85 Issue | Zarb-e-Jamhoor e-Newspaper | 19-25 Aug, 2012

Independence Day Afghanistan - Aug 19

Afghan Independence Day is celebrated in Afghanistan on 19 August to commemorate the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919. The treaty granted independence from Britain; although Afghanistan was never officially a part of the British Empire. The British fought three wars with Afghanistan. The First Anglo-Afghan War 1839–1842 led to the massacre of the entire British invading force by Afghan forces in the city Jalalabad. But the new British forces reinvaded shortly, defeated the Afghan forces, rescued the POWs and successfully withdrew.

The Second Anglo-Afghan War 1878–80 led to the British victory over the Afghan army in Kandahar, bringing the Afghan rebellion to an end. The war left the British in control of the territories ceded

by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. The Third Anglo-Afghan War 1919 led the British to achieve the reaffirmation of Durand Line and give up on their imperialist ambition to conquer Afghanistan and Afghanistan declared its independence. The event is recognized throughout Afghanistan and also celebrates Afghan culture and national pride. It is celebrated every year.

In some Afghan Diaspora communities where many of the world's millions of Afghan refugees live, Afghan Independence Day is referred to and celebrated as Afghan Refugee Day. On this day Afghan refugees exchange presents and participate in traditional Afghan games and activities to celebrate both their Afghan heritage and their refugee experience.

Day of the Failed Aug, 1991 Coup Russia - Aug 19

The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt (19–21 August 1991), also known as the August Putsch or August Coup (Russian: Августовский путч, Translit: Avgustovsky Putch), was an attempt by a group of members of the Soviet Union's government to take control of the country from Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. The coup leaders were hard-line members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty that he had negotiated which decentralised much of the central government's power to the republics. They were opposed, mainly in Moscow, by a short but effective campaign of civil resistance. Although the coup collapsed in only two days and Gorbachev returned to government, the event destabilised the Soviet Union and is widely considered to have led to both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Background

Since assuming power in 1985, Gorbachev had embarked on an ambitious program of reform, embodied in the twin concepts of perestroika and glasnost, meaning economic/political restructuring and openness, respectively. These moves prompted resistance and suspicion on the part of hardline members of the establishment. The reforms also unleashed some forces and movements that Gorbachev did not expect. Specifically, nationalist agitation on the part of the Soviet Union's non-Russian minorities grew, and there were fears that some or all of the union republics might secede. In 1991, the Soviet Union was in a severe economic and political crisis. There were shortages of almost all products, and people had to stand in long lines to buy even essential goods.

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Georgia had already declared their independence from the Soviet Union. In January 1991, there was an attempt to return Lithuania to the Soviet Union by force. About a week later, there was a similar attempt by local pro-Soviet forces to overthrow the Latvian authorities. There were continuing armed ethnic conflicts in Nagorny Karabakh and South Ossetia.

Russia declared its sovereignty on 12 June 1990 and thereafter limited the application of Soviet laws, in particular the laws concerning finance and the economy, on Russian territory. The Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR adopted laws which contradicted Soviet laws (the so-called "war of laws").

In the unionwide referendum on 17 March 1991, boycotted by the Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova, the majority of the residents of the rest of the republics expressed the desire to retain the renewed Soviet Union. Following negotiations, eight of the nine republics (exceptUkraine) approved the New Union Treaty with some conditions.

The treaty would make the Soviet Union a federation of independent republics with a common president, foreign policy, and military. The Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan were to sign the Treaty in Moscow on 20 August 1991.

conspiracy The On 11 December 1990, the Chairman of the KGB, Vladimir Kryuchkov, made a "call for order" over Central television

in Moscow. That day, he asked two KGB officers to prepare a plan of measures that could be taken in case a state of emergency was declared in the USSR. Later, Kryuchkov involved the USSR Defense Minister, Dmitriy Yazov, the Internal Affairs Minister, Boris Pugo, the Prime Minister, Valentin Pavlov, the Vice President, Gennady Yanayev, the deputy Chief of the USSR Defence Council Oleg Baklanov, the head of Gorbachev's secretariat, Valeriy Boldin, and a CPSU Central Committee Secretary Oleg Shenin in the conspiracy.

The conspirators hoped that President Mikhail Gorbachev could be persuaded to declare the state of emergency and to "restore order".

On 23 July 1991, a number of party functionaries and literati published in the hardline newspaper 'Sovetskaya Rossiya' as a prime factor to an anti-Perestroika manifesto entitled A Word to the People.

On 29 July 1991, Gorbachev, Russian President Boris Yeltsin and Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev discussed the possibility of replacing such hardliners as Pavlov, Yazov, Kryuchkov and Pugo with more liberal figures. This conversation was eavesdropped on by the KGB and became known to Vladimir Kryuchkov who had placed Gorbachev under close surveillance as Subject 110 several months earlier.

On 4 August 1991, Gorbachev went on holiday to his dacha in Foros in the Crimea. He planned to return to Moscow on 20 August 1991, when the union treaty was to be signed.

On 17 August the conspirators met in a KGB guesthouse in Moscow. There they read about the new union treaty, which they believed would pave the way to the Soviet Union's breakup, and decided that it was time to act. On 18 August, Sunday, Oleg Baklanov, Valeriy Boldin, Oleg Shenin, and Deputy USSR Defense Minister General Valentin Varennikov flew to the Crimea for a meeting with Gorbachev. Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin and Varennikov demanded that Gorbachev either declare a state of emergency or resign and name Vice President Gennady Yanayev as acting president so as to allow the conspirators "to restore order" in the country.

Gorbachev has always claimed that he refused point blank to accept the ultimatum. Varennikov has insisted that Gorbachev said: "Do what you think is needed, damn you!" However, those present at the dacha at the time testified that Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin, and Varennikov had been clearly disappointed and nervous after the meeting with Gorbachev. With Gorbachev's refusal, the conspirators ordered that he remain confined to the Foros dacha; at the same time the dacha's communication lines (which were controlled by the KGB) were shut down. Additional KGB security guards with orders not to allow anybody to leave the dacha were placed at its gates.

The conspirators ordered 250,000 pairs of handcuffs from a factory in Pskov to be sent to Moscow and 300,000 arrest forms. Kruchkov doubled the pay of all KGB personnel, called them back from holiday, and placed them on alert. The Lefortovo prison was emptied to receive prisoners.

The August Coup

After the return of Baklanov, Boldin, Shenin and Varennikov from the Crimea the conspirators met in the Kremlin.

Gennady Yanayev, Valentin Pavlov and Oleg Baklanov signed the so-called "Declaration of the Soviet Leadership" in which they declared the state of emergency on "some" (unspecified) territories of the USSR and announced that the State Committee of the State of Emergency (Государственный Комитет по Чрезвычайному Положению, ГКЧП, or Gosudarstvenniy Komitet po Chrezvichaynomu Polozheniyu, GKChP) had been created "to manage the country and to effectively maintain the regime of the state of emergency". The GKChP included the following members: Gennady Yanayev • Valentin Pavlov • Vladimir Kryuchkov • Dmitriy Yazov • Boris Pugo • Oleg Baklanov • Vasily Starodubtsev, chairman of the USSR Peasant Union • Alexander Tizyakov, president of the Association of the State Enterprises and Conglomerates of In• dustry, Transport, and Communications Gennady Yanayev signed the decree naming himself as acting USSR president on the pretext of Gorbachev's inability to perform presidential duties due to "illness".

These eight collectively became known as the "Gang of Eight".

The GKChP banned all newspapers in Moscow, except for nine communist-controlled newspapers. The GKChP also issued a populist declaration which stated that "the honour and dignity of a Soviet man must be restored", promised that "the new union treaty will be discussed by all the people", that "the streets of the cities will be purged of crime", and that the GKChP will focus on solving the problem of food shortages. At the same time, the GKChP assured the citizens that it supported "genuine democratic processes" and reforms, and supported free enterprise.

19 August:

"Declaration of the Soviet Leadership", the decree of Yanayev and the GKChP documents were broadcast by the state radio and television starting from 7 a.m. Radio Rossii radio station and Televidenie Rossii TV channel controlled by the Russian SFSR authorities and "Ekho Moskvy", the only independent political radio station were cut off the air.

Tanks, IFVs and APCs of Tamanskaya motorized infantry divisionand Kantemirovskaya tank division rolled into Moscow. Paratroopers also took part in the operation. Four Russian SFSR people's deputies(who were considered the most "dangerous") were detained by the KGB and held on an army base near Moscow. The conspirators considered detaining Russian SFSR president Boris Yeltsin upon his arrival from a visit to Kazakhstan on 17 August, or after that when he was on his dacha near Moscow, but for some reason they did not do so. The failure to arrest Yeltsin was to prove fatal to their plans.

Boris Yeltsin arrived at the White House, Russia's parliament building, on 19 August at 9:00. He, together with the Russian SFSR Prime Minister Ivan Silayev and the acting Chairman of Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR Ruslan Khasbulatov, issued a declaration in which it was stated that a reactionary anti-constitutional coup had taken place.

The military was urged not to take part in the coup. The declaration called for a general strike with the demand to let Mikhail Gorbachev address the people. This declaration was distributed around Moscow in the form of flyers.

In the afternoon the citizens of Moscow began to gather around the White House and to erect barricades around it.

In response Gennady Yanayev declared the state of emergency in Moscow at 16:00. Yanayev declared at the press conference at 17:00 that Gorbachev was "resting". He said: "Over these years he has got very tired and needs some time to get his health back." Yanayev said GKChP was committed to continuing the reforms. However, his weak posturing, trembling hands and shaky expressions made his words unconvincing.

Meanwhile, Major Evdokimov, chief of staff of a tank battalion of the Tamanskaya motorized infantry division who had orders to guard the White House, declared his loyalty to the leadership of the Russian SFSR. Yeltsin climbed one of the tanks and addressed the crowd. Unexpectedly, this episode was included in the evening news program broadcast by the state TV.

20 August:

At noon General Kalinin, the commander of Moscow military district who had been appointed by Yanayev military commandant of Moscow, declared the curfew in Moscow from 23:00 to 5:00, effective from 20 August. This was understood as the sign that the attack on the White House was imminent.

The defenders of the White House prepared themselves. Some of them were armed but most of the volunteers were unarmed. The tank company which had been under command of Major Evdokimov who had declared his loyalty to the leadership of the Russian SFSR was moved from the White House in the evening. The makeshift White House defense headquarters was headed by General Konstantin Kobets, a Russian SFSR people's deputy. He had at his disposal a number of generals and senior officers (some of them retired) who volunteered for the defense of the White House.

In the afternoon of 20 August Kryuchkov, Yazov and Pugo finally decided to attack the White House. This decision was supported by other GKChP members. KGB general Ageyev, the deputy of Kryuchkov, and Army general Achalov, the deputy of Yazov, planned "Operation Grom" (Thunder) which was to be carried out by Alpha Group and Vympel Group, the KGB's special forces, with the support of the paratroopers, Moscow OMON, Dzerzhinsky division of Internal Troops, three tank companies and a helicopter squadron. Alpha Group commander General Viktor Karpukhin and other senior officers of Alpha Group together with General Alexander Lebed, deputy commander of the Airborne Troops, mingled through the crowds near the White House and assessed the possibility of undertaking such an operation. After that, Viktor Karpukhin and Vympel Group commander Colonel Beskov tried to convince Ageyev that the operation would become a failure resulting in bloodshed. Alexander Lebed, with the consent of Pavel Grachev, the commander of the Airborne Troops, returned to the White House and secretly informed the defense headquarters that the attack would begin at 2:00.

21 August:

At about 1:00, not far from the White House, a group of IFVs of Tamanskaya motorized infantry division was blocked in a tunnel by barricades made of trolleybuses and street cleaning machines. Dmitriy Komar climbed one IFV and tried to "blind" the observation slit with a piece of tarpaulin but either fell to his death from the IFV or was shot. Then Vladimir Usov, who tried to help him, was shot (possibly unintentionally by a ricocheting bullet). At about the same time a third young man, Ilya Krichevskiy, was also shot under unclear circumstances. Several other men were wounded. The IFV was set on fire by the crowd but no soldiers were killed.

Alpha Group and Vympel Group did not move to the White House as had been planned. When Yazov learned about this, he ordered the troops to pull out from Moscow.

The troops began to move from Moscow at 8:00. The GKChP members met in the Defence Ministry and, not knowing what to do, decided to send a delegation to the Crimea in order to meet with Mikhail Gorbachev for negotiations.

Vladimir Kryuchkov, Dmitriy Yazov, Oleg Baklanov, Alexander Tizyakov, chairman of the USSR Supreme Soviet Anatoliy Lukianov and Deputy CPSU General Secretary Vladimir Ivashko flew to the Crimea. At 5 P.M. the delegation arrived at the Foros dacha but Mikhail Gorbachev refused to meet with it. Instead Gorbachev, after communication with the dacha was restored, declared void all the decisions of GKChP and dismissed its members from their state offices.The USSR General Prosecutors Office started the investigation of the coup attempt.

National Aviation Day U.S. - Aug 19

The National Aviation Day (August 19) is a United States national observation that celebrates the development of aviation.

The holiday was established in 1939 by Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who issued a presidential proclamation which designated the anniversary of Orville Wright's birthday to be National Aviation Day (Mr. Wright, born in 1871, was still alive when the proclamation was first issued, and would live another nine years). The proclamation was codified (USC 36:A:I:118), and it allows the sitting US President to proclaim August 19 as National Aviation Day each year, if desired. His/her proclamation may direct all federal buildings and installations to fly the US flag on that day, and may encourage citizens to observe the day with activities that promote interest in aviation.

Revolution of 1945 Vietnam - Aug 19

On August 19, 1945, the Việt Minh under Hồ Chí Minh began the August General Uprising Tổng Khởi Nghĩa, which was soon renamed the August Revolution (Vietnamese: Cách mạng tháng Tám). Whether or not this series of events should be called a "revolution" is disputable; what is clear is that, from August 19 onwards, demonstrations and uprisings against French colonial rule broke out in cities and towns throughout Vietnam. Given that Japan had surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, the Japanese forces in Indochina stepped aside and allowed nationalist groups to take over public buildings in most of the major cities. While the Japanese allowed the nationalist groups free run of the country, they kept former French officials imprisoned.

