TRAIN of
THOUGHT A compilation of
Wikipedia finds.
CONTENTS World War II.........................................60 The Holocaust........................................62 Jehovah’s Witnesses..............................64 God........................................................66 The Ice Age...........................................67I slamic Calligraphy................................68 Medieval India.......................................70 Famine...................................................72 Climate Change......................................74 Minnesota Culture.................................76
WORLD WAR II World War II, or the Second
including the Holocaust and the
World War (often abbreviated
only use of nuclear weapons in
as WWII or WW2), was a
warfare, it resulted in 50 million
global war that was underway
to over 70 million fatalities.
by 1939 and ended in 1945. It
These deaths make World War II
involved a vast majority of the
by far the deadliest conflict in all
world’s nations—including all
of human history.[1]
of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100 million people serving in military units. In a state of “total war”, the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians,
1. Sommerville, Donald (2008). The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: An Authoritative Account of the Deadliest Conflict in Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encounters and Landmark Engagements. Lorenz Books. p. 5. ISBN 0-7548-1898-5. image: http://kasamaproject.org/category/ history/world-war-ii/ http://collective-history.tumblr.com/ post/32350012721/tbf-avengersflying-in-formation-over-norfolk
The Empire of Japan aimed to
Ribbentrop Pact, Germany and
in history, which tied down the
dominate East Asia and was
the Soviet Union partitioned
major part of the Axis’ military
already at war with the Republic
and annexed territories between
forces for the rest of the war. In
of China in 1937,[2] but the
themselves of their European
December 1941, Japan joined
world war is generally said to
neighbors, including Poland. The
the Axis, attacked the United
have begun on 1 September
United Kingdom, with itsempire
States and European territories
1939 with the invasion of Poland
and Commonwealth, remained
in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly
by Germany and subsequent
the only major Allied force
conquered much of the West
declarations of war on Germany
continuing the fight against the
Pacific.
by France and Britain. From
Axis, with battles taking place in
late 1939 to early 1941, in a
North Africa as well as the long-
series of campaigns and treaties,
running Battle of the Atlantic. In
Germany formed the Axis
June 1941, the European Axis
alliance with Italy, conquering
launched an invasion of the
or subduing much of continental
Soviet Union, giving a start to
Europe. Following the Molotov–
the largest land theatre of war
The Axis advance was stopped
by Soviet and Polish troops
in 1942, after Japan lost a series
and the subsequent German
of naval battles and European
unconditional surrender on 8
Axis troops were defeated in
May 1945. During 1944 and 1945
North Africaand, decisively, at
the United States defeated the
Stalingrad. In 1943, with a series
Japanese Navy and captured key
of German defeats in Eastern
West Pacific islands, dropping
Europe, the Allied invasion of
atomic bombs on the country
Italy, and American victories
as the invasion of the Japanese
in the Pacific, the Axis lost
archipelago became imminent.
the initiative and undertook
The Soviet Union then followed
strategic retreat on all fronts. In
through on negotiations by
1944, the Western Allies invaded
declaring war on Japan and
France, while the Soviet Union
invading Manchuria. The
regained all of its territorial
Empire of Japan surrendered on
losses and invaded Germany
15 August 1945, ending the war
and its allies. The war in Europe
in Asia and cementing the total
ended with the capture of Berlin
victory of the Allies over the Axis.
2. Barrett, David P; Shyu, Lawrence N (2001). China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Volume 1 of Studies in modern Chinese history. New York: Peter Lang. p. 6. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8. image: http://familypedia.wikia.com/wiki/ File:GermanTroopsInRussia1941.jpg
THE HOLOCAUST The Holocaust (from the Greek
The term holocaust comes from
λόκαυστος holókaustos: hólos,
the Greek word holókauston, an
“whole” and kaustós, “burnt”)
animal sacrifice offered to a god
[2] also known as the Shoah,
in which the whole (olos) animal
HaShoah, “catastrophe”;
is completely burnt (kaustos).[8]
Churben or Hurban, from the
For hundreds of years, the word
Hebrew for “destruction”), was the mass murder or genocide
“holocaust” was used in English to denote great massacres, but
of approximately six million
since the 1960s, the term has
European Jews during World
come to be used by scholars
War II, a programme of
and popular writers to refer
systematic state-sponsored
to the genocide of Jews. The
murder by Nazi Germany, led
mini-series Holocaust is credited
by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi
with introducing the term into
Party, throughout German-
common parlance after 1978.
