Ultimate Survival by Mitch Mitchell

Contents ABOUT THIS BOOK

A SAFARI MEDIA AFRICA PUBLICATION

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL

WHAT IT TAKES TO SURVIVE

S - SIZE UP THE SITUATION U - USE ALL YOUR SENSES, UNDUE HASTE MAKES W ASTE R - REMEMBER W HERE YOU ARE V - VANQUISH FEAR AND PANIC I - IMPROVISE V - VALUE LIVING A - ACT LIKE US NATIVES L - LIVE BY YOUR W ITS, BUT FOR NOW, LEARN BASIC SKILLS THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING

13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15

ESSENTIALS FOR SURVIVAL

SURVIVAL BASICS

SURVIVAL PLANNING PUT TOGETHER A BASIC SURVIVAL KIT GEAR CLOTHING SOCKS FOOTWEAR KNIFE SLEEPING BAG BACKPACK LIGHTING GPS WATER FINDING W ATER FILTERING AND PURIFYING W ATER RETAINING W ATER

18 19

20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21

21 21 29 30

FINDING FOOD

HUNTING

33 2

CAMOUFLAGE STALKING TRACKING AFRICAN MAMMAL IDENTIFICATION MEDIUM-SIZED MAMMALS LARGE MAMMALS VERY LARGE MAMMALS TRAPPING SNARES BIRD TRAPS FISH TRAPS MAKING A FISHING SPEAR CHOP FISHING FISH POISON BOTTLE TRAP GILL NET EDIBLE ANIMALS SNAKES TURTLES AND TORTOISES AMPHIBIANS FISH BIRDS AND EGGS BATS INSECTS EDIBLE TREES AND PLANTS THE EDIBILITY TEST COMMON EDIBLE TREES AND PLANTS

33 35 36

37 42 49 52

53 55 60 64 64 66 66 66 66

68 68 69 70 70 71 71 71

73 73 74

WEAPONS

EDGED WEAPONS

BOW AND ARROW I:\DATA\W EBS\ULTIMATE FIELD GUIDE\SURVIVAL\WEAPONS.HTM - TOP#TOPTECHNIQUE KNIVES SPEARS I:\DATA\W EBS\ULTIMATE FIELD GUIDE\SURVIVAL\WEAPONS.HTM - TOP#TOPMAKING A KNIFE SPEAR BLADES I:\DATA\W EBS\ULTIMATE FIELD GUIDE\SURVIVAL\WEAPONS.HTM - TOP#TOPARROW POINTS OTHER W EAPONS I:\DATA\W EBS\ULTIMATE FIELD GUIDE\SURVIVAL\WEAPONS.HTM - TOP#TOPCATAPULT KNOBKIERIE

85 86 87 87 88 90 90 90 93 94

CAMP CRAFT

SHELTER

SITE SELECTION SHELTERS MAKING A FIRE PREPARING THE FIRE PLACE AND FIRE SAFETY HOW TO PACK A FIRE MAKING A FIRE

97 97

104 104 104 105

LASHING AND CORDAGE KNOTS AND HITCHES

107 110

KNOTS ROPE ENDS OR GRIPS FISHING KNOTS JAM KNOTS JOINING ROPES LOOPS HITCHES NETS AND HAMMOCKS WORKING WITH MEAT PREPARATION USING THE SKIN PRESERVING MEAT USING THE REST MAKING SOAP

110 114 115 116 116 119 121

124 126 126 129 129 131

132

NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATION

133

NAVIGATION

134

NAVIGATING WITH NATURE MAPPING BASICS SCALE GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES TYPES OF SLOPE AND VISIBILITY REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF LAND FORMS MAGNETIC AND TRUE NORTH USING A COMPASS THE CENTERHOLD TECHNIQUE SIGHTING ORIENTING MAPS ORIENTING WITH A COMPASS TERRAIN ASSOCIATION GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS IMPROVISING A COMPASS COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALING VISUAL SIGNALS AUDIO SIGNALS CODES AND SIGNALS

134

135 136 136 137 138 139

141 142 142 143

143 143 144

144 145 145 146 147 148

HEALTH

151

MEDICAL COMPETENCE

152

FIRST AID 152 I:\DATA\W EBS\ULTIMATE FIELD GUIDE\SURVIVAL\FIRST_AID.HTM - TOP#TOPEXAMINATION OF INJURED 152 DIAGNOSES 153 TREATMENT PRIORITY 153

LIFESAVING STEPS

153

SAFARI MEDICAL AID KITS THE ABCD OF BASIC LIFE SUPPORT VITAL SIGNS CPR

153 160 161 163

WHEN TO GIVE CPR HOW TO GIVE CPR RECOVERY POSITION DRIPS PREPARATION PREPARE THE IV FLUID ADMINISTRATION SET PERFORM THE VENIPUNCTURE TO DISCONTINUE AN IV TOURNIQUET APPLYING A TOURNIQUET INJECTIONS MAKING A REHYDRATION DRINK MAKING A REHYDRATION DRINK CHECKING THE PULSE THE HEIMLICH MANEUVER BUSH EMERGENCIES ABDOMINAL INJURIES ALLERGIC REACTIONS AMPUTATION ANIMAL BITES ANKLE INJURIES APPENDICITIS ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION ASPHYXIATION ASTHMA BACK AND NECK INJURIES BEE STINGS BILHARZIA BLEEDING BLINDNESS BLISTERS BOILS BRUISES BURNS AND SCALDS CHEST INJURIES CHEST PAIN CHILDBIRTH CHOKING CONCUSSION CONVULSIONS CRAMP CUTS DEATH DEHYDRATION DIABETES DIARRHEA DISLOCATED JOINTS DROWNING DRUG OVERDOSE

163 164

165 166 166 167 167 170

170 170

171 172 172

172 173 173 173 174 174 174 174 175 175 175 175 176 176 176 177 178 179 179 179 179 181 181 181 182 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 184 184 184 185

EAR INJURIES AND INFECTION ELECTRIC SHOCK EPILEPSY EYE INJURIES FACE AND NOSE INJURIES FAINTING FEVER FIRE FOOD POISONING FRACTURES FROSTBITE GASTRO-ENTERITIS GUNSHOT W OUNDS HEART ATTACK HEAT EXHAUSTION HYPOTHERMIA HYSTERIA INTESTINAL PARASITES KIDNEY STONES LIGHTNING STRIKES MALARIA MOUNTAIN SICKNESS PNEUMONIA POISONING POISONOUS PLANTS PULSE AND BREATHING PYELITIS AND CYSTITIS RABIES RASHES RESCUING A DROWNING PERSON SCORPION STING SHOCK SLIPPED DISK SMOKE INHALATION SNAKE BITE AND VENOM IN THE EYES SPIDERS SPRAINS AND STRAINS STAB W OUNDS STROKE SUNBURN TICK-BITE FEVER TOOTHACHE AND TOOTH INJURIES TRAVEL SICKNESS TYPHOID UNCONSCIOUSNESS VERTIGO VOMITING WOUNDS DANGEROUS ANIMALS POISONOUS ANIMALS SPIDERS TREATMENT SCORPIONS TREATMENT OTHER ANIMALS TICS BEES AND W ASPS

185 185 186 186 186 186 186 187 187 187 188 188 188 189 189 189 189 190 190 191 191 191 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 193 194 194 195 195 195 196 196 197 197 197 197 197 198 199 199 199 199 199

200 200 211 213 213 216 218 218 218

CENTIPEDES HAIRY CATERPILLARS BLISTER BEETLES BOMBARDIER BEETLES DANGEROUS ANIMALS UP CLOSE ELEPHANT BUFFALO RHINO LION LEOPARD CHEETAH HYENA HIPPO CROCODILES SNAKES EMERGENCY NUMBERS

219 219 219 219

220 220 220 221 221 222 222 222 223 223 224

224

BUSH VEHICLE REPAIRS

225

INSPECTIONS SUPPORT ITEMS

226 228

TOOLBOX NECESSITIES SUPPLIES AND SAFETY GEAR SPARE PARTS USEFUL VEHICLE PARTS FIRE MAKING AND COOKING SIGNALING CLOTHING AND SHELTER WEAPONS OTHER VEHICLE NOSTART CHART REPAIRING RADIATOR DAMAGE OVERHEATING CLUTCH FAILURE LOW CLUTCH FLUID LEVEL LEAKING HYDRAULIC FLUID ALTERNATIVES TO HYDRAULIC FLUID CABLE OPERATED CLUTCH DRIVING WITHOUT A CLUTCH FLAT BATTERY WELDING IN THE BUSH DROWNED ENGINE RECOVERY EMERGENCY ROAD KIT

228 229 231

231 231 232 232 232 232

233 234 234 235 235 235 236 236 236

236 237 239 239

BIOMES AND VEGETATION TYPES

241

REFERENCES

242

THE AFRICAN SAFARI SERIES

245

DEDICATION

247

About this Book

Tawny and savage, our continent lies crouched in ambush between two oceans. It is a land of wild contrasts alluring and forbidding, exciting and dangerous, ancient, vast and sprawling. Here in our wild land the bushveld lies open and wide as far as the eye can see. Here the leopard moves like a silent shadow in the dusk and here the spiral horns of the lone kudu bull etch the sunset. And it is here the travelers and hunters of the ages have come. Welcome to our Africa. This book is for those who come to the wildest continent and want to be prepared when the unexpected happens

A Safari Media Africa Publication Disclaimer Although every human effort has been made to present survival facts as accurately as detailed as possible, information in this publication is used at own risk Copyright Copyright 2000/1/2/3/4 Safari Media Africa. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may he reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. ISBN 0-958-4523-4-2 Credits and Thanks Dr. Kobus Hugo, Survival Medicine and snake bite treatment Greg van der Reis African Expedition Company: Survival information Mitch Mitchell: Bushcraft The Ultimate Field Guide for Larger Southern African Mammals: Mammal identification, tracks and information The Ultimate Field Guide for Common Southern African Snakes: Snake identification and information.

The Psychology of Survival

Apart from air to breathe, water is an absolute priority. Under hot conditions the survival time without water is very short. To conserve body water walk during the cooler hours of the day, avoid salty foods and smoking. Take frequent rests, try and stay in the shade as much as possible, wear a head covering. Take at least 1-2 liters of water with you when you leave for a day. Hydrate yourself well before leaving camp. You can go for a long time without food. It is not a priority even though the hunger pangs you might feel will be uncomfortable. Keeping warm when it’s cold and cool when it is hot is more important in the short term than finding food. Overheating (hyperthermia) and becoming too cold (hypothermia) can cause death within hours. 

AIR (oxygen) - death after 4 minutes



WATER (death within 3 - 4 days)



SHELTER (cool in the heat - warm in the cold)



HEALTH - general hygiene, precautions against disease, prompt treatment.



FOOD - death within 60 - 70 days.

What it takes to Survive It takes a lot more than the knowledge and skills to build a shelter, get food, make a fire without matches and navigate without a compass to live successfully through a survival situation. Some people with little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is your mental attitude. It is important to have survival skills – but having the will to survive is essential. Without the determination to survive, acquired survival skills won’t help. The person in a survival environment faces many stresses that ultimately impact on his attitude. These stresses can produce thoughts and emotions that, if poorly understood, can transform a confident, well-trained person into an indecisive, ineffective individual with questionable ability to survive. Every person must be 12

aware of and be able to recognize those stresses commonly associated with survival. It is also vital you be aware of your reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival. The following paragraphs expand on the meaning of each letter of the word survival. Study and remember what each letter signifies because you may some day have to make it work for you.

S - Size up the Situation Size Up Your Surroundings Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on around you. Every environment has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or pattern includes animal and bird noises and movements and insect sounds.

Size Up Your Physical Condition An accident or the trauma of being in a survival situation may have caused you to overlook wounds you received. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in any climate, drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you are in a cold or wet climate, put on additional clothing to prevent hypothermia.

Size Up Your Equipment I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\the_psychology_of_survival.htm Top#TopCheck to see what equipment you have and what condition it is in.

U - Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste Consider all aspects of your situation before you make a decision and a move. If you act in haste, you may forget or lose some of your equipment. In your haste you may also become disoriented so that you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without endangering yourself. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant.

R - Remember Where You Are Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle that you must always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure they also know their location.



Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If that person is killed, you will have to get the map and compass from him.



Pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going.



Do not rely on others in the group to keep track of the route.



Constantly orient yourself. Always try to determine the location of local water sources.

V - Vanquish Fear and Panic The greatest enemies in a survival situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They can drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and evasion training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear and panic.I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\the_psychology_of_survival.htm - Top#Top

I - Improvise Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it. Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your kit wears out.

V - Value Living All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft and easy life. We have become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. When you are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts the will to survive is vital. The experience and knowledge you have gained through life and training will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure. 14

A - Act Like us Natives We African people and animals have adapted to the African environment. Watch how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water? What time do they usually go to bed and get up? These actions are important to you when you are trying to survive. Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food. Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. Many animals eat plants that are toxic to humans.

By studying the people, you learn to respect them, often make valuable friends, and - most important - you learn how to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of survival.

L - Live by Your Wits, but for now, Learn Basic Skills Without training in basic skills for surviving your chances of survival are slight. Learn these basic skills now窶馬ot when you are headed for Africa. How you decide to equip yourself before your safari will impact on whether or not you survive. You need to know about Africa and you must practice basic skills geared to our continent. Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and exercises. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and gives you selfconfidence. It teaches you to live by your wits. Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the enemies of survival. This survival pattern must include food, water, shelter, fire, first aid, and signals placed in order of importance. For example, in a cold environment, you would need a fire to get warm; a shelter to protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or snow; traps or snares to get food; a means to signal friendly aircraft; and first aid to maintain health. If injured, first aid has top priority no matter what climate you are in.

The Importance of Planning Detailed prior planning is essential in potential survival situations. An important aspect of prior planning is preventive medicine: ensure that you have no dental problems and that your immunizations are current. This will help you avoid potential dental or health problems. A dental problem in a survival situation will reduce your ability to cope with other problems that you face. Failure to keep your shots current may mean your body is not immune to diseases that are prevalent in the area. Also make sure you have yellow fever and Hepatitis A and B injections. 15

Even the smallest survival kit, if properly prepared, is invaluable when faced with a survival problem

Essentials for Survival

Survival Basics Apart from air to breathe, water is an absolute priority. Under hot conditions the survival time without water is very short. To conserve body water walk during the cooler hours of the day, avoid salty foods and smoking. Take frequent rests, try and stay in the shade as much as possible, wear a head covering. Take at least 1-2 liters of water with you when you leave for a day. Hydrate yourself well before leaving camp. You can go for a long time without food. It is not a priority even though the hunger pangs you might feel will be uncomfortable. Keeping warm when it’s cold and cool when it is hot is more important in the short term than finding food. Overheating (hyperthermia) and becoming too cold (hypothermia) can cause death in a very short time (within hours). 

AIR (oxygen) - death after 4 minutes



WATER (death within 3 - 4 days)



SHELTER (cool in the heat - warm in the cold)



HEALTH - general hygiene, precautions against disease, prompt treatment.



FOOD - death within 60 - 70 days.

Survival Planning Survival planning means preparation. Make sure you have survival items and know how to use them. People who live in snow regions prepare their vehicles for poor road conditions.

Put Together a Basic Survival Kit In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you have two items that will serve the same function, pick the one you can use for another function. Do not duplicate items, as this increases your kit’s size and weight. A survival bag should be: 

Water repellent or waterproof.



Easy to carry or attach to your body.



Suitable to accept components of various sizes.



Durable. A basic survival kit should contain:

Fire starting equipment

Waterproof matches, lighter, candle, small magnifying glass. Matches can be made semi-waterproof by dipping the heads in molten candle wax. A processed flint with striker is useful.

Candle

Shave it square for easy packing.

First aid kit

Plasters, bandage, a full course antibiotic for general infections, anti-diarrhea pills, suture plasters, analgesic for pain, disinfectant, antihistamine, nausea pills. Potassium permanganate: add to water and mix until pink for sterilizing, deeper pink to make an antiseptic and full red to treat fungal diseases like athlete’s foot. Butterfly sutures. Personal medication. Water sterilizing tablets.

Several needles, including one with a very large eye to take sinew or thick Needle and thread thread. Take dental floss as strong thread. Needles can be magnetized by rubbing against material and used as a compass when floated on water Signaling items

Small mirror.

Navigational items

Compass, protractor, topographical map or GPS.

Food & food procurement items

High energy food bars, biltong, dried fruit, dehydrated foods, soup packets, energy drinks, sugar, salt (all light and compact with a high food value). Strong chord, fishing line, thin wire, fish hooks. A sheet of clear plastic for obtaining water from a solar still. Plastic bags to get water from plant leaves.

Survival tool

Knife - or better - multipurpose tool with scissors and saw. Ceramic knife sharpener.

Shelter items

Plastic sheeting or poncho, string/strong cord, survival blanket.

Water procurement items

Purification tablets, collapsible container, flexible tubing, metal container, small sponge

Nice to have

Some sort of weapon (firearm and ammo, bow and arrow), spear or machete.

Gear With the right gear, the chances of survival are greatly increased. Choose your gear with care and buy the best you can afford.

Clothing Clothing should be comfortable and give protection against cold and rain while allowing ventilation. Be sure to carry a waterproof poncho, extra warm clothing and a change of clothes.

Socks Socks must be thick and strong. Make sure you take gaiters to prevent the grass seeds from getting stuck in your socks and causing irritation

Footwear Buy the best footwear you can afford. Make absolutely sure your boots are comfortable. Break in new boots long before your expedition and harden your feet with spirits two weeks before departure.

Knife If you can carry more than one knife, take a lockblade folder and a light hunting knife. Buy a custom-made knife if you can afford it. A knife with a thong will prevent loss in extreme situations. Crocodile Dundee looks great with his large knife but a large, heavy knife has limited use and is tiring to carry. Keep your knife very sharp.

Sleeping Bag Your sleeping bag is a critical part of your survival equipment and you should buy the best one that you can afford. Sleeping bags are filled with down, hollow fiber or other man-made materials. Down bags are light and compress to a very small size. Unfortunately it looses its insulating properties when wet and it is not easy to dry. Carry a waterproof bivouac bag.

Backpack Your backpack must be strong and waterproof. Use a backpack with an external frame and a belt to allow your hips to bear the weight. The frame should let air circulate between your body and the frame to reduce perspiration.

Lighting A torch or headlamp makes survival easier. Make sure you have a backup bulb and spare batteries – preferably also a solar charger for rechargeable batteries.

GPS Get a GPS that provides information like barometric pressure to help predict changes in the weather. Before you go on safari, enter the coordinates of towns or nearby villages. As soon as you get to the camp, enter the camp’s coordinates. The GPS is also useful to take you straight back to your traps, waterholes or an animal you killed. Remember spare batteries or, if possible, a solar battery charger and rechargeable batteries.

Water Water is always essential. Without it you will die within 3 days. The human body loses 2-3 liters (4-6 pints) of water each day. This loss increases with work rate and temperature. Water loss must be replaced with water or food containing water.

Finding Water 

Move to high ground and survey the surrounding are to identify low lying areas, drainage lines, and patches of bush greener than surrounding areas.



Dig in gullies or dry stream beds. Elephants do just this and sometimes you can open up and deepen where they dug. Push a long straight stick into the sand. If there is moisture under the sand the wet soil will cling to the stick. When you see this then it is worth digging.



Look especially in river bends and where dykes have been formed across the river bed by rock formations.



Look for water trapped in crevices in mountains



Walk along drainage lines - river and stream beds - even if they appear dry there will often be water below the surface.



Look at the base of cliffs. Water seepage often collects at the base.



Keep a lookout for windmills and water reservoirs.



Gather water by soaking up dew with a cloth during the night and early morning.



Catch up rain water (carry a sheet of plastic in your survival kit)



Make a solar still with your plastic sheet



Plastic bags tied around the end of leafy trees will collect moisture

Animal Indications of Water Most mammals need water on a regular basis. Grazing animals drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often lead to water. Look for water dependent animals like hippo, wildebeest and buffalo Buffalo

Hippo

Blue Wildebeest

Gemsbuck

The Gemsbuck does not need water because it gets water from its food. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t bother tracking it for water. Baboon

Baboons drink daily. Follow them to their water source. Leopard

Carnivores are not good indicators for water. 23

Warthogs

Warthogs drink every day and take a mud bath whenever possible. Birds

Grain eaters (like double banded sandgrouse, turtle doves, finches and red billed queleas) are never far from water and drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low they are heading for water. When returning from water they fly from tree to tree, resting often. Guinea Fowl and Francolin are good indicators for water. The flight paths of double banded sand grouse at sunset are a good direction to follow Other waterbirds to look out for are Egyptian and spurwing geese, ducks, waders, sandpipers, herons and storks. Insects ď&#x201A;ˇ

Bees are very good indicators of water. They venture at most 6.5 km or 4 miles from their nests.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

Ants and flies are never far from water

Reptiles



Foam nest or grey tree frogs make their foam nests (which look like balls of shaving cream) over pools of water.



Other reptiles are not good indicators for water

Dew and Rain Use as large a catchment area as possible and run the water off to containers. A hole lined with clay will hold water. Tie clothing around your legs and walk through grass in the early morning. Wring the water from the clothing into a container.

Solar Stills Using a clear plastic sheet, water can be obtained from soil.

Water in mud or clay can be strained through a sock - it still has to be purified



Dig a hole in the ground, at least 100cm (3 ft) across and 18 inches (45cm) deep.



Place a collecting can in the center



Use a stone to roughen one side of a clear plastic sheet to make sure the droplets will not adhere to it. Take care not to puncture it



Cover the hole with the plastic sheet. Weigh it down around the hole with stones and ground.



Place a stone in the center so that the sheet forms a cone with the tip right above the collecting can



The sun will heat up the soil which will release water vapor. The vapor will condense on the underside of the sheet, form droplets, run down to the center and collect in the container.

A solar still can also be used to distill pure water from poisonous plants or contaminated fluids and liquids

Distillation

Place a tube into a covered container containing contaminated water which is being heated over a fire Seal the hole with mud or wet sand

The tube , (which can be part of a pack frame) goes into a container . The entry hole is also sealed with mud or wet sand Container  is larger than container and is filled with contaminated water, which will be used to cool the steam. Container  is placed inside container  The steam from container  travels along the tube  to container . Container  is cooled by the water in container and the steam rapidly cools and condenses into distilled water. Another method is to place the end of the tube under a solar still. Weigh the end of the tube down with a rock and seal the entry point with mud. A variation is to hold a cloth above a steaming pot of water. The cloth soaks up the steam and water can be wrung from it.

Condensation Trees draw moisture from deep under the ground. That water is then evaporated through the leaves. Tie a plastic bag around a healthy, leafy branch and seal it off at the branch. Do not let leaves touch the sides because it will prevent water from running down to the lowest point. Use a few bags at a time to get enough water.

If your only water is polluted, like sea water, dig a trough around your still, about 25 centimeters from the stillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lip. Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and the soil filters it as the still draws it. The water then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works extremely well when your only water source is salt water

Distillation

Place a tube into a covered container containing contaminated water which is being heated over a fire Seal the hole with mud or wet sand

The tube, which can be part of a pack frame goes into a container. The entry hole is also sealed with mud or wet sand

The retaining container into which the pipe goes is larger than the cooling container which is filled with water. The retaining container is placed in the water inside the cooling container.

The steam from container 1travels along the tube to the cooling container. It is cooled by the water in the retaining container and the steam rapidly cools and condenses into distilled water. 27

A solar still can also be used to distill pure water from poisonous plants or contaminated fluids and liquids

Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid

Water from Plants Lala Palm Trim stem tips with a knife to allow sap flow. Cut the stem in a V to direct the sap to a piece of leaf to function as a spout above a container. Cover the stem for protection against the elements and insects. This method takes a long time but can provide regular flow. The sap ferments naturally in 36 hours to make a pleasant, heady wine. The fibrous outer layer of the fruit edible and sweet and the fluid in the seed looks and tastes like coconut milk

Marula Tree Dig around the Marula tree and cut a root of on the tree side. Place a container under the cut. Place grass over the container to protect in from insects and dirt.

Boabab The Boaobab collects water in its trunk during the wet season. Frequently clear, fresh water can be found in these trees after weeks of dry weather.

Bushman bulb/Bi Tuber The Bi tuber is a found in arid areas like the Kalahari. The large bulb grows erect stems which produce milky latex. It bears clusters of small, hairy green flowers among the leaves. The fruit capsules are brownish, long and thin. The bulb is dug up, held between the feet and shavings are cut from it with a split stick. Shavings are held in the hand and squeezed, pointing the thumb downwards to the mouth. The liquid is milky and bitter.

Water from Animals 

The eyes of animals contain a fluid, which can be sucked out.



All fish contain a drinkable liquid. Large fish contain a reservoir of water along the spine. Gut the fish while keeping it flat, carefully remove the backbone not to spill the liquid and drink it. Be careful not to suck up other juices from the flesh, which are rich in protein and fluid will be used from your vital organs to digest them



The stomach contents of ruminants yield a bitter but drinkable fluid. Gut the animal and squeeze the liquid from the chewed grass

Filtering and Purifying Water Remember drinking water in the wilds that has not been purified is very dangerous. Also remember that filtered water is not purified. Water is purified in four ways: 1. By boiling (for at least five minutes) 2. By adding purification tablets or chemicals. 3. By distillation. 4. By microfiltration. 29

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in a hollow log, or an article of clothing. Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before drinking it.

Retaining Water In a situation where water is scarce, you must retain the fluids you have in your body. 

Avoid exertion



Don’t smoke



Try to keep your temperature down. Stay in the shade or erect a shelter.



Do not lie on hot ground



Eat as little as possible. Digestion uses fluids. Fat is especially hard to digest.



Don’t drink alcohol, it takes fluids from vital organs to break it down



Don’t talk



Breathe through the nose, not the mouth

Condoms are useful containers for water

Finding Food

In an emergency you can eat almost anything. A balanced diet is as important as having enough to eat. Vary your diet as much as possible. Wild fruits (if you are hunting in the right time of year), insects (the most abundant and easily obtainable food source) - grasshoppers, mopani worms, wood borer larvae, termites etc. Animals, birds (and their eggs), reptiles (and their eggs), are just about all edible - avoid carnivores and animals and birds that feed on carrion. If eating a venomous snake cut the head off 6-7cm behind the head and eat the rest. Cook all meat well. Learn to identify edible plants and wild fruits.. Here are just a few: 

the leaves of blackjacks and buffalo thorn make excellent spinach



marulas



sour plums



num-nums



jackal berry



raisin bush berries



jacket plums

If you wish to eat some wild fruit or plant but are not sure if it is poisonous or not here are some guidelines: 

Be wary of bright coloured fruits and fruits with a milky latex.



You can not eat everything that baboons eat.



You can eat everything vervet monkeys eat.

Always carry some powdered (activated) charcoal with you. If you experience any adverse reaction to something you ate make a slurry with water and drink it. The charcoal will help to neutralise many poisons.

Hunting Hunting involves the killing of a living animal. In Africa, you can only survive by killing something – whether it be a grub, a snake or an impala. Do not make the mistake of thinking that killing a worm is different from killing a blue wildebeest – you are killing something, only the size and appearance of the animal varies. If you grew up in the city and are squeamish, get over it – or you will die in the bush. When killing a large animal, you should try to inflict as massive an injury as possible to minimize animal suffering and give as little opportunity to escape as possible. In order to do this, you will use a sharp object to penetrate blood vessels and lungs to drastically and rapidly reduce blood pressure to ensure death. The best place to do this is where organs and large blood vessels are concentrated. This area, called the vital area, is protected by the shoulder blades for mammals.

Camouflage Animals recognize and run from the shape of a human silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of vegetation from the surrounding area in your clothing. Reduce any shine from skin or equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate the texture of your surroundings.

Shape and Outline Change the outline of your body by tying vegetation or strips of cloth to yourself and hunting equipment. When hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with leaves, grass, or other debris.

Color and Texture Use color and texture together to camouflage yourself effectively. To hide and camouflage movement you must take on the color and texture of the bushveld. Use natural or man-made materials to camouflage yourself. Camouflage paint, charcoal from burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of cloth and camouflaged clothing are a few examples.

Shine As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Wash oily skin and reapply camouflage. Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you wear glasses, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce the reflection of light.

Shadow When hunting, stay in the deepest part of the shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are lighter and the deeper parts are darker.

Movement Movement, especially fast movement, is the greatest giveaway. Always move slowly, making as little noise as possible. When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you must climb over an obstacle, keep your body level The vital area with its top to avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the skyline when crossing hills or ridges. Stop, listen, and look around slowly and frequently.

Noise Noise attracts attention and will let your quarry run away long before you can get close enough for a kill. Slow down your pace as much as necessary to avoid making noise when moving around.

