appeared to believe this would make him a roadblock to Communist schemes in Africa.

A one-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himself head of state. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Relative peace and stability were achieved; however, Mobutu's government was guilty of severe human rights violations, political repression, a cult of personality and corruption. (Mobutu demanded every Congolese banknote printed with his image, hanging of his portrait in all public buildings, most businesses, and on billboards; and it was common for ordinary people to wear his likeness on their clothing.)

Rwandan/Ugandan invasions and civil wars:

By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring Rwandan Civil War and Rwandan Genocide had spilled over to Zaire. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government, had been using Hutu refugees camps in eastern Zaire as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.

Impact of armed conflict on civilians:

In 2009, people in the Congo may still be dying at a rate of an estimated 45,000 per month, and estimates of the number who have died from the long conflict range from 900,000 to 5,400,000.

International Community Response:

The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo. United Nations Security Council and the U.N. SecretaryGeneral have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population. But they had shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place. Hence Rwanda, like Uganda, has escaped any significant sanction for its role.

János Martonyi’s Meeting with the Representatives of the International Press

HUNGARY Hungary can fund itself without IMF: PM (Online) Hungary can fund itself without help from the International Monetary Fund although an deal IMF would reBuduce dapest's borrowing costs and provide a backstop in nervous markets, Prime Minister Viktor Orban told a newspaper.

Saddled with the region's highest debt load, Hungary has been in dispute for months with the IMF and the European Union over conditions for starting talks on a multi-billion-euro loan, making it vulnerable to a worsening European debt crisis.

The disagreement has centred on a law that lenders say undermines the independence of Hungary's central

bank. The government will submit amendments to the law shortly, it said last week.

In an interview with Austrian paper Die Presse, Orban dismissed a suggestion that Hungary needed outside assistance.

"We are able to finance the state without IMF loans but the interest rates on bonds are very high. The question is not whether we can finance the state, the question is at

what price," was he quoted as saying.

"We are still in the financial market don't and to want leave it." He said Hunfigary's n a n c e s could hansuch dle borhigh r o w i n g costs this and year next. "But if we had an agreement with the IMF the interest rates would be much lower. We don't really need loans, but are merely getting hold of measures. precautionary Hungary does not intend to live off IMF money," he said, but could use a buffer for "worst-case scenarios" given the turbulence on financial markets arising from the problems in Greece, Spain, Italy and elsewhere.

Aid prolonged for public sector employees (Online 22 AcJun) cording to the bill subto mitted parliament e a r l i e r today, pubsector lic employees can request the one-off grant profor vided them until 30 September 2012.

As an instrument for the assisfor tance foreign currency debtors, the government provides a oneoff grant for public sector employees who have utilized the fixed exchange rate loan system. The amount of this grant corresponds to the difference between the installments actually paid between 1 Febru-

ary 2012 and the installments payable on the basis of the conditions of the first fixed exchange rate loan system – until not later than 1 July 2012 – and the installments payable according to the fixed exchange rate loan scheme. Thereby public sec-

tor employees actually receive the same support as if they would have been paying installments since February 2012 on the basis of the new exfixed change rate sysloan tem, at fixed rates (180 C H F / H U F, 5 0 2 EUR/HUF

and 2JPY/HUF).

In order to assist as many debtors at issue as possible to utilize this opportunity, the bill proposes a new deadline for the conclusion of a contract of 30 September 2012 instead of the currently effective 1 July 2012.

Hungarian success of lasting deficit reduction (Online 22 The Jun) Economic and Financial Affairs Council of the European Union (ECOFIN) delivered its decision on 22 June to abolish the temporary suspension of commitments from the Cohesion Fund -which verthe dict Council had been passed on 13 March and which would have entered into effect from 1 January 2013. The decision could be made because the Council and the European Commission also opine that Hungary has carried out sufficient measures in order to cut the excessive deficit.

A trend reversal has been achieved: it is for the first time in the excessive deficit procedure -- that has been going on since 2004 -- that a decision was in favour of Hungary. Therefore the danger of the loss of almost half a billion euro of development funds for Hungary is averted.

In 2011 Hungary had a budget balance deficit well below the 3 percent threshold considered as excessive.

Back in March 2012 the council still had the opinion that risks made it questionable whether the Hungarian budget deficit could be permanently kept below 3 percent. By now, however, the

measures of the Széll Kálmán Plan could be presented in a conclusive way and in detail and they express the commitment of the government to fiscal deficit targets.

Well-established economic growth is indispensible for the permanent reduction of fiscal deficit. The measures which lay the foundations for growth, higher employment rates and the reduction of fiscal deficit the government presented in its economic policy plan called Széll Kálmán Plan 2.0 which was also sent to relevant EU institutions. The SzKT 2.0 includes the Convergence Programme and the National Reform Programme. In light of the above, the Council established the fact in its evaluation published on 30 May that due to the comprehensive economic policy programme of the government, the fiscal deficit will continue to be below 3 percent in the

y e a r s ahead. This f i n d i n g it makes possible that in 2013 the excessive deficit procedure which has been ongosince ing 2004 can be revoked.

Parallel to delivering a decision favourable for Hungary, the Council made resolutions with regard to the assessment of the stability and convergence as well as the national reform programmes of member countries, and the measures proposed by the macroeconomic imbalances surveillance mechanism established by the new sixpack. The ruling suggests that the Council and the Commission have endorsed the Hungarian Convergence Programme and they did not consider it necessary either to commence a macroeconomic imbalance procedure against Hungary.

Besides maintaining financial and economic stability, another key priority of the government is economic growth and job creation. It is obvious that growth and high employment rate are adequate responses to the European economic crisis. To this end, the government will continue to strengthen its job creation programmes.

The measures disputed by the Commission are not in breach of EU regulation (Online 21 Jun) Hunhas gary still no intention to amend the re g u l a ti o n on excise tax and the sectoral extra tax.

According to the official position of the government, the Hungarian provisions of law disputed by the Commission comply fully with community law.