occupied territory.[3][4] Of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe before the Holocaust, approximately two-thirds were killed.[5] Over one million Jewish children were killed in the Holocaust, as were approximately two million Jewish women and three million Jewish men.[6][7]
2.Dawidowicz 1975, p. xxxvii. 3.Snyder 2010, pp. 412. 4.Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45 “The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II”. 5.Further examples of this usage can be found in: Bauer 2002, Cesarani 2004, Dawidowicz 1981, Evans 2002, Gilbert 1986, Hilberg 1996, Longerich 2012, Phayer 2000, Zuccotti 1999. 6.Dawidowicz 1975, p. 403 7.Hedgepeth & Saidel 2010, p. 16. “If two million Jewish women were murdered during the Holocaust, sexual molestation was the lot of a few but violence was the lot of the many”. 8. Fitzgerald 2011, p. 4. “More than a million Jewish children were killed”. image: http://inkandvoice.com/2012/03/ joseph-kony-genocide/
The biblical word Shoah (also
example Soviet prisoners of
transported by freight train to
spelled Sho’ah and Shoa),
war, Polish and Soviet civilians,
extermination camps where, if
meaning “calamity”, became the
and homosexuals.[10][11]
they survived the journey, most
standard Hebrew term for the
Recent estimates based on
were systematically killed in
Holocaust as early as the 1940s,
figures obtained since the fall
gas chambers. Every arm of
especially in Europe and Israel.
of the Soviet Union indicates
Germany’s bureaucracy was
[18] Shoah is preferred by many
some ten to 11 million civilians
involved in the logistics that
Jews for a number of reasons,
and prisoners of war were
led to the genocides, turning
including the theologically
intentionally murdered by the
the Third Reich into what one
offensive nature of the word
Nazi regime.[12][13]
“holocaust”, which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom.
The persecution and genocide
[19]
were carried out in stages. Various laws to remove the
The Nazis used a euphemistic
Holocaust scholar has called “a genocidal state”.[14]
Jews from civil society, most
phrase, the “Final Solution to
prominently the Nuremberg
the Jewish Question” (German:
Laws, were enacted in Germany
Endlösung der Judenfrage), and
years before the outbreak of
the phrase “Final Solution” has
World War II. Concentration
been widely used as a term for
camps were established in
the genocide of the Jews. Nazis
which inmates were subjected
used the phrase “lebensunwertes
to slave labor until they died of
Leben” (Life unworthy of life) in
exhaustion or disease. Where
an attempt to justify the killings.
Germany conquered new
Some scholars argue that the
specialized units called
territory in eastern Europe, mass murder of the Romani and
Einsatzgruppen murdered
people with disabilities should
Jews and political opponents in
be included in the definition,[8]
mass shootings. The occupiers
[9]and some use the common
required Jews and Romani to
noun “holocaust” to describe
be confined in overcrowded
other Nazi mass murders, for
ghettos before being
18. “The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion”. Yad Vashem. Retrieved 24 September 2012. 19. For an opposing view on the allegedly offensive nature of the meaning of the word holocaust, see Peterie 2000. image: http://mundabor.wordpress. com/2012/11/04/the-personallyopposed-and-the-holocaust/
JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES 3. “Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site: Our History and Organization: Membership”. Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses. “While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work [of Jehovah’s Witnesses].”
Jehovah’s Witnesses is a
of the Bible and they prefer
millenialist restorationist
to use their own translation,
Christian denomination with
the New World Translation
non-trinitarian beliefs distinct
of the Holy Scriptures. They
from mainstream Christianity.
believe that the destruction of
The organization reports
the present world system at
worldwide membership of over
Armageddon is imminent, and
7.65 million adherents involved
that the establishment of God’s
4.“Guided by God’s Spirit”. Awake!: 32. June 2008. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
in evangelism,[3] convention
kingdom on earth is the only
attendance of over 12 million,
solution for all problems faced
and annual Memorial attendance
by humankind.