Scent Always camouflage your scent. Most animals can detect your scent many hours after you walked along a track. Start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap. This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.

When hunting, the two most important issues will be movement and scent. Always know which direction the wind is blowing. Tie a small feather to a thread and hang it on a branch to show wind direction. When stalking, always have the wind in your face or ambush downwind of a used game track

Stalking Upright Stalking Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in the upright position. This helps you to maintain your balance. Be ready to stop at any point and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl your toes up out of the way when stepping down and touch the ground with the outside edge of the ball of the foot first, then roll to the inside ball of your foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then gradually shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to about knee height and start the process over again. Look and feel for sticks and twigs that may snap when you place your weight on them. If you start to step on one, lift your foot and move it. One silent step usually takes about 1 minute to complete.

Crawling Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to let you to walk upright without being seen. Move one limb at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for anything that may snap and make noise, taking care that your toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

Prone Staking To stalk in the prone position, use a low, modified push-up on your hands and toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping along the ground as this makes excessive noise.

Animal Stalking Before stalking an animal, select the best route and often an intercepting route is best. Pick a route that puts objects between you and the animal to conceal your movement from it. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires the least amount of effort. Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears your way, especially if it suspects your presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and any shine from your eyes as well as movement from blinking. Keep your mouth closed to hide the whiteness or shine of your teeth. 35

Tracking Tracking requires keen eyesight, good memory, common sense and fitness. 1. Identify the spoor 2. Establish a definite starting point 3. Establish the length of stride of the animal to help you know where to look for he next track 4. Look for sign on the ground (ground spoor) as well as disturbed vegetation higher, dew and broken spider webs the direction of the animal’s travel (aerial spoor) 5. Note color differences in overturned rocks and leaves 6. Move slowly and track thoroughly. More haste = less speed 7. Look about 5 meters ahead of you, not at your feet 8. Never walk on the spoor 9. If early morning or late in the afternoon, use the sun to highlight the spoor 10. Move quietly 11. Use toilet paper in trees to mark the track. This will give an indication of direction and help you to return to your last sighting if you lose the track. 12. If you loose the track, move in a circle until you pick up the track again 13. The wounded animal will leave “blood spoor” in the form of drops or spots of blood. 14. The severity of the wound will determine the size and color of the blood spoor. If you shot the animal with an arrow or stabbed it with a spear, wait 30 minutes for bleeding to take place and death to ensue. If you run after the animal and it sees you, the rush of adrenalin into the animal’s bloodstream will let it get far away and you may lose your kill. While waiting, look at your arrow if it has gone through the animal or has fallen out. If it has: 36



Bright red, frothy, blood, it indicates a lung hit. Bright red blood indicates heart or a major artery was hit. Highly oxygenated blood is bright red. Recovery potential is very good.



Dark red blood indicates venous bleeding. This would mean that the liver, spleen, or kidney was hit but could also indicate a relatively minor flesh wound. Recovery potential good to poor



If the arrow is greenish, brownish, or has yellowish fluid or material and strong “gut” smell, you have hit the stomach. Recovery potential is poor.



Only traces of capillary or venous blood indicate a minor wound. Recovery is highly unlikely  Be very careful - all wounded animals are dangerous. Many hunters have discovered new life in their animals and themselves were wounded or killed in the process



If the animal is down, check for breathing and give another shot or stab it again to be sure that it is dead. Touch the eye - if there is no blink response, the animal is actually dead. Dress the animal as soon as possible.



All mammals are edible - not all are tasty

Spring hares live in burrows and emerge only at night. Fashion a hook from a forked branch and lash strong but pliable branches together to make a 3m long hooked stick. Maneuver the stick into the hole until you feel movement. Push the hook slightly past the spring hare and pull back sharply to hook it. Hold the hare while companions dig down to retrieve it

African Mammal Identification 150g Total Length 35cm Tail 23cm

Lesser Bushbaby Galago Senegalensis

190g Total Length 35cm Tail 16cm

Tree Squirrel Paraxerus cepapi

290g Total Length 28cm Tail 17cm Shoulder height 7cm

Dwarf Mongoose Helogale parvula

400g Total Length 20cm Tail 2cm

Hedgehog Erinaceus frontalis

650g Total Length 45cm Tail 22cm

Ground Squirrel Xerus inauris

650g Total Length 58cm Tail 27cm

Slender Mongoose Galerella sanguinea

680g Total Length 50cm Tail 22cm

Yellow Mongoose Cynictis penicillata

750g Total Length 62cm Tail 27cm

Small Grey Mongoose Galerella pulverulenta

800g Total Length 50cm Tail 22cm

Suricate Suricata suricatta

1Kg Total Length 62cm Tail 26cm Shoulder height 12cm 1.2Kg Total Length 75cm Tail 40cm

Striped Polecat Poecilogale albinucha

Thick-tailed Bushbaby Galago crassicaudatus

1.3Kg Total Length 58cm Tail 22cm

Banded Mongoose Mungos mungo

1.5Kg Total Length 57cm Tail 16cm Shoulder height 25cm

Small spotted Cat Felis nigripes

1.7Kg Total Length 73cm Tail 35cm

Selousâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Mongoose Paracynictis selousi

1.8Kg Total Length 92cm Tail 45cm

Large spotted Genet Genetta tigrina

2Kg Total Length 93cm Tail 45cm

Small spotted Genet Genetta genetta

2Kg Total Length 53cm Tail 10cm

Cape Hare Lepus capensis

2.5Kg Total Length 70cm Tail 10cm

Scrub Hare Lepus sexatilis

2.8Kg Total Length 47cm No tail

Tree Hyrax Dendohyrax arboreus

3Kg Total Length 50cm No tail

Yellow-spot Rock Hyrax Heterohyrax brucei

Large Grey 3.3Kg Mongoose Total Length 105cm Herpestes Tail 52cm ichneumon

3.5Kg Total length 90cm Tail 34cm Shoulder height 30cm

Cape Fox Vulpes chama

3.6Kg Total Length 53cm No tail

Rock Dassie Procavia capensis

4Kg Total Length 72cm Tail 18cm

Greater Cane Rat Thryonomys swinderianus

4Kg Total Length 80cm Tail 40cm

Spring Hare Pedietes capensis

4Kg Total Length 90cm Tail 35cm Shoulder height 22cm

Water Mongoose Atilax paludinosus

4Kg Tail 5cm Blue Duiker Shoulder height Philantomba 35cm monticolo Average horn length 3cm

4Kg Total length 83cm Tail 29cm Shoulder height 35cm

Bat-eared Fox Otocyon megalotis

4.3Kg Total length 93cm Tail 31cm Shoulder height 35cm

African Wild Cat Felis lybica

4.4Kg White-tailed Total Length 120cm Mongoose Tail 42cm Ichneumia albicauda

Medium-sized Mammals 5Kg Tail 5cm Shoulder height 38cm Average horn length 8cm

Damara Dik-dik Modoquo kirkii

5Kg Tail 13cm Shoulder height 25cm Average horn length 8cm

Suni Neotragus moschatus

5.5Kg Total Length 125cm Tail 65cm

Vervet Monkey Cercopithecus aethiops

7.5Kg Tail 6cm Shoulder height 50cm Average horn length 6cm

Sharpeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Grysbok Raphicerus sharpei

8Kg Total length 100cm Tail 33cm Shoulder height 38cm

Black-backed Jackal Canis mesomelas

8.5Kg Total length 90cm Tail 24cm Shoulder height 50cm

Aardwolf Proteles cristatus

9Kg Total length 100cm Tail 35cm Shoulder height 40cm

Side-striped Jackal Canis adustus

10Kg Total Length 75cm Tail 37cm

Pangolin Manis temminckii

10Kg Tail 6cm Shoulder height 54cm Average horn length 8cm

Grysbok Raphicerus melonotis

10Kg Total Length 95cm Tail 20cm Shoulder height 30cm

Honey Badger Millivora capensis

10Kg Tail 8cm Shoulder height 60cm Average horn length 8cm

Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus

11Kg Tail 5cm Shoulder height 50cm Average horn length 9cm

Steenbok Raphicerus campestris

11Kg Total length 108cm Tail 32cm Shoulder height 60cm

Serval Felis serval

12Kg Total Length 135cm Tail 45cm Shoulder height 40cm

African Civet Civettictis civetta

13Kg Total length 90cm Tail 26cm Shoulder height 43cm

Caracal Felis caracal

14Kg Total Length 135cm Tail 50cm

Clawless Otter Aonyx capensis

14Kg Tail 11cm Shoulder height 60cm Average horn length 10cm

Oribi Ourebia ourebi

14Kg Tail 11cm Shoulder height 43cm Average horn length 6cm

Red Duiker Cepholophus natalensis

15Kg Total Length 90cm Tail 12cm

Porcupine Hystrix africaeausrali

18Kg Tail 12cm Shoulder height 50cm Average horn length 11cm

Common Duiker Sylvicapra grirnmia

20Kg Tail 10cm Shoulder height 75cm Average horn length 20cm

Grey Rheebuck Pelea capreolus

25Kg Total Length 125cm Tail 25cm Shoulder height 73cm

Wild Dog Lycaon Pictus

30Kg Tail 20cm Shoulder height 72cm Average horn length 14cm

Mountain Reedbuck Redunca fulvorufula

32Kg Total length 140cm Tail 70cm

Baboon Papio cynocephalus ursinus

41Kg Tail 25cm Shoulder height 75cm Average horn length 35cm

Springbuck Antidorccis marsupialis

45Kg Tail 20cm Shoulder height 80cm Average horn length 26cm

Bushbuck Trogelophus scriptus

47Kg Total Length 145cm Tail 25cm Shoulder height 80cm

Brown Hayena Hyaena brunnea

50Kg Tail 28cm Shoulder height 90cm Average horn length 50cm

Impala Aepyceros melampus melampus

50Kg Total length 200cm Tail 70cm Shoulder height 80cm

Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus

55Kg Total length 160cm Tail 53cm

Antbear Orycteropus afer

55Kg Total length 185cm Tail 90cm Shoulder height 75cm

Leopard Panthera pardus

60Kg Tail 25cm Shoulder height 88cm Average horn length 30cm

Reedbuck Redunca arundinum

62Kg Tail 38cm Shoulder height 90cm Average horn length 38cm

Bontebok Domaliscus dorcas dorcas

70Kg Tail 40cm Shoulder height 95cm Average horn length 51cm

Blesbok Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi

70Kg Total Length 150cm Tail 25cm Shoulder height 85cm

Spotted Hayena Crocuta crocuta

74Kg Tail 28cm Shoulder height 80cm Average horn length 45cm

Puku Kobus vardonii

80Kg Bushpig Tail 38cm Potamochoerus Shoulder height 72cm porcus Average tusk length cm

82Kg Warthog Tail 45cm Phocochoerus Shoulder height 70cm aethiopicus Average tusk length cm

Large Mammals 100Kg Tail 34cm Shoulder height 100cm Average horn length 70cm

Red Lechwe Kobus leche

108Kg Tail 43cm Shoulder height 115cm Average horn length 60cm

Nyala Tragelaphus angasii

115Kg Tail 22cm Shoulder height 90cm Average horn length 60cm

Sitatunga Trachelaphus spekei

140Kg Tail 50cm Shoulder height 120cm Average horn length 52cm

Black Wildebeest Connochaetes gnou

140Kg Tail 45cm Shoulder height 120cm

Tsessebe Domaliscus lunatus

150Kg Tail 47cm Shoulder height 125cm Average horn length 52cm

Red Hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus

180kg Shoulder Height 125cm

Lichtensteinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hartebeest Sigmoceros lichtensteinii

185Kg Total length 290cm Tail 100cm Shoulder height 120cm

Lion Panthera Leo

230Kg Tail 50cm Shoulder height 135cm Average horn length 102cm

Sable Hippotragus niger

240Kg Tail 60cm Shoulder height 120cm Average horn length 90cm

Gemsbuck Oryx Gazella

250Kg Tail 40cm Shoulder height 130cm

Cape Mountain Zebra Equus zebra zebra

250Kg Tail 60cm Shoulder height 150cm Average horn length 60cm

Blue Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus

250Kg Tail 43cm Shoulder height 147cm Average horn length 120cm

Kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros

260Kg Tail 35cm Shoulder height 130cm Average horn length 75cm

Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus

270Kg Tail 54cm Shoulder height 145cm Average horn length 75cm

Roan Hippotragus equinus

300Kg Tail 40cm Shoulder height 150cm

Hartmannâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Mountain Zebra Equus zebra hartmanni

315Kg Tail 45cm Shoulder height 130cm

Burchellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Zebra Equus burchelli

550Kg Tail 70cm Shoulder height 140cm Average horn length 100cm

Buffalo Syncerus caffer

700Kg Tail 60cm Shoulder height 170cm Average horn length 60cm Roland Ward cm SCI cm

Eland Taurotragus oryx

Very Large Mammals 950Kg Tail 70cm Shoulder height 160cm

Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis

1200Kg Tail 120cm Shoulder height 300cm Total height 450cm

Giraffe Giraffa camelopordalis

1500Kg Tail 40cm Shoulder height 150cm

Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius

2150 Kg Tail 100cm Shoulder height 180cm

White Rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum

6000Kg Tail 1.5cm Shoulder height 360cm

Elephant Loxodonta africana

Trapping To be able to trap an animal, you have to: 

Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.



Be capable of constructing a proper trap.



Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.

There is no one-size-fits-all trap. Determine which species you want and set your traps specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following: 

Runs and trails.



Tracks.



Droppings.



Chewed or rubbed vegetation.



Nesting or roosting sites.



Feeding and watering areas.

Animals have bedding areas, waterholes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares and traps around these areas to be effective. Mask the human scent on and around the trap you set by putting mud on your hands before you handle the snare. Even the slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the prey and cause it to avoid the area. A simple snare consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted stake or tree trunk. If the noose is some type of rope placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Use filaments from spider webs to hold the noose open. Make sure it is large enough to pass freely over the animal’s head. As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. If you use rope, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal’s neck. Wire is best choice for a simple snare. Also make sure your stake is very sturdy and will not be broken. Approach with caution and stab the animal from behind just behind the ribcage into the heart. This snare is used extensively in Africa and has killed countless millions of animals over the centuries. Remember to check your snares daily and remove them when you move on to avoid killing an animal.

Snares Simple Snare This simple snare which is extensively used in Africa consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted stake. It catches small game by the throat and large game round the legs. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal’s head. As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal’s neck. Wire or thin cable from the handbrake or speedometer on older vehicles is therefore the best choice for a simple snare. Use sticks to prop the wire up at the correct height for your prey species.

Drag Noose Use a drag noose on an animal run. Same construction as a simple noose. Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy cross member across them. Tie the noose to the cross member and hang the noose at a height above the animal’s head. Nooses designed to catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot. As the noose tightens around the animal’s neck, the animal pulls the cross member from the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the cross member and the animal becomes entangled.

Spring Snare A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured with a triggering device, will provide power to a variety of snares. Select a hardwood sapling along the trail. Remove all the branches and foliage. Cut a notch in trigger bar to fit notch in upright. Drive upright into ground. Attach the snare to trigger bar and use cord to sapling to keep tension. The bar disengages and whips the prey species into the air.

Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could glue them together and make your trap useless.

Baited Spring Snare The same construction as the Spring Snare. Use the bait that will attract the species you want to trap. Here we used a small potato. Lightly hammer the small supporting peg into the ground so it will lift with the noose with the peg when the trap is sprung.

Noosing Wand A noose stick or “noosing wand” is very useful for capturing roosting Guinea Fowl, francolin or catching small animals. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire tied with two half hitches to the pole or stiff cordage at the small end. If you are using nylon rope:     

heat the the ends with an open flame and shape them to a point with wet fingers while the nylon is still hot. push the end so that the strands of the rope open maneuver the end into the middle of the strands and push it in about 5”/12cm Pull tight to form a perfect loop. Push the rope through the loop to form a sliding noose.

To catch an animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to tighten the noose and thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey.

Paiute Deadfall 1. Find a suitable large, flat stone 2. Cut 3 sticks about a 10mm thick to be used in the construction 3. Cut the sticks in 3 lengths, about 40cm for the horizontal and longer for the diagonal and bait sticks. 4. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick. 5. Cut another stick about 5cm long and tie the other end of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters long. This 5centimeter stick is the catch stick. 6. Carve a notch in the diagonal stick where the upright meets it to stop the upright stick from slipping. 7. Carefully create a figure 4 with the diagonal stick resting on the upright stick and the chord going back to the upright stick 8. Place the bait stick against the upright stick and bring the cord around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90degree angle to create the trigger

Trigger detail

When an animal disturbs the bait stick, it falls free, releasing the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey.

Pig Spear Shaft To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5 meters long. At the smaller end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the cord. From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick. Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth stick with 59

the slip ring. Place one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end against the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it between the short cord and the smooth stick. As the animal trips the trip wire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the trail and impales the prey against the tree. This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution.

Bottle Trap A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and moles. Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters deep that is wider at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground. Mice and other small animals will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out because of the wall’s backward slope.

Careful when checking this trap - it is an excellent hiding place for snakes!

Bird Traps “Voëlent” (Bird lime) Many African trees have a parasitic plant which propagates with a fruit that has very sticky flesh designed to stick to birds’ feet and beaks. The parasite can be identified easily as a dense section of the tree bearing different leaves. Bite open the small fruit and discard the green shell. With the contents in your mouth, gently remove the bitter pip with your tongue and discard.

You will now have just the sticky flesh in your mouth. The texture is like that of chewing gum and it’s almost tasteless. Clean a handful of the fruit until you have a sizable mouthful of the sticky flesh. Cut straight sticks about 6mm thick as pencils and about 60cm long. With the sticky flesh in your mouth, stick some to the stick with your tongue and rotate the stick, dragging a thin strip from your mouth. Coat the whole stick with closely spaced flesh and place next to a waterhole on two forked sticks. Birds come for water, perch on the stick and are unable to fly away. Sit concealed next to the waterhole and collect the birds as they get stuck, resetting you sticky trap every time.

Baited Hooks Use hooks in fruit or other food. The hook gets stuck in the bird’s throat and you can reel it in.

Noose Sticks Use a noose attached to a pole to catch roosting birds at night. Watch where Guinea fowl or Francolin go to roost and use a bright flashlight and the running noose to slip the noose over their heads an pull them down.

Inner Tube Trap Cut 2 pieces of inner tube of 25mm/1” by 50cm/18” Cut 4 pieces of 3mm/¼” and 30cm/12” to use for binding material. Cut a 2 pieces of heavy wire of about 12”/30cm and bend loops on both sides

Cut 3 short stakes of 12”/30cm, sharpen the one side and bevel the other.

Put the one of the ends of each of the large pieces of inner tube through the loops on each of the heavy wire lengths and fasten with the thin strips of inner tube Connect the other loops with a suitable piece of strong cord using the bowline knot

Tie the other ends of the large inner tube strips to two of the short stakes

It should look something like this when you are finished

Drive 2 of the short stakes into the ground about 1m/36â&#x20AC;? apart in an open space where pigeons or other birds feed. Drive the third stake into the ground so that the inner tube will be at full stretch when the heavy wire or thin chain is pulled over it

Fashion a release and use a long rope to release it. Cut a shallow groove to prevent the release rope from slipping when pulled. Put seeds or crumbs out to attract the birds Hide in scrub and pull the release rope when the birds come to feed. When the release is pulled, the heavy wire will injure the birds and they can be collected for lunch.

Ojibwa Bird Pole An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries. To be effective, place it in a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters long and trim away all limbs and foliage. Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point otherwise the birds will perch there and drill a small diameter hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters down from the top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape one end so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end up. Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage through the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The tension of the overhand knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring it covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above ground and will land on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will 63

fall, and the overhand knot will slip freely through the hole allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the bird’s feet, capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it will cut the bird’s feet off and it will escape.

Fish Traps Fish Basket Lash several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. Close the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through. The fish are trapped when they can not get back out. Make sure to secure it by tying it to a rock or log.

Spearfishing If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish are large and plentiful, you can spear them. To make a spear, cut a long, straight sapling . Sharpen the end to a point or attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal. You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few inches down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a spreader. You then sharpen the two separated halves to points. To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where there is a fish run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a quick thrust, impale the fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with probably slip off and you will lose it; hold the spear with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert to the problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the water. Always aim slightly below it.

Making a fishing Spear 

Cut a strong sapling or branch about 2m/6’ long and 25mm/1” in diameter. Clean and split the wood in quarters for about 10cm/4”.

  

 

  

Cut lengths of thick wire of about 35cm/14” and beat the ends flat with a hammer or stone File or cut the ends to a sharp point File or cut the wire just behind the point to form a catch

Place the spikes into the split, starting with the one in the centre Arranging the rest around the centre by pushing the spikes into the splits

Bind the lengths very tightly with wire or cord Arrange the spikes to cover a 15cm/6” area Stab down at the fish and hold it against the bottom and grab it by pushing your fingers into the gills

For bigger fish like large barbel and carp, carve points from hardwood or giraffe bone like these examples.

Chop Fishing At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light to attract fish. Then, armed with a machete or similar weapon, you can gather fish using the back of the blade to strike them. Do not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces and end up losing some of the fish.

Fish Poison Another way to catch fish is by using poison. The best place to use it is in ponds or small streams containing fish. Use Euphorbia sp. easily recognizable by their distinctive shapes. Before cutting, burn the trunk to prevent the latex from splashing as it is highly toxic and can cause blindness if splashed into the eyes. Soak grass in the latex and throw the grass into the water. Do not eat the gills because they will be poisonous.

Bottle Trap You may trap fish using several methods. Fish Euphoriba sp. used for fish baskets are one method. You construct poison them by lashing several sticks together with rope into a funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through. A readily available method that is easy and can produce enough food for one person is the plastic two liter Coke bottle. Cut the top third of the bottle off and insert it spout first into the base of the bottle. Attach the two pieces with wire and anchor with a short piece of rope. Put bread crusts into the bottle (bits of meat will also do) and place it in a rock pool. The fish swim into the bottle through the neck but cannot escape. Overnight you should have a collection of small fish, prawns and crabs.

Gill Net Tie a line between two trees. Attach several core lines by doubling them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the space between them. Starting at one end of the easing, tie the second and the third 66

core lines together using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core line. You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start the second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on. To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Position the guideline on the opposite side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line easing along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. See nets and hammocks. Nightlines Weight one end of a line with a rock and attach hooks with bait at intervals to catch fish feeding at any depth. Tie the free end to a log or tree on bank and throw the rock into the water. Put this out any time of day or night, but change worms regularly - moving food attracts more attention.

Edible Animals Snakes Make sure they are dead. The Rinkhals and other poisonous snakes can convincingly sham death and perforate you when you pick them up. Cut off the head and bury it. Cut through skin behind the head and suspend the snake vertically by forcing a sharp stick through the flesh where the cut was made. Loosen the skin and remove it skin by pulling it down like a sock from a ladies leg. Fillet the meat off the vertebrae or chop into 3cm/1½” pieces. Season and cook, grill or make a stew. These photos are of a delicious Black Mamba. Here is an excellent recipe you can use: Fer au Vin 15ml (1 tablespoon) Vegetable oil, butter or fat 75g (3 oz) bacon, rinded and chopped 175g (6 oz) mushrooms - make sure they are not poisonous 1 onion, skinned and chopped 1 medium-sized mamba or other snake, cleaned and cut into 3cm/1½” pieces 60ml (4 tablespoons) brandy 45ml (3 level tablespoons) flour 400ml (¾ pint) red wine 150ml (¼ pint) guinea fowl/francolin stock 15ml (teaspoon) sugar Salt and pepper 1. Heat the oil and butter a pan and fry the bacon, mushrooms and onions for 3-4 minutes, until browned. Remove from the pan. 2. Add the snake and fry for 8-10 minutes until golden brown 3. Pour the brandy over the snake, remove from the flame and light the liquid with a burning stick from the fire. When the flames die down, remove the snake but not the liquid - from the pan. 4. Stir the flour into the fat remaining in the pan and cook for 2-3 minutes 68

5. Gradually add the wine and guinea fowl/francolin stock and bring to the boil until thickened. Add sugar and seasoning. 6. Return the snake, bacon and mushrooms and onion to the pan 7. Cover and cook for 1 hour until tender 8. Garnish with Shepherdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Tree leaves and flowers and serve

Turtles and Tortoises It is best boiled and is very rich, so eat only a little at a time. Kill by a blow to the head and roast upside-down in coals. When the shell splits they are ready.

Amphibians Do not eat toads as in the picture. Frogs are all edible but the skin may be poisonous. Remove the skin and wash properly. Fry or cook and enjoy.

Fish Fish are a good source of protein and fat. They are usually more abundant than mammal wildlife. To be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits.  Fish tend to feed heavily before a storm  Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen  Light often attracts fish at night.  When there is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near rocks.  Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter.  Fish are often attracted to shiny objects. Fashion a lure.  Cook fish to kill parasites You can trap fish using several methods. Fish baskets can be constructed by lashing several sticks together with rope into a funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through. The fish swims in and can not find it’s way out.

Birds and eggs All birds are edible, but not all are tasty. Boil birds of prey thoroughly. Eggs are easily available from ground nesters. Ostrich eggs are large (about 24 normal chicken eggs) and delicious - but ostriches can deliver a very powerful kick.

An easy method that can produce enough food for one person is using a plastic two liter Coke bottle. Cut the top third of the bottle off and insert it spout first into the base of the bottle. Attach the two pieces with wire and anchor with a short piece of rope. Put bread crusts into the bottle (bits of meat will also do) and place it in a rock pool. The fish swim into the bottle through the neck but cannot escape. Overnight you should have a collection of small fish, prawns and crabs.

Bats Bats are good eating. Active at night and can be knocked from their upside-down slumbers with rocks or a throwing stick during the day. They roost in caves and hollow trees, especially baobab trees. Remove legs and gut. Remove skin by pulling off in the same way as a rabbitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin. Cook or grill.

Insects Bees Bees can be eaten throughout heir life cycle. Nests are found in hollows of trees or under overhangs. Honey should be collected at night. Make a torch from grass, light it and hold it close to the opening to fill the nest with smoke, then seal up the hole to kill the bees. Remove the sting, wings and legs before eating the bees and boil or roast.

Grasshoppers Swat with a leafy branch. Remove winks, antennae and legs. Roast and enjoy. Avoid the brightly-colored ones, they are poisonous

Termites At certain times of the year, just after a shower at dusk, thousands of winged termites take to the skies from their large nest. Trace the flying termites to the nest and collect them or set up a light. Termites are very nutritious and can be eaten raw or fried. To eat them raw, grab them by the wings and bite of the back. They taste like butter. Termites are great when fried. Remove the wings and fry them in a pan or on a hot rock. They pop like rice or popcorn and taste a bit like crackling - good eating!

Mopane Worms Mopane worms have been a source of protein to Africans for centuries. Mopane worms feed on the leaves of the Mopane tree and can be fried, dried or eaten on the hoof. To prepare them for deep frying, grilling or drying, grab them by the head, and force out the intestines with a milking motion. They taste like powdered biltong when dried.

Snails Snails must be eaten fresh. Starve them or allow allowing them to feed only on nonpoisonous plants for a few days to allow excretion of poisons. Afterwards, place in a salt water solution for 10 minutes to clear out the guts. Boil for 10 minutes, adding herbs to flavor. Use animal fat or the marrow of a kudu bone (and garlic flakes if you have them) to have Escargot d’ Afrique.

Edible Trees and Plants The Edibility Test Always use the following procedure when testing unknown plants for food. Only one person in the party should do the test to prevent everyone from getting ill at the same time. If in any doubt at all during the test - do not eat.

Inspect

Try to identify the plant. Make sure the plant is not slimy or is worm-eaten. Do not test plants that are wilted, withered or old.

Smell

Crush a small portion of the plant. If it smells of almonds, peaches or has a white latex discard it.

Skin Test

Put some of the sap or juice on a tender part of the skin, like the upper arm. If there is a rash, discomfort or swelling, discard it.

Mouth Test

If there was no irritation in steps , and,  do the following, waiting 15 seconds between each stage: 1. Place a small portion on the lips 2. Place a small portion on the corner of the mouth 73

3. Place a small portion on the tip of the tongue 4. Place a small portion under the tongue 5. Chew a small portion In all cases, if any discomfort is felt like burning, sore throat, numbness or burning, discard it

Swallow

If all the above steps have been gone through without problems, chew and swallow a small portion and wait 5 hours. Eat or drink nothing else during this time.

Eat

Only if steps 1-5 have been gone through without problems, the plant may be considered safe to eat. Let one person eat after all the tests and allow the rest of the party to eat of the tested plant only the following day.



If the person doing the test has stomach problems, let him drink lots of hot water. Do not eat again until the pain has gone.



