87 Issue | Zarb-e-Jamhoor e-Newspaper | 02-08 Sep, 2012

National Day Vietnam - Sep 02

Vietnam, formally the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia.

With an estimated 91.5 million inhabitants as of 2012, it is the world's13th-most-populous country, and the eighth-most-populous Asian country. The name Vietnam translates as "South Viet", and was officially adopted in 1945. The country is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east. Its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976.

The Vietnamese became independent from Imperial China in 938 AD, following the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Successive Vietnamese royal dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century.

The First Indochina War eventually led to the expulsion of the French in 1954, leaving Vietnam divided politically into two states, North and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified, with heavy foreign intervention, during the Vietnam War, which ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.

After the war, Vietnam was unified under a Communist government, but was politically isolated and economically backward. In 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms, which began Vietnam's path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established diplomatic relations with most nations. Its economic growth has been among the highest in the world since 2000, and according to Citigroup, such high growth is set to continue. Vietnam has the highest Global Growth Generators Index among 11 major economies, and its successful economic reforms resulted in it joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. However, the country still suffers from relatively high levels of income inequality, disparities in healthcare provision, and poor gender equality.

History

French Vietnam:

Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France – aided by large Catholic collaborator militias – in a series of military conquests between 1859 and 1885, after which the entire country became part of French Indochina. The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and Roman Catholicism was propagated widely in Vietnamese society.

Most of the French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina – the southern third of Vietnam – based around the city of Saigon.

Developing a plantation economy to promote the export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee, the French largely ignored increasing calls for Vietnamese self-government and civil rights. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Dinh Phung, Emperor Hàm Nghi and Ho Chi Minh fighting or calling for independence. However, the royalist Can Vuong was defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance, and the 1930 Yen Bai mutiny of the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang was put down easily. The French maintained control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1941.

With the defeat of France in Europe in 1940, the French Third Republic was replaced by theVichy Regime, to which the colony remained loyal. Heavily dependent on Nazi Germany, Vichy France was forced to surrender control of French Indochina to Germany's ally, Japan. The natural resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of the Japanese Empire's military campaigns into the British Indochinese colonies of Burma, the Malay Peninsula and India. The Japanese occupation was a key cause of the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which caused around two million deaths, equivalent to as much as 10% of the contemporary population.

First Indochina War:

In 1941, the Viet Minh – a communist and nationalist liberation movement – emerged under the Marxist-Leninist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, who sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation. Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its puppet Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, the Viet Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.

In the same year, the Provisional French Republic sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps – originally created to fight the Japanese occupation forces – to pacify the Vietnamese liberation movement and to restore French colonial rule. On 23 November 1946, French vessels bombarded the port city of Hai Phong, and the Viet Minh's guerrilla campaign against French forces began soon after. The resulting First Indochina War lasted until 20 July 1954.

Despite taking fewer losses during the course of the war – the Expeditionary Corps suffered one-third of the casualties of the Chinese and Soviet-backed Viet Minh – the French and Vietnamese loyalists eventually suffered a major strategic setback at theSiege of Dien Bien Phu, which allowed Ho Chi Minh to negotiate a ceasefire from a favorable position at the Geneva Conference of 1954. The colonial administration ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 1954, which separated the forces of former French supporters and communist nationalists at the17th parallel north with the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone. A 300-day period of free movement was given, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholic, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists.

The partition of Vietnam, with Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North Vietnam, and Emperor Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam in South Vietnam, was not intended to be permanent by the Geneva Accords, and the Accords expressly forbade the interference of third powers. However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. The Accords mandated nationwide elections by 1956, which Diem refused to hold, despite repeated calls from the North for talks to discuss elections.

National Flag Day Australia - Sep 03

The flag of Australia is a defaced Blue Ensign: a blue field with the Union Flag in the canton (upper hoist quarter), and a large white seven-pointed star known as the Commonwealth Star in the lower hoist quarter. The fly contains a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, made up of five white stars – one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars.

The flag's original design was chosen in 1901 from entries in a worldwide competition held following Federation. It was first flown in Melbourne on 3 September 1901. A slightly different design was approved by King Edward VII in 1902. Over the next few years, the exact specifications of the flag were changed several times both intentionally and as a result of confusion. The current specifications were formally gazetted in 1934, and in 1954 the flag became recognised by, and legally defined in, the Flags Act 1953, as the "Australian National Flag".

In addition, there are other official flags representing Australia, its people and core functions of government.

Devices The Australian flag uses three prominent symbols: the Union Flag, the Commonwealth Star (also the Federation

Star) and the Southern Cross (or Crux).

The Union Flag is thought locally to symbolise Australia's history as six British colonies and the principles upon which the Australian Federation is based, although a more historic view sees its inclusion in the design as demonstrating loyalty to the British Empire.

The Commonwealth Star originally had only six points, representing the six federating colonies. However, this changed in 1908 when a seventh point was added to symbolise the Territory of Papua and any future territories. Another rationale for the change was to match the star used on the Coat of Arms, which was created in the same year.

The star is also known as the Federation Star. The Commonwealth Star does not have any relation to Beta Centauri, despite that star's coincidental location in the sky and its brightness.

The Southern Cross is one of the most distinctive constellations visible in the Southern Hemisphere, and has been used to represent Australia since the early days of British settlement. Ivor Evans, one of the flag's designers, intended the Southern Cross to refer also to the four moral virtues ascribed to the four main stars by Dante: justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude. The number of points on the stars of the Southern Cross on today's Australian flag differs from the original competition-winning design, on which they ranged between five and nine points each, representing their relative brightness in the night sky. In order to simplify manufacture, the British Admiralty standardised the four larger outer stars at seven points each, leaving the smaller middle star with five points. This change was officially gazetted on 23 February 1903.

A complete specification for the current design was published in the Commonwealth Gazette in 1934.

Foundation of the Republic Day San Marino - Sep 03

On 3 September, the tiny state of San Marino celebrates its patron saint and the anniversary of the foundation of the Republic.

History In the year 301, San Marino was founded by a Christian stone-

mason, Marinus. Marinus fled the island of Arbe off the Dalmation coast to escape the anti-Christian persecution of the Roman Empire. Marinus founded a small community of Christians on Mount Titano. The area was named the Land of San Marino, in memory of Marinus. Later it was named the Community of San Marino. Finally, it was formally known as the Republic of San Marino. Despite frequent invasions by the rulers of Rimini, the state of San Marino maintained its independence. Pope Nicholas IV recognized San Marino’s independence In 1291.

San Marino has been invaded and occupied twice but both for short periods. Cesare Borgia, known as Duca Valentino, occupied the country in 1503 and remained there until the death of his father Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, the same year. Cesare Borgia was forced to withdraw his forces from San Marino following the political unrest after the Pope’s death.

Cardinal Alberoni, in an attempt to gain more political power, used military force to occupy San Marino in 1739. However, civil disobedience and secret communications with the current Pope, Clement XII, ensured the recognition of San Marino’s rights and the restoration of its independence. San Marino has had an official treaty of friendship since 1862 and had it revised several times, with Italy.

Customs and activities The reading of the “Bando” (proclamation) in the streets starts the celebration of San Marino’s Day. A holy mass

inside the Basilica del Santo is then followed by a street procession carrying the relics of San Marinus. In the afternoon, events take on a more popular appearance – a crossbow competition is held at the Cava dei Balestrieri. Meanwhile in the Piazzale lo Stradone a concert and fireworks conclude the celebrations.

Armed Forces Day Sao Tome & Principe - Sep 06

In Sao Tome, Armed Forces Day is celebrated on September 6th. Armed Forces Day is celebrated to recognize and honor the valor of their military force.

