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PRAKSHEP An Exclusive Publication from Students of Department of Aeronautical Engineering, FGIET
THE FIRST SUMMER SEMESTER EDITION 2013
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PRAKSHEP Prakshep – An Exclusive Magazine from Department of Aeronautical Engineering, F G Institute of Engineering & Technology Year 1, Volume 1 Published on May 30, 2013
Chief Editors Yajur Kumar Megha Marwari Technical Editors Pankaj Mishra Pankaj K Kushwaha Creative Editor Pushpa Kumari Cover, Finance, Layout and Typesetting Yajur Kumar
Prakshep by Students of Department of Aeronautical Engineering, FGIET is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
PUBLISHED BY Students of Department of Aeronautical Engineering F G Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rae Bareli 229001 ISBN 978-1-304-01467-2
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A FEW WORDS FROM THE EDITOR When the idea of regular magazine was suggested, I was in slight doubt if we will be able to make it in time and in an interesting flavor. From telling the students to accepting the entries, everything was a new experience, its being our first time handling a departmental publication and my first time handling the overall editing. Really big things starts from small things, I learnt it from somewhere, I exactly don’t know, but the words worth immense motivation in themselves. In my years at the college, I faced several good things, several bad things too. Most of the times I planned starting a new project, but everything went beyond my controls, either because of financial inabilities or because I spent too much time in planning only. But, now when I look behind, I found there were many reasons, the most important was working alone. A really big thing also needs a really good team. So, in this project, which is however, a small step, we started with a good team, who have, frankly speaking, no previous experience in this field of publication. But, what we see later, that after a lot of clashes in views and opinions, we finally made it. The magazine is intended at demonstrating the thoughts, creativity and imagination capabilities of the students of the aeronautical engineering in the college. We have included different sections for the purpose like concepts-which presents some of the hard concepts of the aeronautical engineering, technology-a section on the latest technologies being exploited in the aerospace field, curiosity-for those who likes to think out of the box, and writing sections-a cluster of thoughts that came out on paper by the students, poetry and other imaginative work. In addition, several other sections of importance are added. However, I and we tried our best to present the things, it may be possible that we may otherwise lack on a particular point. I personally ensures the reader that there is a good team of coming fresher, sophomores and seniors, and they will present the publication in a more interesting and curious ways in the future editions. We warmly welcome any further ideas or suggestions to improve the quality of the publication, for which you may write to Prakshep Magazine Publication Board, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, F G Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rae Bareli.
Yajur Kumar (Chief Editor)
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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the contributors for contributing such smart articles and essays in a very limited period of time, which made the publication of the magazine possible on time. The supporting editors deserves a special place, Pankaj Kumar Kushwaha, Pushpa Kumari and Pankaj Mishra, who helped us editing the technical and creative work. Joint chief editor Megha Marwari, who also worked hard late night like me, deciding the flavor of the magazine and also collaging the photo stuff, deserves a warm thanks. Finally, thanks to our teacher, assist. Prof. N. Srivastava – the man behind the idea of the magazine. From my desk at 5 PM of May 1, 2013 YAJUR KUMAR CHIEF EDITOR
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CONTENTS
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Message from the Institute’s Director Message from the Head of the Department A Few Words from the Editor Acknowledgements
Concepts 1. The Rocket Principle
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Yajur Kumar
2. Surface Control Devices
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Megha Marwari
3. Thrust Vectoring
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Nripendra K Singh
4. The Pulse Jet
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Praveen K Singh
5. The Smart Materials
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Akshay Gupta
6. Gliding Flight
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Pankaj Mishra
7. Use of Blunt Shape in Reentry Vehicles 33 Akshay Malik
8. Aircraft Propellers Shraddha Singh
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9. Aircraft Flaps
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Archana
10. NACA Airfoil Series 41 Pushpa Kumari
11. Do You Know?
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Prof. R K Singh
12. All about Mach number 47 Dimple Varshney
Technology 1. How a Satellite Works?
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Yajur Kumar
2. What are Solar Flares? 56 P K Kushwaha
3. Electronic Warfare 58 Prof. A K Pandey
4. Green Aviation
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P K Kushwaha
5. Introducing Stealth Technology 63 Mayank Verma
6. The Traffic Collision Avoidance System 68 Mayank Verma
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Curiosity 1. How to Find Them?
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Yajur Kumar
2. Are We Alone in this Universe? 77 Shiv Om
3. Boeing 787 Dreamliner 79 Megha Marwari
4. Flying High
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Apoorva Mehrotra & Devanand Yadav
Poet among us 1. मंजिलें
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Akshay Malik
2. उड़ान का इतिहास 89 Archana
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Writer among us 1. Set Your Goals
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Pushpa Kumari
2. Who is Responsible?
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Namrata Saini
3. Brief History of Aviation
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Pankaj Mishra
4. The Paper Airplane
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Rateesh & Abhishek
AVIATION CAREERS
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Megha Marwari | Yajur Kumar
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Concepts
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Chief Editor Yajur Kumar ҉ Final Year Thanks to my three person smart team who assist me in the designing of the whole magazine layout and also, thanks to the random photographers whose contribution makes this magazine colorful. Connect with Yajur at fb.com/YajurK ___________________________________________________________________________ From flying a small rocket firework to launching a giant cargo rocket to Mars, the
principles of how rockets work
are exactly the same. Understanding and applying these principles means mission success. Isaac Newton, born the year Galileo died, advanced Galileo’s discoveries and those of others by proposing three basic laws of motion. These laws are the foundation of all rocket science. This law simply points out that an object at rest, such as a rocket on a launch pad, needs the exertion of an unbalanced force to cause it to lift off. The amount of the thrust produced by the rocket engines has to be greater than the force of gravity holding it down. As long as the thrust of the engines continues, the rocket accelerates. When the rocket runs out of propellant, the forces become unbalanced again. This time, gravity takes over and causes the rocket to fall back to Earth. Following its “landing,” the rocket is at rest again, and the forces are in balance.
1. Delta IV Medium Rocket
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PRAKSHEP There is one very interesting part of this law that has enormous implications for spaceflight. When a rocket reaches space, atmospheric drag is greatly reduced or eliminated. Within the atmosphere, drag is an important unbalancing force. That force is virtually absent in space. A rocket traveling away from Earth at a speed greater than 11.186 kilometers per second will eventually escape Earth’s gravity. It will slow down, but Earth’s gravity will never slow it down enough to cause it to fall back to Earth. Ultimately, the rocket (actually its payload) will travel to the stars. No additional rocket thrust will be needed. Its inertia will cause it to continue to travel outward. Four spacecraft are actually doing that as you read this. Pioneers 10 and 11 and Voyagers 1 and 2 are on journeys to the stars!
2. The Pioneer 10 I am now going to explain the rocket principle, in the easiest possible way. People are usually very familiar with Newton’s third law. It is the principle of action and reaction. In the case of rockets, the action is the force
produced by the expulsion of gas, smoke, and flames from the nozzle end of a rocket engine. The reaction force propels the rocket in the opposite direction. When a rocket lifts off, the combustion products from the burning propellants accelerate rapidly out of the engine. The rocket, on the other hand, slowly accelerates skyward. It would appear that something is wrong here if the action and reaction are supposed to be equal. They are equal, but the mass of the gas, smoke, and flames being propelled by the engine is much less than the mass of the rocket being propelled in the opposite direction. Even though the force is equal on both, the effects are different. Newton’s first law, the law of inertia, explains why. The law states that it takes a force to change the motion of an object. The greater the mass, the greater the force required to move it. The second law relates force, acceleration, and mass. The law is often written force equals mass times acceleration. The force or thrust produced by a rocket engine is directly proportional to the mass of the gas and particles produced by burning rocket propellant times the acceleration of those combustion products out the back of the engine. This law only applies to what is actually traveling out of the engine at the moment and not the mass of the rocket propellant contained in the rocket that will be consumed later. The implication of this law for rocketry is that the more propellant you consume at any moment and the greater the acceleration of the combustion products out of the nozzle, the greater the thrust.
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3. An engineering concept shows NASA's new heavy lift and crew launch vehicles.