This uprising is also referred to as the uprising by the Indochinese Communist Party.

Given minor supplies by the United States of America, the Việt Minh were tactically allied with US forces against the Japanese.

to August March On March 9, 1945, the Imperial Japan overthrew the Vichy French administration of Jean Decoux in French In-

dochina. French officials and soldiers were arrested. The Japanese reinstated Bảo Đại as Emperor and created a puppet government.

On April 30, 1945, the cooperation between US officials and the Vietnamese communists was demonstrated when Major Archimedes Patti, of the US Office of Strategic Services, met with Hồ Chí Minh and received a message of warmth and solidarity from Hồ; shipments of arms and instructors were increased.

On August 14, 1945, the Japanese surrendered to the Allies. In Indochina, the Japanese officials took advantage of the situation to cause additional problems for the Allies. Violating the surrender agreements, they helped Vietnamese nationalist groups, including the Việt Minh, to take over public buildings in various cities. On August 19, 1945, Việt Minh revolutionaries successfully seized power in Hanoi, which was later made the capital city of the independent Vietnam. On August 25, 1945, Bảo Ðại was forced to abdicate in favour of Hồ and the Việt Minh.

Proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945. However, only a few days later

Nationalist Chinese forces under General Lu Han began to occupy Việtnam north of the 16th parallel under the pretext of disarming the Japanese. The Việt Minh did not resist. In Vietnam south of the 16th parallel, a British occupation force arrived in October 1945. Both forces of occupation had been specified by the Potsdam Conference.

Hồ Chí Minh and the Việt Minh began negotiations with the French in late 1945. The Việt Minh were willing at this point to negotiate for something less than independence. Politically, they distrusted the occupying Nationalist Chinese both from ideological and historical viewpoints. In early 1946, the French army returned to northern Vietnam with the initial cooperation of the Việt Minh and rapidly reestablished its authority.

Having achieved this aim, relations between Hồ Chí Minh and the French gradually broke down. The Việt Minh then set about launching the rural insurrection that began the First Indochina War, known to most Vietnamese as the French-Resisting War.

Restoration of Independence Day Estonia - Aug 20

The Estonian Sovereignty Declaration was issued on November 16, 1988. By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily. The republic's Supreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union that November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).

Despite the emergence of the Popular Front and the Supreme Soviet as a new lawmaking body, since 1989 the different segments of the indigenous Estonian population had been politically mobilized by different and competing actors. The Popular Front's proposal, to declare the independence of Estonia as a new, so-called "third republic" whose citizens would be all those living there at the moment found less and less support over time.

A grassroots Estonian Citizens' Committees Movement launched in 1989 with the objective of registering all prewar citizens of the Republic of Estonia and their descendants in order to convene a Congress of Estonia. Their emphasis was on the illegal nature of the Soviet system and that hundreds of thousands of inhabitants of Estonia had not ceased to be citizens of the Estonian Republic which still existed de jure, recognized by the majority of Western nations. Despite the hostility of the mainstream official press and intimidation by Soviet Estonian authorities, dozens of local citizens' committees were elected by popular initiative all over the country. These quickly organized into a nation-wide structure and by the beginning of 1990, over 900,000 people had registered themselves as citizens of the Republic of Estonia.

The spring of 1990 saw two free elections and two alternative legislatures developed in Estonia. On 24 February 1990, the 464-member Congress of Estonia (including 35 delegates of refugee communities abroad) was elected by the registered citizens of the republic. The Congress of Estonia convened for the first time in Tallinn March 11– 12, 1990, passing 14 declarations and resolutions. A 70-member standing committee (Eesti Komitee) was elected with Tunne Kelam as its chairman.

In March 1991 a referendum was held on the issue of independence. This was somewhat controversial, as holding a referendum could be taken as signalling that Estonian independence would be established rather than "re"-established. There was some discussion about whether it was appropriate to allow the Russian immigrant minority to vote, or if this decision should be reserved exclusively for citizens of Estonia. In the end all major political parties backed the referendum, considering it most important to send a strong signal to the world. To further legitimise the vote, all residents of Estonia were allowed to participate. The result vindicated these decisions, as the referendum produced a strong endorsement for independence. Turnout was 82%, and 64% of all possible voters in the country backed independence, with only 17% against.

Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.

In the March 18, 1990 elections for the 105-member Supreme Soviet all residents of Estonia were eligible to participate, including all Soviet-era immigrants from the U.S.S.R. and approximately 50,000 Soviet troops stationed there.

The Popular Front coalition, composed of left and centrist parties and led by former Central Planning Committee official Edgar Savisaar, gained a parliamentary majority.

On May 8, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia (created the previous day) restored the Republic of Estonia. Through a strict, non-confrontational policy in pursuing independence, Estonia managed to avoid the violence which Latvia and Lithuania incurred in the bloody January 1991 crackdowns and in the border customs-post guard murders that summer. During the August coup in the U.S.S.R., Estonia was able to maintain constant operation and control of its telecommunications facilities, thereby offering the West a clear view into the latest coup developments and serving as a conduit for swift Western support and recognition of Estonia's "confirmation" of independence on August 20, 1991. August 20 remains a national holiday in Estonia because of this. Following Europe's lead, the United States formally reestablished diplomatic relations with Estonia on September 2, and the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet offered recognition on September 6.

Since the debates about whether the future independent Estonia would be established as a new republic or a continuation of the first republic were not yet complete by the time of the August coup, while the members of the Supreme Soviet generally agreed that independence should be declared rapidly, a compromise was hatched between the two main sides: instead of "declaring" independence, which would imply a new start, or explicitly asserting continuity, the declaration would "confirm" Estonia as a state independent of the Soviet Union, and willing to reestablish diplomatic relations of its own accord. The full text of the statement is available at.

After more than 3 years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of Russia withdrew from Estonia.

Since fully regaining independence Estonia has had 12 governments with 8 prime ministers: Mart Laar, Andres Tarand, Tiit Vähi, Mart Siimann, Siim Kallas, Juhan Parts, and Andrus Ansip. The PMs of the interim government (1990–1992) were Edgar Savisaar andTiit Vähi.

Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. Estonia opened accession negotiations with the European Union in 1998 and joined in 2004, shortly after becoming a member of NATO.

Black Ribbon Day Lithuania - Aug 23

The European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism (known as the International Black Ribbon Day and under other names in some countries), which is observed on 23 August, was designated by the European Parliament in 2008/2009 as "a Europe-wide Day of Remembrance for the victims of all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, to be commemorated with dignity and impartiality," and has been observed annually by the bodies of the European Union since 2009. The European Parliament's2009 resolution on European conscience and totalitarianism, co-sponsored by the European People's Party, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, The Greens–European Free Alliance, and the Union for Europe of the Nations, called for its implementation in all of Europe. The establishment of 23 August as an international remembrance day for victims of totalitarianism was also supported by the 2009 Vilnius Declaration of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly.

August 23 was chosen to coincide with the date of the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, in which the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany agreed to divide Eastern Europe between themselves, an event described by the European Parliament's President Jerzy Buzek in 2010 as "the collusion of the two worst forms of totalitarianism in the history of humanity."

The purpose of the Day of Remembrance is to preserve the memory of the victims of mass deportations and exterminations, while promoting democratic values with the aim of reinforcing peace and stability in Europe.

August 23 is also officially recognised by Canada where it is known as Black Ribbon Day.

Lithuania

Lithuania in 2009 officially renamed "Black Ribbon Day" (August 23) to "European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, and Day of the Baltic Way". On this day, as on other days of mourning, Lithuanian flags are displayed outside all public buildings decorated with black ribbons.

Birth of Crown Princess Mette Marit Norway - Aug 19

Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway (born Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby 19 August 1973), is the wife of Crown Prince Haakon of Norway.

Background and education

Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby was born in Kristiansand, Norway, as the daughter of Sven O. Høiby, who worked as a journalist in a local paper, and Marit Tjessem. Her parents divorced, and her father would later marry Renate Barsgård. She has a sister and two older brothers; her stepbrother Trond Bernsten— by her mother's 1994 marriage to Rolf Berntsen—died in the 2011 Norway attacks. She grew up in Kristiansand, in the southern part of Norway. She spent many weekends and holidays in the nearby valley of Setesdal and at the seaside, where she learned to sail. During her youth she was active in the local youth club Slettheia, where she was also an activity leader. As a teenager she played volleyball, qualifying as referee and coach.

After starting at Oddernes upper secondary school in Kristiansand, Mette-Marit spent six months at Wangaratta High School located in North East Victoria in Australia, as an exchange student with the exchange organisation Youth For Understanding. Later, she attended Kristiansand katedralskole, where she passed her final examinations in 1994. After another break from her studies, Mette-Marit attended Bjørknes Private School and then took the examen philosophicum (the preliminary university examination) at Agder University College. Since becoming Crown Princess Mette-Marit has undertaken several university level courses.

By her own admission, Mette-Marit experienced an unconventional phase before she met Crown Prince Haakon Magnus.

As a part-time student, she took longer than usual to complete her high school education before going on to take preparatory university courses at Agder. She then worked for a year at a café, Cafe Engebret, in Oslo.

In the late 1990s, Mette-Marit frequently attended the Quart Festival, Norway's largest rock festival, in her hometown of Kristiansand. As a result, she met Crown Prince Haakon, since he used to attend the festival as well.

duties and further education Royal In October, 2005, Crown Princess Mette-Marit accompanied Crown

Prince Haakon, King Harald and Queen Sonja to the United Kingdom on a royal tour to mark the centenary of Norway's independence.

During 2002 and 2003, the Princess undertook development studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, apparently without graduating. She was also accepted as an intern at NORAD, the Norwegian government's development organisation. At present, Mette-Marit is attending lectures at the faculties of arts and social sciences at the University of Oslo.

The Crown Princess is a UNAIDS Special Representative and visited Geneva to learn more about the organisation and Malawi because of this post. In 2007 the Crown Princess extended her commitment as a UNAIDS Special Representative for another two years. The Crown Princess and her husband attended the International AIDS Conference in Toronto in August 2006 as part of this role, serving as Jury member to the UNAIDS family-led Red Ribbon Award.

Along with UNAIDS, the Crown Princess is president of various other organisations. They are The Norwegian Scouting Association, the Amandus Film Festival, Kristiansand's International Children's Film Festival, Risor Festival of Chamber Music, FOKUS Forum for Women and Development Questions, Norwegian Design Council, Red Cross Norway, The Norwegian Council for Mental Health, the Full Rigged Ship Sorlandet, and the Oslo International Church Music Festival.

Since her engagement, the Crown Princess has travelled to Luxembourg, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Germany, Canada, Russia, North Korea, Portugal, Monaco, France, Austria, Hungary, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Poland, Switzerland, India, Thailand, the Netherlands, Japan, Jordan, Bahrain, Nepal, Mexico, Malawi and Malaysia.

On December 2008, she received the Annual Petter Dass award, which recognises a person that helps to unite people and God. Mette-Marit released the CD Sorgen og gleden with religious psalms: the Crown Princess wrote in the booklet "psalms are a link between me and God, between me and life".

She is godmother to Prince Christian of Denmark, Prince Odysseas-Kimon of Greece and Denmark and Emma Tallulah Behn.

The Crown Princess was personally affected by the July 2011 terrorist attacks in Norway: her stepbrother, 51-yearold police officer Trond Berntsen, was among those killed on Utøya.

Fund Humanitarian The Crown Prince and Crown Princess' Humanitarian Fund was established in 2001 in connection with the wedding

of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess. The couple announced that they wished for donations to the fund as wedding gifts. The fund allocates funds to humanitarian projects in Norway and abroad. In Norway the fund mainly focuses on projects aimed at improving conditions for children and young people. Abroad the fund mainly focuses on projects related to health and education.

Grant recipients 2008

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Fundación Xochiquetzal Fundasion Šusital, Nicaragua 2007 The good childhood: A collaboration between the Norwegian municipality Karasjok and Lovozero mu nicipality in Russia 2006 The Church City Mission: A youth project directed by the PMV Centre for health, dialogue and devel opment (Oslo, Norway) The AIDS Centre, “Project Bus”, Petrozavodsk, Republic of Karelia, Russia 2005 Right to Play: A sports and health project (Uganda) 2004 Yirga Alem Hospital Fistula Unit (Ethiopia) Rehabilitation of child soldiers (Democratic Republic of Congo) 2003 Norwegian People’s Aid project ”Følgesvennen”, providing companions and provisional guardians to asylum seekers (Asker, Norway) Norwegian Red Cross project “Leksehjelpen”, offering help with homework to pupils from minority back grounds (Oslo, Norway) 2002 National Community of Women Living with Aids (Uganda) Education through Sport (Zambia) 2001 The Vard Model (Haugesund, Norway) Basic education in Alefa Takusa (Ethiopia) Prevention of HIV/AIDS (Mozambique)

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Amandus Film Festival Kristiansand International Children’s Film Festival Risør Festival of Chamber Music FOKUS – Forum for Women and Development The Norwegian Design Council The Norwegian Red Cross The Norwegian Council for Mental Health Full-rigged Ship Sørlandet Oslo International Church Music Festival

•

Miss Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby (1973–2001) Her Royal Highness The Crown Princess of Norway (Since 2001)

• • • • • • • • • • •

Patronages The Norwegian Guide and Scout Association

Titles •

Honours Norway Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Norway The Royal House Centenary Medal Norway Olav Vs Centenary Medal Norway Royal Family Order of King Harald V of Norway Austria Grand Cross of the Decoration of Honour for Merit Brazil Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross Bulgaria Grand Cross of the Order Of The Balkan Mountains Estonia 1st class of Terra Mariana Italy Grand Cross of the Italian Order of Merit Japan Grand Cross of the Order of the Precious Crown Poland Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Portugal Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique Spain Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Sweden Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star Luxembourg Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau

Mohammed VI's Birthday Morocco - Aug 21

Mohammed VI, (Arabic: ‫سداسلا دمحم‬‎) (born 21 August 1963) is the present King of Morocco and Amir al-Mu'minin (commander of the faithful). He ascended to the throne on 23 July 1999 upon the death of his father.