History São Tomé’s armed forces are the smallest in Africa. The

armed forces retain a stealthy influence in the political scene of the country, and that at times the military has become blatant and has provoked political crises. A program of internationally funded restructuring since late 2003 has sought to reduce the influence of the army and plans put it under civilian authorities has began. There has been progress in recent years to improve the capabilities of the armed forces and police forces and to augment national security. There are serious concerns over the reality that São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) has a history of political instability. Coup d’états were attempted in 1995 and 2003.

STP has the possibility of becoming a major oil producer since the discovery of oil reserves. This has also elevated the small island state into a state with potential strategic importance in the Gulf of Guinea. The US consistently upholds friendly relations with STP since STP is steeped in Catholic traditions and it is not an Islamist threat. The US is providing training to São Toméan military officers.

The policy of the armed forces in the late 1970s and 1980s centered on defeating foreign-backed invasion forces of mercenaries or rebel forces that were attacking by land or sea. By the late 1980s and 1990s, the set of guidelines of the armed forces turned to internal security and paramilitary duties. Upon the discovery of offshore oil, the concentration of the armed forces has changed to improving the country’s coast guard capabilities. STP will depend on its ties to Angola and Nigeria, and its warm relations with Portugal, France and the US, for its external security needs.

Customs and activities There are military parades through the streets of the capital of São Tomé on Armed Forces Day.

Defense Day Pakistan - Sep 06

Defence Day is celebrated in Pakistan as a national day on 6 September in memory of those who died in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 and successful defence of Lahore, Sialkot and other important areas of the country.

war of 1965 Indo-Pakistani On 6 September, both countries openly went to war following a

series of minor skirmishes that preceded the 6th, when Pakistan was attacked by India from the Lahore-Burki sector during the dead of night (at 5 am). The war began following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.

September 6 is marked by the President, Prime Minister and members of the government paying respect to the armed forces.

Notable decorations

Army officers like Captain Sarwar Shaheed, Major Tufail Shaheed, Major Raja Aziz Bhatti Shaheed, Major Shabbir Sharif Shaheed, Major Muhammad Akram Shaheed, Sawar Muhammad Hussain Shaheed, Lance Naik Muhammad Mehfooz Shaheed,and Havildar Lalak Jan Shaheed gave sacrifices of their life and were awarded with "Nishan-eHaider" for their acts of exceptional bravery. Nishan-e-Haideris a highest military award given to brave martyres of Pakistan army those who left remarkable examples of bravery and sacrifice for nation and country.

Celebrations and parade

Army of Pakistan displays the latest missiles, tanks, guns, army aviation helicopters and armament being used by Engineers, Electrical and Mechanical Corps, Army Air Defence, Signals, Army Service Corps and Army Medical Corps live on various places.Everyone is allowed to watch such functions live by going to the specific places. These shows are displayed on national channels as well. National songs and special documents about 6 September 1965 and martyred people of 6 September are displayed on TV. It is told to people how people gave sacrifices for the defense of the country and what is the responsibility of young generation now.

The change of guard ceremony takes place at Mazar-e-Quaid, Karachi, where the cadets of Pakistan Air Force Academy present Guard of Honour and take the charge.

Independence Day Swaziland - Sep 06

Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Swaziland (Umbuso weSwatini), and sometimes called Ngwane or Swatini, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west

by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique. The nation, as well as its people, are named after the 19th century king Mswati II. Swaziland is a small country, no more than 200 kilometres (120 mi) north to south and 130 kilometres (81 mi) east to west. The western half is mountainous, descending to a lowveld region to the east. The eastern border with Mozambique and South Africa is dominated by the escarpment of the Lebombo Mountains. The climate is temperate in the west, but may reach40 °C (104 °F) in summer in the lowveld. Rainfall occurs mainly in the summer and may reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in the west.

The area that Swaziland now covers has been continuously inhabited since prehistory. Today, the population is primarily ethnic Swazis whose language is siSwati, though English is spoken as a second language. The Swazi people descend from the southern Bantu who migrated from Central Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Anglo Boer war saw the United Kingdom make Swaziland a protectorate under its direct control. Swaziland gained independence in 1968. Swaziland is a member of the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Commonwealth of Nations. The head of state is the king, who appoints the prime minister and a small number of representatives for both chambers of parliament. Elections are held every five years to determine the majority of the representatives. A new constitution was adopted in 2005.

Some 75% of the population is employed in subsistence farming, and 60% of the population lives on less than the equivalent of US$1.25 per day. Swaziland's main trading partner is South Africa, and its currency is pegged to the South African rand. Swaziland's economic growth and societal integrity is highly endangered by its disastrous HIV epidemic, to an extent where the United Nations Development Program has written that if it continues unabated, the "longer term existence of Swaziland as a country will be seriously threatened." The infection rate in the country is unprecedented and the highest in the world at 26.1% of adults and over 50% of adults in their 20s.

History

Artifacts indicating human activity dating back to the early Stone Age 200,000 years ago have been found in the Kingdom of Swaziland. Prehistoric rock art paintings date from ca. 25,000 B.C. and continue up to the 19th century.

The earliest inhabitants of the area were Khoisanhunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by the Bantu tribes during Bantu migrations who hailed from the Great Lakes regions of Eastern Africa. Evidence of agriculture and iron use dates from about the 4th century and people speaking languages ancestral to current Sotho and Nguni languages began settling no later than the 11th century. The Bantu people known as the Swazis established ironworking and settled farming colonies in the 15th century after crossing the Limpopo river. They experienced great economic pressure from the rival Ndwandwe clans from the south.

The country derives its name from a later king, Mswati I. However, Ngwane is an alternative name for Swaziland and Dlamini remains the surname of the royal house, while Nkosi means "king". Scholarly history of Swaziland shows that independent chiefdoms and small kingdoms dominated by various clans were initially conquered and incorporated into the growing Ngwane kingdom ruled by members of the Dlamini clan sometime in the 18th and 19th centuries, long before British colonisation.

According to Swazi royalist tradition, these clans came to be classified in the Dlamini kingdom as the Emakhandzambile category of clans ("those found ahead", e.g. the Gamedze), meaning that they were on the land prior to Dlamini immigration and conquest, as opposed to theBomdzabuko ("true Swazi") who accompanied the Dlamini kings, and the Emafikemuva ("those who came behind") who joined the kingdom later. Emakhandzambile clans initially were incorporated with wide autonomy, and often in part by granting them special ritual and political status (cf. mediatisation), but the extent of their autonomy was drastically curtailed by King Mswati II, who attacked and subdued some of the clans in the 1850s.

The autonomy of the Swaziland Nation was dictated by British rule of southern Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries.

In 1881 the British government signed a convention recognizing Swazi independence. However, controversial land and mineral rights concessions were made under the authority of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1890 in terms of which the administration of Swaziland was also placed under that of the then South African Republic (Transvaal).

Swaziland was indirectly involved in the Second Boer War (1899–1902).

The Swaziland independence Constitution was promulgated by Britain in November 1963 in terms of which a legislative Council and an Executive Council were established. This development was opposed by the Swazi National Council (liqoqo).

Despite such opposition, elections took place and the first Legislative Council of Swaziland was constituted on 9 September 1964. Changes to the original constitution proposed by the Legislative Council were accepted by Britain and a new Constitution providing for a House of Assembly and Senate was drawn up. Elections under this Constitution were held in 1967. Since 1973, Swaziland has seen a rather quiet struggle between pro-multiparty activists and supporters of the current Tinkhundla (constituencies) System of governance or Grass Roots Democracy System.

Unification Day Bulgaria - Sep 06

Unification Day (Bulgarian: Ден на Съединението, Den na Saedinenieto) on 6 September is anational holiday of Bulgaria. It commemorates the unification of Eastern Rumelia and Bulgaria in 1885.

