vulnerable to zoonotic diseases because they are likely to come from endemic countries and find themselves in overcrowded and unsanitary facilities – the same conditions can apply to residents in urbanized areas (IOM & NRC, 2009). Also, the popularity of companion animals, like cattle or fighting cocks/backyard chickens, also fuels the emergence of zoonoses (IOM & NRC, 2009). Currently, a significant driver for the emergence of zoonotic diseases is antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics are used in livestock for disease management, whether it be for prophylaxis, treatment, or to promote growth (Manyi-Loh et al., 2018). However, antibiotics can be irrationally misused and abused especially in developing countries where there are poor surveillance systems. This is because antibiotics are readily available over-the-counter, humans/animals are more prone to infections in these regions, and farmers tend to treat animals using multiple drug regimens (ManyiLoh et al., 2018). Overuse of antibiotics can lead to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and antibiotic residues can be found in sources such as soil, water, and animal-derived products (e.g. eggs, meat, milk), which can be toxic for humans when consumed (Manyi-Loh et al., 2018). Another macro-level driver is inadequate governance systems, specifically in low-income countries because their governments are generally not well-equipped to prevent and control zoonotic disease outbreaks: they lack adequate resources and proper authority to research zoonoses, monitor disease surveillance, enforce sanitation regulations, and update public health policies (IOM & NRC, 2009).
diseases, like children ages 5 and below, elderly over the age of 65, pregnant women, and those who are immunocompromised (CDC, 2017). Zoonotic diseases are not an environmental health issue exempt from social and structural disparities. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), zoonotic diseases can be predominantly found “among populations living in conflict and war zones, internally displaced populations, refugees, and those affected by natural disasters” (WHO, 2012). The issue of zoonotic diseases is especially critical among smallholder farmers and farmers living in developing, low-income countries who tend to possess lower levels of education, health literacy, and inadequate access to healthcare/ veterinary treatment, vaccines, and other health services. Unlike populations in high-income countries (HICs) who may only share occupational contact with animals, these marginalized populations are more likely to live close to their livestock and highly depend on them for their livelihood and survival (Klous et al., 2016). For example, in a study conducted among smallholder farmers in Nepal, it was concluded that more than half of the sampled farmers were unaware of zoonotic disease transmission (attributed to low levels of formal education and literacy) and did not report herd health management practices, like proper vaccination and health screenings (Kelly et al., 2018). Furthermore, many farmers engaged in high-risk practices, like inadequate water treatment, improperly discarding animal placentas, and spreading raw manure on fields as fertilizer (Kelly et al., 2018). A similar phenomenon can be seen in another study conducted among livestock farmers in Vietnam. Although most farmers received formal education and demonstrated modest health literacy toward understanding zoonotic disease transmission, more than half reported improper use of antibiotics to handle ill livestock and were not educated on safety practices to prevent zoonotic infection (Ba et al., 2020). Additionally, most farmers
Virtually anyone in contact with agricultural livestock is at risk of contracting zoonoses, including farmers, cullers, slaughterhouse workers, veterinarians, shoppers, and agricultural fairgoers - even brief contact is sufficient to transmit pathogens (Klous et al., 2016). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), certain subgroups face an increased risk of developing severe conditions from zoonotic 77