Education On the day of his birth, he was appointed Heir Apparent and

Crown Prince. His father, King Hassan II, was keen on giving him a religious and political education from an early age. At the age of four, he started attending the Qur'anic school at the Royal Palace, and received a religious and traditional education.

After primary and secondary studies at Royal College and after he received his Baccalaureate in 1981, Mohammed obtained in 1985 a Bachelor's degree in law at the College oflaw of the Mohammed V University at Agdal in Rabat. His research paper dealt with "the Arab-African Union and the Strategy of the Kingdom of Morocco in matters of International Relations". He has also frequented the Imperial College and University of Rabat. In the same year of 1985 he was appointed President of the Pan Arab Games and commissioned Colonel Major of the Royal Moroccan Army on 26 November, and Coordinator of the Offices and Services of the Royal Armed Forces until 1994.

In 1987 he obtained his first Certificat d'Études Supérieures (CES) in political sciences and in July 1988 he obtained a Diplôme d'Études Approfondies DEA in public law.

In November 1988 he trained in Brussels with Jacques Delors, then President of the European Commission.

He obtained his doctorate in law (PhD) with distinction on 29 October 1993 from the FrenchUniversity of Nice Sophia Antipolis for his thesis on "EEC-Maghreb Relations".

Mohammed was promoted to the rank of Major General on 12 July 1994, the same year he became President of the High Council of Culture and Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Moroccan Army until 1999, the year he succeeded his father on 23 July, being enthroned at Rabat on 30 July.

He received an honorary degree (doctor honoris causa) from George Washington University on 22 June 2000 for his promotion of democracy in Morocco.

Social reform and liberalization Shortly after he took the throne, he addressed his nation via televi-

sion, promising to take on poverty and corruption, while creating jobs and improving Morocco's human rights record. Mohammed VI is generally opposed by Islamist conservatives, and some of his reforms have angered fundamentalists. He also created a new family code, or Mudawana, which granted women more power. The law came into effect in February, 2004.

In December 2010 Wikileaks published diplomatic cables which alleged high-level corruption involving the King himself.

Mohammed VI also created the so-called Instance Equité et Réconciliation (IER), a commission, which was supposed to research human rights violations under Hassan II. The commission was however not allowed to report about human rights violations until 1999, when Mohammed was enthroned. This move was welcomed by many as a move towards democracy, but also criticized because reports of human rights violations could not name the perpetrators. According to human rights organisations, abuses still exist in Morocco. The2011 Moroccan protests were motivated by corruption and general discontentment towards politicians in general and by the desire of better life conditions motivated by the economic crisis. The King has answered the protesters with the promise of further reforms.

In a speech delivered on 9 March 2011 the King said that parliament would receive "new powers that enable it to discharge its representative, legislative, and regulatory mission". In addition to the powers of the judiciary being granted indepedence from the King. And the king announced that he was impaneling a committee of legal scholars to produce a draft constitution by June.

Wealth The king and his family hold stock in the ONA Group, a holding company with a diverse portfolio (mining, food pro-

cessing, retail and financial services, etc.) Mohammed is estimated by Forbes magazine to be worth $2 billion and the Moroccan Royal Family has one of the largest fortunes in the world. His palace's daily operating budget is reported

by Forbes to be $960,000, owing much of it to the expense of clothes and car repair.

Family Mohammed, who was born in Rabat, has one brother, Prince Moulay Rachid, and three sisters, Princess Lalla

Meryem, Princess Lalla Asma, and Princess Lalla Hasna.

On 21 March 2002 in Rabat, he married Salma Bennani (now H.R.H. Princess Lalla Salma) in Rabat, and she was granted the personal title of Princess with the style of Her Royal Highness on her marriage. They have two children, Crown Prince Moulay Hassan, who was born on 8 May 2003, and Princess Lalla Khadija, who was born on 28 February 2007.

Decorations Grand Officer of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (7 July 1977)

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (27 October 1980) Grand Cross of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (7 March 1987) Grand Cross of the Order of the Republic of Tunisia (x August 1987) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (18 March 1997) with Collar (11 April 2000) Collar of the Order of Hussein ibn 'Ali of Jordan (x March 2000) Grand Collar of the Order of the Seventh of November of Tunisia (x May 2000) Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France (19 March 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of National Merit of Mauritania (x April 2000) Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali of Mali with Collar (14 June 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain with Collar (16 September 2000) Grand Cross of the Order of Oumayid of Syria (9 April 2001) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Lebanon of the Lebanon Special Class (13 June 2001) Grand Cross of the Order of Abu Bakar Siddiq of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Move ment (29 June 2001) Grand Collar of the Order of al-Khalifa of Bahrain (28 July 2001) Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great of Kuwait (22 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of the Independence of Qatar (25 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of the Nile of Egypt (28 October 2002) Grand Cross of the Order of Pakistan First Class (Nishan-e-Pakistan) of Pakistan (19 July 2003) Grand Cross of the Order of Valour of the Cameroon of the Cameroon (17 June 2004) Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (21 June 2004) Grand Cross of the National Order of the Niger of the Niger (24 June 2004) Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold I of Belgium (5 October 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil (26 November 2004) Medal of Honour of the Congress of Peru of Peru (1 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile (3 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin of Argentina (7 December 2004) Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle of Mexico (11 February 2005) Grand Cross of the Order of Burkinabé of Burkina Faso (1 March 2005) Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (28 November 2005) Grand Cross of the Order of the Republic of The Gambia (20 February 2006) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Congo of the Congo-Brazzaville (22 February 2006) Grand Cross of the Order of the National Heroes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of CongoKinshasa (28 February 2006)

Liberation Day Hong Kong - Aug 25

The Cenotaph (Traditional Chinese: 和平紀念碑), constructed in 1923 and located between Statue Square and the City Hall in Central, Hong Kong, commemorates the dead in the First and Second World War that served in Hong Kong in the Royal Navy, British Army and Royal Air Force. It is an almost exact replica of the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London (designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and unveiled in 1920 ), except that this one in Hong Kong has eight Chinese characters on it.

Liberation Day celebration During British rule, after 1945, Liberation Day celebration took

place here on the last Monday in August to commemorate the Liberation of Hong Kong from Japanese occupation in 1945. No official ceremonies have taken place here since 1997. Unofficial delegations do mark events here, and the flag poles are occasionally dressed (for example in the month of April, 2011). But official ceremonies no longer take place as this date is no longer a general holiday in Hong Kong.

Remembrance Day commemoration

The Remembrance Sunday observance in Hong Kong is marked by a multi-faith memorial service at the Cenotaph in Central, Hong Kong. The service is organised by the Hong Kong Ex-Servicemens Association and is attended by various Government officials, as well as representatives of various religions including the Anglican Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Buddhist community, the Taoist community, the Muslim community and the Sikh community. Although Hong Kong ceased to be part of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1997, the memorial service still resembles those in many other Commonwealth countries. The service includes the sounding of "Last Post," two minutes of silence, the sounding of "Reveille", the laying of wreaths, prayers, and ends with a recitation of the "Ode of Remembrance. The Hong Kong Police Force Pipe Band continues to perform their ceremonial duty at the service.

Dia do Soldado Brazil - Aug 25

The Soldier's Day is established in honor of Luis Alves de Lima e Silva , patron of the Brazilian Army , born August 25th of 1803 that goes down in history as "the peacemaker" and stifles many rebellions against the Empire.

BIOGRAPHY Army-Marshal Luís Alves de Lima e Silva - Duque de Caxias - Patron of the Brazilian Army (August 25, 1803 - May 7, 1880), "Born on the farm of Sao Paulo, Vila Porto de Estrela, in the Baixada Fluminense, Rio de January. On November 22, 1808, he enlisted as a cadet in the 1st Infantry Regiment, joining later, the Royal Military Academy. Lieutenant, he joined the newly created Battalion of the Emperor, as an assistant, with him receiving the baptism of fire 3 May 1823, in the struggles for independence in Bahia, when he could prove exceptional qualities of initiative, control, intelligence and bravery. With just over 20 years, it was captain and also participated with the Emperor's Battalion, of the Campaign of cisplatin. In December 2, 1839, as colonel, came to embody the aura of Peaceful and symbol of nationality, to be appointed President of the Province of Maranhão and General Commander of the Forces Operations, to address the "Balaiada," after which he received the title Barao de Caxias and promotion to brigadier.

He entered the history as "The Peacemaker" and drowned many rebellions against the Empire. pacified Also Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais, in 1842, why was promoted to Field-Marshal graduate. In end of 1842, was appointed President and Commander in Chief of the Army in operations in Rio Grande do Sul, to combat Farroupilha Revolution, which had lasted eight years, and at the end of which was effected as Field-Marshal, elected Senator for New South Wales and awarded the title of Count. In 1851 he was again appointed as President and Commander in Chief of the Army of the South done this, to fight against Oribe, Uruguay, and soon after, against Rosas, Argentina. Victorious again, he was promoted to Lieutenant General and elevated to the dignity of Marquis. On June 16, 1855, was Minister of War and in 1856 President of the Council of Ministers, both for the first time. In October 10, 1866, was appointed Commander in Chief of the Forces of Empire troops in operations against the dictator Lopez of Paraguay, being carried out in the rank of Marshal of the Army, taking on 10 February 1867, the Command General operations forces, replacing General Mitre, Argentina. It follows a series of resounding victories in Itororó, Valentinas Avai and Lomas, the surrender of Angostura and putting into Asuncion, considered closed when the glorious campaign for him commanded. "For the services rendered in the War of Paraguay," the Emperor granted on March 23, 1869, the title of Duke - the highest title of nobility granted by the emperor. Caxias was Minister of War and President of the Council of Ministers two more times, the last from 1875 to 1878. Died at Fazenda Santa Monica, near the city of Brookfield RJ, and his body taken to the river and buried in the Cemetery of Catumbi. Today, the remains of the Patron Army and his wife lie in the mausoleum in front of the Palacio Duque de Caxias, in downtown Rio de Janeiro. " A GREAT ARMY FOR A GREAT PATRON "Luis Alves de Lima e Silva - the Duke of Caxias is the distinguished patron of the Brazilian Army, who reveres the date of his birth - August 25 -" Soldier's Day "pacified Caxias do Maranhão, São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul, stricken provinces in the last century, by serious internal rebellion, so he received the epithet of "The Pacifier." commanded armies in three external campaigns: the most difficult one, when Lomas Valentines, in 1868, taken of justifiable pride, he cried to his soldiers: "The God of hosts is with us. Aha! March to the fight, that victory is certain, because the General tab and friend to you, even until today, was not won. "Caxias organized the Brazilian Army, it was political, provincial governments and even Brazil, it was President Council of Ministers three times. Not only this, "The Pacifier" was more exponential the figure of his time, calling it the apologists, "The Constable of the Empire."

The late journalist and venerating the Barbosa Lima Sobrinho nickname of "The Patron of Amnesty" and the Brazilian people, in spontaneous consecration, popularized the term "hardcore", which are referred to those who comply, without limitation, their duties. Marshal of the Army, Director of State and War, Generalissimo Armies of the Triple Alliance, Baron, Count, Marquis, Duke, President of Provinces, Senator, minister of war three times, three times President of the Council of Ministers, "Artifice of National Unity," is Caxias, patron of the glorious and undefeated Brazilian Army!

The unforgettable sociologist Gilberto Freyre, in recognition of the sublime virtues of the Duque de Caxias, put it this way: "Caxiismo set of virtues is not only military, but of civic virtues, common to military and civilian. The "hardcore" should be both civilians and military. The caxiismo should be taught in schools both in civilian and military. It's all over Brazil who needs it ".

St. Stephen's Day Hungary - Aug 20

Saint Stephen I (Hungarian: I. (Szent) István) (Latin: Sanctus Stephanus) (Esztergom, 967/969/975 – 15 August 1038, Esztergom-Szentkirály or Székesfehérvár, Hungary), born Vajk, was Grand Prince of the Hungarians (997–1000) and the first King of Hungary (1000–1038). He greatly expanded Hungarian control over the Carpathian Basin during his lifetime, broadly established Christianity in the region, and is generally considered to be the founder of the Kingdom of Hungary. Pope Gregory VII canonized Stephen I, together with his son, Saint Emeric of Hungary and Bishop Gerard of Csanád, on 20 August 1083. Stephen became one of the most popular saints in Hungary, and 20 August, which was also his feast day until 1687, iscelebrated as a state holiday commemorating the foundation of the nation.

Biography Early years:

He was born as Vajk in the town of Esztergom. His father was Grand Prince Géza of Hungary; his mother was Sarolt, daughter of Gyula of Transylvania a Hungarian nobleman who had been baptized in Greece. Though Sarolt was baptized into the Orthodox Christian faith at her father's court in Transylvania by the Greek bishop Hierotheos,she did not persist in the religion. According to his legends, Vajk was baptized a Christian by Saint Adalbert of Prague. He was given the baptismal name Stephen (István) in honour of the original early Christian Saint Stephen. The baptised name was possibly chosen on purpose, as it means not only "crown" as mentioned, but also "norm, standard" in Hebrew. So the mission of St. Stephen was to grant a norm to Hungary through the Holy Crown (also called the Doctrine of the Holy Crown). However, another reason could be thought of: that Stephen, as fiancé of a woman from the diocese of Passau, simply wanted to do honour to the then-major saint of Passau, Saint Stephen, after whom the Passau Cathedral is named up to today.

When Stephen reached adolescence, Great Prince Géza convened an assembly where they decided that Stephen would follow his father as the monarch of the Hungarians. This decision, however, contradicted the Magyar tribal custom that gave the right of succession to the eldest close relative of the deceased ruler.

Stephen married Giselle of Bavaria, the daughter of Henry II the Wrangler in or after 995. By this marriage, he became the brother-in-law of the future Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor.

Giselle arrived at her husband's court accompanied by German knights.