By the terms of the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Southern Bulgaria (named Eastern Roumelia) was separated from the newly formed Bulgarian state and returned to the Ottoman Empire with partial autonomy. Bulgarian citizens considered the decisions of the Berlin Treaty to be unfair and began a peaceful demonstration against them. At first the plan was to annex all territories that Bulgaria had gained after the Treaty of San Stefano but later it became clear that was impossible because of the unsuitable international situation. The Bulgarians had to leave Macedonia and the rest of Thrace and concentrate on the East Roumelian issue. The first actions were taken in 1880 but the sharpened political situation, economic instability and the low prestige of the Bulgarian country delayed the resolution of the so-called "national question". In 1884 the "Macedonian committees" were the main body working on the unsolved problem. On 10 February, 1885 led by Zahari Stoyanov a group of former revolutionaries founded in Plovdiv (the capital of Eastern Roumelia) a secret committee known as BSCRC – Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee (Bulgarian: БТЦРК – Български Таен Централен Революционен Комитет). It had regulations and programs which were connected to the organisation led by Vasil Levski, Hristo Botev and Lyuben Karavelov before the Liberation. After a few months BSCRC had improved their plan for actions and organised some public events on dates significant to Bulgarians. The conference in Dermendare (Parvanets) on the 24th-26th of July and the next meeting on the 23rd of August declared what should be done and exactly how to proceed. On 5 September 1885 the people rose in Goliamo Konare (Saedinenie) and after arresting the prefect of Plodiv the militia advanced toward the capital. On the 6th of September the palace in Plovdiv was surrounded. The governor Gavril Krastevich did not alert the Turks in Istanbul and proclaimed his support of the people's cause. A temporary government headed by Georgi Stranski took control of the situation and armed forces were commanded by major Danail Nikolaev who began preparation for war with the Ottoman Empire. On the 8th of September knyaz Alexander received a telegram in the old capital Tarnovo which he was already expecting. His army was prepared and waiting for a signal. He agreed to become a leader of the Unified Bulgaria. On the next day (9 September) the knyaz arrived in Plovdiv and the temporary government was dismissed. Diplomatic efforts failed and Bulgaria had to defend its interests on the battlefield in the Serbo-Bulgarian War where the Bulgarians were victorious.

Lusaka Agreement Day Mozambique Sep 07

The Lusaka Accord was signed in Lusaka (Zambia) on 7 September 1974, between the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) and the Portuguese government installed after the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon. In the agreement, Portugal formally recognized the right of the Mozambican people to independence and agreed with FRELIMO the terms of the transference of powers. The agreement established that independence would be proclaimed after a transition period when administration of the country would be shared between the two parties. Mozambique became independent on 25 June 1975.

Internal Autonomy Day Tahiti - Sep 08

Ironically, Internal Autonomy Day commemorates June 29, 1880, when king Pomare V was deposed and French Polynesia became a full French colony.

But there is a political controvesy regarding the actual date of the festival, which is also celbrated on September 8, when the territory achieved a degree of internal autonomy. Tavini huiraatira members note that June 29 is the date in 1880 when Tahiti’s King Pomare V gave France right of sovereignty of his dependencies.

History Formerly known as the Society Islands;

the main island is Tahiti, an overseas country of France. Tahiti is the most prominent of the islands. Missionaries came to Tahiti in 1797. In 1815 the Tahitian chief Pomare II converted to Christianity. In 1842 Tahiti became a French protectorate and in 1880 it became a colony.

The Gambier group became a protectorate in 1844 and a colony in 1881. Rimatara and Rurutu became protectorates and colonies of France in 1889 and 1900, respectively. The Tuamotu Islands became dependencies of Tahiti in 1847 and part of the colony in 1880. The chiefs of the Marquesas Islands ceded sovereignty to France in 1842. The islands were originally part of the French colony of Oceania. During the Second World War, they sided with the Free French government in exile on 2 September 1940.

French Polynesia was far from the front lines in the Second World War. On 27 October 1946, French Polynesia became an overseas territory of France. A long-lasting independence movement gained a partial concession when France granted limited autonomy to French Polynesia in 1977 and increased in 1984. On 28 March 2003, French Polynesia became an overseas collectivity of France and on 27 February 2004, it became an overseas country of France. The economy is based on tourism, farming, and fishing. An elected territorial assembly exists. French Polynesia also elects two members of the French National Assembly and one member of the French Senate.

Customs and activities

Pro-autonomy parties celebrate Autonomy day on June 29, but Oscar Temaru’s pro-independence Tavini huiraatira claims this date should be a “Mourning Day”. Pro-autonomy parties announced that they would always celebrate Autonomy day on June 29 in Papeete. A ceremony is held at the “Pont de l’Est”, a rotary on the north side of Papeete with a monument in honor of French Polynesia’s internal autonomy relationship with France. All major pro-autonomy leaders participate in this event, including opposition leader and members of his Tahoeraa huiraatira party. June 29 is the date in 1984 when French Polynesia’s organic law approved by the French Parliament took effect, giving the overseas community, formerly known as a territory, greater internal autonomy while remaining as part of the French Republic. But for Oscar Temaru’s Tavini huiraatira, June 29 is a “Mourning Day.”

National Day & Our Lady of Meritxell Andorra - Sep 08

Independence Day Brazil - Sep 07

Brazil officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in the world.

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial Empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal. The independence from Portugal was achieved in 1822. Initially independent as the Empire of Brazil, the country has been a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

The Brazilian economy is the world's seventh largest economy by nominal GDP and the eighth largest by purchasing power parity. Brazil is one of the world's fastest growing major economies. Economic reforms have given the country new international recognition. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, CPLP, Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, Mercosul and the Union of South American Nations, and is one of the BRIC countries. Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

History

Portuguese colonization:

The land now called Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered stone age natives divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi– Guarani family, and fought among themselves.

Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies, but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony. The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity. By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important exportand the Portuguese imported African slaves to cope with the The first Christian mass in Brazil, increasing international demand.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded 1500 their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615. They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669. In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).

At the end of the 17th century, sugar exports started to decline but beginning in the 1690s, the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) in current Mato Grosso and Goiás, saved the colony from imminent collapse. From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.

In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of the entire Portuguese Empire. In 1815 Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother, elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal. In 1809 the Portuguese invaded French Guiana (which was returned to France in 1817) and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamed Cisplatina (but Brazil lost it in 1828 when it became an independent nation known as Uruguay).

Independence and Empire:

King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April 1821, leaving his elder son Prince Pedro de Alcântaraas regent to rule Brazil. The Portuguese government attempted to turn Brazil into a colony once again, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808. The Brazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. On 12 October 1822, Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil and crowned Dom Pedro I on 1 December 1822.

At that time most Brazilians were in favour of a monarchy and republicanism had little support.The subsequent Brazilian War of Independence spread through almost the entire territory, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions. The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824 and independence Declaration of the Brazilian indewas recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824, pendence by the later Emperor Dom after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country. Pedro I on 7 September 1822 Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind his five year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II. As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.

Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency. It is estimated that from 30 to 40% of the population of the Province of Grão-Pará died during the Cabanagem revolt. The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy, even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor. Because of this, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."

Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II (the Platine War, theUruguayan War and the War of the Triple Alliance, which left over 50,000 dead) and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press. Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that began with the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850 and ended with the complete abolition of slavery in 1888. The slave population had been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.

When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889 there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects. However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him." He cared little for the regime's fate and so neither did anything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.