The European Commission condemns in the two procedures launched with regard to sectoral extra taxes – the sectoral extra taxes payable by the retail and telecommunication sectors – that the regulation discriminates taxpaying entities which are not Hungarian-owned as instead of profits sales revenues constitute the tax base, and the rate of tax is progressive, therefore foreign-owned companies pay most of the tax.

According to the official posi-

tion of the Hungarian government, if taxation is based on sales revenues it sufficiently reflects the financial strength of the companies at issue.

Contrary to the argument of the Commission, it is not discriminatory that taxes are mostly paid by foreign-owned companies as these enterprises represent a significant weight in the sectors involved, moreover, in the entire Hungarian economy.

In addition, the European Commission also objects to the regulation regarding the tax exemption of pálinka (fruit

distillate) production by housein holds; their view the exempruns tion counter to EU law.

Without a doubt, on the basis of historical traditions, pálinka production has been part of the cultural heritage of Hungarians.

Therefore, similarly to other EU countries, Hungary intends to secure the survival of this tradition. Consequently, the government established – by having abolished the alcohol production duty – the right to pálinka brewing of households. This way Hungary aims for nothing more than what is legally due to several EU member countries such as Austria and Germany.

Considering the above, Hungary is prepared to defend its official position in all three infringement procedures at the European Court of Justice.

The family-friendly tax system boosted the propensity to take on more children (Online 21 The Jun) proportionate flat rate tax system has delivered the exp e c t e d results. The family tax allowance introduced together the with proportionate flat rate tax stimulates families to take more on children which impact has also been manifested in the significant increase of the number of births.

In 2010, after the government was inaugurated, it introduced a family-friendly tax system. Due to that, last year 800 000 parents could claim family tax allowances of almost 160bn HUF. This was the extra amount which was

left at families. As a consequence of this family-friendly tax system, real incomes at families with three children increased by almost 20 percent.

In the tax system, which has been aiming for a proportionate, work-centered economy, therefore a change of attitude has taken place and in line with that the state leaves the

income necessary for raising children at families.

As a consequence, in 2012 so far 5.2 percent more children were born than in the corresponding of period 2011, therefore available data gives reafor son hope.

The measures of the government aimed at boosting the propensity to take on more children – which include the family tax allowance – managed to halt the decline of the number of births which had been brought on by the extremely counterproductive measures of previous governments.

Draft budget of 2013 submitted to parliament (Online 20 The Jun) key objective of the 2 0 1 3 budget bill is maintainfiscal ing rigour, while creating a taxation system that fosters job creation.

Debate of the budget prebill, sented to Parliament on 15 June will begin on 25 June; decision on major figures are expected on 13 July, while the complete budget can be approved on 23 September.

According to Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, “next year’s budget has two objectives: to keep raising employment and to reduce public debt along with household and corporate debt”. The Ministry for National Economy which submitted the budget bill concluded that “in the past couple of months, in the midst of a protracted financialeconomic crisis, the government has carried out structural reforms by which the fiscal balance was made sustainable and general government debt was set on a downward path.” Government spokesman András GíróSzász underlined that the European Union has approved Hungary’s deficit forecasts for the first time, thus the excessive deficit procedure against Hungary will probably be lifted on 22 June.

“Although the EU has conducted an excessive deficit procedure against Hungary since 2004, former cabinets did not take any meaningful measure against it” – Mr. GiróSzász added. He also highlighted that the number of employed people was higher now than in 2010, when the cabinet took office, and the real value of pensions has been preserved – whilst thousands of people were laid down in the public and private sector in neighbouring countries.

Major indicators of the macroeconomic path projected in the 2013 budget bill are the following:

GDP is projected to grow by 1.6 percent; budget deficit is forecast to amount 2.2 percent of GDP; public debt is projected to fall from 78 percent to 76,8 percent of GDP; inflation is expected to be 4.2 percent; household consumption is projected to grow by 0.2 percent; investments are to grow by 0.3 percent in 2013, following a decline of 2.3 percent expected for this year; export volume is projected to expand by 8.8 percent after an expansion of 4.7 percent this year; import volume is forecast to expand by 8 percent after an expansion of 2.8 percent this year; current account surplus is expected to be 4.1 percent after 3.4 percent this year.

The budget is based on the reform measures included in the first Széll Kálmán Plan of spring 2011 and its successor prepared this spring, bringing about radical changes in all areas of the public sector.

Restructuring public administration, removing nonoldage allowances from the pension system, providing wages for communal work instead of social allowances were among those reforms. As for taxation, the government aims at fostering the economy and employment by relying on sales and excise taxes instead of labour taxes.

The government sent the budget bill to the Fiscal Council on 31 May and the Council published its assessment on 11 June. The body – consisting of the central bank governor, the president of State Audit Office, and an expert

delegated by the President – did exnot pressed any objections which would hinder Parliamentary debate on bill. the H o w e v e r, due to cerrisks tain the Council proposed the government to prean pare alternative macroeconomic prognosis. Deputy State Secretary for Budgetary Affairs in the Ministry for National Economy, Péter Banai Beno pointed out: next year's budget is based on a worstcase scenario. “There is a huge hidden reserve in the budget as the potentially beneficial impact of an IMF safety net, the probable decreasing of government bond yields, as well as a strengthening of the forint exchange rate have not been taken into consideration” he added. According to the Bill, “the government is strongly committed to the conclusion of a credit line agreement providing a financial safety net”.

Besides the budget bill the government also submitted an amendment to the fiscal stability law. The amendment likely to be adopted soon will involve recommendations by the European Commission, aimed at strengthening the Fiscal Council. Among others, the amendment specifies the exchange rate to be applied when calculating public debt. It also prescribes that the Fiscal Council is entitled to form an opinion on budgetary and public debt situation every six months. Furthermore, it is given the right to revise all issues regarding the preparation and execution of the budget, and the use of public funds. Along with the budget, the government may consult about other bills related to the budget. According to the proposal, the government is obliged to submit an amendment to the budget act if such circumstances arose which would result in the increase of the public debt ratio.

The Condolences of Minister for Foreign Affairs in Jeddah (Online 20 Jun) H. E. János Martonyi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Hungary paid a visit to Jeddah on June 19, 2012 to express his own condolences and those of Hungary and its Government, to the new Crown Prince, His Royal Highness Salman on the occasion of the passing away of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud, First Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Interior of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on June 16.

