89 Issue | Zarb-e-Jamhoor e-Newspaper | 16-22 Sep, 2012

Independence Day Mexico - Sep 16

The United Mexican States (Spanish: commonly known as Mexico is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 112 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.

In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.

Mexico has one of the world's largest economies, and is considered both a regional power and middle power., In addition, Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD (since 1994), and a firmly established upper-middle income country. Mexico is considered a newly industrialized country and an emerging power. It has the thirteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity. The economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners, especially the United States. Mexico ranks fifth in the world and first in the Americas by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites with 31, and in 2007 was the tenth most visited country in the world with 21.4 million international arrivals.

History

Ancient cultures:

The earliest human remains in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to ca. 21,000 BCE. Around 9,000 years ago, ancient indigenous peoples domesticated corn and initiated an agricultural revolution, leading to the formation of many complex civilizations. Between 1,800 and 300 BCE, many matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as: the Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan,Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purepecha, Totonac, Toltec and Aztec: Mexica, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans.

These civilizations are credited with many inventions and advancements in fields such as architecture (pyramid-temples), mathematics, astronomy, medicine and theology. The Aztecs were noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale. At its peak, Teotihuacan, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas, had a population of more than 150,000 people. Estimates of the population before the Spanish conquest range from 6 million to 25 million.

At the time of Spanish contact, Teotihuacan was no longer occupied, although the site was well-known; the population of the Aztec Empire and its immediate predecessors had become centered on Lake Texcoco, also in the Valley of Mexico, where the island city of Tenochtitlan was founded in 1325.

Citizenship/Constitution Day U.S. - Sep 17

Constitution Day (or Citizenship Day) is an American federal observance that recognizes the adoption of the United States Constitution and those who have become U.S. citizens. It is observed on September 17, the day the U.S. Constitutional Convention signed the Constitution in 1787.

The law establishing the holiday was created in 2004 with the passage of an amendment by Senator Robert Byrd to the Omnibus spending bill of 2004. Before this law was enacted, the holiday was known as "Citizenship Day". In addition to renaming the holiday "Constitution Day and Citizenship Day," the act mandates that all publicly funded educational institutions provide educational programming on the history of the American Constitution on that day.

In May 2005, the United States Department of Educationannounced the enactment of this law and that it would apply to any school receiving federal funds of any kind. This holiday is not observed by granting time off work for federal employees.

When Constitution Day falls on a weekend or on another holiday, schools and other institutions observe the holiday on an adjacent weekday. This was the case in 2005 and 2011, when Constitution Day was generally observed on Friday, September 16 and 2006 when the holiday was observed on Monday, September 18.

Universities and colleges nationwide have created "U.S. Constitution and Citizenship Weeks" in order to meet the requirements of the law. For example, the Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) has created a celebration week that includes "Constitution Trivia Contests", distribution of free copies of the U.S. Constitution, a campus & community fair (in which volunteer and community groups can share information with students), a web page with facts and links related to the Constitution and history of the United States. MSOE has also distributed thousands of free "Presidential quote" t-shirts to all students on campus.

Belize (formerly British Honduras) is a constitutional monarchy, and the northernmost Central American nation. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official language. Belize is bordered to the north by Mexico, south and west

by Guatemala, and to the east by the Caribbean Sea. Belize’s mainland is about 290 kilometers (180 miles) long and 110 kilometers (68 miles) wide.

With 22,960 square kilometers (8,867 square miles) of land and a population of only 333,200 people (2010 est.), Belize possesses the lowest population density in Central America. The country's population growth rate of 2.21% (2008 est.), however, is the highest in the region and one of the highest in the western hemisphere.

Belize's abundance of terrestrial and marine species, and its diversity of ecosystems give it a key place within the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor.

Belize is culturally unique among its Central American neighbours; it is the only nation in the region with a British colonial heritage. As a part of the Western Caribbean Zone, however, it also shares a common heritage with the Caribbean portions of other Central American countries. In general, Belize is considered to be a Central American nation with strong ties to both the Caribbean and Latin America. Belize is a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA).

Iowa schools first recognized Constitution Day in 1911. In 1917, the Sons of the American Revolution formed a committee to promote Constitution Day. The committee would include members such as Calvin Coolidge, John D. Rockefeller, and General John Pershing.

In 1939, William Randolph Hearst advocated, through his chain of daily newspapers, the creation of a holiday to celebrate citizenship. In 1940, Congress designated the third Sunday in May as I am an American Day. By 1949, governors of all 48 states had issued Constitution Day proclamations. On February 29, 1952, Congress moved that observation to September 17 and renamed it "Citizenship Day".

Louisville, Ohio, calls itself Constitution Town and credits one of its own for getting the holiday national recognition.

In 1952, resident Olga T. Weber petitioned municipal officials to establish Constitution Day, in honor of the creation of the US Constitution in 1787. Mayor Gerald A. Romary proclaimed September 17, 1952, as Constitution Day in the city. The following April, Weber requested that the Ohio General Assembly proclaim September 17 as state-wide Constitution Day. Her request was signed into law by Governor Frank J. Lausche. In August 1953, she took her case to the United States Senate, which passed a resolution designating September 17–23 as Constitution Week. The Senate and House approved her request and it was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. On April 15, 1957, the City Council of Louisville declared the city Constitution Town. The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society later donated four historical markers, located at the four main entrances to the city, explaining Louisville's role as originator of Constitution Day.

Early History:

History

Heroes' Day Angola - Sep 17

Aztec jade mask from the 14th century depicting the god Xipe Totec.

New Spain:

In the early 16th century, from the landing of Hernán Cortés, the Aztec civilization was invaded and conquered by the Spaniards. Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors, smallpox ravaged Mesoamerica in the 1520s, killing millions of Aztecs, including the emperor, and was credited with the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec empire. The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under the name of New Spain. Mexico City was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico were created during the colonial period.

Independence:

On September 16, 1810, independence from Spain was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato. The first insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militia captain Juan Aldama and "La Corregidora" Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured andexecuted by firing squad in Chihuahua, on July 31, 1811. Following his death, the leadership was assumed by priest José María Morelos, who occupied key southern cities.

In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on November 6, signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". Morelos was captured and executed on December 22, 1815. In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 ViceroyJuan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero.

Instead, Iturbide approached Guerrero to join forces, and in 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the "Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of Iguala".

Benito President Agustín de Iturbide immediately proclaimed himself emperor of the First Mexican Empire. A revolt against him in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, Juárez, resisted the occupation, French a Republican Constitution was drafted and Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the newly born country. The first decades of the post-independence period dissoluted the Empire, were marked by economic instability, which led to the Pastry War in 1836, and a con- restored the Republic stant strife between liberales, supporters of a federal form of government, and con- and established the servadores, proposals of a hierarchical form of government. separation of Church General Antonio López de Santa Anna, a centralist and two-time dictator, approved the Siete Leyes in 1836, a radical amendment that institutionalized the centralized and State. form of government. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country, and three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán.

Texas successfully achieved independence and was annexed by the United States. A border dispute led to the Mexican-American War, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years; the War was settled via theTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which forced Mexico to give up over half of its land to the U.S., including Alta California, New Mexico, and the disputed parts of Texas. A much smaller transfer of territory in what is today southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico — the Gadsden Purchase — occurred in 1854. The Caste War of Yucatán, the Mayan uprising that began in 1847, was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts. Maya rebels, or Cruzob, maintained relatively independent enclaves until the 1930s.

Dissatisfaction with Santa Anna's return to power led to the liberal "Plan of Ayutla", initiating an era known as La Reforma, after which a new Constitution was drafted in 1857 that established a secular state, federalism as the form of government, and several freedoms. As the conservadores refused to recognize it, the Reform War began in 1858, during which both groups had their own governments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by the Liberals, led by Amerindian President Benito Juárez. In the 1860s Mexico underwent a military occupation by France, which established the Second Mexican Empire under the rule of Habsburg ArchdukeFerdinand Maximilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and the conservadores, who later switched sides and joined the liberales. Maximilian surrendered, was tried on June 14 and was executed on June 19, 1867.

Porfirio Díaz, a republican general during the French intervention, ruled Mexico from 1876–1880 and then from 1884–1911 in five consecutive reelections, period known as the Porfiriato, characterized by remarkable economic achievements, investments in the arts and sciences, but also of economic inequality and political repression.

20th century to present:

A likely electoral fraud that led to Diaz's fifth reelection sparked the 1910 Mexican Revolution, initially led by Francisco I. Madero.

Díaz resigned in 1911 and Madero was elected president but overthrown and murdered in a coup d'état two years later directed by conservative general Victoriano Huerta. That event re-ignited the civil war, involving figures such as Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who formed their own forces. A third force, the constitutional army led by Venustiano Carranza, managed to bring an end to the war, and radically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many of the social premises and demands of the revolutionaries into what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 population of 15 million.

Assassinated in 1920, Carranza was succeeded by another revolutionary hero, Álvaro Obregón, who in turn was succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles. Obregón was reelected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assume power. In 1929, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), later renamed theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and started a period known as the Maximato, which ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, who implemented many economic and social reforms, and most significantlyexpropriated the oil industry into Pemex on March 18, 1938, but sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost busiPorfirio Díaz, president nesses by Cárdenas' radical measure.

Between 1940 and 1980, Mexico experienced a substantial economic growth that of Mexico with one insome historians call the "Mexican miracle". Although the economy continued to flour- terruption from 1876 ish, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, the PRI rule became to 1911 increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive (see the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre, which claimed the life of around 30–800 protesters).

Electoral reforms and high oil prices followed the administration of Luis Echeverría, mismanagement of these revenues led to inflation and exacerbated the 1982 Crisis. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared, and the government defaulted on its debt. President Miguel de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation.

In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in PRI's monopolistic position. In Baja California, Ernesto Ruffo Appel was elected as governor. In 1988, electoral fraud prevented leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas from winning the national presidential elections, giving Carlos Salinas de Gortari the Presidency and leading to massive protests in Mexico City.

Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchange rate, controlled inflation and culminated with the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect on January 1, 1994. The same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization.

In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeeded by Ernesto Zedillo, the Mexican economy collapsed, with a rapid rescue packaged authorized by U.S. President Bill Clinton and major macroeconomic reforms started by president Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential elections, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however,contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government".

Independence Day Papua New Guinea - Sep 16

Papua New Guinea officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the western portion of the island is a part of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua). It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, in a region defined since the early 19th century as Melanesia. The capital is Port Moresby.

Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries on Earth, with over 850 indigenous languages and at least as many traditional societies, out of a population of just under seven million. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18% of its people live in urban centres. The country is one of the world's least explored, culturally and geographically, and many undiscovered species of plants and animals are thought to exist in the interior of Papua New Guinea.

The majority of the population live in traditional societies and practise subsistence-basedagriculture. These societies and clans have some explicit acknowledgement within the nation's constitutional framework. The PNG Constitution (Preamble 5(4)) expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society", and for active steps to be taken in their preservation.

After being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea gained its independence from Australia in 1975. It remains a Commonwealth realm of Her Majesty Elizabeth II, Queen of Papua New Guinea. Many people live in extreme poverty, with about one third of the population living on less than US$1.25 per day.

History

Human remains have been found which have been dated to about 50,000 BC although this is an estimate. These ancient inhabitants probably had their origins in Southeast Asia, themselves originating in Africa 50,000 to 70,000 years ago. New Guinea was one of the first landmasses after Africa and Eurasia to be populated by modern humans, with the first migration at approximately the same time as that of Australia.

Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas of original plant domestication in the world. A major migration of Austronesian speaking peoples came to coastal regions roughly 500 BC, and this is correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques. More recently, in the 18th century, the sweet potato entered New Guinea having been introduced to the Moluccas fromSouth America by the locally dominant colonial power, Portugal. The far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture; sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and gave rise to a significant increase in population in the highlands.

Although headhunting and cannibalism have been practically eradicated, in the past they occurred in many parts of the country. For example, in 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, a missionary, Harry Dauncey, found 10,000 skulls in the island’s Long Houses. According to the writer Marianna Torgovnick, "The most fully documented instances of cannibalism as a social institution come from New Guinea, where head-hunting and ritual cannibalism Kerepunu villagers, British New Guinea, survived, in certain isolated areas, into the fifties, sixties, 1885 and seventies, and still leave traces within certain social groups."

Little was known in the West about the island until the nineteenth century, although Spanish and Portuguese explorers had encountered it as early as the sixteenth century (cf Dom Jorge de Meneses and Yñigo Ortiz de Retez). Traders from Southeast Asia had also been visiting New Guinea as long as 5,000 years ago collecting bird of paradise plumes. The country's dual name results from its complex administrative history before independence. The word papua is derived from pepuah, a Malay word describing the frizzy Melanesian hair, and "New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, who in 1545 noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. The northern half of the country came into German hands in 1884 as German New Guinea.

During World War I, it was occupied by Australia, which had begun administering British New Guinea, the southern part, as the re-named Papua in 1904. After World War I, Australia was given a mandate to administer the former German New Guinea by the League of Nations. Papua, by contrast, was deemed to be an External Territory of the Australian Commonwealth, though as a matter of law it remained a British possession, an issue which had significance for the country's post-independence legal system. This difference in legal status meant that Papua and New Guinea had entirely separate administrations, both controlled by Australia.

The New Guinea campaign (1942–1945) was one of the major military campaigns of World War II. Approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian and U.S. soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New Guinea Campaign. The two territories were combined into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea after World War II, which later was simply referred to as "Papua New Guinea". However, certain statutes continued to have application only in one of the two territories, a matter considerably complicated today by the adjustment of the former boundary among contiguous provinces with respect to road access and language groups, so that such statutes apply on one side only of a boundary which no longer exists.

The administration of Papua became open to United Nations oversight and a peaceful independence from Australia occurred on September 16, 1975, and close ties remain (Australia remains the largest bilateral aid donor to Papua New Guinea). Papua New Guinea was admitted to membership in the United Nations on 10 October 1975.

A secessionist revolt in 1975–76 on Bougainville Island resulted in an eleventh-hour modification of the draft Constitution of Papua New Guinea to allow for Bougainville and the other eighteen districts to have quasi-federal status as provinces. The revolt recurred and claimed 20,000 lives from 1988 until it was resolved in 1997. Following the revolt, the autonomous Bougainville elected Joseph Kabui as president. He was succeeded by deputy John Tabinaman. who remained leader until the election of December 2008, withJames Tanis emerging as the winner.

Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people, broke out in May 2009. The initial spark for this was a fight between Chinese and Papua New Guinean workers at a nickel factory which was being built by a Chinese company; the underlying reason for the protest was a resentment against the number of small businesses being run

by Chinese.

Malaysia Day Malaysia - Sep 16

Malaysia Day is held on September 16 every year to commemorate the establishment of the Malaysian federation on the same date in 1963. It marked the joining together of Malaya,North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore to form Malaysia. The formation of the new federation was planned to occur on June 1, 1963, but was later postponed to August 31, 1963, in order to coincide with the sixth Hari Merdeka. Several issues related to the Indonesian and the Filipino objection to the formation of Malaysia delayed the declaration to September 16 of the same year. The postponement was also done to allow the United Nations team time to conduct referendums in North Borneo (now Sabah) and Sarawak regarding the two states participation in a new federation.