Early republic:

Although the beginning of the republican government has been little more than a military dictatorship, the then newly constitution despite its content still held severe restrictions as e.g. about voting rights, provided direct elections for 1894. However, already in 1891, from the unfoldings of the encilhamento bubble and of the 1st naval revolt, the country entered in a prolonged cycle of financial, social and polital instability, that would extend until the 1920s keeping the country plagued by several rebellions, both civilian as military, which little by little undermined the regime in a such extent, that by 1930 it was possible to the defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas, supported by the majority of military, lead a coup d'étatand assume the presidency.

Vargas and the military, who were supposed to assume the government temporarily to implement democratic reforms related to 1891's Constitution, closed the Congress and ruled with emergency powers, replacing the states' governors with their supporters. Under the Claiming of the broken promises of changing, in 1932 the oligarchy of São Paulo tried to regain the power and in 1935 the Communists rebelled, having both been defeated. However, the communist threat served as an excuse for Vargas to preclude elections launching another coup d'état in 1937, creating a full dictatorship In May 1938, there was another failed attempt to takeover the power by local fascists.

In foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries in the early years of this period, was followed by a failed attempt to permanently exert a prominent role in the League of Nations after military involvement in World War I. Not with standing, Brazil remained neutral at the beginning of World War II until the Pan-American Conference of January 1942 when Brazil stood alongside the U.S.A. severing diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. In retaliation, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy extended their submarine warfare against Brazil, which led the country to enter the war on the allied side in August of that year.

With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup. Democracy was reinstated and General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president taking office in 1946. Having returned to power democratically elected at the end of 1950, Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis.

Contemporary era:

Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide. Juscelino Kubitscheckbecame president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises. The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably, but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960. His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office. His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in amilitary regime.

The new regime was intended to be transitory but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968. The repression of the The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 dictatorship's opponents, including urban guerrillas, was harsh, but raised Getúlio Vargas (center with not as brutal as in other Latin American countries. Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", the military uniform but no hat) to regime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repres- power. He ruled the country for fifteen years sion.

General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process that he said would be "slow, gradual and safe." Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued the country since 1889, as well as the torture of political prisoners, censorship of the press, and finally, the dictatorship itself, after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.However, the military regime continued, under his chosen successor General João Figueiredo, to complete the transition to full democracy.

The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency but, by the end of his term, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation. Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992. Collor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance.

Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real (Royal or Real Plan) that granted stability to the Brazilian economy and he was elected as president in 1994 and again in 1998. The peaceful transition of power to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006, proved that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its longsought political stability. Lula was succeeded in 2011 by the current president, Dilma Rousseff.

Military

The armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. With a total of 371,199 active personnel, they comprise the largest armed force in Latin America. The Army is responsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.

The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but is under the control of each state's governor. The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy). The Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service.

Independence Day Macedonia - Sep 08

Officially the Republic of Macedonia, is a country located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991. It became a member of the United Nations in 1993 but, as a result of a dispute with Greece over its name, it was admitted under the provisional reference of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, sometimes abbreviated as FYROM. A landlocked country, the Republic of Macedonia is bordered by Kosovo to the northwest, Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south and Albania to the west. The country's capital is Skopje, with 506,926 inhabitants according to a 2002 census.

Other cities include Bitola, Kumanovo, Prilep, Tetovo, Ohrid, Veles, Štip, Kočani, Gostivar and Strumica. It has more than 50 lakes and sixteen mountains higher than 2,000 m (6,562 ft). Macedonia is a member of the UN and the Council of Europe. Since December 2005 it has also been a candidate for joining the European Union and has applied for NATO membership.

History

Ancient history of the territory:

In antiquity, the central and northern zones of what is now the Republic of Macedonia was inhabited by Paeonians, whilst the Lakeland region (Erigon) was inhabited by tribes known historically as Enchelae, Pelagones and Lyncestae; the latter two are generally regarded as Molossian or Upper Macedonian tribes, whilst the former is considered "Illyrian". The linguistic affinities of the various tribes are difficult to unequivocally establish due to the paucity of data.

Moreover, ancient sources did not necessarily categorize tribes on a detailed dialectical knowledge of the area, but on a political basis. For example, the Pelagones or Lyncestae were at times part of the Molossian koinon, the Macedonian Kingdom, or even the "Illyrian Kingdom" of Glaucias; and were therefore variously referred to as Epirotian or Upper Macedonian tribes. Similarly, the Paeonians at times expanded their rule over much of Macedonia, including over the south-western Thracian tribes (Edonoi, Krestonoi, etc.). Whatever the native languages, Greek began to be used as early as the sixth century BCE (coin issued by the Paeonian Kings were in Greek).

Strabo remarked that many tribes between Corcyra, Macedonia and the Via Egnatia were bilingual (δίγλωττοι) [Strabo C 327].

After the early victories of Philip II of Macedon in 356 BC, he absorbed the regions of Upper Macedonia into the Kingdom of Macedon, including Lynkestis, Pelagonia, and the southern part of Paeonia (Deuriopus), which now lie within the Republic of Macedonia. Philip did not make the people of Upper Macedonia subject but instead made them equal to the Macedonians of Lower Macedonia. Philip's sonAlexander the Great conquered the remainder of the region, reaching as far north as the Danube, and incorporated it in his empire. The Romans established the Province of Macedonia in 146 BC. By the time of Diocletian, the province had been subdivided between Macedonia Prima and Macedonia Salu- The ruins of Heraclea Lyncestis, a taris; most of country's modern boundaries fell within the latter, with city founded by Philip II of Macedon the city of Stobi as the capital of Macedonia Salutaris. Cities to the in the 4th century BC extreme north such as Scupi fell within the Province of Moesia.

Whilst Greek remained the dominant language in the south, Latin made significant inroads in Macedonia.

Medieval period:

During the 580s, Byzantine literature attests to the Slavs raiding Byzantine territories in the region of Macedonia, aided by Avars or Bulgars. Historical records document that in c.680 a group of Bulgars, Slavs and Byzantines led by a Bulgar called Kuber settled in the region of Keramisian plain, centred on the city of Bitola. Presian's reign apparently coincides with the extension of Bulgarian control over the Slavic tribes in and around Macedonia. The Slavic peoples that settled in the region of Macedonia accepted Christianity as their own religion around the 9th century, during the reign of Tsar Boris I of Bulgaria.

In 1014, Emperor Basil II finally defeated the armies of Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria and by 1018 the Byzantines restored control over Macedonia (and all of the Balkans) for the first time since the 7th century. However, by the late 12th century, Byzantine decline saw the region contested by various political entities, including a briefNorman occupation in the 1080s.

In the early 13th century, a revived Bulgarian Empire gained control of the region. Plagued by political difficulties the empire did not last and the region came once again under Byzantine control in early 14th century. In the 14th century, it became part of the Serbian Empire, who saw themselves as liberators of their Slavic kin from Byzantine despotism. Skopje became the capital of Tsar Stefan Dusan's empire.

With Dusan's death, a weak successor appeared and power struggles between nobles divided the Balkans once again. This coincided with the entry of the Ottoman Turks into Europe. The Kingdom of Prilep was one of the short lived states that emerged from the collapse of theSerbian Empire in the 14th century. With no major Balkan power left to defend Christianity, the central Balkans fell to Turkish rule — and remained under it for five centuries.

National awakening:

Ottoman rule over the region was considered harsh. With the beginning of Nikola Karev, president of the Bulgarian National Revival in 18 c. many of the reformers were from this the short lived Krushevo Reregion, including Miladinov Brothers, Rajko Žinzifov, Joakim Krčovski, Kiril public during the Ilinden UpPejčinoviḱ and others. The bishoprics of Skopje, Debar, Bitola, Ohrid, Veles rising and Strumica voted to join the Bulgarian Exarchate after it was established in 1870.