Ruling prince of the Hungarians:

In 997, his father died and a succession struggle ensued. Stephen claimed to rule the Magyars by the principle of Christian divine right, while his uncle Koppány, a powerful pagan chieftain in Somogy, claimed the traditional right of agnatic seniority. Eventually, the two met in battle near Veszprém and Stephen, victorious, assumed the role of Grand Prince of the Hungarians. Stephen's victory came about primarily thanks to his German retinue led by the brothers Pázmány and Hont. The nearly contemporary deed of foundation of the Abbey of Pannonhalma clearly described the battle as a struggle between the Germans and the Magyars. Thus, Stephen strengthened his power in Transdanubia, but several parts of Hungary still did not accept his rule.

According to Hungarian tradition, Pope Silvester II, with the consent of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, sent a magnificent jeweled gold crown to Stephen along with an apostolic cross and a letter of blessing officially recognizing Stephen as the Christian king of Hungary. Later this tradition was interpreted as the papal recognition of the independence of Hungary from the Holy Roman Empire. The date of Stephen's coronation is variously given as Christmas Day, 1000 or 1 January 1001.

Stephen I is closely tied to the Crown of St. Stephen and the Doctrine of the Holy Crown which marks a unique tradition of the Kingdom of Hungary. According to Hartwick's legend, during his coronation Stephen dedicated the crown to the Holy Virgin, thereby sealing a contract between God and the crown (which is therefore considered a "holy" crown). This contract is also the basis for the Doctrine of the Holy Crown and the basis for the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. The actual crown which survives today was probably never worn by the king himself as it has been dated as originating in the 12th century. The origin of the crown, however, is hotly dis- Saint Stephen I in Budapest puted.

First King of Hungary:

According to the much argued Chronicon Pictum, the first king of the Hungarians is Attila the Hun. However, the codex repeats itself as Stephen I is also cited as the first king of the Hungarians. Also argued by historians is the exact meaning of the phrase in the Remonstrances to Emerick from St Stephen: "Regale ornamentum scito esse maximum: sequi antecessores reges et honestos imitari parentos", which translates to: "The greatest deed for the kingdom is to follow the old kings and to imitate parents". This might mean that Stephen is referring to the "old kings" which could only be Attila and Nimrod. It might also mean that the constitution of the kingdom itself was not employed

by St Stephen, but by his ancestors.

What is confirmed is that, after (or just before) his coronation, Stephen I founded several dioceses, namely, the dioceses of Veszprém, Győr, Kalocsa, Vác, and Bihar. He also established the Archdiocese of Esztergom. Thus he set up an ecclesiastical organisation independent of the German archbishops. He also began to organize a territorybased administration by founding several counties (comitatus, megye)in his kingdom.

Stephen discouraged pagan customs and strengthened Christianity by means of various laws. In his first decree, issued at the beginning of his rule, he ordered that each ten villages would be obliged to build a church. He invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom. Saint Astricus served as his adviser and Saint Gerard Sagredo as the tutor for his son Emeric (also rendered as Imre).

Around 1003, Stephen invaded and occupied Transylvania, a territory ruled by his maternal uncle, Gyula, a semi-independent chieftain. After this victory, Stephen organized the Diocese of Transylvania. In the next few years he also occupied the lands of the Black Magyars in the southern part of Transdanubia, and there organized the Diocese of Pécs. Shortly afterwards, it is believed that he made an agreement withSamuel Aba, the chieftain of the Kabar tribes settled in the Mátra region, who married Stephen's sister. In his brother-in-law's domains, Stephen founded the Diocese of Eger.

Finally, Stephen occupied the domains of Ajtony, a semi-pagan chieftain who had been ruling over the territories of the later Banat. Here Stephen set up the Diocese of Csanád.

External politics:

In his external politics Stephen I allied himself with his brother-inlaw, the Emperor Henry II against Prince Boleslaw I of Poland, who had extended his rule over the territories between the Morava and Váh Rivers. Stephen sent troops to the emperor's army, and in the Peace of Bautzen, in 1018, the Polish prince had to hand over the occupied territories to Stephen.

Shortly afterwards, Stephen sent troops to help Boleslaw I in his campaign against Kievan Rus'. In 1018, Stephen lead his armies against Bulgaria, in alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Basil II, and collected several relics during his campaign.

After the death of Henry II ( 3 July 1024), Stephen broke with the German alliance, because the new Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad II claimed supremacy over the Kingdom of Hungary, while Stephen demanded the Duchy of Bavaria for his son Emeric who was the nearest relative of the deceased Emperor Henry II (who himself had been the last male descendant of the old dukes of Bavaria). In 1027, Stephen had Bishop Werner of Strasbourg, the envoy sent

by Conrad II to the Byzantine Empire, arrested at the frontier. In 1030, the emperor lead his armies against Hungary, but Stephen's troops forced them to retreat. Stephen and Emperor Conrad II concluded peace negotiations in 1031, and the territories between the Leitha (Hungarian: (Lajta)) and Fischa Rivers were ceded to Hungary.

His last years:

Stephen intended to retire to a life of holy contemplation and hand the kingdom over to his son Emeric, but Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031. In Stephen's words of mournStatue of King Stephen I of Hungary ing:

By God's secret decision death took him, so that wickedness would and Queen Giselle in Veszprém not change his soul and false imaginations would not deceive his (Hungary) mind – as the Book of Wisdom teaches about early death.

Stephen mourned for a very long time over the loss of his son, which took a great toll on his health. He eventually recovered, but never regained his original vitality. Having no children left, he could not find anyone among his remaining relatives who was able to rule the country competently and be willing to maintain the Christian faith of the nation. He did not want to entrust his kingdom to his cousin, Duke Vazul, whom he suspected to be following pagan customs.

The disregarded duke took part in a conspiracy aimed at the murder of Stephen I, but the assassination attempt failed and Vazul had his eyes gouged out and molten lead poured in his ears. Without a living heir, on his deathbed, King St. Istvan raised with his right hand the Holy Crown of Hungary, and prayed to the Blessed Virgin Mary, asking her to take the Hungarian people as her subjects and become their queen. King Stephen died on the feast day which commemorates the bodily assumption into heaven of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, in the year 1038, at Esztergom-Szentkirály orSzékesfehérvár, where he was buried. His nobles and his subjects were said to have mourned for three straight years afterwards.

His legacy

Following Stephen's death, his nephew Peter Urseolo (his appointed heir) and his brother-in-law Samuel Aba contended for the crown. Nine years of instability followed until Stephen's cousin Andrew I was crowned King of Hungary in 1047 to re-establish the Árpád dynasty. Hungarian historiography saw Peter and Samuel as members of the Árpád dynasty, and both are counted among the Árpád kings.

Shortly after Stephen's death, healing miracles were said to have occurred at his tomb. Stephen was canonized by Pope Gregory VII as Saint Stephen of Hungary in 1083, along with his son, Saint Emeric and Bishop Gerhard (Hungarian: Szent Gellért). Thus Saint Stephen became the first canonized confessor king, a new category of saint. He is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary, kings, children who are dying, masons, stonecutters, and bricklayers.

St Stephen is not mentioned in the Tridentine Calendar. His feast day was added to the General Roman Calendar only in 1631, and only as a commemoration on 20 August, the feast of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. In 1687, it was moved to 2 September and remained there until the 1969 revision of the Roman Catholic calendar of saints. Then the feast of Saint Joachim on 16 August was moved and the date became available for another celebration, so the feast of Saint Stephen of Hungary was moved to that date, the day immediately after his death. Some traditionalist Catholics continue to observe pre-1970 versions of the General Roman Calendar.

In the local calendar of the Church in Hungary, the feast is observed King Stephen's statue in his homeon 20 August, the day on which his sacred relics were translated town, Esztergom to the city of Buda. It is a public holiday in Hungary. During the period ofCommunist rule in Hungary, St. Stephen's Day was referred to as the anniversary of the Stalinist constitution of 1949 and "The celebration of the new bread — the end of the harvest".

The king's right hand, known as the Holy Right, is kept as a relic. Hungarians interpreted the incorruptibility of his right arm and hand - with which he had held the Holy Crown aloft from his deathbed when asking our Lady to be the Queen of the Hungarians - as a sign that the Blessed Virgin Mary had accepted the king's offer to her of the Hungarian people, and she remains officially their queen. The incorrupt arm was divided among European royalty, but the Holy Right of King Saint Stephen was placed in a town built solely for the purpose of keeping it, the town in Transylvania called "Szent Jobb", or Holy Right. Later, the Holy Right was transferred to where it is today, the Basilica of King Saint Stephen in Budapest. Apart from the Holy Right, only some bone fragments remain, which are kept in churches throughout Hungary. Hungarian Catholics honor the first king of their country with annual processions, at which the Holy Right is exhibited.

The canonization of Saint Stephen was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in the year 2000.

The Holy Crown, popularly attributed to St. Stephen, was removed from the country in 1945 for safekeeping, and entrusted to the United States government. It was kept in a vault at Fort Knox until 1978, when it was returned to the nation by order of President Jimmy Carter. It has been enshrined in the Hungarian parliament building in Budapest since 2000.

Quote My dearest son, if you desire to honor the royal crown, I advise, I counsel, I urge you above all things to

maintain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God, and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession.

Failing to do this, you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church. Indeed, in the royal palace, after the faith itself, the Church holds second place, first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members, the apostles and holy fathers, And though she always produced fresh offspring, nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient. However, dearest son, even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians less a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness, indolence or neglect.

My beloved son, delight of my heart, hope of your posterity, I pray, I command, that at very time and in everything, strengthened by your devotion to me, you may show favor not only to relations and kin, or to the most eminent, be they leaders or rich men or neighbors or fellow-countrymen, but also to foreigners and to all who come to you. By fulfilling your duty in this way you will reach the highest state of happiness. Be merciful to all who are suffering violence, keeping always in your heart the example of the Lord who said: “I desire mercy and not sacrifice”. Be patient with everyone, not only with the powerful, but also with the weak.

Finally be strong lest prosperity lift you up too much or adversity cast you down. Be humble in this life that God may raise you up in the next. Be truly moderate and do not punish or condemn anyone immoderately. Be gentle so that you may never oppose justice. Be honorable so that you never voluntarily bring disgrace upon anyone. Be chaste so that you may avoid all the foulness that so resembles the pangs of death.

All these virtues I have noted above make up the royal crown and without them no one is fit to rule here on earth or attain to the heavenly Kingdom.

Artistic representation

King Stephen of Hungary has been a popular theme in art, especially from the 19th century on, with the development of nationalism. Paintings such as The Baptism of Vajk (1875) by Gyula Benczúr and many statues representing the king all over Hungary testify to Stephen's importance in Hungarian national thought.

The last complete opera by the Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel is István király (King Stephen) (1885). The best known representa- The Holy Right, the king's right hand tions of St. Stephen in music are Ludwig van Beethoven's King Stephen Overture, and the 1983 rock opera István, a király (Stephen, the King) by Levente Szörényi and János Bródy. Szörényi's Veled, Uram! (With You, my Lord!) (2000) was a sequel to István király.

Constitution Day Hungary - Aug 20

A day when the constitution of a country is made it’s a public holiday in the country. This day is known as a Constitution Day. It is celebrated to show the honor and respects to the constitution of the country. Hungary celebrates this day on August 20 every year.

August 20 is also known as St. Stephen Day in Hungary.

History

It was Hungary’s first king, St. Stephen, that laid the state’s foundation by transforming the wanderer and Hungarians (pagan Magyar) into Christianity. Until the 10th century’s end, it was seen that seven of the tribes from Hungary manier times attacked & robbed the European Nations. After being defeated, the Hungarians finally came up with a decision to not raid anymore. They ultimately decided to settle down and came up with the strong state.

King Stephen used his powers to set the various churches and asked the Catholic priest to bring Christianity ahead. Thus, it was all due to the efforts of the St .Stephen that Hungary became a strong state. It was on August 20, that the first king of the Hungary was canonized. Thus, this day remains as the national day and remained until 1945. As the communist revolted against this celebration since it was based on religion. It was in 1990 again that the Hungarian parliament made the constitution and declared this day as a national day once again.

Customs & activities The day, August 20, begins with state ceremonies, which launches the program for the day. It is a day when the foun-

dation of this country took place. This function is usually held in the Kossuth Square, which is located in front of the Hungary Parliament and Heroes’ Square. There is not only a state program but many others are held in the morning and the evening for the family to have a nice time throughout the day. The first event that takes place is the Hungarian flag hoisting on Kossuth Square. Leading marching bands perform on that day. There is a scope of even learning the techniques of making tents and bows as Hungarian use to make. An archery show is also organized; dances are performed in front of the Hungary Parliament. Foods, which are made on this day, are awesome. They include ox and poultry are roasted on the open fire. Many confectioneries make different cakes from different recipes and the best one is cut to celebrate the occasion. Many other festivals and events, such as Red Bull Air Race, the Bread Festival, the Wheel Festival, water & air parade, which took place above Danube. And many more commence on this day. Fireworks are the most attractive feature on this day. There are many unique dance shows, which are performed by the dancers when the fireworks take place. The choreography of the dance is based on showing the foundation of the Hungary. The performance ends with the coronation of the first king of Hungary, St Stephen.

The King & People's Revolution Morocco - Aug 20

There are many public holidays, which are celebrated in Morocco all throughout the year. During public holidays the offices, schools, and other working places remain closed and the population enjoys these holidays by celebrating the special occasions. August 20 is the day celebrated by the Moroccan in remembrance of King Mohammad V’s return to Morocco after a period of exile in Madagascar. His return to Morocco marks a great revolution. The wide spread negotiation resulted in the Morocco’s Independence. Thus, August 20 came to be popularly known as the King & People’s Revolution day, marking a historical landmark for the residents of Morocco.

History

This day, makes one remember about the great struggle that the Alaouite Throne and the Moroccan people had undergone for their freedom. French authorities exiled the Late King Mohammed V and the Royal Family. The reason the French Authorities gave for exiling the king was that the king refused to stop the action of the national movement and he also denied signing the pact that asked for French domination over Morocco.