5.“Focus on the Goodness of Jehovah’s Organization”. The Watchtower: 20. July 15, 2006. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
of over 19.3 million.[4]. They are
images: http://www.bible-study-lessons.com/ Jehovahs-Witness.html http://heritagedoyle.zenfolio.com/ p152696542/
directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a group of elders in Brooklyn, New York, that establishes all doctrines.[5] Jehovah’s Witnesses’ beliefs are based on their interpretations
The group emerged from the
returned as an invisible spirit
disfellowshipping, their term for
Bible Student movement—
being in 1874 inaugurating the
formal expulsion and shunning.
founded in the late 1870s by
“harvest of the Gospel age”, and
[21] Baptized individuals who
Charles Taze Russell with the
that 1914 would mark the end
formally leave are considered disassociated and are also
formation of Zion’s Watch Tower
of a 2520th period called “the
Tract Society—with significant
Gentile Times”, at which time
shunned. Disfellowshipped
organizational and doctrinal
world society would be replaced
and disassociated individuals
changes under the leadership of
by the full establishment of
may eventually be reinstated if
Joseph Franklin Rutherford. The
God’s kingdom on earth.
deemed repentant.
name Jehovah’s witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10–12,[18] was
Jehovah’s Witnesses are best
The religion’s position regarding
adopted in 1931 to distinguish
known for their door-to-door
conscientious objection to
themselves from other Bible
preaching, distributing literature
military service and refusal to
Student groups and symbolize a
such as The Watchtower and
salute national flags has brought
break with the legacy of Russell’s
Awake!, and refusing military
it into conflict with some
traditions.
service and blood transfusions.
governments. Consequently,
They consider use of the name
Jehovah’s Witnesses have been
In 1870, Charles Taze
Jehovah vital for proper worship.
persecuted and their activities
Russell and others formed
They reject Trinitarianism,
are banned or restricted in
an independent group in
inherent immortality of the
some countries. Persistent
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to
soul, and hellfire, which they
legal challenges by Jehovah’s
study the Bible.[22] During
consider to be unscriptural
Witnesses have influenced
the course of his ministry
doctrines. They do not observe
legislation related to civil rights
Russell disputed many beliefs
Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or
in several countries.
of mainstream Christianity
other holidays and customs they
including immortality of the
consider to have pagan origins
soul, hellfire, predestination, the
incompatible with Christianity.
fleshly return of Jesus Christ,
Adherents commonly refer to
the Trinity, and the burning up
their body of beliefs as “the
of the world. In 1876 Russell
truth” and consider themselves
met Nelson H. Barbour; later
to be “in the truth”. Jehovah’s
that year they jointly produced
Witnesses consider secular
the book Three Worlds, which
society to be morally corrupt and
combined restitutionist views
under the influence of Satan, and
with end time prophecy. The
limit their social interaction with
book taught that God’s dealings
non-Witnesses.
with mankind were divided dispensationally, each ending
Congregational
with a “harvest”, that Christ had
disciplinary actions include
18.Isaiah 43:10–12 22. Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. pp. 6. ISBN 094559406. image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_ Society_%28world_headquarters%29. jpg
GOD God usually refers to the single
Germanic paganism, the word
the personal nature of God, with
deity in monotheism or the
became amasculine syntactic
early references to his name as
monist deity in pantheism.
form.