Several movements whose goals were the establishment of autonomous Macedonia, encompassing the entire region of Macedonia, began to arise in the late 19th century; the earliest of these was the Bulgarian Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Committees, later transformed to SMORO. In 1905 it was renamed as Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMARO) and after World War I the organization separated into the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) and the Internal Thracian Revolutionary Organisation (ITRO).

The early organization did not proclaim any ethnic identities; it was officially open to "...uniting all the disgruntled elements in Macedonia and the Adrianople region, regardless of their nationality..." The majority of its members however were Macedonian Bulgarians In 1903, IMRO organised the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising against the Ottomans, which after some initial successes, including the forming of the "Krushevo Republic", was crushed with much loss of life. The uprising and the forming of the Krushevo Republic are considered the cornerstone and precursors to the eventual establishment of the Macedonian state.

Kingdoms of Serbia and Yugoslavia:

Following the two Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, most of its European held territories were divided between Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia. The territory of the modern Macedonian state was then named Južna Srbija, "Southern Serbia". After the First World War, Serbia became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, the Kingdom was officially renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and divided into provinces called banovinas. Southern Serbia, including all of what is now the Republic of Macedonia, became known as the Vardar Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

The concept of a United Macedonia was used by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) in the interbellum. Its leaders – like Todor Alexandrov, Aleksandar Protogerov, Ivan Mihailov, promoted the idea with the aim to liberate the territories occupied by Serbia and Greece and to create an independent and united Macedonia for all Macedonians, regardless of religion and ethnicity. The Bulgarian government of Alexander Malinov in 1918 offered to give Pirin Macedonia for that purpose after World War One, but the Great Powers did not adopt this idea, because Serbia and Greece opposed.

IMRO followed by starting an insurgent war in Vardar Banovina, together with Macedonian Youth Secret Revolutionary Organization, which also conducted guerilla attacks against the Serbian administrative and army officials there. In 1923 in Stip a paramilitary organisation called Union against the Bulgarian bandits was formed by Serbian chetniks, IMRO renegades and MFO members to oppose IMRO and MMTRO.

Yugoslav Macedonia in World War II:

During World War II, Yugoslavia was occupied by the Axis Powers from 1941 to 1945. The Vardar Banovina was divided between Bulgaria and Italian-occupied Albania. Bulgarian Action Committees were established and prepared the region for the new Bulgarian administration and army. The Committees were mosltly formed by former members of IMRO, but some communists like Panko Brashnarov, Strahil Gigov and Metodi Shatorov also participated.

Shatorov as leader of Vardar Macedonia communists switched from Yugoslav Communist Party to Bulgarian Communist Party and refused to start military action against the Bulgarian army. Bulgarian authorities, under German pressure, were responsible for the round-up and deportation of over 7,000 Jews in Skopje and Bitola. Harsh rule by the occupying forces encouraged many Macedonians to support the Communist Partisan resistance movement of Josip Broz Tito after 1943, and the National Liberation War ensued, with German forces being driven out of Macedonia by the end of 1944.

In Vardar Macedonia, after Bulgarian coup d'état of 1944 the Bulgarian troops, surrounded by German forces, fought their way back to the old borders of Bulgaria. Under the leadership of the new Bulgarian pro-Soviet government, four armies, 455,000 strong in total, were mobilized and reorganized. Most of them reentered occupied Yugoslavia in the early October 1944 and moved from Sofia to Niš, Skopje andPristina with the strategic task of blocking the German forces withdrawing from Greece. Compelled by the Soviet Union with a view towards the creation of a large South Slav Federation, Bulgarian government once again offered to give Pirin Macedonia to such a United Macedonia in 1945.

Socialist Yugoslavia:

In 1944 the Anti-Fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) proclaimed the People's Republic of Macedonia as part of the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

ASNOM remained an acting government until the end of the war.

The Macedonian alphabet was codified by linguists of ASNOM, who based their alphabet on the phonetic alphabet of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and the principles of Krste Petkov – Misirkov.

The new republic became one of the six republics of the Yugoslav federation. Following the federation's renaming as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1963, the People's Republic of Macedonia was likewise renamed, becoming the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. During the civil war in Greece (1946–1949) Mace- Metodija Andonov Chento greeted in donian communist insurgents supported the Greek communists. Skopje after the National Liberation Many refugees later came in Socialist Republic of Macedonia from War of Macedonia in 1944. there. The state dropped the "Socialist" from its name in 1991 when it peacefully seceded from Yugoslavia.

Declaration of independence:

The country officially celebrates 8 September 1991 as Independence day (Macedonian: Ден на независноста,Den na nezavisnosta), with regard to the referendum endorsing independence from Yugoslavia, albeit legalising participation in future union of the former states of Yugoslavia. The anniversary of the start of the Ilinden Uprising (St. Elijah's Day) on 2 August is also widely celebrated on an official level as the Day of the Republic.

Robert Badinter as a head of Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on the former Yugoslavia recommended EC recognition in January 1992.

Macedonia remained at peace through the Yugoslav wars of the early 1990s. A few very minor changes to its border with Yugoslavia were agreed upon to resolve problems with the demarcation line between the two countries. However, it was seriously destabilised by the Kosovo War in 1999, when an estimated 360,000 ethnic Albanian refugees from Kosovo took refuge in the country. Although they departed shortly after the war, soon after, Albanian nationalists on both sides of the border took up arms in pursuit of autonomy or independence for the Albanian-populated areas of Macedonia.

Albanian insurgency:

A civil war was fought between government and ethnic Albanian insurgents, mostly in the north and west of the country, between March and June 2001. The war ended with the intervention of a NATO ceasefire monitoring force. Under the terms of the Ohrid Agreement, the government agreed to devolve greater political power and cultural recognition to the Albanian minority. The Albanian side agreed to abandon separatist demands and to fully recognise all Macedonian institutions. In addition, according to this accord, the NLA were to disarm and hand over their weapons to a NATO force.

Siege of Leningrad Day Russia - Sep 08

The Siege of Leningrad, also known as the Leningrad Blockade (Russian:блокада Ленинграда, transliteration: blokada Leningrada) was a prolonged military operation resulting from the failure of the German Army Group North to capture Leningrad, now known as Saint Petersburg, in the Eastern Front theatre of World War II. It started on 8 September 1941, when the last land connection to the city was severed. Although the Soviets managed to open a narrow land corridor to the city on 18 January 1943, lifting of the siege took place on 27 January 1944, 872 days after it began. It was one of the longest and most destructive sieges in history and one of the most costly in terms of casualties.

Background The capture of Leningrad was one of three strategic goals in the

German Operation Barbarossa and the main target of the Army Group North. The strategy was motivated by Leningrad's political status as the former capital of Russia and the symbolic capital of the Russian Revolution, its military importance as a main base of the Soviet Baltic Fleet and its industrial strength, housing numerous arms factories. By 1939 the city was responsible for 11% of all Soviet industrial output. It has been reported that Adolf Hitler was so confident of capturing Leningrad that he had the invitations to the victory celebrations to be held in the city's Hotel Astoria already printed. The ultimate fate of the city was uncertain in German plans, ranging from renaming of the city to Adolfsburg and becoming the capital of the new Ingermanland province of the Reich in Generalplan Ost to the razing it to the ground and giving areas north of the River Neva to the Finns.

International Literacy Day Worldwide - Sep 08

September 8 was proclaimed International Literacy Day

by UNESCO on November 17, 1965. It was first celebrated in 1966. Its aim is to highlight the importance of literacy to individuals, communities and societies. On International Literacy Day each year, UNESCO reminds the international community of the status of literacy and adult learning globally. Celebrations take place around the world.

Some 776 million adults lack minimum literacy skills; one in five adults is still not literate and two-thirds of them are women; 75 million children are out-of-school and many more attend irregularly or drop out.