H. E. János Áder, President, H. E. Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister and H. E. János Martonyi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Hungary also sent a telegram to His Majesty the King, as well as to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Saudi Arabia on the occasion of His Royal Highness’ death. On behalf of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, H. E. Mr. Zsolt Németh, Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs and H. E. János Hóvári, Deputy State Secretary responsible for Global Affairs

expressed their condolences in person to the Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Budapest on June 19, 2012 as well.

His Royal Highness Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud was dedicated to further strengthening the friendly ties between Hungary and Saudi Arabia. With his unexpected death, we have lost an outstanding personality who consistently promoted the peace and security of the Kingdom and the whole region.

PM of f e r e d his c ondole nc e s due t o t he de a t h of Sa udi C r own Pr inc e (Online 20 Jun) Prime Minister Viktor Orbán offered his condolences due to the death of Crown Prince, heir to the Saudi throne, Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz on Sunday.

In his letter to the King of Saudi Arabia, the Prime Minister stressed that the deceased Saudi Crown Prince, Interior Minister and First Deputy Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia served his

country with dignity and devotion for many years, and the oeuvre with which he contributed to the blossoming and security of Saudi Arabia will long be remembered. The heir to the throne played an important role in the reinforcement of Saudi Arabia’s foreign relations, including friendly ties with Hungary. The Prime Minister also recalled their

meeting in person in the autumn of 2011 when a Hungarian governmental and business delegation paid a visit to Riyadh.

Viktor Orbán closed his letter by stating that the death of Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdul-Aziz is a great loss to Hungary and the entire world.

In April gross average wages in the private sector increased by 6.5 (Online 19 Jun) In April 2 0 1 2 gross average wages of the priv a t e sector i n creased by 6.5 percent, whereas n e t wages excluding family tax a l lowances were up by 3.5 percent compared to the corresponding period of the previous year – the Hungarian Statistical Office (KSH) reported earlier this morning in its statistical release.

The gross wage of the full time employed in April 2012 was 220 000HUF in the national economy, which corresponds to an increase of 2.5 percent in comparison to the same period of the previous year. Net wage – which was 142 000HUF – is

actually unchanged compared to April 2011, but in this figure the favourable impact of family tax allowances which can be received for children has not been calculated. The net wage rise which has been muted compared to the dynamic growth of the past couple of months is primarily a consequence of the increasing significance of public employment schemes.

The gross average wage of

private sector employees in April was 2 3 4 200HUF, while the net wage was 151 200HUF. The regu l a r gross average wage of t h o s e e m ployed at budgetary institutions – excluding public work employees – increased by 4.1 percent in comparison to the corresponding period of the previous year and it is currently 202 600HUF. Employees in the financial and insurance sectors have continued to earn the highest wages, followed by the sectors of information and communication and after that by the energy industry sector. The lowest paid employees were in the hotel trade and catering sectors.

(Online 22 ForJun) eign Minister János Martonyi met and addressed the foreign journalists and atpress t a c h é s working in Hungary upon the invitation of the Hungarian International Press Association (HIPA) June 22, 2012.

The Minister in his opening statement outlined the priorities of the Hungarian foreign policy to the audience and answered their questions.

In his opening statement Foreign Minister János Martonyi declared that the Hungarian diplomacy continues the program announced in the Strategy Document Hungary’s Foreign Policy after the Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union published December 2011. This new, comprehensive strategy will be one of the cornerstones of the planned official strategy on foreign relations. The future document will be announced foreseeably during the fall of 2012. It will focus on foreign trade, international economic ties, cultural diplomacy, and educational cooperation besides foreign relations. While Hungary has been adapting to the recent changes it continues to follow its foreign policy priorities. The utmost important goal is to foster friendly ties with all countries, especially in the neighborhood.

The Hungarian neighborhood policy focuses not only on the bordering nations but also on Central Europe in a broader sense. Minister Martonyi made clear that his conception of Central Europe is not determined by geography but it is a community of nations with similar cultural heritage.

Hungary will be the President of the Central European Initiative, a group of 18 countries, next year. As of July 1, 2013, Hungary will be president of

the Visegrad 4 cooperation.

To put it simply, 2013 will be a Central European Year for the Hungarian diplomacy. The Hungarian program of these presidencies is to dynamize the cooperation of the region.

The Visegrad group has a greater importance, which is demonstrated by the recent meeting of the V4 Prime Ministers in Prague. Moreover, the Polish Foreign Minister Radek Sikorski will visit Budapest July 5, 2012, and he will deliver a keynote speech on the goals of the Polish V4 Presidency (between July 1, 2012 and July 1, 2013).

This year there were political changes in the neighboring countries: Slovakia elected a new Parliament and government, in Romania a new government took office, and Serbia has a new President.

Minister Martonyi expressed the Hungarian government’s readiness to cooperate with the new governing political representatives. He underlined that the common interests are significantly stronger than the differences. There are still open questions, but these shall and will be tackled by the two concerning parties, avoiding unnecessary mediation and public statements. In Romania the change of government was triggered by a motion of non-confidence.

The reason for this political move was unfortunately a Hungarian ethnic minority issue (The Hungarian Faculty of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Târgu Mureș). The Hungarian-Romanian bilateral relationship

has recently imbeen pacted by misunderstandings as well. The representatives of the two governments are in dialogue.

Minister Martonyi expressed his that hope State SecreZsolt tary Németh would be rein ceived Bucharest soon, and the new Romanian Foreign Minister, Andrei Marga would visit Budapest soon. János Martonyi also recalled his successful meeting with Miroslav Lajčák, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Slovakia.

Minister Martonyi also addressed the challenges that Europe currently faces. He made the Hungarian position crystal clear: Budapest is interested in a Eurozone that not only survives the crises, but that becomes stronger and more comprehensive.

Hungary is legally bound to introduce the single currency, and it will act accordingly when the situation is mature.

He highlighted that the gap between the Eurozone and the non-Eurozone members shall not widen. Fragmentation and disintegration shall be avoided both within the Eurozone and also within the European Union as a whole.