So far, so good. But, launching rockets into space is more complicated than Newton’s laws of motion imply. Designing rockets that can actually lift off Earth and reach orbital velocities or interplanetary space is an extremely complicated process. Newton’s laws are the beginning, but many other things come into play. For example, air pressure plays an important role while the rocket is still in the atmosphere. The internal pressure produced by burning rocket propellants inside the rocket engine combustion chamber has to be greater than the outside pressure to escape through the engine nozzle. In a sense, the outside air is like a cork in the engine. It takes some of the pressure generated inside the engine just to exceed the ambient outside pressure. Consequently, the velocity of combustion products passing through the opening or throat of the nozzle is reduced. The good news is that as the rocket climbs into space, the ambient pressure becomes less and less as the atmosphere thins and the engine thrust increases. Another important factor is the changing mass of the rocket. As the rocket is gaining thrust as it accelerates upward due to outside pressure changes, it is also getting a boost
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PRAKSHEP due to its changing mass. Every bit of rocket propellant burned has mass. As the combustion products are ejected by the engine, the total mass of the vehicle lessens. As it does its inertia, or resistance to change in motion, becomes less. As a result, upward acceleration of the rocket increases. In real rocket science, many other things also come into play. Even with a low acceleration, the rocket will gain speed over time because acceleration accumulates. And, not all rocket propellants are alike. Some produce much greater thrust than others because of their burning rate and mass. It would seem obvious that rocket scientists would always choose
the more energetic propellants. Not so. Each choice a rocket scientist makes comes with a cost. Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are very energetic when burned, but they both have to be kept chilled to very low temperatures. Furthermore, their mass is low, and very big tanks are needed to contain enough propellant to do the job. Rocket science is a subject of immense interest for aerospace engineers, and if you are comfortable with getting crazy about launching these real fireworks, there is a rocket waiting to be launched at some place by you in the very near future.
A Boeing 737 weighing 150,000 pounds (68,000 kg) must deflect about 88,000 pounds (40,000 kg) of air - over a million cubic feet (31,500 cubic meters) down by 55 feet (16.75 m) each second while in flight.
FACT FILE.
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Joint Chief Editor Megha Marwari ҉ Final Year I find it very enjoyable to edit the different sections of the magazine. Although it was a new task for us, but thanks to our chief editor who helped organizing things in a delightful way. Connect with Megha at fb.com/Megha.Marwari
Many of you like to solve crossword puzzles. So here’s the one, all you have to do is to find the seven surface control and high lift devices. So let’s begin!
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Now let us have a brief knowledge about these control surface devices and high lift devices.
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Ailerons are the control surfaces which are used to roll the aircraft. Two aileron control surfaces on each wing at the trailing edge and move opposite to each other generating the rolling moment and rolling the aircraft. A roll is positive if the aircraft rolls towards the pilot’s right. A roll is negative or negative roll when the aircraft rolls towards the pilots left.
Elevators are the control surfaces which are used for the pitching moment of the aircraft and are present at the trailing edge of the Horizontal tail or horizontal stabilizer. An elevator role is to pitch the aircraft i.e. (nose up or nose down). When elevator moves up, the aircraft nose moves up. When elevator moves down, the aircraft nose moves down. Rudders are control surfaces which are used to yaw the aircraft. The rudders are present on the vertical tail or stabilizer and used to the yaw the aircraft in the required direction.
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PRAKSHEP Flaps are hinged surfaces mounted on the trailing edges of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft to reduce the speed at which an aircraft can be safely flown and to increase the angle of descent for landing. They shorten takeoff and landing distances. Flaps do this by lowering the stall speed and increasing the drag. Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a larger control surface on a boat or aircraft, used to control the trim of the controls, i.e. to counteract hydro- or aerodynamic forces and stabilize the boat or aircraft in a particular desired attitude without the need for the operator to constantly apply a control force. This is done by adjusting the angle of the tab relative to the larger surface. Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed-wing aircraft which, when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher coefficient of lift is produced as a result of angle of attack and speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can fly at slower speeds, or take off and land in shorter distances. They are usually used while landing or performing maneuvers which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually retracted in normal flight to minimize drag. A leading edge slot is a fixed aerodynamic feature of the wing of some aircraft to reduce the stall speed and promote good low-speed handling qualities. A leading edge slot is a span-wise gap in each wing, allowing air to flow from below the wing to its upper surface. In this manner they allow flight at higher angles of attack and thus reduce the stall speed.
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PRAKSHEP ANSWERS
T E D U V W N K C E W
R E L I O P S F O M A
A X N E X D F S X Z X
I O T W V M B R L K J
G F S F L A P S T A B
Z C E Q T T T V G I T
S Y B M V J F O W M F
L T I R U D D E R O L
O R W Z O K U L J Q C
T S A D J I P Y R T Z
S P Y N O R E L I A R
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Nripendra K Singh ҉ Final Year I worked on my final year project of wind tunnel designing with my team and find out that there is much more to explore in the field of aviation than we know presently. Thanks to the editors for presenting this magazine at its best. Connect with Nripendra at fb.com/Nripendra.Kr.Singh You all must have heard it or learned this fact in your course, that an aircraft is controlled and maneuvered by using the Surface controls viz. Elevators, Ailerons, Rudder and Trim tabs. But these controls are good until we are talking about general purpose aircrafts (such as Passenger/Cargo aircrafts), while taking Fighter aircrafts and STOL/VSTOL aircrafts under considerations we need some other tool to control and maneuver the aircraft more faster and tightly during crucial turns. This tool comes in the form of the power produced by the Engine i.e. “Thrust of the Aircraft”.
Thus, Thrust vectoring can be defined as the technique of using the Engine thrust for the purpose of controlling the Attitude of the aircraft
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PRAKSHEP For applying the above mentioned technique we use the movable nozzles. These nozzles are specially designed, so as to deviate the thrust producing hot mass of gas from the turbine outlet in the desired line of action. Nowadays, almost all of the fighter aircrafts are using the technique of Thrust vectoring. This is because when you are operating under the situation of war or in
the battlefield(during Dog-Fights) then very high maneuverability is required, as under
these conditions the pilot having less control over its aircraft will be having a great disadvantage. A famous example of thrust vectoring is the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor fifthgeneration jet fighter, with its afterburning, thrust-vectoring Pratt & Whitney F119 turbofan. Earlier, usage of this technology can be seen in the Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine used in the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, as well as in the AV-8B Harrier II variant. In India, The Sukhoi Su-30 MKI, produced under license at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited employs 2 -Dimensional thrust vectoring. The 2 Dimensional thrust vectoring makes the aircraft highly maneuverable and capable it to make high angles of attack without stalling. Thus, making Sukhoi Su-30 MKI as one of the best fighter aircraft in active service with the Indian Air Force.
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4. F22 Raptor Thrust Vectoring
Praveen K Singh ҉ Final Year I have been researching on various areas of Aircraft Propulsion. I hope you will enjoy reading this article on Pulsejet engines. Also, a warm thanks to my friend and Chief Editor Yajur Kumar for presenting this magazine at its best. Connect with Praveen at fb.com/Praveen.Singh.100 The idea that the simplest engine an engineer can make is a jet engine will sound strange to most people -- we perceive jet engines as big complex contraptions pushing multi-million dollar aircraft through
the skies. Yet, this is completely true. In its most basic form – the pulsejet -- the jet engine can be just an empty metal tube shaped in a proper way.
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PRAKSHEP FACTS • The pulsejet engine was first invented in the early 1900 by a Swedish inventor Martin Wiberg. • Paul Schmidt, who engineered the first production pulsejet during the Second World War with his flying bomb, the Argus V1.
• Nicknamed the “buzz” bomb because of the low hum it admitted during flight. • Used by the Germans to bomb London from 1944-1945. • Over 9,000 V-1 were fired on England during WW2. • The pulsejet took a backseat in the engineering world when the turbofan jet engine was invented.
• Has returned to the engineering scene as of late because of the interest in Pulse Detonation Engines. WORKING PRINCIPLE A pulsejet engine is a very simple jet engine consisting of very little to no moving parts. The combustion cycle comprises five or six phases: Induction, Compression, (in some engines) Fuel Injection, Ignition, Combustion, and Exhaust.
