Rivitalization of post-industrial land by Si Xiao

Contents Preface 1. Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.1.1 Theme 1.1.2 Personal background 1.2 Problem field 1.2.1 China is polluting 1.2.2 Brownfields are in danger 1.2.3 Policy framework is infancy 1.3 Problem statement 1.3.1 Economical problems 1.3.2 Environmental problems 1.3.3 Social problems 2. Project overview 2.1 Background 2.2 Aims 2.3 Research questions 2.4 Sub questions 2.5 Scientific and social relevance 3. Theoretical framework 3.1 Deindustrialization 3.1.1 Western context 3.1.2 Chinese context 3.2 Urban Regeneration 3.3 Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) Model 3.4 Theoretical frameworks correlation 4. Methodology 4.1 Field work&interviews 4.2 Literature review 4.3 Comparative Study 4.3.1 IBA Emscher Park in Ruhr 4.3.2 Atlanta BeltLine 4.3.3 Regent Quarter development of King’s Cross 4.3.4 Lessons 4.4 Methodology

5. Research and Analysis 5.1 Introduction of Xi'an 5.2 Historical evolution 5.3 Global metropolitan observation 5.4 Domestic analysis 5.5 Accessibility and segregation analysis 5.6 Brownfields in Xi’an 5.7 Regeneration categories 6. Strategic Alternatives 6.1 Planning relevance 6.1.1 National high-speed rail plan 6.1.2 New outer suburban industrial clusters 6.2 Opportunities and challenges 6.3 "The Brown Belt" 6.4 Vision/Proposed future 6.5 City-level brownfield transformation strategy 7. Regeneration case 7.1 From strategy to process 7.2 Tested area: Xi’an east textile industrial zone 7.2.1 Context 7.2.2 Historical evolution 7.2.3 Basic analysis 7.2.4 Vision/Proposed future 7.2.5 Processing: short-term interventions 7.2.6 Processing: long-term interventions Conclusion and Reflection Bibliography Appendix

Cover page: A city wall carving as symbol of Xi'an Source: Stuart Slimp photography

Preface

Xi'an, is the city I used to live and study for five years, I regard it as my second hometown. The five years trained and provided me a close view to a typical Chinese metropolis in rapid transformation. Urban sprawl led by fast urbanization process could be reflect by two campuses of my undergraduate study which the new one is around 20 km away from the downtown campus; Stinking sewage ditch next to the new campus was once a natural river in Xi'an, but now was totally constructed into industrial gutter; The new campus have occurred an event of students illness which caused by groundwater contamination from surrounding industrial zone. Thus all these experiences not only gave me the aspiration to study brownfield transformation issue, but also contribute my own efforts to Xi'an city. This report contains theoretical, methodological, analytical and strategic alternatives sections. The study area is brownfields along existing railway line which consist "brown belt". The tested site for strategic alternatives located at Xi'an east textile industrial zone contains contaminated bankrupt industrial platforms, old workers communities and polluting thermal power plants. I am so grateful that so many wonderful people who helped me and accompanied me passing through the whole two years program. My dear parents fully support my study abroad. My father Prof. Jiyi Xiao is my life mentor when I decided to continue a graduate study. My mentors, Dr. Qu Lei is always so helpful, her comments, feedback and huge knowledge especially Chinese urbanism fields have helped me to overcome many difficulties to build up the project from initial concepts from last July to final product till now. Prof. Timmeren lighted me up a new world in ecological landscape and helped me clarified the confusions I had. Prof. Secchi shared his broad knowledge from urbanism to economical and political issues and helped my project become integrity. Birgit Hausleitner helped me a lot to manage thesis schedule and I want to thanks for her all efforts about coordinating my mentor team. I am so grateful the mentor team I have, without their guidance this project will never be done. Si Xiao

Contaminated in China Source: Jennifer Heuer, The New York Times, 2013.

1. Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.1.1 Theme 1.1.2 Personal background 1.2 Problem field 1.2.1 China is polluting 1.2.2 Brownfields are in danger 1.2.3 Policy framework is infancy 1.3 Problem statement 1.3.1 Economical problems 1.3.2 Environmental problems 1.3.3 Social problems

Industrial waste disposal site and detection well in Xi'an Source: photo by author

1. Introduction 1.1 Motivation

Impression of heavy polluting China Source: Collaged by author from global newspapers

1.1.1 Theme The discussed topic of this graduation research comes from my personal interests and experiences for the theme "Polluting China during fast urbanization process". What fascinate me are a couple keywords: brownfields, deindustrialization, regeneration, laid-off workers, ecological landscape. These words stand on the beginning of the interest for the chosen theme. Depollution is a long-term global theme of contemporary world as reaction towards fast industrialization and urbanization in last two centuries. As the upper collage of newspaper with title "Polluting China" in different language. Pollution and how to purify our living environment is a hot theme in current Chinese society. For instance, Shanghai recently issued new rules on the handling of contaminated industrial sites. In addtion, the following rethink of economical unbalance between eastern and western China, weakness of planning system even governance is my interest sub topic. Therefore, the pioneering aspect of this research makes it a challenge for me.