Coming to the lately introduced new foreign policy priority, which is the Global Opening, Mr. Martonyi emphasized that it is an ongoing process. Looking at the figures of foreign trade, it is visible that the Hungarian export has increased by a higher rate to third countries than to the EU. This development effects naturally not only Hungary.

This new policy is global not only in a geographical sense, but also expresses the Hungarian readiness to face global challenges, with special focus on water-related issues.

Venice Commission acknowledged the guarantees provided by the Nationalities Act (Online 22 Jun) In its report pubon lished T u e s d a y, the Venice Commission considered the Act the on of Rights Nationalities to be democratic and to serve constitutionality.

In the opinion of the Commission, it is the interest of the Hungarian Government to cooperate with nationalities living in Hungary, the new Nationalities Act fulfils international minority protection expectations, yet at the same time it adapts to Hungarian local conditions as well.

The Commission acknowledged that Hungary continues to pay special attention to the protection of nationality rights and that it makes efforts to protect the cultural and language identity, the traditions and cultural heritage of nationalities living in the country.

The Commission welcomed that the Nationalities Act acknowledges and guarantees the rights of the nationalities living in Hungary in the most important fields including education, culture, the use of the mother tongue, the media, and the participation in public life.

The Commission noted that minority protection is especially complex and detailed, in particular with regard to nationality self-governments. Indeed, the new Act discusses the operation of nationality self-governments in stressed detail, as it was an explicit expectation during the consultations with nationalities to define the rules concerning

them as precisely and detailed as possible.

The report of the Commission raises the issue that an eventual amendment may be difficult due to the legal status of the act which is a cardinal law.

However, the fact that the act is cardinal has a significance regarding guarantees, similarly to the case of the previous act of 1993, which was also created by the Parliament as a two-thirds act. It should be underlined that the cardinal clause of the Act only has an informative nature; its amendment does not require a two-thirds majority – it can be amended with the majority of the votes of members of Parliament that are present.

The transitional provisions in the Act – the majority of which, according to the report of the Commission, cannot be considered transitional – are needed because of the gradual entry into force of the given new provisions, so that nationalities’ rights would be ensured also during the period until the entry into force.

These transitional regulations lapse simultaneously with the gradual entry into force.

The new regulation – as opposed to the opinion of the Commission – also extends its force from 2014, the date

the of scheduling of the next general nationality selfgovernment elections, to persons are who non-Hungarian citizens, live in H u n g a r y, and affiliate the with nagiven tionality both in language and culturThe ally. only exception to this is the passive franexercised during chise nationality self-government elections.

As for the issues challenged by the Commissioner for Fundamental Rights (the noncriterion of the profit nominator nationality organizations entitled to propose candidates, the collective responsibility of members of nationality self-governments for the consequences of unlawful utilisation of assets, handling nationality self-government assets in case of cessation of the body, as well as the question of the right to use sign language), the Parliament has already decided upon the modification of the law, the proclamation of the amendment is under process. The revision of the legal institution of the forfeiture of honours has also been initiated.

The Parliament passed the Act on the Rights of Nationalities at the end of December 2011, which was preceded by a broad consultation with stakeholders, and which lasted about one and a half year. Thus, it included consultation with the nationality selfgovernments, NGOs, experts, individual persons, and among others.

Hungaro Control may manage traffic in the upper airspace over Kosovo (Online 20 Jun) At a press conference held on 19 June 2012 in the Ministry of National Development in Budapest, NATO was reported to sehave lected Hungary as the successful applicant for re-opening the upper airspace over Kosovo and restart air traffic. HungaroControl Zrt. may be assigned the duty from spring 2013 if all the required conditions are met, said Zsolt Németh, Parliamentary Minister of State of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Since 2003 NATO has been seeking a technical solution for opening the upper airspace over Kosovo to the international air traffic, he added.

Minister of State for Infrastruc-

ture Pál Völner of the Ministry of National Development pointed out: as one of the most highly recognised and most rapidly developing air navigation services in Central Europe, HungaroControl possesses substantial expertise and has the required technological background. As he put it: Co-operation between the Ministry of National Development, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Defence Ministry, the National Transport Author-

ity and the Hungarian Tr a n s p o r t Security Organisation in joint effort with Hungaro Control Hungarian Air Navigation ServPte. ices Co. Ltd. earn may Hungary high prestige, recognition and a diplomatic success without debiting the government budget.

The Hungarian air traffic controllers will perform this duty in HungaroControl’s brand new control centre to open at the end of this year. The centre to be built with an investment of approximately HUF 13 billion will be among the most modern control centres of the continent, equipped with the highest standard network infrastructure available at the moment.

Hungary acknowledges decision of Supreme Court of Ireland with regret (Online 21 Jun) At the request of the Ministry Public of Administraand tion Justice, the Irish Department of Jusand tice Equality officially confirmed the information previously learned from news released by the press that, based on the decision of the Supreme Court of Ireland, Francis Ciaran Tobin cannot be extradited to Hungary, and the custody of the man who caused an accident resulting in the deaths of two children in Hungary on 9 April 2000 has been terminated.

The Ministry of Public Administration and Justice acknowl-

edged the decision of the Irish central authority with regret, in particular, in the light of the fact that an amendment that entered into force in 2009 removed the stipulation from the Irish law referred to on the basis of which a wanted person can only be handed over to the country of investigation in the case of his/her escape.

With regard to the gravity of

case the and the fact that the man sentenced to imprisonment for 3 years by the Hungarian authority caused an accident resulting in the deaths of a two-year-old and a fiveyear-old child in Hungary and left the country without facing the consequences, Minister of Public Administration and Justice Tibor Navracsics requested the Irish Minister of Justice by letter on 23 March 2011 and several times thereafter informally at meetings in person to urge the satisfactory settlement of the case within the shortest possible time.

Yo u n g H u n g a r i a n s ’ v o i c e t o be better heard in Europe (Online 19 Jun) On behalf of the Governm e n t , D e p u t y Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics expressed his support for the establishment of the National Youth Council to the representatives of the attending civil organisations focusing on young people. By virtue of the foundation of the organisation, Hungary, as the last of the EU Member States, may now join the European Youth Forum, an organisation with a membership of more than a hundred European youth organisations.