The formation of Malaysia was made possible through the introduction of the Malaysia Bill to the Malayan Parliament on July 9, 1963, and consent from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on August 29, 1963.

Prior to the formation of Malaysia, Sarawak gained its independence on July 22 1963 while Singapore and North Borneo (which was renamed Sabah) unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1963, thus coinciding with the sixth anniversary of the Malayan independence.

Beginning year 2010, September 16 is a federal public holiday. It coincides with the birthday of the Yang di-Pertua of Sabah.

Mayflower Day U.S. - Sep 16

The Mayflower was the ship that transported the English Separatists, better known as the Pilgrims, from a site near the Mayflower Steps in Plymouth, England, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, (which would become the capital of Plymouth Colony), in 1620. There were 102 passengers and a crew of 25–30.

The vessel left England on September 6, 1620 (Old Style)/September 16 (New Style), and after a grueling 66-day journey marked by disease, which claimed two lives, the ship dropped anchor inside the hook tip of Cape Cod (Provincetown Harbor) on November 11/November 21. The Mayflower was originally destined for the mouth of the Hudson River, near present-day New York City, at the northern edge of England's Virginia colony, which itself was established with the 1607 Jamestown Settlement. However, the Mayflower went off course as the winter approached, and remained in Cape Cod Bay. On March 21/31, 1621, all surviving passengers, who had inhabited the ship during the winter, moved ashore at Plymouth, and on April 5/15, the Mayflower, a privately commissioned vessel, returned to England. In 1623, a year after the death of captain Christopher Jones, the Mayflower was most likely dismantled for scrap lumber in Rotherhithe, London.

The Mayflower has a famous place in American history as a symbol of early European colonization of the future United States. With their religion oppressed by the English Church and government, English Dissenters called Pilgrims who comprised about half of the passengers on the ship desired a life where they could practice their religion freely. This symbol of religious freedom resonates in U.S. society and the story of the Mayflower is a staple of any American history textbook. Americans whose roots are traceable back to New England often believe themselves to be descended from Mayflower passengers.

The main record for the voyage of the Mayflower and the disposition of the Plymouth Colony comes from William Bradford who was a guiding force and later the governor of the colony.

Ship

The Mayflower was used primarily as a cargo ship, involved in active trade of goods (often wine) between England and other European countries, (principally France, but also Norway,Germany, and Spain). Like many ships of the time (such as the Santa Maria), the Mayflower was most likely a carrack with three masts, square-rigged on the foremast and mainmast but lateen-rigged on the mizzenmast. At least between 1609 and 1622, it was mastered by Christopher Jones, who would command the ship on the famous transatlantic voyage, and based in Rotherhithe, London, England. After the famous voyage of the Mayflower, the ship returned to England, likely dismantled for scrap lumber in Rotherhithe in 1623, only a year after Jones's death in March 1622. The Mayflower Barn, just outside the Quaker village of Jordans, inBuckinghamshire, England, is said to be built from these timbers, but this is likely apocryphal.

Details of the ship's dimensions are unknown, but estimates based on its load weight and the typical size of 180-ton merchant ships of its day suggest an estimated length of 90– Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by William 110 feet (27.4–33.5 m) and a width of about 25 feet (7.6 m). Halsall (1882) The ship had a crew of twenty-five to thirty, along with other hired personnel; however, the names of only five are known, including John Alden. William Bradford, who penned our only account of the Mayflower voyage, wrote that John Alden "was hired for a cooper [barrel-maker], at SouthHampton, where the ship victuled; and being a hopefull yong man, was much desired, but left to his owne liking to go or stay when he came here; but he stayed, and maryed here."

Pilgrims' voyage Initially, the plan was for the voyage to be made in two vessels, the other being the smaller Speed-

well, which had transported some of the Pilgrims embarking on the voyage from Delfshaven in the Netherlands to Southampton, England.

The first voyage of the ships departed Southampton, on August 5/15, 1620, but the Speedwell developed a leak, and had to be refitted at Dartmouth on August 17/27.

On the second attempt, the ships reached the Atlantic Ocean but again were forced to return to Plymouth because of the Speedwell's leak. It would later be revealed that there was in fact nothing wrong with the Speedwell. The Pilgrims believed that the crew had, through aspects of refitting the ship, and their behavior in operating it, sabotaged the voyage in order to escape the yearlong commitment of their contract.

After reorganization, the final sixty-six day voyage was made by the Mayflower alone, leaving from a site near to the Mayflower Steps in Plymouth, England on September 6/16. With 102 passengers plus crew, each family was allotted a very confined amount of space for personal belongings. The Mayflower stopped off at Newlyn in Cornwall to take on water.

The intended destination was an area near the Hudson River, in "North Virginia." However the ship was forced far off-course by inclement weather and drifted well north of the intended Virginia settlement. As a result of the delay, the settlers did not arrive in Cape Cod until after the onset of a harsh New England winter. The settlers ultimately failed to reach Virginia where they had already obtained permission from the London Company to settle, due to difficulties navigating the treacherous waters off the southeast corner of Cape Cod. To establish legal order and to quell increasing strife within the ranks, the settlers wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact after the ship dropped anchor at the tip of Cape Cod on November 11/21, in what is now Provincetown Harbor.

The settlers, upon initially setting anchor, explored the snow-covered area and discovered an empty Native American village. The curious settlers dug up some artificially made mounds, some of which stored corn while others were burial sites. Nathaniel Philbrick claims that the settlers stole the corn and looted and desecrated the graves, sparking friction with the locals. Philbrick goes on to say that as they moved down the coast to what is now Eastham, they explored the h e area of Cape Cod for several weeks, looting and stealing native stores as they went. He then T writes about how they decided to relocate to Plymouth after a difficult encounter with the local M a y f l o w e r native Americans, the Nausets, at First Encounter Beach, in December 1620.

Memorial in However, Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation records that they took "some" of the corn to S o u t h a m p show the others back at the boat, leaving the rest. Then, later they took what they needed from ton. another store of grain, paying the locals back in six months, which they gladly received.

Also there was found more of their corn and of their beans of various colors; the corn and beans they brought away, purposing to give them full satisfaction when they should meet with any of them as, about some six months afterward they did, to their good content.

During the winter the passengers remained on board the Mayflower, suffering an outbreak of a contagious disease described as a mixture of scurvy, pneumonia and tuberculosis. When it ended, there were only 53 passengers, just more than half, still alive. Likewise, half of the crew died as well. In spring, they built huts ashore, and on March 21/31, 1621, the surviving passengers left the Mayflower.

On April 5/15, 1621, the Mayflower set sail from Plymouth to return to England, where she arrived on May 6/16, 1621.

Passengers

The Mayflower left England with 102 passengers plus crew. One baby was born en route, and a second was born during the winter of 1620-1621, when the company wintered aboard ship in Provincetown Harbor. One child died during the voyage, and there was one stillbirth during the construction of the colony. Many of the passengers were Pilgrims fleeing persistent religious persecution, but some were hired hands, servants, or farmers recruited by London merchants for the originally intended destination in Virginia.

These were the earliest permanent European settlers in New England.

Second Mayflower

A second ship called the Mayflower 2 made a voyage from London to Plymouth Colony in 1629 carrying 35 passengers, many from the Pilgrim congregation in Leiden that organized the first voyage. This was not the same ship that made the original voyage with the first settlers. This voyage began in May and reached Plymouth in August. This ship also made the crossing from England to America in 1630, 1633, 1634, and 1639. It attempted the trip again in 1641, departing London in October of that year under master John Cole, with 140 passengers bound for Virginia. It never arrived. On October 18, 1642 a deposition was made in England regarding the loss.

Mayflower II After World War II, an effort began to reenact the voyage of the Mayflower. With cooperation between Project

Mayflower and Plimoth Plantation, an accurate replica of the original (designed by naval architect William A. Baker) was launched September 22, 1956 from Devon, England, and set sail in the spring of 1957. Captained by Alan Villiers, the voyage ended in Plymouth Harbor after 55 days on June 13, 1957 to great acclaim.

Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer Worldwide - Sep 16

In 1994, the UN General Assembly proclaimed 16 September the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, commemorating the date of the signing, in 1987, of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (resolution 49/114).

States were invited to devote the Day to promote activities in accordance with the objectives of the Protocol and its amendments.

The ozone layer, a fragile shield of gas, protects the Earth from the harmful portion of the rays of the sun, thus helping preserve life on the planet.

This year’s theme of the international day is“HCFC phase-out: a unique opportunity”. HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) are both ozone-depleting substances and powerful greenhouse gases: the most commonly used HCFC is nearly 2,000 times more potent than carbon dioxide in adding to global warming. By agreeing to speed up the phase-out of HCFCs, Parties to the Montreal Protocol increased their already-substantial contributions to protecting the global climate system.

Owain Glyndwr Day (Wales) U.K. - Sep 16

Owain Glyndŵr or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised

by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower (c. 1349 or 1359 – c. 1416), was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales. He instigated an ultimately unsuccessful but long-running revolt against English rule of Wales.

Glyndŵr was a descendant of the Princes of Powys from his father Gruffydd Fychan II, hereditaryTywysog of Powys Fadog and Lord of Glyndyfrdwy, and of those of Deheubarth through his mother Elen ferch Tomas ap Llywelyn. On 16 September 1400, Glyndŵr instigated the Welsh Revolt against the rule of Henry IV of England. Although initially successful, the uprising was eventually put down — Glyndŵr was last seen in 1412 and was never captured nor tempted by royal pardons and never betrayed.

His final years are a mystery.

Glyndŵr has remained a notable figure in the popular culture of both Wales and England, portrayed in Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part 1 (as Owen Glendower) as a wild and exotic man ruled by magic and emotion ("at my nativity, The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes, Of burning cressets, and at my birth The frame and huge foundation of the earth Shaked like a coward." — Henry IV, Part 1, Act 3, scene 1). In the late 19th century the Cymru Fydd movement recreated him as the father of Welsh nationalism, revising the historical image of him and joining him in popular memory as a national hero on par with King Arthur.

In 2000, celebrations were held all over Wales to commemorate the 600th anniversary of the Glyndŵr rising. Owain has since been voted in at 23rd in a poll of 100 Greatest Britons in 2002.

Independence Day Belize - Sep 21

In Angola, National Heroes Day is September 17 and it is the birthday of the national hero Agostinho Neto.

History Agostinho Neto was born in September 17, 1922 in the village of Icolo

in Bengo province, Angola. Neto completed high school and then worked for the Portuguese Colonial Health Service until 1947. He traveled to Portugal to study medicine when he was provided with funds by his home village.

While studying in Portugal, Neto made friends with other students from Africa and formed an Africa cultural society. Years later members of this group became leaders of anti-colonial movements in Africa.

Agostinho published his first volume of poetry in 1948 and this was followed by authorities arresting him for the first time. A series of arrests followed which interrupted his studies. In 1956, he joined the Movimento Popular da Libertação de Angola (MPLA, Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola). He was allowed to complete his studies in 1958. The he returned to Angola with his new wife, Maria Eugénia da Silva. In Angola he set up a medical practice in gynecology.

Agostinho Neto was arrested again in June 6, 1960 because of his campaigns against the Portuguese colonial administration of Angola. Patients, friends, and supporters where fired upon by the police when they to show their support, 30 were killed and 200 more were injured. Portuguese authorities held him in exile first in Cape Verde and finally in Lisbon, there he wrote a second volume of poetry.

The Portuguese authorities released Neto into house arrest in Lisbon following sustained international pressure. Neto later escaped and went to Morocco and then Zaïre – joining the Angolan Liberation movement in exile. He late became president of the MPLA in 1962.

In 1974, Portugal underwent the Revolução dos Cravos (Carnation Revolution). Marcelo Caetano was removed as leader by a military coup d’état and led a year later to a democratic election. Portugal’s African colonies saw its silver lining. On 11 November 1975, the MPLA declared independence in Angola. In November 11, Agostinho Neto was proclaimed president.

Agostinho Neto died in 10 September 1979 in Moscow Russia, where he had traveled to receive treatment.

TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS AND ACTIVITIES

A daylong program of activities is prepared for the celebration of which includes activities like singing of the National Anthem and patriotic Pledges. These are followed by dancing, singing, music and parades.

National Day Chile - Sep 18

Government Assembly of the Kingdom of Chile (September 18, 1810 - July 4, 1811), also known as the First Government Junta, was the organ established to rule Chile following the deposition and imprisonment of King Ferdinand VII by Napoleon Bonaparte.

It was the earliest step in the Chilean struggle for independence, and the anniversary of its establishment is celebrated as the national day of Chile.

Background

At the start of 1808, the Captaincy General of Chile—one of the smallest and poorest colonies in the Spanish Empire—was under the administration of Luis Muñoz de Guzmán, an able, respected and well-liked Royal Governor. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte and the start of the Peninsular War plunged the empire into a state of agitation. In the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died on February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion.

After a brief interim regency by Juan Rodríguez Ballesteros, and according to the succession law in place at the time, the position was laid claim to and assumed by the most senior military commander, who happened to be Brigadier Francisco García Carrasco.

García Carrasco took over the post of Governor of Chile in April and in August the news of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and of the conformation of a Supreme Central Junta to govern the Empire in the absence of a legitimate king reached the country. In the meantime, Charlotte Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand and wife of theKing of Portugal, who was living in Brazil, also made attempts to obtain the administration of the Spanish dominions in Latin America.

Since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plans was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina and to style herself as Queen of La Plata.

Brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had been some independence agitation but very minimal and concentrated in the very ineffectual Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios back in 1781. The majority of the people were fervent royalists but were divided into two groups: those who favored the status quo and the divine right of Ferdinand VII (known as absolutists) and those who wanted to proclaim Charlotte Joaquina as Queen (known ascarlotistas). A third group was composed of those who proposed the replacement of the Spanish authorities with a local junta of notable citizens, which would conform a provisional government to rule in the absence of the king and an independent Spain (known asjuntistas).

In 1809 Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption (the Scorpion scandal) that managed to destroy whatever remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build. In June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonaparte's forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire Opening session of the First Junta. for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council. García Carrasco, who was a supporter of the carlotist group, managed to magnify the political problems by taking arbitrary and harsh measures, such as the arrest and deportation to Lima without due process of well-known and socially prominent citizens under simple suspicions of having been sympathetic to the junta idea. Among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado.

The autonomy movement also had, inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, thoroughly propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Brigadier García Carrasco was suspended from office and forced to resign on July 16, 1810, to be in turn replaced by the next most senior soldier, Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la Conquista, even though a legitimate Governor, Francisco Javier de Elío, had already been appointed by the Viceroy of Peru.

Count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was a very old man already (82 years old at the time) and moreover a "criollo" (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a "peninsular" (someone born in Spain). Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court (Spanish: Real Audiencia) took a public loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience, which put added pressure on the Governor to define himself. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo (city hall) meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue. The date was set for September 18, 1810 at 11 AM.