The rapidly expanding gasses exit out of the engine and as this happens a vacuum is created in the combustion chamber which pulls in a fresh new air charge from the atmosphere, and then the whole cycle repeats itself. ADVANTAGE OF PULSE JET The pulsejet is the only jet engine combustor that shows a net pressure gain between the intake and the exhaust. All the others have to have their highest pressure created at the intake end of the chamber. From that
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PRAKSHEP station on, the pressure falls off. Such a decreasing pressure gradient serves to prevent the hot gas generated in the combustor from forcing its way out through the intake. This way, the gas moves only towards the exhaust nozzle in which pressure is converted to speed. The great intake pressure is usually provided by some kind of compressor, which is a complex and expensive bit of machinery and consumes a great amount of power. Much of the energy generated in the turbojet engine goes to drive a compressor and only the remainder provides thrust. The pulsejet is different. Here, the exhaust pressure is higher than the intake pressure. There is pressure gain across the combustor, rather than loss. Moreover, the pulsejet does it without wasting the power generated by combustion. This is very important.
WHY LOOK AT PULSEJETS NOW? All the piston engines currently used in ultralight flying are relatively heavy and cumbersome, even in their simplest form. They also require much ancillary equipment, like Redactors, prop shafts, propellers etc. etc. Having all that gear mounted on a lightweight flying machine almost defeats the original purpose. A simple lightweight pulsejet seems much more appropriate. The enormous advances in computing power over the past few decades have made modelling of pulsating combustion more realistic, too. It is still not easy even for the supercomputers, but it can now be done. This can cut down development time drastically and make it much more straightforward.
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Akshay Gupta ҉ Final Year I have been researching over properties of smart materials. Smart materials can enhance the entire aviation field, if used suitably, so as I am presenting in this short article. Thanks to the team of smart editors for presenting this magazine in the best and most beautiful way. Connect with Akshay at fb.com/Aks.Gpt Basically, there is no standard definition for smart materials, and the term smart material is generally defined as a material that can change one or more of its properties in response to an external stimulus. For example, the shape of the material will change in response to different temperature or application of electrical charge or presence of magnetic field. In general, it can be catalogued to three main groups, which are thermo to-mechanical, electrical-tomechanical and magnetic-to-mechanical. In the other hand, there are some materials which termed as “smart material” do not have the properties stated above, like the material with self-healing property is also termed as “smart material”. Therefore, smart material can also be expressed as a material that can perform a special action in response to some specific condition such as very high/low
temperature, high stress, very high/low pH value, even material failure, etc. How are they significant in Aeronautical applications? Materials have a strong relationship with aeronautical industry, as it always determines the weight, strength, efficiency, cost and difficulty of maintenance of an aircraft. Therefore, the discovery of new material usually makes a breakthrough in performance of an aircraft. Especially the findings of smart materials, it makes an innovation in aircraft because it can provide a special function or property. Accordingly, the smart materials receive a great attention in order to improve the performance of aircraft. Categorization
Figure 5: Monocrystal [Left] and Polycrystal [Right].
Piezoelectric Materials
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Conducting Polymers Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) Electrostrictive Ceramics Magnetic Smart Materials Fire Resistant Composites
Piezoelectric Materials Basically, piezoelectric materials are transducers between electricity and mechanical stress. The piezoelectric material has this effect because of its crystallized structure. For the crystal, each molecule has a polarization; it means one end is more negatively charged while the other end is more positively charged, and it is called dipole. Furthermore, it directly affects how the atoms make up the molecule and how the molecules are shaped. Therefore, the basic concept of piezoelectricity is to change the orientation of polarization of the molecules. A Piezoelectric Material: PZT [Lead Zironate Titanate] Material
Young’s Modulus, Gpa
Max Density, actuator gm/cm3 strain, m/m PZT 50-70 0.127.6 0.18 Regarding the orientation of polar axis, the crystal can be divided into two types which are monocrystal and polycrystal. The monocrystal means that all the molecules’ polar axes are oriented in the same direction, and the polycrystal means that the polar axes of the molecules are randomly oriented. Application of Piezoelectric Material
Regarding the application of piezoelectric material, there are two main functions which are shape control and vibration control. Aerodynamic Feature In term of shape changing, it means the changing of aerodynamic feature. Conventionally, the aircrafts’ control surface is still controlled indirectly and lack of flexibility. However, the piezoelectric actuator can perform an innovative mechanism of control system; it greatly increases the performance and maneuverability due to flexible, efficient and thin actuator. Vibration Control Regarding vibration, it is an unwanted effect in aircraft because it can contribute to stress concentration, material fatigue, shortening service life, efficiency reduction and noise. Obviously, these problems influence the safety and maintenance cost sharply. Besides, the noise problem is always considered, especially the passengers’ aircraft, as the noise is a great annoyance. Therefore, the engineers always want to minimize the vibration. Conventionally, it is difficult to provide a precise active damping which produces a vibration with antiresonance frequency. By the piezoelectric material, it can be used as sensor and actuator at the same time, so it has a fast enough response to produce the antiresonance vibration. Furthermore, it is flexible, small and thin to be applied in many parts of aircraft.
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Adaptive Smart Wing Conventionally, the flap, rudder and elevator are adjusted by electronic motor or mechanical control system like cable or hydraulic system. By applying piezoelectric actuator, no discrete surfaces are required because the control surface can be change the sharp itself in order to change the aerodynamic feature. Therefore, it creates a continuous surface which will not cause early airflow separation hence to reduce the drag, but also the lift is increased due to the delay airflow separation. Accordingly, it increases the efficiency significantly. Basically, the concept of smart wing is to construct a continuous control surface embedded by a series of piezoelectric actuator. Furthermore, it is required to have a high strength-to-weight ratio; it means the actuator has to be placed strategically for optimizing a light weight design. Finally, it should have an ability to change the shape response to different flight condition, hence the performance of cruise flight can be improved that the conventional aircraft cannot achieve. In fact, this concept has started to be investigated since 2000. However, the smart wing system is mainly focus on military aircraft performance and maneuver improvement. Since 2004, this smart wing project has been started by
many industries and research centers such as US Air Force, NASA, Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin. They constructed a 30% scale Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV) at NASA Langley Research Centre. By two wind tunnel testing, it showed that the system had a high rate, large deflection, conformal trailing edge control at realistic flight conditions.
Helicopter Blade Application For the improvement of helicopter, most of engineers focus on the eliminating acoustic problem because it is the major problem and disadvantage. From the theoretical and experimental work both in Europe and USA, it shows that the BVI (Blade Vortex Interaction, shown in Figure) is the main source of noise, fortunately it can be dramatically reduced, 8 to 10dB, by an appropriate control of blades. In order to solve this problem, there are two possible solutions. The first solution is to construct the blade that can perform a continuous twisting. The second solution is the servo-aerodynamic control surface like flap, tab, or blade-tip is installed on the blade to generate aerodynamic force. Practically, it is difficult to install any conventional actuator in the blades of helicopter. However, the piezoelectric actuator seems to be suitable for the blades, so it receives an extensive attention.
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Editor Pankaj Mishra ҉ Final Year We worked really hard for presenting this magazine at its best and I hope aero-students will surely enjoy exploring it. Gliding Flight is heavier than air flight without use of thrust. Gliders means sailplanes. Take an airplane in a power off glide. The forces act on this aircraft are lift drag and weight; Thrust is zero due to power off. Glide flight path makes θ angle below horizontal (means without engine power).
Clearly, glide angle is a function of lift to drag ratio. Higher the L/D, shallower the glide angle. Smallest equilibrium glide angle occurs at (L/D) max, which corresponds to maximum range for glide. Most common human application of gliding flight is in sport and re-create using aircraft design. Gliding can be achieved with a flat (uncambered) wing as with simple paper plane. IMPORTANCE OF GLIDE RATIO IN GLIDING FLIGHT
For an equilibrium un-accelerated glide, sum of the forces must be zero. Sum of these forces along flight path D = W Sinθ …….. (i) Perpendicular to flight path L = W Cosθ ……… (ii) From (i)/ (ii) Sinθ/cosθ = D/L tanθ= 1/ (L/D)
Best Glide ratio is important to measuring performance of gliding aircraft. Sometimes fly aircraft’s best L/D by controlling airspeed and smooth operate to reduce drag. To achieve higher speed, gliders loaded with water ballast to increase airspeed which has little effect on glide angle but increase rate of shrink (speed over ground in proportion) because the heavier aircraft achieve optimal L/D at high airspeed. BALLAST Used in sailboats to provide moment to resist lateral forces on sail.