[1] God is often conceived of
Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.
as the supernatural creator
In the English language, the
and overseer of humans and
capitalized form of God
the universe. Theologians
continues to represent a
being incorporeal (immaterial),
have ascribed a variety of
distinction between monotheistic
a personal being, the source of
attributes to the many different
“God” and “gods” in polytheism
God has also been conceived as
all moral obligation, and the
conceptions of God. The most
The English word “God” and its
“greatest conceivable existent”.
common among these include
counterparts in other languages
omniscience (infinite knowledge),
are normally used for any and
to varying degrees by the early
omnipotence (unlimited
all conceptions and, in spite of
Jewish, Christian and Muslim
These attributes were supported
power), omnipresence (present
significant differences between
theologian philosophers. Many
everywhere), omnibenevolence
religions, the term remains an
notable medieval philosophers
(perfect goodness), divine
English translation common
and modern philosophers have
simplicity, and eternal and
to all. The same holds for
developed arguments for and
necessary existence.
Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God
against the existence of God.
is also given a proper name, The earliest written form of the
the tetragrammaton (written
Germanic word God (always,
YHWH), in origin the name of
in this usage, capitalized[7])
an Edomite or Midianite deity,
comes from the 6th century
Yahweh. In many translations of
Christian Codex Argenteus. The
the Bible, when the word “LORD”
English word itself is derived
is in all capitals, it signifies
from the Proto-Germanic *.
that the word represents the
Most linguists[who?] agree that
tetragrammaton. Allah is the
the reconstructed Proto-Indo-
Arabic term with no plural
European form based on the root *, which meant either “to call” or “to invoke” The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—
orgender used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning “The God” (with a capital G), while is the term used
applying to both genders—but
for a deity or a god in general.
during the process of the
God may also be given a proper
Christianization of the Germanic
name in monotheistic currents
peoples from their indigenous
of Hinduism which emphasize
1. Swinburne, R.G. “God” in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995. 7.“’God’ in Merriam-Webster (online)” . Merriam-Webster, Inc.. Retrieved 2012-07-19. image: http://www.fanpop.com/clubs/godthe-creator/images/11243529/title/ god-adam-fanart
THE ICE AGE
evidence for ice ages: geological,
into lower latitudes, and
chemical, and paleontological.
organisms that prefer warmer
Geological evidence for ice
conditions become extinct or are
ages comes in various forms,
squeezed into lower latitudes.
including rock scouring and
This evidence is also difficult to
scratching, glacial moraines,
interpret because it requires (1)
drumlins, valley cutting, and
sequences of sediments covering
the deposition of till or tillites
a long period of time, over a
and glacial erratics. Successive
wide range of latitudes and
glaciations tend to distort and
which are easily correlated; (2)
erase the geological evidence,
ancient organisms which survive
making it difficult to interpret.
for several million years without
Furthermore, this evidence
change and whose temperature
was difficult to date exactly;
preferences are easily diagnosed;
early theories assumed that the
and (3) the finding of the
glacials were short compared
relevant fossils.
to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores
Despite the difficulties, analysis
revealed the true situation:
of ice core and ocean sediment
glacials are long, interglacials
cores[citation needed] has
short.
shown periods of glacials and
It took some time for the
million years. These also confirm
interglacials over the past few
An ice age, or more precisely,
current theory to be worked
the linkage between ice ages and
a glacial age, is a period of
out. The chemical evidence
continental crust phenomena
long-term reduction in the
mainly consists of variations
such as glacial moraines,
temperature of the Earth’s
in the ratios of isotopes in
drumlins, and glacial erratics.
surface and atmosphere,
fossils present in sediments
Hence the continental crust
resulting in the presence or
and sedimentary rocks and
phenomena are accepted as good
expansion of continental ice
ocean sediment cores. For the
evidence of earlier ice ages when
sheets, polar ice sheets and
most recent glacial periods ice
they are found in layers created
alpine glaciers. Within a long-
cores provide climate proxies
much earlier than the time range
term ice age, individual pulses
from their ice, and atmospheric
for which ice cores and ocean
of cold climate are termed
samples from included
sediment cores are available.