Establishment

From the very beginning the juntistas took the political initiative. They were able to place their members in charge of sending the invitations, thus manipulating the assistance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18th session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of "¡Junta queremos! ¡junta queremos!" ("We want a junta! We want a junta"). Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the main table and saying "Here is the baton, take it and rule". The discussion ended with the establishment of the Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile, also known as the First Junta, which was organized with the same powers held by a Royal Governor. In the discussion triumphed the idea of a local independent government as opposed to the monarchist idea of submitting themselves to the control of the Regency Council. Nonetheless, this idea of "independence" must not be taken in the modern sense. This junta never intended to sever the relationship with the monarchy, but was only taking advantage of the possibility to assert local rule.

Administrative measures:

Their first measure was to take a formal loyalty oath to Ferdinand VII as legitimate King. Count Toro Zambrano was elected President, and the rest of the positions were distributed equally among all parties, but the real power was left in the hands of the secretary, Juan Martínez de Rozas. The Junta then proceeded to take some concrete measures that had been long-held aspirations of the colonials: it created a militia for the defense of the kingdom, decreed freedom of trade with all nations that were allied to Spain or neutrals, a unique tariff of 134% for all imports (with the exception of printing presses, books and guns which were liberated from all taxes) and in order Francisco García Carrasco to increase its representativity, ordered the convocatory of a National Congress.

Immediately, political intrigue began amongst the ruling elite, with news of the political turbulence and wars of Europe all the while coming in. It was eventually decided that elections for the National Congress, to be composed of 42 representatives, would be held in 1811. By March of that year 36 representatives had already been elected in all major cities with the exception of Santiago andValparaíso.

Political tendencies:

After the natural death of the president, Mateo de Toro Zambrano on February 26, 1811, he was replaced by Juan Martínez de Rozas, due to the illness of the Vice President, Bishop José Martínez de Aldunate, (who was to die on April 8, 1811).

Three political tendencies were starting to appear: the extremists, the moderates and the royalists. These groups were all decidedly against independence from Spain and differentiated themselves only in the degree of political autonomy that they sought. The moderates (Spanish: moderados), under the leadership of José Miguel Infante, were a majority, and wanted a very slow pace of reforms since they were afraid that once the King was back in power he would think that they were seeking independence and would roll-back all changes. The exaulted (Spanish: exaltados) were the second most important group and they advocated a larger degree of freedom from the Crown and a faster pace of reforms stopping just short of full independence. His leader was Juan Martínez de Rozas. The royalists were against any reform at all and for the maintenance of the status quo.

Figueroa Mutiny:

The great political surprise up to that point had been the results from the other center of power, Concepción, in which royalists had defeated the supporters of Juan Martínez de Rozas. In the rest of Chile, the results were more or less equally divided: twelve pro-Rozas delegates, fourteen anti-Rozas and three royalists. So, the Santiago elections were the key to Rozas' desire to remain in power. This election was supposed to take place on April 10, but before they could be called the Figueroa mutiny broke out.

On April 1, the royalist colonel Tomás de Figueroa—considering the notion of elections to be too populist—led a revolt in Santiago. The revolt sputtered, and Figueroa was arrested and summarily executed. The mutiny was successful in that temporarily sabotaged the elections, which had to be delayed. Eventually, however, a National Congress was duly elected, and all 6 deputies from Santiago came from the moderate camp. Nonetheless, the mutiny also encouraged a radicalization of political postures: even though moderatesadvocating only greater autonomy of the elites from Spanish Imperial control—without a complete rupture—gained the majority of seats, a vocal minority was formed by excited revolutionaries who now wanted complete and instant independence from Spain.

As a consequence of the mutiny, Martinez de Rozas was replaced on April 2, 1811 by Fernando Márquez de la Plata.

The Royal Appeals Court, a long-standing pillar of support of the Spanish Crown, was dissolved for its alleged "complicity" and the idea of full independence gained momentum for the first time. The Junta lasted until July 4, 1811, when it was replaced by the National Congress, and later by the Second Junta.

Victory of Uprona Burundi - Sep 18

Prince Louis Rwagasore founded in 1958 the UPRONA (Union for National Progress) . With the support of the Tutsi ethnic group, UPRONA won an overwhelming mandate in its victory during the elections in 18 September 1961.

History

John Hanning Speke was the first European known to have reached the territory. He traveled with Richard Burton to Lake Tanganyika in 1858. In their search for the headwaters of the Nile, they paddled to the north end of the lake. The other explorers that followed were principally Germans who visited Burundi. The German zone of influence in East Africa was extended after the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 and it included Rwanda and Burundi.

There were no changes in the indigenous organization during the administration of German authorities. The German authorities governed the territory through the cooperation of local authorities so that the laws and customs of the region are upheld. Compared to the peaceful state of affairs in Rwanda, constant factional struggles and rivalry marked the history of Burundi under the German administration. Belgian troops arrived in the country in 1916 but they found it in a state of unrest.

The three-year-old mwami, Mwambutsa IV was at the center of intrigue. The League of Nations awarded Belgium in 1923 a mandate in the region, which was known as Ruanda-Urundi (known today as Rwanda and Burundi). The Belgians implemented the same plan of indirect management used by the Germans. They retained the whole customary organization in the country. Ruanda-Urundi became a UN trust territory under Belgian administration in 1946.

Elections for the National Assembly were held in Urundi with the backing of UN on 18 September 1961. The result was a lopsided victory for UPRONA, the party headed and founded by Prince Louis Rwagasore, who was eldest son of the mwami. Shortly after Prince Rwagasore became premier, he was assassinated on 13 October 1961.

TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS AND ACTIVITIES

The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi have performed for over forty years, they are famous for traditional drumming. Traditional dance often accompanies these drumming performances. The abatimbo and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some of the famous Burundian dances performed during these celebrations.

Independence Day St. Kitts & Nevis - Sep 19

The Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis (known as the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis), located in the Leeward Islands, is a federal two-island nation in the West Indies. It is the smallest sovereign state in the Americas, in both area and population.

The capital city and headquarters of government for the federated state is Basseterre on the larger island of Saint Kitts. The smaller state of Nevis lies about 2 miles (3 km) southeast of Saint Kitts, across a shallow channel called "The Narrows".

Historically, the British dependency of Anguilla was also a part of this union, which was then known collectively as Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla. Saint Kitts and Nevis are geographically part of the Leeward Islands. To the north-northwest lie the islands of Sint Eustatius, Saba, Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten and Anguilla. To the east and northeast are Antigua and Barbuda, and to the southeast is the small uninhabited island of Redonda, and the island ofMontserrat, which currently has an active volcano (see Soufrière Hills).

Saint Kitts and Nevis were among the first islands in the Caribbean to be settled by Europeans. Saint Kitts was home to the first English and French colonies in the Caribbean.

History

Five thousand years prior to European arrival, the island was settled by Native Americans. The latest arrivals, the Kalinago peoples, arrived approximately three centuries before the Europeans. The islands were made known to the Europeans by a Spanish expedition under Columbus in 1493. In 1538, French Huguenots established a settlement on St. Kitts but the settlement was destroyed by the Spanish soon afterwards and the survivors were deported. In 1623, an English settlement was established, which was soon followed by French settlements, the island being divided by agreement. Dissimilar to many other islands, the local Kalinago people on the island allowed Europeans to colonise Saint Kitts. In 1626, the Anglo-French settlers massacred the Kalinago.

The island of Nevis was colonised in 1628 by English settlers from Saint Kitts. From there, Saint Kitts became the premier base for English and French expansion, as the islands of Antigua,Montserrat, Anguilla and Tortola for the English, and Martinique, the Guadeloupe archipelago andSt. Barts for the French were colonised from it.

A Spanish expedition, sent to enforce Spanish claims, occupied both islands and deported the English and French settlers back to their respective countries in 1629. However, they soon returned and re-established their colonies. During the late 17th and early 18th century, the two nations battled for control over the island until it was ceded to the British in 1713.

Although small in size, and separated by only 2 miles (3 km) of water, the two islands were viewed and governed as different states until the late 19th century, when they were forcibly unified along with the island of Anguilla by the British. To this day relations The Battle of Saint Kitts, 1782, as are strained, with Nevis accusing Saint Kitts of neglecting its needs. described by an observer in a French Saint Kitts and Nevis, along with Anguilla, became an associated engraving titled "Attaque de Brimstate with full internal autonomy in 1967. Anguillians rebelled, and stomhill". their island was allowed to separate from the others in 1971. St. Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. It is the newest sovereign nation in the Americas. In August 1998, a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from St. Kitts fell short of the two-thirds majority needed. In late September 1998, Hurricane Georges caused approximately $458,000,000 in damages and property and limited GDP growth for the year and beyond. Georges was the worst hurricane to hit the region in the century.

Talk Like a Pirate Day Worldwide - Sep 19

International Talk Like a Pirate Day (ITLAPD) is a parodic holiday created in 1995 by John Baur (Ol' Chumbucket) and Mark Summers (Cap'n Slappy), of Albany, Oregon, U.S., who proclaimed September 19th each year as the day when everyone in the world should talk like a pirate. For example, an observer of this holiday would greet friends not with "Hello," but with "Ahoy, matey!" The holiday, and its observance, springs from a romanticized view of the Golden Age of Piracy.

Background According to Summers, the day is the only holiday to come into

being as a result of a sports injury. He has stated that during a racquetball game between Summers and Baur, one of them reacted to the pain with an outburst of "Aaarrr!", and the idea was born. That game took place on June 6, 1995, but out of respect for the observance of D-Day, they chose Summers' ex-wife's birthday, as it would be easy for him to remember.

At first an inside joke between two friends, the holiday gained exposure when John Baur and Mark Summers sent a letter about their invented holiday to the American syndicated humor columnistDave Barry in 2002. Barry liked the idea and promoted the day. Growing media coverage of the holiday after Barry's column has ensured that this event is now celebrated internationally, and Baur and Summers now sell books and T-shirts on their website related to the theme. Part of the success for the international spread of the holiday has been attributed to non-restriction of the idea or trademarking, in effect opening the holiday for creativity and "viral" growth.

Baur and Summers found new fame in the 2006 season premiere episode of ABC's Wife Swap, first aired September 18, 2006. They starred in the role of "a family of pirates" along with Baur's wife, Tori. Baur also appeared on the June 26, 2008 episode of Jeopardy!, where he was introduced as a "writer and pirate from Albany, Oregon."

The association of pirates with peg legs, parrots, and treasure maps, popularized in Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Treasure Island (1883), has had a significant influence on parody pirate culture.

Linguistic background Actor Robert Newton, who specialized in portraying pirates, especially Long John Silver in the 1950 Disney film Treas-

ure Island, and in the 1954 Australian film Long John Silver, and as the title character in the 1952 film Blackbeard, the Pirate, is described as the "patron saint" of Talk Like A Pirate Day. Newton was born in Dorset and educated in Cornwall, and it was his native West Country dialect, which he used in his portrayal of Long John Silver and Blackbeard, that some contend is the origin of the standard "pirate accent".

The archetypal pirate grunt "Arrr!" (alternatively "Rrrr!" or "Yarrr!") first appeared in fiction as early as 1934 in the film Treasure Island starringLionel Barrymore, and was used by a character in the 1940 novel Adam Penfeather, Buccaneer by Jeffrey Farnol. However it was popularized and widely remembered with Robert Newton's usage in the classic 1950 Disney film Treasure Island. It has been speculated that the rolling "rrr" has been associated with pirates because of the location of major ports in the West Country of England, drawing labor from the surrounding countryside. West Country speech in general, and Cornish speech in particular, may have been a major influence on a generalized British nautical speech. This can be seen in the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance, which is set inCornwall; although the play did not (originally) use the phrase "arrr", the pirates used words with a lot of rrr's such as "Hurrah" and "pour the pirate sherry".

Examples of pirate sayings

He styl'd us 'young puppies' and shouted 'May the Devil take my soul if I ever gives quarter or asks it of ye!'

"Damn ye, yellow-bellied sapsuckers, I'm a better man than all of ye milksops put together" - Blackbeard The only written records recovered from Blackbeard's ship, the Adventure, after his death ran as follows: Such a day, rum all out- Our company somewhat sober- A damned confusion amongst us !- Rogues a-plotting - Great talk of separation- so I looked sharp for a prize- Such a day found one with a great deal of liquor on board, so kept the company hot, damned hot, then things went well again.

Treasure Island

One of the most influential books on popular notions of pirate speech was Treasure Island, a novel by Robert Louis Stevenson, from which sample quotes include: "Bring me one noggin of rum, now, won't you, matey."

• "Avast, there!"

• "Dead men don't bite."

• "Shiver my timbers!" (often pronounced as "Shiver me timbers!")

• "Fifteen men on a dead man's chest — Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum!"

•

Peace One Day Worldwide - Sep 21

Peace One Day was founded by British documentary filmmaker and actor Jeremy Gilley in September 1999. The charity promotes the idea of one day a year free of conflict and war, one day of a global truce regardless of all kinds of conflict. The UN had already declared the third Tuesday of September the international day of peace in 1981. However initial success for the charity came on the 7th September 2001 when the United Nations passed a further resolution declaring 21 September the International Day of Peace with the additional aim of declaring a global ceasefire and doing so on a fixed day of the year.

To raise public awareness of Peace One Day, celebrities and musicians gather together for large concerts on Peace Day. With the proceeds of these concerts students are provided with packets of information and a documentary film was made of the entire process. Peace One Day has also partnered with large corporations like Skype, Coca-Cola, and Puma AG in order to continue raising awareness of 21 September and the importance of global ceasefire.

Background At the Womad music festival in 1998

Jeremy Gilley conceived the idea of one day when all countries vowed not to wage war; a worldwide ceasefire, a non-violence day. Later that year, Jeremy began meeting students, peace negotiators, NGOs, government representatives, heads of state, and United Nations officials in order to make his dream a reality. Those he contacted included: His Holiness the Dalai Lama, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson, Secretary General of the League of Arab States Amre Moussa, Peace Laureate and former Israeli President Shimon Peres, former Costa Rican President and Nobel Peace Laureate- Oscar Arias Sanchez, Nelson Mandela and UN Secretary General Kofi Annan.

Through numerous meetings it was learned that a United Nations General Assembly resolution would be a good way to establish such a day, and this was made that the goal. Many of the meetings were filmed and compiled them to create the documentary film "Peace One Day", which was then showed to the United Nations General Assembly to convince them of the importance of the mission of Peace One Day. After much effort. On 7 September 2001, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution, sponsored by the UK and Costa Rica, formally establishing an annual day of global ceasefire and non-violence on the UN International Day of Peace - Peace Day - fixed in the global calendar on 21 September. This recalled the previous UN resolution that had declared the first ever peace days.

The first Peace Days passed relatively uneventfully, and it was not until 2006 that "life-saving activities" began to take place on the 21st. On Peace Day 2006 the World Food Programme delivered 30 tonnes of food to Southern Sudan, Star Syringe Ltd. carried out immunization programs in nine countries, and the International Rescue Committee reunited a former child soldier with her family. 2007 was an even better year for the organization: "over 100 million people, in over 100 countries are marking the day, today [September 21] in many different ways," said Director of the United Nations News and Media Department Ahmad Fawzi.

Around the world Peace Day walks, discussions, poetry readings, assemblies, and football matches were held, but most important of all has been the ceasefire in Afghanistan. The ceasefire allowed UN agencies and the Afghan government to give polio vaccines to 1.4 million children in areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. Gilley and Peace One Day Ambassador Jude Law traveled to Afghanistan to videotape the impact of the 2007 Peace Day in Afghanistan for Gilley's documentary "The Day After Peace", meeting with Afghan Minister of Education Mohammad Atmar, UN Special Representative to Afghanistan Tom Koenigs, the head of the Afghan Red Crescent Society Fatima Gailani, and many others.