Deputy Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics welcomed the representatives of the attending civil organisations and said he sincerely hoped that the establishment of the Council would open a new chapter in cooperation with young people. Navracsics

stressed that “we need an open, European, sophisticated and creative Hungary”; this can only be achieved in cooperation with Hungary’s youth. We would like a Hungary, he said, which welcomes back its youths returning from abroad after a period of learning.

The National Youth Council may be a meeting point and a forum for an ongoing dialogue between politicians and young people.

With the establishment of the National Youth Council, Hungary, as the last of the EU Member States, may now join

Eurothe pean Youth Forum with a membership of more than a hundred European youth organisations. More 80 than oryouth ganisations have to date declared their intention to join the Council.

NaThe tional Youth Council will officially come into being in the autumn; the signatories to the declaration of intent will by then be required to determine a structure and system of delegation for the organisation which will, by virtue of its operation, elevate the representation and expression of youth interests to a European level and will promote and facilitate communication and cooperation between local organisations. According to plans, the Council will immediately notify the European Youth Council of its intention to join, and will begin cooperation with the international organisation.

Another thermal bathing complex opened in Nagykáta (Online 19 Jun) Viktor Orbán inaugurated the new thermal bathing complex in Nagykáta on Monday.

The project situated some sixty kilometres Bufrom dapest was i m p l e m e n t e d partly from aid supplied the from e w N Széchenyi Plan and partly from local funding.

The construction of the new bathing complex began a year ago. The three-storey bathing complex with a useful ground space of 1,300 square metres, providing full access for the disabled, was implemented as a green-field project, and one of the pools on the premises of the outdoor bathing complex was also rebuilt.

The Prime Minister said that thermal water is one of Hungary’s treasures. Medicinal tourism and the development of bathing complexes constitute one of the top priorities of the Government’s development programme, the New Széchenyi Plan. One of the goals of the Government’s development policy is to effectively use Hungary’s exceptionally rich thermal water supplies and geo-thermic features, while it is an-

other priority to create a harmonious system by linking together the industries that serve to preserve and restore health and promote conscious and healthy lifestyles.

The Prime Minister believes that the Nagykáta project, that also creates new jobs, also demonstrates that only the combination of perseverance, local initiative, inventiveness and diligence may render Hungarians successful.

The Prime Minister recalled that the conscious exploitation of Hungary’s thermal water supplies began during the first Orbán Government, in 2000, as part of the first Széchenyi Plan.

Visitors to Hungary may enjoy thermal bathing complexes and thermal waters with truly unique properties both in the capital and in the provinces.

The most famous bathing complex in Budapest is the beautiful Széchényi Baths,

which is also a monulisted ment; however, there are a number of other smaller, bathing and spa complexes, which are also introduced on the at website http://www.budapestgyogyfurdoi.hu/en Hungary’s thermal water supplies are unique in their quantity and, in particular, in their qualalso by ity global standards. Hungary has an outstanding reputation and major traditions in tourism organised on the foundations of thermal water and rehabilitation based on the country’s existing curative and medicinal factors. Its thermal and medicinal facilities are widely known throughout the world.

Hungary is extremely rich in mineral waters and medicinal thermal waters; in addition to Iceland, Japan and NewZealand, Hungary has the largest thermal water supplies, and the medicinal effects of these thermal waters are unique in the world. As regards its thermal waters and medicinal waters, Hungary is number one in Europe; at present, there are some 500 thermal water sites, which means that natural waters hotter than +30°C occur in 70% of the country’s territory.

H unga r ia n int e lle c t ua l pr ope r t y a s s is t e d wit h innov a tion m a na ge m e nt (Online 20 Jun) The National Office for Intellectual Property established a nonprofit agency, HIPAVILON Magyar Szellemi Tulajdon Ügynökség Nonprofit Kft. as a new market player of Hungary’s system of innovationoriented institutions to promote the growth and market opportunities of Hungarian innovation.

The establishment of this agency was driven, inter alia, by the recognition arising from international and European trends that innovation is the engine of economic growth.

As innovation is hindered most by high costs and the shortage of funds, Hipavilon will help raise funds via tenders and the involvement of venture capital or business partners. It will further provide support with the identification of a given idea or innovative solution, while its research services will help determine whether the idea or innovative solution infringes any already existing rights. HIPAVILON will provide its services with special data sources offering added value and will also save its customers time and costs in the capacity of a kind of information and networking centre.

It will be the agency’s responsibility to promote the application in business and effective utilisation on the market of knowledge capital with the tools of innovation management mostly in the segment of small- and medium-sized businesses

and the university and academic research sector. The services of the agency may be used in several phases from the conception of the idea all the way to the penetration of the market. As part of these services, the agency will provide training for its customers, will help price new products before their placement on the market, will help obtain protection and will also provide consulting services.

Some interesting facts. A number of Hungarian inventions are being used worldwide also at present. Just a few examples of the Hungarian inventions known everywhere around the world: computer, coloured television, matches, ballpoint pen, automatic gearbox, helicopter, automatic coffee maker, soda water, vitamin C, light bulb, film camera, floppy disk, 3D film, +D monitor, 3D pencil, contact lenses, handoperated lawnmower, painfree injection and vision improvement glasses. Hungarians have served the world with a great many innovations, from space research to military development (Moon radar, supersonic flight, etc.).

One of the world’s most popular puzzle games, the Rubik’s cube is also a Hungarian invention. It is this magic little cube that inspired the building that is being planned to be erected on the Danube bank in Budapest.

The cultural complex to be built in the shape of a Rubik’s cube will function as a mu-

seum, an event venue and an exhibition centre; the project will be implemented between 2014 and 2017.

Hungarian inventors and scientists contributed to the advancement of the world not only in the last few centuries; in the 21st century, too, a number of innovations and intellectual products originate from Hungary. To name but some of these: Áron Losonczi, a young Hungarian architect developed a new building material, light-transmitting concrete, marketed under the name „Litracon”.