“glacial periods” (or alternatively
bubbles of air. Because water
“glacials” or “glaciations” or
containing heavier isotopes has
colloquially as “ice age”), and
a higher heat of evaporation,
intermittent warm periods
its proportion decreases with
are called “interglacials”.
colder conditions.[29] This
Glaciologically, ice age implies
allows a temperature record to
the presence of extensive ice
be constructed. However, this
sheets in the northern and
evidence can be confounded by
southern hemispheres.[1] By this
other factors recorded by isotope
definition, we are still in the ice
ratios.
age that began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene
The paleontological evidence
epoch, because the Greenland
consists of changes in the
and Antarctic ice sheets still
geographical distribution of
exist.[2]
fossils. During a glacial period
There are three main types of
cold-adapted organisms spread
1Imbrie, J.; Imbrie, K.P (1979). Ice ages: solving the mystery . Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-089490-015-0. image: http://www.motherjones.com/ blue-marble/2009/11/ice-age-frozeeurope-months
ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY Islamic calligraphy, also known
form of artistic expression in
1.a b Bloom (1999), pg. 218[citation
as Arabic calligraphy, is the
Islamic cultures, especially in
needed] 2. Bernard Lewis and Butnzie Ellis Churchill, Islam : the Religion and the People, ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8
artistic practice handwriting, or
religious contexts.[3] The work
calligraphy, and by extension,
of calligraphers was collected
of bookmaking,[1] in the lands
and appreciated.
sharing a common Islamic
3.Bloom (1999), pg. 222
cultural heritage. This art form
Calligraphy has arguably
is based on the Arabic script,
become the most venerated
which for a long time was
form of Islamic art because the
used by all Muslims in their
Arabic script was the means of
respective languages. They used
transmission of the Qur’an. The
it to represent God because
holy book of Islam, the Qur’an,
they denied representing God
has played an important role in
with images.[2] Calligraphy is
the development and evolution
especially revered among Islamic
of the Arabic language, and by
arts since it was the primary
extension, calligraphy in the
means for the preservation
Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and
of the Qur’an. Suspicion of
complete passages from the
figurative art as idolatrous led
Qur’an are still active sources for
to calligraphy and abstract
Islamic calligraphy.
depictions becoming a major
images: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:IlkhanidQuran.JPG http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
-Islamic Mosque calligraphy is calligraphy that can be found in and out of a mosque, typically in combination with Arabesque motifs. Arabesque is a form of Islamic art known for its repetitive geometric forms creating beautiful decorations. These geometric shapes often include Arabic calligraphy written on walls and ceilings inside and outside of mosques. - The subject of these writings can be derived from different sources in Islam. It can be derived from the written words of the Qur’an or from the oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of Islamic Prophet Muhammad.
Geometric scripts (basically Kufic
It remains in use for decorative
styles) Kufic is a cleaner, more
purposes:
geometric style, with a very visible rhythm and a stress on horizontal
- In “Flowering Kufi”, slender
lines. Vowels are sometimes
geometric lettering is associated
noted as red dots; consonants are
with stylized vegetal elements.
distinguished with small dashes to make the texts more readable.
- n “Geometric Kufi”, the letters
A number of Qur’ans written in
are arranged in complex, two-
this style have been found in the
dimensional geometric patterns,
Mosque at Kairouan, in Tunisia.
for example filling a square. This
Kufic writing also appears on
aims at decoration rather than
ancient coins.
readability.
The Maghribi script and its Andalusi variant are less rigid versions of Kufic, with more curves. For writing of Qur’ans and other documents, Kufic was eventually replaced by the cursive scripts.
MEDIEVAL INDIA The Indian early medieval age,
control lands much beyond his
600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by
core region. During this time,
regional kingdoms and cultural
pastoral peoples whose land had
diversity.[47] When Harsha of
been cleared to make way for the
Kannauj, who ruled much of the
growing agricultural economy
Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606
were accommodated within
to 647 CE, attempted to expand
caste society, as were new non-
southwards, he was defeated by
traditional ruling classes. The
the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan
caste system consequently began
When his successor attempted
to show regional differences.[49]
to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal. When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[48] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently
47. b Stein 1998, p. 132. 48. a b c Stein 1998, pp. 119–120. 49. a b Stein 1998, pp. 121–122. image: http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/ deccan/hoysala/3746.htm
In the 6th and 7th centuries, the
Hindu texts into their languages.
first devotional hymns were
[52]
created in the Tamil language.