In 2008 Peace One Day formed a partnership with Puma AG to launch One Day One Goal with the hope of seeing football matches played on Peace Day in all 192 member states of the United Nations. The idea was that these football matches, or "unity matches" would bring together people from different communities and cultures who would ordinarily not play together, and in 2009 over 700 matches were held in over 200 countries on Peace Day. Peace One Day has also formed partnerships with several clothing designers, including Marc Jacobs, Stella McCartney, Toby Mott, Dave Little, and Urban Outfitters in order to continue to raise money and awareness. T-shirts by the designers are available for purchase from the Peace One Day online shop, and money from the purchases goes toward funding Peace Day activities, documentaries, and education.

On September 21, 2010, the Board of the Carnegie Foundation announced that Peace One Day and Jeremy Gilley would be the recipient of the Wateler Peace Prize.

History

The Maya civilization spread itself over Belize beginning around 1500 BC and flourished until about A.D. 800. The recorded history of the centre and south is dominated by Caracol, where the inscriptions on their monuments were, as elsewhere, in the Lowland Maya "El Castillo" at Xunantunich aristocratic tongue Classic Ch'olti'an. North of the Maya Mountains, the inscriptional language at Lamanai was Yucatecan as of A.D. 625.

In the late classic period of Maya civilization (before A.D. 1000), as many as 400,000 people may have lived in the area that is now Belize. Some lowland Maya still occupied the area when Europeans arrived in the 16th century. By then the primary inhabitants were the Mopan branch of the Yucatec Maya.

Spanish colonists tried to settle the inland areas of Belize, but Maya rebellions and attacks forced them to abandon these efforts.

English and Scottish buccaneers known as the Baymen first settled on the coast of Belize in 1638, seeking a sheltered region from which they could attack Spanish ships (see English settlement in Belize). The settlers turned to cutting logwood during the 18th century. The wood yielded a fixing agent for clothing dyes that was vital to the European woollen industry. The Spanish granted the British settlers the right to occupy the area and cut logwood in exchange for an end to piracy.

Battle of St. George's Caye:

The Battle of St. George's Caye was a short military engagement that lasted from 3–10 September 1798, undertaken off the coast of what is now Belize. The name, however, is typically reserved for the final battle that occurred on 10 September. The British first appointed a superintendent over the Belize area in 1786.

Prior to that time, the British government did not initially recognize the settlement in Belize as a colony for fear of provoking Spanish attack. The delay in government oversight allowed the settlers to establish their own laws and forms of government. During this time a few wealthy settlers gained control of the local legislature, known as the Public Meeting, as well as of most of the settlement's land and timber.

The battle took place between an invading force from what would become Mexico, attempting to wrest Belize for Spain, and a small force of resident woodcutters called Baymen, who fought for their livelihood assisted by black slaves.

First Prime Minister, George Cadle The Spanish repeatedly tried to gain control over Belize by force, but were unsuccessful. Spain's last effort occurred on 10 Septem- Price. He is considered by many as, ber 1798, when the British repelled the Spanish fleet in a short en- "The Father of Belize" gagement with no known casualties on either side known as the Battle of St. George's Caye. The anniversary of the battle is now a national holiday in Belize.

As part of the British Empire:

In the early 19th century, the British sought greater control over the settlers, threatening to suspend the Public Meeting unless it observed the government's instructions to eliminate slavery in a whole. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1838, but this did little to change working conditions for labourers in the Belize settlement. Slaves of the colony were valued for their potentially superior abilities in the work of mahogany extraction. As a result, former slave owners in British Honduras earned £53.6.9 on average per slave, the highest amount paid in any British territory.

Soon after, a series of institutions were put in place to ensure the continued presence of a viable labour force. Some of these included greatly restricting the ability of individuals to obtain land, a debt-peonage system to organise the newly "free." The position of being "extra special" mahogany and logwood cutters undergirded the early ascriptions of the capacities (and consequently limitations) of people of African descent in the colony. Because a small elite controlled the settlement's land and commerce, former slaves had no choice but to continue to work in timber cutting.

In 1836, after the emancipation of Central America from Spanish rule, the British claimed the right to administer the region. In 1862, Great Britain formally declared it a British Crown Colony, subordinate to Jamaica, and named it British Honduras. As a colony, Belize began to attract British investors. Among the British firms that dominated the colony in the late 19th century was the Belize Estate and Produce Company, which eventually acquired half of all the privately held land in the colony. Belize Estate's influence accounts in part for the colony's reliance on the mahogany trade throughout the rest of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.

The Great Depression of the 1930s caused a near-collapse of the colonial economy as British demand for timber plummeted. The effects of widespread unemployment were worsened by a devastating hurricane that struck the colony in 1931. Perceptions of the government's relief effort as inadequate were aggravated by its refusal to legalize labour unions or introduce a minimum wage. Demonstrations and riots in 1934 marked the beginning of an independence movement. In response, the government repealed criminal penalties for workers who violated the terms of their labour contracts regarding unions and granted workers the right to join unions.

Economic conditions improved during World War II (1939–1945) when many Belizean men entered the armed forces or otherwise contributed labour to the war effort. Following the war, the colony's economy again stagnated due to the pressures caused by its damaging effect. Britain's decision to devalue the British Honduras dollar in 1949 worsened economic conditions and led to the creation of the People's Committee, which demanded independence. The People's Committee's successor, the People's United Party (PUP), sought constitutional reforms that would expand voting rights to all adults.

Independence:

Constitutional reforms were initiated in 1954 and resulted in a new constitution ten years later. Britain granted British Honduras self-government in 1964, and the head of the PUP—independence leader George Price—became the colony's prime minister. British Honduras was officially renamed Belize in 1973. Progress toward independence, however, was hampered by a Guatemalan claim to sovereignty over the territory of Belize. When Belize finally attained full independence on 21 September 1981, Guatemala refused to recognise the new nation. About 1,500 British troops remained to protect Belize from the Guatemalan threat.

With Price at the helm, the PUP won all elections until 1984. In that election, the first national election after independence, the PUP was defeated by the United Democratic Party (UDP), and UDP leader Manuel Esquivel replaced Price as prime minister. Price returned to power after elections in 1989. Guatemala's president formally recognised Belize's independence in 1992. The following year the United Kingdom announced that it would end its military involvement in Belize. British soldiers were withdrawn in 1994, but the United Kingdom left behind a military training unit to assist with the newly formed Belize Defence Force.

The UDP regained power in the 1993 national election, and Esquivel became prime minister for a second time. Soon afterwards Esquivel announced the suspension of a pact reached with Guatemala during Price's tenure, claiming Price had made too many concessions in order to gain Guatemalan recognition. The pact may have curtailed the 130-year-old border dispute between the two countries. Border tensions continued into the early 2000s, although the two countries cooperated in other areas.

The PUP won a landslide victory in the 1998 national elections, and PUP leader Said Musa was sworn in as prime minister. In the 2003 elections the PUP maintained its majority, and Musa continued as prime minister. He pledged to improve conditions in the underdeveloped and largely inaccessible southern part of Belize.

In 2005, Belize was the site of unrest caused by discontent with the People's United Party government, including tax increases in the national budget. On 8 February 2008, Dean Barrow was sworn in as prime minister after his UDP won a landslide victory in general elections.

Throughout Belize's history, Guatemala has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory. This claim is occasionally reflected in maps showing Belize as Guatemala's twenty-third department. As of March 2007, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious. Guatemala's claim to Belizean territory rests, in part, on the terms Clause VII of the Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859 which (supposedly) obligated the British to build a road between Belize City and Guatemala. At various times the issue has required mediation by the United Kingdom, Caribbean Community heads of Government, the Organization of American States, Mexico, and the United States.

Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in confidence-building measures approved by the OAS, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project.

Since independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean government including, at times, Harrier jets.

Independence Day Malta - Sep 21

Malta officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 93 km (58 mi) south of Sicily and 288 km (179 mi) east of Tunisia, with the Strait of Gibraltar 1,826 km (1,135 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,510 km (940 mi) to the east.

Malta covers just over 300 km2 (120 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest and most densely populated countries.

Its de facto capital is Valletta and the largest town is Birkirkara. The main island is made up of many small towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 (majority of the population of the country) according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages – Maltese and English – with Maltese being considered the national language.

Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a sequence of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Sicilians,Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Since 1964 it has been a member of the United Nations and in 2004 it joined as member of the European Union. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and from 2008 it became part of the eurozone.

Malta has a long Christian legacy and is an Apostolic See. According to the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible, St. Paul was shipwrecked on "Melite", as the Greeks called the island, and ministered there. Catholicism is the official religion in Malta as declared by the Maltese constitution.

Malta is internationally renowned as a tourist resort, with numerous recreational areas and historical monuments, including nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, most prominently theMegalithic Temples which are some of the oldest free-standing structures in the Prehistoric pygmy elephant, discovworld. ered in Għar Dalam

History

Prehistory:

Pottery found by archeologists at Skorba resembles that found in Italy, and suggests that the Maltese islands were first settled in 5200 BC mainly by stone age hunters or farmers who had arrived from the larger island of Sicily, possibly the Sicani. The extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta. Prehistoric farming settlements dating to Early Neolithic period were discovered in open areas and also in caves, such as Għar Dalam.

The Sicani were the only tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time and are generally regarded as related to the Iberians. The population on Malta grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and, in common with other ancient Mediterranean cultures, worshiped a fertility figure represented in Maltese prehistoric artifacts as exhibiting the large proportions seen in similar statuettes, including the Venus of Willendorf.

Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase is similar to pottery found in Agrigento, Sicily. A culture of megalithic temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period. During 3500 BC, these people built some of the oldest existing, freestanding structures in the world in the form of the megalithic Ġgantija temples on Gozo; other early temples include those at Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra.

The temples have a distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000–2500 BC. Animal bones and a knife found behind a removable altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertility, whose statue is now in the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. The culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archeologists speculate that the temple builders fell victim to famine or disease. Others have speculated on the links between this event Ġgantija megalithic temple complex and Plato's account of the disappearance of Atlantis.

Another interesting archeological feature of the Maltese islands often attributed to these ancient builders, are equidistant uniform grooves dubbed "cart tracks" or "cart ruts" which can be found in several locations throughout the islands with the most prominent being those found in an area of Malta named "Clapham Junction". These may have been caused by wooden-wheeled carts eroding soft limestone.

After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta.

Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans:

Around 700 BC, the Ancient Greeks settled on Malta, especially around the area where Valletta now stands. A century later, Phoenician traders, who used the islands as a stop on their trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean to Cornwall, joined the natives on the island. The Phoenicians inhabited the area now known as Mdina, and its surrounding town of Rabat, which they called Maleth. TheRomans, who also lived in Mdina, referred to it (and the island) as Melita.

After the fall of Phoenicia, in 400 BC the area came under the control of Carthage, a former Phoenician colony. During this time the people on Malta mainly cultivated olives and carobs, and produced textiles.

During the First Punic War of 264 BC, tensions led the Maltese people to rebel against Carthage and turn control of their garrison over to the Roman consul Sempronius. Malta remained loyal to Rome during the Second Punic War and the Romans rewarded it with the title Foederata Civitas, a designation that meant it was exempt from paying tribute or the rule of Roman law, although at this time it fell within the jurisdiction of the province of Sicily.

By 117 AD, the Maltese Islands were a thriving part of the Roman Empire, being promoted to the status of Municipium under Hadrian. Catacombs in Rabat testify to an early Christian community on the islands, and the Acts of the Apostles recount the shipwreck of St Paul and his ministry on the island.

When the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western divisions in the 4th century, Malta fell under the control of the Greek speaking Byzantine Empire from 395 to 870, which ruled from Constantinople. Although Malta was under Byzantine rule for four centuries, not much is known from this period. There is evidence that Germanic tribes, including the Goths and Vandals, briefly took control of the islands before the Byzantines launched a counter attack and retook Malta.

Middle Ages:

Malta was involved in the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and the conquest of Malta is closely linked with that of Sicily due to admiral Euphemius' betrayal of his fellow Byzantines, requesting that the Aghlabid dynasty invade the area. As part of the Emirate of Sicily, rule switched to the Fatimids in 909. The Arabs introduced new irrigation, some fruits and cotton and the Siculo-Arabic language was adopted on the island from Sicily: it would eventually evolve into the Maltese language.

The native Christians were allowed freedom of religion but had to pay jizya, a tax for following their religion. The Normans, as part of their conquest of Sicily, took Malta in 1091. The local Christians warmly welcomed the arrival of Roger I and offered to fight for him; in response to this, Roger reportedly tore off a portion of his checkered redand-white banner and presented it to the Maltese, forming the basis of the present-day Maltese flag.

The Norman period was productive; Malta became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Sicily which also covered the island of Sicily and the southern half of the Italian Peninsula. The Catholic Church was re-instated as the state religion with Malta under the See Roger I of Sicily reof Palermo and much Norman architecture sprung up around Malta especially in its an- turned Malta to cient capital Mdina.Tancred of Sicily, the last Norman monarch, made Malta a feudal Christian rule. lordship or fief within the kingdom and a Count of Malta instated. As the islands were much desired due to their strategic importance, it was during this time the men of Malta were militarised to fend off capture attempts; the early counts were skilled Genoese corsairs.

The kingdom passed on to the House of Hohenstaufen from 1194 until 1266. Malta was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation for 72 years. Malta was declared a county and a marquisate, but its trade was totally ruined. For a long time it remained solely a fortified garrison. It was in 1224 underFrederick II that all remaining Muslims were expelled from Malta or forced to convert and the entire Christian male population of Celano in Abruzzo was deported to Malta.

For a brief period the kingdom passed to the Capetian House of Anjou, however high taxes made the dynasty unpopular in Malta, due in part to Charles of Anjou's war against the Republic of Genoa and the island of Gozo was sacked in 1275. A large revolt on Sicily known as the Sicilian Vespers followed these attacks, that saw the Peninsula separating into the Kingdom of Naples; the Kingdom of Sicily, including Malta, then fell under the rule of the Aragonese.

Relatives of the kings of Aragon ruled the island until 1409, when it passed to the Crown of Aragon. Early on in the Aragonese reign the sons of the monarchy received the title, "Count of Malta". It was also during this time that much of the local nobility was created. However by 1397 the bearing of the title "Count of Malta" reverted to a feudal basis with two families fighting over the distinction, which caused much distress. This led the king to abolish the title. Dispute over the title returned when the title was reinstated a few years later and the Maltese, led by the local nobility, rose up against Count Gonsalvo Monroy. Although they opposed the Count, the Maltese voiced their loyalty to the Sicilian Crown, which so impressed Alfonso IV that he did not punish the people for their rebellion but promised never to grant the title to a third party, instead incorporating it back into the crown. The city of Mdina was given the title of Città Notabile as a result of this sequence of events.

Knights of Malta and Napoleon:

In 1530 Charles I of Spain gave the islands to the Order of Knights of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem under the leadership of Frenchman Philippe de Villiers de L'IsleAdam, Grand Master of the Order, in perpetual lease. These knights, a military religious order now known as the Knights of Malta, had been driven out of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire in 1522.