Impression of Polluted China Source: http://ekostories.com/2013/02/22/shan-shui-environmental-art/ Commissioned by the China Environmental Protection Foundation Image by Yong Liang Yang

Yong Liang Yang utilizes the traditional art style in collage to promote awareness of Chiese environmental problems. The paintings highlight the effects of rapid industrialization and urbanization within a Chinese context, providing insight into modern cultural perceptions of nature, industrial pollution, and sustainability.

Chinese traditional painting Early Spring Source: Wikipedia Image by Guo Xi

Impression of Polluted China Source: http://ekostories.com/2013/02/22/shan-shui-environmental-art/ Commissioned by the China Environmental Protection Foundation Image by Yong Liang Yang

Viewing the painting from a distance, this appears to be a beautiful, dreamlike, and traditional Shan Shui painting. Upon closer examination, the markers of urbanization suddenly reveal themselves. Man-made objects have supplanted the natural world. Skyscrapers take the place of mountains. Construction cranes, a common sight in modern Chinese cities like Shanghai, populate the landscape in excess. The ethereal and purifying mists, a common element of Shan Shui paintings, is in reality a miasma of suffocating smog. In this and the paintings to follow, I see the two sides of modern Chinese life juxtaposed against each other; the deep roots that gave birth to Shan Shui philosophy, thought, and aesthetics are used to portray the modern reality of the megacity that has come to utterly dominate the landscape. For me, the transformation from scenic nature to a thoroughly artificial landscape conveys senses of shock and unease. The piece takes on a type of horrifying beauty. 10

Impression of Polluted China Source: http://ekostories.com/2013/02/22/shan-shui-environmental-art/ Commissioned by the China Environmental Protection Foundation Image by Yong Liang Yang

1.1.2 Personal background My personal background ensures some basic general knowledge for this research. When I was a child I used to live in a typical worker town which has an obvious form influenced by Soviet Union planning. My grandparents are both engineers of a stated-owned mining enterprise in my home town. Their whole lifetimes are witnesses of the history of Chinese state-owned enterprises. In the start-up and development stage of enterproses, their engineer identities made them in the middle-upper class when that time China divided people into different social classes based on personal background and working identities. However, when they retired the enterprise was suffering great declining because of depletion of mineral resources. Till now they could receive a monthly pension and retirement, but lots of respondents in the interview stage of report were not lucky, they just got a sum of money once because of bankrupt of enterprises and inadequate of social security system. This mining enterprise and its worker town is a common case of thousands declining stated-owned enterprises which discussed in problem field. And I could find much similarity to my grandparents experiences from laid-off workers of Xi'an bankrupt enterprises as well.

The worker town my grandparents used to live in there Image from google map

The stated-owned metallurgy factory my grandparents used to work until retirement Image from google map

The images of derelict worker town Source: http://club.gongchang.com/

1. Introduction 1.2 Problem field 1.2.1 China is polluting Brownfields in China could date back 50 years to the era of highly polluting industries built during the First and Second Five-year Plans (1953-1962). Most of these industrial factories were initially located on the perimeter of Chinese cities. Many were state-owned enterprises that were initially located on the perimeter of cities, and they often have a long history of using antiquated equipment and a legacy of poor management and inadequate environmental services. Thus soil and water pollution is significantly serious at these sites. In some cases, the concentration of pollutants in the soil can be up to hundreds of times higher than regulations permit.

Polluting Yellow River and cities along it, including Xi'an

However, little public attention was paid to land contamination in the past due to the difficulties in identifying and measuring land pollution, as well as soil pollution hysteresis (the effects of pollution experienced with a lagged effect, or delay in time). In recent years, the process of relocating old and polluting industrial enterprises away from urban areas has been accelerated due to rapid urban development. Today, many old industrial sites located inside cities cannot be redeveloped due to contamination concerns. They become a roadblock to urban development owing to both environmental contamination and liability concerns for both owners and developers. The abandoned or delayed redevelopment of brownfield sites in urban areas also has a profound social impact on local communities such as laidoff workers, poor living conditions, lack of employment opportunities, and even social instability.