The Moroccan people revolted against these actions of the French Colonizers in order to save their homeland. They all stood united with the king and supported him wholeheartedly. This was quite surprising for the French colonizers.

August 20 caused the start for the end of colonialism in Morocco. This struggle for independence continued for a long time and they demanded the return of their exiled king.

Althoough they got the liberation, the King was still not happy there were many problems relating to economic and social development. A lot of struggle was occuring to overcome all of these problems. Thus, the struggle continued to save the economy and social development of the country. The King inspired the people and led to the progress, security and development of the country. Although he does not exist anymore, he is still remembered for his great contribution to the liberation of Morocco. He was the one who led the stepping-stone for the liberation of Morocco.

This brought about the revolution and thus this day came to be known as the King & People’s Revolution day.

Customs & activities

Morocco celebrates The King & People’s Revolution day with great joy and enthusiasm. This was the day that they got freedom from colonization and it was due to the effort of the King Mohammed V. It was the day when the king returned from his exile and all the people were full of happiness and joy when they got their king back.

There are many events, which take place in this celebration. Music can be heard playing all around. The music has an influence on the tradition and culture of Arab, Amazigh, African, and Andalusian tribes. It makes use of a number of traditional instruments such as flute, shawn, etc. Foods made in the Morocco are very spicy and delicious. Dancing, feasting and fasting are all a part of the Morocco festival and celebrations. All the people come together on this day to show their honor and respect to the King.

National Flag Day Ukraine - Aug 23

On the 23d of August, just before the Independence Day, Ukraine celebrates National Flag Day of Ukraine. Today you could see flags everywhere: on the buildings and the balconies, on the flagpoles, etc. Such a celebration in the history of nations is quite young. For example, the Day of the Swedish flag Flag is celebrated since 1983, the Day of Canada – since 1995, Mexico – 1937, in the Russian Federation, the National Flag Day has been operating since 1994, in the Republic of Belarus since 1995. In Ukraine, after the publication of the relevant Presidential Decree, the Flag Day appeared on Aug. 23, 2004. Ukrainian government asked people to fly the Ukrainian flag at their homes and flats on this day. The next day, on the August 24th Ukraine celebrates the Independence Day.

Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade & its Abolition Worldwide - Aug 23

International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, August 23 of each year, the day designated by UNESCO to memorialize the transatlantic slave trade. That date was chosen by the UNESCO Executive Board's adoption of resolution 29 C/40 at its 29th session. Circular CL/3494 of July 29, 1998 from the Director-General invited Ministers of Culture to promote the day. The date is significant because, during the night of August 22 to August 23, 1791 on the island of Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti), an uprising began which set forth events which were a major factor in the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade.

UNESCO Member States organize events every year on that date, inviting participation from young people, educators, artists and intellectuals. As part of the goals of the intercultural UNESCO project, "The Slave Route", it is an opportunity for collective recognition and focus on the "historic causes, the methods and the consequences" of slavery. Additionally, it sets the stage for analysis and dialogue of the interactions which gave rise to the transatlantic trade in human beings between Africa, Europe, the Americas and the Caribbean.

The International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition was first celebrated in a number of countries, in particular in Haiti (23 August 1998) and Senegal (23 August 1999). A number of cultural events and debates were organized. In 2001 the Mulhouse Textile Museum in France conducted a fabric workshop entitled "Indiennes de Traite" (a type of calico) used as currency in trade for Africans. The International Slavery Museum opened its doors on August 23, 2007 in Liverpool where Slavery Remembrance Day events have been conducted since 2004.

Twenty one years ago, in August 1991, the century-old dream of generations of the Ukrainian people to be free came true, when the parliament of Soviet Ukraine passed the Act of Declaration of Independence. Compared to the age of the old worlds' established democracies, twenty one year of Ukrainian independent existence is a very short period of time. However, the celebration of any anniversary in spite of its numerical value always offers an opportunity to look back, assess the failures and achievements, drawbacks and successes. We are once again analyzing the path we have been through, and check our progress against the compass of history.

We should remember that our history has always been inextricably tied to the formation of European civilization. Cornerstone to this foundation is the legacy of Kyivan Ancient Rus that has been an integral page of the European Middle Ages history. In those glorious times, the Kyivan Rus was one of the powerful centers of European civilization. Ukraine tries proudly to continue this mission today.

Ukraine has demonstrated to the world its ability to tackle enormous challenges and served as an example to many other post-soviet countries how to maintain internal stability in spite of the great political and economic challenges. Europe is a place where we belong and integration into the European structures is a priority of Ukraine’s foreign policy. As a co-host country we succeeded in holding an unforgettable event - UEFA EURO 2012 - a great celebration of European football. Ukraine really can be proud of the image it presented throughout this pan-European tournament.

Currently, all branches of the government are consolidated around a common goal. It is further modernizing the state and building prosperous Ukraine.

We are modernizing the country and developing the economy. We are building airports, roads and bridges, opening stadiums. We are building the state. But Ukraine’s progress on this road largely depends on cooperation with the international community, participation in international trade, and in particular with Pakistan – our good friend and partner.

The relations between our countries have been traditionally very friendly, and this year we officially celebrated both in Kyiv and Islamabad the 20th anniversary of its establishment.

Ukraine and Pakistan wish to develop mutually beneficial relations perspective, so the main task now is to use the existing positive experience of bilateral cooperation in civilian spheres, for intensification of political dialogue, boosting legal framework of our cooperation, creating auspicious conditions for functioning of business organizations at the markets of both countries. In this respect Ukraine is ready to play its part in the development of Pakistan and would welcome any efforts to search new approaches for cooperation and expending ties with Pakistan in various sectors. We consider the issue of economization of international relations as a priority national task. Our common goal is to promote cooperation between our countries to a qualitatively new level. An important part of this activity is to develop trade and economic relations between Ukraine and Pakistan.

In this respect it should be mentioned, that Ukraine, being a large European economy, has a well-developed industrial base, the rich farmlands, highly trained labor force and a good education system. It is relatively rich in natural resources. Ukraine possesses such important energy sources, like coal, hydroelectricity and nuclear fuel raw materials. Ukraine has a well-developed mashing - building industry; another important branch is country's chemical and petrochemical industry. The latter in particular produces the high quality mineral fertilizers.

The goods that are manufactured in Ukraine include metallurgical equipment, locomotives, aircrafts, railway cars, tractors, space launchers, automobiles. The country possesses a massive high-tech industrial base, including of electronics, armaments and space industries. Ukraine is a leading producer of grain, sugar, meat and milk products. Ukraine has one of the largest power sectors, including developed oil and gas pipeline system. Ukraine exports electricity to Belarus, Hungary, Slovakia, Moldova and other European countries.

So, Ukraine has considerable experience in the construction and maintenance of power plants, and is ready to share this experience with our partners. I think that Ukraine and Pakistan have enormous potential for energy cooperation, particularly in the field of thermal and hydropower, using the alternative types of generation of energy (wind, solar etc.).

Ukraine, in its turn, is interested in importing from Pakistan consumer goods (fabrics, clothing, bedding, citrus, rice, sports goods, leather, cosmetic tools) with a stable demand in Ukraine. Over the past three years export of goods from Pakistan to Ukraine has demonstrated a rapid growth.

A great potential also is in a development of high technology cooperation between our countries. We’ll do our best to launch a fruitful partnership in such spheres to create synergies and make our products competitive in the world market.

Thereby cooperation with Ukraine in these spheres can be particularly beneficial for Pakistan. I believe that our countries have a significant potential and opportunities to increase the list of successful projects. I am also sure it will be beneficial for both Ukraine and Pakistan, and convinced, that we will reach great success through joint efforts.

Independence Day Uruguay - Aug 25

Independence Day Ukraine - Aug 24

Ukraine (Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ];Russian: Украи́на; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the largest contiguous country on the European continent.

Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.

Established by the Varangians in the 9th century, the medieval state of Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state, emerged as a powerful nation in the middle ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. After a chaotic period of incessant warfare and several attempts at independence (1917–21) following World War I and the Russian Civil War, it emerged on December 30, 1922 as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic's territory was enlarged westward shortly before and after World War II, and southwards in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.

Ukraine became independent again after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Herewith began a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine was stricken with an eight-year recession. Since then though, the economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth. Ukraine was caught up in the worldwide economic crisis in 2008 and the economy plunged. GDP fell 20% from spring 2008 to spring 2009, then leveled off as analysts compared the magnitude of the downturn to the worst years of economic depression during the early 1990s.

Ukraine is a unitary state composed of 24 oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic(Crimea), and two cities with special status: Kiev, its capital and largest city, and Sevastopol, which houses the Russian Black Sea Fleet under a leasing agreement. Ukraine is a republicunder a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine continues to maintain the second largestmilitary in Europe, after that of Russia. The country is home to 46 million people, 77.8 percent of whom are ethnic Ukrainians, with sizable minorities of Russians (17%), Belarusians and Romanians. The Ukrainian language is the official language in Ukraine.

Russian is also widely spoken. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has heavily influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music.

History

Etymology:

During the period of Romantic nationalism it was popular to trace the origin of the country's name back to an ancient ethnonym. After The Khanate of Crimea was one of this pseudo-historical view was discarded, two main versions of the the strongest powers in Eastern etymology emerged. Naturally, the versions have different implica- Europe until the end of the 17th tions from a nationalist point of view, and are also based on different century. possible or certain meanings of the lexeme ukraina as it occurs in historical sources. According to one view, the term is taken to mean 'borderland' or simply 'land' (also 'in-land' or 'home-land', 'principality'), whilst in the other it is said to be derived from the old slavic word 'kraina', meaning 'country', and therefore, according to this understanding of the term, 'u-kraina' means 'in-country' or 'my-country'. Although it is not considered to be appropriate, it is common practice to refer to Ukraine as "the Ukraine" in English.

Early history:

Human settlement in the territory of Ukraine dates back to 32,000 BCE, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains. By 4,500 BCE, the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished in a wide area that included parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians. Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia.

Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of theBlack Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was the center of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions and the land fell into the Khazars' hands.

Golden Age of Kiev:

The Kievan Rus' were founded by the Rus' people,Varangians who first settled around Ladoga and Novgorod, then gradually moved southward eventually reaching Kiev about 880. The Kievan Rus' included the western part of modern Ukraine, Belarus, with larger part of it situated on the territory of modern Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.

During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe. In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians. Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'.

The Varangians later became assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus' first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty. Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelatedRurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power. This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massivemigration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north.

The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240. On the Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Halychand Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which The Baptism of Grand Prince were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.

Foreign domination:

Vladimir, led to the adoption

In the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia was subjugated by Casimir III of of Christianity in Kievan Poland, while the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the Gedimi- Rus'. nas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krevo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine was controlled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the Polish Crown. Under the cultural and political pressure of Polonisation much upper class of Polish Ruthenia (another term for the land of Rus) converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility. Thus, the commoners, deprived of their native protectors among Rus nobility, turned for protection to the Cossacks, who remained fiercely Orthodox at all times and tended to turn to violence against those they perceived as enemies, particularly the Polish state and its representatives.

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom. Poland had little real control of this land, yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful fighting force against the Turks and Tatars, and at times the two allied in military campaigns. However, the continued enserfment of peasantry by thePolish nobility emphasized by the Commonwealth's fierce exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.

Their aspiration was to have representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were all vehemently denied by the Polish nobility. The Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state, and the preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir. Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Muscovite Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century byPrussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western UkrainianGalicia was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire.

The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th century; at one point it even succeeded, under the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, to devastate Moscow. The Russian population of the borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions and tens of thousands of soldiers were required to protect the southern boundaries.

From the beginning of the 16th century until the end of 17th century the Crimean Tatar raider bands made almost annual forays into agricultural Slavic lands searching for captives to sell as slaves. According to Orest Subtelny, "...from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raidswere recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy." In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians. This was a heavy burden for the state, and slowed its social and economic development.

Since Crimean Tatars did not permit settlement of Russians to southern regions where the soil is better and the season is long enough, Muscovy had to depend on poorer regions and labour intensive agriculture. Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia andWallachia were also subjected to extensive slave raiding. The Crimean Khanate was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1778, bringing an end to Mongol and Tatar rule in Europe.

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir. Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Muscovite Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century byPrussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western UkrainianGalicia was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire.

The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th century; at one point it even succeeded, under the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, to devastate Moscow. The Russian population of the borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions and tens of thousands of soldiers were required to protect the southern boundaries.

From the beginning of the 16th century until the end of 17th century the Crimean Tatar raider bands made almost annual forays into agricultural Slavic lands searching for captives to sell as slaves. According to Orest Subtelny, "...from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raidswere recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy." In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians. This was a heavy burden for the state, and slowed its social and economic development. Since Crimean Tatars did not permit settlement of Russians to southern regions where the soil is better and the season is long enough, Muscovy had to depend on poorer regions and labour intensive agriculture.

Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia andWallachia were also subjected to extensive slave raiding. The Crimean Khanate was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1778, bringing an end to Mongol and Tatar rule in Europe.

The Ruin:

In 1657–1686 came "The Ruin," a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, Turks and Cossacks for control of Ukraine. For three years Khmelnytsky's armies controlled present-day western and central Ukraine, but deserted by his Tatar allies, he suffered a crushing defeat at Berestechko, and turned to the Russian Czar for help.

In 1654, Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Pereiaslav, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to Bohdan Khmelnytsky, "Hetman the Czar. The wars escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of Ukraine"; establish an indeof deaths. Defeat came in 1686 as the "Eternal Peace" between Rus- pendent Ukraine after the uprissia and Poland gave Kiev and the Cossack lands east of the Dnieper ing in 1648 against Poland. over to Russian rule and the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper to Poland.

In 1709 Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1687–1709) sided with Sweden against Russia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). Mazepa, a member of the Cossack nobility, received an excellent education abroad and proved to be a brilliant political and military leader enjoying good relations with the Romanov dynasty. After Peter the Great became czar, Mazepa as hetman gave him more than twenty years of loyal military and diplomatic service and was well rewarded.