In 1551, Barbary corsairs enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, about 5,000, sending them to Libya.

The knights, led by Frenchman Jean Parisot de la Valette, Grand Master of the Order, withstood a full-blown siege by the Ottomans in 1565, at the time the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. The knights, with the help of the Maltese, were victorious, and speaking of the battle Voltaire said, "Nothing is more well known than the siege of Malta." After the siege they decided to increase Malta's fortifications, particularly in the inner-harbour area, where the new city of Valletta, named in honour of Valette, was built.

They also established watchtowers along the coasts – the Wignacourt, Lascaris and de Redin towers – named after the Grand Masters who ordered the work. The Knights' Jean Parisot de la presence on the island saw the completion of many architectural and cultural projects, Valette, the founder including the embellishment of Città Vittoriosa, the construction of new cities including of Valletta Città Rohan and Città Hompesch and the introduction of new academic and social resources.

Approximately 11,000 people out of a population of 60,000 died of plague in 1675.

The Knights' reign ended when Napoleon captured Malta on his way to Egypt during the French Revolutionary Wars in 1798. Over the years, the power of the Knights declined and the Order became unpopular. This was around the time when the universal values of freedom and liberty were incarnated by the French Revolution. People from both inside the Order and outside appealed to Napoleon Bonaparte to oust the Knights. The Little Corporal did not hesitate.

His fleet arrived in 1798, en route to his expedition of Egypt. As a ruse towards the Knights, Napoleon asked for safe harbour to resupply his ships, and then turned his guns against his hosts once safely insideValletta. Grand Master Hompesch capitulated, and Napoleon entered Malta.

During his very short stay (six days), he accomplished quite a of reforms, notably the creation of a new administration with a Government Commission, the creation of twelve municipalities, the setting up of a public finance administration, the abolition of all feudal rights and privileges, the abolition of slavery and the granting of freedom to all Turkish slaves. On the judicial level, a family code was framed and twelve judges were nominated. Public education was organised along principles laid down by Bonaparte himself, providing for primary and secondary education. Fifteen primary schools were founded and the university was replaced by an ’Ecole centrale’ in which there were eight chairs, all very scientific in outlook: notably, arithmetic and stereometry, algebra and stereotomy, geometry and astronomy, mechanics and physics, navigation, chemistry, etc. He then sailed for Egypt leaving a substantial garrison in Malta.

The French forces left behind became unpopular with the Maltese, due particularly to the French forces' hostility towards Catholicism. The French financial and religious policies angered the Maltese who rebelled, forcing the French to retreat within the city fortifications. Great Britain, along with the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily, sent ammunition and aid to the Maltese and Britain also sent her navy, which blockaded the islands.

General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois surrendered his French forces in 1800. Maltese leaders presented the island to Sir Alexander Ball, asking that the island become a British Dominion. The Maltese people created a Declaration of Rights in which they agreed to come "under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free people, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The Declaration also stated that "his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power...if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control."

British Empire and World War II:

In 1814, as part of the Treaty of Paris, Malta officially became a part of the British Empire and was used as a shipping way-station and fleet headquarters. Malta's position half-way between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal proved to be its main asset during these years and it was considered an important stop on the way to India. This was an important trade route for the British and thus, the Maltese people took great advantage of this alliance as several culinary and botanical products were introduced in Malta; some examples (derived from the National Book of Trade Customs found in the National Library) include the entry of wheat (for bread mak- Malta joined the European Union in ing) and bacon. In 1919 British troops fired on a rally protesting 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in against new taxes, killing four Maltese men. The event, known as Sette Giugno (Italian for 7 June), is commemorated every year and 2007. is one of five National Days.

In the early 1930s the British Mediterranean Fleet, which was at that time the main contributor to commerce on the island, moved to Alexandria as an economic measure and to be out of range of Italian bombers. During World War II, Malta played an important role owing to its proximity to Axis shipping lanes. The bravery of the Maltese people during the second Siege of Malta moved King George VI to award the George Cross to Malta on a collective basis on 15 April 1942 "to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history". Some historians argue that the award caused Britain to incur disproportionate losses in defending Malta, as British credibility would have suffered if Malta surrendered, as Singapore had. A replica of the George Cross now appears in the upper hoist corner of the Flag of Malta. The collective award remained unique until April 1999, when the Royal Ulster Constabulary became the second – and, to date, the only other – recipient of a collective George Cross.

Independence and Republic:

Malta achieved its independence on 21 September 1964 (Independence Day) after intense negotiations with the United Kingdom, led by Prime Minister George Borg Olivier. Under its 1964 constitution, Malta initially retained Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta and thus Head of State, with a Governor-General exercising executive authority on her behalf. In 1971, the Malta Labour Party led by Dom Mintoff won the General Elections, resulting in Malta declaring itself a republic on 13 December 1974 (Republic Day) within the Commonwealth, with the President as head of state.

A defence agreement signed soon after independence (and re-negotiated in 1972) expired on 31 March 1979.

Malta adopted a policy of neutrality in 1980. In 1989, Malta was the venue of a summit between US President George H.W. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, their first face-to-face encounter, which signaled the end of the Cold War. On July 16, 1990, Malta, through its foreign minister, Guido de Marco, applied to join the European Union. After tough negotiations, a referendum was held on March 8, 2003, which resulted in a favourable vote. General Elections held on April 12, 2003, gave a clear mandate to the Prime Minister, Eddie Fenech Adami, to sign the Treaty of accession to the European Union on April 16, 2003 in Athens, Greece. Malta joined the European Union on May 1, 2004. Following the European Council of June 21–22, 2007, Malta joined the Eurozone on January 1, 2008.

Independence Day Mali - Sep 22

Mali officially the Republic of Mali is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with a population of 14.5 million. Its capital is Bamako. Mali consists of eight regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara, while the country's southern region, where the majority of inhabitants live, features the Niger and Sénégal rivers. The country's economic structure centers around agriculture and fishing. Some of Mali's natural resources include gold, uranium, and salt.

Present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire (from which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali making it a part of French Sudan. French Sudan (then known as the Sudanese Republic) joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a 1991 coup led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. About half the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.

History

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan tradein gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mandespeaking people. The nation expanded throughout West Africa from the 8th century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire. The Songhai people originated in current northwestern Nigeria. The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of aMoroccan invasion in 1591, under the command ofJudar Pasha. The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–56, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."

In the colonial era, Mali fell under the control of the French beginning in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan. In early 1959, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) and Senegalunited to become the Mali Federation. The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960. Modibo Keïta was elected the first president. Keïta quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.

In November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré. The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. However, his efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought between 1968 to 1974, which killed thousands of people from famine. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. However, the Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.

The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali.

Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election. Upon his reelection in 1997, President Konaré pushed through political and economic reforms and fought corruption. In 2002, he was succeeded in democratic elections by Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general, who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising. Today, Mali is one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.

Car Free Day Worldwide - Sep 22

A Car Free Day encourages motorists to give up their car for a day. Organized events are held in some cities and countries. September 22 is World Car Free Day. According toThe Washington Post, the event "promotes improvement of mass transit, cycling and walking, and the development of communities where jobs are closer to home and where shopping is within walking distance".

The events, which vary by location, give motorists and commuterists an idea of their locality with fewer cars. While projects along these lines had taken place from time to time on an ad hoc basis starting with the 1973 oil crisis, it was only in October 1994 that a structured call for such projects was issued in a keynote speech by Eric Britton at the International Ciudades Accesibles (Accessible Cities) Conference held in Toledo (Spain). Thursday: A Breakthrough Strategy for Reducing Car Dependence in Cities Within two years the first Days were organized in Reykjavík (Iceland), Bath (Britain) and La Rochelle (France), and the informal World Car Free Days Consortium was organized in 1995 to support Car-Free Days world wide. The first national campaign was inaugurated in Britain by the Environmental Transport Association in 1997, the French followed suit in 1998 as In town, without my car! and was established as a Europe-wide initiative by the European Commission in 2000. In the same year the Commission enlarged the program to a full European Mobility Week which now is the major focus of the Commission, with the Car-Free Day part of a greater new mobility whole. Also in 2000, car free days went global with a World Carfree Day program launched by Carbusters, now World Carfree Network, and in the same year the Earth Car Free Day collaborative program of the Earth Day Network and the World Car Free Days collaborative.

While considerable momentum has been achieved in terms of media coverage, these events turn out to be difficult to organize to achieve real success (perhaps requiring significant reorganization of the host city's transportation arrangement) and even a decade later there is considerable uncertainty about the usefulness of this approach. The sine qua non of success is the achievement of broad public support and commitment to change. By some counts by advocates (disputed), more than a thousand cities worldwide organized “Days” during 2005. The results have been extremely uneven.

Currently Bogotá holds the world's largest car-free weekday event covering the entire city. The first car-free day was held in February 2000 and became institutionalised through a public referendum.

In September 2007 Jakarta held its Car-Free Day that closed the main avenue of the city from cars and invited local pedestrian to exercise and having their activities on the streets that normally full of cars and traffic. Along the road from the Senayan traffic circle on Jalan Sudirman, South Jakarta, to the "Selamat Datang" Monument at the Hotel Indonesia traffic circle on Jalan Thamrin, all the way north to National Monument Central Jakarta, cars are cleared out for pedestrians. Today the Car-Free Day in Jakarta's main avenue is held every two weeks on Sunday . It is held on the main avenue of the city; Jalan Sudirman and Jalan Thamrin, from Senayan area to Monas (Monumen Nasional) from 6 AM to 12 AM.

Minister of Defence Csaba Hende to Meet United States Secretary of Defence

Birthday of Princess Martha Louise Norway - Sep 22

Princess Märtha Louise of Norway (born 22 September 1971 in Oslo) is the only daughter of King Harald V and Queen Sonja. She is fourth in the line of succession to the Norwegian throne, after her brother and his two children.

Early life

Princess Märtha Louise was born on 22 September 1971 to the then Crown Prince Harald and Crown Princess Sonja. At birth, she was not in line to the throne, because until 1990, only males could inherit the Norwegian throne (Salic law). She was christened a few months after her birth. Her godparents are King Olav V of Norway, Princess Margaretha of Sweden, Count Flemming of Rosenborg, Princess Ragnhild of Norway, Dagny Haraldsen, Haakon Haraldsen, Nils Jørgen Astrup and Ilmi Riddervold.

In 1973, Märtha Louise was joined by a younger brother Haakon Magnus. In 1990 the Norwegian constitution was altered, granting full cognatic primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This change only affects those born in 1990 or later. Females born between 1971 and 1990 (i.e. only Märtha Louise), were given succession rights, but their brothers would be before them in the line of succession, meaning that Prince Haakon still took precedence over Märtha Louise in the line of succession.

After the births of her brother's two children, Ingrid Alexandra and Sverre Magnus, Märtha Louise was relegated to fourth in line. The princess is also 71st in the line of succession to the throne of each of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms, as a great-great-granddaughter of King Edward VII.

and career Education Princess Märtha Louise is a certified physiotherapist, following education in Oslo

and internship in Maastricht, the Netherlands. She has not practised her profession, however, choosing instead, from her fascination in traditional Norwegian folk tales as well as a love of music, to establish her own commercial entertainment business based on giving public and televised performances reciting folk tales and singing with well-known Norwegian choirs. In December 2003, she took part in Oslo Gospel Choir's Christmas concert with a solo performance, included on the companion CD album.

On 1 January 2002, after Princess Märtha Louise started her own business, in order to work with more freedom from her constitutional role as a princess, she began paying income tax, and the King, after consulting her, issued a royal edict which removed Princess Märtha Louise's style of Royal Highness (she is entitled to the style Highness when abroad). However, she retains her place in the line of succession, and, though her activities were reduced, she still carries out some public duties on behalf of the King.

After several postponements due to family births and her father's illness, during which the princess took on some representation duties, Princess Märtha Louise and her husband moved to New York City in October 2004. In 2004, her first book, a children's story about the first royal family of Norway was released – Why Kings and Queens Don't Wear Crowns. Accompanying the book is a CD version of the Princess reading her story aloud.

Princess Märtha Louise has studied physiotherapy, trained as a Rosen therapist and studied at an academy for holistic medicine. She claims she can communicate with animals and angels and has started her own alternative medical school named Astarte Education, after one of the oldest goddesses in the Middle East.

On 2 October 2007, Princess Märtha Louise became the first member of the Norwegian Royal Family to ever appear in a court of law as she wanted to halt sales of a book entitled Martha's angels.

In 2007 the Princess was editor of the book "Prinsesse Märtha Louises eventyrlige verden, Eventyr fra jordens hjerte, Rodinia" containing 67 fairy tales from 50 countries.

Princess Märtha Louise's Fund Her Royal Highness Princess Märtha Louise's Fund was founded

on 15 September 1972 and awards funds to projects carried out by non-governmental organisations in order to provide assistance to disabled children under the age of 16 in Norway. Princess Märtha Louise is the fund's chairperson. In 2005 the fund had assets of approximately NOK 13,285,000, and total annual allocations came to about NOK 500,000.

Patronages On 18 January 2006 Princess Martha Louise (along with the rest

of the Norwegian Royal Family) revised her patronage list, and will no longer be a royal patron of any cultural groups including the annual Bjørnson literary festival; her brother Crown Prince Haakon will take over that position. She will only retain six patronage roles, all of them health related. They include the country's foundations for the blind, deaf and those with epilepsy. "With these changes, we want to eliminate possible doubt about role conflicts for the princess." palace spokesman Astrid Versto told newspaper VG. • The Norwegian Sports Organisation for the Disabled • The Norwegian Association of the Deaf • Norway Muscular Dystrophy Association • The Norwegian Epilepsy Association • The Norwegian Rheumatism Association • The Norwegian Association of the Blind and Partially Sighted

Honours Norway Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Norway The Royal House Centenary Medal Norway Haakon VIIs Centenary Medal Norway Olav Vs Commemorative Medal of 30. January 1991 Norway Olav Vs Jubilee Medal 1957-1982 Norway Olav Vs Centenary Medal Norway Royal Family Order of King Olav V of Norway Norway Royal Family Order of King Harald V of Norway Denmark Knight of the Elephant Finland Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose Iceland Grand cross of the Order of the Falcon Jordan Grand Cross of the Order of Al-Kawkab Al Urdoni (Order of the Star of Jordan) Portugal Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique Spain Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Merit Sweden Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf's 50th Anniversary Medal

Titles from birth

Here is a list of titles Princess Märtha Louise held from birth in chronological order: Her Royal Highness Princess Märtha Louise of Norway (1971–2002) • Her Highness Princess Märtha Louise of Norway (Since 2002) •

Independence Day Armenia - Sep 21

Armenia officially the Republic of Armenia Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun, is a landlocked mountainous country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the de facto independentNagorno-Karabakh Republic and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.

A former republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is a unitary, multiparty, democratic nation-state with an ancient and historic cultural heritage.

The Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion in the early years of the 4th century (the traditional date is 301). The modern Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church as the national church of Armenia, although the republic has separation of church and state.