If pain is severe, induce vomiting by tickling the back of the throat.



Swallowing charcoal will also induce vomiting and absorb some of the poison.



White wood ash and water paste will help for stomach pain.

Common Edible Trees and Plants African Mangosteen - Garcenia livingstonei SA 486 Zim 716. 2-10m, Stiff with rigid branches at an acute angle. Occurs in low altitudes, open woodland and riverine fringes. Bark is grey to black and rough, all parts exude a pale yellow sticky sap. Leaves elliptic and in whorls of 3, leathery and glossy green above, paler green below. Flowers sweetly scented, cream to greenishyellow, borne on slender stalks in groups of 5-15. Fruit spherical, 25mm and yellow to orange-red when ripe. Delicious to eat and used for brewing beer. November to December.

Brown Ivory â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Berchemia discolor

SA 449 Zim 620. Evergreen, 7-20m, occurring at low altitudes, in riverine fringe forest or open dry woodland, often on termite mounds. Bark is dark grey, rough and fissured. Leaves are smooth, alternate and elliptic, shiny dark green above and much paler below. Flowers are small, greenish yellow and borne on slender stalks. Fruit is oval, fleshy and yellow to light orange when mature and sweet and delicious to eat. Also used to brew beer and for flavoring porridge. January to May.

Baobab Tree â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Adansonia digitata

SA 467 Zim 684. A short but fat tree, 10-15m. Occurs at low altitudes in hot dry woodland. Bark is pinkish-grey or coppery, 75

smooth and heavily folded. Leaves are alternate and have 3-9 leaflets. Flowers are white and have an unpleasant smell. Fruit is oval and woody, 120mm and longer and covered with grayish velvety hairs. Seeds are embedded in an edible white powdery pulp The seeds are roasted and eaten as nuts and young leaves can be cooked to make spinach. The fruit is eaten raw or used to make a refreshing drink. April to May.

Buffalo Thorn – Ziziphus mucronata

SA 447 Zim 618. Medium-sized tree, up to 9m, occurring in a wide variety of habitats. Bark grey to dark grey and fissured. Leaves broadly oval, shiny green and slightly paler below. Three-veined from the base. One curved and one straight spine. Flowers small, yellowish and inconspicuous, often producing much nectar. Fruit almost round, 15mm, edible but not tasty. Fruit turns shiny russetred when ripe, often remaining on the tree until the leaves fall.

Governor’s Plum – Flacourtia indica

SA 506 Zim 739. Usually 3-5m but up to 10m. Bark pale grey and smooth becoming mottled dark grey and flaking showing pale orange patches. Leaves partly toothed, light green, elliptic to almost circular and thin and leathery. Colors to brilliant red to purple-black early in autumn. Flowers greenish-yellow with dull red flush. Fruit dark red to purplish berries, edible but sour, 25mm. January to June.

Green/Spiny Monkey Apple â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Strychnos spinosa

SA 629 Zim 892. Shrub or small tree up to 7m. Occurs from sea level to about 1500m in open woodland and riverine fringes. Bark is grey, roughish and tends to flake in rectangular segments. Leaves are elliptic to almost circular, leathery, glossy dark green above and paler below. Distinctly 3-5 veined from the base. Flowers creamy green, densely crowded together on small stalks. Fruit is round, woody and up to 120mm in diameter. Yellow or yellow-brown when ripe. The flesh is edible but the pips contain strychnine. Fruit pulp 77

can be dried and stored. March to August.

Horned Cucumber – Cucumis metuliferus

An annual with creeping stems radiating from the woody stock. The flesh is greenish and translucent.

Jackal Berry – Diospyros mespiliformis SA 606, Zim 857.Medium-sized tree with buttressed trunk. Bark dark black-grey with deep longitudinal furrows. Leaves smooth margin, elliptic to oblong, dark and glossy above, paler green below, turns yellow in autumn. Flowers greyish-cream, solitary in leaf axils. Fruit almost spherical, 25mm, turns yellow or purplish when ripe. Delicious when eaten fresh, can be stored and used for brewing beer. 25mm. April to September.

Jacket Plum – Pappea capensis

SA 433 Zim 605. 7-13m, occurring in open woodland and riverine fringes, often on termite mounds or among rocks. Bark smooth and pale grey to brownish. Leaves dull green above, pale green below leathery and tough, alternate and toothed, oblong to almost circular, frequently crowded at the end of branches. Flowers small, pale yellow or greenish with 5 petals. Fruit is a furry green capsule 15mm 78

in diameter which splits to reveal a shiny black seed which is completely enclosed by a brilliant, shiny red and jelly-like fruit. Delicious sweet flavor. Seed oil is edible and can be used to oil rifles. February to July.

Lala Palm-Hyphaene coriacea

SA 23 Zim 16. The fibrous outer layer of the fruit sweet and the fluid in the seed looks and tastes like coconut milk. October to September.

Lowveld Milkberry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Manilkara mochisa SA 599 Zim 843. A shrub or spreading tree 15m in height with branches arching downwards. Bark dark, almost black, and rough. Heavily marked with leaf scars. Leaves are very characteristic, tight rosettes on the tips of branches. Flowers greenish-yellow 10mm on slender stalks of 10mm.Fruit ovoid and fleshy, 10mm, yellow when ripe with red flesh. January to March.

Marula â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Sclerocarya birrea SA 360 Zim 537. Up to 15m. Occurs in open woodland and bush. Bark is grey, rough and flaking in patches. Leaves are alternate, compound, smooth and crowded near ends of branches. Flowers 79

borne on unbranched sprays. Fruit fleshy, almost round, 35mm. Yellow when ripe, the delicious yellow fruit is high in vitamin C. In Southern Africa, Amarula liqueur is made from the fruit. The nuts are also edible. February to June.

Mobola Plum – Parinari curatelifolia SA 146 Zim 166. Evergreen and spreading, up to 13m. Occurs in open deciduous woodland. Bark dark grey and rough, young shoots densely covered with yellowish woolly hairs. Leaves alternate, elliptic to oblong. Leathery, dark green above and velvety when young. Densely hairy and grayish below. Flowers small, white and sweetly scented. Fruit russet yellow with yellow flesh, oval to round, grayish and scaly and pitted. 35mm. October to January.

Raisin Bush – Grevia flava SA 459 Zim 649. Shrub or small tree up to 4m. Occurs in dry deciduous woodland or bushveld. Bark dark grey-brown. Leaves elliptic and coarly toothed. Flowers yellow. Fruit almost round and 2 lobed. Yields a thin layer of sweet flesh. 8mm, red-brown when ripe. December to April. Also used for brewing beer. Branches are straight and are used for bows and arrow shafts. December to April.

Stamvrug – Englerophytum megalismontanum SA 581 Zim 838. Medium-sized tree, up to 10m. Grows on rocky outcrops. Bark grey and smooth, slightly scaly. Leaves oblong to elliptic, glossy dark green above with silky golden-brown hairs below, often crowded on near ends of branches. Flowers brownishpink and strongly scented. Fruit is red and ovoid, 20mm and is and borne on the trunk. Makes excellent eating. 25mm. December to February.

Sourplum – Ximenia americana. SA 102 Zim 92. A shrub of up to 4m. Occurs in thorn bush, sandy open woodland and dry stony slopes. Bark is grey and smoothish to rough. Leaves are oblong and folded upwards toward the midrib. Fruit is oval, 25mm, refreshingly sour but edible. December to January.

Transvaal Red Milkwood – Mimusops zeyheri SA 585 Zim 841.Shrub or tree up to 15m, occurring in low hot, low altitudes. Bark grey-brown to blackish, smooth in young trees becoming rough. Leaves oblong to pointed, thick and leathery. Young leaves and twigs covered by dense rusty hair which are lost with maturity. Flowers star-shaped and creamy white. Fruit ovoid and fleshy, 4-seeded, 25mm, yellow when ripe. Good tasting with high vitamin C content. April to October.

Tsama Melons – Citrillus lanatus

A creeping annual herb with hairy stems and three-lobed leaves. The edible pale greenish flesh is edible and the roasted seeds are considered a delicacy. A person can survive for 6 weeks on an exclusive diet of Tsamma.

Wild Bramble – Rubus rigidus A widespread sprawling shrub with hooked thorns on long branches Leaves are hairy, toothed and white below. Flowers are pink. Fruit 81

are red berries that become purple when ripe.

Waterberry – Syzgium cordatum SA 555 Zim 798. Medium-sized tree, 8-15m. Occurs in riverine forest and always along watercourses. Bark is dark brown, rough and fissured. Leaves borne near the ends of branches, successive pairs at right angles to each other. Flowers creamy white to pinkish, sweetly scented and produces abundant nectar. Fruit is ovoid, 15mm long, purple when ripe and bland-tasting. November to March.

Wild Date Palm – Phoenix reclinata SA 22 Zim 14.3-10m, often multistemmed from the base. Occurs along river banks in low grassland. Leaves are palm-like, 3-4m long. The lowest leaflets reduced to sharp spines. Flowers glubose and insignificant. Fruit oval, 15mm, green becoming bright orange when ripe. Resembles those of a commercial date palm but are smaller. Sweet when ripe. February to April.

Wild Fig – Ficus sycamorus SA 66 Zim 65. A spreading tree, 5-25m, often along river banks or part of a riverine thicket. Bark smooth and a distinctive yellow, trunk may develop large buttresses. Leaves large dark green and oblong 82

to almost circular, sometimes toothed. Fruit Yellowish to reddish when ripe, up to 30mm. Eaten fresh or dried for storage. Some trees bear any time of year July to December.

Wild Medlar – Vanguera infausta SA 702 Zim 1096. A small tree, 307m. Occurs in wooded grassland, among rocks and on sand dunes. Bark is grey and smooth. Branchlets are covered with short hairs. Leaves are elliptic and densely covered with short tawny hairs. Flowers are greenish white to yellowish borne in small branched groups. Fruit is almost round, 30mm, yellowish when ripe, pitted and segmented. January to April.

Wild Plum – Harpephullum caffrum SA 361. 6-10m, occurring in riverine forest. Bark dark brown and rough. Leaves dark shiny green, the midrib well to one side. Compound and alternate, crowded at the ends of branches. Flowers small, whitish to yellowish green in small branched sprays near end of branches. Fruit thinly fleshy, oblong and about 25mm. Red when ripe. August.

Weeping Boer Bean – Schotia brachypetala

SA 202 Zim 255. Up to 16m with rounded crown. Occurs in open, deciduous woodland and scrub forest. Bark is brown-grey and rough. Leaves oblong and wavy. Flowers, borne September to October, are deep red with slender, pink petals They secrete excessive copious nectar which is nutritious and excellent for quenching thirst. Seeds are roasted and eaten. February to May.

Weapons

Having a weapon for obtaining food and defending yourself is of primary importance. Use what you have available: wood, broken down vehicle parts and stone and use with a little trouble you can fashion various weapons.

Edged Weapons Bow and Arrow A bow and arrow are the most effective of improvised weapons.

The Bow 

Use only well-seasoned wood for the bow. Tension in unseasoned wood is temporary.



Select a uniform stick of strong, finely grained wood. Remove the bark



The stick should be as long as the distance from the ground to the tip of your nose



The stick has to be shaped to 2” (5cm) in the center tapering to 5 eights (1.5cm) and both ends



Make a notch about ½” (1.25cm) from both ends to take the string



Once shaped, rub the bow with oil or animal fat.



Cut a piece of rawhide to 3mm (one-eighth inch) wide or use strong string.



Secure the string with a bow thong knot



Release the string when bow is not in use to retain spring

Arrows 



Use a straight wood to make arrows, the straighter and smoother the better. The Velvet Raisin Bush (Greavia flava) and Common Reed (Phragmites australis), which forms vast stands in wet places are best. Arrows should be about 60cm (2ft) long.

Velvet Raisin Bush (Greavia flava) 85

Make arrows as long as the distance from your shoulder to middle finger tip 

Make a notch wide enough to fit your string in the back of each arrow



Arrows are fletched by splitting feathers down the center of the quill



Leave 20cm (¾”) quill on both sides to tie down



Tie the 2 fletches around the shaft about 2” (2.5cm) from the back of the arrow with sinew or string. Make sure the fleches are 90° to your arrow notch.

Arrow Heads 

The arrow shaft can be sharpened by heating in the fire



Making arrow heads is better. Use flint, cans, tin or bone



Split the business end of the shaft and insert the head.



Tie down well with wet sinews and allow to dry.

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\weapons.htm Top#TopTechnique 

Fit arrow to bow string



Hold arrow with right hand (if right-handed)



Pull string with index finger on top of arrow and middle and ring finger below. Don’t pinch the arrow with your fingers 86



Push with left hand and pull with the back muscles of the right until left arm is fully extended and right hand is at the corner of the mouth, called the anchor point. Always anchor at the same spot.



Sight along the arrow and gently pull back with the right hand, relaxing the draw hand to release the arrow.



The string may strike your left lower arm. Protect it with a piece of cloth or leather.



Reverse instructions for a left-handed person Learn to judge distance and remember that you have to aim higher the further away you are from your prey. Your arrow loses efficiency the further away you are.

If you shot the animal with an arrow or stabbed it with a spear, wait 30 minutes for bleeding to take place and death to ensue. Be very careful - all wounded animals are dangerous. Many hunters have discovered surprising new life in their animals and were wounded or killed in the process

Knives A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade. To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone or soft iron.

Spears A sturdy, straight hardwood pole or staff of 65” (1.7m) and 1½-2” (3.5-5cm) is ideal. 

Make a sharp pont of flint, bone or metal



Split the end and insert the point



Tie down well with wet sinews and allow to dry

Technique

1. Wait downwind and next to game paths. Be patient. 2. When a medium-sized antelope is in range, throw the spear at the vital area as hard as possible. 3. The spear should penetrate one side of the rib cage in the heart-lung area and the antelope will run away, bumping the shaft against trees and bushes. This will help in doing internal damage and increase bleeding. 4. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t try this with buffalo unless you are really hungry. Impala and other small to medium-sized antelope and warthogs are perfect. If you shot the animal with an arrow or stabbed it with a spear, wait 30 minutes for bleeding to take place and death to ensue. Be very careful - all wounded animals are dangerous. Many hunters have discovered surprising new life in their animals and were wounded or killed in the process

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\weapons.htm - Top#TopMaking a

knife Stone Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife. Lash the blade to some type of hilt. Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.

Horn The horns of Oryx, Impala and duiker make formidable stabbing weapons. Keep your eyes open when walking through the bush for skeletons to obtain horns and bones. Horns can be shaped and sharpened by rubbing on a rock.

Bone You can also use bone as an effective fieldexpedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a medium-sized animal, are best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it. Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used differently.

An efficient stabbing knife made from Giraffe bone

Wood You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood. Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone.

Metal Metal is the best material to make fieldexpedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can fulfill a knifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s three uses: puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one that most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. If not, make a hardwood fire and work the metal while red hot using improvised tongs.

Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood, bone, or other material that will protect your hand.

Other Materials You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic—if it is thick enough or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.

Spear Blades To make spear blades, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding a blade. Select a 1.2-to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire harden the point. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\weapons.htm - Top#TopArrow

Points To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone by flaking it. You can make an efficient arrow point using broken glass or metal from cans. If you shot the animal with an arrow or stabbed it with a spear, wait 30 minutes for bleeding to take place and death to ensue. Be very careful - all wounded animals are dangerous. Many hunters have discovered surprising new life in their animals and were wounded or killed in the process

Other Weapons Throwing Stick The throwing stick, another use for a knobkierrie, is basically a throwing stick used for the taking of small game and self defense. It should be is about 30” (75 cm) long. The best tree to get it from is the Russet 90

Bushwillow - Combretum hereroense (AFRIKAANS: Kierieklapper, PEDI: Mokata SISWATI: siHlahlavane TSONGA: Xikhavi TSWANA: Mokobi ZULU: umDubu, umHlalavane). . The tree bears round, yellowish flowers and brown, 4-winged seeds which turn a russet color. It occurs in bushveld, often in sandy soils. The branches are relatively straight and the wood is heavy and hard This simple weapon consists of a branch of hardwood with one end larger and therefore weighted. The reason for the weighted end was to impart momentum and spin to the stick when thrown. The stick is flicked powerfully sideways and from the back to knock down rabbits or small game and by braking legs or stunning them.

Slingshot A slingshot consists of two pieces of rope or leather about 75cm/30” long, connected by a piece of leather or strong cloth about 15cm (6”) by 7.5cm/3”. As a cradle for the projectile to be thrown. The end of one of the lengths of rope has a loop for the wrist. Burn the ends of a two 140cm/55” lengths of nylon rope and form them to blunt points with wet fingers while still hot. The static length 1. Use the first length and fold over 30cm/12” of rope at the one end 2. Using a sharpened stick about 1cm/½” thick, separate the filaments 15cm/6” from the looped end and slide the stick into the middle of the nylon rope to make an entry hole. 3. Slide the now heated and formed point of the rope into the hole for about 10cm/4” 4. Feel for the threaded rope and using 91

5. 6.

the sharpened stick, make an exit hole and pull the rope out. Make a normal overhand knot and pull tight. Cut a piece of leather or strong cloth into a cradle of about 15cm/6” x 10cm/4” Cut 1cm/½” holes on both sides for the rope to go through Using the same technique, thread the other end of the rope in and through and tie it off with an overhand knot.

The mobile length 1. Using the same technique, take the second length of rope and attach it to the other hole of the cradle 2. The other end is already burnt and shaped and needs no additional work Technique An egg-sized or smaller stone is placed in the cradle, the loop placed around the wrist and the other rope gripped in the hand. The sling is then rotated horizontally and very quickly above the head with the wrist in the middle and the stone circling. When enough centrifugal force has been built up - and exactly at the right moment - the flying end is released and the stone flies toward the unfortunate target. This is a formidable weapon (as Goliath found out) but lots of practice is required to be accurate.

Golf-ball sized balls of clay can be baked in the fire and used instead of stones

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\weapons.htm - Top#TopCatapult A catapult is made of a forked branch, an inner tube from a vehicle (taken from the piece of junk that stranded you in the first place) and a piece of leather or other suitable material.

Select and cut a fork that will fit nicely into your hand from a hardwood tree and remove the bark.

Cut two pieces of inner tube from your stranded Land Rover wheels into 2 strips about 1” (2.5cm) wide and about 15 inches (40cm) long. Cut 4 thin strips of inner tube ¼” (5mm) wide and about 20 “ (50cm) long

Cut a sturdy piece of cloth or leather about 4”(10cm) by 1”(2.5cm) for the cradle. Cut a hole on both sides

Fasten each of the two bigger strips to the uprights using the thin strips of inner tube by tightly winding the thin strips around the uprights and the wider strips of inner tube

Thread the inner tube through the holes in the cradle and fasten with the thin strips of inner tube.

Push each of the loose ends of the inner tube through each hole and tie tightly with the remaining thin strips of inner tube by wrapping around the inner tube

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\weapons.htm - Top#TopYou now have a very useful weapon that can be used to shoot birds and other small animals for food. Technique: 1. Place a small stone, about the size of a marble in the cradle 2. With your left hand, (if you are righthanded) hold the stone firmly in place in the cradle between thumb and index finger 3. Hold the forked stick in your right hand by placing the index finger and thumb on each of the forked ends and the down-end of the fork in the palm 4. Starting in the middle, pull back with your left hand and push with your right until your right arm is fully extended and your left hand is against your cheek 5. Aim through the center of the fork, adjusting for distance 6. Gently release the cradle and the stone will be forcibly propelled toward the target. 7. Load several stones at a time when shooting at birds

Knobkierie A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long enough and strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. The end should be larger and heavier. Its diameter should fit comfortably in your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to break upon impact. A straight-grained hardwood is best if you can find it. It is used as a formidable offensive and defensive weapon, as used by the 94

Zulu tribe.

Camp Craft

Shelter A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain and heat or cold. It also provides a feeling of well-being and will help maintain your will to survive. In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need for food and possibly even your need for water. For example, prolonged exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a “passive” outlook, thereby losing the will to survive. The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A shelter must only be large enough for protection. When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground, so it must also be small enough to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates like Namibia in winter.

Site Selection Start looking for shelter as soon as possible. The site must contain material to make the type of shelter you need and be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably. It must also be suitable for signaling, if necessary, provide protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall and be free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. However, you must also consider: 

How much time and effort you need to build the shelter.



Whether the shelter will adequately protect you from the sun, wind and rain.



If you have the tools to build it - and if you don’t, whether you can make improvised tools.



Whether you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it.

Shelters Poncho Lean-To It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-. You need a poncho, a piece of canvas or plastic, 2 to 3 meters of rope, three stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles, check the wind direction. Make sure that the back of your lean-to will be into the wind. 97

To make the lean-to—   

  

If you are using a poncho, tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood lengthwise, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the drawstring. Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the corner grommet. Tie the other half to the other corner grommet. Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each grommet along the poncho’s top edge will allow the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter. Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two half hitches with a quick-release knot. See knots and hitches. Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the ground. Make a center support for the lean-to with a line attached to an overhanging branch. Make sure there is no slack in the line.

For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to. To reduce heat loss to the ground place some type of insulating material such as leaves or pine needles inside your lean-to.

Poncho Tent This tent provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. It has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a poncho, canvas or a piece of plastic, two 1.5- to 2.5meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart. To make the tent—

     

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to. Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the covering. Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and stretch the poncho tight. Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets. Follow the same procedure on the other side. Attach drip sticks (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to. Another option is to tie strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each grommet along the poncho’s top edge will allow the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter.

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another center support is an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent Use two 90- to 120-centimeterlong sticks, one with a forked end, to form the Aframe. Tie the hood’s drawstring to the A-frame to support the center of the tent.

One-Man Shelter A one-man shelter you can easily make using a tarpaulin or parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long. To make this shelter:    

Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height. Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5-meter pole. Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs on both sides. Tuck the excess material under the 3meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor. 99

 

Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter’s entrance so they will not slide inward. Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable.

Lean-To You will need two trees or upright poles about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams. To make this lean-to— 



 



Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a standing tree is not available, construct a biped using Yshaped sticks or two tripods. Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to’s backside into the wind. Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams. Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like shingling. Place straw, leaves or grass inside the shelter for bedding.

In cold weather, add to your lean-to’s comfort by building a fire reflector wall. Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall 100

that you can fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place.

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeterdiameter poles (length depends on the distance between the lean-to’s horizontal support and the top of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the leanto support and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish.

Debris Hut For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is essential to survival, build this shelter. To make a debris hut: 

 



 

Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by placing one end of a long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base. Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at about waist height. Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to shed moisture. Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a latticework that will keep the insulating material (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping area. Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1 meter thick—the thicker the better. Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter.

101

 

At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the shelter to close the entrance or build a door. As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on top of the debris layer to prevent the insulating material from blowing away in a storm.

Desert Shelters In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between dunes or rocks to make your shelter. Using rock outcroppings 

Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other weights.



Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible shade.

In a sandy area: 

Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter.



Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights.



Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible shade.

A belowground shelter can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and effort than for other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day. To make this shelter— 

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably.



Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides.

102



On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your shelter easily.



Cover the trench with your material.



Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45centimeter airspace between the two halves. This airspace will significantly reduce the temperature under the shelter.

Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are open to air currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute material. White is the best color to reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material.

Natural Shelters Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are 

caves



rocky crevices



clumps of bushes



small depressions



large rocks on leeward sides of hills



large trees with low-hanging limbs



fallen trees with thick branches



hollow baobab trees When selecting a natural formation:Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more insects.



Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, bees, wasps and scorpions.



Look for loose rocks, dead limbs or other natural growth than could fall on your shelter.

Bones around the entrance to a cave do not indicate that a leopard uses the cave as a lair, but that porcupines are - they collect and chew bones for mineral

103

supplementation.

Making a Fire The ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire can provide warmth and comfort. You can use fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons.

Preparing the fire place and fire safety When preparing a fireplace take some precautions. Clear an area so that the fire cannot run away. You can dig a slight depression and surround it with rocks. Do not use rocks taken out of water - they will explode if heated and cause injury.

As used in Vietnam, this sturdy waterproof match container has a Make sure you collect enough wood to last the night. Work sparingly with the wood. It is a compass in the lid. A small bottle contains a flammable liquid for valuable natural resource and should not be easily starting fires. wasted. You donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need a bonfire (unless you are trying to signal for help). As you prepare your camp sight check which way the wind is blowing. If there are mosquitoes smoke blowing across your campsite will deter them. If mosquitoes are not a problem site your fire that smoke blows away from your campsite.

How to pack a fire Take the trouble to pack your fire properly before attempting to light it. Use enough kindling and make sure you have enough wood on hand to add to the fire once it is burning.

A magnesium block, useful as firemaking tool

Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t smother the fire at the beginning by packing on too much fuel. You can help get the fire started by using Firelighters, paraffin, diesel, petrol (be careful!), Brasso, liquor etc. To pack the fire start with fine kindling such 104

as down from birds nests, or bunches of fine, dry grass. On top of this place small twigs and then larger ones. Place a few larger branches / logs on top. Everything must be in place before you attempt to light the fire - remember you might only have one match. A reflector can be erected behind the fire to direct warmth back to your campsite.

Making a Fire Matches Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens This only works on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

Battery Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.

Flint and Steel The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

105

Fire-Plow The fire-plow is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method: 

 



Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure. Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about ¾”/2 cm in diameter and 12”/25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt to produce more friction. Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 1”/2.5 cm thick and 4”/10 centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about ¾”/2 cm from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression. Bow. The bow should be a resilient, green stick about 1”/2.5 cm in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. Tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

To use the bow and drill 1. Prepare the fire lay 2. Place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board 3. Place one foot on the fire board 4. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board

106

5. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position 6. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to spin the drill Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Do not use Tamboti as firewood. The wood has a peppery smell and causes the food to be poisonous or at least highly laxative - we call this affliction the African quickstep.

Lashing and Cordage Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made materials are useful in a survival situation.

Natural Cordage Selection Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine you materialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s suitability. 1. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. 2. Next, twist it between your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the fibers and gently tighten. 3. If the knot does not break, the material is usable.

107

Making ropes from plant fibers 1. Collect about 8-12 lengths of plant fibers, combine them into a single bunch and tie a knot at the top 2. Divide the strands into 2 lengths of equal number of fibers 3. Twist both lengths clockwise 4. Twist the lengths around each other counter-clockwise The Baobab tree, a valuable resource for fiber and food

Lashing Material The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of large game, such as impala or kudu. ď&#x201A;ˇ Remove the tendons and dry them completely. ď&#x201A;ˇ Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. ď&#x201A;ˇ Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous strand.

A well-made basket woven from If you need stronger lashing material, you can fibers from the Baobab tree braid the strands. When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry. You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by braiding several strands together.

108

You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide lashings from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the animal: 

remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin.



Dry the skin completely.



You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture.



You do not have to remove the hair from the skin.



Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide.

The Sisal plant is a useful source of fiber

Start from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide’s outer edge.  Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft.  Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while applying it. It will shrink and be strong and durable when it dries.

Make a cotton web belt or nylon rope much more useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes like fishing line, thread for sewing and lashing.

109

Knots and Hitches Knots

Two strand overhand knot Creates a big stopper knot and holds chords together

Double Overhand knot Forms a larger stopper knot than the overhand. When tightening, pull ends apart and twist in opposite directions and pull tight.

110

Bow Thong Knot Used by natives in New Guinea for securing the end of the split cane bow thong to the pointed end of the bow

Quick-release knot Secure and will come untied with a sharp tug.

111

Sheepshank Knot Used for shortening rope. If you have access to the end of the rope pass the rope through the bight. Sticks make it more secure

Pruisk Knot

112

Use as a sliding loop. It will not slip under tension but can be moved when tension is released. Mountaineers take ends round and back through the loop.

Strangler Knot Useful for holding things together

Two half hitches A secure way to tie a line to anything

113

Bowline knot (Also see Loops, Bowline) Very secure and easy to untie

Rope ends or grips

Overhand Knot Use for grips in rope

Figure of Eight Used as an end stop and rope grip

114

Overhand knot with draw loop Acts as a quick release

Fishing Knots

Half Blood Knot Hook on to Nylon

115

Jam Knots

Tying Loops in Nylon

Joining Ropes

116

Reef Knot Tie two ropes of same thickness. Firm under strain and easily untied.

Fishermanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Knot Joining vines, wires and slippery lines. Very secure but hard to untie

Garrick Bend Secure fastening of two ropes of equal thickness. Easily undone, exceptional for steel cables.

117

Double Fishermanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Knot Stronger than Fishermanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Knot. Do not use on nylon ropes, fishing lines or thick ropes

Sheet Bend 118

Good for constant strain. Wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t slip

Double Sheet Bend More secure than sheet bend, good for wet rope and erratic strain

Loops

119

Bowline Won’t tighten or slip under strain. Good for lifelines.