Eventually Peter recognized that in order to consolidate and modernize Russia's political and economic power it was necessary to do away with the hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa accepted Polish invitations to join the Poles and Swedes against Russia. The move was disastrous for the hetmanate, Ukrainian autonomy, and Mazepa. He died in exile after fleeing from the Battle of Poltava (1709), where the Swedes and their Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Peter's Russian forces The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporizhska Sich abolished in 1775, as centralized Russian control became the norm. With the partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided between Russia and Austria. From 1737 to 1834 expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the eastern Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy.

Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial rulings from Cracow were routinely flouted. Heavily taxed peasants were practically tied to the land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox lesser nobility. In 1596 they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate Church, under the authority of the Pope but using Eastern rituals; it dominates western Ukraine to this day. Tensions between the Uniates and the Orthodox were never resolved, and the religious differentiation left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.

The Cossack-led uprising called Koliivshchyna that erupted in the Ukrainian borderlands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1768 involved ethnicity as one root cause of Ukrainian violence that killed tens of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare also broke out between Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the Dnepr River in the time of Catherine II set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.

After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783, the region was settled by migrants from other parts of Ukraine. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest offices of Russian state, and the Russian Orthodox Church. At a later period, the tsarist regime carried the policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.

19th century, World War I and revolution:

In the 19th century Ukraine was a rural area largely ignored by Rus- "Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossia and Austria. With growing urbanization and modernization, and sacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of a cultural trend toward nationalism inspired by romanticism, a Ukrain- the Ottoman Empire."Painted by ian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814– Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891.

1861) and the political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.

After Ukraine and Crimea became aligned with the Russian EmpireRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774), significant German immigrationGerman Russian Colonies occurred after it was encouraged byCatherine the Great and her immediate successors. Immigration was encouraged into Ukraine and especially the Crimea by Catherine in her proclamation of open migration to the Russian Empire. Immigration was encouraged for Germans and other Europeans to thin the previously dominant Turk population and encourage more complete use of farmland.

Beginning in the 19th century, there was a continuous migration from Ukraine to settle the distant areas of the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.

Between 1896 and 1906, after the construction of the trans-Siberian railway, a total of 1.6 million Ukrainians migrated eastward.

Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century. Austrian Galicia, which enjoyed substantial political freedom under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the center of the nationalist movement.

Ukraine entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. 3.5 million Ukrainians fought with the Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army. During the war, Austro-Hungarianauthorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post World War I period (1919–23). Those suspected of the Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly.

Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).

With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires following World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged. During 1917–20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory.

In the midst of Civil War, an anarchist movement called the Black Army led byNestor Makhno also developed in Southern Ukraine.

However, with Western Ukraine's defeat in the Polish-Ukrainian War followed by the failure of the further Polish offensive that was repelled by the Bolsheviks. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland who in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919, that later became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December 1922.

Inter-war Soviet Ukraine:

The civil war that eventually brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. In addition, Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921. Seeing the exhausted society, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s. Thus under the aegis of the Ukrainization policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in literature and the arts. The Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literallyindigenisation) policy. The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities. Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early 1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader.

The communists gave a privileged position to manual labor, the largest class in the cities, where Russians dominated.

The typical worker was more attached to class identity than to ethnicity. Although there were incidents of ethnic friction among workers (in addition to Ukrainians and Russians there were significant numbers of Poles, Germans, Jews, and others in the Ukrainian workforce), industrial laborers had already adopted Russian culture and language to a significant extent. Workers whose ethnicity was Ukrainian were not attracted to campaigns of Ukrainianization or deRussification in meaningful numbers, but remained loyal members of the Soviet working class. There was no significant antagonism between workers identifying themselves as Ukrainian or Russian.

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled during the 1930s.

The industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforced the policies by the regular troops and secret police. Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until sometimes unrealistic quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became more common. In 1932–33, millions starved to death in a famine known as Holodomor or "Great Famine". Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and other countries recognise it as such.

The famine claimed up to 10 million of Ukrainian lives as peasants' food stocks were forcibly removed by the Soviet government by the NKVD secret police. Some explanations for the causes for the excess deaths in rural areas of Ukraine and Kazakhstan during 1931–34 has been given by dividing the causes into three groups: objective non-policy-related factors, like the drought of 1931 and poor weather in 1932; inadvertent result of policies with other objectives, like rapid industrialization, socialization of livestock, and neglected crop rotation patterns; and deaths caused intentionally by a starvation policy. The Communist leadership perceived famine not as a humanitarian catastrophe but as a means of class struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants into collective farms. It was largely the same groups of individuals who were responsible for the mass killing operations during the civil war, collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups were associated with Efim Georgievich Evdokimov (1891–1939) and operated in Ukraine during the civil war, in the North Caucasus in the 1920s, and in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Evdokimov transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. But he appears to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on Evdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great Terror in 1937–38.

With Joseph Stalin's change of course in the late 1920s, however, Moscow's toleration of Ukrainian national identity came to an end. Systematic state terror of the 1930s destroyed Ukraine's writers, artists, and intellectuals; the Communist Party of Ukraine was purged of its "nationalist deviationists". Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929–34 and 1936–38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three quarters of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.

World War II:

Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.

After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.

German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance by the Red Army and by the local population. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.

Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance, some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942) that at times engaged the Nazi forces and continued to fight the USSR in the years after the war. Using guerilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.

At the same time another nationalist movement fought alongside the Nazis. In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians that fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million to 7 million. The pro-Soviet partisan guerilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 50 percent of them being ethnic Ukrainians. Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as much as 100,000 fighters.

Initially, the Germans were even received as liberators by some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939. However, brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against the occupation. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the population of Ukrainian territories' dissatisfaction with Stalinist political and economic policies. Instead, the Nazis preserved the collectivefarm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported others to work in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine to prepare it for German colonisation, which included a food blockade on Kiev.

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front, and Nazi Germany suffered 93 percent of all its casualties there. The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between five and eight million,including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis, 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians. So to this day, Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.

Post–World War II:

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed. The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47 caused by the drought and the infrastructure breakdown that took away tens of thousands of lives.

In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations organization. First Soviet computer MESM was built in Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology and became operational in 1950.

According to statistics, as of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total. Apart from Ukrainians, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from Ukraine and more than 200,000 Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Being the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938–49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic and after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR. Already by 1950, the republic fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production. During the 1946–1950 five year plan nearly 20 percent of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a five percent increase from prewar plans. As a result the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2 percent from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period. Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production. It also became an important center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite.

Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev, who would later oust Khrushchev and become the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982, as well as many prominent Soviet sportspeople, scientists and artists. On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history. At the time of the accident seven million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine. After the accident, a new city, Slavutych, was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant which was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization attributed 56 direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000 extra cancer deaths.

Independence:

On July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine. The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.

A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Although the idea of an independent Ukrainian nation had previously not existed in the 20th century in the minds of international policy makers, Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union. However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999, and suffered five-digit inflation rates. Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as the amounts of crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996.

Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent annually. A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for corruption, electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and concentrating too much of power in his office. He also repeatedly transferred public property into the hands of loyal oligarchs.

In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled. The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome of the elections. This resulted in the peaceful Orange Revolution, bringingViktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition. Yanukovych returned to a position of power in 2006, when he became Prime Minister in the Alliance of National Unity, untilsnap elections in September 2007 made Tymoshenko Prime Minister again. Yanukovych was elected President in 2010.

Conflicts with Russia over the price of natural gas briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in several other European countries.

Historical maps of Ukraine:

The Ukrainian state has occupied a number of territories since its initial foundation. Most of these territories have been located within Eastern Europe, however, as depicted in the maps in the gallery below, has also at times extended well into Eurasia and South-Eastern Europe. At times there has also been a distinct lack of a Ukrainian state, as its territories were on a number of occasions, annexed by its more powerful neighbours.

Military:

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000 man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world. In May 1992, Ukraine signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became free of nuclear weapons.

Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military not later than in 2011.

Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping operations. Ukrainian troops are deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion. A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance and training battalion deployed inSierra Leone. In 2003–05, a Ukrainian unit was deployed in Iraq, as part of the Multinational force in Iraq under Polish command. The total Ukrainian military deployment around the world is 562 servicemen.

Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.

Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. The country has had a limited military partnership with Russia, other CIS countries and a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATOUkraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Current President Viktor Yanukovych considers the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient. Yanukovich is against Ukraine joining NATO. During the 2008 Bucharest summit NATO declared that Ukraine will become a member of NATO, whenever it wants and when it would correspond to the criteria for the accession.

Uruguay (officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the south eastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88% of the population are of European descent.

Uruguay's only land border is with Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, to the north. To the west lies the Uruguay River and the estuary of the Río de la Plata to the southwest. To the southeast lies the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi), Uruguay is the second-smallest nation in South America by area, after Suriname.

Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the country, was founded by the Portuguese in 1680. Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1811–28 following a three-way struggle between the claims of Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, with a president who is both the head of state and the head of government.

Uruguay is one of the most economically developed countries in South America, with a high GDP per capita and the 52nd highest Human Development Index in the world as of 2010, and the first by human development in Latin America, when inequality is factored in. Uruguay is also noted for its low levels of corruption, being ranked by Transparency International as the second least corrupt country in Latin America (behind Chile). Its political and labour conditions are good. It was the highest rated country in Latin America on Legatum's 2010 Prosperity Index. Reader's Digest ranked Uruguay as ninth "Most livable and greenest" country in the world, and first in all the Americas. Uruguay is ranked highest in Latin America on the Global Peace Index.

Uruguay was the first South American country to legalize same-sex and different-sex civil unions at a national level, and to allow gay adoption. Uruguay and Bolivia were the only countries in the Americas which did not go into recession (2 consecutive quarters of retraction) as a result of the Late-2000s financial crisis. In 2009, Uruguay became the first nation in the world to provide every school child with a free laptop and internet. It was the first nation in the Americas to test hemp cultivation.

History

Early history and colonization:

The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, a small tribe driven south by the Guaraní of Paraguay.

The Spanish arrived in the territory of present-day Uruguay in 1516 but the people's fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. Uruguay then became a zone of contention between the Spanish and the Portuguese empires. In 1603 the Spanish began to introduce cattle, which became a source of wealth in the region. The first permanent settlement on the territory of present-day Uruguay was founded by the Spanish in 1624 at Soriano on the Río Negro. In 1669–71 the Portuguese built a fort at Colonia del Sacramento. Spanish colonization increased as The oath of the Thirty-Three OrienSpain sought to limit Portugal's expansion of Brazil's frontiers.

Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century tals as a military stronghold. Its natural harbor soon developed into a commercial area competing with Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires. Uruguay's early 19th century history was shaped by ongoing fights between the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and other colonial forces for dominance in the Platine region. In 1806 and 1807 the British army attempted to seize Buenos Aires as part of the Napoleonic Wars. As a result Montevideo was occupied by a British force from February to September 1807.

Independence struggle:

In 1811 José Gervasio Artigas, who became Uruguay's national hero, launched a successful revolution against the Spanish authorities, defeating them on 18 May at the Battle of Las Piedras.

In 1813 the new government in Buenos Aires convened a constituent assembly where Artigas emerged as a champion of federalism, demanding political and economic autonomy for each area, and for the Banda Oriental in particular.

The assembly refused to seat the delegates from the Banda Oriental however, and Buenos Aires pursued a system based on unitary centralism.

Consequently Artigas broke with Buenos Aires and besieged Montevideo, taking the city in early 1815. Once the troops from Buenos Aires had withdrawn the Banda Oriental appointed its first autonomous government. Artigas organized the Federal League under his protection, consisting of six provinces, four of which are now part of Argentina.

In 1816 a force of 10,000 Portuguese troops invaded the Banda Oriental from Brazil and took Montevideo in January 1817. After nearly four more years of struggle Portuguese Brazil annexed the Banda Oriental as a province under the name of Cisplatina. The Brazilian Empire became independent from Portugal in 1822. In response to the annexation the Thirty-Three Orientals, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, declared independence on 25 August 1825 supported by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina).

This led to the 500 day-long Argentina-Brazil War. Neither side gained the upper hand and in 1828 the Treaty of Montevideo, fostered by theUnited Kingdom, gave birth to Uruguay as an independent state. The nation's first constitution was adopted on 18 July 1830.

Blancos—Colorados conflicts:

At the time of independence Uruguay had an estimated population of just under 75,000. The political scene in Uruguay became split between two parties: the conservative Blancos (Whites) headed by Manuel Oribe, representing the agricultural interests of the countryside; and the liberal Colorados (Reds) led by Fructuoso Rivera, representing the business interests of Montevideo. The Uruguayan parties became associated with warring political factions in neighbouring Argentina.

The Colorados favored the exiled Argentinian liberal Unitarios, many of whom had taken refuge in Montevideo while the Blanco president Manuel Oribe was a close friend of the Argentinian ruler Manuel de Rosas. On 15 June 1838 an army led by the Colorado leader Rivera overthrew the president, who fled to Argentina. Rivera declared war on Rosas in 1839. The conflict would last thirteen years and become known as the Guerra Grande (the Great War).

In 1843 an Argentinian army overran Uruguay on Oribe's behalf, Battle of Caseros but failed to take the capital. The siege of Montevideo, which began in February 1843, would last nine years. The besieged Uruguayans called on resident foreigners for help which led to a French and an Italian legion being formed, the latter led by the exiled Giuseppe Garibaldi. (Hitherto unknown, it was Garibaldi's fame in this war which led to his later central role in the Unification of Italy).

In 1845 Britain and France intervened against Rosas to restore commerce to normal levels in the region. Their efforts proved ineffective and by 1849, tired of the war, both withdrew after signing a treaty favorable to Rosas. It appeared that Montevideo would finally fall when an uprising against Rosas, led by Justo José de Urquiza governor of Argentina's Entre Ríos Province began. The Brazilian intervention in May 1851 on behalf of the Colorados, combined with the uprising, changed the situation and Oribe was defeated. The siege of Montevideo was lifted and the Guerra Grande finally came to an end. Montevideo rewarded Brazil's support by signing treaties that confirmed Brazil's right to intervene in Uruguay's internal affairs.