Armenia is a member of more than 40 international organisations, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Asian Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Independent States, the World Trade Organization, World Customs Organization, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, and La Francophonie. It is a member of the CSTO military alliance, and also participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme. In 2004 its forces joined KFOR, a NATO-led international force in Kosovo.

It is also an observer member of the Eurasian Economic Community and the Non-Aligned Movement. The country is an emerging democracy, and is currently in a negotiation process with the European Union, of which it may become an Associate Member in the near future. The Government of Armenia holds European integration as a key priority in its foreign policy as it is considered a European country by the European Union.

History

Antiquity:

Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the Biblical mountains of Ararat, upon which Noah's Ark is said to have come to rest after the flood. (Bible, Gen. 8:4). Recent archeological studies have found the world's earliest leather shoe, skirt, and wine-producing facility in Armenia, dated to about 4000 B.C. This points to an advanced early civilization In the Bronze Age; several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire (at the height of its power), Mitanni (South-Western historical Armenia), and Hayasa-Azzi (1500–1200 BC). The Nairi people (12th to 9th centuries BC) and the Kingdom of Urartu (1000–600 BC) successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the aforementioned nations and Armenian Greco-Roman-style Temple of tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian peo- the Sun at Garni. ple. Yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. Around 600 BC, the Kingdom of Armenia was established under the Orontid Dynasty. The kingdom reached its height between 95 and 66 BC under Tigranes the Great, becoming one of the most powerful kingdoms of its time within the region. Throughout its history, the kingdom of Armenia enjoyed periods of independence intermitted with periods of autonomy subject to contemporary empires. Armenia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including theAssyrians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, Persians, Ottoman Turks and Russians.

Armenia was historically Mazdean Zoroastrian (as opposed to the Zurvanite Sassanid dynasty), particularly focused on the worship of Mihr (Avestan Mithra), and Christianity spread into the country as early as AD 40. King Tiridates III (AD 238–314) made Christianity the state religion in AD 301, becoming the first officially Christian state, ten years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity an official toleration under Galerius, and 36 years before Constantine the Great was baptized.

After the fall of the Armenian kingdom in AD 428, most of Armenia was incorporated as a marzpanate within the Sassanid Empire. Following an Armenian rebellion in AD 451, Christian Armenians maintained their religious freedom, while Armenia gained autonomy.

Middle Ages:

After the Marzpanate period (428–636), Armenia emerged as the Emirate of Armenia, an autonomous principality within the Arabic Empire, reuniting Armenian lands previously taken by the Byzantine Empire as well. The principality was ruled by the Prince of Armenia, recognised by the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor. It was part of the administrative division/emirate Arminiyy acreated by the Arabs, which also included parts of Georgia and Caucasian Albania, and had its center in the Armenian city Dvin. The Principality of Armenia lasted until 884, when it regained its independence from the weakened Arabic Empire.

The re-emergent Armenian kingdom was ruled by the Bagratuni dynasty, and lasted until 1045. In time, several areas of the Bagratid Armenia separated as independent Etchmiadzin Cathedral – the oldest kingdoms and principalities such as the Kingdom of Vaspurakan ruled by the House of Artsruni, while still recognizing church in the world built by the state. the supremacy of the Bagratid kings.

In 1045, the Byzantine Empire conquered Bagratid Armenia. Soon, the other Armenian states fell under Byzantine control as well. The Byzantine rule was short lived, as in 1071 Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines and conquered Armenia at the Battle of Manzikert, establishing the Seljuk Empire. To escape death or servitude at the hands of those who had assassinated his relative, Gagik II, King ofAni, an Armenian named Roupen went with some of his countrymen into the gorges of theTaurus Mountains and then into Tarsus of Cilicia. The Byzantine governor of the palace gave them shelter where the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually established.

Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region.

The Seljuk Empire soon started to collapse. In the early 12th century, Armenian princes of the Zakarid noble family established a semi-independent Armenian principality in Northern and Eastern Armenia, known as Zakarid Armenia, lasted under patronages of Seljuks,Georgian Kingdom, Atabegs of Azerbaijan and Khwarezmid Empire. The noble family of Orbelians shared control with the Zakarids in various parts of the country, especially in Syunik and Vayots Dzor.

Early Modern era:

During the 1230s, the Mongol Empire conquered the Zakaryan Principality, as well as the rest of Armenia. The Mongolian invasions were soon followed by those of other Central Asian tribes (Kara Koyunlu, Timurid and Ak Koyunlu), which continued from the 13th century until the 15th century. After incessant invasions, each bringing destruction to the country, Armenia in time became weakened.

During the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia divided Armenia among themselves. From 1604 Abbas I of Persia implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy which involved the forced resettlement of many Armenians from their homelands. The Russian Empire later incorporated Eastern Armenia (con- Seizure of Yerevan fortress by Russian sisting of the Erivan and Karabakh khanates within Persia) troops in 1827 by Franz Roubaud. in 1813 and 1828.

Under Ottoman rule, the Armenians were granted considerable autonomy within their own enclaves and lived in relative harmony with other groups in the empire (including the ruling Turks). However, as Christians under a strict Muslim social system, Armenians faced pervasive discrimination. When they began pushing for more rights within the Ottoman Empire, Sultan ‘Abdu’l-Hamid II, in response, organised state-sponsored massacres against the Armenians between 1894 and 1896, resulting in an estimated death toll of 80,000 to 300,000 people. The Hamidian massacres, as they came to be known, gave Hamid international infamy as the "Red Sultan" or "Bloody Sultan".

The Ottoman Empire began to collapse and in 1908 the Young Turk Revolution overthrew the government of Sultan Hamid. Armenians living in the empire hoped that the Committee of Union and Progress would change their second-class status. Armenian reform package (1914) was presented as a solution by appointing an inspector general over Armenian issues.

World War I and the Armenian Genocide:

When World War I broke out leading to confrontation of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire in the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns, the new government in Constantinople began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion. This was due to the fact that the Russian army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Anatolia perished in what has become known as the Armenian Genocide.

There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been statesponsored mass killings, or genocide.Turkish authorities, however, maintain that the deaths were the result of a civil war coupled with disease and famine, with casualties incurred by both sides. According to the research conducted

by Arnold J. Toynbee an estimated 600,000 Armenians died during the Armenian Genocide in 1915–16.

According to the International Association of Genocide Scholars, the death toll was "more than a million". Armenia and the Armenian diaspora have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years. These events are traditionally commemorated yearly on 24 April, the Armenian Martyr Day, or the Day of the Armenian Genocide.

Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA):

Although the Russian army succeeded in gaining most of Ottoman Armenia during World War I, their gains were lost with the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. At the time, Russian-controlled Eastern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan attempted to bond together in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. This federation, however, only lasted from February to May 1918, when all three parties decided to dissolve it. As a result, Eastern Armenia became independent as the Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA) on 28 May. The DRA's short-lived independence was fraught with war, territorial disputes, and a mass influx of refugees from Ottoman Armenia bringing with them disease and starvation. The Entente Powers, appalled by the actions of the Ottoman government, sought to help the newly found Armenian state through relief funds and other forms of support.

At the end of the war, the victorious powers sought to divide up the Ottoman Empire. Signed between the Allied and Associated Powers and Ottoman Empire at Sèvres on 10 August 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres promised to maintain the existence of the Armenian republic and to attach the former territories of Ottoman Armenia to it. Because the new borders of Armenia were to be drawn by United States President Woodrow Wilson, Ottoman Armenia is also referred to as "Wilsonian Armenia." In addition, just days prior, on 5 August 1920, Mihran Damadian of the Armenian National Union, the de facto Armenian administration in Cilicia, declared the independence of Cilicia as an Armenian autonomous republic under French protectorate.

There was even consideration of possibly making Armenia a mandate under the protection of the United States.

The treaty, however, was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, and never came into effect. The movement, under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, used the treaty as the occasion to declare itself the rightful government of Turkey, replacing the monarchy based in Istanbul with a republic based in Ankara.

In 1920, Turkish nationalist forces invaded the fledgling Armenian republic from the east and the Turkish-Armenian War began. Turkish forces under the command of Kazım Karabekir captured Armenian territories that Russia had annexed in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War and occupied the old city of Alexandropol (presentday Gyumri). The violent conflict finally concluded with the Treaty of Alexandropol on 2 December 1920.

The treaty forced Armenia to disarm most of its military forces, cede more than 50% of its pre-war territory, and to give up all the "Wilsonian Armenia" granted to it at the Sèvres treaty. Simultaneously, the Soviet Eleventh Army, under the command of Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze, invaded Armenia at Karavansarai (present-day Ijevan) on 29 November. By 4 December, Ordzhonikidze's forces entered Yerevan and the short-lived Armenian republic collapsed.

Soviet Armenia:

Armenia was annexed by Bolshevist Russia and along with Georgia and Azerbaijan, it was incorporated into the Soviet Union as part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (TSFSR) on 4 March 1922. With this annexation, the Treaty of Alexandropol was superseded by the Turkish-Soviet Treaty of Kars. In the agreement, Turkey allowed the Soviet Union to assume control over Adjara with the port city of Batumi in return for sovereignty over the cities of Kars, Ardahan, and Iğdır, all of which were part of Russian Armenia.

The TSFSR existed from 1922 to 1936, when it was divided up into three separate entities (Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, and Georgian SSR). Armenians enjoyed a period of relative stability under Soviet rule. They received medicine, food, and other provisions from Moscow, and communist Armenians gather at Theater Square in rule proved to be a soothing balm in contrast to the turbulent central Yerevan to protest Soviet policies final years of the Ottoman Empire. The situation was difficult for the church, which struggled under Soviet rule. After the and rule in 1988 death of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin took the reins of power and began an era of renewed fear and terror for Armenians. As with various other ethnic groups who lived in the Soviet Union during Stalin's Great Purge, tens of thousands of Armenians were either executed or deported.

Armenia was spared the devastation and destruction that wrought most of the western Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War of World War II. The Nazis never reached the South Caucasus, which they intended to do in order to capture the oil fields in Azerbaijan. Still, Armenia played a valuable role in aiding the allies both through industry and agriculture. An estimated 500,000 Armenians, out of a population of 1.4 million, were mobilised. 175,000 of these men died in the war.

Fears decreased when Stalin died in 1953 and Nikita Khruschev emerged as the Soviet Union's new leader. Soon, life in Soviet Armenia began to see rapid improvement. The church which suffered greatly under Stalin was revived when Catholicos Vazgen I assumed the duties of his office in 1955. In 1967, a memorial to the victims of the Armenian Genocide was built at the Tsitsernakaberd hill above the Hrazdan gorgein Yerevan. This occurred after mass demonstrations took place on the tragic event's fiftieth anniversary in 1965.

During the Gorbachev era of the 1980s with the reforms of Glasnost and Perestroika, Armenians began to demand better environmental care for their country, opposing the pollution that Soviet-built factories brought. Tensions also developed between Soviet Azerbaijan and its autonomous district of Nagorno-Karabakh, a majority-Armenian region separated by Stalin from Armenia in 1923. About 484,000 Armenians lived in Azerbaijan in 1970. The Armenians of Karabakh demanded unification with Soviet Armenia. Peaceful protests in Yerevan supporting the Karabakh Armenians were met with anti-Armenian pogroms in the Azerbaijani city of Sumgait. Compounding Armenia's problems was a devastating earthquake in 1988 with a moment magnitude of 7.2.

Gorbachev's inability to alleviate any of Armenia's problems created disillusionment among the Armenians and fed a growing hunger for independence. In May 1990, the New Armenian Army(NAA) was established, serving as a defence force separate from the Soviet Red Army. Clashes soon broke out between the NAA and Soviet Internal Security Forces (MVD) troops based in Yerevan when Armenians decided to commemorate the establishment of the 1918 Democratic Republic of Armenia. The violence resulted in the deaths of five Armenians killed in a shootout with the MVD at the railway station. Witnesses there claimed that the MVD used excessive force and that they had instigated the fighting.

Further firefights between Armenian militiamen and Soviet troops occurred in Sovetashen, near the capital and resulted in the deaths of over 26 people, mostly Armenians. The pogrom of Armenians in Baku in January 1990 forced almost all of the 200,000 Armenians in the Azerbaijani capital Baku to flee to Armenia. On 17 March 1991, Armenia, along with the Baltic states, Georgia and Moldova, boycotted a nationwide referendum in which 78% of all voters voted for the retention of the Soviet Union in a reformed form.

Restoration of independence:

On 23 August 1990, Armenia declared independence, becoming the first non-Baltic republic to secede from the Soviet Union. When, in 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved, Armenia's independence was officially recognized.

However, the initial post-Soviet years were marred by economic difficulties as well as the break-out of a full-scale armed confrontation between the Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijan. The economic problems had their roots early in the Karabakh conflict when the Azerbaijani Popular Front managed to pressure the Azerbaijan SSR to instigate a railway and air blockade against Armenia. This move effectively crippled Armenia's economy as 85% of its cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic. In 1993, Turkey joined the blockade against Armenia in support of Azerbaijan.

The Karabakh war ended after a Russian-brokered cease-fire was put in place in 1994. The war was a success for the Karabakh Armenian forces who managed to capture 16% of Azerbaijan's internationally recognised territory including Nagorno-Karabakh itself. Since then, Armenia and Azerbaijan have held peace talks, mediated by the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The status over Karabakh has yet to be determined.

The economies of both countries have been hurt in the absence of a complete resolution and Armenia's borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan remain closed. By the time both Azerbaijan and Armenia had finally agreed to a ceasefire in 1994, an estimated 30,000 people had been killed and over a million had been displaced.

As it enters the 21st century, Armenia faces many hardships. Still, it has managed to make some improvements. It has made a full switch to a market economy and as of 2009, is the 31st most economically free nation in the world.

Its relations with Europe, the Middle East, and the Commonwealth of Independent States have allowed Armenia to increase trade. Gas, oil, and other supplies come through two vital routes: Iran and Georgia. Armenia maintains cordial relations with both countries.

Business Women's Day U.S. - Sep 22

American Business Women's Day is an American holiday, nationally recognized on September 22.

September 22 marks the 1949 founding date of the American Business Women's Association, the mission of which is "to bring together businesswomen of diverse occupations and to provide opportunities for them to help themselves and others grow personally and professionally through leadership; education, networking support and national recognition".

This holiday was recognized in 1983 and 1986 by Congressional resolution and a proclamation issued by President Ronald Reagan. It commemorates the important legacy and contributions of the more than 68 million American working women and 7.7 million women business owners.

Moreover, it provides an opportunity for ABWA chapters and individual businesswomen to celebrate their accomplishments within the American and global marketplace.

H unga r ia n pr opos a l t o e a s e da m a ge c a us e d by dr ought (Online 11 Sep) Drought is affecting Central and Southern Europe on an unprecedented scale, causing widespread damage to crops. Hungary is therefore planning to raise the issue of assistance at the European Council meeting on 24 September.

Other countries such as Romania, the Czech Republic, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Italy and Spain are also expected to join the initiative. Hungarian Minister for Rural Development Sándor Fazekas spoke about these plans to the Hungarian News Agency (MTI) after meeting with other countries’

representatives at the meeting of agricultural ministers in Cyprus.

The proposal urges the European Commission to review every opportunity to help farmers hit by the drought. Minister Fazekas mentioned the possibility of emergency aid from the EU Social Fund, as well as temporarily lifting environmental restrictions.