Bowline on the Bight Loops won’t tighten or jam. Excellent for lifting a person, acting like a bosun’s chair: one loop around buttocks and the other around the upper body.

120

Hitches

Manharness Hitch The most useful knot for making a series of non-slip loops If not eased tight correctly may slip.

121

Round turn and two-and-a-half hitch The best way to tie a rope to a post

Timber Hitch Use for dragging or hoisting logs

Killick Hitch Good for anchoring weight.

122

Clove Hitch Good when strain is constant and at 90 degrees.

Marlin Spike Hitch

123

Use for securing a line to a post.

Halliard Hitch Use for fastening a rope to a spar. Very neat and very secure.

Nets and Hammocks Nets are useful for catching fish and making hammocks.

Making a net 124

Tie a line between two trees. Attach several core lines by doubling them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the space between them. Use a spacer to make sure the knots are evenly spaced

Start at one end of the easing and tie the second and the third core lines together using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core line. You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end. Start the second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on. To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Position the guideline on the opposite side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line easing along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. The net is finished by tying a second horizontal 125

line at the level of the loose ends between the two trees and tying a clove hitch or round turn and two-and-a-half hitches. See knots and hitches

Working with Meat Preparation Bleeding The jugular and arteries must me cut just below the head to bleed it.

at as soon as possible after the kill

Cut through the flesh right to the vertebrae until the jugular is severed and large quantities of blood is spurting out as the heart pumps. If the animal is not bled, putrification will set in much sooner

126

Gutting The animal must be gutted as soon as the carcass has been bled. 

Carefully cut through the only the skin from the anus to the throat



Make additional cuts , through the skin only to the ankles. Cut through the ankles at the joint and remove the feet



Make a small incision through the abdominal muscles at the breastbone, wide enough for your hand to fit through. Be careful not to puncture the intestines

127



Very carefully cut through the abdominal cavity along the existing skin-deep cut without puncturing the entrails



An easy method is to place your finger on the tip of your knife, the cutting edge away from the abdominal cavity and the knife and pointing toward the rear of the animal.



Push your hand into the abdominal cavity so that your finger pushes away the entrails as you cut and the outward pointing cutting edge follows and cuts through the abdominal muscles



Chop through the breastbone and cut to the lower jawbone along the existing skin-deep cut



Remove the skin from the entire body by carefully cutting it away.



Cut loose the trachea and esophagus from the surrounding muscles from the lower jaw to the breastbone



Cut the diaphragm away from the ribs



Let the intestines fall away from the carcass, cutting loose any remaining attachments

128

Using the Skin Raw animal skins can be used for clothing, shoes and strong, thin rope called rieme or riempies. After gutting the animal start skinning from the skin-deep cuts. 

Gently separate the skin from the flesh with a small, sharp knife



Take care not to cut holes in the skin



Do not allow fat to remain on the skin, it will cause decay



When the skin has been removed from the carcass, prepare it as follows: o

Remove any fat or flesh still adhering to the skin

Wash the skin with cold water to remove blood and dirt

Hang over a wooden beam for about half an hour to drain excess water

Do not allow a dry layer to develop on the inside of the skin, it will prevent the salt from penetrating

Place the skin hair side down on the ground, opening it fully

Rub salt all over the surface of the skin, including the edges

Leave the skin to dry for a day

Shake off of the salt and hang in a well-ventilated place to dry

Preserving Meat When a good-sized animal has been hunted, it will be too much meat for a few meals. You will have to preserve the meat to provide for times when fresh meat is not available and to prevent wastage through purification. Meat can be preserved in various ways:

Smoking    

129

    

Hang the meat above the thin blue smoke of a wood fire until the outer surface is dry. Do not hang the meat too close to the fire or in the flame Use only dry wood for the fire. Wet wood and green leaved causes essential oils to condense on the meat and spoil it Meat will take about 1 day to dry and can be kept indefinitely Never pack in plastic

Sun drying This is not only an easy way to preserve meat but is very tasty. In Southern Africa it is known as biltong and is sold commercially.        

Cut off the fatty portions Slice the meat into strips no thicker than ½” (1cm) and no wider than 1” (2.5cm). If the air is very moist in the area, cut the strips thinner Salt every strip Thread the strips onto a wire or line, ensuring that they do not touch each other Make sure there is free air circulation around the meat Watch over it until it is air dry to prevent flies from laying eggs on the meat Meat will take about 5 days to dry and can be kept indefinitely Never pack in plastic

Pickling   

Cut the meat into small joints or pieces of about ½ lb (250g) each Mix a strong solution of salt and water. The solution is called brine. Pickled meat will keep indefinitely in brine

Cooking in fat    

Cook the meat in animal fat Let the meat cool in the fat it which was cooked The heat sterilizes the meat and the fat seals the meat from bacteria Meat can be preserved for 5 to 6 days in this way

130

Using the Rest Liver Eat liver as soon as possible. Cooking is required. Remove the bile bladder in the centre with care, making sure you do nor cut it and taint the meat. , Avoid mottled or white-spotted liver. Liver flukes seldom appear in game but are abundant in hippopotamuses. Roundworm and tapeworm can occur but are killed with cooking.

Stomach Tripe is easy to digest. Remove stomach contents , wash and simmer slowly with herbs.

Kidneys Boil with herbs or cut into small pieces and fry.

Lungs Do not eat if mottled with black and white spots. If pink and blemish free, boil/grill to kill possible parasites, or use for bait

Heart Roast, or use to liven up a stew. Boil or grill to kill possible parasites.

Intestines Intestines make ideal sausage skins. Turn them inside out and wash thoroughly and boil well. Mix equal proportions of fat and meat and then stir in blood. Stuff the skins with this mixture and boll well. If smoked, sausages keep for a long time.

Pancreas Boil or roast.

Tail Skin and boil (for a long time, they are tough) to make soup. The wet tail skin shrinks when it dries and is used to bind the shafts of spears by the Zulu.

131

Feet Clean well and use to make stew.

Head Large animal heads have lots of meat. Boil the tongue to make it tender and skin before eating. Brain will make brawn and provide a solution to cure hides. Boil whatever is left, or the whole head with small animals.

Bones Boil for soup marrow or bake on the coals. Marrow is rich in vitamins. Bones can also be made into tools.

Making Soap If you don’t have soap, use ashes or sand, or make soap from animal fat and wood ashes, if your situation allows. 

Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into small pieces and cooking them in a pot.



Add enough water to the pot to keep the fat from sticking as it cooks.



Cook the fat slowly, stirring frequently.



After the fat is rendered, pour the grease into a container to harden.



Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom.



Pour water over the ashes and collect the liquid that drips out of the spout in a separate container. This liquid is the potash or lye. Another way to get the lye is to pour the slurry (the mixture of ashes and water) through a straining cloth.



In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part potash.



Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens.

After the mixture cools, you can use it in the semi liquid state directly from the pot. You can also pour it into a pan, allow it to harden, and cut it into bars for later use.

132

Navigation and Communication

133

Navigation Navigating with Nature The Sun 

In midsummer the sun rises due east and sets due west.



In midwinter the sun rises northeast and sets northwest.

The Moon 

The moon rises due east and sets due west.

Southern Cross South can be found using the Southern Cross. Extend the long axis 4½ times and drop a perpendicular line to the horizon or bisect the line joining the pointers and extend it to where it intersects the long axis extension of the cross or extending a line at 90 degrees to the marker stars. Directly down from where the lines meet is south. Look for the two pointer stars to find the southern cross.

Watch North 

Place a thin stick or match at the 12 o’clock on your analog watch



Move your hand until the shadow of the stick fall over both the 12 and 6 hour marks



Locate the hour hand on your watch



Halve the angle between the hour hand and the shadow of the stick to get North

The Shadow-Stick 

Find a level spot of ground in the sunshine.

134



Pound a short stick of about 30-40cm into the ground.



Using a piece of string draw several concentric circles around the stick.



In the morning the direction of the shadow is marked as soon as it touches one of the circles.



When the shadow touches the same circle in the afternoon this point is also marked. Now bisect the angle formed by the stick and the two points. The bisector points due south; the opposite direction is north.

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\navigation_with_nature.htm Top#TopOther Natural Indicators 

Red billed buffalo weavers and communal weavers usually build their nest on the north or north westerly side of trees.



The tips of large termite mounds often bend towards the north.



Northern slopes are generally more heavily vegetated than southern slopes.



Most of our larger rivers run in a roughly east west direction.



Flowers face north, the main course of the sun.

Other Tips 

If you get lost get onto high ground to see if you can recognize some familiar feature.



If you are lost and decide to head off in a particular direction stay on that course and don’t deviate from it.



If you keep changing direction you will end up walking in circles.

Mapping Basics A map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth’s surface drawn to scale, as seen from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to represent features found on the ground. 135

Scale Because a map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth’s surface drawn to scale as seen from above, it is important to know what mathematical scale has been used. You must know this to determine ground distances between objects or locations on the map, the size of the area covered, and how the scale may affect the amount of detail being shown. The mathematical scale of a map is the ratio or fraction between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth.

Geographic Coordinates One of the oldest systematic methods of location is based upon the geographic coordinate system. By drawing a set of east-west rings around the globe (parallel to the equator), and a set of north-south rings crossing the equator at right angles and converging at the poles, a network of reference lines is formed from which any point on the earth’s surface can be located. a.

The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known as its latitude. The rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude or simply parallels. Lines of latitude run eastwest but north-south distances are measured between them.

A second set of rings around the globe at right angles to lines of latitude and passing through the poles is known as meridians of longitude or simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the prime meridian. The prime meridian of the system we use runs through Greenwich, England and is known as the Greenwich meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a point is known as its longitude. Lines of longitude (meridians) run north-south but eastwest distances are measured between them.

Prime meridian and equator

Reference lines

c. Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement. Each circle is divided into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. The degree is symbolized by ° , the minute by ′, and 136

the second by ″Starting with 0° at the equator, the parallels of latitude are numbered to 90° both north and south. The extremities are the north pole at 90° north latitude and the south pole at 90° south latitude. Latitude can have the same numerical value north or south of the equator, so the direction N or S must always be given. Starting with 0° at the prime meridian, longitude is measured both east and west around the world. Lines east of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as east longitude; lines west of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as west longitude. The direction E or W must always be given. The line directly opposite the prime meridian, 180° , may be referred to as either east or west longitude. The values of geographic coordinates, being in units of angular measure, will mean more if they are compared with units of measure with which we are more familiar. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\mapping_ basics.htm - Top#TopAt any point on the earth, the ground distance covered by one degree of latitude is about 111 kilometers Latitude and longitude (69 miles); one second is equal to about 30 meters (100 feet). The ground distance covered by one degree of longitude at the equator is also about 111 kilometers, but decreases as one moves north or south, until it becomes zero at the poles.

Types of Slope and Visibility Uniform Where contours remain the same distance from each another a uniform slope is indicated.

Convex Where the contours are at first near to each other and then farther apart as height increases, they indicate a convex slope. Spurs and watersheds are also examples of convex slopes.

137

Concave Where contours are at first far apart and then nearer to each other with increase in height, they show a concave slope. Valleys, kloofs and rift valleys also have concave slopes.

Undulating Where contours are, with little variations, on the same level for a considerable distance, an undulating or rolling slope is indicated.

Stepped Where contours follow one another in pairs they show a stepped slope.

Vertical Where two separate contours meet, they indicate a vertical slope. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\mapping_basics.htm Top#TopSteep Where contours are near to each other they show a steep slope, e.g. the escarpment of a plateau.

Visibility The visibility of a point depends upon the type of slope. If there is any doubt as to the visibility between two points, it can be proved by means of a section.

Representation of Relief Mapmakers use several methods to depict relief of the terrain.

Coloured Layers Layer tinting is a method of showing relief by color. A different color is used for each band of elevation. Each shade of color, or band, represents a definite elevation range. A legend is printed on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each color. However, this method does not allow

138

the map user to determine the exact elevation of a specific pointâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;only the range.

Form Lines Form lines are not measured from any datum plane. Form lines have no standard elevation and give only a general idea of relief. Form lines are represented on a map as dashed lines and are never labeled with representative elevations.

Shaded Relief Relief shading indicates relief by a shadow effect achieved by tone and color that results in the darkening of one side of terrain features, such as hills and ridges. The darker the shading, the steeper the slope. Shaded relief is sometimes used in conjunction with contour lines to emphasize these features.

Hachures Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief. Hachures are sometimes used with contour lines. They do not represent exact elevations, but are mainly used to show large, rocky outcrop areas. Hachures are used extensively on small-scale maps to show mountain ranges, plateaus, and mountain peaks.

Contour Lines I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\mapping_basics.htm Top#TopContour lines are the most common method of showing relief and elevation on a standard topographic map. A contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground, above or below sea level. All points on the contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation represented by contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea level.

Land Forms 1 Riverine Valley Note how the arrows, formed by the contour curves, point upwards; the river thus flows from high to low parts, all along the bends of the contours 139

2+14 Spur A spur is a short, continuous sloping line of higher ground, normally jutting out from the side of a ridge. A spur is often formed by two rough parallel streams, which cut draws down the side of a ridge. The ground sloped down in three directions and up in one direction. Contour lines on a map depict a spur with the U or V pointing away from high ground.

3 Beach rocks The 100 ft contour runs very near to the 0 contour of the coastline, and indicates a very steep slope

4 Crater Note that the land then drops to the lower part of the crater

5 Saddle A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground. A saddle is not necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops; it may be simply a dip or break along a level ridge crest. If you are in a saddle, there is high ground in two opposite directions and lower ground in the other two directions. A saddle is normally represented as an hourglass

6 Pass An. easy passage between mountains. Usually a river rises on each side of the pass.

7 Poort A river cutting through the mountain on the same level. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\mapping_basics.htm - Top#Top8

Coastal plain There is a large space between the coastline and the next contour of 100 ft, which indicates a wide plain with a gentle slope.

9 Plateau An extensive high area on the same height above sea-level.

140

10 Kloof/Cliff A cliff is a vertical or near vertical feature; it is an abrupt change of the land. When a slope is so steep that the contour lines converge into one â&#x20AC;&#x153;carryingâ&#x20AC;? contour of contours, this last contour line has tick marks pointing toward low ground. Cliffs are also shown by contour lines very close together and, in some instances, touching each other

11 Hill A hill is an area of high ground. From a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all directions. A hill is shown on a map by contour lines forming concentric circles. The inside of the smallest closed circle is the hilltop.

12 Valley A valley is a stretched-out groove in the land, usually formed by streams or rivers. A valley begins with high ground on three sides, and usually has a course of running water through it. If standing in a valley, three directions offer high ground, while the fourth direction offers low ground. Depending on its size and where a person is standing, it may not be obvious that there is high ground in the third direction, but water flows from higher to lower ground. Contour lines forming a valley are either U-shaped or V-shaped. To determine the direction water is flowing, look at the contour lines. The closed end of the contour line (U or V) always points upstream or toward high ground.

13 Ridge A ridge is a sloping line of high ground. If you are standing on the centerline of a ridge, you will normally have low ground in three directions and high ground in one direction with varying degrees of slope. If you cross a ridge at right angles, you will climb steeply to the crest and then descend steeply to the base. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\mapping_basics.htm - Top#TopWhen you move along the path of the ridge, depending on the geographic location, there may be either an almost unnoticeable slope or a very obvious incline. Contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped. The closed end of the contour line points away from high ground.

Magnetic and True North Magnetic declination, also known as variation and deviation, is the difference in degrees between true 141

(polar) north and where the earth’s magnetic lines of force are actually focused. Declination fluctuates to a minor degree, since the magnetic lines of force themselves fluctuate in intensity. These magnetic lines of force currently come together in the Queen Elizabeth Islands region in northern Canada. The magnetic compass’s north-seeking arrow pivots within the housing to point at magnetic north, so to account for this deviation between magnetic and true north, you must either add or subtract the difference in degrees between the two norths to navigate using a map. In Southern Africa, magnetic north is west of true north by an average of 15° west i.e. -15°. The 15° is the average magnetic declination and does therefore not necessarily mean that the declination will always be -15°. Consult each map that you use.

Using a Compass The Centerhold Technique •

Open the compass to its fullest so that the cover forms a straightedge with the base. Move the lens (rear sight) to the rearmost position, allowing the dial to float freely. Next, place your thumb through the thumb loop, form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers, and extend your index finger along the side of the compass.

•

Place the thumb of the other hand between the lens (rear sight) and the bezel ring; extend the index finger along the remaining side of the compass, and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other hand.

•

Pull your elbows firmly into your sides; this will place the compass between your chin and your belt. To measure an azimuth, simply turn your entire body toward the object, pointing the compass cover directly at the object. Once you are pointing at the object, look down and read the azimuth from beneath the fixed black index line. This preferred method offers the following advantages over the sighting technique:

142

Sighting â&#x20AC;˘

Fold the cover of the compass containing the sighting wire to a vertical position; then fold the rear sight slightly forward. Look through the rear-sight slot and align the front-sight hairline with the desired object in the distance. Then glance down at the dial through the eye lens to read the azimuth.

â&#x20AC;˘

The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and it is the best technique for this purpose

Orienting Maps The first is orienting the map. A map is oriented when it is in a horizontal position with its north and south corresponding to the north and south on the ground. Some orienting techniques follow:

Orienting with a Compass When orienting a map with a compass, remember that the compass measures magnetic azimuths. Since the magnetic arrow points to magnetic north (see magnetic and true norths) , pay special attention to the declination diagram on the map. Determine the direction of the declination and its value from the declination diagram. (a) With the map in a horizontal position, take the straightedge on the left side of the compass and place it alongside the north-south grid line with the cover of the compass pointing toward the top of the map. Do not use a metal straight edge. This procedure places the fixed black index line of the compass parallel to north-south grid lines of the map. (b) Keeping the compass aligned and rotate the map and compass together until the magnetic arrow is below the fixed black index line on the compass. At this time, the map is close to being oriented. (c) Rotate the map and compass in the direction of the declination diagram.

143

(d) If the magnetic north arrow on the map is to the left of the grid north, check the compass reading to see if it equals the G-M angle given in the declination diagram. The map is then oriented.

Terrain Association A map can be oriented by terrain association when a compass is not available or when the navigator has to make many quick references as he moves across country. Using this method requires careful examination of the map and the ground, and the user must know his approximate location.

Global Positioning Systems The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system that gives threedimensional coverage of the Earth 24 hours a day in all weather conditions. The satellites orbit the Earth every 12 hours at approximately 12,600 miles above the earth. The satellites are orbited high enough to avoid the problems associated with land based systems, yet can provide accurate positioning 24 hours a day, anywhere in the world. The GPS system is passive, meaning that the satellites continuously transmit information to the Earth and the signal is received by a GPS receiver. The information is transmitted on two frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz), and L2 (1227.60 MHz). These frequencies are called carrier waves because they are used primarily to carry information to GPS receivers. When one receiver is tracking satellites and obtaining position data the information received has traveled over 12,000 miles (about 20,000 km) and has been distorted by numerous atmospheric factors. Satellite paths are accurately predictable and can be periodically adjusted by huge land-based radar systems. Therefore, the orbits, and thus the locations of the satellites, are known in advance. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GPS receivers store this orbit information for all of the GPS satellites in what is known as an almanac, which maintains the precise locations of satellites at particular times. Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts the almanac. A GPS receiver automatically collects this information and stores it for future reference.

144

In the past, The USA Department of Defense used SA (selective ability) to degrade receiver accuracy. With this intentional distortion of the signal the greatest accuracy a user can expect is ± 100 meters. The USA Department of Defense disabled SA on May 1st, 2000. This meant that GPS systems, without any alteration to equipment or software, is now 10 times more accurate than before the 1st May 2000. GPS is based on satellite ranging. By calculating the distances between the receiver and the position of 3 or more satellites and between 4 or more if elevation is desired. When the positions of the satellites are known, the location of the receiver can be calculated by determining the distance from each of the satellites to the receiver. GPS takes these 3 or more known references and measured distances and triangulates an additional position

Improvising a Compass A piece of ferrous wire like a needle or a razor blade can be magnetized by:   

Repeatedly stroking in one direction with a piece of silk Stroking in one direction with a magnet Coiling the insulated wire of a power source around it and keeping the power on for 5 minutes

Remagnetize your improvised compass from time to time.

Communication and Signaling As a survivor, you must get your rescuer’s attention and send a message your rescuer understands. The type of signal used will depend on your environment and the enemy situation. Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use, know how to use it and be ready to put it into operation on short notice. If possible, avoid using signals or signaling techniques that can physically endanger you. A 145

radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others know where you are and to let you receive their messages. Make sure you know how to operate the radios that are used by the people you safari with.

Visual Signals Fire During darkness, fire is the most effective visual means for signaling. Build three fires in a triangle (the international distress signal) or in a straight line with about 25 meters between the fires. Build them as soon as time and the situation permit and protect them until you need them. If you are alone, maintaining three fires may be difficult. If so, maintain one signal fire. A burning tree (tree torch) is another way to attract. Place dry wood in the lower branches and ignite them so that the flames flare up and ignite the foliage. Before the tree is consumed, cut and add more small green trees to the fire to produce more smoke. Always select an isolated tree so that you do not start a forest fire and endanger yourself. Smoke During daylight, build a smoke generator and use smoke to gain attention. The international distress signal is three columns of smoke. Try to create a color of smoke that contrasts with the background; dark smoke against a light background and vice versa. If you practically smother a large fire with green leaves, moss, or a little water, the fire will produce white smoke. If you add rubber or oil-soaked rags to a fire, you will get black smoke. Smoke signals are effective only on comparatively calm, clear days. High winds, rain, or snow disperse smoke, reduces its chances of being seen. Mirrors or Shiny Objects On a sunny day, a mirror is your best signaling device. If you don’t have a mirror, polish your canteen cup, your belt buckle, or a similar object that will reflect the sun’s rays. Get to the highest point in your area when signaling. If you can’t determine the aircraft’s location, flash your signal in the direction of the aircraft noise. Pilots have reported seeing 146

mirror flashes up to 160 kilometers away under ideal conditions. Clothing Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree is another way to signal. Select articles whose color will contrast with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric pattern to make them more likely to attract attention. I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\communication.htm Top#TopNatural Material If you lack other means, you can use natural materials to form a symbol or message that can be seen from the air. Use contrasting materials that will make the symbols visible to the aircrews.

Audio Signals Radio Equipment To obtain maximum performance from radios, use the following procedures: 

Try to transmit only in clear, unobstructed terrain. Since radios are lineof-sight communications devices, any terrain between the radio and the receiver will block the signal.



Keep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircraft. There is no signal from the tip of the antenna.



If the radio has tone capability, place it upright on a flat, elevated surface so that you can perform other survival tasks.



Never let the antenna touch your clothing, body, foliage, or the ground. Such contact greatly reduces the range of the signal.



Conserve battery power. Turn the radio off when you are not using it. Do not transmit or receive constantly. In hostile territory, keep transmissions short to avoid enemy radio direction finding.



In cold weather, keep the battery inside your clothing when not using the radio. Cold quickly drains the battery’s power. Do not expose the battery to extreme heat such as desert sun. High heat may cause the battery to explode. Try to keep the radio and battery as dry as possible, as water may destroy the circuitry.

I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\communication.htm Top#TopWhistles Whistles are excellent for close up signaling. In some documented cases, they have been heard up to 1.6 kilometers away. Manufactured whistles have more range than a human whistle. Gunshots 147

In some situations you can use firearms for signaling. Three shots fired at a regular intervals usually indicate a distress signal.

Codes and Signals SOS Use lights or flags to send an Morse code SOSâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;three dots, three dashes, three dots. The SOS is the internationally recognized distress. A dot is a short, sharp pulse; a dash is a longer pulse. Keep repeating the signal. When using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and on the right side for dots.

Ground-to-Air Emergency Code Make these symbols a minimum of 1 meter wide and 6 meters long. If you make them larger, keep the same 1: 6 ratio. Ensure the signal contrasts greatly with the ground it is on. Place it in an open area easily spotted from the air. 1

Need assistance

Need medical assistance

No or negative

Yes or affirmative

Proceed in this direction

Body Signals When an aircraft is close enough for the pilot to see you clearly, use body movements or positions to communicate.

148

Can proceed shortly. Wait if possible

Land here. (Point in direction of landing)

Need mechanical help or parts, long delay.

Do not attempt to land here.

Pick us up, aircraft abandoned.

Use drop message.

All OK. DO not wait.

Affirmative (Yes).

Need urgent medical assistance. Negative (No).

Our receiver is operating.

Aircraft Acknowledgments Once the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft has sighted you, he will normally indicate he has seen you by flying low, moving the plane, and flashing lights.

149

Message received and understood Day or moonlight

Message received but not understood Day or night

Rocking from side to side

Making a complete clockwise circle

Night

Flashing green signal lamps

Flashing red signal lights

If you can contact a friendly aircraft with a radio, guide the pilot to your location. Use the following general format to guide the pilot: 

Mayday, Mayday.



Call sign (if any).



Name.



Location.



Number of survivors.



Available landing sites.



Any remarks such as medical aid or other specific types of help needed immediately.

Do not assume that because you have made contact with rescuers you are safe. Continue to use sound survival and evasion techniques until you are actually rescued

150

Health

151

Medical Competence A medical emergency can occur unexpectedly. A bee sting can be life threatening in minutes, you may drop a pot of boiling coffee onto yourself, a hunting buddy can choke on a piece of meat or you might suffer from heat stroke There are literally scores of possibilities and it is essential that you be prepared to handle any emergency.

First Aid Accident Management Accidents happen quickly and unexpectedly. When an accident happens, the other members of the party have a responsibility to help the injured person. The following is the order in which help should be given 1. Protect the injured person from further harm. Remove the person from the fire or react as the situation demands 2. Maintain the vital functions. Establish a clear airway if the person is unconscious, stop the bleeding or administer artificial respiration 3. If urgent medical attention is needed, at least one person should remain with the injured for support - this should be the person with the best knowledge and most experience of first aid 4. If possible, 2 people should go for help, preferably the fittest and fastest. 5. Take careful note of landmarks and location to direct the rescue team I:\Data\Webs\Ultimate Field Guide\Survival\first_aid.htm Top#TopExamination of Injured 

First Priority: Check that airway is not obstructed



Check that breathing is adequate



Check for carotid pulse



Check for external bleeding

152

Diagnoses 

Diagnosis is based on history, signs, and symptoms.



History - obtained from surroundings, patient and bystanders.



Symptoms - sensations experienced by the casualty.



Signs - observations made by the first aider using sight, smell, touch, and hearing.

Treatment Priority Highest Priority Any condition which is life threatening within minutes: Airway and respiratory distress, cardiac arrest, severe bleeding, severe shock, open chest and abdominal wounds, severe head injuries, severe medical problems such as diabetes, poisoning, cardiac disease with respiratory failure.

Second priority Any condition which is life threatening within hours: Burns (without complications), major and multiple fractures, back injuries.

Lowest priorities Minor fractures, wounds and injuries. Death.

Lifesaving Steps 1. Control panic, both your own and the victim’s. 2. Reassure him and try to keep him quiet. 3. Perform a rapid physical exam. Look for the cause of the injury and follow the ABCs of first aid, starting with the airway and breathing, but be discerning. A person may die from arterial bleeding more quickly than from an airway obstruction in some cases.

Safari Medical Aid Kits The most important factor to consider is the remoteness of the expedition.

153

Some areas are very isolated and far from any medical facilities. Even if a plane or helicopter can be called in (which is not always possible) life threatening delays might be a reality. It is imperative that members of the expedition equip and train themselves where they can handle and stabilize medical emergencies whilst transporting them to a doctor or hospital. It must also be borne in mind that the level of medical services available in parts of Africa can be very basic indeed. It is wise therefore to go well prepared.

Personal Medical Kit One should have a small personalized first aid kit to carry with you on the hunt. The contents of this kit will depend very much on the individual. Suggested contents of a small personal first aid kit Antihistamine pills. 1 CPR mouthpiece. Personal medication (e.g. insulin) Injectable adrenaline (1:1000 - 1ml in syringe). A few assorted plasters. 2 Triangular bandages. 4 Butterfly suture plasters. Valoid pills. Antiseptic ointment (e.g. Betadine). 2 medium wound dressings. Oral rehydrate. 1 large wound dressing. Lomotil. 1 crepe elastic bandage. Water purification tablets. 6 Swabs. 1 Haemostat. 1 Tweezer. Pain / fever pills (e.g. Disprin, or Myprodol).