Energy efficiency per 1,000 dollars of GDP of China

Source: International Water management Agency; International Iron&Steel Institute. Source: http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/09/28/world/asia/ choking_on_growth/

1.2.2 Brownfields are in danger Currently, brownfield remediation and transformation is a big challenge to local governments, original enterprises, developers, and local societies. Consequently, e nv i ro n m e n t a l s u p e r v i s i o n a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f contaminated sites has gradually become an essential responsibility of environmental authorities. There are numerous reasons for cleaning up brownfield sites: removing a public health hazard, improving the general environment, and mak ing new land available for development. However, there is always pressure in China to find new land suitable for development. Therefore, an important remaining issue is the liability of the new developer after a “cleaned” site has been purchased and developed. Poor industrial planning and inadequate past pollution management have helped make land contamination in China a serious problem. However, rapid urbanization in recent years has resulted in the need to redevelop industrial land once occupied — and contaminated — by old industries, which has resulted in several high-profile pollution-related incidents that have helped bring the issue of the remediation and redevelopment of contaminated lands to the forefront. Both Chinese central government and local governments in some Chinese cities have begun to take action to control land contamination, emphasizing the remediation of polluted lands for the state-owned enterprises revitalization. However, the effective regulatory and institutional framework for brownfield management has yet to be established, and many of these issues must be resolved. Suitable, cost-effective remediation technologies in China are still in the pilot stages.

Contaminated land in Xi'an Source: photo by author

1.2.3 Policy framework is infancy China’s legal and regulatory system for soil pollution prevention and control is in its infancy. These relevant legal provisions are not systematic or consistent, and none of them are focused on land contamination. They also are too general, and lack operational details and accountability deterrence provisions. Control and prevention requirements, and measures pertaining specifically to land pollution, are largely missing. “Recommendations on Strengthening Soil Contamination Prevention and Remediation” in 2008 further requires that all relevant departments and units fully understand the importance of strengthening soil pollution prevention and control, of establishing guiding principles and goals, and of setting priority areas of remediation. The document places an emphasis on the need to establish and improve relevant laws, regulations and the standard system of soil pollution control. However, given the magnitude brownfield problems in the context of development, these documents which lack legal status are no substitute for a national law.

China’s national regulatory framework for environmental management Source: Tianzhu, Z. & Jining, C., Tsinghua University

Technical standards for brownfield pollution control are also in urgent need of improvement. There are no comprehensive technical guidelines or standards on brownfield pollution monitoring, environmental risk assessment and soil remediation techniques officially issued at a national level. However, a series of provisional site management standards and technical guidelines are being prepared and trials used. The management of industrial contaminated sites is divided over several ministries. China lacks a responsible co-ordinating agency such like superfund in America to manage brownfield sites and communicate with other relevant departments. Although there is a definition of each ministry’s responsibilities and duties there are problems with overlap and absence in management procedures especially on contaminated sites which have not yet been streamlined due to the lack of applicable laws and regulations.

1. Introduction 1.3 Problem statement Brownfield is becoming a more and more dangerous and urgent problem during Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fast urbanization process. The post-industrial zone initially located at outskirts were gradually swallowed by urban sprawl, its pollution caused by long-term industrial production is enormous harm to nearby inhabitants and environment.

1.3.1 Economical problems A symbolic type of brownfield in China is state-owned industries which are usually located at the outskirts of a city. Since this kind of industries plan was influenced by functionalism and urban planning ideology of The Soviet Union, till now they are isolated and self-contained workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; town even in the contemporary economic context. They are the first generation of Chinese new town (worker town) which influenced by socialism planning theory from zoning plan to community form. In the planned economy period, they were the engines of the first and second industries and honorable class in the society. On the one hand because of the characteristics of the planned economy, a large amount of industrial enterprises distributed at inner land provinces, which was a chance to industrialization for relatively backward western cities for example Xi'an. It balanced the huge gap between eastern and western China at that time. However these modes of development mainly focus on equitable development was proved as unsustainable. Chinese economy was on the verge of collapse in the late 1970s. Thus China started "Reform and Open" in the 1980s as the main market economic reforms. Since then, these inner land province industries especially consumeroriented industries suffered great decline even bankruptcy in the market competition after Reform and Open, they are huge economic burden on local governments. This decline could be seen as rebalancement by market for industrial distribution.

Bankrupted industry Image from Greenpeace

Extreme top-down interventions by government Source: energy.people.com.cn

1.3.2 Environmental problems Since state-owned industries mostly are heavy industry which founded with The Soviet Union helps in the First and Second Five-year plan (1953-1962) Long-term industrial production highly pollute not only industrial platforms but surrounding areas. Soil pollution is often serious at these sites. In some cases, the concentration of pollutants in the soil can be up to hundreds of times higher than regulations permit. In some places pollution has been documented to have penetrated the soil by as much as 10 meters deep. However, now these industries unable to reduce pollution by improving product process also cannot purify the contaminated soil and surrounding rivers. Since the pollution types, locations and degree are very complicated. The highly polluted industrial platforms are great danger to surrounding inhabitants, plants wildlife as well.