The meeting of ministers between 9 and 11 September focused on the issues of climate change, water management and sustainable agriculture.

Minister Fazekas stated that Hungary considers sustainable water management to be important,

together with the wider use of effective and economical irrigation systems, and of drought-resistant crops.

Soil cultivation methods supporting water retention are also crucial, as well as harmonisation of EU and national soil protection strategies. Renewable, biomass-based energy should be produced from agricultural by-products and communal waste, he added. In the light of climate change Minister Fazekas emphasised that there should also be support for research on resistant plants which are not genetically modified.

Wallenberg remembered by public dignitaries at Great Synagogue (Online 10 S e p ) Speaking at the Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Evening yesterday, Parliamentary State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Z s o l t Németh underlined the importance of Photo: Bea Kallos (MTI) preventing ment officials, as well as anti-Semitic incidents and representatives of the Jewensuring the safety of Hun- ish community, Hungary's garian citizens.

He emphasised that by attending this e v e n t , Hungary’s public dignitaries were expressing their solidarity tow a r d s every person subjected to atrocities with the full force of Photo: Bea Kallos (MTI) their aupolitical parties, and memthority. bers of the Diplomatic The event, organised by the Corps.

Hungarian Ministry of For- President of Hungary János eign Affairs and the March Áder stressed in his speech of the Living Foundation, the importance of repeatwas held in the Dohány edly pronouncing that no street Great Synagogue one, under any ideology or and was attended by the political conviction can turn President of Hungary, Hun- against his countrymen. He gary's retired Chief Rabbi also noted that Hungary József Schweitzer, Arch- has been traditionally a welbishop of Budapest-Eszter- coming country and quoted gom Cardinal Péter Erdő, Saint Stephen's instructions the Prime Minister's wife in which Hungary's first Anikó Lévai, Wallenberg's Christian king warned his niece Louise von Dardel, son to accommodate and ministers and other govern- support people coming

from foreign lands.

Israeli Ambassador to Hungary Ilan Mor said that the events of the Holocaust must not be allowed to pass into oblivion.

"The truth must be learnt and it must be p r o nounced," he said, adding that the Holocaust did not start with the concentration camps but with hatred spreading across the streets. He welcomed that Prime Minister V i k t o r Orbán had called for zero tolera n c e against expressions inciting hatred and that the Government was paying attention to minorities.

Swedish Ambassador Karin Olofsdotter also spoke at the event, saying that "while there is hatred, Wallenberg's work remains unfinished".

The commemoration was one of the highlights of the Wallenberg Memorial Year, marking the 100th anniversary of the Swedish diplomat's birth. As part of the ceremony, the park of the synagogue was named after Wallenberg.

(Online 13 Sep) Defence Minister Csaba Hende started his official visit to the United States of America on 13 September with his participation in the UH1N program at Andrews Air Base near Washington DC. The program of the weeklong visit includes a meeting with US Secretary of Defence Leon Panetta on Friday. At the meeting, the two partners will discuss key issues in Hungarian– US defence cooperation,

joint commitment in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), Afghanistan as well as the security situation in the Western Balkans and the Middle East.

Following the visit to Washington DC, the Minister will head to Tampa where he will meet the leaders of the US Central Command (USCENTCOM) and the US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) to discuss Hungary’s role in opera-

tions and the scope of further capability development. As part of the program, the Hungarian delegation will participate in a ceremony where members of the Hungarian community in Sarasota are going to take their oath of citizenship. At this event, Minister Csaba Hende will deliver a speech and install Dr. István Gergátz into office as the Honorary Consul of Hungary.

Foreign Diplomats visit Agricultural Producers' Show Market (Online 14 Sep) The Ministry of Rural Development invited several foreign diplomats accredited to Hungary the to Vidék Musrural tra agricultural producers' show market on Koss u t h Photo: Gergely Botár Square. Minster for Rural country are arriving to Sándor show their excellent qualDevelopment Fazekas and State Secre- ity products at the Vidék tary Gyula Budai greeted Mustra market. He also the guests at the event. stressed the fact that proAmbassadors and diplo- ducers' markets are imporcontributors to mats from fifteen countries tant attended the first such community life. market show, which will be The Ministry of Rural Defollowed by several similar velopment was happy to presentations for other be the host for the show representa- market, where the flavours diplomatic and values of rural Huntives.

According to Minister for gary congregate in the Rural Development Sán- heart of the city, under the dor Fazekas, we would arcade of the Ministry of like to present and intro- Rural Development. The duce the very best of rural Ministry uses all possible Hungary to diplomats at measures and resources to support the production these events.

Parliamentary State Sec- and market access of local retary Gyula Budai spoke products, as well as the of the fact that small pro- distribution of high quality, Hungarian ducers from all around the processed

products.

An important goal is the that food chain between producer and consumer beas come as short possible.

The Vidék Mustra producers' market is viewed as great a success by the Ministry of Rural Development, as over 20 thousand people have visited the market so including many far, tourists. There is space of over 50 producers at a time to offer their produce under the Ministry's arcades, including many in traditional folk costume.

Some ten thousand litres of milk products and one thousand kilograms of meat products from market gardens have been purchased by domestic and foreign visitors since the producers' market was opened in June, much more that originally expected.

IB M ha s inc r e a s e d t he num be r of it s e m ploy e e s in Szé k e s f e hé r v á r (Online 13 Sep) The Székesfehérvár division of IBM Data Storage Systems has increased the number of its employees by 180 after having been awarded 370 million HUF for expanding capacity from the 1.5 billion forints available through the New Széchenyi Plan.

At the closing ceremony of the project, State Secretary for Foreign Affairs and External Economic Relations of the Prime Minister’s Office Péter Szijjártó stressed that job creation constituted the cornerstone of the Hungarian government’s economic

policy. He recalled that in 2010, only around 2 million people paid taxes in Hungary but this situation has changed and employment levels have reached the pre-crisis level. The government would like to continue with this policy as this is the only way to tackle the European crisis.

"We consider companies creating jobs in Hungary as strategic partners. We would like to sign agreements with them, as we are also doing with IBM", said the State Secretary.

"We are pursuing a new international economic strategy aimed at increas-

ing export and foreign investments in our country.

Our work is successful: the National Foreign Economic Office is currently holding negotiations on 84 investments, meaning the creation of 17 thousand new workplaces. We receive 4-5 requests regarding foreign investment each week’" reported the government's foreign affairs representative.

Mark Taylor, the chief director of IBM’s European services division said that the Székesfehérvár division offers world-class services in a cost-effective way.

European banking supervision – Enikő Győri speaks about Hungary’s doubts (Online 13 Sep) In an interview given to Dow Jones on 12 September 2012, Minister of State for EU Affairs Enikő Győri said that Hungary has doubts concerning the European Commission’s proposal to grant supervisory powers over banking in the eurozone to the European Central Bank (ECB).

“Our decision on accepting the proposal will be based on whether obligations and rights in the new system will be equivalent.

After a cursory reading, our understanding is that they will not,” she said.

She added that accepting the supervisory authority of the ECB would entail

the requirement to meet every obligation imposed, while at the same time limiting rights, and that the new system would have a great impact on financial institutions operating in Hungary.

A main concern for Hungary is that banks outside the eurozone would not get their share from European crisis management funds, and that thus locals would seek to transfer their money to banks within the eurozone.

In the interview, Mrs. Győri stated that Hungary is planning to formulate a joint standpoint together with the Czech Republic, Poland and other non-eu-

rozone states prior to the first official debate on the proposal at an informal meeting of EU finance ministers in Cyprus on 1415 September. “This is not only a matter for Hungary, but for other states outside the eurozone,” she said.

She assumed that Hungary would decide on the proposal at the next session of the European Council in October.

The European Commission has suggested that such a unified supervisory mechanism should be gradually implemented, starting on 1 January 2013.

Improving net external financing capacity of the Hungarian economy (Online 13 Sep) Net external financing capacity of Hungary has steadily and significantly improved in the past couple of years.

The same applies to the first quarter of 2012, when the combined surpluses of

the current account and the capital account amounted to 3.1 percent of GDP. The current account surplus of the country was the consequence of the continued positive balance of real economy

transactions, and the capital account – due primarily to the inflow of European Union resources -- has also recorded a significant surplus.

Opening to the East in external trade is reasonable (Online 13 Sep) Opening to the East is reasonable regarding the external trade of Hungary, as the growth engine of the global economy is already outside Europe, Deputy State Secretary for External Economic Relations Balázs Hidvéghi said at the joint conference of the economic daily Világgazdaság and the Hungarian Foreign Trade Association, on Thursday in Budapest.

The Deputy State Secretary also added that external trade relations can be promoted by establishing trade chambers on Eastern markets, either indirectly via supplier networks or with the help of third countries.

Presenting the external trade strategy of the Hungarian Government, Mr. Balázs Hidvéghi said that the Government expects exports to double, reaching 140 billion euros as a whole and the exports of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to grow two-fold, reaching 12-15 billion euros. Foreign direct investments in

Hungary and the amount of external investments by Hungarian companies are also anticipated to double.

According to Deputy State Secretary Hidvéghi, increasing exports serve domestic economy objectives such as economic growth as well as growth in employment. A rise in exports can also contribute to the improving of external balance of payments.

In his evaluation of Hungarian external trade, the Deputy State Secretary stated that Hungary’s economy is outstandingly open and hugely dependent on foreign trade. Exports of goods and services amount to 87% of GDP, and a significant share of exports is directed to member countries of the European Union.

“Since 2003 Hungarian exports have more than doubled and we have good reason to be proud of the 7 billion euros external trade surplus of last year”, Deputy State Secretary Hidvéghi announced.

The Ministry welcomes in-

vestors who aim for long term strategic investments and are also encouraged to establish regional partnerships, the Deputy State Secretary said, adding that cities and counties have play a key role in this regard.

He also mentioned that stimulating investment in the Carpathian Basin is a priority, and not only in Hungarian-speaking regions. “A market potential of 50-60 million euros is reasonable and once market presence has been established there, export growth will gain a new prospect.”

According to Deputy State Secretary Hidvéghi, in order to strengthen external trade relations in the Carpathian Basin the Hungarian Government has several instruments at its disposal, such as supporting the creation of regional clusters, subsidizing SMEs and prioritizing strategic project elements, structural- and transport support as well as the promotion of regional vocational training and adult education.

(Online 10 S e p ) P r i m e Minister V i k t o r O r b á n spoke at the opening session of the Hungarian Parliament following its summer recess, stating that Hun- (Photo: Karoly Arvai) gary is in a 2008. However, lessons different situation than in have to be learned from 2008 and a different Inter- the previous agreement, national Monetary Fund he emphasised.

(IMF) agreement is nec- Prime Minister Orbán said essary. He highlighted that everything is going that the country is according to the governstronger than it was four ment’s plan and highyears ago with larger lighted: several hundred room for manoeuvre, thousand people were which is a result of the saved from the credit cripolicy linking the country’s sis, a proportional, persuccess to greater auton- formance stimulating, omy and independent de- family-based tax scheme cision-making. is being established, unThe Prime Minister added employment has been rethat the IMF is expecting duced to the level it was a decrease in budgetary at before the crisis and a expenditures just like in job protection action plan

has been introduced as a first in Europe.

Furthermore, following the English example, Hungary will set up a financial ombudsman authority to help peowith ple their complaints.

The Prime Minister mentioned as the main topics of Parliament’s autumn session the vote on the new Land Act, serving as a basis of a modern estate farmer-centred system, the new Civil Code, the electoral law and next year’s budget.

Prime Minister Orbán also mentioned that by the beginning of the 2013/2014 academic year the restructuring of the state organisation will be fully completed.

R e s olution of IA EA c onc e r ns ov e r Ir a n’s nuc le a r pr ogr a m (Online 14 Sep) The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) adopted a resolution voicing serious concerns about Iran’s nuclear program 14 September. Hungary as a member of the Board of Governors also voted in favor of the resolution.

The resolution calls on Iran to fully cooperate with

the IAEA, including granting unconditional access to the IAEA inspectors in its nuclear facilities. The resolution relied on the understanding, also confirmed by the IAEA, that Iran’s uranium enrichment program, lacking international supervision, may serve military purposes.

In response, Iran warned

the international community that its relations with the IAEA might be downgraded as a consequence of the adopted resolution.

It should, however, serve as a warning for Iran that, in addition to the Western powers, Russia and China also supported the resolution.

Memorial conference in honour of martyred Polish politician and journalist Henryk (Online 14 Sep) The Embassy of the PolReish public in Budapest, in cooperation with the Polish Institute the and Holocaust Memorial Center, have organised a c o n f e r - Iván Bába (photo: Lajos Soós, MTI) to ence his relations to Hungary. honour the memory of State Secretary at the Sławik, who Ministry of Foreign Affairs Henryk saved the lives of thou- Iván Bába said that in drasands of people − Polish matic moments of history military and civilians, as most people remain paswell as some 5,000 Jews sive; this is why it is of – during the Second great importance when World War. somebody chooses to act. commemorative Together with József AnThe event started with a tall (senior) − who was a wreath-laying ceremony member of the Hungarian at Henryk Sławik’s memo- Ministry of Internal Affairs rial plaque in Garibaldi responsible for civilian Street, Budapest. At the refugees − Henryk Sławik conference at the Holo- was aware that rescuing caust Memorial Center, people in wartime could Budapest, welcome ad- have severe consedresses were given by quences, but neither man Roman Kowalski (Polish shrank from his duty to Ambassador to Hungary), others. Such was also the Iván Bába (State Secre- case with Raoul Wallentary at the Hungarian Min- berg, who was rememistry of Foreign Affairs), bered last Sunday.

Tsakopoulos Polish Eleni Ambassador Kounalakis (US Ambas- Kowalski said that Sławik sador to Hungary), Karin proved it was possible to Olofsdotter (Swedish Am- remain human and to prebassador to Hungary) and serve dignity in the cruIlan Mor (Israeli Ambassa- ellest times. He added dor to Hungary). that during the war HunThe speeches were fol- garians were exceptionlowed by presentations ally helpful to Poles, and from Polish and Hungar- this will always be rememacademics on bered. ian Sławik’s politics and so- Israeli Ambassador Mor cial activism, as well as reminded his audience

that Henryk Sławik helped Jewish children as well. Holocaust survivors still remember that people from different b a c k grounds fought for a common to goal: s a v e Jews.

Ambassador US Kounalakis said that the deeds of Henryk Sławik have given inspiration to others too, and that even today we must stand up against anti-Semitism.

Ambassador Swedish Olofsdotter pointed out that Wallenberg was not the only person to save Jews in Budapest.

As leader of the Citizen's Committee for Help for Polish Refugees, Henryk Sławik, a Polish politician and journalist, constantly cooperated with the Hungarian Government Commissioner for Refugees, József Antall Sr. As a result of their work, an orphanage and school were established for Jewish children who had fled to Hungary. Sławik remained faithful to his principles to the end, even after the German occupation of Budapest in 1944, when the Gestapo tried to extort crucial information him by torture. Henryk Sławik died on 23 August 1944 in Mauthausen concentration camp, Austria.