In accordance with the 1851 treaties Brazil intervened militarily in Uruguay as often as it deemed necessary. In 1865 the Triple Alliance was formed by the emperor of Brazil, the president of Argentina, and the Colorado general Venancio Flores, the Uruguayan head of government whom they both had helped to gain power. The Triple Alliance declared war on Paraguayan leader Francisco Solano López and the resulting War of the Triple Alliance ended with the invasion of Paraguay and its defeat by the armies of the three countries. Montevideo, which was used as a supply station by the Brazilian navy, experienced a period of prosperity and relative calm during the war.

The constitutional government of General Lorenzo Batlle y Grau (1868–72) was forced to suppress an insurrection led by the National Party. After two years of struggle a peace agreement was signed in 1872 that gave the Blancos a share in the emoluments and functions of government, through control of four of the departments of Uruguay. This establishment of the policy of co-participation represented the search for a new formula of compromise, based on the coexistence of the party in power and the party in opposition.

Between 1875 and 1886 the military became the center of power. During this authoritarian period the government took steps toward the organization of the country as a modern state, encouraging its economic and social transformation. Pressure groups (consisting mainly of businessmen, hacendados, and industrialists) were organized and had a strong influence on government. A transition period (1886–90) followed, during which politicians began recovering lost ground and some civilian participation in government occurred.

Mass immigration and development:

After the Guerra Grande there was a sharp rise in the number of immigrants, primarily from Italy and Spain. By 1879 the total population of the country was over 438,000. The economy saw a steep upswing, above all in livestock raising and exports. Montevideo became a major economic centre of the region and an entrepôt for goods from Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay.

The Colorado leader José Batlle y Ordóñez was elected president in 1903. The following year the Blancos led a rural revolt and eight bloody months of fighting ensued before their leader, Aparicio Saraiva, was killed in battle. Government forces emerged victorious, leading to the end of the co-participation politics that had begun in 1872. Batlle had two terms (1903–07 and 1911–15) during which, and taking advantage of the nation’s stability and growing economic prosperity, he instituted major reforms such as a welfare program, government participation in many facets of the economy, and a plural executive.

Gabriel Terra became president in March 1931. His inauguration coincided with the effects of the Great Depression. when the social climate became tense as a result of the lack of jobs. There were confrontations in which police and leftists Manuel Oribe died. In 1933 Terra organized a coup d'état, dissolving the General Assembly and governing by decree. A new constitution was promulgated in 1934, transferring powers to the president. In general, the Terra government weakened or neutralized economic nationalism and social reform.

In 1938 general elections were held and Terra's brother-in-law, General Alfredo Baldomir, was elected president.

Under pressure from organized labor and the National Party Baldomir advocated free elections, freedom of the press, and a new constitution. Although Baldomir declared Uruguay neutral in 1939 British warships and the German ship Admiral Graf Spee fought a battle not far off Uruguay's coast. Admiral Graf Spee took refuge in Montevideo, claiming sanctuary in a neutral port, but was later ordered out. In 1945 Uruguay abandoned its policy of neutrality and joined the Allied cause.

In the late 1950s, partly because of a world-wide decrease in demand for agricultural products, Uruguayans suffered from a steep drop in the standard of living which led to student militancy and labor unrest. An urban guerrilla movement known as the Tupamaros emerged, engaging in activities such as robbing banks and distributing the proceeds to the poor in addition to attempting political dialogue. As the government banned their political activities and the police became more oppressive, the Tupamaros took up an overtly armed struggle. President Jorge Pacheco declared a state of emergency in 1968, followed by a further suspension of civil liberties in 1972. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces closed the Congress and established a civilian-military regime. Around 180 Uruguayans are known to have been killed during the 12-year military rule from 1973–1985. Most were killed in Argentina and other neighbouring countries, with only 36 of them having been killed in Uruguay.

Return to democracy:

A new constitution, drafted by the military, was rejected in a November 1980 referendum. Following the referendum the armed forces announced a plan for the return to civilian rule, and national elections were held in 1984. Colorado Party leader Julio María Sanguinetti won the presidency and served from 1985 to 1990. The first Sanguinetti administration implemented economic reforms and consolidated democracy following the country's years under military rule.

The National Party's Luis Alberto Lacalle won the 1989 presidential election and an amnesty for human rights abusers was endorsed by referendum. Sanguinetti was again elected in 1994.Both carried on with the economic structural reforms initiated after the reinstatement of democracy and other important reforms were aimed at improving the electoral system, social security, education, and public safety.

The 1999 national elections were held under a new electoral system established by a 1996 constitutional amendment.

Colorado Party candidate Jorge Batlle, aided by the support of the National Party, defeated Broad Front candidate Tabaré Vázquez. The formal coalition ended in November 2002 when the Blancos withdrew their ministers from the cabinet, although the Blancos continued to support the Colorados on most issues. Low commodity prices and economic difficulties in Uruguay's main export markets, first in Brazil with the devaluation of the real then in Argentina in 2002, caused a severe recession—the economy contracted by 11%, unemployment climbed to 21% and the percentage of Uruguayans in poverty rose to over 30%.

In 2004 Uruguayans elected Tabaré Vázquez as president, while giving the Broad Front a majority in both houses of Parliament. Vázquez stuck to economic orthodoxy. As commodity prices soared and the economy recoiled from recession, he tripled foreign investment, cut poverty and unemployment, cut public debt from 79% of GDP to 60% and kept inflation steady.

In 2009 José Mujica, a former left-wing militant who spent almost 15 years in prison during the country's military rule, emerged as the new President as the Broad Front won the election for a second time.

Military The Uruguayan armed forces are constitutionally subordinate to the president, through the minister of defense. The armed

forces personnel number about 14,000 for the Army, 6,000 for the Navy, and 3,000 for the Air force. Enlistment is voluntary in peacetime, but the government has the authority to conscript in emergencies.

Since May 2009 homosexuals are allowed to serve openly in the military after the Defence Minister signed a decree stating that military recruitment policy would no longer discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation. In the fiscal year 2010 the United States provided Uruguay with $1.7 million in military assistance, including $1 million in Foreign Military Financing and $480,000 in International Military Education and Training.

Uruguay ranks first in the world on a per capita basis for its contributions to the United Nations peacekeeping forces with 2,513 soldiers and officers in 10 UN peacekeeping missions. As of February 2010 Uruguay had 1,136 military personnel deployed to Haiti in support of MINUSTAH and 1,360 deployed in support of MONUC in the Congo. In December 2010 a Uruguayan, Major General Gloodtdofsky, was appointed Chief Military Observer and head of the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan.

Fireworks, concerts and Hungarian gastronomy promenade on 20 August in Budapest (Online 15 Aug) 20 August is the greatest Hungarian national holiday, the holiday of the foundation of the State. On this occasion, visitors to Budapest will be received by a festive atmosphere at the weekend.

20 August is the anniversary of the burial and canonisation of Hungary’s first king, the founder of the State, King Stephen 1 (9691038), the holiday of King St. Stephen, and also the holiday of the New Bread.

St. Stephen was the king who, simultaneously with the establishment of a formal state structure, also organised the Christian church in Hungary.

Ceremonial programmes will already commence on 19 August. On the Buda side of the Danube, under the Buda Castle, in the immediate vicinity of the Chain Bridge, the Promenade of Hungarian Flavours will open at noon on 19 August where visitors may taste and purchase the specialities and delicacies of more

than a hundred Hungarian producers and exhibitors.

Fine Hungarian cheeses, jams, wines and readymade dishes will await visitors who may also taste the Cake of Hungary which will be made this year from Hungary’s renowned apple varieties. There will be pop, jazz and other concerts at the gastronomic promenade from Sunday evening until Monday night.

The ceremonial raising of the flag and officer inauguration will begin on Monday morning, 20 August, in Kossuth tér outside the Parliament Building where President of the Republic János Áder will deliver a ceremonial speech. At 10.00 a.m., an aerial parade will commence over the Danube.

At 3.00 p.m., a spectacular harvest march will set out via the Chain Bridge to St. Stephen’s Basilica. The march will be attended by children and adults adorned in traditional Hungarian folk costumes who will walk across the city with the New

Bread that symbolises the holiday. A ceremonial mass will start at St. Stephen’s Basilica at 5.00 p.m. which will be followed by a procession.

A spectacular fireworks display will then crown Budapest’s beautiful night cityscape at 9.00 p.m.

The 20 August programmes will close the cultural and gastronomic festival attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors, the Festival of Folk Arts which will be held in the Buda Royal Castle between 17 and 20 August.

The festival’s English-language website may be found at www.mestersegekunnepe.h u.

At the same time, we shall not have to wait long for the next grandiose festival as the 21st International Wine Festival will be held between 12 and 16 September in the beautifully situated Buda Royal Castle.

The English-language website of the festival: www.aborfesztival.hu.

Communication of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs concerning MP Kőszegi’s statement in Transylvania (Online 15 Aug) The Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs agrees with the Fidesz Party saying that MP Zoltán Kőszegi’s statement in Transylvania represents only his personal opinion.

His statement does not mirror the official standpoint of the Hungarian Government.

The Government complies with all international legal obligations and treaties.

The future of Hungarians

living outside the national borders can be best secured by autonomy concepts drafted in accordance with international practice by the parties concerned.

Three Hungarians kidnapped in Syria (Online 15 Aug) Three Hungarians were kidnapped in Syria on 13th August. According to the Hungarian Counter-Terrorism Centre (TEK), on Monday morning unknown gunmen stopped a vehicle in the suburbs of Damascus and kidnapped six people − three locals and three Hungarians. The latter are former policemen, who retired from the Hungarian forces several years ago. So far

the kidnappers have not communicated through any channels – official or unofficial – and have yet to make any demands, either from the families or the Hungarian Embassy in Damascus.

TEK is currently investigating another kidnapping in Syria. In April, gunmen seized two Hungarians during a robbery at a company in the country’s north-eastern region. Officials are examining possible links

between the two incidents, but at the moment they seem to be unrelated. The Director of TEK, János Hajdú, is providing the Prime Minister’s Office and the Government with regular updates on the subject.

Hungary continues to represent Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom in Syria on the basis of bilateral agreements.

Romanian FM criticises Hungary govt treatment of its minority (Online 15 Aug) Hungary and Romania differ in their views of how they treat each others' minority, a Hungarian official has said in reaction to rel a t e d criticism by Romania's new foreign minister.

Zsuzsanna Repas, the Hungarian deputy state secretary in charge of the policy of the nation, told MTI on Wednesday Hungary should be lucky if Romania treated the Hungarian community as well as Hungary treats the Romanian minority.

Titus Corlatean, Romania's new foreign minister, in a recent television interview said Hungarians in Romania receive better treatment from the Romanian government than Romanians in Hungary do.

Appointed to his post on August 7, he said that the Romanian minority in Hungary got very different treatment

from Hungarians in Romania.

"Different, in a negative sense," he told Romanian public television TVR International.

He said several problems had been called to the attention of Hungarian authorities regarding the Romanian minority in Hungary since the 1990s.

These included a lack of parliamentary representation for the Romanian minority, problems with education and the media in Hungary in the Romanian language, as well as insufficient support for the Romanian orthodox church.

Repas responded that it was well known that minorities in Hungary enjoyed cul-

tural autonomy.

"We would be very happy if Hungarians in Transylvania had this right; these opportunities," she said.

She cited the example of Romanians in Hungary enjoying the right to set up their own regional or national self-governments.

The Hungarian government would like to see the same opportunity for Hungarians in Romania, she said.

As for minority representatives in the Hungarian parliament, Repas said this had been a long-standing demand of minorities and would be granted by new legislation from 2014.

Some 8,000 ethnic Romanians live in the south, southeast of Hungary, according to data from Hungary's 2001 census. The ethnic Hungarian community living mainly in central Romania numbers 1.5 million.

Foreign trade surplus of Hungary continues to impress (Online 16 Aug) According to the latest data on foreign trade by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH), all preliminary statistics signal that after May foreign trade turnover

increased again in June.

Calculated in euro (at current prices) exports were up by 5.6 percent and imports increased slightly less by 3 percent compared to the same period of the previous

year, while in comparison to May 2011 both indicators were 0.3 percent higher (according to seasonally adjusted data).

Israel draws with Hungary in final tune-up

(Online 16 Aug) Israel will enter its first 2014 World Cup qualifier next month in worrying form after drawing 1-1 with Hungary in Budapest in its final tune-up match on Wednesday night.

The national team lost its three previous friendly matches under the guidance of coach Eli Gutman, falling 3-2 to Ukraine in February and dropping to a 2-1 setback to the Czech Republic in May before being beaten 2-0 by Germany six days later.

The blue-and-white finally snapped the losing streak in Budapest, but its goal was completely coincidental and its performance was desperately poor once more.

The Hungarians were far from convincing, but Balazs Dzsudzsak gave the hosts a

deserved lead in the 51st minute before substitute Tomer Hemed spared Israel’s blushes with the equalizer 10 minutes from time.

Despite its struggles, the recent friendlies will mean little if Israel goes on to beat Azerbaijan on September 7 to embark on a successful qualifying campaign. However, the early signs from Gutman’s tenure have not been encouraging to say the least.

The blue-and-white lacked any sort of urgency on the offensive end in Budapest and displayed its traditional vulnerability on defense to concede a needless goal.

An eventless first half ended in a fitting goalless deadlock, but Israel paid the price for its poor play six

minutes after the break.

Kristian Nemeth’s initial shot hit the post but Elad Gabay completely fluffed his clearance, allowing Dzsudzsak to slot in the opener beyond a helpless Dudu Aouate.

Israel failed to muster a response until Hemed came on for Itay Shechter, whose loan move to Swansea City of the English Premier League was finalized earlier in the day.

Hemed squandered a chance in the 69th minute moments after entering from the substitutes’ bench, but netted the equalizer 11 minutes later after Dan Mori’s header was only weakly blocked by ‘keeper Adam Bogdan.

HUNGARY N a t iona l holida y unit ing t he na t ion (Online 17 Aug) This afternoon the Minister for Rural Development Sándor Fazekas opens the Festival of Folk Arts in the Buda Royal Castle.