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6. Glider.
Akshay Malik ҉ Pre-Final Year Connect with Akshay at fb.com/Akshay.Malik.718 At the time of reentry, near outer edge of atmosphere, the reentry vehicle has high velocity and as it is at high altitude, it has large amount of potential energy. But when the vehicle reaches to surface of earth, it has relatively small velocity and nearly
zero potential energy. This large amount of energy is lost due to following two reasons: 1. 2.
Heating the body of vehicle. Heating the airflow around vehicle.
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PRAKSHEP The shock wave formed at the nose of vehicle heats the airflow around the vehicle and at same time the vehicle is heated within the boundary layer region due to intense skin friction. The temperature generated by such skin
friction is very high. We are required to make less heating of the space craft. Because such high temperature can damage the space craft. The heat generated in this phenomena will either heat vehicle body or air flow around the body. If somehow we are able to dissipate more heat into airflow than on vehicle body, then our aim can be fulfilled.
waves the vehicle body will be heated more than the surrounding airflow. But if we use a blunt shape body then stronger shock waves will be generated at the nose of vehicle. As it can be seen clearly with the help of following figure-
Thus by using the blunt shape body reentry vehicle large heating of vehicle surface is avoided. This concept was first uncovered by Harvey Allen in 1951.
This can be achieved by creating a stronger shock wave at the nose of the reentry vehicle. If a slender body is used for reentry purposes then weaker shock wave will be formed at the nose of vehicle. It is shown by following figure-Due to creation of weaker shock
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Shraddha Singh ҉ Pre-Final Year Connect with Shraddha at fb.com/ShraddhaSingh3014
Propeller is the word which comes from the word ‘propel’ which means ‘drive forward’. Propeller is used for providing thrust only. The engine supplies brake horsepower through a rotating shaft & the propeller converts it into thrust horsepower. đ?‘ƒđ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘™đ?‘™đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; đ??¸đ?‘“đ?‘“đ?‘–đ?‘?đ?‘–đ?‘’đ?‘›đ?‘?đ?‘Ś =
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Blade angle is the angle between the propeller’s plane of rotation, and the chord line of the propeller airfoil. Blade station is a reference position on a blade that is a specified distance from the center of the hub. Pitch is the distance (in inches or millimeters) that a propeller section will move forward in one revolution. Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip.
PROPELLER SLIP The distance this particular element would move forward in one revolution along a helix, or spiral, equal to its blade angle, is called Geometrical pitch. The Effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in one revolution. This cannot be determined by the pitch angle alone because it is affected by the forward velocity of the airplane. The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip. Example- If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory it should move forward 50 inches in one revolution. But if the aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution the effective pitch is 35 inches and the propeller efficiency is 70%. Blade Angle & Angle of Attack
Blade angle is the angle between the propeller’s plane of rotation, and the chord line of the propeller airfoil.
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PRAKSHEP Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the relative wind. When the airplane is at rest on the ground with the engine operating, or moving slowly at the beginning of takeoff, the propeller efficiency is very low because the propeller is restrained from advancing with sufficient speed to permit its fixed pitch blades to reach their full efficiency. In this situation, each propeller blade is turning through the air at an angle of attack which produces relatively little thrust for the amount of power required to turn it. To understand the action of a propeller, consider first its motion, which is both rotational and forward. Thus, as shown by the vectors of propeller forces, each section of a propeller blade moves downward and forward. The angle at which this air (relative wind) strikes the propeller blade is its angle of attack. The air deflection produced by this angle causes
the dynamic pressure at the engine side of the propeller blade to be greater than atmospheric, thus creating thrust. The shape of the blade also creates thrust, because it is cambered like the airfoil shape of a wing. Consequently, as the air flows past the propeller, the pressure on one side is less than that on the other. As in a wing, this produces a reaction force in the direction of the lesser pressure. In the case of a wing, the air flow over the wing has less pressure, and the force (lift) is upward. In the case of the propeller, which is mounted in a vertical
instead of a horizontal plane, the area of decreased pressure is in front of the propeller, and the force (thrust) is in a forward direction. Aerodynamically, then,
thrust is the result of the propeller shape and the angle of attack of the blade. Another way to consider thrust is in terms of the mass of air handled by the propeller. In these terms, thrust is equal to the mass of air handled, times the slipstream velocity, minus the velocity of the airplane. The power expended in producing thrust depends on the rate of air mass movement. On the average, thrust constitutes approximately 80% of the torque (total horsepower absorbed by the propeller). The other 20% is lost in friction and slippage. For any speed of rotation, the horsepower absorbed by the propeller balances the horsepower delivered by the engine. For any single revolution of the propeller, the amount of air handled depends on the blade angle, which determines how big a "bite" of air the propeller takes. Thus, the blade angle is an excellent means of adjusting the load on the propeller to control the engine RPM. The blade angle is also an excellent method of adjusting the angle of attack of the propeller. On constant speed propellers, the blade angle must be adjusted to provide the most efficient angle of attack at all engine
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PRAKSHEP and airplane speeds. Lift versus drag curves, which are drawn for propellers as well as wings, indicate that the most efficient angle of attack is a small one varying from 2 to 4 degrees positive. The actual blade angle necessary to maintain this small angle of attack varies with the forward speed of the airplane.
When relative airflow increases and airspeed remains constant then angle of attack also increases. When air speed increases and relative airflow remains constant then angle of attack decreases.
7. Hercules
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Archana ҉ Pre-Final Year Flaps are hinged portion at trailing edge of aircraft wing .Flaps are used to increase lift, drag or both when deflected and used principally for landing and take-off. The higher the deflection of the flap is, the greater the drag. It is like when your palm is flat against the wind flow as you stretch your hand out in a moving car. As you reduce the angle against the airflow, the drag reduces and you get better lift and your hand moves up.
landing. They are partially extended before takeoff to increase lift and reduce the runway distance required to leave the ground. They are fully extended during the landing phase to allow the aircraft to safely approach the runway at the lowest possible speed. Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with minimal drag. Deflection beyond 15° produces a large increase in drag. Drag from flap deflection is parasite drag, and as such is proportional to the square of the speed. Also, deflection beyond 15° produces a significant nose-up pitching moment in most high wing airplanes because the resulting downwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail. Up/Down position of flaps during take off
Flaps are used when the aircraft is slowing down in preparation for a landing. In a plane, flaps are usually used for both takeoff and
It depends on the type of aircraft and the circumstances of the takeoff. Aircraft designed to cruise at high speeds—including most jet-powered aircraft—may extend flaps slightly for takeoff because their lowspeed performance is limited by a design that favors high-speed flight. A wing design that provides a lot of lift at low speeds isn't likely to be suitable for high speeds because it will generate too much lift and too much drag, but a wing design that works well at high speeds may not generate a lot of lift at
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PRAKSHEP low speeds. So flaps are used to increase lift for takeoff. Low-speed aircraft, including small private propeller-drive aircraft, can usually take off without flaps, since they never fly at high speed and their wings are designed to generate plenty of lift at low speeds. Flaps may also be extended (or extended further) for takeoff from short runways, again depending on the aircraft and the exact circumstances. In any case, full extension of the flaps is rare, as that often generates more drag than it's worth. Flaps during take-off position Depending on the aircraft type, flaps may be partially extended for takeoff. When used during takeoff, flaps cover runway distance for climb rate—using flaps reduces ground roll and the climb rate. The amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft. Flaps during landing position Flaps may be fully extended for landing to give the aircraft a lower stalling speed so the approach to landing can be made more slowly or at low speed, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance. Types of flaps There are basically main four types of flaps: plain, split, fowler and slotted type
Plain flap: when this flap is deflected, it changes (increases) both upper & lower chamber of wing airfoil .This increase in chamber leads to more lift at low speed and low angle of attack. If flap is moved down sufficiently, the drag increases significantly and the lower surface become an effective air-break. Split edge flap: This type of flap is used mostly in case of air beak where high drag is required .when this flap is deflected upper chamber remains same but lower chamber increases which leads to more drag .Deflected flap acts much like a spoiler, producing lots of drag and little or no lift. Fowler flap: Split flap slides backwards flat, before deflecting downwards, thereby increasing first chord, than camber. The flap may act both like plain and split flap but it must slide rearward before lowering.