A number of medical diagnostic inventions are attached to the names of Hungarian scientists. 4D Anatomy’s four-dimensional anatomic map is a unique Hungarian development in health care which will first be available to the students of the Semmelweis University in Budapest. The unique invention that came into being as a result of eight years of development has become an overnight, world-wide success.

The latest test equipment of a Hungarian firm, which was recently presented at a medical appliances fair and attracted extraordinary attention, may bring about a major breakthrough in the monitoring of blood coagulation diseases. The patent offers the promise of not only simpler and more convenient testing but also that of a much faster and cheaper procedure compared with the technologies currently available.

Domestic reverse charge VAT in agriculture effective from the middle of the year (Online 20 Jun) In order to combat tax fraud in agriculture, from 1 July 2012 the regulations of reverse charge taxation shall be applied for trade transactions between domestic taxpayers for certain cereals, oilseeds and protein crops (corn, wheat, barley, rye, oat, triticale, sunflowerseed, rape and rape-seed as well as soybean).

Reverse taxation – meaning that the seller does not charge VAT for a taxable

produce sale as the buyer is liable for paying VAT – is a kind of taxation mechanism which can effectively contribute to combating VAT fraud methods typical at certain agricultural segments. Consequently, the implementation of reverse charge VAT boosts the competitiveness of honest market participants over tax evaders. The measure increases transparency in the economy in general and in grain trade in particular.

We call your attention that taxpayers at issue shall provide information for the National Tax and Customs Administration of Hungary (NAV) about the new domestic transactions liable to reverse charge VAT. Information on reverse charge taxation applicable from 1 July 2012, obligation to supply information and tariff categories regarding the kinds of produce at issue is available on the NAV homepage.

Hungary is the best in Europe in improving road safety with Euro(Online 20 pean efJun) Hunf o r t s , gary reimproving ceived the the road R o a d safety sitSafety uation of PIN Award vulnera2012 of ble travelthe Euroe r s , p e a n motorcyTransport clist, cySafety clist and Council children is (ETSC) also a pribecause it ority. The achieved most imthe best portant elreduction ement of in road the work deaths. on the Dr. László field of F e l k a i , (photo: Csaba Pelsőczy) r o a d Sate Secretary at the Ministry of Inte- underwent fundamental re- safety is managing the human in 1992, which factor, because the majority of rior and Mr. Zoltán Schváb, forms Deputy State Secretary for achieved considerable suc- accidents are a result of the Transport at the Ministry of cess in the field of domestic reckless or offending behavior National Development re- road safety. An IT system was of travelers. Increasing the ceived jointly the Award on 20 developed, responsible for re- willingness of obeying regulaceiving and managing infor- tions is a key issue that reJune 2012 in Brussels.

Hungary has reduced its mation related to violations to quires the creation of an number of road deaths by be imposed an administrative adequate legislative environ49% since 2001. As the num- fine. Due to the automated ment. ber of road deaths was lower processing of data, there are The European Transport by 14% in 2011 than in 2010 no possibilities for human in- Safety Council is a BrusselsHungary is among the leaders tervention. The State Secre- based independent non-profit organizaof Europe. tion esThe prizetablished awarding in 1993. body highT h e lighted ETSC ofthat the fers proHungarian fessional progress consulis more tancy in c o m transport mendable safety because questions Hungary for the signed up European to the EU Commisr o a d sion, the safety tarEuropean get in Parlia2 0 0 4 ment and when it the Memjoined the b e r European States.

U n i o n . Zoltán Schváb, Károly Kontrát (photo: Csaba Pelsőczy) T h e Hungary aimed to reduce the number tary of the Ministry of Interior Council has published since added that in the future the 2007 the results of its annual of road deaths by 30% by 2010 but has achieved this focus has to be on the effec- report on the Annual Confertarget by 2009. The number tive organization of roadside ence organized every June of people killed in fatal acci- checks, but most importantly (http://www.etsc.eu/docudents has halved during a ten on achieving that participants ments/PIN_Report_6_web.pd of transport realize traffic f). At the same time the Counyears period in Hungary. cil acknowledges the counDr. László Felkai said: Twenty rules serve their security. which achieved years ago the travel behavior Mr. Zoltán Schváb on behalf tries of the Ministry of National Designificant development in the was dramatic in Hungary. Appropriate amendments of the velopment stated that national field of road safety with PIN legal background, the physi- road safety measures involve Award. In previous years cal and technical conditions modernizing traffic education, France (2007), Portugal contributed to that Hungary reforming the driver training (2008), Spain and Latvia received this significant system, supporting accident (2009), Estonia and Ireland Award. In order to improve prevention and R&D activi- (2010), Sweden and Lithuaroad safety the National Acci- ties, enforcing aspects of road nia (2011) were honored. dent Prevention Committee safety with regard to roadwork more effectively. In line

New amendment to central bank law may be presented to the House on Thursday (Online 20 Jun) The Government is expected to present to Parliament the l a t e s t amendment to the Act on the Nat i o n a l Bank of Hungary on Thursday, which Parliament may p a s s within two Mihály Varga (photo: Zoltán Máthé, MTI) weeks, Mihály Varga told journalists o n We d n e s day.

The minister without portfolio also said that the Government had sent the European Commission, the Internat i o n a l Monetary F u n d (IMF) and the European Central Bank (ECB) let- gary, sent communications to ters to inform the international IMF Managing Director Chrisorganisations of the amend- tine Lagarde, Mario Draghi, ment of the central bank leg- President of the ECB and Olli islation. Five letters were Rehn with respect to the condrafted in total; Prime Minister sultations conducted to date Viktor Orbán informed José and the agreement reached.

Manuel Barroso, President of They also enclosed the draft the European Commission, of the latest amendment to that he does not intend to the central bank legislation. nominate candidates either „We have taken yet another for the post of Vice-Governor step in order to get closer to of the central bank or for any the commencement of negofurther members of the mon- tiations”, the Minister said in etary council. The Prime Min- evaluation of the letters sent. ister also enclosed The chief IMF negotiator said documents related to the pro- he had already informed the posed latest amendment to resident representative of the the central bank law and indi- IMF in Hungary of the cated that Hungary is seeking planned new amendment to to secure a precautionary fa- the central bank law at an informal meeting last week. cility agreement.