"In 2006, an 18.7 hectare (280mu) parcel of land in Wuhan, the largest industrial city in central China, was sold to Sanjiang Real Estate for residential development. The land is on the water front of the Han River, near the confluence of the Yangtze and Han Rivers, and was deemed very valuable for residential development. Four years later, however, the land remains vacant, devoid of any of the planned development, as shortly after construction began, the soil was found to contain large amounts of pesticide residuals due to the fact that the area used to be occupied by Hanyang Pesticide Factory. Several construction workers were poisoned and had to be hospitalized. The vendor, Wuhan Land Reserve Center, had to compensate 120 million RMB to Sanjiang Real Estate as it had failed to perform an adequate site assessment and information disclosure before the transaction. It is estimated that remediation of this site could cost at least 500 million RMB."

Surrounding inhabitants are threatened by soil pollution Image from Greenpeace

Contaminated land by disorderly industry production Image from Greenpeace

Times Weekly, 2010

1.3.3 Social problems The Xiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an brown belt zone located between old city and new development zone and there are about 500 thousands inhabitants live in 1 km radius surrounding area. Now this former outskirts industrial belt are gradually integrated into urban textile, but the inhabitants and social structure of these towns changed little. Many of them lay off around 2000(from interview stage), that is one of the biggest government default behaviors in China. If workers were not lucky enough to retire before the enterprise bankruptcy, then they could only get a little fee, for almost their lifelong works. According to statistics, about 20 million workers laid off during 1998 to 2001 throughout China. Laid-off workers, they are a huge but ignored group during the booming urbanization. Nevertheless, pollution and surrounding inhabitants should not be ignored. The inhabitants still live in the workers communities, their living environment and social welfare is not optimistic.

Mega inhabitants resettlement Source: www.xsnet.cn

However, even if the workers town gets the opportunity to transform by developers the current tranformation mode is still being criticized too rough. Capital driven transformation mode could reflect in the greed of land resources and disregard for the local inhabitants. These can be reflected in spatial level by new mega but dull resettlements. Based on these problems, it is important to think about a sustainable approach for declining industry redevelopment and brownfield depollution in my thesis research and design by respecting economic, environmental and social development.

Laid-off workers family still living in old worker town Image from Xiaoping Qin

2. Project overview 2.1 Background 2.2 Aims 2.3 Research questions 2.4 Sub questions 2.5 Scientific and social relevance

Industrial pipeline in Xi'an Source: photo by author

2. Project overview 2.1 Background Urban regeneration process in China has been presented in a different way compared with those of Western cities. The globalization has increasing impact on the transformation of Chinese cities since China started "Reform and Open" from 1978. Many cities in China have been struggling with the challenges of urban regeneration brought by restructuring of traditional industry and increasing competitions between cities for resources, investment and business (Chen,Y. 2007). In the past few decades, there has been an increasing concern on ecological issues during the rapid urbanization process in most of developing countries. Especially in Chinese cities, the sustainability has been put on the top of agendas for urban development in the future. Similar to what happened in developed countries, economic base restructuring and international competition resulted in decline and dereliction of traditional industries which mostly owned by state. During long time of extensively industrial production, the land owned by these traditional industrial sectors are highly polluted which are significant threats to surrounding inhabitants. For those industrial zones which were initially located in suburban when the industries were established, because of large-scale city expansion they have been gradually swallowed by rapid urbanization process and becoming obsolete fragments immersed in the urban environment. In this context, the redevelopment of those derelict industrial quarters brings great opportunities to adapt themselves to new changes in the city, thus creating diverse possibilities for accommodating emerging demands in the city point of view, for instance, the change in regional scheme for future development as well as urban structure; this trend also creates opportunities for urban regeneration in local scale, improving living environment for those who have been suffering from obsolete physical condition as well as decaying economy. The tested site chosen for the thesis is a brownfield belt zone in-between the historical center and new development district of Xi'an city. As one of the largest brownfield revitalization projects in the city in urgent need of available land for new developments, it has attracted vast attention from the society to local government. Furthermore, it is more than a simple brownfield depollution project, it is a complexity of various issues concerning industrial heritage, economic transition, worker communities reconstruction, ecological renewal, etc. The complex condition may cause the solutions to each problematic issue conflicting to each other, therefore, searching for the balance is needed to create a feasible proposal.

Bankrupted enterprise Image of workshop in Xi'an the third national textile enterprise Source: Photo by Daiwei Shen

2. Project overview 2.1 Aims The aim is to devise strategies that will not only make brownfields cleaner, but will also improve environment quality and transform Xiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an brownfield belt into more sustainable and diverse place to live and work. In other words, the depollution and multiple transformation strategies will not only work, but also add value concerning urban environment, social diversity and economic development. For brownfield belt zone: The aim is to purify high polluted sites firstly, more sensitive to ecosystems and have a minimal controllable impacts on the surrounding environment when doing future development. Secondly, based on Xi'an master plan highly polluted and polluting enterprises will be gradually moved to the new industrial zone located in further suburbs. Therefore, the aim for polluting enterprises in brownfield belt is update the production process to reduce industrial pollution. Fur ther, par ts of the enterprise func tions will be transformed to urban func tions after enterprises resettlement. The huge gap between historical center and new economic development district will be reconnected by transforming brown belt zone. For Xi'an city: More productive, sustainable, innovative and industrial efficiency. The aim for Xi'an city is definitely not to simply close polluting enterprises. The secondary industry still provides employment to nearly one-third of total population of Xi'an. But the industrial structure should be updated for next decade. More capable of catering to social needs, especially in the areas of social housing and health services. In addition, more focus on worker tradition, industrial heritages and culture.