154

Safari Medicine Kit A well equipped safari medical bag EQUIPMENT USED FOR Inflatable splint (1 for Fractures arm, 1 for leg) Foldable splint – plastic (1 for arm 1 Fractures for leg) Hard splints Fractures (assorted) 1 Traction splint (for Fracture of the femur leg) Airways (3 sizes for Keep airway open when unconscious adult, 3 for sub adult) 4 CPR mouthpieces For CPR and rescue breathing 1 Laryngoscope For inserting endotracheal tube (adult) 4 Endotracheal For maintaining airway and attaching to tubes Ambu bag 3 Artery forceps Controlling bleeding, extracting objects, (hemostats) suturing 2 Surgical scissors Cutting 2 Tweezers (1 Extracting objects medium and 1 small) 1 Dental syringe and Local anesthetic needles 1 Ambu bag Respiratory support 1 Oxygen bottle and Oxygen therapy face mask 2 Scalpels and Cutting assorted blades 1 Stethoscope For auscultation 1 Torch with spare Working in the dark and checking pupil batteries response 1 Portable stretcher Transportation of injured or sick 1 – Stingose Insect bites and stings 2 – Tubes Anthisan Local allergies (external use) Buscopan (tablets Stomach cramps and ampoulles) 6 – Packets Lomotil Diarrhea 155

or Immodium 2 boxes of each Disprin, Panado and Myprodol 6 ampoulles pethadine Grippons, Benylin Voltaren tablets and ampoulles Daraclor, Halfan etc Purbac Bactrim or Purbac Losec or Controloc

Minor to moderate pain Severe pain Coughs, colds, flu Muscle injuries and pain Anti malarial Bladder infections Boils and abbesses Stomach ulcers

Borax or Fucidin H

Athletes foot

KY jelly Lip Ice and Vaseline Ear drops Eye drops (Eyegene and Spesalerg)

Lubricant Cracked lips Ear pain / infections Eye infections / allergies

Medicines and Disposables MEDICATIONS AND DISPOSABLES 4 - 100mm wide elastic crepe bandages 6 – Triangular bandages 6 – 100mm wide bandages 6 – small size wound dressings 6 – medium size wound dressings 6 – large wound dressings 2 – eye patches 2 – rolls 100mm wide surgical plaster 2 – rolls 50mm wide surgical plaster

USED FOR Snakebite, fractures, sprains, dislocations Fractures and wounds Wounds, fractures, dislocations, sprains Wounds, fractures, dislocations, sprains Wounds, fractures, dislocations, sprains Wounds, fractures, dislocations, sprains Eye injuries Assorted injuries and strapping Assorted injuries and strapping

156

2 – packets assorted plasters 20 – Butterfly suture plasters 6 – Occlusive wound dressings 4 – Ring bandages Suturing material and needles Alcohol swabs Gauze swabs (assorted – enough of) Sanitary towels (1 packet) 4 – IV drip sets 3 liters Ringers lactate 3 liters Physiological saline (NaCl) 1 liter Dextrose 4 ampoules insulin injectable 1 Suction apparatus 6 - 20ml disposable syringes 8 – 10ml disposable syringes 8 – 5ml disposable syringes 8 – 2,5ml disposable syringes 6 – 1ml disposable tuberculin syringes 1 Glucose test kit 1 Malaria test kit (20 tests) – if in malaria area 1 box Disposable surgical gloves Assorted hypodermic needles Lignocaine local anesthetic Activated charcoal (packet) 1 litre Betadine antiseptic (liquid)

Minor injuries Suturing wounds Penetrating wounds of thorax and abdomen For securing imbedded objects Suturing of minor wounds For disinfecting injection sites For cleaning wounds and padding For ladies who forget and for wounds For IV infusions Fluid replacement Fluid replacement Hypoglycemia (diabetic emergency) Hyperglycemia (diabetic emergency) Suctioning secretions Inflating cuff on endotracheal tube and for irrigating wounds, cuts, abrasions Administering injections Administering injections Administering injections Administering injections Testing blood glucose Testing for malaria Protection Protection and removing splinters Local anesthetic (eg when suturing) To adsorb poisons Cleaning and disinfecting (also for instruments) 157

1 litre Hibitane antiseptic (liquid) 1 – Bottle merchurochrome 20 – 100ml sterile distilled water 2- Betadine wound ointment 6 Ampoulles anti tetanus injection Broad spectrum anitbiotic tablets 2 – 100ml Injectable broad spectrum antibiotic Terramycin wound dusting powder 8 – 100mg Solucortef injectable 6 – ampoulles 50mg Anthisan injectable 2 Packets anthihistamine tablets 3 – 1ml adrenaline ampoulles 1:1000 dilution 1 Bottle Angised tablets Oral rehydrate and Energade (enough of) Valium injectable Burnshield dressings (assorted sizes) and Flamazine cream Valoid ampoulles and tablets 2 - packets Rennies 1 – Stingose 2 – Tubes Anthisan Buscopan (tablets and ampoulles) 6 – Packets Lomotil or Immodium 2 boxes of each Disprin, Panado and Myprodol

Cleaning and disinfecting (also for instruments) Minor cuts and abrasions Irrigating and injecting Cuts and wounds (prevent or treat infection) Anti tetanus Systemic infections Systemic infections Wounds Anaphylactic shock (allergies), snake bite, spider bite, scorpion stings Allergies For allergies Anaphylactic shock Angina (heart cramps) Dehydration, heat exhaustion, heat stroke Sedative Burns Nausea and vomiting Heartburn Insect bites and stings Local allergies (external use) Stomach cramps Diarrhea Minor to moderate pain 158

6 ampoulles pethadine Grippons, Benylin Voltaren tablets and ampoulles Daraclor, Halfan etc Purbac Bactrim or Purbac Losec or Controloc Borax or Fucidin H KY jelly Lip Ice and Vaseline Ear drops Eye drops (Eyegene and Spesalerg)

Severe pain Coughs, colds, flu Muscle injuries and pain Anti malarial Bladder infections Boils and abscesses Stomach ulcers Athletes foot Lubricant Cracked lips Ear pain / infections Eye infections / allergies

Important Notes 

No person must use medicines and / or equipment unless qualified to do so.



Expedition members should be properly trained.



If you wish to render medical assistance to a sick or injured person get their permission first (preferably in front of witnesses).



Stay within your level of competency.



Check the contents and especially expiry dates of equipment and medications before each trip and replace as necessary.



Acquaint yourself with the various drugs - what they are used for, side effects, how they are administered etc. Keep their leaflets on hand for easy reference.



Keep drugs in a cool place. Some medications must be kept in a refrigerator.



Before any drug is administered check for allergies - ask the patient, or relatives or look for a medic alert tag.

159

The ABCD of Basic Life Support ABCD of Life Support In an unconscious patient, open the airway by pushing the lower jawbone forward or use the jaw-thrust maneuver by applying pressure behind both angles of the jaw. While keeping hands on both sides of the head, place the fingers behind both angles of the jaw and lift the jaw to keep the airway open.

Airway 



Check if the victim has a partial or complete airway obstruction. If he can cough or speak, allow him to clear the obstruction naturally. Stand by, reassure the victim, and be ready to clear his airway and perform mouthto-mouth resuscitation should he become unconscious. If his airway is completely obstructed, administer abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is cleared. Using a finger, quickly sweep the victim’s mouth clear of any foreign objects, broken teeth, dentures and sand. Grasp the angles of the victim’s lower jaw and lift with both hands, one on each side, moving the jaw forward. For stability, rest your elbows on the surface on which the victim is lying. If his lips are closed, gently open the lower lip with your thumb

Breathing With the victim’s airway open, pinch his nose closed with your thumb and forefinger and blow two complete breaths into his lungs. Allow the lungs to deflate after the second inflation and perform the following: 

Look for his chest to rise and fall.



Listen for escaping air during exhalation.



Feel for flow of air on your cheek

160

If the forced breaths do not stimulate spontaneous breathing, maintain the victim’s breathing by performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Check the victim’s mouth periodically for vomit and clear as needed.

Circulation Chest compressions Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be necessary after cleaning the airway, but only after major bleeding is under control

Do not Delay Start immediately

Vital Signs Vital signs show what is happening in the body and will give an indication of malfunction or normality. It is important that you know how to monitor them.

Pulse 

Rate - fast or slow.



Strength - strong, bounding, weak.



Rhythm - regular or irregular.



Normal: Adult 60-80 beats per minute (bpm), child 80-100, infant 100 140.

Respiration Noisy, elevated, depressed, labored, noisy, absent. Normal: Adult 12 breathes per minute, child and infant 20.

Temperature and state of skin 

In shock - cold and clammy.



Fever / heatstroke - hot and dry.

Sites for taking temperature: under tongue, under the arm, rectum.

161

Skin colour 

Red - vasodilation, heatstroke, neurogenic and anaphlactic (allergic) shock



Cherry red - carbon monoxide poisoning.



Pale - shock, blood loss, heart failure, anxiety, fear.



Bluish - low blood oxygen levels, airway obstruction, poor circulation (perfusion), respiratory difficulty or arrest.



Yellowish - liver malfunction.

Pupil size 

Constricted - disease of CNS, drugs (e.g. morphine)



Dilated - dead, injury to CNS, cardiac arrest, drugs (e.g. atropine)



Unequal size - brain damage (injury / stroke)

Levels of consciousness 1. Normal - responds normally to questions and conversation 2. only answers direct questions 3. responds vaguely to questions 4. obeys commands 5. responds to pain 6. no response 7. Unconscious

Movement and sensation Paralysis and loss of sensation - injury or disease. Paralysis on one side - stroke or brain injury. Paralysis of arms and or legs - spinal chord trauma. If severed paralysis is permanent.

Response to pain No reaction to pain - under the influence of alcohol or drugs or deep coma. Spinal chord damage - paralysis and loss of sensation.

162

CPR CPR is an acronym for Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Correct and adequate resuscitation will result in lives being saved.

When to give CPR here is no condition that requires more immediate action than cardiac arrest. When this happens respiration will also cease. Cardiac arrest can be caused by: 

Drowning



Electrocution



Drug overdose



Airway obstruction



Poisoning by gas



Accidents and injuries



Heart attacks

The best chance of successful resuscitation is when basic life support is started within 4 minutes of cardiac arrest. A person’s heart can however continue beating when breathing has stopped. In this case only rescue breathing and not CPR is necessary. 

Give only when indicated



Patient must be on a hard surface.



Place hands in correct position. Keep arms straight.



Maintain correct rate, ratio, and depth of compression.

163

How to give CPR

164

Compression to ventilation ratio One First Aider

Two First Aiders

15:2

5:1

Compressions per minute Adults

Children

Infants

100

Depth of Compression Adults

Children

Infants

4-5 cm

2.5-3.5 cm

1.5-2.5 cm

When to Stop Give CPR until: 1. The person recovers. 2. You become exhausted. 3. Trained help arrives.

Signs of Effective CPR 1. The color of the patient will improve. 2. A carotid pulse can be detected when compressions are applied. 3. The heart starts beating (stop compressions when the heart resumes normal function). 4. The person begins breathing spontaneously. 5. Level of consciousness improves.

Recovery Position Unconscious patients should be turned onto their side in the recovery position. Remember to protect the neck and spine while moving an injured patient into this position. Keep the patient in the recovery position even during transport - it will ensure that gravity 165

keeps the airway open and vomit can run out of the mouth without entering the windpipe. To keep the patient’s mouth clear, a suction pump can be made by making a hole in a plastic bottle and inserting a plastic pipe through the hole. Seal the pipe with gum or other suitable material. Pressing an releasing the plastic bottle will cause air to escape through the pipe and will suck obstructing fluid back into the bottle.

Drips Preparation It is important to gather all the necessary supplies before you begin. You will need: 

Absorbent disposable sheet



1 alcohol prep pad



1 betadine swab



Tourniquet



IV catheter



IV tubing



Bag of IV fluid



4 pieces of tape (preferably paper tape or easy to remove tape which has been precut to approximately 4 inches (10cm) in length and taped conveniently to the table or stretcher.



Disposable gloves



Gauze (several pieces of 4x4 or 2x2)

166

Prepare the IV fluid administration set 

Inspect the fluid bag to be certain it contains the desired fluid, the fluid is clear, the bag is not leaking, and the bag is not expired.



Select either a mini or macro drip administration set and uncoil the tubing. Do not let the ends of the tubing become contaminated.



Close the flow regulator (roll the wheel away from the end you will attach to the fluid bag).



Remove the protective covering from the port of the fluid bag and the protective covering from the spike of the administration set.



Insert the spike of the administration set into the port of the fluid bag with a quick twist. Do this carefully. Be especially careful to not puncture yourself!



Hold the fluid bag higher than the drip chamber of the administration set. Squeeze the drip chamber once or twice to start the flow. Fill the drip chamber to the marker line (approximately one-third full). If you overfill the chamber, lower the bag below the level of the drip chamber and squeeze some fluid back into the fluid bag.



Open the flow regulator and allow the fluid to flush all the air from the tubing. Let it run into a trash can or even the (now empty) wrapper the fluid bag came in. You may need to loosen or remove the cap at the end of the tubing to get the fluid to flow although most sets now allow flow without removal. Take care not to let the tip of the administration set become contaminated.



Turn off the flow and place the sterile cap back on the end of the administration set (if you’ve had to remove it). Place this end nearby so you can reach it when you are ready to connect it to the IV catheter in the patient’s vein.

Perform the venipuncture 

Explain the procedure to the patient.



Apply a tourniquet high on the upper arm. It should be tight enough to visibly indent the skin, but not cause the patient discomfort. Have the patient make a fist several times in order to maximize venous engorgement. Lower the arm to increase vein engorgement.



Select the appropriate vein. If you cannot easily see a suitable vein, you can sometimes feel them by palpating the arm using your fingers (not your thumb) The vein will feel like an elastic tube that “gives” under pressure. Tapping on the veins, by gently “slapping” them with the pads of two or three fingers may help dilate them. If you still cannot find any 167

veins, then it might be helpful to cover the arm in a warm, moist compress to help with peripheral vasodilatation. If after a meticulous search no veins are found, then release the tourniquet from above the elbow and place it around the forearm and search in the distal forearm, wrist and hand. If still no suitable veins are found, then you will have to move to the other arm. Be careful to stay away from arteries, which pulses as the heart beats.  Put on disposable gloves. Clean the entry site carefully with the alcohol prep pad. Allow it to dry. Then use a betadine swab. Allow it to dry. Use both in a circular motion starting with the entry site and extending outward about 2 inches. (Using alcohol after betadine will negate the effect of the betadine) Note that some facilities may require an alcohol prep without betadine or sometimes alcohol after betadine. Go with the rules for your facility.  To puncture the vein, hold the catheter in your dominant hand. With the bevel up, enter the skin at about a 30 degree angle and in the direction of the vein. Use a quick, short, jabbing motion. After entering the skin, reduce the angle of the catheter until it is nearly parallel to the skin. If the vein appears to “roll” (move around freely under the skin), begin your venipuncture by apply counter tension against the skin just below the entry site using your nondominant hand. Many people use their thumb for this. Pull the skin distally toward the wrist in the opposite direction the needle will be advancing. Be carefully not to press too hard which will compress blood flow in the vein and cause the vein to collapse. Then pierce the skin and enter the vein as above. 

Advance the catheter to enter the vein until blood is seen in the “flash chamber” of the catheter.

If not successful 

If you are unsuccessful in entering the vein and there is no flashback, then slowly withdraw the catheter, without pulling all the way out, and carefully watch for the flashback to occur. If you are still not within the vein, then advance it again in a 2nd attempt to enter the vein. While 168

withdrawing always stop before pulling all the way out to avoid repeating the painful initial skin puncture. If after several manipulations the vein is not entered, then release the tourniquet, place a gauze over the skin puncture site, withdraw the catheter and tape down the gauze. Try again in the other arm. Otherwise:  After entering the vein, advance the plastic catheter (which is over the needle) on into the vein while leaving the needle stationary. The hub of the catheter should be all the way to the skin puncture site. The plastic catheter should slide forward easily. Do not force it!! 

Release the tourniquet.  Apply gentle pressure over the vein just proximal to the entry site to prevent blood flow. Remove the needle from within the plastic catheter. Dispose of the needle in an appropriate sharps container.



NEVER reinsert the needle into the plastic catheter while it is in the patient’s arm. Reinserting the needle can shear off the tip of the plastic catheter causing an embolus. Remove the protective cap from the end of the administration set and connect it to the plastic catheter. Adjust the flow rate as desired. Tape the catheter in place using the strips of tape and a sterile 2X2 or a clear dressing. It is advisable not to use the “chevron” taping technique.  Label the IV site with the date, time, and your initials.  Monitor the infusion for proper flow into the vein (in other words, watch for infiltration). Occasionally, you may inadvertently enter an artery. You’ll recognize this because bright red blood is quickly seen in the IV tubing and the IV bag because of the high pressure that exists. If this occurs, stop the fluid flow, remove the catheter, and put pressure on the site for at least 5 minutes.

It is sometimes helpful to draw blood after you have entered the vein and before you have connected the IV tubing and bag. You can easily withdraw blood into a 15 or 20 ml syringe and then inject it into blood vials. Be sure to fill the vials to at 169

least three quarters full. To recall the order of the blood tubes, remember the pneumonic Red Blood Gives Life for red, blue, green, lavender top tubes. Gently rock the tubes back and forth a few times to mix the blood with the additives. There is no need to rock the red top tube, however, The blood in this tube will clot quickly because it contains no additives. It should not be shaken because this will destroy the sample.

To discontinue an IV Remember to observe universal precautions. Start by clamping off the flow of fluids. Then gently peel the tape back toward the IV site. As you get closer to the site and the catheter, stabilize the catheter and remove the rest of the tape from the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin. Then place a 4 x 4 gauze over the site and gently slide the plastic catheter out of the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arm. Use direct pressure for a few minutes to control any bleeding. Finally, place a band aide over the site. How to correctly apply a warm, moist compress Put a bath towel under hot water and wring it out. Then fold it in half (by width not length) and enclose the arm from fingertips to elbow in the towel. Now place the towel-wrapped arm into a plastic bag and seal the open end of the bag near the elbow. While the pack is working (using heat to cause venous dilation), you can be setting up your supplies and be ready to perform the venipuncture as soon as you remove the pack. It works wonders! Many professional, experienced IV Therapy nurses would not even consider performing a venipuncture on patient with limited venous access without using a pack first. Use hot water since by the time you have folded and wrapped the arm the temperature is usually reduced. Do not leave a pack on for more than 10 minutes since as the temperature cools down, the purpose of the pack will be lost and you will not find distended veins.

Tourniquet Applying a Tourniquet Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the bleeding point and all other methods did not help to control the bleeding. If you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the damage to the tissues can progress to gangrene with a loss of the limb. An improperly applied tourniquet can also cause permanent damage to nerves and other tissues at the site of the constriction. If you must use a tourniquet, place it around the extremity, between the wound and the heart, 2-4 inches centimeters above the wound site . Never place it directly over the wound or a fracture. Use a stick as a handle to tighten the 170

tourniquet and tighten it only enough to stop blood flow. When you have tightened the tourniquet, bind the free end of the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding.

Injections

Divide the buttock into 4 equal parts. The top left corner for the left buttock and the top right hand corner for the right buttock is the target area.

Make sure there is no air in the syringe by holding it with the needle pointing up and pressing the plunger

Make doubly sure there is no air in the syringe by holding it with the needle pointing up and flicking the syringe with you finger to loosen air bubbles that adhere to the inside. Press the plunger until only the clear liquid comes out - there must be no bubbles in the syringe.

171

Hold the syringe like a dart with your finger about 1” (25mm) from the point and jab the point into the target area with one quick motion. You finger will act as stop against the buttock to regulate the injection depth. Inject the medication slowly.

Making a Rehydration Drink Making a Rehydration Drink Use the cleanest water available. Boil it and let it cool. 

Use 1 liter of water



3 small spoonfuls of salt



4 large spoonfuls of sugar

The drink should be no saltier than tears - too much salt is dangerous. This drink can go bad in hot weather. Taste it before giving it to a dehydrated person Give the patient sips every 5 minutes until they are normal. If the person is vomiting, give small sips at a time as some of the drink will stay down. Passing of urine is a good indication of improvement

Checking the Pulse Checking the wrist pulse 



Rest the middle and pointing fingers lightly at the front of the wrist, about 1 cm (.3”) from thumb side at lower end of forearm Press gently to feel pulse Checking the carotid pulse 172

  

Turn face to one side Slide fingers from Adam’s apple into groove alongside Press gently to feel pulse

The Heimlich Maneuver The Heimlich Maneuver is used when someone is chocking on something they ate and “went down the wrong way”. The patient will not be able to speak but will signal that he can not breathe. The maneuver is done by: 1. standing behind the patient with the arms around him 2. Making a fist with the left hand 3. Holding the fist with the other 4. Performing a powerful upward and inward thrust with both arms 5. The thrust forcing air out of the patients lungs and dislodging the object

Bush Emergencies Abdominal Injuries Abdominal injuries can be described as “open” or “closed”. An open injury is when the abdominal wall has been penetrated by a sharp object and there is a channel between the exterior and abdominal cavity. Infection could be result. A closed injury may be caused by a blow to the abdomen or falling on a jutting rock. If there has been damage to the liver, spleen or kidney there will be internal hemorrhage. When an injured person becomes pale, cold and clammy, has a weak and rapid pulse and abdominal tenderness, suspect serious injury. Keep 173

the person warm and give nothing to eat or drink. Take the person to hospital as soon as possible.

Allergic Reactions Pollen, grass, seeds, dust, certain types of food, drugs and insect bites may act as allergens. In certain people allergens cause a chemical reaction which may cause hay fever, asthma attack, swelling of the body and sometimes total collapse (anaphylaxis). An antihistamine drug may bring relief but also causes drowsiness. Emergency treatment should be given to respiratory obstruction due to vocal cord swelling and total collapse. If respiration is failing, artificial ventilation of the lungs must be initiated. To halt this acute allergic process, injections of adrenaline and cortisone is urgently required.

Amputation Shark and crocodile victims may suffer amputation of a limb. Shock and blood loss is life-threatening. A large towel or clean cloth must be placed over the wound and firmly compressed. If arterial bleeding continues (bright red spurting blood), a cord or bandage should be tied above the wound. It should never be left in place for more than 15-20 minutes and removed when bleeding is under control. Preferably the person should not be moved but aid brought to the location. Give the victim a strong painkiller. The victim can only be moved when blood loss has been replaced, pulse rate has decreased and painkiller has worked. The amputated limb should be wrapped in clean cloth, kept cool if possible and taken to hospital with the victim for possible reattachment by surgery.

Animal Bites Clean the wound thoroughly. Apply pressure to arrest bleeding then wash the wound under running water or from a water bottle. Apply a clean dressing. If available, an antibiotic should be given to the victim. Blood loss and serious injury may cause shock and collapse, in which case an intravenous drip should be set up and the person taken to hospital. Always consult a doctor about any animal bite; an injection of anti-tetanus serum is often needed and anti-rabies injections may be advisable.

Ankle Injuries Slipping on wet grass or on loose gravel may cause ankle injury. Ligaments or bones which make up the joint damaged. Blood or fluid may collect in the cavity of the joint and is painful. If ligaments have been sprained, the joint will recover by itself. If ligaments have been torn, bleeding occurs into the joint or there is bone injury. With the swollen ankle it is impossible to determine whether the lower ends of the two leg bones (tibia and fibula) remain intact and X-ray 174

examination is necessary. Bandage the injured joint with crepe bandage and keep the leg elevated on a cushion. Give the injured person a pain killer.

Appendicitis The appendix is a thin, blind-ended tube on the right-hand side of the abdomen below the navel. Acute inflammation of the appendix or obstruction of the opening into the large intestine will cause the person to feel sick. At first the person may vomit and pass loose stools. It will progress to abdominal discomfort and pain around the navel. After a time the pain will move to the lower part of the abdomen and be extremely sensitive to touch. Any movement will increase the pain. If the appendix bursts infection may spread to the intestines and the abdominal wall lining. A patient with acute appendicitis should be taken to hospital immediately. If this is possible in 2-4 hours, the patient should not be given water or food. If not, small quantities of water (50-100 ml) may be given at intervals to maintain hydration. Administer an antibiotic.

Artificial Respiration If the human brain is deprived of oxygen for more than two minutes permanent tissue damage is likely and after five or six minutes, death will occur. Artificial respiration is achieved by mouth-to-mouth breathing. Lay the person on his/her back and inspect mouth to remove dentures or any foreign matter. Elevate chin to extend neck. Place your lips on the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lips using fingers of one hand to secure airtight seal and pinch nostrils shut with fingers of other hand. Blow gently into personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mouth, watching for the chest to elevate. If the stomach distends it indicates that the chin has not been elevated enough.

Asphyxiation When flow of oxygen into lungs is interrupted, asphyxiation occurs. It may be due to a decrease in oxygen content of the air breathed or from obstruction to the nose and mouth or air passage leading to the lungs. A person may die within a few minutes if fresh air is not immediately restored. If the person is not breathing, artificial respiration should be given without delay until breathing returns. If the heart is not beating, cardiac compression must be coordinated with mouth-tomouth respiration until neck pulse (carotid) returns.

Asthma Infection, physical exertion and emotional disturbance can induce asthma. Common among children it causes a narrowing of the smallest air passages in the lungs. Overexertion of asthma-prone members of the expedition should be avoided. During an attack breathing is rapid and labored with a long breathingout phase. A wheeze is audible. Symptoms can be limited and controlled with pump inhalers and medication. A semi-sitting position may be more comfortable 175

than lying down when an asthma attack occurs. Two puffs with the pump inhaler should be administered, and the person should be encouraged to drink some water. After an hour without any improvement, the person should be taken to a doctor. Severe asthma can be potentially fatal.

Back and Neck Injuries If vertebrae are displaced, crushed or fractured the spinal cord may be distorted or severed which will cause paralysis. Falls from height, penetrating wounds or direct blows may cause neck and back injuries. Actual damage can only be seen on X-rays. Great care should be taken with neck or back injuries as the spinal cord can be damaged or severed, causing permanent paralysis. Neck should be wrapped up with a towel or jersey and the injured must rest on a wooden backboard. A marked drop in blood pressure and slowing of the pulse may occur after spinal injury.

Bee Stings Cover your head with a jacket against angry bees or run through bushes. A single sting may trigger a reaction when a person is allergic to bee venom. There is a rapid development of skin rash, swelling of face and throat, breathing difficulty and collapse. To avoid squeezing extra toxin into the body from the sting, remove the beeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sting with tweezers or scraping a knife blade sideways across skin; antihistamine cream should be applied. A prompt injection of adrenalin is necessary when there is a violent reaction.

Bilharzia Bilharzia worms live in abdominal cavity where the eggs erode into bladder and rectum. When eggs in urine and stools reach a river or a dam a snail is invaded as intermediary host snails and microscopical forms are released in water. You can become infected with bilharzia by swimming in infected water. Skin irritation is the first indication shortly after swimming and blood in the urine - especially in the last few drops - is an indication that you are infected. Blood in stools is an indication of rectal infection. Untreated bilharzia may cause bladder problems. An effective drug is available in the form of pills.

176

Bleeding Types of Bleeding Arterial Bleeding Blood vessels called arteries carry blood away from the heart and through the body. A cut artery spurts bright red blood from the wound in distinct spurts or pulses that correspond to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because the blood in the arteries is under high pressure, an individual can lose a large volume of blood in a short period when damage to an artery of significant size occurs. Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of bleeding and can be fatal if not controlled quickly. Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body is extremely dangerous. The loss of 1 liter of blood will produce moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 liters will produce a severe state of shock that places the body in extreme danger. The loss of 3 liters is usually fatal. Venous Bleeding Venous blood is blood that is returning to the heart through blood vessels called veins. A steady flow of dark red, maroon, or bluish blood characterizes bleeding from a vein. Venous bleeding is more easily controlled than arterial bleeding. Capillary Bleeding The capillaries are the extremely small vessels that connect the arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding most commonly occurs in minor cuts and scrapes. This type of bleeding is not difficult to control.

Controlling Bleeding Direct Pressure The most effective way to control external bleeding is by applying pressure directly over the wound. This pressure must not only be firm enough to stop the bleeding, but it must also be maintained long enough to “seal off” the damaged surface. If bleeding continues after having applied direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply a pressure dressing. This dressing consists of a thick dressing of gauze or other suitable material applied directly over the wound and held in place with a tightly wrapped bandage. It should be tighter than an ordinary compression bandage but not so tight that it impairs circulation to the rest of the limb. Once you apply the dressing, do not remove it, even when the dressing becomes blood soaked. Elevation Raising an injured extremity as high as possible above the heart’s level slows blood loss by aiding the return of blood to the heart and lowering the blood 177

pressure at the wound. However, elevation alone will not control bleeding entirely; you must also apply direct pressure over the wound. When treating a snakebite, however, keep the extremity lower than the heart. Pressure Points A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound lies near the surface of the skin or where the artery passes directly over a bony prominence You can use digital pressure on a pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until the application of a pressure dressing. Pressure point control is not as effective for controlling bleeding as direct pressure exerted on the wound. It is rare when a single major compressible artery supplies a damaged vessel. All forms of bleeding stop under direct pressure. A towel or dressing should be firmly placed on wound. Serious fractures or liver, spleen or kidney damage will cause internal bleeding, loss of blood is not visible. The person will be pale, cold and clammy and the pulse becomes weak; the person is in shock. The person should rest with legs raised and covered to keep warm. If asked for, water may given. If you cannot remember the exact location of the pressure points, apply pressure at the end of the joint just above the

be be

injured

area. Exercise caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too much pressure for too long will cause unconsciousness or death. Never place a tourniquet around the neck. Maintain pressure points by placing a round stick in the joint, bending the joint over the stick, and then keeping it tightly bent by lashing. By using this method to maintain pressure, it frees your hands to work in other areas.