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PRAKSHEP Slotted flap: In this type of flap there is a gap between wing and flap which is called slot and allows air from the bottom of the wing to flow to the upper portion of flap and downwards at trailing edge of the wing .This delays airflow separation and creates downwards flow of air which produces lift to the wing.
FACT FILE. A commercial aircraft door will not open in flight because it is actually bigger than the window frame itself, and the door opens inwards towards the cabin. To open, it must be opened inwards, rotated, and then slipped sideways out of the frame. Even if the door could somehow be opened, it would be like lifting a 2,200 pound weight.
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Editor Pushpa Kumari ҉ Final Year To consider the creative editing was a very enjoyable experience. It gives me a feeling that I am connected with the nature in an amazing way. Thanks to our chief editors for presenting this magazine on time and such a beautiful way. Connect with Pushpa at fb.com/Pushpa.Kumari.96343 Airfoil structure is the basic of our aeronautical world, but many times we are not able to understand its dimensions to know more about its parameter regarding dimensions let see the AIRFOIL NACA SERIES FAMILY.
Lift coefficient = 0.3, position of max camber = .15c, max thickness = 0.12c
NACA 4 DIGIT SERIES
The first digit denotes the series and indicates that this family is designed for greater laminar flow than the Four- or FiveDigit Series. The second digit is the location of the minimum pressure in tenths of chord. The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at lift coefficients 0.1 above and below the design lift coefficient (0.2) specified by the first digit after the dash in tenths. The final two digits specify the thickness in percentage of chord, e.g., NACA 641-212,
The first digit specifies the maximum camber (m) in percentage of the chord (airfoil length). The second indicates the position of the maximum camber (p) in tenths of chord. The last two numbers provide the maximum thickness (t) of the airfoil in percentage of chord, e.g., NACA 2412 Maximum camber= .002c , position of max camber = 0.04c, max thickness = .12c
NACA 5 DIGIT SERIES The first digit, when multiplied by 3/2, yields the design lift coefficient (cl) in tenths. The next two digits, when divided by 2, give the position of the maximum camber (p) in tenths of chord. The final two digits again indicate the maximum thickness (t) in percentage of chord, e.g., NACA 23012
NACA 6 DIGIT SERIES
The 6 denotes the series and indicates that this family is designed for greater laminar flow than the Four- or Five-Digit Series. The second digit, 4, is the location of the minimum pressure in tenths of chord (0.4c). The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at lift coefficients 0.1 above and below the design lift coefficient (0.2) specified by the first digit after the dash in
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PRAKSHEP tenths. The final two digits specify the thickness in percentage of chord, 12%. NACA 7 DIGIT SERIES upper and lower surfaces, e.g., NACA 747A315. The 7 denotes the series. The 4 provides the location of the minimum pressure on the upper surface in tenths of chord (40%). The 7 provides the location of the minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of chord (70%). The fourth character, a letter, indicates the thickness distribution and means line forms used. The fifth digit indicates the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.3). The final two integers are the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (15%). NACA 8 DIGIT SERIES A final variation on the 6- and 7-Series methodology was the NACA 8-Series
The 7-Series was a further attempt to maximize the regions of laminar flow over an airfoil differentiating the locations of the minimum pressure on the designed for flight at supercritical speeds. Like the earlier airfoils, the goal was to maximize the extent of laminar flow on the upper and lower surfaces independently. The naming convention is very similar to the 7-Series, e.g., NACA 835A216. The 8 designates the series. The 3 is the location of minimum pressure on the upper surface in tenths of chord (0.3c). The 5 is the location of minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of chord (50%). The letter A distinguishes airfoils having different camber or thickness forms, the 2 denotes the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2). The 16 provides the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (16%). Now we have a brief description about all the NACA series.
We study above FAMILY 4- DIGIT
5-DIGIT
ADVANTAGE 1. Good stall characteristics 2. Small center of pressure movement across large speed range 3. Roughness has little effect 1. Higher maximum lift coefficient 2. Low pitching moment 3. Roughness has little effect
DISADVANTAGE 1. Low maximum lift coefficient 2. Relatively high drag 3. High pitching moment
APPLICATION 1. General aviation 2. Horizontal tails Symmetrical: 3. Supersonic jets 4. Helicopter blades 5. Shrouds 6. Missile/rocket fins
1. Poor stall behavior 2. Relatively high drag
1. General aviation 2. Piston-powered bombers, transports 3. Commuters 4. Business jets
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1. High maximum lift coefficient 2. Very low drag over a small range of operating conditions 3. Optimized for high speed
7-DIGIT
1. Very low drag over a small range of operating conditions 2. Low pitching moment
8-DIGIT
Unknown
1. High drag outside of the optimum range of operating conditions 2. High pitching moment 3. Poor stall behavior 4. Very susceptible to roughness 1. Reduced maximum lift coefficient 2. High drag outside of the optimum range of operating conditions 3. Poor stall behavior 4. Very susceptible to roughness Unknown
1. Piston-powered fighters 2. Business jets 3. Jet trainers 4. Supersonic jets
Seldom used
Very seldom used
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Assist. Prof. R K Singh ҉ Faculty Member
No one knows who discovered the Jet Propulsion Principle, but the favor is sometimes given to a man named Hero, who 8. The Jet Engine lived in Alexandria, Egypt, about 150 B.C. One of the largest piston engine ever built, the R4360, 28 cylinder radial, which develops 4,000 SHP, and the JT9D engine powering the Boeing 747. If we use the generally accepted conversion of 2.5 pounds of thrust per SHP, propeller static thrust of R4360 would be approximately 10000 lbs., neglecting propeller efficiency losses. The 9. R4360 Piston Engine Boeing 747
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10. JT9D Turbofan Engine of Boeing 747
would need 23 such engines to give the 230, 000 lbs. static thrust, currently produced by its four JT9D turbofan engines. The Pulsejet engine is fitted with inlet shutters (flapper valves) to open and close the air entering the engine. These inlet shutters blew open and close approximately 40 times per second to allow and stop the air entering into the engine. Wright brothers incorporated first time fuel injection system into a spark ignition engine. In a high by-pass ratio, turbofan engine which has a by-pass ratio of 5:1, the by11. The Pulse Jet Engine pass air produces 80% of the thrust and
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PRAKSHEP the core engine produces only 20% of the thrust. (By-pass ratio is the ratio between the amount of air not entering the core engine (compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine) or by passing the core engine and amount of air entering the core engine.)
Assist. Prof. R. K. Singh, is a premier faculty member of Department of Aeronautical Engineering. He served Indian Navy as Chief Aircraft Maintenance Engineer for 15 years. He teaches Aircraft Propulsion, maintenance and advanced subjects like Rockets and Missiles at the institute.