Antal Rogán, Fidesz Chair of However, this underwent Parliament’s Economic Com- some changes at the weekmittee, sent a letter to Olli end, and he will therefore reRehn, EU Commissioner re- peatedly inform the IMF sponsible for economic and representative of the latest monetary affairs, similar in its version this week. effect to the information sent From among the most importo Mr Barroso concerning the tant content features of the members of the monetary new motion, the Minister highcouncil. Rogán informed the lighted that the latest amendCommissioner that he like- ment clarifies the powers wise does not wish to exer- concerning the management cise the power of nominating of information on the country’s outside members to the mon- foreign currency and gold reetary council on behalf of his serves and those that are related to the strategic parliamentary committee.

Additionally, on behalf of the decisions of the monetary Government, Mihály Varga, council and executive manand András Simor, Governor agement, and also serves to of the National Bank of Hun- incorporate the amendments to the new labour code into

the central bank legislation.

In answer to the question of when the official IMF/EU negotiations may start after the passage by Parliament of the latest amendment to the central bank law, Mih á l y V a r g a said that „we are creating optimal conditions for the c o m mencement of the negotiations within the shortest possible time; however, naturally, this also depends on our partners”.

Mihály Varga, chief of the negotiations to be conducted with the International Monetary Fund and the EU told MTI, the Hungarian News Agency, on Sunday that the Government will present to Parliament its latest proposal concerning the amendment of the Act on the National Bank of Hungary and will revoke the old one this week. According to his information, the new motion serves to incorporate the main changes which were identified by the task force comprised of experts from the Government, the central bank, the European Commission, the IMF and the ECB. The Minister said he informed his partners already at the time that Prime Minister Viktor Orbán will send communications to José Manuel Barroso and Mario Draghi to inform them that there will be no further nominations or appointments to the monetary council and the central bank management during the mandate of the current NBH management.

Antal Rogán, leader of the Fidesz Group in Parliament said on Monday that the Fidesz faction will initiate that Parliament pass the latest amendment to the central bank legislation next week in departure from the standard house rules.

Model project completed in Szabadegyháza (Online 22 J u n ) P r i m e Minister V i k t o r Orbán inaugurates new biom a s s p o w e r generation at units the Hungrana Kft. plant in Szabadegyháza.

H u n grana’s plant, as one of the o l d e s t photo: Károly Árvai units of Hungarian industry, is celebrating its one hundredth year.

At the ceremony held in the factory, Viktor O r b á n stressed, one of the greatest burdens of the Hungarian economy is its dependence imon ported en- photo: Károly Árvai e r g y .

Consequently, a project as supplies and agricultural feapart of which a business at- tures represent major retempts to meet its power sup- sources for Hungary, the ply needs from domestic, Prime Minister highlighted, renewable energy resources and emphasised that biois important also from this mass, one of the most accessible renewable energy point of view.

Our natural treasures, water resources, is based just on

these.

Therefore, biomass is useful not only a as source of energy but also o ff e r s agricultural advantages and benefits in our rural strategy.

Hungrana also lays particular emphasis on environmental-friendly operations; the biomass b o i l e r project now completed, which is w o r t h s o m e HUF 3 billion and will cover one third of the c o m pany’s ene r g y needs, testifies to this commitment.

The company will use energy plants to fuel the boilers such as energy-reed which can also be grown in areas such as the region afflicted by the red sludge disaster.

Representatives of the Diaspora emphasise the importance of preserving Hungarian identity (PR) Representatives of the American and Australian Diaspora emphasised the imof preserving portance Hungarian identity at the meeting of the parliamentary National Cohesion Committee held in Budapest on 12 June. Béla Kardos, honorary chairman of the Hungarian Council of New South Wales (Australia), said that members of the more than sixtyyear-old national emigration – who established Hungarian schools and associations – have already departed from

this life. The continuity of Hungarian identity among the younger generations appears as a challenge. In addition to performing consular duties and handling foreign affairs, the preservation of identity of persons with Hungarian origin would be an important task for diplomats, Mr. Kardos pointed out. He promoted the re-opening of the General Consulate of Hungary in Sydney. Sándor Szabó, the Bishop of the Hungarian Reformed Church in America (established in

1924), also highlighted the fact that in many cases members of new generations are not able to speak the Hungarian language and do not preserve traditions. He considered the fall in numbers among Hungarians abroad and the growing number of mixed marriages to be problems. Referring to the unresolved situation of Hungarian pastors’ education in America, he asked for help from the Hungarian churches’ seminary institutions.

Hungarian minority issues on the agenda of the EP plenary session (PR) Hungarian deputies from beyond the borders raised minority issues at the plenary session of the European Parliament held on 11 June in Strasburg. Alajos Mészáros, Slovakian Hungarian delegate (Hungarian Coalition Party), expressed his concern that the EU, ‘which is extremely keen to assert human rights, is unwilling to develop a unified, high-standard legal framework law for its forty million minority citizens’. He urged

the European Commission to examine the possibility for indigenous minorities to enjoy equal protection of their collective rights in Member States.

Another Slovakian Hungarian deputy, Edit Bauer (Hungarian Coalition Party), drew MEPs’ attention to the case of Hedvig Malina. She recalled that in the Nitra/Nyitra region of Slovakia six years ago the young Slovakian Hungarian had been brutally assaulted because she had

been overheard speaking Hungarian. Under the previous Slovak government the case had been closed; however under the new Fico government the Slovak chief prosecutor’s office has placed Malina under suspicion of perjury and misleading the authorities. ‘While the EU builds freedom, security and justice, the new Slovak government weakens legal guarantees, and members of minorities suffer the consequences,’ said Ms. Bauer.

The EU’s Eastern Partnership Programme: support for Transcarpathian Hungarian institutions (PR) At its most recent meeting, the Transcarpathian County Assembly approved an agreement concluded this spring between the Transcarpathian County Council and the Hungarian Ministry for Foreign Affairs. According to the agreement, the two partners will each spend one million dollars on reconstruc-

tion and development of Transcarpathian educational, cultural and social institutions, as part of the EU Eastern Partnership Programme.