culture in the north.[56][57] The sultanate’s raiding and weakening of the regional
[50] They were imitated all
After the 10th century, Muslim
kingdoms of South India paved
over India and led to both the
Central Asian nomadic clans,
the way for the indigenous
resurgence of Hinduism and
using swift-horse cavalry and
Vijayanagara Empire.[58]
the development of all modern
raising vast armies united
Embracing a strong Shaivite
languages of the subcontinent.
by ethnicity and religion,
tradition and building upon
[50] Indian royalty, big and
repeatedly overran South Asia’s
the military technology of the
small, and the temples they
north-western plains, leading
sultanate, the empire came
patronized, drew citizens in great
eventually to the establishment
to control much of peninsular
numbers to the capital cities,
of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate
India,[59] and was to influence
which became economic hubs as
in 1206.[53] The sultanate was
South Indian society for long
well.[51]
to control much of North India,
afterwards.
and to make many forays into Temple towns of various sizes
South India. Although at first
51. a b Stein 1998, p. 123.
began to appear everywhere
disruptive for the Indian elites,
as India underwent another
the sultanate largely left its vast
52. a b Stein 1998, p. 124
urbanization.[51] By the 8th and
non-Muslim subject population
53. a b Stein 1998, pp. 127–128.
9th centuries, the effects were
to its own laws and customs.
54. Ludden 2002, p. 68.
felt in South-East Asia, as South
[54][55]
Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands
By repeatedly repulsing Mongol
that became part of modern-
raiders in the 13th century, the
day Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
sultanate saved India from the
Vietnam, Malaysia, and Java.
devastation visited on West and
[52] Indian merchants, scholars,
Central Asia, setting the scene
and sometimes armies were
for centuries of migration of
involved in this transmission;
fleeing soldiers, learned men,
South-East Asians took the
mystics, traders, artists, and
initiative as well, with many
artisans from that region into
sojourning in Indian seminaries
the subcontinent, thereby
and translating Buddhist and
creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic
55. Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47. 56. Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6. 57. Ludden 2002, p. 67. 58. Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–51. 59. a b Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53. 60. Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 12. image: http://qed.princeton.edu/index.php/ User:Student/North-West_Regions_ of_Medieval_India_-_Major_Routes_ from_10th_to_15th_Century
FAMINE A famine is a widespread
large numbers of people.[16]
in three people in the affected
scarcity of food,[1] caused by
Ravallion – Unusually high
area. The deaths were greatly
several factors including crop
mortality with unusually severe
exacerbated by the fact that the
failure, population unbalance,
threat to food intake of some
East India Company raised land
or government policies. This
segments of a population.[17]
taxes by 10% at the height of the
phenomenon is usually
Cuny – A set of conditions that
famine, in April 1770.
accompanied or followed by
occurs when large numbers of
regional malnutrition, starvation,
people in a region cannot obtain
epidemic, and increased
sufficient food, resulting in
mortality. Nearly every continent
widespread, acute malnutrition.
in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout
Food shortages in a population
history. Many countries continue
are caused either by a lack of
to have extreme cases of famine.
food or by difficulties in food
Definitions of famines are based
distribution; it may be worsened
on three different categories –
by natural climate fluctuations
these include food supply-based,
and by extreme political
food consumption-based and
conditions related to oppressive
mortality-based definitions.
government or warfare. One
Some definitions of famines
of the proportionally largest
are: Blix – Widespread food
historical famines was the
shortage leading to significant
Bengal Famine of 1770 in the
rise in regional death rates.[14]
lower Gangetic plain of East
Brown and Eckholm – Sudden,
India Company ruled North
sharp reduction in food supply
East India. It began in 1770 due
resulting in widespread hunger.