C r os s - bor de r c oope r a t ion be t we e n H unga r y a nd Slov e nia (Online 13 S e p ) Today in Szentgotthárd participants at the fourth sitting of the Hungary – Slovenia Cross-border Joint Committee discussed issues affecting the region’s infrastructure and rural development, cooperation in agriculture, joint action on environmental protection, present and planned links in tourism and culture, and the possibilities for economic cooperation.

The Hungarian delegation was led by Dr. Rudolf Virág, Deputy Minister of State at the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice and Chairman of the Committee’s Hungarian membership; the

Slovenian delegation was led by his counterpart on the Committee, Roman Lavtar, a senior official from the Slovenian Ministry of Justice and Public Administration.

Participants heard reports on the results of the 2012 Work programme.

One of the main themes in the cross-border region that participants discussed was amendment to the LEADER programme on possible cross-border links and de-

v e l o p ments.

The EUROCITIES European Regional Association was also presented.

The Committee’s first sitting was on 26 November 2009 in Lendava (Lendva), and since then it has met annually, alternating between Slovenia and Hungary. Its goal is promotion of cross-border cooperation between local and regional governments and public administration bodies. In the course of its activities it identifies opportunities for promoting cooperation and eliminating legal and administrative obstacles causing problems on both sides of the border.

Hungary condemns attacks against the Consulate of the US in Benghazi hazi.

We severely condemn the unjustifiable murderous attack, which caused the death of four American citizens who worked to support the democratic transformation in Libya.

Hungary undertook to represent the interests of the United States in Libya for several months in 2011 as a protective power. Hungary shares the grief and sorrow with the United States over the loss of American lives and maintains its unwavering

commitment to the objectives it follows jointly with its Allies and with the Government of Libya in order to create a stable, democratic, and peaceful Libya.

Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs János Martonyi also sent a letter to US Secretary of State Hilary Clinton, expressing the deepest condolences and sympathies of the Hungarian Government and the people of Hungary.

Hungary welcomes UNESCO honouring János Szentágothai and Sir Georg Solti

Croatian Embassy. According to Silvia Malnar, 31 varieties of grape are

Marking the 100th anniversary of the birth of János Szentágothai, an international roundtable discussion will be held Friday morning, dedicated to his life and his achievements. Guest speakers at the event will include Nobel Laureate in medicine Professor Bert Sakmann, as well as Colombian neuroscientist Rodolfo Llinas, British neurobiologist Colin Blakemore and French neuroscientist Jean Pierre Changeux. The event will be opened by President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences József Pálinkás.

In the evening, the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra will give a concert dedicated to Sir Georg Solti and conducted by Tamás Vásáry, where Lady Valerie Solti will also be present. The concert will feature works by Kodály, Mendelssohn, Verdi and Brahms. At the event Tamás Vásáry will receive the UNESCO Mozart Medal in recognition of his talent and dedication to the universal values inspiring UNESCO. Chief Patron of the Memorial Day will be UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova.

Minister Mihály Varga negotiates in Kazakhstan

cultivated in Croatia within a relatively small produc-

Bakytzhan Abdirovich Sagintayev.

During the discussion they reviewed issues related economic development between the two countries, paying particular attention to the mutual support of HungarianKazakh common enterprises. They confirmed their intentions as articulated during the Prime Minister’s visit in May that

they would support enterprises in both countries through a common investment and financial fund.

The subsidies are connected primarily to the agriculture, energy and construction sectors.

During his visit to Kazakhstan Minister Mihály Varga is also participating in the 4th Almaty Conference of regional economic leaders.

EU Commission’s 2013 work program is in line with the Hungarian Govt measures

tion area. "Since Croatian wines are not available in Hungary, the Budavár Festival is an excellent opportunity for the Hungarian public to become better acquainted with Croatian wines before their next holiday in Croatia", stressed the Croatian diplomat.

According to Zoltán Zilai, director of Viniculture Nonprofit Co., "Hungarian wines have achieved significant international success during the past year, but the real fight for consumers is happening on the Hungarian market.

One of the important stages of this fight is the Festival, where visitors may become acquainted with an extremely wide spectrum of domestic sine production."

In addition to the Carpathian Basin's best known wine producers, 28 young vintners from the county's 28 wine-producing reigns who are committed to producing high

targets as well as tax breaks and support in sectors where the level of employment is much lower in Hungary than in the rest of the European Union.

Employers of unskilled workers, people over 55 years or without a job for over 6 months will receive tax breaks; the aim is to cut employee-related costs to 14 percent from 28.5 percent, he added.

ment and incentives for economic growth are considered to be some of the most significant priorities in the 2013 European Commission work programme. In order to end the economic downturn and to take responsibility for the future generations, Hungary has to break out of the debt trap and create a work-based European economy.

The kick-starting of the European economy is

largely related to future trends of the European Commission’s activity, which is influenced through the decision of the European Parliament in relation to the commission’s yearly lawmaking process. In this process, the European People’s Party plays an important role coordinated by József Szájer, member of the party in the European Parliament.

Proposal on electoral procedure to be discussed by Parliament on Monday

Govt job scheme combines tax breaks with specific targets, says Matolcsy (Online 12 Sep) The government's job protection scheme costing the budget 300 billion forints (EUR 105m) in 2013 is expected to protect 1.5 million jobs and create several hundred thousand more, Economy Minister György Matolcsy said on Tuesday.

Matolcsy, briefing lawmakers, said the plan combined specific employment

A dif fe r e nt IM F de a l ne c e s s a r y t ha n in 2 0 0 8 : PM Or bá n

(Online 13 Sep) The Government of Hungary learnt astonished that the US Mission in Benghazi, Libya was attacked, and the US Ambassador to Libya and three other American citizens lost their lives.

On behalf of the Government of Hungary and the Hungarian people the Ministry of Foreign Affairs conveys its condolences to the families of the deceased and expresses its q u a l i t y sympathy with the staff of wines will the US consulate in Bengbe offering their wines to the public in the Lion Court during the (Online 13 Sep) On Fricourse of day, 14 September the the five-day United Nations' Educagastronom- tion, Scientific and CulOrganisation ical event, tural in coopera- (UNESCO) will host highwith profile events to honour tion Junibor, the Hungarian neuroscientist Association János Szentágothai and of Young Hungarian-born British Wine Pro- conductor Sir Georg Solti ducers. So for example in in Paris. addition to the wines of The Ministry of Human producers Resources welcomes the well-known such as At- initiative to commemorate tila Gere, the lives and work of Ede Tiffán, these outstanding individPéter Vida, uals. Their achievements S a u s k a , can serve as true inspirathe St. An- tion for todays’ artists and drea vine- scientists all around the or world. yard Tokaj Oremus, visitors will be to able sample the Buproducts of (Online 12 Sep) e m e r g i n g dapest, 12 September y o u n g 2012, Wednesday – wine-mak- Today Minister Mihály ers such as Varga, Hungarian CoÁ k o s Chairman of the HungaryKamocsay, János Bolyki, K a z a k h s t a n Angelika Árvay, Tamás Inter-governmental EcoH e r n y á k nomic Cooperation Joint and Andrea Committee held negotiations in Almaty with Gere.

As always, Kazakh Co-Chairman and in addition Minister of Economic Deto wine velopment and Trade tasting culture will also play an important role in the Festi- (Online 12 Sep) The Euval, and es- ropean Commission’s p e c i a l l y 2013 work programme remusic: visi- cently accepted by the tors can European Parliament is in enjoy per- line with the Hungarian formances Government’s measures f r o m taken in the last two among others the Csík years, since the European Zenekar, György Ferenczi Commission’s work plan and the Rackajam, Besh put the emphasis on O'droM and Ghymes, all growth incentives and well-known proponents of workplace creation. folk music. Hungarian Similarly to the domestic Jazz Day will take place endeavours the fight on Sunday with the partic- against youth unemployipation of the Hungarian Jazz Association.

Saturday is traditionally the day of the folk music and folk dance gala, and is also the time for the har- (Online 12 Sep) State vest parade in which fold Secretary János Lázár dancers, folk groups, and talked about the electoral the members of wine or- procedure proposal of ders and wine apprecia- Fidesz proposing among tion societies take part. others voluntary voter This year is the first time pre-registration for next that the Hungarian Na- year's general election. tional Gallery is also con- The registration would tributing to the programs start on September 1, offered at the Budavár 2013 and last until two Wine Festival, and is pro- weeks before the election, viding a free creative the head of the Prime workshop and child-mind- Minister's Office said on ing service every day dur- Monday. ing the Festival's opening The State Secretary said hours until 6pm for all all Hungarian citizen will those who arrive at the be notified well in adFestival with their children. vance to register and indicate how (personally or by mail) and where (within or outside Hungary) they are going to vote. In November or December they would be contacted again and, if not yet registered, Once the action plan is im- reminded that pre-regisplemented, Hungary can tration is necessary to set a target for full employ- cast their vote, the State ment, Matolcsy said. The Secretary said. Also no prime minister's announcement of new 5-5.5 million jobs by 2020 will produce full employment, Matolcsy said. All 495,000 registered jobless will get The work in the market or in (Online 12 Sep) public works schemes Ministry of Human Reover the next 2-5 years, he sources is targeting the Roma with its recently added. published tender, which provides support for the realization of Roma cultural events and the production of other cultural content and products. The domestically funded project helps to set up cultural forums aiming at the preservation of Roma cul-

21st Budavár Wine Festival gets off to a Popping Start (Online 13 Sep) Minfor ister Rural Development Sándor Fazekas officially opened the 21st Budavár Wine Festival with bottle no. 1 of the limited edition Törley 130 Rosé Brut Nature champagne from the Törley Pezsgőpincészet champagne cellars, made especially the for company's 130th anniversary.

"The wine sector contributed 67.5 million forints to the profits of Hungarian agricullast ture year", said the MinisThe ter. great celebration of wine awaits visitors from Wednesday to Sunday with the wines of some two hundred vineyards; this year's guest of honour is Croatia.

"A host of noted wine producers have again brought along the best of their 'divine nectar' to the Wine Festival", said Sándor Fazekas in his opening speech, reminding those present that "Parliament has recently adopted the amendment of the Wine Act, thanks to which administration and product introduction fees will decrease even further."

As noted by the Minister for Rural Development, the Ministry is earmarking 13 billion forints for the development of vineyards, as their renewal is a matter of national importance.

The guest of honour of this year's Budavár Wine Festival is Croatia, the home of Plavac mali, Malvazija and Graševina. 100-120 different Croatian wines await visitors to the festival; no guest at the festival has ever been represented by such a huge array of wines.

"It's a great challenge to present ourselves after last year's guest of honour, the wine superpower France", noted the temporary spokesman of the

HUNGARY

time restrictions will be set on political campaigning in 2014, State Secretary Lázár added.

Parliament is scheduled to start discussing the proposal next Monday and the new legislation is expected to clear Parliament in December, taking effect on January 1, 2013.

State Secretary Lázár also said that voter registration had to be introduced to enable Hungarians living or working abroad (est. 500-800 000 people) to participate in the elections.

Plans are afoot to ease voting for disabled voters (est. 600 000 people) as well, through positive discrimination, he added.

Another change would be that the majority of campaign funding will come from the state, State Secretary Lázár highlighted.

This amount might reach

three million forints and after the election, parties would be expected to give a detailed account of how it was spent, while related regulations would be included in the New Penal Code. The proposal also suggests that additional funding could only be raised from private individuals and must not be more than one third of total costs. Restrictions are also planned on campaign methods, for instance a ban on commercials, but free advertising would be offered in the public media. In line with international examples, elimination of endorsement slips is also planned. MPs would be automatically allowed to run, while others will need a hundred signatures to become eligible.

Ministry of Human Resources has organized a tender on preserving Roma cultural values

Katalin Tóth visits Subcarpathia

ture, traditions and language.

Through the promotion of Roma cultural values, the project improves the social status of the largest domestic ethnic group. Its aim is to foster understanding and tolerance towards Roma using cultural and artistic means. The presentation of Roma cultural values may reduce prejudices

and could strengthen the mutual recognition of different cultures. Furthermore, the project also makes it possible for the Roma to become better acquainted with their cultural heritage and helps them transfer these values to younger generations within their own communities.

Walk over the Danube, across the bridge of Hungarian innovations

Photo: Press Office of Ministry of Rural Development

(Online 10 Sep) Deputy State Secretary of the Ministry of Rural Development responsible for Parliamentary, Social and International Relations Katalin Tóth was on an official visit to Subcarpathia on September 7-8. Communiqué.

The Deputy State Secretary met the directorate of the Hungarian Cultural Association of Vojvodina and representatives of Pro Agricultura Carpatia in Munkács (Mukachevo), Ukraine. Several issues arose during the meeting with relation to which the Ministry of Rural Development wishes to provide help. The parties also discussed opportunities for further cooperation in the future.

During her visit, Katalin Tóth also attended the 2nd Congress of Sub-

carpathian and Upper Tisza Region Hungarians in Visk, where following an ecumenical mass, she laid a wreath at the grave of Sándor Fodó, together with the representatives of the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice responsible for national policy. Sándor Fodó was one of the founding members of the Hungarian Cultural Association of Vojvodina following the fall of communism, did much to further the cause of the Hungarian minority during his work as a university professor, and was a determining, legendary figure in the Hungarian public life of Vojvodina for decades.

In her speech at the 2nd Congress of Subcarpathian and Upper Tisza Region Hungarians, Katalin Tóth stressed that the concept of national

border had been filled with new meaning since the birth of the new Fundamental Law. She stated that such value-creating events are of special importance in preserving the unity of the Hungarian nation. She also underlined that the preservation of the Hungarian culture, traditions and way of life are the key to the survival of the Hungarian peoples.

The Deputy State Secretary of the Ministry of Rural Development also reminded those present that the majority of Hungarians within the Carpathian Basin live in rural regions, and so their survival depends to a great extent on the state of villages, small towns, the land and the countryside, and on the agriculture within it, especially in cross-border regions.

(Online ister Tibor 11 Sep) NavracVisitors sics said may acat the quaint p r e s s t h e m conferselves ence held with a on Tuesnumber day that if of Hunwe sucgarian inceed in novations launching on 22 initiatives Septema n d ber in Bumoved a p e s t . Tibor Navracsics and Marcell Bartók (photo: Gergely) m e n t s T h e that open ents. event entitled Bridge of Visitors to the event the world to children the Future will be held may gain a spectacular and young people and on the beautiful Chain and exciting insight into involve them in reBridge connecting the field of technology search and science, the Buda and Pest. This is and science.

The Hungary of the future an innovative outdoor Bridge of the Future will be a country of the exhibition showcasing showcases the results highest global stanthe inventions and inno- of knowledge-intensive dards and a country of vations of young Hun- sectors and introduces innovations. garians. talented young people The sponsors and partThe organiser of the who may boast inven- ners of the Bridge of the event is the electricity tions or innovations of Future feature the most company Magyar Vil- their own in the given talented young Hungarlamos Művek and the field. The event de- ians, the largest corpochief patron is Deputy signed to popularise rations with a leading Prime Minister, Minister science is being imple- stance in research and of Public Administration mented with the aid and development and the and Justice Tibor active involvement of most significant HunNavracsics, who him- the Ministry of Public garian universities and self has launched sev- Administration and Jus- civil organisations. eral initiatives in tice. Deputy Prime Minsupport of young tal-