The partners jointly decided on the list of supported projects, and they agreed to finance them equally. Most of the institutions are stateowned or maintained by local

governments, but there are also a few church-maintained schools and kindergartens, such as the Szent István Lyceum in Munkács/ Mukachevo or the Reformed Lyceum in Péterfalva, or the Rákóczi Ferenc Transcarpathian Hungarian College, which is financed by a foundation.

Israeli Hungarians hold talks with Deputy State Secretary at Diaspora conference Hungary's Deputy (PR) State Secretary for Hungarian Communities Abroad, Zsuzsanna Répás, held talks with Israeli Hungarians in Jerusalem during an inaugural International Conference on Diaspora-Homeland Partnership. The Global Village 2012 International Conference was held between 11 and 13 June. The Deputy State Secretary delivered a

speech on the Hungarian government’s bridging role in Diaspora-homeland relations. The conference attracted nearly two hundred visitors, including many from Europe, but also from Georgia and Jamaica. Hungary’s representative met Israel’s Public Diplomacy and Diaspora Affairs Minister Yuli Edelstein. Israel has a community of around 250,000

Hungarians, and the Hungarian government considers it important to maintain links with them. The international conference spotlighted policies and programmes that have proven effective in mobilising and engaging Diasporas, as well as providing insights into the experience of Israel and other countries.

László A. Nagy becomes the commissioner for minorities in Slovakia (PR) On 13 June the Slovak Government appointed former Most-Híd parliamentary deputy László A. Nagy for the post of government commissioner for minorities. In practice the commissioner’s office will serve as an advisory body, by harmonising its activity with the leader of the government office and relevant ministers. The main task of the commissioner is to develop and implement medium- and long-term legal norms and measures related to minorities. The commissioner will also take part in consultations on educational issues and public affairs. As a managing agent, the commissioner oversees the financial support for minority cultures. Robert Fico’s cabinet decided to establish the

commissioner’s post after it abolished the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights.

The Office was founded in 1998 under the first Dzurinda government. The Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights had a wider remit than the government commissioner. The Fico government has been heavily criticised by civil society organisations and representatives of Hungarian political interest for the abolition of the Office. According to political scientist László Öllös, the authority of the commissioner is ‘considerably limited’. In most cases, the commissioner can only report on questions which need not be taken into consideration by the ministries.

According to Fico, the commissioner for minorities has ’practically the same power’ as the former deputy prime minister had; the commissioner will develop programmes and plans for the preservation and legal status of minorities. ‘We regret the abolition of the position of the Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights, however we appreciate the establishment of the commissioners’ post with the remit and status adopted by the Government today,’ said László Solymos, Most-Híd’s parliamentary group leader, speaking about the nomination. The Hungarian Coalition Party considers the post a step backwards, since the commissioner cannot even propose legislation.

László A. Nagy becomes the commissioner for minorities in Slovakia (PR) On 13 June the Slovak Government appointed former Most-Híd parliamentary deputy László A. Nagy for the post of government commissioner for minorities. In practice the commissioner’s office will serve as an advisory body, by harmonising its activity with the leader of the government office and relevant ministers. The main task of the commissioner is to develop and implement medium- and long-term legal norms and measures related to minorities. The commissioner will also take part in consultations on educational issues and public affairs. As a managing agent, the commissioner oversees the financial support for minority cultures. Robert Fico’s cabinet decided to establish the

commissioner’s post after it abolished the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights.

The Office was founded in 1998 under the first Dzurinda government. The Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights had a wider remit than the government commissioner. The Fico government has been heavily criticised by civil society organisations and representatives of Hungarian political interest for the abolition of the Office. According to political scientist László Öllös, the authority of the commissioner is ‘considerably limited’. In most cases, the commissioner can only report on questions which need not be taken into consideration by the ministries.

According to Fico, the commissioner for minorities has ’practically the same power’ as the former deputy prime minister had; the commissioner will develop programmes and plans for the preservation and legal status of minorities. ‘We regret the abolition of the position of the Deputy Prime Minister for Minorities and Human Rights, however we appreciate the establishment of the commissioners’ post with the remit and status adopted by the Government today,’ said László Solymos, Most-Híd’s parliamentary group leader, speaking about the nomination. The Hungarian Coalition Party considers the post a step backwards, since the commissioner cannot even propose legislation.

Romanian local election results (PR) In the Romanian local government elections held on 10 June, three political formations competed for the Hungarian vote in Romania: the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (RMDSZ), the Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) and the Transylvanian Hungarian People’s Party (EMNP). The Budapest-based Research Institute for Hungarian Communities Abroad organised a conference on the election results on 12 June. Based on the analysis of political scientist Gergely Illyés, research worker of the Institute, results show that the RMDSZ succeeded in strengthening its position among Hungarians living in large enclaves; however the Alliance suffered a defeat in Szeklerland. With 100 per cent of

the ballots processed, the RMDSZ will have 203 mayoral seats – compared to 184 four years ago. The MPP can delegate mayors in seven localities, while the EMNP will have leaders in two settlements. As to seats won in local councils, the RMDSZ obtained 2,261, the MPP 266 and the EMNP 214. Hungarian delegates’ local lists received 549,788 votes altogether, from which the RMDSZ received 457,146, the MPP 46,071, and the EMNP 44,834. Concerning lists of members of county councils, the RMDSZ won 491.864 votes, the EMNP 44.276, and the MPP 36.671. Four years ago the votes were shared 85% to 15% in favour of the RMDSZ. The RMDSZ has lost two county coun-

cil chair positions in Szatmár and Maros counties, so it maintains leadership in only Hargita and Kovászna counties. In the autumn parliamentary elections – if it will be held according to a majority system – the parliamentary threshold will be abolished; and thus rivalry between Hungarian parties does not threaten the representation of Hungarians in the Parliament. In the current system, it is expected that parties will rival in Szeklerland, and even the seven per cent preferential mandate rule may cause rivalry in counties where Hungarians live sporadically or in interethnic areas. However, positions of RMDSZ here seem to be secured.