Regeneration process diagram Source: (Redraw based on Duijvestein 2008)

2. Project overview 2.2 Research question What alternative strategies and ecological-led regeneration should be used to revitalize derelict industrial zone in Xi'an city, balancing the emerging needs from both the city and local inhabitants especially laid-off workers of state-owned industries to tackle with brownfield pollution and to realize spatial and economic transition?

2.3 Sub questions

Triple P Source: (Duijvestein 2008)

What is the historical evolution of brownfield in Xi'an and the problems during its processing? What is the definition and role of brownfield in the urban development? How to transform an introverted industrial area to a public and vital open space by ecological-led landscape interventions? How to involve public and private sectors into purification and future development and whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the driven mode of brownfield regeneration? What are the emerging needs and how to benefit declining state-owned industries and laid-off workers during redevelopment process? How do we transform spatial barriers into belt of interaction?

2. Project overview 2.5 Scientific and social relevance Scientific relevance: China is undergoing rapid urbanization process, rapid means profit-driven development is the most popular choice for local government and developers. During this top-down development, massed environment and social problems caused by this profit-seeking behavior. Therefore, the approach focusing on the environmentled development will deliver an ideal mode that could be learned for other restless cities in China. In addition, the approach could improve relevant planning law/rule system from perspectives of environmental recovery and industrial heritage. Social relevance: When we are talking brownfield in China, the laid-off workers' group that almost donate their all life long time shouldn't be ignored. They are one of the most serious social problems caused by last state-owned industries reform in 1998. Till now their living condition, work opportunities and social welfare are all not optimistic. Therefore, the approach focusing on involving these kinds of interest groups into remediation and redevelopment process will reach a more equitable and concerning on humanistic care society.

3. Theoretical framework 3.1 Deindustrialization 3.1.1 Western context 3.1.2 Chinese context 3.2 Urban Regeneration 3.3 Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) Model 3.4 Theoretical frameworks correlation

Industrial waste disposal site in Xi'an Source: photo by author

3. Theoretical framework 3.1 Deindustrialization 3.1.1 Western context D u r i n g t h e p a s t 2 5 ye a r s, e m p l oy m e n t i n s e c o n d industries has fallen dramatically in the world’s most advanced economies, a phenomenon widely referred to as “deindustrialization.” In the 23 most advanced economies, employment in manufacturing declined from about 28 percent of the workforce in 1970 to about 18 percent in 1994(IMF). Many regard deindustrialization with alarm and suspect it has contributed to widening income inequality in the United States and high unemployment in Europe. In the late 1960s, many multinational firms sought to reduce their production costs by relocating their routine production jobs to low-wage regions of the world economy—a business strategy that became increasingly viable as technological advancements associated with the information revolution began reducing barriers associated with geographic distance began to change, creating in the process. Some suggest that deindustrialization is a result of the globalization of markets. These critics argue that the fast growth of laborintensive manufacturing industries in the developing world is displacing the jobs of workers in the advanced economies. The fact that labor productivity (output per worker) has grown more slowly in services than in manufacturing, pushing up the relative price of services and making manufactures relatively cheaper. When output in the manufac turing and ser vice sec tors is measured at constant rather than at current prices, however, the shift in expenditure away from manufacturing to services is nothing like the scale of the shift away from employment in manufacturing to services. Consequently, deindustrialization is principally the result of higher productivity in second industries than in third industries.

Deindustrialization of main European countries Source: AMECO

Relative manufacturing employment (as percentage of total employment) from 1970 to 2000 Source: American Journal of Sociology

The combined effect of these trends realigned the erstwhile international division of labor, leaving a rapidly industrializing South to specialize in labor-intensive and lowskilled manufacturing jobs and a deindustrializing North to specialize in high-skilled economic activities, such as strategic management, product development, marketing, and finance.