Blindness Blindness may occur after severe head injury or eye injury. Inflammation of the cornea may occur at high altitudes, desert and snowfields due to exposure to sun. Symptoms are watering eyes, swelling of eyelids and the inability to open the eyes. Pain can be relieved with anesthetic eye drops followed by antibiotic drops and bandages on the eyes. It is important not to rub the eyes.

178

Blisters Thick socks and worn-in boots should be worn. At the first sensation of friction on the foot, stop and adjust socks. When a blister forms cover it with several layers of plaster and leave it intact. Very large blisters must be pricked to release the fluid and covered with mercurochrome and layers of plaster. Renew plasters at the end of every day.

Boils Boils are caused by infected hair follicles or oil glands on the skin. Infection causes swelling and skin becomes red. The painful area grows larger, has a throbbing sensation and is being very painful to the touch. The centre of the boil liquefies and discharges onto skin after a few days. Boils are treated with hot poultices, lancing should only be done when pus is obvious and skin is thin above the boil. Cover a discharging boil with dry dressings. Recurrent boils suggest that the nose of the patient is colonized with staphylococci and must be treated with antibiotic nasal cream.

Bruises Bruises are cases by bleeding under the skin. Finger-tip bruises cause intense throbbing if there is blood trapped under the nail. Pressure can be eased by using a sharp knife and bore a small hole in the center of the nail. Large bruises may become infected and will need surgical drainage. If bruising is extensive, the person will become feverish; it is possible that there might be underlying fractures.

Burns and Scalds Burns are caused by fire and very hot objects and scalds by hot liquid. Immerse burn in cold water immediately for at least 15 minutes or cover with a wet cloth. Do not apply any cream or ointment. Cover wound with dressing. Painkillers should be given and patient taken to hospital. Clothes on fire should be smothered with a blanket or coat. Dousing the burning garment with water or rolling the person on the ground is also effective.

Types of Burns Type of Burn

Associated Result

Dry burns

Loss of body fluid

Scalds

Shock

Cold burns

Infection

Chemical

Scarring

179

Electrical

Contractures

Radiation

Social adaptations

Description of Burns Superficial Burns 1. Red swollen skin. 2. Only epidermis effected. 3. No blistering or scarring. Intermediate Burns 1. Extremely painful - nerve endings exposed. 2. Epidermis and part of dermis effected. 3. Blistering. Deep Burns 1. All layers of skin involved as well us underlying tissues. 2. Pale, chalky appearance. 3. Plasma leakage. 4. Less painful than other burns because nerve endings in the dermis are destroyed.

Treatment 

Remove the source or the person from the cause.



Cool the burn by running cold water over it for at least 20 minutes.



Remove hot clothing only if it is not adhering to the skin.



Place Burnshield or a clean, dry, sterile dressing over the wound.



Treat for shock.



Get to medical help ASAP.



Don’t remove clothing that is sticking to the skin



Don’t smear any greasy substance onto the burns



Don’t pop blisters.

180

Chest Injuries Chest injuries can be “open” or “closed”. Open injuries are caused by object penetrating the chest cavity and damages internal organs. If the heart or a major blood vessel has been pierced, the results are normally fatal. When a lung has been pierced, bubbles will form at the entry wound from each breath as air escapes. A dangerous condition called pneumathorax can result where escaping air from the lung collects between the lung and the rib cage. As pressure increases, the lung is compressed. This is a potentially fatal condition and the trapped air must be released. Insert the largest bore needle available into a rib space on the chest. A release of air will indicate that the pressure is being released. Other items like the casing of a ballpoint pen or a drip needle can also be used. A patient with an open chest injury should be kept at rest with the legs elevated slightly above the trunk. Cover entry and exit wound with a dry dressing. Closed chest injuries are caused by severe blows to the chest during falls or accidents. The result may be rib fractures which are made more painful with breathing. Multiple rib fractures may necessitate artificial ventilation. Rib fractures are splinted by adhesive strapping over the area from the front of the rib cage to the near middle of the back. Treat the patient for shock and transport to hospital a.s.a.p.

Chest Pain Chest pains can be caused by exertion or severe chest pains may precede an attack of shingles or other diseases. Blistering and skin inflammation in a round band round the chest and sever pain on one side of the chest will prove the suspicion of shingles, a viral infection. Pleurisy is inflammation of membranes which cover the surface of the lung and inner wall of chest cavity. Inflammation may be isolated or in association with underlying pneumonia. Cardiac pain is in middle of chest with radiation up to the neck and inside of left arm.

Childbirth If you are unfortunate enough to have to deal with childbirth on your African safari, follow these guidelines: During contractions in first stage, the patient must be encouraged to relax. Gently massage her back. In second stage she must push during each contraction. When the baby has been delivered the mouth and nose must be cleaned. If no respiration, blow gently into mouth and nose to effect ventilation and when breathing has been established the umbilical cord can be tied with string. The baby should be wrapped and given to mother. The afterbirth will expel spontaneously. If severe bleeding occurs, massage the womb gently through abdominal wall. 181

Choking When a child has inhaled food or a foreign body he should be suspended head down by holding his legs and slapped between shoulder blades to dislodge the object. Grasp an older person from behind, around stomach, and hug forceful repeat several times. If obstruction persists use a large injection needle or knife, beyond the end of Adamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s apple there is a small hollow; push needle into hollow until air flows out. Air can pass through needle and should be left until a doctor arrives. The casing of a ballpoint pen can also be used after a small incision, or a small incision can be kept open until help arrives.

When a child has inhaled food or a foreign body he should be suspended head down by holding his legs and slapped between shoulder blades to dislodge the object.

Grasp an older person from behind, around stomach, and hug forceful repeat several times.

If obstruction persists, emergency measures are required. Beyond the end of Adamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s apple there is a small hollow (marked with the red X) that can be felt with the fingers. Push a large injection needle into the hollow until air flows out or use a knife to make a small incision. Air can pass through needle or incision until a doctor arrives. The casing of a ballpoint pen can also be inserted after a small incision, or a small incision can be 182

kept open until help arrives.

Concussion Concussion is not always associated with skull fracture, intracranial bleeding or brain damage. A person with concussion requires careful observation. Decreasing responsiveness and slow pulse requires hospitalization.

Convulsions A person’s head should be supported to promote easy breathing. Lift the chin until neck is extended to insure an open airway through nose and throat. It is physically impossible to “swallow” the tongue, and the person should be protected from self-injury.

Cramp Cramps tend to occur after salt loss due from excessive sweating or diarrhea. For a cramp in calf, push hard on sole of foot so that the toes point toward shin and hold that position for a few minutes. Cramp in front of thigh is treated by straightening the knee. Massaging will also help. The patient should drink lots of water and eat something salty.

Cuts Deep cuts may involve arteries and tendons. Hands, feet, wrist and ankle muscle tendons run close to surface of skin. Deep cuts in these regions are serious. Wound should be cleaned with antiseptic solution and covered with gauze. There is tendon damage when there is a loss of ability to flex and extend any joint below the level of a deep cut.

Death A person can be assumed dead when: 1) No carotid pulse can be felt 2) No heartbeat is audible with ear to the chest 3) There is no breathing movement of the chest and small mirror does not show condensation when held in front of the nose 4) The pupils are widely dilated and show no response to light or touch 5) 183

No response is shown to painful stimuli. Continue CPR if not absolutely certain of death. If death occurs in a very remote area, bury the body and mark the area well. An autopsy may be necessary later.

Dehydration Signs of dehydration are a dry mouth, sunken appearance around eyes, loss of skin elasticity and dark urine, if any. As it becomes worse, the pulse becomes rapid and feeble and breathing rate increases. The patient may sink into a coma. Rehydration fluid may be given as much as possible, but in small quantities. A suitable rehydration solution is eight level teaspoons sugar, half a level teaspoon of salt in one liter of water.

Diabetes As the blood sugar drops there is a feeling of faintness, dizziness, perspiration and rapid heart beat. Glucose or carbohydrate should be given. If unconscious an injection of Glucogon or glucose is necessary. Foot care is important and cuts and scratches should be treated with antiseptic ointment. Glucose should be consumed when faint or loss of energy followed by a sandwich or a rusk. A good intake of fluid is necessary and injections must be taken on time. At the first sign of dehydration the person should be taken to hospital.

Diarrhea Diarrhea will resolve itself after a few days but steps should be taken to prevent dehydration. No solid food and small amounts of liquid should be taken. A suitable solution is eight teaspoons of sugar, half a teaspoon of salt in one liter of water. No antibiotics but anti-diarrhea tablets and codeine will reduce intestinal movements. The passage of red blood and mucus in loose stools is called dysentery and indicates infection of large intestine with bacteria. In this case a doctor is needed to treat the person with antibiotics.

Dislocated Joints Joints commonly dislocated are shoulder, hip, ankle and small joints of fingers and thumb. Symptoms are severe pain and loss of joint function and become swollen. The joint should be left in the position causing the least pain and bound with crepe bandage. A painkiller should be given and the person taken to hospital.

Drowning Attempts at resuscitating a â&#x20AC;&#x153;drownedâ&#x20AC;? person should not be stopped until sure that the person is dead. When victim is far from shore ventilation should start as soon as the head can be raised above 184

water. Locate the carotid pulse; if absent external cardiac massage must be started until pulse is felt. Ventilation must continue until respiration resumes. There should be transfer to hospital where resuscitation can be continued. Death may be assumed only if there are no signs of life despite body temperature in the normal range.

Drug Overdose A large overdose of paracetamol causes liver damage; anti-depressants cause heart toxicity; anti-convulsant and anti-anxiety drugs cause sedation and coma. If person is conscious push two fingers down the throat to induce vomiting. Do not do this when the person is drowsy. Feet should be elevated if person is in shock and mouth to mouth ventilation applied if respiration fails. If it is a known drug, information can be obtained from Poisons Information Centre. Urgent transfer to hospital is advisable.

Ear Injuries and Infection If external ear is severed or torn bleeding can be controlled by local pressure; severed part should be taken with to hospital. If an insect or tick finds its way into the ear and cannot be taken out with finger, the ear canal should be filled with lukewarm water; it should float out. If eardrum is perforated it should be washed gently and plugged with cotton wool and the person taken to ear specialist. If an ear canal becomes affected it should be mopped with cotton wool several times per day and antibiotic drops instilled.

Electric Shock After severe shock the person will be unconscious and not breathing. Firstly, contact with current should be broken and mouth-to-mouth respiration given; if pulse in neck is absent start external cardiac compression. Persist with attempts for at least an hour as recovery may occur after prolonged cardio respiratory standstill and even carry on while person is taken to hospital. Dry dressings should be used to cover electric burns.

185

Epilepsy Epilepsy means a tendency to have recurrent convulsions or seizures. With anticonvulsant drugs it can be controlled. Fatigue, extreme hunger, anxiety or a viral infection may cause a seizure.

Eye Injuries If foreign body is stuck to front surface of eye, place tip of index finger on middle of eyelid and with index finger and thumb of other hand pull downwards on eyelashes. Remove foreign body with soft material. A blow to eye may cause hemorrhage into eyeball, dislocation of lens and detachment of retina. Cover injured eye with soft material and bandage lightly then taken to hospital. If a harmful fluid is splashed in the eye it should be washed repeatedly with water and take person for medical treatment.

Face and Nose Injuries First priority in serious face injury is to ensure that the person has a clear airway through mouth or nose. If necessary, remove blood clot and insert a piece of tubing through nose or mouth. Take care not to displace further broken nasal, cheek and facial bones when trying to stop bleeding. When bleeding has stopped dressings should be applied, kept in place with bandages. A fractured jaw may be supported by passing a bandage under chin and securing it over the crown of the head. The person should then be taken to hospital.

Fainting When there is a temporary decrease in arterial blood supply to the brain, fainting occurs. Fainting must be distinguished from convulsion or a stroke. Symptoms are nauseous, dizzy and light-headed, sweating and awareness of heart beat. A person who fainted should be kept in shade, lying down, until pulse is strong. Give the person some cold water to drink.

Fever Headache, muscle ache, backache and joint pains occur with a fever blister on lip. With typhoid fever rises higher each evening; when fever recurs on alternate days or every third day it could be malaria. Tepid sponging is effective. Aspirin will lower the temperature and also helps for other pains. If fever persists, see a doctor. 186

Fire Fire burns uphill so move in opposite direction to the path of fire. Never go where you can be trapped. If contact with fire is unavoidable, cover yourself with balaclava, long-sleeved jacket with a towel over head and neck. If trapped, look for break in fire line and use this to get at the place already burnt; or look for place where flames are low and protect your face with green grass or bush. Inhale deeply three times and the fourth time, hold it in, keep your head down and run. Be prepared for great heat and donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t inhale. Fire consumes oxygen and produces very hot smoke which can damage the upper airway. The best air for breathing in bush fire is close to ground. Burns should be treated, if possible, by immersion in cold water.

Food Poisoning Incubation period of contaminated food varies from 3-48 hours. Symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting. When toxin is responsible it may resolve within 24-36 hours but with bacterial infection it may last longer. Food poisoning will resolve spontaneously, the patient should rest and not eat until diarrhea stops. Rehydration fluid should be taken as much as possible.

Fractures The signs of fracture are deformity, extreme pain, swelling and shock. The person should rest and a pain-killer given. Upper limb fractures are immobilized by strapping arm to front of chest. Fractures of lower limbs are splinted by tying legs together. Closed fracture - skin intact, bacteria have no direct access. Open fracture - wound through which bone ends protrude. Comminuted fracture - bone broken in more than two fragments. Complicated fracture - fragments caused damage to internal organs, nerves and blood vessels. Greenstick fractures - bone cracked but remains intact (only in children). The dangers with a fracture are the severing or the compression of a nerve or blood vessel at the site of fracture. For this reason minimum manipulation should be done, and only very cautiously. If you notice the area below the break becoming numb, swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale, and the victim shows signs of shock, a major vessel may have been severed and the bleeding must be controlled. Treat the victim for shock, and replace lost fluids. Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and healing process. You can effectively pull smaller 187

bones such as the arm or lower leg by hand. You can create traction by wedging a hand or foot in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree with the other extremity. You can then splint the break.

Frostbite Fingers and toes should be exercised and no alcohol or smoking used. Smoking causes constriction of blood vessels and alcohol dilates blood vessels in skin, increasing heat loss. Frostbitten tissue feels cold and hard with grey/white color, painful but later becomes numb. Hands can be warmed in armpits and a foot in armpit or against stomach of a companion. Frostbitten part should be immersed in water slightly warmer than body temperature. Rubbing, hot water bottles and heat of fire or stoves be avoided as this may increase tissue damage. In severe cases, it will take a couple of days to assess damage.

Gastro-enteritis Most attacks of gastro-enteritis lasts only 48 hours. The person should not take solid food but small amounts of fluid should be taken frequently as severe vomiting may lead to dehydration.

Gunshot Wounds Internal hemorrhage and shock are immediate dangers. Make the person comfortable with legs raised; if the person experiences breathing problems he/she might feel better in a semi-sitting position. Apply a dressing on external bleeding; entry and exit wounds should be covered with a dry dressing and a strong painkiller given. Nothing should be taken by mouth if abdomen pierced and person taken to hospital immediately. Head Injuries A head injury must be regarded as serious if there has been any period of unconsciousness; other signs are a pulse rate below 60, unequal pupils, bleeding from ears and watery discharge from nose or ears. Nothing should be given by mouth, and is advisable to keep the person horizontal, head slightly higher than feet. However, in case of external blood loss or signs of shock, feet should be elevated. The personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pulse, pupils and level of consciousness must be monitored. A slow pulse, abnormal pupils and deteriorating level of consciousness indicates intracranial hemorrhage and/or brain swelling. Person must be taken to hospital immediately.

188

Heart Attack One form of heart attack occurs when coronary artery becomes blocked; the sector of heart muscle which it supplies is deprived of oxygen and nutrients. The person experiences crushing pain in centre of chest which may radiate up into the neck and down left arm, wrist pulse being weak or absent and shortness of breath. If area of damaged muscle is extensive effective cardiac contraction is no longer possible. Victim will die. The other form of heart attack is when there is a sudden loss of heart rhythm; regular beat is replaced by rapid, incomplete contractions, ineffective for circulating arterial blood. Victim becomes very pale, no pulse felt in neck or wrist. Death occurs after a few minutes unless heartbeat can be restored.

Heat Exhaustion On a hot day under conditions of heavy exertion, one liter of sweat may be lost every hour; if no fluid is replaced, dehydration sets in. Heat stroke means there is total failure of normal heat regulation mechanisms; no sweating there may be convulsions and coma. There are 60% fatalities of such cases. If a member of the party becomes quiet or seems to be falling behind, suspect heat exhaustion. Rambling incoherence and collapse are serious signs. Get the person under shade immediately, remove clothing, bathe with cool water (if available). If conscious, the person should drink small quantities of water. When fully revived, move on. If consciousness is impaired, do not move. Arrange for person to be taken to hospital.

Hypothermia Hypothermia can be avoided by the following practices: Do not start out when weather is deteriorating. Always have a warm sweater, anorak and long pants in backpack. On long hikes, maintain steady intake of food. If caught in bad weather, seek shelter. If a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body temperature drops below 34 degrees, ability to shiver is lost. The person is tired, acts illogically, speech is slurred; muscle strength is lost and only wants to sleep. A hypothermia victim must be moved to a shelter and be protected from wind. Wet clothing must be replaced and person put into sleeping bag in front of fire. Sweet fluids to drink must be given. Move victim gently as rough handling may cause heart irregularities.

Hysteria An anxious person may experience symptoms identical to those caused by physical disease. Palpitations and chest pain may suggest heart disease; colicky abdominal pain = kidney stones; gall bladder disease or even appendicitis and 189

limb weakness = a stroke. The sufferer looks rested and calm, have a good appetite, no vomiting or fever; paralyzed limb normal when attention is focused elsewhere. Make sure the person does not have a serious disease. The person should be relieved of tasks which give rise to stress, anxieties should be discussed. Hysterical reactions should be distinguished from malingering.

Intestinal Parasites Intestinal parasites are evident when worms or eggs of worms are present in your stools. Avoid worm infestations and other intestinal parasites never going barefoot or eating uncooked meat and raw vegetables contaminated by raw sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer. Do one of the following: 

Drink salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Do not repeat this treatment.



Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1½ cigarettes. The nicotine in the cigarette will kill or stun the worms long enough for your system to pass them. If the infestation is severe, repeat the treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner.



Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene but no more. If necessary, you can repeat this treatment in 24 to 48 hours. Be careful not to inhale the fumes. They may cause lung irritation.



Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady part of your diet. You can eat them raw or put them in soups or rice and meat dishes. They create an environment that is prohibitive to parasitic attachment..

Kidney Stones For many years a kidney stone may be present without any symptoms or it may cause recurrent urinary tract infection. Manifestation is renal colic when a small stone passes down the ureter, the pain may last only for minutes or may persist for hours. The pain stops once stone passed into bladder with a burning sensation on urination, sometimes with a little blood in urine. Lots of water should be taken and also a strong painkiller. The person should consult a doctor.

190

Lightning Strikes A direct strike can cause instant death. Near-miss victims suffer burns, lung damage and tissue damage of the nervous system. Never seek shelter under a tall isolated tree, hut or tent. It is safe in a cave or rock overhang. A person struck by lightning, who is not breathing, must at once receive cardio-respiratory resuscitation; if no neck pulse can be felt two or three forceful blows should be delivered over the breastbone. With no response, start external heart massage. Persons not seriously injured must receive treatment for shock and taken to hospital for further treatment. If you can hear the lightning striking â&#x20AC;&#x201C; relax, it has missed you - lightning strikes faster than sound.

Malaria The Anopheles mosquitoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bite injects malaria parasites into the blood stream and multiplies within the red blood cells. The incubation period is 7-14 days, when there is a loss of energy, headache, muscle pains and vomiting. The person feels cold and shivers, followed by high fever and sweating. Episodes of rigors, fever and sweating will recur at intervals of 1-3 days. There is a high mortality rate if not treated. Complications are coma (cerebral malaria), renal failure and collapse. Chloroquine is most widely used; quinine is also extremely effective. If parasite becomes resistant to the above, use mefloquine. An antimalarial drug should be taken as prescribed.

Mountain Sickness A person resident at sea level who ascends above 3000 meters may experience headache, nausea, palpitations, fatigue and a feeling of heaviness in muscles. Symptoms will disappear after a week due to acclimatization to lower oxygen pressure. Acetazolamide tablets (Diamox) enhances the process. This will increase flow of urine and counteract fluid retention. If unpleasant symptoms continue after three days, the person should descend to a lower altitude.

Pneumonia When pneumonia develops all the chambers in a segment or lobe of a lung fill with inflammatory cells; gas exchange is not possible, the oxygen level in blood drops; the person will have a fever, breathing is shallow and there is a cough with rust-colored sputum, and there is a sharp pain at a certain spot in chest with inhaling (pleurisy). Pneumonia is due to bacterial or viral infection and Amoxyllin should be given; the patient should be propped up on pillows and aspirin given for fever. Patient should seek medical help.

Poisoning Symptoms and signs depend on substance and quantity taken; it is very important to find out what has been ingested. Check breathing and color of 191

tongue. If breathing is or becomes shallow and slow and lips become blue, artificial ventilation must be instituted. Feel pulse; if rapid and feeble patient is in shock and is a serious sign. Establish level of consciousness. If person is conscious, and substance ingested is neither corrosive nor petrochemical (like paraffin) vomiting should be induced by thrusting two fingers down the person’s throat; strong solution of mustard and water will induce vomiting. No salt solution should be taken as salt poisoning can occur. After vomiting, milk should be given. If a corrosive substance has been ingested milk should be given, which neutralizes the corrosive effect. Transfer patient to hospital.

Poisonous Plants There are a variety of symptoms and disorders due to plant toxins for instance severe skin reactions, irritation and swelling of mouth and throat, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhea and progressive liver failure, convulsions and coma. Do not eat any part of plant (root, bulb, leaves, fruit) if not certain it is not toxic, the same applies to mushrooms. If toxin plant ingested, make sure to get a sample for identification. There are no specific antidotes and treatment is along general lines.

Pulse and Breathing In healthy state, pulse can be easily felt on wrist; in shocked state pulse may be detected only in neck. An increase above 90 beats per minute is brought about by exertion, fever, infection, dehydration, hypothermia,, blood loss, shock and heart failure; below 50 is found with hypothermia and heart disorders. The strength of pulse is influenced by force of heart beat; strong when feverish, weak and feeble in someone who has fainted, lost a lot of blood, dehydrated or in shock. Rapid shallow breathing occurs with fever, pneumonia, chest injury and heart failure. Deep sighing breathing occurs after poisoning with toxins (aspirin overdose) and liver and kidney failure.

Pyelitis and Cystitis Infection of urinary tract occurs more in females than males. The person feels unwell with fever, dull pain in small of back and radiating around the groin. Urine is passed frequently with cloudy color and may smell offensive. Antibiotic is necessary and fluid intake increased. The person should see a doctor.

Rabies Rabies is caused by a virus in meerkats, bats, rats, dogs, monkeys and other smaller mammals; incubation period varies from 10 days to 6 months. Infected animals loose all fear for humans and become inexplicably “tame”, and bite when touched. The virus causes inflammation of the brain (encephalitis); symptoms are 192

fever, headache and agitation with intense spasm of swallowing muscles when eating. Illness progresses through mental derangement and convulsions to coma and death. Once symptoms are evident death is inevitable and no cure exists. As rabies is fatal, a person bitten by a suspect animal must be treated not to develop the condition, bite wounds must be thoroughly cleaned with a soap solution, cetrimide or iodine and injection of human rabies immune antibody (gammaglobulin) given by a doctor followed by doses of anti-rabies vaccine, repeated at increasing intervals over a three month period.

Rashes To treat a skin rash effectively, you must determine what is causing it. This determination may be difficult even in the best of situations. Observe the following rules to treat rashes: 

If it is moist, keep it dry.



If it is dry, keep it moist.



Do not scratch it.

Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea or from boiling the bark of a hardwood tree to dry weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a small amount of rendered animal fat or grease on the affected area. Remember, treat rashes as open wounds and clean and dress them daily. There are many substances available to survivors in the wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to treat wound: 

Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a liter of water to produce a good rinse for wounds during healing.



Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and use the water to rinse the affected area.



Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per liter of water to kill bacteria.



Honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water.

Rescuing a Drowning Person When someone in the water has problems, throw a rope or extend a tree branch to grab and pull the person out. Remember, a drowning person, in panic, will clutch a rescuer. The rescuer must tell the person to place his hands on the rescuer’s shoulders from behind. The rescuer’s hands will then be free to breaststroke them both to safety. A strong swimmer will put his hands on either side of the person’s head and swim backwards, or side stroke with one hand under the person’s jaw or arm hooked under the person’s armpits. If a panic-stricken person grabs you in the 193

water, push the head backwards with force. If this does not help bring your knees up and push with force against the upper body.

Scorpion Sting It is important to distinguish dangerous scorpions from those whose venom produces minor reaction. The Buthid family produce powerful neurotoxins which causes weakness and respiratory paralysis and death in children. Buthids has got small thin pincers and large thick tails, other less harmful families have well developed prominent pincers and thin tails. Immediate relieve of pain can be achieved with an icepack; identification of scorpion is important, with non-Buthid treatment not necessary. A person stung by Buthid must be kept under observation for 12 hours, hospitalization is wise. Children under 12 must be given intramuscular injection of scorpion antivenom.

Shock Shock means failure of heart and arterial system to meet body’s requirements for blood circulation. Signs of shock: faintness, visible sweating, weak pulse and sighing respiration. Process should be reversed otherwise person will lose consciousness, and heartbeat and respiration will stop. External bleeding should be stopped by applying direct pressure over bleeding vessel. Person should be kept warm and in horizontal position with legs elevated. If in pain, very strong painkiller should be given and person kept still. In cases of severe infection antibiotic should be given. Oral rehydration fluid should be given; if respiration ceases, start artificial ventilation and arrange for urgent hospitalization. Anticipate shock in all injured safari members. Treat all injured persons as follows, regardless of what symptoms appear: 

If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with the lower extremities elevated 15 to 20 centimeters.



If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or abdomen with his head turned to one side to prevent choking on vomit, blood, or other fluids.



If you are unsure of the best position, place the victim perfectly flat. Once the victim is in a shock position, do not move him.



Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the surroundings and, in some instances, applying external heat.



If the victim wears wet clothing, remove it as soon as possible and replace with dry clothing.



Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from the weather.

194



Use warm liquids or foods, a warmed sleeping bag, another person lying against the victim, warmed water in canteens, hot rocks wrapped in clothing, or fires on either side of the victim to provide external warmth.



If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of a warm salt or sugar solution.



If the victim is unconscious or has abdominal wounds, do not give fluids orally.



Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours.



If you are alone, lie in a depression in the ground, behind a tree, or any other place out of the weather, with your head lower than your feet.



Constantly reassess your patient.

Slipped Disk Lifting heavy objects with the back bent, it is possible that part of a disc may be forced out of its position and press against the nerves which arise from spinal chord and leave the spinal cord through openings between the vertebral arches. Slipped disk happens in lower region of back or in the neck. There is acute backache, stiffness and pain radiates down back of leg to heel (in case of neck lesion, down an arm). A person with a slipped disc should rest on firm surface and painkiller given; travel should be avoided. Most cases respond within a week or two to rest.

Smoke Inhalation Smoke inhalation can lead to thermal injury, chemical injury, asphyxia and carbon monoxide poisoning. Lungs are protected from thermal injury by reflex closure of vocal cords, but lips, mouth, nasal cavities, throat and voice box above vocal cords may suffer burns. Chemical injury is caused by inhalation of toxic products which causes swelling of air tube linings. Asphyxia is due to rapid consumption of oxygen by the fire itself. Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of carbon compounds. Severe smoke inhalation will cause swelling of lips, tongue and inside of throat; breathing will be noisy; asphyxia causes unconsciousness. Get person away from fire into fresh air; artificial ventilation must be given if there is respiratory arrest; treatment is necessary in hospital.