According to UNESCO’s "Global Monitoring Report on Education for All (2008)", South and West Asia has the lowest regional adult literacy rate (58.6%), followed by sub-Saharan Africa (59.7%), and the Arab States (62.7%). Countries with the lowest literacy rates in the world are Burkina Faso (12.8%), Niger(14.4%) and Mali (19%). The report shows a clear connection between illiteracy and countries in severe poverty, and between illiteracy and prejudice against women.

The celebration's theme for 2007 and 2008 was “Literacy and Health”. This was also the thematic emphasis of the 2007-2008 biennium of the United Nations Literacy Decade. In particular, International Literacy Day 2008 had a strong emphasis on Literacy and Epidemics with a focus on communicable diseases such as HIV, Tuberculosis and Malaria, some of the world's forefront public health concerns.

To raise public awareness of the extraordinary value of the written word and of the necessity to promote a literate society, the following writers are supporting UNESCO through the Writers for Literacy Initiative : Margaret Atwood, Paul Auster, Philippe Claudel, Paulo Coelho, Philippe Delerm, Fatou Diome, Chahdortt Djavann, Nadine Gordimer, Amitav Ghosh, Marc Levy, Alberto Manguel, Anna Moi, Scott Momaday, Toni Morrison, Erik Orsenna, Gisèle Pineau, El Tayeb Salih, Francisco Jose Sionil, Wole Soyinka, Amy Tan, Miklós Vámos, Abdourahman Waberi, Wei Wei, Banana Yoshimoto. Not only writers contribute to raising awareness to the problem of illiteracy. Next to the writers engagement, there are various companies and charity organizations that support the fight against illiteracy. Some supporters of International Literacy Day include the Global Development Research Center, Montblanc, the National Institute for Literacy, and Rotary International. Mohammad Abdul Rub, an Indian Child writer celebrates his birthday on this day.

PM presents bernhard vogel with the grand cross of the order of merit of Hungary 28 (Online Aug) Hungary not only rebut spects, likes Germany, stated Prime Minister Viktor Orbán at a ceremony, where awarded he Grand the Cross of the Order of Merit of Hungary to Bernhard Vogel, former Prime Minister of RhinelandPalatinate and Thuringia, and former President of the Konrad Adenauer FoundaPhoto: Csaba Pelsőczy tion.

The celebration was held in the Parliament Building, where Minister of Human Resources Zoltán Balog outlined that through award this H u n g a r y recognised Bernhard Vogel’s multifaceted work Hungary for the through Konrad Adenauer Foundation and in cultivating German-Hungarian relations.

The Hungarian Prime Minister, who presented Photo: Csaba Pelsőczy award, the were facing in the 1950s and ‘60s stated that Hungarians not only re- were much greater than the ones spect, but like Germans. they face today. Therefore he beMinister Balog, while praising the 80- lieves that with appropriate measyear-old Bernard Vogel’s life, said ures today's problems can be that he was one of those politicians resolved. In his closing remarks, he who never gave up on Germany’s re- wished Hungary prosperity and sucunification and always knew that cess, and Prime Minister Orbán a Central European countries like Hun- long term as prime minister like he gary had a crucial role in achieving it. had.

After receiving his award, Mr Vogel Minister for Foreign Affairs János emphasised in his speech that wher- Martonyi, Minister of Interior Sándor ever he goes, he will draw attention Pintér, Minister of Development Mrs. to Hungary, this pearl among the Eu- László Németh, several Ministers of ropean nations. His people would State and Mrs József Antall, widow never forget what Hungary did for of the former Hungarian Prime MinGermany in 1989 and the following ister also attended the award cereyears. Budapest, he added, was a mony. city which belongs to Europe and The German politician also spoke on without which Europe would not be Tuesday at Andrássy University at what it is today. He emphasised that the event: Hungary, Germany and the difficulties Germany and Hungary

He Europe. emphasised that the Europe countries’ freedom depends on their joint effort in response to global chaland lenges that added Germany with its overall good economic situation is ready to help Hungary and Central Europe. Mr Vogel also announced that the Head of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation’s office in Hungary will be Frank Spengler, who pers o n a l l y requested to his continue work in this country.

In an interview to Hungarian daily Népszabadság, Mr highVogel lighted that in order to alleviate concerns double that standards are applied with regard to Eastern and Western countries, Hungarians should help Western European states get to know them better. He said it is not true that Eastern European states are treated as inferior to Western ones, but it is true that less is known about them.

Asked about the views of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), regarding the Hungarian Prime Minister’s critical remarks about the European Union, Mr Vogel told the paper he interpreted those as more of a reaction to EU criticism directed towards Hungary. He said Prime Minister Orbán’s remarks were part of a defence strategy, which was necessary, but added that Fidesz must be open to dialogue too. On the subject of the possibility of Hungary purchasing E.ON’s gas business, Mr Vogel said he could not comment, but it seems that privatisation in postsocialist Hungary was a little too strong and too broad.

R e s p o n s e o f M PA & J t o c l a i m s ’ statement (Online 31 Aug) The Government of Hungary and the Jewish Heritage of Hungary Public Endowment (MAZSÖK) refuse the allegations made by Claims Conference in its latest statement, and call upon the organisation to refrain from misleading, intentionally misguiding and provoking fear in international public opinion and Holocaust survivors living abroad who receive compensation funds from the Hungarian State.

It is the intention of Hungary and MAZSÖK to ensure that, regardless of the settlement dispute with Claims Conference, survivors should not sustain a disadvantage, and should, within the shortest possible time, receive the funds they are rightfully entitled to. At present, the only obstacle to this is that Claims Conference is unable to render an account of the funds used to MAZSÖK. Consequently, based on the Hungarian laws on state finances, the disbursement of any further funds to Claims would be unlawful, and Claims must be obliged to repay the funds it had received.

The claim made by the organisation that they met all financial reporting obligations is untrue. The reports provided by the organisation are incomplete, often lack transparency

and do not conform to the relevant regulations. Hungary drew the organisation’s attention to these deficiencies several times.

It is an untrue and highly regrettable allegation on the organisation’s part that “thousands of Holocaust survivors will, unfortunately, be deprived of the assistance they so desperately need”; Hungary does not have a claim vis-à-vis survivors but Claims Conference. Hungary is reclaiming the sum of which the organisation is unable to provide a lawful account; the organisation itself is well aware of this.

We find it extremely regrettable that Executive Vice-President Greg Schneider even deploys the tactic of making misleading, untrue claims that are designed provoke fear and uncertainty in Holocaust survivors, and instead of making efforts to render a financial settlement that conforms to the relevant rules, attempts to spoil Hungary’s reputation with false allegations.

Hungary also refuses Greg Schneider’s claim that Hungary has “reneged when it came time to pay”.

Hungary has met all its obligations undertaken for the assistance of Holocaust survivors. Hungary, however, is unable and unwilling to dis-

pense with compliance and the enforcement of compliance with its laws.

What is the sum that Hungary is reclaiming? (interest included) The Hungarian State paid Claims USD 8,400,000 in total via the Jewish Heritage of Hungary Public Endowment in April 2009. Of this, there is no settlement in respect of a single cent that would fully conform to the relevant agreements and legal rules.

However, it is presumed that Claims would be able to render an account of most of the funds it had received if that was its intention.

According to your calculations, how many individuals should receive compensation funds abroad? What is the sum per capita?

It forms part of our request for a settlement account that Claims should tell us finally how many individuals are eligible for compensation funding and on what grounds these individuals would be eligible for funds.

Claims has to date not supplied us with a list on the basis of which it would be possible to identify the recipients to everyone’s satisfaction.

We are consequently unable to tell either the number of the individuals eligible for compensation or the sum per capita.