3.1.2 Chinese context Unlike the description of deindustrialization based on western context, China is not a advanced economy and productivity in second industry is lower than advanced countries. The deindustrialization of China especially in Xi'an should be understood based on the economy reform from planned economy to market economy since 1980s. After the establishment of "New China" in 1949, China started to build industry system especially heavy industries with Soviet Union helps. During planned economy period(1950s-1970s) industry platforms were evenly planned based on defense needs either configuring market resources distribution. That time marine provinces didn't mean more convenient waterway transport but more vulnerable to be attacked from capitalist countries. Because Xi'an is the geometric center of China, therefore Xi'an as an important industrial city was built up at an inner land province either a place close to consumption center region such as Yangtze River Delta. However after the "Reform and Open", the influence of market factors affecting the distribution of industrial platform especially light industries had become more and more critical. Lots of enterprises in Xi'an brownfield belt zone lost the competition with private industries which subject to rules of market. For example, the significant development in Pearl River Delta which had less industrial foundation during planned economy period could be regarded as the redistribution of industrial platform from inner land provinces to marine provinces. Not only industrial resources relocated to marine provinces, but also labor resource moved in same route after government allowed free movement of the population. Both of them led the deindustrilization in inner land provinces. Consequently, the deindustrialization of most planned time industries could be regarded as an inevitable result of reconfiguration of market resources.

Peak manufacturing levels of ten countries Source: http://rodrik.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8341c891753ef019affe 1fb89970c-pi

Percentage of three kinds of industries of Xi'an, 1985 - 2009 B: the first industry; R: the second industry; Y: the third industry Source: http://www.xdsyzzs.com

Percentage of employed population of three kinds of industries of Xi'an, 1985 - 2009 B: the first industry; R: the second industry; Y: the third industry Source: http://www.xdsyzzs.com

3. Theoretical framework 3.2 Urban Regeneration Urban regeneration has been and is one of the most important theories to address brownfields decline and deprivation. It is a comprehensive and integrated vision and action to address urban problems through a lasting improvement in the economical, environmental and social condition. Among different ways of regeneration process, ecological-led regeneration is depicted as a high profile approach where ecological recovery measure is the catalyst for regeneration and can be utilized as a development tool, aiming to develop a new urban environment to deal with declining industrial areas. Ecological recovery measures can change the city image which is an important consideration in derelict industrial areas which is an important consideration in derelict industrial areas. By recovering contaminated land with public and private sectors involvement, the cleaned site may contribute to the redevelopment of less polluting enterprises and reconstruction of local worker communities as a local social revitalization. Ecological-led urban regeneration which already spreads beyond the advanced western countries as environmental recovery such as IBA Emscher Planning, however it did not take long time for Chinese cities to conform the trend. Due to the result of economic reform, urban regeneration in contemporary China should takes place in obsolete industrial areas and redundant land. Urban regeneration is concerned with the regrowth of economic activities where it has been lost; the regeneration of social function where there social structure has been disintegrated; and the restoration of environmental quality or ecological balance where it has been lost (Couch,C. & Fraser, C. 2003). Especially in heavy industrial center like Wuhan and Xi'an, environmental recovery is also regarded as a key to bolster economic upgrading, driving a number of declining industrial areas including Xi'an brownfield belt zone converted into ecological infrastructure.

Amsterdam Westergasfabriek Source: http://www.westergasfabriek.nl/

3. Theoretical framework 3.3 public-private partnerships (PPPs) Model Traditionally, governments have built, maintained, and redeveloped the industrial platform(brownfield) without which most economic activity would be impossible. Over the past three decades, however, public spending on brownfields redevelopment, has been on the decline worldwide. PPPs combine the skills and resources of both the public and private sectors in new ways through sharing of spending and responsibilities. This enables governments to benefit from the expertise of the private sector, and allows them to focus instead on policy, planning and regulation. In order to involve the people who live in surrounding areas, the public-private partnership (PPPs) will be an inevitable strategy, in which both government investments and private participation will be involved but under public supervision. The purpose of the PPPs strategy is not only economic but also social – a mixture of existing residents and potential immigration to avoid spatial segregation. The community participation even offers the possibility to introduce innovative typologies of social housing, such as community collective-owned housing. About the PPPs Model using in transforming brownfield problem, the main focusing sector is the source of redevelopment funds. China could learn from funding mechanisms in other countries and consider generating revenue from multiple sources: Responsible party funding (compensation from the original polluters); Developers of brownfield; Tax from local government; Social donations.

Standard procurement (public finance) and PPPs (Private finance): A comparison Source: “Managing Fiscal Risks in PPPs,” 2005 (Washington: World Bank)

The PPP Spectrum Source: World Bank/PPIAF, PPP in Infrastructure Resource Centre

Common relation map of intrest groups in a brownfield transformation project

Developer

Intrests: Added value of land Redevelopment costs Intensity of development Integrity of infrastructure Pollution degree Land ownership

Government

Intrests: Financial revenue Industry upgrading Urban transport Depollution Social stability Employment rate

Enterprise

Intrests: Bankruptcy protection Debt Management Product competitiveness Employee welfare Corporate Restructuring

Residents

Intrests: Living environment Working opportunities Income growth Social welfare Accessibility Urban facilities Public voice