Snake Bite and Venom in the Eyes When venom is injected by snake, it acts slowly; the person should rest as movement increases blood circulation; a pad should be placed on wound and firmly bandaged; these two steps will limit spread of toxin. Bite area should not be cut, squeezed or sucked nor a tourniquet used; it is ineffective and may lead 195

to gangrene in limb. Check signs for respiratory difficulty and weakness. Artificial ventilation should be given until patient can be put on respirator. Breathing paralysis can last from 12 to 20 hours after cobra bites, and up to a week after mamba bites. Full recovery is possible if adequate ventilation can be sustained. If Rinkhals venom is in eye it should be washed immediately using several cups of water. Anti-venom injections may counteract effects of snake bite but severe and fatal allergic reactions are possible. Intravenous administration of snake antivenom is best left to those specially trained for it.

Spiders Button Spider Black with a bright red streak or spot on abdomen. Venom causes muscle pain and spreads to limbs, abdomen and chest; there is profuse sweating, tingling sensation in skin, tremor of limbs, respiratory paralysis and cardiac arrest may follow. The brown button spider has a red hour-glass shape on underside of abdomen; its venom is less toxic but causes serious illness in children.

Sac Spider Straw-colored with long legs and large jet-black head appendages. Its venom causes a boil-like lesion at site of bite with swelling.

Violin Spider Brown with a violin-shaped mark on upper surface of thorax. Bites are painless but later there is intense local reaction with death of tissue, ulceration, severe pain and often scarring.

Six-eyed Crab Spider Reddish-brown and lives in sand. Bites induce swelling and bleeding into the tissues. The site of spider bite should be washed with anti-septic solution and covered with mercurochrome or antiseptic ointment. Antiserum is required for treatment of button spider bites. If respiratory paralysis develops, artificial ventilation must be given; the bites of sac spider, violin spider and crab spider should be treated with antiseptic cream; antibiotic should be given if infection is suspected.

Sprains and Strains Sprain means a joint has been wrenched and ligaments damaged like the ankle, wrist, knee and shoulder; the joint is swollen, tender and movement restricted. Strain means a muscle has been overstretched resulting in rupture of muscle fibers. Rest is best treatment for sprains and strains and crepe bandage will 196

provide support. Swelling should be gone in a few days and full function return within a week.

Stab Wounds Stab wounds to head and neck may penetrate the brain, destroy an eye and/or cause serious bleeding. Chest wounds will be fatal if heart or major blood vessel is punctured. There may be stomach and intestinal perforations, damage to liver, spleen or kidney plus major bleeding due to stab wounds in abdomen. First priority is to staunch bleeding. When vessel is accessible, this can be done by direct pressure. Internal hemorrhage is more difficult. The person should be placed in horizontal position with legs raised above level of trunk. Infection is a common sequel because implements used for stab wounds are not clean. Person should be taken to hospital as soon as possible.

Stroke Stroke refers to sudden bursting or blocking of blood vessel in the brain. This may cause temporary or permanent paralysis of part of the body. If major blood vessel bursts the person will experience severe headache and stiffness of neck; coma and death may follow. A blocked blood vessel may cause disorientation with loss of memory; there may be total loss of power in arm and leg on one side or just clumsiness. Some are left handicapped and others recover completely. An unconscious person requires attention to airway with head elevated while a conscious person should be comforted and kept at rest and given aspirin and arranged to be taken to hospital.

Sunburn When severe sunburn has occurred cold water compresses and soothing lotions bring relief. Codeine can ease pain and discomfort.

Tick-bite Fever Incubation period is one week after being bitten by tick. Symptoms are fever, severe headache and sensitivity to bright light. An ulcer with hard black centre can be found on skin at site of bite; glands may be swollen with rash on trunk and limbs but may be prominent on palms of hands. Complications, like pneumonia and heart inflammation, are possible. Tetracycline or erythromycin will clear up the condition.

Toothache and Tooth Injuries When the jaw is fractured, teeth may become misaligned. Loose fragments should be removed but root sections left as basis for tooth reconstruction later. Losing a tooth filling in the bush can be a painful and distracting experience. 197

Unwilling to join the Nazi war machine in Germany, Henno Martin and Hermann Korn spent a few years in the Namib Desert in the then South West Africa during the 1940s. Their story is told in The Sheltering Desert. Their method of replacing a filling was effective for up to a year. They replaced lost fillings as follows 1. Soak cotton wool in pure alcohol and insert it into the cavity for 20 minutes 2. Heat a wire or piece of metal and sear the inside of the cavity very well 3. Then quickly: o

Dissolve celluloid in acetone and mix into cotton wool

Make a plug the size of the cavity and push it down into the cavity

As the acetone evaporates, the celluloid hardens

Don’t eat for 24 hours

4. Or b): o

Mix two equal parts of epoxy glue (or any suitable glue or resin)

Mix it well into a plug of cotton wool the size of the cavity

Push the plug into the cavity

Don’t eat for 24 hours

5. Or c) o

Mix two equal parts of epoxy putty (if available)

Fill the cavity with mixed epoxy

Don’t eat for 24 hours

Note : Celluloid was widely used in the 1940s. The main applications for celluloid today are guitar picks, pick guards, accordions and keyboards. It is also very popular as book covers and ping pong balls.

Travel Sickness Symptoms are sweating, rapid heartbeat and feeling of distress and vomiting Sucking barley sugar or boiled sweets is found helpful. Preventative drugs are available.

198

Typhoid Incubation period usually 10 days, but may be much longer. Symptoms are headache, fever and abdominal pains; cough and bronchitis are common; rash of red spots sometimes seen on abdomen. Untreated, patient suffers massive bowel hemorrhage and intestinal perforation which is often fatal. Specific antibiotics are very successfully used; person should be taken to hospital.

Unconsciousness Care of unconscious person must be directed towards maintenance of open airway and support of blood circulation; the person should be put in supine position or on one side, chin must be elevated and check mouth is empty. An unconscious person should not be given anything orally. If respiration fails artificial ventilation must be given and if heart beat ceases, external cardiac massage started.

Vertigo Vertigo is caused by dysfunction of balance apparatus which forms part of inner ear due to infection of middle ear or virus infection in blood stream. It may also be a symptom of brain disease followed by a stroke. The person should be in horizontal position; if there is ear infection antibiotic should be given. Persistent vertigo needs specialist investigation.

Vomiting To treat vomiting the underlying condition must be identified and treated. No solid food should be taken for a couple of hours and only sips of water. Rapid transfer to hospital is needed.

Wounds In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost inevitable. Pain, swelling, and redness around the wound, increased temperature, and pus in the wound or on the dressing indicate infection is present. 

Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected wound. Change the compress when it cools, keeping a warm compress on the wound for a total of 30 minutes. Apply the compresses three or four times daily.



Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with an instrument sterilized over an open flame or boiled in water.



Dress and bandage the wound.



Drink a lot of water.

Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection have disappeared. 199

If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely infected: 

Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it.



Check daily for maggots.



Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check daily.



Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead tissue and before they start on healthy tissue. Increased pain and bright red blood in the wound indicate that the maggots have reached healthy tissue.



Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh urine to remove the maggots.



Check the wound every four hours for several days to ensure all maggots have been removed.



Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It should heal normally.

Dangerous Animals Poisonous Animals Snakes The incidence of snakebites in Southern Africa is around 30-80 per 100,000 population per year in areas where snakes abound. Only a very small percentage of these bites are fatal. Snakebite is not a notifiable disease in South Africa and therefore reliable statistics are currently available on the deaths per year due to snakebites. However, it is estimated that it must be in the vicinity of 50 deaths per year. If the mortality figure of snakebites is compared to those of motor vehicle accidents (10 000 per year) it is clear that snakes pose an insignificant health risk in Southern Africa. Snake venom is designed to immobilize or kill prey, commence digestion and protect the snake against harmful ingested organisms. Venom can be injected by biting or spat at the eyes of a perceived threat.

Snake Bites Snake venom can be divided into 4 groups according to its clinical effect on the victim. 200

Cytotoxic – Direct toxic effects on the cells that cause cell lyses (destruction). Neurotoxic – The venom blocks the transfer of the nervous impulse from the nerve tissue to the muscle. Haemotoxic - The venom interferes with the clotting mechanism in the blood with the attendant complications of uncontrolled bleeding. Combination – A syndrome develops with a mixed picture between cytotoxic and neurotoxic symptoms. Allergic reaction - The exposure to any of the venoms above can cause an allergic reaction in a patient.

Cytotoxic venom The presenting symptom of these bites is a painful swelling commencing at the bite site that is warm, often tender and spreads mainly up the limb or tissue. This may lead to swollen lymph glands within 2 hours after the bite. Local complications include blistering, necrosis (dead tissue), localized bleeding, and infection. The swelling may be so severe that it can cause compartment syndrome. This is a syndrome where the venom causes severe swelling of the underlying muscles. The muscles are surrounded by an inelastic sheath and when the muscle swells it compresses the arteries and nerves that run through the muscles within the sheath. The oxygen rich blood that flows through the arteries cannot reach the tissue under the occluded arteries and the tissue will then die due to the oxygen shortage. If this condition is not corrected as a matter of urgency within a period of 4 hours (usually surgery is needed to release the intra compartmental pressure by splitting the inelastic sheath) it may lead to tissue loss or even amputation in severe cases. Compartment syndrome must be seriously suspected when the pain in the tissue below the swelling increases in severity and develops a “pins and needles“ feeling or numbness. An absent pulse below the swelling is usually a late sign and requires urgent surgical intervention. Another frequent regional complication from cytotoxic venom is the development of a deep vein thrombosis (blood clot) in the affected limb. Systemic effects of the venom include hypo tension (low blood pressure), fluid on the lungs and difficulty breathing (edema and ARDS), and a low platelet count, which can lead to bleeding (DIC). Systemic venom action producing edema and heart conduction defects has only been documented in Gaboon adder bites, which are uncommon in South Africa as this snake is only found around St Lucia.

201

The groups of snakes that has cytotoxic venom include the Gaboon adder, Puff adder, Mozambique spitting cobra, Stiletto snake, Night adder and other smaller adders.

Neurotoxic venom The neurotoxic venom interferes with the impulse transfer from nerve endings to skeletal muscles leading to paralysis. The signs and symptoms of neurotoxic envenomation can deteriorate rapidly from a feeling of numbness around the mouth (perioral anesthesia) to sweating, drop in blood pressure, difficulty in swallowing (saliva running from the mouth) to complete respiratory arrest where the patient stops breathing, and eventually without medical intervention, to death. Within a few minutes from a mamba bite there is perioral anesthesia that progress to relentless widespread muscle weakness leading to respiratory failure in 60-70% of cases. Non-spitting cobras (Cape, Snouted and Forest) leads to early swelling around the bite site, a window period where the patient is apparently normal followed by fairly rapid onset of inadequate respiration due to paralysis (about 50% of cases). The group of snakes with neurotoxic venom include Black and Green Mambas and the non Spitting Cobras: Cape, Snouted, Forest.

Haemotoxic venom The venom interferes with the clotting cascade and by lowering the platelets in the blood. The Boomslang and Vine snakes are the two snakes most commonly responsible for bites to snake handlers. Their venoms are exclusively haemotoxic and acts on the clotting cascade preventing blood clotting which can cause internal and external bleeding. Fortunately both snakes are back-fanged snakes and their bites are limited to hands and feet. Boomslang induced clotting dysfunction is of slow onset, with potential death only occurring after several days. This allows time to get the Boom slang specific antivenom from the manufactures (phone: +27 11-882-9940). There is currently no antivenom available for the Vine snake. Although Gaboon and Puff adders has got cytotoxic venom, it can also cause bleeding by reducing the platelets.

Combination venom A syndrome of a mixed picture of cytotoxic and neurotoxic signs and symptoms are found in some snake bites. Among these symptoms are cranial nerves dysfunction (Cranial nerves mainly supplies the organs of the face, throat and 202

neck, heart and intestines), which uncommonly leads to other skeletal muscle weakness and respiratory failure. Venom from a Berg adder bite can cause loss of taste and smell. The group of snakes with combination venom effects includes: Rinkhals, Berg adder, Garter snake, Shield-nosed snake

Allergic reaction Exposure to venom either by skin contact or envenomation through a snakebite can cause an acute allergic reaction to patients that were previously exposed to the venom. The reaction can be compared similarly to an allergic reaction from a bee sting, ranging from a mild reaction to death within minutes after the bite. These reactions are usually limited to snake handlers or persons that was previously bitten by a snake. In the above group of patients that deteriorates rapidly after a bite an allergic reaction must be seriously considered. There is a huge difference in treatment between envenomation by a snakebite and an allergic reaction against the venom. Symptomatic snake bites are usually treated by antivenom where as an allergic reaction is treated with adrenaline.

Snake Bite Management An analysis of 4 rural snakebite series involving 911 patients by Dr Roger Blaylock, one of the foremost authorities in South Africa on the management of snakebites, showed the following. 

16% had no envenomation



77% developed progressive painful swelling



6% progressive weakness



<1% bleeding

Prevention Common sense is the gold standard in preventing snakebites: Wear boots that covers the ankle and loose hanging long pants. Most of the snakebites are on the feet, ankle and lower leg. 

Don’t step over an obstacle if you cannot see what is on the other side.



Don’t put your hand into a hole when you can’t see what is inside.



Don’t handle snakes if you are not a professional snake handler.



Don’t confront a dangerous snake. 203



If you encounter a snake back of as fast as possible while keeping your eye on the snake. However, if you are so close that you are within striking distance and the snake is already engaged to strike, remain motionless until the snake withdraws. Snakes only strike at movement



Prevent nocturnal bites by using a light, wearing footwear and sleeping in a snake proof dwelling (zip up tents).



Be careful of handling “dead“ snakes as some elapids, notably the Rinkhals, may feign death and become miraculously and painfully alive when picked up.

First Aid Getting the patient to medical help is the major priority. General principles to consider:        



Remain calm and react in a logical way. Remember: very few people die from snake bite Keep the patient calm and reassured. Immobilize the patient as far as possible and don’t waste time in delaying his transport to the nearest medical facility. Do not give the patient anything to drink or eat - especially not alcohol. Incision, suction, cryotherapy (freezing of bite site), electrotherapy, topical or ingested medication is of no value. Do not waste time by searching for and trying to kill the snake Pressure immobilization bandaging is not recommended as it may aggravate or precipitate tissue necrosis (death/destruction) or compartment syndrome as the majority of snakebites presents with progressive swelling. An arterial tourniquet is of value in known non spitting cobra and mamba bites and should be reserved for cases with positive identification of one of the above group of snakes. Tourniquet application can cause severe underlying tissue damage if applied wrongly .It is best to leave it to people with the necessary training on tourniquet application. The tourniquet must be released every 30 min and not be kept on for longer than 2 hours. Patients who cannot swallow their saliva must be placed in the recovery position and closely observed for respiratory failure. The saliva can accumulate in the patient’s throat and prevents air entry in the lungs. If left unattended the patient can “drown” in his own saliva. Try to remove as much as possible of the saliva in the victim’s airways by either sucking or finger sweep. With finger sweep, wrap a gauze swab or a piece of absorbable clothing around your index and middle finger, and sweep your finger through the patients mouth and throat to remove as much as possible of the saliva manually When the patient becomes unresponsive or starts having difficulties breathing, immediately start with CPR. 204

   

        

Do not inject antivenom, the doctor should do that. Antivenom is very effective and should not be withheld to a patient with signs and symptoms that necessitate the administration of antivenom. However, the antivenom can cause a potentially severe allergic reaction. The incidence of potentially severe acute allergic reactions depends on the clinical indication for its administration ranging from 8% when given to patients with progressive weakness to 20% for patients with painful progressive swelling. Patients with bleeding from Boom slang bites can have an allergic reaction to the antivenom in up to 70% of cases. Antivenom must preferably be given under medical supervision with adrenaline at the bedside. All snakebite victims should be hospitalized for at least 24 hours. Symptoms and signs of severe local or systemic poisoning occur sooner in children than in adults due to a higher venom concentration. The indications for antivenom administrations occur sooner and more frequently in children than in adults. The same amount of antivenom is given to children and adults. The venom from baby snakes is just as lethal as that of the adult snakes. The severity of the signs and symptoms and rate of deterioration of a victim, depends on the amount of venom injected during the bite and bite site. The closer the bites site to the heart the faster the signs and symptoms will appear. If the venom is injected directly into a vessel, rapid deterioration in the victim’s condition may be expected

Venom in the eyes The Rinkhals and Mozambique spitting cobra are responsible for nearly all the cases of eye envenomation in Southern Africa. The Black spitting cobra and the Western barred spiting cobra can also be responsible for spitting in their victims eyes, although reported cases are uncommon. The Rinkhals and Mozambique spitting cobra can spit accurately over a distance of up to 2 meters. The Rinkhals needs to hood its neck to be able to spit whereas the Mozambique spitting cobra can spit from any position. The eye is very vascular and venom in the eye can be rapidly absorbed. This can cause severe inflammation and painful spasm of the eyelid. If left untreated it may progress to inflammation of the cornea and ulcer formation, which may cause blindness. If correctly treated the effects are usually benign with full recovery expected within a week. General first aid principles 

Wipe the venom from the face 205



Wash the eyes with copious amounts of fluid for at least ten minutes



If water is not available any type of fluid can be used which is not harmful to the eyes like cold drinks, milk, beer etc



Place an eye pad over the eyes if available and transport the victim to the nearest medical facility



It is advisable to let an ophthalmologist examine the eyes



Antivenom, either topical or systemic, is not indicated

Medical management The majority of patients cannot correctly identify the snake even with the help of pictures. Because of this Dr Blaylock divided the snakebite victims into the following 3 groups according to the clinical picture at presentation: 1. Painful Progressive Swelling 2. Progressive Weakness 3. Bleeding The syndromic management of these patients with antivenom simplifies the treatment of snakebites drastically. Antivenom is given in each of these groups according to set criteria based on signs and symptoms. Patients also receive supportive treatment according to the organ systems affected e.g. ventilation support for patients with respiratory failure and platelets and blood clotting components for patients with active bleeding Medical Information courtesy Dr. Kobus Hogo

206

Common Poisonous Snakes Black Mamba A graceful, alert and unpredictable deadly poisonous snake and is active during the day, hunting for food. Hunting is done from a permanent lair to which it will return regularly. If it senses danger it will quickly slither away into dense undergrowth. The Black Mamba is named not for itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin colour, but because the inside of the mouth is black. The head is coffin-shaped. This snake mainly lives in termite mounds, mammal burrows and rock outcrops. It normally attempts to escape when approached, but if cornered will bite readily and often.

Black Spitting Cobra A rare snake; for many years it was thought to be a black variety of Cape Cobra. When threatened it spreads a hood and spits venom in the same way as Mozambique Spitting Cobra but ejects much more venom at a time.

Boomslang A quick, alert snake, able to glide through trees, bushes and overland. If molested, it inflates its neck and body to a considerable size, often twice the normal girth and may strike sideways in rapid, jerky action. Vision is excellent. The male boomslang is green and the female a dull grey colour. Juveniles have emerald-coloured eyes.

207

Cape Cobra An active, quick moving species. Although always ready to retreat if approached, it will often not hesitate to rear up and expand a hood if flight seems impossible. Will bite readily if unduly molested. It climbs and swims with agility. It cannot spit its venom.

Common Night Adder This snake is docile and will move off if given choice. When molested it will react violently, hissing noisily, flattening the neck and striking repeatedly. They are usually found in stone piles, termite nests or mammal burrows. If provoked it will inflate its body with air, coil its body and hiss, striking at same time. It has long venom glands extending backwards into neck region. The V on the back of the neck is characteristic, mimicked by the harmless Egg Eater

Forest Cobra A large snake, very active and alert, climbs well and at home on land and water. When disturbed will quickly disappear into dense thickets; when cornered will spread a narrow hood and bite readily. This snake does not spit is venom.

208

Gaboon Adder This adder is placid by nature but when provoked it raises the forepart of the body slightly from the ground, hisses and strikes in any direction with surprising speed. Remains in one spot for days. When disturbed, will emit a series of long drawn-out hisses while forepart of body lifts off the ground horizontally; even then reluctant to strike.

Green Mamba A tree-living snake, seldom seen on ground except to bask or chase prey. The head is coffin-shaped. A very nervous snake but not-aggressive and reluctant to bite. Will strike if provoked. Bites are uncommon.

Mozambique Spitting Cobra A shy snake that seldom stands its ground. When cornered may spread a narrow hood but will not hold this pose for long. It may not always spread a hood before spitting and may only open its mouth slightly before doing so. In contrast to the Rinkhals which always spreads itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hood before spitting, this snake can spit from any position. The characteristic salmoncolored throat identifies this species.

Puff Adder A slow-moving, bad-tempered and excitable snake that may hiss or puff when disturbed. When annoyed, it strikes vigorously in all directions, but fortunately often gives warning of its intentions by hissing noisily. It relies on its perfect camouflage to escape detection and will rather freeze than move off.

209

Rinkhals A shy snake but will rear up, expand a hood and eject a spray of venom towards its attackers if unable to escape. Disappears quickly when disturbed but when cornered it will lift as much as half its body off the ground with hood spread with the two or three white bars on throat clearly visible. When frightened it will play dead, ready to strike when touched. It always spits its venom from a reared position.

Snouted Cobra Not an aggressive snake but when cornered will assume a intimidating posture. It does not spit itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s venom. Often occupies a permanent home in a termite mound where it will reside for years if not disturbed.

Snouted Night Adder Although docile, it will react violently when molested, hissing noisily, flattening the neck and striking repeatedly. Snout obtuse, prominent and upturned at the end. The V on the back of the neck is characteristic, mimicked by the harmless Egg Eater

210

Twig Snake This snake has keyhole-shaped pupils and good vision, being able to sight prey from a distance. It seldom bites, unless provoked. It moves gracefully and swiftly when disturbed. Though timid, it will inflate its neck to display the bright skin between scales when threatened, followed by lunging strikes while bright tongue flickers in a wavy motion. The Zulus believe that this snake strikes and wounds like a spear because of the speed of the strike.

Western Barred Cobra A shy snake, always trying to escape; if cornered will spread a hood and spit its venom. Snake often found on tarred roads.

Spiders

Sack Spiders Cytotoxic venom A fast moving, free ranging hunter. found in foliage.

Body length 13mm, leg span 35mm

Eight eyes .Straw coloured body with glossy black fangs.

Button Spiders Veurotoxic venom

211

Lives in cobwebs amongst grass and rocks . Eight eyes, black with red dorsal stripe or stripes or simply red dot above spinnerets. No markings on back. Velvet texture. Egg case smooth and 10 mm across.

Body length 14mm, leg span 35mm

Violin Spiders Cytotoxic venom Free ranging hunter, found beneath rocks, in caves or dark corners of houses.

Body length 9mm, leg span 50mm

Six eyes. Small and delicate with long legs, brownish or dark brown with black markings. Violin-shaped marking on carapace Six-eyed Sand Spiders Cytotoxic venom. Lives buried in sand beneath stones, in caves, animal burrows etc. Six very small eyes. A flattened large and robust spider, body covered with sand particles from habitat lodged amongst body setae freshly moulted colour is yellowish or reddish brown.

Body length 15mm, leg span 50mm

212

The highly venomous Button or Black Widow spider

Baboon Spider

The tailless whip scorpion spider looks dangerous but is harmless

Treatment The site of spider bite should be washed with anti-septic solution and covered with mercurochrome or antiseptic ointment. Antiserum is required for treatment of button spider bites. If respiratory paralysis develops, artificial ventilation must be given; the bites of sac spider, violin spider and crab spider should be treated with antiseptic cream; antibiotic should be given if infection is suspected.

Scorpions How to prevent being stung 1. Wear protective footwear - especially at night. 2. Be careful when lifting rocks and logs 3. Watch out when collecting firewood 4. Do not handle scorpions with bare hands 5. When camping try not to sleep directly on the ground 6. Shake out footwear, clothing and bedding to evict nasties 7. Learn how to distinguish a highly venomous scorpion from a harmless ones

Some scorpions can squirt venom into the eyes of attackers from a bout 1m

213

Scorpion Families 1. Scorpionidae A relatively harmless species with large pincers and slender tail. It is mildly toxic and produces stinging pain in a mild local reaction which may persist for 15-20 minutes. No antivenom or treatment is required. 2. Buthidae Potentially lethal envenomations are possible by species of the buthid genera. They have thick tails and slender pinchers. Venom is injected by stinging or squirting venom at the eyes of the perceived threat. Scorpions are common throughout southern Africa. Parabuthus sp. is found throughout the region except on the highveld and eastern seaboard. The venom is a potentially lethal neurotoxin which causes an extremely painful local reaction within one. Use ice packs and tight crepe bandage to immobolise whole limb. Treat with specific antivenom. Do not use morphine and derivatives. Buthotus is restricted to sandy hot and arid areas in the north of the region.

Scorpionidae

Scorpionidae Up to 100mm, Varies from olive to yellow, brown or almost black. Large pincers and slender tail

Buthidae

Uroplectes 20 -50mm Bright green, orange or orange-green with black markings. No stridulatory patches or abdominal keels. Fast moving.

Butotus 30 -70mm Medium-sized yellow scorpions with pincers, thick tails, characteristic black keels on carapace just behind head and three black keels down length of abdomen

Parabuthus 60 -150mm Large yellow, brown or black scorpions with slender pincers, thick tail and stridulatory areas on the first and second tail segments

214

Mildly toxic venom. Produces stinging pain in a mild local reaction which may persist for 15-20 minutes. No antivenom or treatment is necessary

Very painful local reaction which may spread. Effects of venom lasts at least 3 hours. Use ice packs. No antivenom required. Do not use morphine and derivatives

Use ice packs and tight crepe bandage to immobilize whole limb. Treat with specific antivenom. Never use morphine and derivatives for pain.

Many victims of scorpion stings see the scorpion that has stung them and its crushed remains often accompany them to hospital after the victimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vengeance has been had. Unless there are obvious systemic signs, antivenom therapy is contraindicated. An ice-pack should be applied to relieve the pain and retard the onset of systemic signs. Immobilization of the limb involved with tight crepe bandages and splints to impede the spread of venom via the lymphatic system is advised. Under no circumstances should morphine or any of its derivatives be administered to reduce pain as these compounds act synergistically with the venom and greatly increase the chances of death. The specific antivenom should be used to treat patients with systemic signs. Symptoms The severity of envenomation depends on various factors such as the health and age of the victim, the sting site and species, size and degree of agitation of the scorpion. Persons with heart or respiratory problems will be at greater risk. Some or all of the following sings and symptoms may result. 1. Immediate and intense, burning pain at the sting site that lasts about 30 minutes. Mild inflammation may be present, with the sting mark not always visible 2. Signs and symptoms only develop after 30 minutes and sometimes only after 4 to 12 hours, increasing in severity over the following 24 hours. The pain can be local as well as far removed from sting site with abdominal cramps 3. Abnormal sensitivity, including a burning sensation and pins and needles usually in the hands, feet, face and scalp

215

4. Excessive sensitivity of the skin to clothing and bedding with the patient even increased sensitivity to noise 5. Lack of muscle coordination with a stiff legged or drunken walking action. 6. Involuntary movements, tremors and muscle weakness. 7. Increased pulse rate of 100 to 150 bpm for Parabuthus granulatus and below 55 bpm for Parabuthus transvaalicus 8. Raised blood pressure in Parabuthus granulatus. Normal in children but raised in some adults in Parabuthus transvaalicus cases. 9. Difficulty in swallowing especially with Parabuthus transvaalicus. Excessive salivation 10. Difficulty speaking 11. Excessive perspiration in Parabuthus transvaalicus cases 12. Headaches, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea 13. Droopy eyelids 14. Restlessness and anxiety is a prominent feature seen in children with Parabuthus granulatus. Hyperactivity and infants crying for unexplained reason. Restlessness, particularly in children, should be a warning of potentially life-threatening complications 15. Urine retention 16. Respiratory distress is a major complication and can result in death

Treatment Patients with systemic signs and symptoms should be kept under observation for 48 hours before discharge. All other scorpion stings result in painful local signs which can be relieved by means of an icepack applied as soon as possible after envenomation. The severity of scorpion stings are affected by the amount of venom injected which varies from one sting to the next, the size of the specimen, the species involved and the body mass of the patient. Envenomations are characterized by an intense burning pain at the site of the sting after which systemic signs and symptoms develop which may be as follows: barely perceptible oedema and erythema at the sting bite, sweating, drooling, restlessness, confusion, nausea or vomiting, abdominal or chest pains, muscular twitching, numbness, convulsions and respiratory embarrassment. 216

Doâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s: 1. First aid treatment is the application of a cold compress, if the hyperaesthesia will allow and an analgesic (Asprin, Paracetamol) to relieve pain and transport to a hospital 2. Monitor cardiac and respiratory functions and treat as required 3. Patient with systemic symptoms, especially children and the elderly must be hospitalized for 24 to 48 hours 4. Immobilize and clean wound 5. Antivenom must only be administered in the case of severe systemic envenomation 6. Antihistamine and steroids only to be administered in cases of allergic reaction to antivenom. In the event of hypersensitivity to the ingestion or injection of a substance, which must always be anticipated, administer adrenaline 7. Atropine may be administered in cases of confirmed Parabuthus transvaalicus envenomation to control excessive secretions 8. Intravenous administration of 10 ml of 10% calcium gluconate IV over 10 to 20 minutes may provide relief from pain and cramp, but is only effective for 20 to 30 minutes. 9. Administer a tetanus toxoid to prevent infection 10. Envenomation of the eyes must be flushed with water or any bland fluid (milk, urine). In severe cases antivenom can be diluted 1 to 5 or 1 to 10 with water Do not: 1. Do not use traditional remedies such as incisions, suction, tourniquet or the application of ointments. 2. Do not use alcohol as it will only mask any symptoms. 3. Do not administer antivenom if no signs or symptoms of severe envenomation presents itself. 4. Do not administer spider or snake antivenom. 5. Do not administer atropine to reduce salivation in the case of Parabuthus granulatus stings as it may lead to unopposed adrenergic reaction. 6. Do not administer barbiturates, opiates, morphine or morphine derivatives as this could greatly increase convulsions and cause respiratory distress.