The festival will last until 20 August, and is one of the numerous events taking place this weekend in Budapest.

Every year tens of thousands of visitors take part in events on 20 August to mark Hungary’s foremost national h o l i d a y, which falls on the anniversary of the burial and canonisation of Hungary’s s t a t e founder and first k i n g , Stephen I ( 9 6 9 1038). Deputy Prime Minister Zsolt Semjén has said in an interview that the most important message of this national holiday is the unity of the nation.

The main celebrations will start on Sunday, with the opening at noon of the ‘Promenade of Hungarian Flavours’.

Gastronomic specialties and concerts will await visitors, who will also have the opportunity to taste the Cake of Hungary.

On Monday morning there will be a ceremonial raising of the national flag and a formal oath-taking ceremony for members of the

military in front of the Parliament Building in Kossuth Square, followed by speeches from President of the Republic János Áder and Minister of Defence Csaba Hende.

Later in the day a spectacular air and water show will be held on the Danube, and the Parliament Building will be open to the public all day. In the afternoon the traditional blessing of bread will take place in Clark Ádám Square. This symbolic gesture greets the year's harvest, and it will be accompanied by a harvest procession. A variety of

family programmes will also take place in Budapest, including pop and classical music concerts, d a n c e shows and puppet theatre performances.

In the afternoon some of the world's top athletes will participate in the István Gyulai Memor i a l Athletics Grand Prix in the Puskás Ferenc Stadium, to be followed by a reception in honour of Hungarian Olympians.

Cardinal Péter Erdő, Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest and Hungary's Catholic Primate, will say Holy Mass at Saint Stephen's Basilica, after which there will be the traditional procession of the relic of Saint Stephen's right hand (the ‘Holy Right’), along the following route: Szent István Square - Október 6 Street - József Attila Street - Széchenyi István Square - Zrínyi Street - Szent István Square.

The day’s celebrations will close with a spectacular fireworks display at 9 p.m., which can be best seen from the banks of the Danube, between Petőfi Bridge and Margit Bridge.

London 2012 Olympics a great success for the Hungarian team (Online 13 Aug) With eight gold, four silver and five bronze medals, Hungary took 9th place in the final official medals table for the 2012 London Olympics.

This is the first time since the 1992 Barcelona Olympics that Hungary has come in the top ten.

Such Olympic success for Hungary has been longawaited: in Beijing the Hungarian Olympic Team finished in 21st place, and in 13th place at both the Athens and Sydney games.

Zsolt Borkai, President of the Hungarian Olympic

Committee, said that the Hungarian performance in London had been a real success story.

Taking population size into account, Hungary was the most successful nation in Europe, while such a ranking shows that worldwide only New Zealand and a handful of Caribbean island states performed better.

Prime Minister Viktor Orbán congratulated all the members of the Hungarian team – including athletes, trainers, sports leaders, the medical crew and all administrative workers – on

the outstanding performance. He said that the Olympic athletes had demonstrated that they were worthy heirs to the legacy of past Hungarian Olympians. President of Hungary János Áder also expressed his appreciation of the Hungarian Olympic Team’s achievements.

The official ceremony in honour of the nation’s Olympic athletes will take place on 20 August, one of Hungary’s most important national holidays.

Tibor Navracsics sees the Australian decision in the Zentai case as regrettable (Online 16 Aug) Minister of Public Administration and Justice Tibor Navracsics has been officially notified

by John Griffin, Australia’s ambassador to Budapest, that the Australian High Court will not allow the war crimes suspect Charles Zentai to be extradited to Hungary.

Mr. Navracsics considers the decision of the Australian High Court to be regrettable, as it prevents further judicial procedure in the case, and makes it impossible to establish the innocence or guilt of Mr. Zentai. He stressed that the Hungarian government is

firmly committed to the principle that crimes should not go unpunished.

Mr. Zentai has been accused of involvement in the murder in 1944 of a Jewish youth in Nazi-occupied Budapest, but he denies this charge, saying that at the time of the killing he was not even in the city. In the 1950s Charles Zentai emigrated to Australia, where he gained citizenship. In 2005 Hungary asked the Australian authorities to launch extradition procedures against him. That year Australian police took the suspect into custody and initiated an extradition

process, which the Australian government approved in 2009. The Federal Court of Australia overturned the ruling, however, arguing that the offence of ‘war crime’ did not exist under Hungarian law at the time of the killing. As a result, the suspect could not be handed over to the Hungarian authorities. The Australian government refused to accept the court’s decision and turned to the High Court of Australia. The High Court has now rejected that appeal, and has upheld the Federal Court’s decision.

N a buc c o pipe line pla n ta k e s s t e p f or wa r d in H unga r y (Online 16 Aug) Hungarian authorities have approved all necessary environmental permits for the construction of a 384 km stretch of the planned Nabucco gas pipeline that is to pass through Hungary, a move welcomed by the

pipeline's consortium as a major step forward for the project.

The Hungarian stretch of the pipeline is the first from a member state to be granted all necessary environmental permits.

Reinhard Mitschek, the

managing director of the Nabucco Gas Pipeline International GmbH Company, said in a statement on Tuesday that the permission in Hungary constituted an important milestone for the Nabucco West project.

Corruption is not countryspecific’, Rétvári (Online 15 Aug) At an international anti-corruption conference in Beijing on Tuesday, Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs at the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice Bence Rétvári said that corruption is not a countryspecific phenomenon and that everywhere ‘It has destructive effect on economic growth and society, it undermines the stability of states and presents an enormous challenge for many nations.’

Mr. Rétvári underlined the importance of ridding the public sphere of corruption and he presented the Hungary’s anti-corruption programme. He spoke of behaviour ‘springing from human weaknesses’ found in all countries and cultures. Such practices are

increasingly difficult to combat, in part because those engaged in them strive to eliminate evidence of their crimes in an ever more sophisticated way, with the latest technology.

Mr. Rétvári said that Hungary was invited to the conference and is playing a prominent role in it because the relations between the two countries are becoming increasingly close, and because Hungarian anti-corruption policy is widely seen as a model to follow.

Experts, diplomats and government-level politicians from 44 countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Asia are attending the conference, which started on Tuesday.

The Minister of State said that Hungary and China are preparing a bilateral agree-

ment on combating corruption, which is a further sign of increasing links between the countries. On Tuesday the Minister of State also had talks with Ma Wen, who heads China’s Ministry of Supervision, which is responsible for efficient, disciplined, transparent and honest governance, as well as the training of public servants.

Mr. Rétvári said that this week he will make contact with the Chinese Friendship Societies’ Alliance to consult on cooperation at local government level. He will also visit the Academy of Social Sciences to discuss the opportunities for specialist cooperation between the two countries, their various universities and specialist organisations.

Situation of the Roma – reaction to comments made by Amnesty International (Online 16 Aug) The Government of Hungary is committed to protecting its citizens, regardless of their ethnic, cultural and social identity. It does not tolerate any kind of intimidation of minorities and ethnic groups. It is the Government’s responsibility to ensure that all in our country have opportunities for work and access to education, and that the conditions for peaceful coexistence within communities are strengthened. In the settlement of Devecser some people have irresponsibly attempted to undermine these conditions.

In response to these at-

tempts to disrupt the life of the community, the police are using all means available to them to prevent criminal acts – including those committed by vigilantes – and it shall not allow quasi-paramilitary groups to challenge the rule of law.

The Government of Hungary sees improving the situation of the Roma as a priority both at domestic and European levels. Hungary’s National Strategy for Social Inclusion seeks to offer solutions for all those living in poverty, regardless of their ethnic background.

Furthermore, during its EU presidency, the Govern-

ment of Hungary created the Common European Framework for National Roma Strategies, which offers social inclusion programmes and sustainable solutions for social conflicts.

Protecting minority rights and the cultural identity of nationalities living within Hungary − with special regard to the Roma − is also considered to be of utmost importance. In addition, this government has introduced the study of the culture of minorities − including that of the Roma − to the National Core Curriculum.

Industrial output increased also in June (Online 15 Aug) In June 2012 the industrial sector put up a positive performance just as it did in the previous month, the pace of growth however has declined marg i n a l l y.

Unadjusted and working day-adjusted industrial output both increased by 0.6 percent in June compared to the same period of the previous year, which was primarily due to the continued favourable performance of transport equipment manufacturing and the food industry. The seasonally and working day-adjusted monthly index declined by 2.2 percent.

Among the sectors of the national economy manufacturing output increased by 0.9 percent, production at the relatively less significant mining sector was up by 9.7 percent and energy output declined less than in the previous month by 4.6 percent in June 2012 in comparison to the corresponding period of the previous year.

Nine sub sectors within the manufacturing industry registered output growth:

among the more significant sub sectors transport equipment manufacturing expanded by 13.1 percent due primarily to the highly dynamic output growth of 29 percent of the manufacturing of electrical and electronic equipment for motor vehicles. Production of food, beverages and tobacco products has also increased by 11.1 percent.

On the other hand, similarly to the previous period, the largest factor which weighed down on total industrial production was the 6.1 percent decline of the manufacturing of computer, electronic and optical products. It has been a positive development, however, that in comparison to the previous month the pace of contraction slowed down and within this sub sector there are fields of substantial growth such as the manufacturing of electronic cir-

cuit boards and computers, as well as peripheral u n i t s .

Among the sub sectors of median importance manufacturing of machinery and equipm e n t needs to be pointed out which recorded annual output growth of 16.4 percent in the observed month.

As far as sales are concerned, industrial exports further accelerated by expanding by 6.2 percent in June 2012, which has been the consequence of the 15.5 percent vehicle manufacturing export growth and the 0.3 percent decline of imports of computer, electronic and optical products.

Domestic sales were down by 1.9 percent in June 2012 compared to the level of the previous year. It has been a favourable piece of data regarding the future that total orders increased by 21.3 percent compared to the base of one year ago and total new orders of manufacturing sectors – due first and foremost to the 2.6 percent growth of new export orders – was higher by 1.6 percent.

The Hungarian GDP figure is in line with European economic growth (Online 14 Aug) In the second quarter of 2012 Hungary could not detach itself from negative international economic tendencies either. After growth of 1.7 per cent in 2011, which was a high figure even in Europe, in the second quarter of 2012 according to adjusted data GDP declined by 1 per cent. This decline is smaller compared to the previous quarter (unadjusted data signal contraction of 1.2 per cent) – the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH) reported earlier this morning in its release. According to that, about half of the sectors of national economy stagnated. The performance of information and communication sectors increased, whereas that of construction declined significantly.

These data cannot be considered surprising, as for this year the government had anticipated significantly worse tendencies than in last year. The primary reason of this lies in the temporarily lacklustre performance of the formerly exceptionally robust industrial sector, which is a consequence of the global economic slowdown.

Another negative factor can be agricultural output which is weaker in comparison to last year. Weather conditions unfavourable for the sector also played a role in this result after the most spectacular growth of the past couple of years was

recorded last year.

According to the latest data published by the Eurostat, in the second quarter of 2012 both the EU 27 and the euro-zone registered contraction. Compared to the corresponding period of the previous year decline for the former one was 0.2 per cent which is worse than the growth of 0.1 per cent in the previous quarter whereas regarding the latter one the trend had also turned negative as instead of the stagnation of the first quarter there was a decline of 0.4 per cent. It can be therefore concluded that Hungary in this quarter slightly underperformed the EU average regarding annual data, but on a quarterly basis the pace of contraction is in line with the rate of decline in the EU 27 and the euro-zone (-0.2 per cent), consequently Hungary has managed to reduce the gap of the previous quarter.

Hungary is not the only country in the region to be weighed down by the cyclical downturn, annual seasonally adjusted data for the Czech Republic, for example, are more unfavourable (-1.2 per cent) than those of Hungary (-1 per cent), but several large member states of the eurozone, as of the EU 27 put also up a weaker performance than Hungary (e.g.

Italy and Portugal contracted by far more than 2 per cent, while Spain’s per-

formance declined by 1 per cent on an annual basis).

This trend in a quarterly comparison appears even more evident.

Having recognized that international economic conditions had deteriorated, the government put measures in place in order to counter the slowdown. In Hungary, general government debt declined by the greatest extent in the past two years which was the consequence of an increasingly balanced fiscal policy which has been sound even from a European perspective and which will secure improvement in the future as well. Crucial regulations have also been introduced in the field of employment which made the Hungarian labour market noticeably more flexible.

The impacts of these changes have already been reflected in the recently published Hungarian data. According to them, in Hungary the number of employed between April and June was 3 million 876 thousand as the threemonth average which was the highest figure of the past couple of years.

Furthermore, from next year on, gradual economic improvement can be expected: several large-scale industrial investments will start operating or reach their planned output level which will appear both in production and exports.

Sziget Festival overview (Online 13 Aug) The week-long Sziget Festival staged its closing events on Sunday. It attracted approximately 380 000 visitors in its 20th jubilee year, with 50 percent of these coming from outside Hungary. In addition to the numerous music events, the festival hosted a number of government organisations at its ‘Civil Village’.

To promote the Hungarian-Italian Cultural Season 2013, a Hungarian-Italian tent – initiated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – was set up, providing an opportunity for young Hungarians and Italians to meet and get to know

each other’s cultures. The Ministry of Rural Development was also present at the festival to discuss such topics as local products, youth for the countryside, Hungary’s native livestock species, wineries, the New Hungary Rural Development Programme and conservation of genetic lines. Furthermore, at a press conference, Krisztina Berta, representing the Ministry of Interior, called for action at a European level to combat human trafficking. The Hungarian Consumer Protection Authority (NFH) was also in the Civil Village. In its tent, the Au-

thority provided information on consumer protection-related issues. The Hungarian Competition Authority (GVH) also participated at the festival. Finally, as part of the New Széchenyi Plan, a free Internet service was available at a Wi-Fi point and a bus transfer to the festival was provided for those with disabilities.

Last year Sziget won an award for being Europe's best major festival, and this year Michael Eavis, founder of the Glastonbury Festival, recommended it to music fans.