to severe extractive practices
[15]
of the East India Company. An
Scrimshaw – Sudden collapse
estimated ten million people
in level of food consumption of
died in the famine, roughly one
1. Scarcity and Poor Relief in Eighteenth-Century Ireland: The Subsistence Crisis of 1782-4, http:// www.jstor.org/discover/10.230 7/30008004?uid=3738032&uid =2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&s id=21100863504381, 20th June 2012 14. Blix & Svensk näringsforskning 1971. 15. Brown & Eckholm 1974. image: snapjudge.wordpress. com/2008/11/18/india-60-nehruindira-congress/cattle-skeletonslitter-vultures-picked-bones-faminedrought-mysore-banglaore-karnataka/
The conventional explanation
proposed is called the “failure
until 1981 for the cause
of exchange entitlements” or
of famines was the Food
FEE.[22] A person may own
availability decline (FAD)
various commodities that can be
hypothesis. The assumption
exchanged in a market economy
was that the central cause of all
for the other commodities he
famines was a decline in food
or she needs. The exchange can
availability.[21] However, FAD
happen via trading or production
could not explain why only a
or through a combination of
certain section of the population
the two. These entitlements
such as the agricultural laborer
are called trade-based or
was affected by famines while
production-based entitlements.
others were insulated from
Per this proposed view, famines
famines.[22]Based on the
are precipitated due to a break
studies of some recent famines,
down in the ability of the person
the decisive role of FAD has
to exchange his entitlements.
been questioned and it has
[22] An example of famines
been suggested that the causal
due to FEE is the inability of an
mechanism for precipitating
agricultural laborer to exchange
starvation includes many
his primary entitlement,
variables other than just decline
i.e., labor for rice when his
of food availability. According to
employment became erratic or
this view, famines are a result of
was completely eliminated.[22]
entitlements, the theory being
21. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2010. 22. a b c d Chaudhari 1984, p. 135. 23.Ravallion 1996, p. 1. 24. “The Great Leap Backward” . The New York Times. 1997-02-16. Retrieved 2011-10-22. 25. “Poor studies will always be with us” , The Telegraph
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a significant
(i.e., more or fewer extreme
natural world; these latter effects
and lasting change in the
weather events). Climate change
are currently causing global
statistical distribution of weather
is caused by factors that include
warming, and “climate change�
patterns over periods ranging
oceanic processes (such as
is often used to describe human-
from decades to millions of
oceanic circulation), variations
specific impacts.
years. It may be a change in
in solar radiation received
average weather conditions, or
by Earth, plate tectonics and
in the distribution of weather
volcanic eruptions, and human-
around the average conditions
induced alterations of the
The most general definition
variations in the Earth’s
Scientists actively work to
of climate change is a change
orbit, mountain-building and
understand past and future
in the statistical properties
continental drift and changes in
climate by using observations
of the climate system when
greenhouse gas concentrations.
and theoretical models. Borehole
considered over long periods
There are a variety of climate
temperature profiles, ice cores,
of time, regardless of cause.
change feedbacks that can
floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable
[1] Accordingly, fluctuations
either amplify or diminish the
over periods shorter than a few
initial forcing. Some parts of
isotope and other sediment
decades, such as El Niño, do not
the climate system, such as the
analyses, and sea level records
represent climate change.
oceans and ice caps, respond
serve to provide a climate
The term sometimes is used
slowly in reaction to climate
record that spans the geologic
to refer specifically to climate
forcings, while others respond
past. More recent data are
change caused by human activity,
more quickly.
as opposed to changes in climate
provided by the instrumental record. Physically based general
that may have resulted as part
Forcing mechanisms can be
circulation models are often
of Earth’s natural processes.
either “internal” or “external”.
used in theoretical approaches
[2] In this sense, especially in
Internal forcing mechanisms
to match past climate data, make
the context of environmental
are natural processes within
future projections, and link
policy, the term climate change
the climate system itself (e.g.,
causes and effects in climate
has become synonymous with
the thermohaline circulation).
change.
anthropogenic global warming.