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Dimple Varshney ҉ Final Year The Mach number is commonly used both with objects traveling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles, diffusers or wind tunnels. As it is defined as a ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. At Standard Sea Level conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius), the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 661.5 knots, or 1116 ft./s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is mostly dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition and largely independent of pressure. Since the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases, the actual speed of an object traveling at Mach 1 will depend on the fluid temperature around it. Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar way at the same Mach number. So, an aircraft traveling at Mach 1 at 20°C or 68°F, at sea level, will experience shock waves in much the same manner as when it is traveling at Mach 1 at 11,000 m (36,000 ft.) at −50°C or −58F, even though it is traveling at only 86% of its
speed at higher temperature like 20°C or 68°F. Classification of Mach regimes While the terms "subsonic" and "supersonic" in the purest verbal sense Regime Subsonic Transonic Supersonic Hypersonic Highhypersonic
entry speeds
Mach <0.8 0.81.2 1.2– 5.0 5.0– 10.0 10.0– 25.0 >25.0
Mph <610 610-915 9153,840 3,840– 7,680 7,680– 16,250 >16,250
km/h <980 9801,470 1,470– 6,150 6,150– 12,300 12,300– 30,740 >30,740
m/s <270 270410 410– 1,710 1,710– 3,415 3,415– 8,465 >8,465
refer to speeds below and above the local speed of sound respectively, aerodynamicists often use the same terms to talk about particular ranges of Mach values. This occurs because of the presence of a "transonic regime" around M=1 where approximations of the Navier-Stokes equations used for subsonic design actually no longer apply, the simplest of many reasons being that the flow locally begins to exceed M=1 even when the free stream Mach number is below this value. Meanwhile, the "supersonic regime" is usually used to talk about the set of Mach numbers for which linearized
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PRAKSHEP theory may be used, where for example the (air) flow is not chemically reacting, and where heat-transfer between air and vehicle may be reasonably neglected in calculations. In the following table, the "regimes" or "ranges of Mach values" are referred to, and not the "pure" meanings of the words "subsonic" and "supersonic". Generally, NASA defines "high" hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this regime include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. High-speed flow around objects Flight can be roughly classified in six categories: Re gi m e
Su bs oni c
Tra nso nic
S o ni c
Sup ers onic
Hyp erso nic
M ac h
<1. 0
0.8 – 1.2
1. 0
1.2– 5.0
5.0– 10.0
Hig hhyp ers onic >10. 0
For comparison: the required speed for low Earth orbit is approximately 7.5 km/s = Mach 25.4 in air at high altitudes. The speed of light in a vacuum corresponds to a Mach number of approximately 881,000 (relative to air at sea level).
At transonic speeds, the flow field around the object includes both suband supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M>1 flow appear around the object. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to subsonic only in a normal shock; this typically happens before the trailing edge. (Fig.1a) As the speed increases, the zone of M>1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges. As M=1 is reached and passed, the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak oblique shock: the flow decelerates over the shock, but remains supersonic. A normal shock is created ahead of the object, and the only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the object's leading edge. (Fig.1b)
(a)
(b)
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PRAKSHEP Fig. 1. Mach number in transonic airflow around an airfoil; M<1 (a) and M>1 (b). When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This abrupt pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called Mach cone). It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as a fast moving aircraft travels overhead. A person inside the aircraft will not hear this. The higher the speed, the more narrow the cone; at just over M=1 it is hardly a cone at all, but closer to a slightly concave plane. At fully supersonic speed, the shock wave starts to take its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic, or (in case of a blunt object), only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the object's nose and the
shock wave it creates ahead of itself. (In the case of a sharp object, there is no air between the nose and the shock wave: the shock wave starts from the nose.) As the Mach number increases, so does the strength of the shock wave and the Mach cone become increasingly narrow. As the fluid flow crosses the shock wave, its speed is reduced and temperature, pressure, and density increase. The stronger the shock, greater the changes. At high enough Mach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin. Such flows are called hypersonic. It is clear that any object traveling at hypersonic speeds will likewise be exposed to the same extreme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shock wave, and hence choice of heat-resistant materials becomes important.
FACT FILE.
..
Most planes flying internationally have their home country's flag painted on or around their tails. Generally, the flag is facing the proper way round on the left (port) side of the aircraft, and backward on the starboard side. Why? Because that's how it would look if a real flag were hoisted on a pole above the airplane during flight.
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Technology
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Yajur Kumar Ň&#x2030; Final Year As per definition, satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. Well, in this article, we are talking about artificial or man-made satellites.
Satellites are an essential part of our daily lives, from their use in weather reports, television transmission and everyday telephone calls. In many other instances, satellites play a background role that escapes our notice, such as some newspapers and magazines are timelier because they transmit their text and images to multiple printing sites via satellite to speed local distribution. Your cellphoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GPS device is also functioning by the virtue of satellites.
Emergency radio beacons from downed aircraft and distressed ships may reach search-and-rescue teams when satellites relay the signal. The Soviet Sputnik satellite was the first to orbit Earth, launched on Oct. 4, 1957. Because of Soviet government secrecy at the time, no photographs were taken of this famous launch. Sputnik was a 58 cm and 83 kg metal ball. On the outside of Sputnik, four whip antennas transmitted on short-wave frequencies above and below what is today's Citizens Band (27 MHz). After 92 days, gravity took over and Sputnik burned in Earth's atmosphere. Thirty days after the Sputnik launch, the dog Laika orbited in a half-ton Sputnik satellite with an air supply for the dog. It burned in the atmosphere in April 1958. Sputnik is a good example of just how simple a satellite can be. As we will see later, today's satellites are generally far
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PRAKSHEP more complicated, but the basic idea is a straightforward one.
12. The GPS Network
gets the rocket through the thickest part of the atmosphere most quickly and best minimizes fuel consumption. After a rocket launches straight up, the rocket control mechanism uses the inertial guidance system to calculate necessary adjustments to the rocket's nozzles to tilt the rocket to the course described in the flight plan. In most cases, the flight plan calls for the rocket to head east because Earth rotates to the east, giving the launch vehicle a free boost. The strength of this boost depends on the rotational velocity of Earth at the launch location. The boost is greatest at the equator, where the distance
The path a satellite follows is an orbit. In the orbit, the farthest point from Earth is the apogee, and the nearest point is the perigee. All satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket. Many used to hitch a ride in the cargo bay of the space shuttle. Several countries and businesses have rocket launch capabilities, and satellites as large as several tons make it safely into orbit regularly. For most satellite launches, the scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up at first. This
13. A drawing of the orbital path for the TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) satellite
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PRAKSHEP around Earth is greatest and so rotation is fastest.
diameter by pi which gives, 40,065 Kms. To travel around this circumference in 24 hours, a point on Earth's surface has to move at 1,669 Kmph. A launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, doesn't get as big a boost from Earth's rotational speed. The Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A, one of its launch facilities, is located at 28 degrees 36 minutes 29.7014 seconds north latitude. The Earth's rotational speed there is about 1,440 Kmph. The difference in Earth's surface speed between the equator and Kennedy Space Center, then, is about 229 Kmph.
Well, considering that rockets can go thousands of miles per hour, you may wonder why a 14. STS 11 Launching from Kennedy Space Center difference of only 229 Kmph would even To make a rough estimate of boost from matter. The answer is that rockets, an equatorial launch, we can determine together with their fuel and their Earth's circumference by multiplying its payloads, are very heavy. For example,
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PRAKSHEP the Feb. 11, 2000, lift-off of the space shuttle Endeavour with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission required launching a total weight of 2,050,447 Kgs. It takes a huge amount of energy to accelerate such a mass to 229 Kmph, and therefore a significant amount of fuel. Launching from the equator makes a real difference.
separation between the launch vehicle and the satellite itself. A rocket must accelerate to at least 40,320 Kmph to completely escape Earth's gravity and fly off into space.
Earth's escape velocity is much greater than what's required to place an Earth satellite in orbit. With satellites, the object is not to escape Earth's gravity, but to balance it. Orbital velocity is the velocity needed to achieve balance between gravity's pull on the satellite and the inertia of the satellite's motion -- the satellite's tendency to keep going. This is approximately 15. Schematic of a Rocket Motor 27,359 Kmph at Once the rocket reaches extremely thin an altitude of 242 Kms. Without gravity, air, at about 193 Kms up, the rocket's the satellite's inertia would carry it off navigational system fires small rockets, into space. Even with gravity, if the just enough to turn the launch vehicle intended satellite goes too fast, it will into a horizontal position. The satellite eventually fly away. On the other hand, is then released. At that point, rockets if the satellite goes too slowly, gravity are fired again to ensure some will pull it back to Earth. At the correct
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PRAKSHEP orbital velocity, gravity exactly balances the satellite's inertia, pulling down toward Earth's center just enough to keep the path of the satellite curving like Earth's curved surface, rather than flying off in a straight line. Despite the significant differences between the various kinds of satellites, they have several things in common. Such as:
all of them have a metal or composite frame and body, usually known as the bus. The bus holds everything together in space and provides enough strength to survive the launch. all of them have a source of power (usually solar cells) and batteries for storage. Arrays of solar cells provide power to charge rechargeable batteries. Newer designs include the use of fuel cells. Power on most satellites is precious and very limited. Nuclear power has been used on space probes to other planets (read this page
for details). Power systems are constantly monitored, and data on power and all other onboard systems is sent to Earth stations in the form of telemetry signals. all of them have an onboard computer to control and monitor the different systems. all of them have a radio system and antenna. At the very least, most satellites have a radio transmitter/receiver so that the ground-control crew can request status information from the satellite and monitor its health. Many satellites can be controlled in various ways from the ground to do anything from change the orbit to reprogram the computer system. all of them have an attitude control system. The ACS keeps the satellite pointed in the right direction.