3. Theoretical framework 3.4 Theoretical frameworks correlation

4. Methodology 4.1 Field work&interviews 4.2 Literature review 4.3 Comparative Study 4.3.1 IBA Emscher Park in Ruhr 4.3.2 Atlanta BeltLine 4.3.3 Regent Quarter development of Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cross 4.3.4 Lessons 4.4 Methodology

Two network: Industrial rail and pipe Source: photo by author

4. Methodology 4.1 Field work&interview

An aerial view of the Third National Cotton Factory located in Xi'an east textile industrial zone Source: photo by author

Unused industrial rail Bankrupted factory from inside Source: photo by author

The aunt Wang, 67 years old Retired spinning worker of the Sixth National Cotton Factory

The uncle Wang, 78 years old Retired technical worker of the Third National Cotton Factory

The aunt Niu, 82 years old Retired spinning worker of the Sixth National Cotton Factory

The aunt Shen, 60 years old Laid-off Kindergarten teacher of the Sixth National Cotton Factory

The aunt Li, 74 years old Retired spinning worker of the Sixth National Cotton Factory

The uncle Jin, 75 years old Retired boiler worker of the First Northwestern Dyeing Factory

A number of local people have been interviewed by author Source: photo by Xiaoping Qin

4. Methodology 4.2 Literature review

Berger A., 2007. Drosscape: Wasting Land in Urban America. Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1568987137

AECOM Inc, 2013. Brownfield Remediation&Redevelopment, China Environmental Press, ISBN 9787511114068

Justin H., Niall K., Julia G., 2007. Principles of Brownfield Regeneration: Cleanup, Design, and Reuse of Derelict Land. Island Press, ISBN 9787112158270

Public Investment and PublicPrivate Partnerships Bernardin A., Richard H., and Gerd S., 1997. , International Monetary Fund

Deindustrializationâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; Its Causes and Implications Robert R., Ramana R.y, 1997. , International Monetary Fund

The Routledge Companion to Landscape Studies Peter H., Ian T., Emma W., J. 2013. , Routledge ISBN 0415684609

(Re)claimed Land Scenarios of democratic landscape in contaminated territories

Francesca Rizzetto

Francesca R., (Re)claimed Land, Scenarios of democratic landscape in contaminated territories, 05.11.2013

State and Laid-Off Workers in Reform China: : The Silence and Collective Action of the Retrenched Yongshun C., 2005. , Routledge

4. Methodology 4.3 Comparative Study 4.3.1 IBA Emscher Park in Ruhr Focus on recovery of post-industrial area and ecological interventions. Preparation for following regional strategy for post-industrial areas transformation, urban design guide lines and ecological toolbox.

Plan of IBA Emscher Park

Illustration of programs of IBA Emscher Landscape Park Source: M:AI MUSEUM FÜR ARCHITEKTUR http://www.mai-nrw.de/

Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord Source: photo by author

The Emscher Landshaftspark was initiated as part of a ten-year regeneration program led by the International Building Exhibition Emscher Park (IBA) which is a planning methodology that promotes deindustrialization region regeneration through environmental-led regeneration driven by experimentation and independence in the urban development role (Shay, A. 2012). It involves working in the social, economic and cultural milieu on the basis of an integral architectural approach that combines intervention on the built and also natural environment (Bruggeman, F & Lavergne, F. 2010). The program addressed the decline of the Ruhr Region in North-Rhine Westphalia stretching across 20 local authorities and including several major urban centers. The regeneration program focuses on a handful of strategic themes to recover the industrial decline and change the urban and rural landscape of the area. These themes include ‘Industrial monuments’ transformed from retention and creative reuse of key industrial heritage. The new Emscher also stresses the regeneration of the river system, carrying ecological intentions and creating sustainable mixed urban areas.

The Ruhr Total: 4.435km ² Total population: 5.3 million Population Density: 1,183 people per km

Land use Built-up Area: 37.6% The utilized agricultural area: 40.7% Forest area: 17.6% Water area: 3.1% Commercial and industrial: 22,500 ha

Planning area IBA Emscher Park Planning area: 800 km ² East-west extent: from Sonsbeck to Hamm is 116 km North-south extent: from Haltern am See to Breckerfeld 67 km

The Emscher Landscape Park Area: about 457 km 2 Bicycle network: 700 km Trail: 131 km Tourist themed routes: 25