External forcing mechanisms
Within scientific journals, global
can be either natural (e.g.,
warming refers to surface
changes in solar output) or
temperature increases while
anthropogenic (e.g., increased
climate change includes global
emissions of greenhouse gases).
warming and everything else
Whether the initial forcing
that increasing greenhouse gas
mechanism is internal or
levels will affect.[3]
external, the response of the climate system might be fast (e.g.,
On the broadest scale, the rate
a sudden cooling due to airborne
at which energy is received from
volcanic ash reflecting sunlight),
the sun and the rate at which it
slow (e.g. thermal expansion
is lost to space determine the
of warming ocean water), or a
equilibrium temperature and
combination (e.g., sudden loss
climate of Earth. This energy
of albedo in the arctic ocean as
is distributed around the globe
sea ice melts, followed by more
by winds, ocean currents, and
gradual thermal expansion of the
other mechanisms to affect the
water). Therefore, the climate
climates of different regions.
system can respond abruptly,
Factors that can shape climate
but the full response to forcing
are called climate forcing or
mechanisms might not be fully
“forcing mechanisms”. These
developed for centuries or even
include processes such as variations in solar radiation,
longer.
1. “Glossary – Climate Change”. Education Center – Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center.; Glossary, in IPCC TAR WG1 2001. 2. “The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”. 21 March 1994. “Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” 3.“What’s in a Name? Global Warming vs. Climate Change”. NASA. Retrieved 23 July 2011. images: www.zastavki.com/ pictures/1024x768/2010/Animals_Beasts_ Polar_bear_on_ice_floe_024666_.jpg alykhan.com/WAC2011/cc.html
MINNESOTA CULTURE The culture of Minnesota is
agriculture, food preparation,
have less of an accent.
a subculture of the United
4-H displays, music, the midway,
The Minnesota State Fair,
States with influences from
and corporate merchandising. It
advertised as The Great
Scandinavian Americans, Irish
is known for its displays of seed
Minnesota Get-Together, is an
Americans, German Americans,
art, butter sculptures of dairy
icon of state culture. In a state
Native Americans, Polish
princesses, and the birthing
of 5.3 million people, there were
Americans and numerous
barn. On a smaller scale, these
almost 1.8 million visitors to
other immigrant groups.
attractions are also offered at the
the fair in 2009, breaking the
American culture, in general, is
state’s many county fairs.
previous record set in 2001. The
largely based on Western and
fair covers the variety of life
British culture. Stereotypical
Other large annual festivals
in Minnesota, including fine
Minnesotan traits include
include the Saint Paul Winter
art, science, agriculture, food
manners known as “Minnesota
Carnival, the Minneapolis
preparation, 4H displays, music,
nice” with a strong sense of
Aquatennial, the Mill City Music
the midway, and corporate
Festival, and Detroit Lakes’
merchandising. It is known for
“community” exclusive to those with “shared beliefs”. Pot lucks,
10,000 Lakes Festival and WE
its displays of seed art, butter
usually with a variety of hot
Fest, and Moon dance Jam &
sculptures of dairy princesses,
dish casseroles, are popular at
Jammin’ Country, both held
community functions, especially
every summer in Walker.
church activities. Movies such
the birthing barn, and the “fattest pig” competition. One can also find dozens of varieties of
as Fargo, Drop Dead Gorgeous,
The people of Minnesota have
food on a stick, such as Pronto
the radio show A Prairie Home
very stereotypical Scandinavian
Pups, cheese curds, and deep
Companion and the book How to
accent. With an almost sarcastic
fried candy bars. On a smaller
Talk Minnesotan lampoon (and
over-pronunciation of vowels,
scale, many of these attractions
celebrate) Minnesotan culture,
and by dragging out the letter “r”
are offered at numerous county
speech and mannerisms.
when at the end of a word. This
fairs.
stereotype has been popular The Minnesota State Fair,
in Hollywood movies. It is
advertised as The Great
easily noticed when outside the
Minnesota Get-Together, is an
boundaries of the state. The
icon of state culture. In a state
only difference in language in
of 5.1 million people, there were
this state is the slight definition
nearly 1.7 million visitors to the
of vowels. Overall most
fair in 2006.[1] The fair covers
Minnesotans speak similarly,
the variety of life in Minnesota,
although those living in or
including fine art, science,
around the Twin Cities tend to
1. “Minnesota State Fair”. Minnesota State Fair. Retrieved 2006-11-22. image: flickr.com/photos/ dschwen/5488823250/