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Editor Pankaj K Kushwaha Ň&#x2030; Final Year Designing a whole new scientific publication needs hard work and days of planning. I am heartily thankful to our chief editor for managing things in such a precise way. Connect with Pankaj at fb.com/Pankaj.K.Kushwaha.9 A flare is defined as a sudden, rapid, and intense variation in brightness. A solar flare occurs when magnetic energy that has built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly released. Radiation is emitted across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. The amount of energy released is the equivalent of millions of 100-megaton hydrogen bombs
exploding at the same time! The first solar flare recorded in writing was on September 1, 1859. Two scientists, Richard C. Carrington and Richard Hodgson, were
independently observing sunspots at the time, when they viewed a large flare in white light. As the magnetic energy is being released, particles, including electrons, protons, and heavy nuclei, are heated and accelerated in the solar atmosphere. The energy released during a flare is typically on the order of 10^14 Mega joules per second. Large flares can emit up to 10^19 Mega joules of energy. This energy is ten million times greater than the energy released from a volcanic explosion. On the other hand, it is less than one-tenth
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PRAKSHEP of the total energy emitted by the Sun every second. There are typically three stages to a solar flare. First is the precursor stage, where the
release of magnetic energy is triggered. Soft x-ray emission is detected in this stage. In the second or impulsive stage, protons and electrons are accelerated to energies exceeding 1 MeV. During the impulsive stage, radio waves, hard x-rays, and gamma rays are emitted. The gradual build up and decay of soft x-rays can be detected in the third, decay stage. The duration of these stages can be as short as a few seconds or as long as an hour.
Solar flares extend out to the layer of the Sun called the corona. The corona is the outermost atmosphere of the Sun, consisting of highly rarefied gas. This gas
normally has a temperature of a few million degrees Kelvin. Inside a flare, the temperature typically reaches 10 or 20 million degrees Kelvin, and can be as high as 100 million degrees Kelvin. The corona is visible in soft x-rays, as in the above image. Notice that the corona is not uniformly bright, but is concentrated around the solar equator in loop-shaped features. These bright loops are located within and connect areas of strong magnetic field called active regions. Sunspots are located within these active regions. Solar flares occur in active regions. The frequency of flares coincides with the Sun's eleven year cycle. When the solar cycle is at a minimum, active regions are small and rare and few solar flares are detected. These increase in number as the Sun approaches the maximum part of its cycle. A person cannot view a solar flare by simply staring at the Sun. Flares are in fact difficult
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PRAKSHEP to see against the bright emission from the photosphere. Instead, specialized scientific instruments are used to detect the radiation signatures emitted during a flare. The radio and optical emissions from flares can be
observed with telescopes on the Earth. Energetic emissions such as x-rays and gamma rays require telescopes located in space, since these emissions do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere
Assist. Prof. A. K. Pandey Ň&#x2030; Faculty Member
In the present age the electronics plays a great role in our life, without it the globe is devoid. The electronic warfare utilizes electromagnetic spectrum from the low frequencies to the high frequencies. Mainly it is used in military operation which includes electronic attacks, electronic support and electronic fortification. By this this, we can
obtain tactical intelligence and surveillance to achieve the war goal. As the threats received from the intruder, it reconfigures itself to counter threats. In doing this, higher data bit rate technique are incorporated to track the communication system, also to intercept, identify and locate the source of electromagnetic wave for the
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PRAKSHEP purpose of targeting enemy resources and planning for the future war techniques. Electronic warfare provides electronic protection, which is used to protect man and material from the intentional or unintentional circumstances. Electromagnetic radiation can be used to degrade the combat capabilities, such as misleading the weapon with the help of IR
rays emission, changing the transmission frequency randomly which is known to our forces, to deceive the enemy. The electronic attack to devastate the enemy forces is commonly used. In this process intense electromagnetic waves are emitted which can be used to block the wireless communication which controls the radio combat devices of the enemy.
Assist. Prof. A. K. Pandey, is a premier faculty member of Department of Aeronautical Engineering. He served different organizations in his brilliant career of serving the nation. He teaches the Aircraft Instrumentation, Aircraft Rules and advanced subjects like Avionics at the institute.
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Pankaj K Kushwaha Ň&#x2030; Final Year
People around the world are switching to skies in large numbers. In 2009, for the first time in aviation history, Asia recorded more air travelers than U.S., while U.S. airplanes flew 704 million passengers, a number forecast to reach 1.21 billion by 2020. Catering such a humungous growth in
number of air travelers will require new flights, more runways and airports .But increment in all these will also have repercussions which manifest it in the form of engine emissions, unprecedented air traffic, and nonstop noise and not to
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PRAKSHEP GOALS FOR GREEN AVIATION * to reduce aircraft fuel consumption. * To reduce aircraft emissions. * To reduce aircraft noise. * To achieve the above three economically. SOLUTIONS FOR GREEN AVIATION Some of the above mentioned problem could be dealt with improvement in technologies and some with completely revolutionary, innovative technologies.
mention the unhappy citizens concerned about their health and quality of life. In order to reduce potential harm to the environment and have a pleasant and economical flight, NASA and other space
agencies are working in collaboration with universities and industries to develop environmentally beneficial, or "greenâ&#x20AC;?, aviation technologies. Green aviation means aviation so in such a way to create least possible disturbance in the environmental balance.
1. The solution to reduction in fuel consumption can be achieved by allowing pilots to directly climb to their cruising altitude or descend down at the touchdown without levelling off frequently in order to check for the traffic at the airport 2. A revolutionary satellite based air transport communication system could be
installed with other avionics equipment to allow fliers fly directly to their destination, reducing 200 gallons of fuel every year. 3. Use of advanced lightweight composites for aircraft body construction (e.g. Boeing 787 dream liner), increment of laminar flow
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PRAKSHEP over aircraft body which increases the lift is to drag ratio. 4. Changes in engine design or operation might include ultra-high bypass turbofans, open rotor engines, use of alternative fuels or locating engines on the body of the aircraft in such a way that deflects engine noise upward to keep it from reaching the ground. 5. The last but not the least point to ponder upon is research on development of alternate fuel for the jet airliners. Amongst
all the available fuel alternatives algae biomass has bagged the topmost position. IT is not a food stock, scalable, has high calorific value, easy to manufacture, works well with existing infrastructure and meets the fuel standard. Currently Boeing, GE, P&W Airbus all are working on developing biomass as an alternative fuel. If the above mentioned points are implemented then the earth would be a better place to live in for sure with distances which could be fathomed within a couple of hours.
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Mayank Verma Ň&#x2030; Pre-Final Year Connect with Mayank at fb.com/Er.Mayank2013 Stealth technology also known as LOT
(Low Observability Technology) is a technology which covers a range of techniques used with aircraft, ships and missiles, in order to make them less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared and other detection methods.
In simple terms, stealth technology allows an aircraft to be partially invisible to Radar or any other means of detection. This doesn't allow the aircraft to be fully invisible on radar. Stealth technology cannot make the aircraft invisible to enemy or friendly radar. All it can do is to reduce the detection range or an aircraft. This is similar to the camouflage tactics used by soldiers in jungle warfare. Unless the soldier comes near you, you can't see him. Though this gives a clear and safe striking distance for the aircraft, there is still
a threat from radar systems, which can detect stealth aircraft.