Program for young Roma journalists ends successfully (Online 31 Aug) The training program implemented with EU support, which allowed ten young Roma journalists from March 2012 to expand its knowledge about the European Union and social integration is worth continuing. This was the clear conclusion that the participants of the press conference held at the end of the program on 30th August 2012 in Budapest.

The purpose of the program financed with EUR 50 thousand in the framework of the Administrative Partnership Agreement signed by the European Commission and the Hungarian government was to promote the emergence of the knowledgeable community of Roma journalists, capable of credibly reporting about European affairs and social inclusion in order to ensure more appearance for these topics in the news media.

The experiences of the project deemed successful by everyone were assessed at the event held in the House of the European Union by Tamás Szűcs, Head of the European Commission Representation, Gábor Kaleta, Head of the Press Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Attila Sztojka, Deputy-head of Department of the State Secretariat for Social Inclusion of the Ministry of Human Resources and Ilona Móricz, the director of the Centre for Independent Journalism, which implemented the program.

Tamás Szűcs praised the Roma Framework Strategy adopted during the Hungarian EU Presidency and also shortly presented the report of the European Commission published recently about the assessment of Member State Roma strategies, also the most important findings related to

Hungary. Summarizing the results of the work done by the young professionals, who were selected for participation because of their journalist experience, Tamás Szűcs emphasized that the program created a community, the members of which understand the problems of social inclusion and European integration.

The Head of the EC Representation expressed his hope that the young Roma journalists can become role models for their wider environment also. Tamás Szűcs also announced that in the fall, the participants of the program will attend a press seminar in Brussels organized by the European Parliament and the European Commission.

“A right step in the right direction” – this is what Gábor Kaleta said about the training program, which the Ministry of Foreign Affairs supported with its unique means. He recalled that the ten young journalists were received for an informal discussion by Foreign Minister János Martonyi and Minister of State responsible for European Affairs, Enikő Győri. The Head of Department reminded that during the six months the Roma youth prepared close to 200 reports, articles, as well as radio and television pieces in the offices of the media partners involved, where beside the 100-hour class room and hands-on training , thy also worked 16 hours a week under the supervision of journalist and editor mentors.

Social inclusion is a question of humanity, but also the economic interest of the whole country, underlined Attila Sztojka, who highlighted the necessity of wide social cooperation and also alluded to the fact that the Hungarian Roma strategy was very

well acknowledged by the European Commission. Deputy-head of Department of the Ministry of Human Resources also pointed out the importance of the sustainability of similar training programs and also signalled that his portfolio is also taking its share by employing of the young Roma journalists at the State Secretariat for Social Inclusion.

Ilona Móricz said that when designing the program they were especially careful to combine classroom and practical sessions. Beside the knowledge obtained here, she also mentioned the several hundreds of publications, the contacts established while working in the newsrooms and the employment opportunities as the most important immediate outcomes of the program.

She mentioned that several of the ten young Roma professionals received job offers from the media where they were on training or will be able to continue working in other fields of communication.

“I hope that the end is really only the beginning and that we can establish ourselves in this profession” – said Tibor Rácz at the press conference on behalf of the participants of the program at the press conference. He thought that the project had achieved its purpose because it raised awareness of the fact that there are also Roma working in the Hungarian press. “It would be good, if we could find more people like we were and if gates would open” – said Tibor Rácz.

At the end of the press conference Tamás Szűcs and Gábor Kaleta handed over their certificates to the young Roma journalists.

Our goal is to enable researchers to prosper in their homeland 31 (Online Aug) The Govis ernment making every effort to enable internationally renowned researchers to prosper in their homeland, in Hungary, Deputy Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics said on Thursday at the summer camp of doctoral students in Balatonkenese.

As part of the open legislaprotion gramme, the of Ministry Public Administration and Justice entered into a strategic cooperation agreement with the National Organisation of Doctoral Students in the autumn of 2011.

Thanks to this arrangement, dialogue between the Government and doctoral students has been ongoing ever since. There are at present 174 doctoral schools in Hungary.

The Government is making every effort to enable internationally renowned researchers to prosper in their homeland, in Hungary. “In other

words, researchers should not opt for a research career abroad out of necessity but should go abroad, gather as much experience as possible and should then come home when their academic career has reached its peak”, Mr Navracsics said. The Deputy Prime Minister believes that Hungary can only have a future if it is able to present quality work; a small but talented nation can only find its way to the top in the keen international competition if the Government supports this work with its

decipolicy sions.

The Minister of Public Administration and Justice said that a of number changes were required in recent periods in the field of the regulation and of operation higher education and the regulation of academic research in order maintain to Hungary’s competitive edge.

Deputy The Prime Minister highlighted that knowledge had become international in the past ten to twenty years which represents a challenge in a linguistic and cultural sense; in particular, for the nations of Eastern-Europe who had previously lived in complete linguistic isolation for forty years. The other challenge for the academic world is of a financial nature; we are unable to present international results even in the less financially intensive research areas without the availability of certain conditions.

Republican representatives expressed their high respect for PM dedication to freedom and democracy (Online 30 Aug) Republican representatives expressed their high respect for the Hungarian Prime Minister's dedication to freedom and democracy, State Secretary for Foreign Affairs and External Economic Relations Péter Szijjártó said on Thursday. He said that during his meetings with Republican representatives, they informed him that in the case of a Republican administration, the United States would pay increased attention to Central Europe and certainly Hungary.

The State Secretary told the Hungarian News Agency (MTI) over the phone about the 2012 Republican National Convention, and his meetings with Tim Griffin, vice chair of the Subcommittee on Europe and Eurasia in the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Gus Bilirakis, a member of the Subcommittee on Europe and Eurasia in the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and representatives Andy Harris, of Hungarian descent, and Mario Diaz-Balart, of Cuban descent.

Hungary's main foreign policy en-

deavours enjoy considerable respect among the Republicans, he said and added that his negotiating partners expressed their gratitude for Hungary's activities in Afghanistan, while also praising Hungary's efforts in creating stability in the Western Balkans. They said that they very much relied on Hungary’s experiences to support democratic transformation in various countries and expressed support for Hungarian efforts in achieving energy security as well.

Hungarian-Slovak Inter-Governmental Talks regarding Cross-Border Cooperation 28 (Online InfraAug) structure development, of situation cross-border public transport services, employment issues – these were the topics, amongst that others, diswere cussed at the co-chair meeting of the InterGovernmental Joint Hungarian-Slovak Commission for Cross-Border Cooperation held at the of Photo: Ernő Horváth Ministry Public Administration and Justice today.

The event was hosted by Minister of State for Territorial Public Administration and Elections Erika who Szabó, Jozef met Bucek, State Secretary of Slovak the Ministry of Interior, the newly appointed chair of the Slovak Section of the Commission, for the first time.

The attendees reviewed the r e s u l t s Photo: Ernő Horváth achieved in the tainment of this goal. After the two past few years in the wake of the bridges across the River Ipoly, the Joint Commission’s efforts and the construction of another two bridges tasks that lie ahead. Promoting the may begin over the northern border continued, further development of river based on the agreement of the the infrastructure is a priority task of two governments. the Commission, and the framework The situation of cross-border public agreement signed by the govern- transport services and the options for ments of the two States on public developing transportation by rail and roads that cross the state borders coach services in areas in the vicinity creates firm foundations for the at- of the border were also on the

agenda in the interest of facilitating the comand muting day-to-day communication of citizens living on the two sides of the border.

Cross-border employment is an issue that concerns primarily those livin the ing western border regions, while on the eastern section of the both border, States are facing very similar employment problems. It is the joint responsibility of both States to develop their border regions and to facilitate employment by ensuring easy border-crossing. Convenient and easy border crossing is an important requirement also in health care cooperation where two significant problems – yet to be resolved – continue to the emerge: issue of coordinating the rules relating to ambulance traffic and the necessity of simplifying the funding of cross-border health care services.