217

Antivenom is produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR) in Johannesburg [011] 489 9000.

Other Animals Tics

Hyalota

The rare tick toxicosis is caused by four fairly widespread tick species. The toxicosis is caused by toxins in the saliva of the tick. In humans, it is often evident as a localized paralysis characterized by ataxia and sudden muscle weakness, the severity of which is related to the number of attached ticks and the duration of the attachment. The ticks should therefore be removed as soon as possible. No specific antivenom is available in Southern Africa. Calcium gluconate injections may be useful. Individuals subjected to frequent tick bites may develop hypersensitivity

Bees and Wasps Bees and wasps cause more deaths each year than all the other venomous animals together. Most stings by bees, wasps and ants merely cause a very intense local pain which persists for about 15 minutes. However, some individuals develop hypersensitivity reactions following repeated envenomation. With each subsequent envenomation, the hypersensitivity reactions intensify until a stage is reached when anaphylactic shock type reactions may result. Patients hypersensitive to bee stings should be advised not to wear bright floral patterned clothing out of doors and not to apply nail varnish out of doors as the solvent is the alarm pheromone of bees. Perfume and beverages containing sugar should also be avoided out of doors. If stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and venom sac by scraping with a fingernail or a knife blade. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as squeezing will force more venom into the wound.

Wash the sting site thoroughly with soap and water to lessen the chance of a secondary infection. If you know or suspect that you are allergic to insect stings, always carry an insect sting kit with you. Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by applying— 

Cold compresses.



A cooling paste of mud and ashes. 218

ď&#x201A;ˇ

Crushed cloves of garlic.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

Onion.

Centipedes Poisonous centipedes may be recognized by a flattened body of 21-23 segments, one pair of legs per segment, the last pair of which are elongated. Centipedes have a distinct head with a pair of long antennae. A pair of fang-like projections on the head bear the venom glands. Bites give rise to a very painful local effect which may be accompanied by oedema, erythema and mild necrosis. Pain may be relieved by local injection of lignocaine or by the application of ice-packs. No specific antivenom is available as centipedes are not considered dangerous.

Hairy Caterpillars Some caterpillars have venom-containing hairs covering their bodies. Contact causes a painful reaction. The hairs of some caterpillars break up after penetrating the skin where their venom is dispersed. This makes removal extremely difficult. These hairs induce an inflammatory reaction which eventually enables the natural removal of the hairs.

Blister Beetles Blister beetles do not bite or sting but injury results when skin contact is made with their blood. They can discharge some of their blood, a process termed reflex bleeding. Some blister beetles have to be crushed in order to release their blood which cause painful blisters. The beetles are very small and they often fly into the eyes and cause painful conjunctivitis. The eyes should be irrigated with normal saline or water. The blisters do not need treatment except to prevent secondary infections after they have burst.

Bombardier Beetles These fast ground-dwelling beetles shoot scalding liquid into the eyes of attackers from a distance of about 1 meter. Envenomation of the eyes must be flushed with water or any bland fluid such as milk or urine.

219

Dangerous Animals up Close Elephant Elephant can reach a height of 4m (13ft) and can accelerate to 38km/h (25mph) in seconds, a speed which can be maintained for great distances. Elephants normally avoid confrontations with humans but may attack, especially when: 

there are small calves in the herd



when the animal has been wounded or hunted



when harassed



or venturing too close

Old bulls make mock charges, and charge vehicles with spread ears and loud trumpeting. A mock charge normally ends only meters from the object of irritation. When such an animal is further provoked, a real charge and attack may result. A real charge is often led by the matriarch with ears flat against the body and the trunks called up to the back. Avoid herds of elephant in the veld and never disturb these peace-loving animals. A charging herd of elephant makes for an extremely dangerous situation and they are almost impossible to stop - even with rifle fire. Be alert to the sound of breaking branches, trumpeting, the sound a large bodies rubbing against branches or trees, a sound slightly like the far-off rumble of thunder, fresh elephant tracks and the rank smell of elephant. When elephants are at a safe distance and they are blocking the road or refuse to leave the camp area, a rifle shot or a continuous banging against a vehicle’s door or an axe against a tree trunk will cause the animals to leave the area. In an emergency situation when an elephant is charging, do not run upwind but turn sharply left or right. Because of its poor eyesight, the elephant may continue the charge and run past you. The best advice is to avoid elephants altogether. Never fire a shot at an elephant - it creates great risk not only for you, but for others as well.

Buffalo

220

When a large herd of buffalo for disturbed they normally run away a short distance but return with nose in the air to inspect the impostor. Generally they then run away amid thundering noise followed by swarms of Buffalo flies. Lone bulls that have been hunted or wounded and animals that are unnecessarily disturbed can be very dangerous. A buffalo may charge without provocation and can seldom be stopped with a single rifle shot, even by an experienced hunter. Avoid buffalo as far as possible. On warm days buffalo hide in reeds or thickets close to river beds where old bulls spend most of their time in shallow water. The warning cry of the oxpecker and the breaking of branches may be the first and only signs of a charging buffalo. It is also a fact that a wounded Buffalo will turn back on his own tracks and wait for the hunter.

Rhino Of the two kinds of southern African rhino the black rhino is the most dangerous. A black rhino that suddenly becomes aware of humans in its area may become confused and attack any moving thing. Look out for tracks and middens (a large heap of dung ) marking boundaries. With perfect timing and a good sidestep, (or rather a sideways dive) a rhino charge may be avoided. A bunch of thorns in your backside may be preferable to an irate rhinoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s horn in that specific location. The white rhino is less aggressive but should also be considered dangerous. The story that rhino are self-appointed fire wardens and kills fires at night may not be entirely untrue but seems to be an extremely rare occurrence.

Lion Lions normally run away from humans. However when they are suddenly surprised or when getting too close being followed or harassed, or when mating or eating lions are approached on foot, a dangerous situation may result.

221

Old, thin, or sick animals are often more aggressive and Lions pose a greater threat at night. Lions in the veld must be avoided by taking note of fresh tracks, vultures, sounds of growling and the sounds of hyenas in the area. Thickets close to watering areas must be especially watched. Study the behaviour of animals like zebra and wildebeest at a wateringholes. If they are hesitant to go and drink and stare at a specific thicket there may be a predator in hiding. Giraffe are especially good indicators of predators when they stare at thickets for extended periods. At night the startled warning cry of a plover or a dikkop may indicate an approaching lion. When a lion charges, trying to run away his signing your own death warrant then it knows that you know you are food. Standing still and trying to stare it down is better but it requires lot of courage - and sometimes a change of shorts and may not work. Wounding a charging lion is especially dangerous. When you meet the king of the bush tried to remain as calm as possible. The golden rule is not to attack or flee first. Let circumstances - with your sights on the lion and a prayer - guide your actions. Often such a problem situation will resolve itself when the lion, after a mock charge or two, decides to disappear in the bush.

Leopard With the exception of the legendary maneating leopards, there are very few recorded a cases of leopards attacking humans. In exceptional cases old and sick Leopards may find humans easy prey, while harassed, wounded or trapped animals maybe he extremely dangerous. Leopards normally avoid humans and only their tracks - often very close to the camp fire - indicate that they are present.

Cheetah Of the larger predators the cheetah is the least dangerous.

Hyena The brown hyena, also sometimes known as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;wolfâ&#x20AC;? in Africa, is very shy and will normally not 222

harm anyone. The spotted hyena also avoids direct human contact. Hungry hyenas will sniff around the camp at night and a few cases are for recorded where people who slept outside were bitten or maimed by hyenas. Hyenas may sometimes damage the tires of vehicles or damage vehicles or equipment. A suitable barrier like branches of thorn trees are usually sufficient to keep hyenas at bay.

Hippo Hippos cause the largest number of human fatalities in Africa. In most of the cases the animals were disturbed or harassed. Although the animal may appear very docile when floating in a waterhole, it is nevertheless a dangerous animal and may attack unexpectedly. They often hide in thickets next to water holes and fatalities occur when a human is between a hippo and the water. Hippo can move very fast in water and on dry ground and can easily overtake a running man. Serious accidents can occur when traveling at night next to rivers and surprised hippo try to escape to the water and collide with vehicles. Hippos should be considered as potentially dangerous and a safe distance should be maintained.

Crocodiles Anyone walking through water or swimming in a waterhole where crocodiles are present is exposing himself to the risk of being caught by a crocodile. Crocodiles or are extremely fast and powerful and seem to not differentiate between prey species. Even a powerful Buffalo is not strong enough to avoid being pulled into the water. Crocodiles have valves that close the throat

223

and nostrils when submerged. When caught by a crocodile use knife or sharp object to a gouge the eyes or try to cut and perforate the valves that close the nostrils or the throat. The best defense is to stay away from deep water

Snakes If you encounter a snake, back of as fast as possible while keeping your eye on the snake. However, if you are so close that you are within striking distance and the snake is already engaged to strike, remain motionless until the snake withdraws. Snakes only strike at movement

Emergency Numbers South African Institute for Medical Research [011] 489 9000 South African Vaccine Producers [011] 882 9940 / [011] 882 9993 Poison Information Centers 

Cape Town [021] 6895227



Bloemfontein [051] 405 303

Hospitals 

Johannesburg: [011] 403 7080



Pretoria [012] 664 1100



Nelspruit [013] 759 0500

224

Bush vehicle Repairs

225

Your vehicle is your lifeline out of the bush. Learn to identify problems and do emergency repairs - better safe than sorry, with the nearest mechanic a hundred kilometers and 15 hours away.

Inspections Use this checklist to make sure your vehicle will be able to take on the bushveld. Hubs





Seals





Vacuum lines,





Shift motors





Vent lines





Front u-joints





Clean terminals





Check for damaged or corroded wiring





Drums





Rotors





Pads/shoes





Fluid





Hoses





Leaks





Brake lights





Belts & Hoses

Look for cracks or bulges





Body/Frame

Look for cracks





Cooling/Heating system

No leaks





Fluid level





Fins cleaned and repaired





Hoses





Thermostat





Radiator cap





Case and shifter





Axles & Differentials

Battery

Brakes

Driveline/Transmission

226

Engine

Exhaust Fluids

Lights

Nuts & Bolts Steering

No leaks





Fluids





Universal & CV joints





Skid plates





Carburetor





Fuel injectors





Spark plugs





Wires





PCV valve





Pumps





Distributor & wires





Belts





No leaks and cracks





Muffler





Tailpipes





Oil





Transmission





Brake





Radiator coolant





Gear oils





Wipers





Power steering





Headlights





Brake lights





Auxiliary lights





Tighten axle u-bolts





Tighten lug bolts and nuts





Check alignment





Fluid level





Belts and hoses





Pump





Reservoir





227

Suspension

Tires

Wipers





Springs





Shocks





Alignment





Wheel bearings





Steering linkage





Tighten lug nuts





Check air pressure





Check tread wear (including your 2 spares)





Check for cuts or missing chunks





Check for wear





fluid level





Support Items Toolbox necessities As a bare minimum, you’ll want to have the following items on hand: Air pressure gauge Allen wrenches Baling wire Crescent wrench (small & medium) Electrical tape & spare connectors Grease (or a grease gun) Hammer Nuts & bolts (assorted sizes) Open end/box wrenches (3/8” to ¾”) Pliers - standard, needle-nose and channel lock Pocket/utility knife Screwdrivers - standard and phillips 228

Socket set (3/8”) with extensions Standard & phillips screwdrivers Super glue/epoxy Vise grips Wire & wire cutters/crimpers

Supplies and Safety Gear The following safety and recovery equipment will get you out of most predicaments. And, if you’re riding with a group, then these items could come from any one of the vehicles in the group; it’s not necessary for each and every vehicle to carry it all. Air pump/compressor Axe Blanket Bow saw Bucket Bungee cords Can opener Candles Cell phone and/or CB (Note: steel whip CB antennas can be dangerous out on the trail) Cigarette lighter Coat hanger - don’t underestimate the number of uses for the common household coat hanger! Compass/GPS unit (remove GPS below) Duct tape Extra gas - enough for a round trip & in an appropriate container Extra motor oil (1-2 quarts) Fire extinguisher First aid kit (packed in a tight weatherproof container) Flares Flashlight/lantern Flashlight/lantern/spotlight - with extra batteries 229

Food (dehydrated foods take little space and last a long time) GPS unit/compass Hydraulic/hi-lift jack ID card, with emergency phone number contact info & medication/allergy information Jumper cables Leather gloves Maps Mirror Multi-fit hose and a roll of rubber-weld tape - to repair a blown radiator hose Paper towels Pen & paper (a china marker writes on anything!) Radiator Stop Leak / Tank sealant putty Rags Repair manual for your particular vehicle Rope Rubber gloves Shovel Spare clothes Spare key kept on your person T-style lug wrench Tarp (6â&#x20AC;&#x2122;x6â&#x20AC;&#x2122;) - to keep yourself out of the mud and to catch small parts Tire pressure gauge & tire pump; fix a flat Trash bags - heavy duty Water - enough for you (to drink, clean up) and your vehicle (battery, radiator, washer fluid) Waterless hand cleaner Waterproof matches WD-40/lubricant Whistle Winch kit - including straps, snatch block (pulley), shackle Zip ties/cable ties 230

Spare Parts Remember, you don’t need to bring every spare part you own on the trail - just bring the parts that are most likely to break: Air filter Belts Fuel filter Fuses Hoses and several sizes of hose clamps Oil Oil filter Some brake line Spark plugs Tire valve stems with cores Tires (don’t forget to take 2 good full-size spares!) U-joints Vacuum line (a small piece) Wiper blades Try to think of all the components that would leave you stranded if they failed. THOSE are the ones to take along spares for. A good rule of thumb is to take along anything that has already broken twice, because the odds are, it could happen again

Useful Vehicle Parts Many parts of a vehicle are useful in a survival situation.

Fire making and Cooking 

The fuel can be used to light fires and make a stove. Fill a tin with dry sand or soil and fill to the brim with fuel.



Use hubcaps for containers Do not drink the water from the radiator – it contains antifreeze which is highly poisonous

231



Use the battery and two lengths of wire to make a short to start a fire



Metal air filters make good stove bases. Air filters can also be used to filter water

Signaling 

Mirrors can be used for signaling



The battery and lights can be used for nighttime signaling

Clothing and Shelter 

Seat cover can be modified to be jackets or other clothing items



Tires can be cut up to make durable sandals.



Carpets and seats can be used to create shelter tunnels



Carpets can be used for mattresses



Sun shields are useful space blankets

Weapons 

Inner tube is used to make a catapult



Use the vehicle body to make tips for arrows and spears



Screwdrivers are handy weapons

Other 

Inner tubes can be used as flotation devices



Grease and oil can be used to light fires, an anti-insect repellant and lubrication



Roof racks and bonnets can be used as sledges



Electrical wire is useful for tying and fastening objects



Floor mats can rolled up and as splints



Fan belts make very strong slings

232

Vehicle Nostart Chart

233

Repairing Radiator Damage Damaged Core To improvise repairs a damaged car radiator core, remove the radiator and locate the broken section. Use a pair of pliers to crimp or fold the sections of the core surrounding the damage. If you have quick-set epoxy or muffler cement, allow the damaged section to dry thoroughly and then patch the leaks. If you slow the leak enough without disabling radiator, you can get to a service station. Split or Broken Hose If a coolant hose is simply split, repair it with whatever heat resistant, waterproof materials you have in your car. Duct tape will work if wrapped tight enough (electrical tape will not work). We’ve even seen a radiator hose patched with a glue stick, a potato chip bag, and a necktie. A broken hose is more troublesome. You need to find something that can bridge the break and that fits snugly inside the hose. A film can is usually about the right size. Insert the improvised tube, push the hose back together, and fasten it together as firmly as you can. Cracked Housing A crack or break in the car radiator’s housing is a major problem and often there is no way to repair it. The emergency fix is pretty much the same as for a split hose: try to wrap anything waterproof around it that can withstand some pressure. This may involve bending or displacing some cores, but that’s okay as long as they do not split. Empty Tank Count yourself lucky. A slow leak means that you just have to keep topping up the fluid level until you can get the car radiator repaired. Water will work if you don’t have any coolant.

Overheating Investigate in this order: 1. A broken or loose fan belt. A fan belt is an essential item in your spares kit. 2. Low coolant level. Do not remove the radiator cap when the engine is hot. The sudden drop in pressure will cause the engine temperature to 234

rise sharply and this could damage the engine. Scalding steam could also injure you. 3. Low engine oil levels. Oil cools as well as lubricates the engine. Make sure that the oil level is always at the high mark on the dip stick. 4. Grass and grass seeds clogging the air gaps in the radiator. If the vehicle has an air conditioner radiator sandwiched to the engine radiator - grass seeds and insects often clog the air gap between them. You can not see this unless one radiator is removed. The clogging often causes gradual engine water temperature increase over a long distance. Check your vehicle before your safari. Fit a grill net to prevent this build up. 5. Badly set ignition timing. You will need a timing light to set the ignition timing accurately. The timing specifications are given in the vehicleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s handbook or workshop repair manual. 6. Malfunctioning or non-functioning thermostat. Overheating will result if the thermostat is not opening to its full extent. Remove the thermostat and see if the overheating continues. If this does not help, replace the thermostat - it is not good practice to run an engine without a thermostat and one should be fitted as soon as a replacement is available. 7. Auxiliary equipment badly positioned in front of the radiator. Overheating caused by a winch which restricts air flow may only become apparent when the vehicle is worked hard. 8. Antifreeze increases the cylinder wall temperatures. If your vehicle does not live in a climate where freezing is a threat, remove all antifreeze and replace with a solution of pure corrosion inhibitor.

Clutch Failure Low Clutch fluid level If the vehicle clutch has a hydraulic clutch, check the fluid level.

Leaking hydraulic fluid If fluid is leaking from the master or slave cylinders, the piston rubbers are leaking. Bleeding the system may provide a temporary solution.

When dismantling and reassembling the components make absolutely sure that everything stays clean.

235

Alternatives to hydraulic fluid If hydraulic fluid is not available, almost any liquid will do. In an emergency, use water and add dishwashing liquid but avoid bubbles. Mineral oils should not be used because will soon attack rot the rubber plungers in the slave and master cylinders.

Cable operated clutch Check the tension of the cable. Adjust so as that there is a very small amount of free play (±2mm).

Driving without a clutch If it is impossible to get the clutch working, the vehicle can still be driven without a clutch. Warm up the engine so that it will start easily and then switch it off. Engage first gear, and restart the engine. The vehicle will jump forward and when the engine fires you will be on your way. Gear changes are made as follows: 

Accelerating the vehicle until the engine revolutions are a little higher than for a normal gear change. This is done to allow for the additional time it will take for each gear selection.



Decelerate slightly until the engine is neither pushing the vehicle nor holding it back.



Move the gear stick should move to the neutral position. It should do so very easily.



Decelerate slightly until the engine revolutions are matching the wheel rotation as they would when engaged in the gear you are about to select.



If changing to a lower gear the engine needs to be accelerated



Change to the new gear slowly and gently without using force. If the engine is revolving at the correct rate, the gear will engage easily..

Flat Battery If: 

the battery has enough power left to be able to fire the engine but not turn the starter motor and it is not possible to push-start the vehicle



or you are unable to push start the vehicle due to heavy sand 236

The vehicle can be restarted by jacking up a wheel and rotating it with a length of rope. Do the following: 

Switch off all electrical equipment to conserve all of the power the battery has left.



The vehicle can not be held by the handbrake so the wheels must be chocked. In sandy conditions dig shallow holes behind the back wheels and push the vehicle into them. On hard ground, use a heavy log or large stones



Jack up one of the rear wheels



Wind a long length of rope tightly around the tire of the jacked up wheel so that when it is pulled, the hub will rotate forward. Make a knot in the end of the rope and wind the rope as tightly as possible around the tire crossing over at the knot a few times



Select high-range third gear. If the gear selected is too low, the vehicle may fall off the jack



Switch on the ignition and choke the engine if necessary.



Depress the clutch and get someone to pull the rope. Release the clutch when the wheel reaches maximum speed and the engine should turn over and start



If your battery is totally dead and an alternator - as opposed to a generator -is fitted, this will not work. Most modern vehicles are fitted with alternators. This method will not work with automatic transmission.

Welding in the Bush When experiencing a breakdown in the bush, the ability to weld can often make the difference between interrupting your journey or fixing the problem.

237

Connect 2 x 12-volt batteries and in series to give a total of 24 volts - one battery is just not enough. A pair of jump cables works well to connect the batteries and as ground and welding cables. Connect a cable to the negative terminal of battery to the carbon stick or welding rod

and

Connect a jump cable to the positive terminal of battery and ground it as close as you can to the welding site. This technique is a cross between gas and arc welding. Start the arc by scratching and moving the rod away. The heat is controlled by the arc length. Notes:  Commercial welding rods are best but the carbon stick from a torch battery will also work. Wrap aluminum foil around the back to keep the lead from melting. Round and taper the rod slightly  Use welding goggles if you have them, otherwise use at least 3 pairs of sunglasses to filter the potent UV rays  If welding is done on the vehicle, disconnect the alternator to prevent possible damage  Any available metal - coat hangers, winch cable or fencing will do as a filler material  Let someone watch out for the ends of the jumper cables as they could melt  A field welding kit will include thick jumper cables with soldered connections, Polaroid sunglasses and two dark photographic slides or a welding glass, a coat hanger and welding rods

238

Drowned Engine Recovery If water has been sucked into the cylinder heads, evacuate the engine is as follows: 

Remove the air filter



Remove water from the intake pipe and turbocharger. Make sure there are no sand deposits



Chock the wheels and jack up one rear wheel. Engage two-wheel drive (or unlock the centre diff)



Engage high-range fourth gear



Release the handbrake



Remove the glow plugs on a diesel engine or spark plugs from a petrol engine



Turn the engine by rotating the rear wheel. Rotating the wheel turns the engine and prevents the starter being stressed. It also prevents the possibility of a bent con rod because resistance can be felt and nothing is forced.



Once all the water is out of the cylinders, clean, dry and replace the glow/spark plugs.



Replace all seals



Only replace the air filter if it is dry. A a wet paper element could be sucked into the engine causing a serious problem



Start up the engine. All the water in the exhaust pipe will be forcibly expelled.

Emergency Road Kit Buy or put together a first aid kit (see Safari Medical Aid Kit). Everything needed to change a tire:  

a two-ton floor jack (or equivalent) a fully aired spare tire 239

 

a lug nut wrench or tire iron a pipe for leverage.

Most vehicles come with these items, but you should verify that you have everything listed, or it’ll be next to impossible to change a tire. Flashlights and extra batteries. A folding camping (Army) shovel. Heavy duty jumper cables (eight to twelve feet long). Fuses. There are several types, so make sure you have the right ones. Tools: pliers, flat and Phillips-head screwdrivers, and an adjustable wrench. Wool blanket. Purchase all the necessary fluids for your car:     

motor oil brake fluid power-steering fluid (if applicable) automatic transmission fluid (if applicable) a gallon of water

Also include a funnel, and keep a few rags handy in case of spills. Fire extinguisher. Road flares. Gloves, wool socks, and a pair of boots. Electrical and duct tape. WD-40 or Q20 Knife. Bright cloth or emergency road sign to display in your window in case of trouble. A puncture repair kit A pump. manual or heavy duty electrical 2 spare tires

240

Biomes and Vegetation Types

241

References Bill Branch A Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of South Africa Struik Publishers 1988 ISBN 1-86872040-2

Bill Branch Everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guide to Snakes, Other Reptiles and Amphibians of Southern Africa Struik Publishers 2000 ISBN 1-86872-4883

R. M. Isemonger Books of Africa (Pty Ltd) 1982 ISBN 0 9 49956 21

John Visser and David S. Chapman Struik Publishers 1978 ISBN 0 86977 218

Johan Marais Snakes and Snake Bite in Southern Africa Struik Publishers 1999 ISBN 1-86872281-3

J. D. Skinner and R. H. N. Smithers University of Pretoria 1990 ISBN 0 86979 793 X ISBN 0 86979 801 4 ISBN 0 86979 802 2

242

C.T. and M.D. Stuart Struik Publishers 1998 ISBN 0 86977 279 1 ISBN 0 86977 278 3

Louis Liebenberg David Philip Publishers 1992 ISBN 0 86486 230 X

Richard D. Estes Wake Forest Studium 1991 ISBN 1 875091 10 6

R. H. N. Smithers Southern Book Publishers 1996 ISBN 1 86812 659 5

Clive Walker Struik Publishers 1981-1996 ISBN 1 86825 896 3

John Wiseman HarperCollins Publishers 1986 ISBN 0-00-4723023

P M Leary Struik Publishers 1994 ISBN 1-86825457-7

Dr E Young Eddie Young Publishers 1983 ISBN 0 620 07048 X

243

Garth Hatting New Holland Publishers 2001 ISBN 1 85974 712 4

US Army Survival Manual: FM 21-76 US Department of Defense

244

The African Safari Series Larger Southern African Mammals The Ultimate Field Guide for larger Southern African Mammals is a scientific breakthrough in electronic field guides and species identification.  



  

Quickly and easily Incredible detail on almost 100 Southern African Mammals Experience the haunting sounds of Africa! Hear the jackal in the distance, the magnificent roar of the lion and the nerve-racking trumpeting of the elephant Get detailed mammal information with full-color photographs, Afrikaans, Zulu, Shona and Tswana species names. Visible Male/Female Differences, Habitat and Distribution, Diet, Reproduction, Behavior and habits, Sounds, Front and hind species tracks, Dung photographs and Field Sign Safari Club International and Rowland Ward minimums and maximums Quick reference conservation and activity icons Utilises unique, world-first identification keys: o Silhouette Identification Key o Track Identification Key o Dung Identification Key o Find mammal species endemic to certain area with the amazing Distribution Matrix o Sophisticated search function o Biomes and Vegetation types o Easy to use - based on web conventions

245

A gold mine of information with 5,000 hyperlinks for cross-reference Available for Windows 95 and better with Internet Explorer 4 and up. Also for PDAs. Snakes of Southern Africa. The Ultimate Field Guide for common Southern African Snakes is a scientific breakthrough in species identification.    

    

Comprehensive species information - quickly and easily Incredible detail on almost 60 Southern African Snakes Advanced Snake Bite Treatment Detailed species information: habitat and distribution, diet, enemies, reproduction, behavior and habitsFull-color photographs Afrikaans, Zulu, Shona and Tswana species names Quick reference conservation and activity icons Venom and dentition Scale Counts Advanced First Aid information for Snake Bite treatment Utilises unique, world-first identification keys o Colour Key o Head Shape Key o Markings Key o Venom Key o Fang Key o Biomes and Vegetation types o Find snake species endemic to certain area with the amazing Distribution Matrix o Advanced search function o Easy to use - based on web conventions

The Ultimate Field Guide for Snakes is a herpetological gold mine of information with 3,000 hyperlinks for cross-reference Available for Windows 95 and better with Internet Explorer 4 and up. Also for PDAs.

www.ultimatefieldguide.com

246

Dedication

Dedicated to Him Who made it all and Who did not have to rely on evolution to help Him ... and to my family: my beautiful girlfriend Thea, the best part of my life and to whom I have been married for 25 years my daughters Simone, Michelle and my new son Graeme my mother, Joanna Groenewald, who helped with data entry

247