Planning structure of the Emscher Landscape Park Local green corridors: 7

Thr 93 project sites Project Locations: 93 Total Projects: 119

IBA Emscher Landscape Park analysis Source: http://www.mai-nrw.de/

4.3.2 Atlanta BeltLine The Atlanta BeltLine is a sustainable redevelopment project that will provide a network of public parks, multi-use trails and transit along a historic 22-mile railroad corridor circling downtown and connecting many neighborhoods directly to each other. It gives us a collective plan to transform brownfield belt zone as a whole and deal with brownfield issue from ecological perspective up to city redevelopment level. The Atlanta BeltLine development as case study shows how brownfield transformation combining with urban structure reshape. The BeltLine used to be a ring zone of industrial sites located at city border area. But now it becomes a "poison belt" and restriction for city development. First conceived as a 1999 masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thesis by Georgia Tech student Ryan Gravel try to robust a new vision of an Atlanta dedicated to an integrated approach to depollution, transportation, greenspace, and sustainable growth. The Atlanta BeltLine utilizes an existing 22-mile historic rail corridor that encircles Atlanta as its foundation. Pedestrian friendly rail transit and 33 miles of multi-use trails will follow this corridor and spur off from it. The completion of the Atlanta BeltLine will bring together 45 intown neighborhoods and also link them to the entire metropolitan region through a collection of transit offerings. Atlanta BeltLine, Inc. is managing the planning, design and implementation of all aspects of the project with partners in the public and private sectors. Funding for the Atlanta BeltLine project comes from a combination of federal, state, local, and private sources.

Industrial rail transformation of Atlanta BeltLine Source: Atlanta BeltLine.org

Atlanta BeltLine Project Overview Map Source: Atlanta BeltLine.org

Illustration of ten zones for zoning plan Source: Atlanta BeltLine.org

Revitalization of Communities and brown belt zone Source: Atlanta BeltLine.org

4.3.3 Regent Quarter development of Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cross Focus on interest groups collaboration, planning laws and rules improvement and position of government during revitalization process. Preparation for following stakeholder analysis and practical development method based on Chinese context.

Source: Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cross Opportunity Area Planning and Development Brief, January 2004 http://www.kingscross.co.uk/ http://www.regentquarter.com/

The redevelopment of the Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cross area is one of the largest and most remarkable regeneration projects underway in London drawing in a wide range of stakeholders from central government, other government agencies, the private sector and communities. Stakeholder consultation mechanism Argent won praise from a variety of interest groups for its consultation with local communities in particular. These involved a variety of methods but can be characterized by a direct involvement with those communities. This has won accolade but also some concern from the communities themselves. Argent even employed the services of Planning Aid for London in seeking the views of local communities. This organization, a charity, was also criticized for only asking Argent-defined questions during the consultation period even when some community members had much more fundamental concerns about the development.

4.3.4 Lessons Lesson of Emscher Park and Atlanta Beltline 1. Having a regional-level strategy as the guiding principle; 2. Recovery of contaminated land could not only improve environmental quality, but also be start-up of a transformation process. 3. Ecological measures could combine with urban landscape which contributes to physical change from a larger perspective. 4. Industrial heritage is regarded as a valid focus for celebration and can anchor new development in the continuing history of a place; 5. The IBA encouraged temporary uses of land and buildings awaiting development that stimulated interest in the short term, and investor confidence in the longer term.

The ecological recovery landscape in Landscape Park Duisburg Nord Source: photo by author

Lesson of Regent Quarter development 1. Involvement of various stakeholders, especially local laid-off workers; 2. Long-term process that requires socio-economic revitalization effort; 3. Give confidence to the politicians and investors that there was enough time to effect significant change, but there was a definite end point in sight; 4. The use of marketing and the media, which is vital in challenging negative perceptions of the area. 5. A multi-purposed development concerning almost every aspect of urban issues, including cultural, recreational, social, economic and environmental.

The involvement of local interest groups during redevelopment process Source: H&H SERIES JULY 7 2006

4. Methodology 4.4 Methodology

Industrial chimney Source: photo by author

5. Research and Analysis 5.1 Introduction of Xi'an Xi'an is the capital city of Shaanxi Province, which belongs to the Northwest China. It locates in the middle-western of China, the geological center point and regarded as the "gate of western China". Xi'an is now 10,108 kmÂ˛, with 8.5 million inhabitants spread living in nine urban districts and four counties. Xi'an is the largest economy of the Shaanxi province, with a GDP of 59.83 billion euro in 2010(Wikipedia). Xi'an locates in the center River Wei Basin which is the locomotive of Shaanxi Province. From right hand diagrams, the cities/counties network lie along the River Wei and its tributaries. The valley of River Wei was one of the early cradles of Chinese civilization, it still is one of the largest metropolitan areas of China. Because of the location of Xi'an metropolitan which is far from both coastline and Sino-Russian border, during Cold War period Xi'an was regarded as a safer place to build heavy industrial base. Therefore, when China started to establish industrial system in planned period Xi'an was planned to be a comprehensive industrial base including manufacturing, textile&dyeing, aerospace&aviation, electronic, metallurgy and military industry. These industrial platforms are the main sources of significant brownfield lands after economic reform.

Source: Redraw based on topographic map

Regional administrative boundaries and River system

Urban network

Source: Wikipedia; Development and Reform Commission of Shaanxi Province

5. Research and Analysis 5.2 Historical evolution

Sources: Wikipedia: Xiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, history; Wikipedia: Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China; Wikipedia: reform and open;