The Commission also discussed the issue of rural development and the subsidisation of local agricultural producers. The parties believe that they must preserve traditions and must draw the attention of those living in the border regions to the availability of the new EU funds as a joint effort.

Slovenian-Hungarian bilateral discussions on the future of CAP and DDR (Online 27 Aug) During their meeting in Maribor, Minister for Rural Development Sándor Fazekas and Slovenian Minister for Agriculture and Environment Franc Bogovič reviewed the standpoint of the two countries on the most important issues relating to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

With relation to CAP funding, they both agreed that there is a continued need for such support and that both direct payments and rural development funding are of equal importance.

In a telephone interview with the Hungarian news agency MTI, Sándor Fazekas stated that especially lively discussions were held on the issue of environmental regulations, as both countries feel that it is exces-

sive for 7 percent of agricultural land to be removed from production for use as ecological target areas. They also view the increase in the ratio of grassland as a problem.

Both parties at the talks agreed on the importance of greater support for young farmers. In the words of Sándor Fazekas, "The Slovenians are inclined to accept the Hungarian proposal according to which every farmer under the age of 40 would receive funding."

The Ministers reviewed Hungarian and Slovenian regulations on foods that are distributed directly by farmers, as well as related experiences and practices. Both countries face similar challenges. Slovenia also sells significant quantities of imported foods, and the country of ori-

gin of products is not always easily recognised, said Sándor Fazekas.

With respect to drought damage, Sándor Fazekas stressed that in September in Brussels he is planning to recommend that those who have suffered damages as a result of drought should receive aid from the solidarity fund. Sándor Fazekas told MTI that his Slovenian colleague accepted this idea warmly. According to the Minister, it is important that the EU bring determined measures with relation to drought damage. Rapid solutions are required so that agriculture and farmers can keep afloat.

On Saturday, Sándor Fazekas will take part in the 50th Jubilee opening ceremony of the AGRA International Agriculture and Food Fair in Gornja Radgona.

Prime Minister Orbán met with CSU fraction leader Gerda Hasselfeldt 28 (Online Prime Aug) Minister Orbán met today with HasGerda selfeldt, fraction leader of German the Christian SoUnion cial (CSU). of Minister ReHuman sources Zoltán Balog, Minister of State for the Prime MinisOffice ter's János Lázár, State Secretary for Foreign Affairs and ExEcoternal n o m i c R e l a t i o n s Hasselfeldt Gerda and Viktor Orban Péter Szijjártó, Ambassador of Germany Matei Hoff- and the CSU are strategically impormann and CSU foreign policy advisor tant.

Hildegard Bentele were also present The CSU fraction leader passed on greetings from Edmund Stoiber and at the meeting.

The Hungarian Prime Minister stated expressed her acknowledgements regarding the incorporation of Eurothat Hungary’s relations with Bavaria

pean Christian values into the New Constitution. Ms. Hasselfeldt added that decreasing public debt is an important goal not only for Hungary, but for the whole of Europe.

Prime Minister Orbán stated Central that is Europe closely interlinked with the German economy, and for this reason a Gerstrong many is in the general interest of the region.

Hungarian economic policy is also aimed at improving Hungary’s competitiveness and ensuring that there are 5 or preferably 5.5 million jobs and taxpayers in the country.

The greatest boost in employment since change of government (Online 28 Aug) According to Central Statistics Office (KSH) data, in May-July 2012 the unemployment rate has receded to 10.5% from 10.9%. Among the 15-74 age group, the number of people employed rose to over 3.908 million, the highest figure since the onset of the economic

crisis in the autumn of 2008.

According to data not adjusted seasonally, in May–July 2012, the unemployment rate among the 15–74 year-old male population increased by 0.3% to 11.0%. During the same period, the number of unemployed women dropped by 0.9% to 9.9%.

The unemployment rate for the 15– 24 age group reached 28.1%, while the 25–54 age-group’s unemployment figures dropped by 0.4 percentage points to 9.6%. Finally, the unemployment rate of persons aged 55–64 decreased by 1.3 percentage points to 7.3%.

Csaba Hende shakes hands with Hungarian soldiers departing to Afghanistan (Online 30 Aug) The Hungarian troops will be stationed at the Kabul airport, where they will, among other tasks help guard and operate the airport. At the request of the North Atlantic Alliance, the Photo: Szilárd Koszticsák

Hungarian Defence Forces will take over the lead nation role in force protection (FP) at Kabul International Airport (KAIA) for six months as of October 1, 2012.

Intensive and predictable legislation is expected during autumn session

Our Lady of Meritxell is an Andorran Roman Catholic statue depicting an apparition of the Virgin Mary. Our Lady of Meritxell is the patron saint of Andorra. The original statue dates from the late 12th century. However, the chapel in which it was housed burned down on September 8 and 9, 1972, and the statue was destroyed. A replica can be found in the new Meritxell Chapel, designed in 1976 by Ricardo Bofill.

The Catalan philologist Joan Coromines says that "Meritxell" is a diminutive of merig, from the Latin meridiem (midday in English). Merig is a name used by shepherds to denote a pasture with lot of sun.

Legend

In the late 12th century, on January 6, a wild rose in bloom was found by villagers from Meritxell going to Mass in Canillo. It was out of season and at its base was found a statue of the Virgin and Child.

The statue was placed in the Canillo church. However, the statue was found under the same wild rose the next day.

The statue was taken to the church of Encamp. However, as before, the statue was found under the same wild rose the next day.

As in similar legends elsewhere, the villagers of Meritxell took this as a sign and decided to build a new chapel in their town after they found an open space miraculously untouched by the winter snows.

Influence "Meritxell" is a relatively frequent female name among Andorran women and other Catalan-speaking women. Examples are: • Meritxell Lavanchy, actress.

• Meritxell Mateu i Pi, former foreign minister of Andorra.

• Meritxell Batet Lamaña, member of the Council of Europe.

HUNGARY

Hungary's law enforcement organisations held a complex counter-terrorism exercise at the Batthyány tér station of metro line 2 ...........(27 August 2012)

(Online 31 Aug) Parliament’s autumn session beginning on 10 September is expected to start with an intensive phase of legislation.

Debates on the action plan designed to help employees and employers and the related regulations are on the agenda as a priority issue, Bence Rétvári, Minister of State for Public Administration and Justice announced.

The Minister of State highlighted that the programme of the autumn session features 55 government proposals; 22 of these are brand-new bills.

While the process of legislation will be tight and intensive during the autumn session, the predictability and transparency of legislation will improve, as anticipated, the Minister of State said.

The bill on the action plan for job protection and the related legislative proposals have already been submitted to Parliament, and will be discussed within a tight schedule. According to plans, the relevant amendments and the law on the itemised tax of low taxpayer businesses and on the tax of small businesses will be passed by 1 October.

Parliament will begin the debate of the new Civil Code, while the debate of the bill on the 2013 budget will also continue and is expected to be closed before the end of September.

The debate on the bill on the election process, in conjunction with the recently passed law on the new election system, will also begin; the gov-

ernment parties, Fidesz and KDNP, are jointly discussing every material facet of this piece of legislation.

Members of Parliament will also debate the land law which is designed to give local Hungarian farmers engaged in agricultural production as their chosen career and profession a better chance. As anticipated, the proposed bill will be attacked from many sides; the adversaries of this legislation are counter-interested in the maintenance of arable land within national competence and the elimination of speculators, the Minister of State remarked.

The issue of the regulation of the retirement age for judges will be presented to Parliament as well.