STEALTH PRINCIPLE The concept behind the stealth technology is very simple. As a matter of fact it is totally the principle of reflection and absorption that makes aircraft "stealthy". Deflecting the incoming radar waves into another direction and thus reducing the number of waves does this, which returns to the radar. Another concept that is followed is to absorb the incoming radar waves totally and to redirect the absorbed electromagnetic energy in another direction. Whatever may be the method used, the level of stealth an aircraft can achieve depends totally on the design and the substance with which it is made of. THE KEY FEATURES OF STEALTH -Unusual Design -Outer Paint
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PRAKSHEP -Reduce Heat Exhaust Signatures -Eliminate High Altitude Contrails -Eliminate Brown Exhaust METHODS OF AVOIDING DETECTION
change its appearance to mimic background is being researched
its
INFRARED STEALTH
Another important factor that influences the
Design for stealth requires the integration of many techniques and materials. The types of stealth that a maximally stealthy aircraft & ships seeks to achieve can be categorized as visual, infrared, acoustic, and Radar.
VISUAL STEALTH
Figure 16 Thermal infrared image - US Military F117 Stealth
Figure 17VISUAL STEALTH PLANE-HAWK Low visibility is desirable for all military aircraft and is essential for stealth aircraft. It is achieved by coloring the aircraft so that it tends to blend in with its environment. For instance, reconnaissance planes designed to operate at very high altitudes, where the sky is black, are painted black. (Black is also a low visibility color at night, at any altitude.) Conventional daytime fighter aircraft are painted a shade of blue known as "airsuperiority blue-gray," to blend in with the sky. Stealth aircraft are flown at night for maximum visual stealth, and so are painted black or dark gray. Chameleon or "smart skin" technology that would enable an aircraft to
stealth capability of an aircraft is the IR (i.e. Infrared, electromagnetic waves in the. 72– 1000 micron range of the spectrum) signature given out by the plane. Usually planes are visible in thermal imaging systems because of the high temperature exhaust they give out. This is a great disadvantage to stealth aircraft as missiles also have IR guidance system. The IR signatures of stealth aircraft are minute when compared to the signature of a conventional fighter or any other Military aircraft. Engines for stealth aircraft are specifically built to have a very low IR signature. Another main aspect that reduces the IR signature of a stealth aircraft is to place the engines deep into the fuselage. This is done in stealth aircraft like the B-2, F-22 and the JSF. The IR reduction scheme used in F-117 is very much different from the others. The engines are placed deep within the aircraft like any
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PRAKSHEP stealth aircraft and at the outlet; a section of the fuselage deflects the exhaust to another direction. This is useful for deflecting the hot exhaust gases in another direction. Infrared radiation are emitted by all matter above absolute zero; hot materials, such as engine exhaust gases or wing surfaces heated by friction with the air, emit more infrared radiation than cooler materials. Heat-seeking missiles and other weapons zero in on the infrared glow of hot aircraft parts. Infrared stealth, therefore, requires that aircraft parts and emissions, particularly those associated with engines, be kept as cool as possible.
stealth fighter, which is designed to fly at high speed at very low altitudes, also incorporates acoustic-stealth measures, including soundabsorbent linings inside its engine intake and exhaust cowlings.
RADAR STEALTH
Radar stealth or invisibility requires that a craft absorbs incident radar pulses, actively cancel them by emitting inverse waveforms, deflect them away from receiving antennas, or all of the above. Absorption and deflection treated below are the most important prerequisites of radar stealth.
ACOUSTIC STEALTH
Figure 18 Acoustic Stealth Aircraft Although sound moves too slowly to be an effective locating signal for antiaircraft weapons, for low-altitude flying it is still best to be inaudible to ground observers. Several ultra-quiet, low-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, such as Lockheed's QT-2 and YO-3A, have been developed since the 1960s. Aircraft of this type are ultra-light, run on small internal combustion engines quieted by silencer-suppressor mufflers, and are driven by large, often wooden propellers. They make about as much sound as gliders and have very low infrared emissions as well because of their low energy consumption. The U.S. F-117
AB SORPTION
Metallic surfaces reflect RADAR; therefore, stealth aircraft parts must either be coated with RADAR-absorbing materials or made out of them to begin with. The latter is preferable because an aircraft whose parts are intrinsically RADAR-absorbing derives aerodynamic as well as stealth function from them, whereas a RADAR-absorbent coating is, aerodynamically speaking, dead weight. The F-117 stealth aircraft is built mostly out
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PRAKSHEP of a RADAR-absorbent material termed Fibaloy, which consists of glass fibers embedded in plastic, and of carbon fibers, which are used mostly for hot spots like leading wing-edges and panels covering the jet engines. ď&#x192;&#x2DC;
DEFLECTION
Most RADAR are monostatic, that is, for reception they use either the same antenna as for sending or a separate receiving antenna colocated with the sending antenna; deflection therefore means reflecting RADAR pulses in any direction other than the one they came from. This in turn requires that
stealth aircraft lack flat, vertical surfaces that could act as simple RADAR mirrors.
RADAR can also be strongly reflected wherever three planar surfaces meet at a corner. Planes such as the B-52 bomber, which have many flat, vertical surfaces and RADAR-reflecting corners, are notorious for their RADAR-reflecting abilities; stealth aircraft, in contrast, tend to be highly angled and streamlined, presenting no flat surfaces at all to an observer that is not directly above or below them. The B-2 bomber, for example, is shaped like a boomerang. BENEFITS OF STEALTH TECHNOLOGY ď&#x201A;ˇ
A smaller number of stealth aircraft may replace fleet of conventional
attacks jets with the same or increased combat efficiency.
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Possibly resulting in longer term savings in the military budget. A Stealth aircraft strike capability may deter potential enemies from taking action and keep them in constant fear of strikes, since they can never know if the attack planes are already underway. The production of a stealth combat aircraft design may force an opponent to pursue the same aim, possibly resulting in significant weakening of the economically inferior party. Stationing stealth aircraft in a friendly country is a powerful diplomatic gesture as stealth planes incorporate high technology and military secrets.
DISADVANTAGES OF STEALTH TECHNOLOGY * Stealth technology has its own disadvantages like other technologies. Stealth aircraft cannot fly as fast or is not maneuverable like conventional aircraft. The F-22 and the aircraft of its category proved this wrong up to an extent. Though the F-22 may be fast or maneuverable or fast, it can't go beyond Mach 2 and cannot make turns like the Su-37. * Another serious disadvantage with the stealth aircraft is the reduced amount of payload it can carry. As most of the payload is carried internally in a stealth aircraft to
reduce the radar signature, weapons can only occupy a less amount of space internally. On the other hand a conventional aircraft can carry much more payload than any stealth aircraft of its class. * Whatever may be the disadvantage a stealth aircraft can have, the biggest of all disadvantages that it faces is its sheer cost. Stealth aircraft literally costs its weight in gold. Fighters in service and in development for the USAF like the B-2 ($2 billion), F-117 ($70 million) and the F-22 ($100 million) are the costliest planes in the world. After the cold war, the number of B-2 bombers was reduced sharply because of its staggering price tag and maintenance charges. * The B-2 Spirit carries a large bomb load, but it has relatively slow speed, resulting in 18 to 24 hour long missions when it flies half way around the globe to attack overseas targets. Therefore advance planning and receiving intelligence in a timely manner is of paramount importance. * Stealth aircraft are vulnerable to detection immediately before, during and after using their weaponry. Since reduced RCS bombs and cruise Missiles are yet not available; all armament must be carried internally to avoid increasing the radar cross section. As soon as the bomb bay doors opened, the planes RCS will be multiplied.
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Mayank Verma Ň&#x2030; Pre-Final Year TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) is an USA acronym. The internationally accepted name is Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS). TCAS is a computer based system, whose basic purpose is to minimize the danger of mid-air collisions between aircraft. It is designed to keep a watch on the airspace around an
Control (ATC), which is manually supervised, using a primary RADAR. TCAS is an implementation of Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) mandated by International Civil Aviation organization to be fitted to all aircraft which has a weight over 5700 Kg or having a seating capacity of more than 19 passengers.
19. MIG 29 Collision aircraft in a cooperating way with other similarly TCAS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; equipped aircraft. TCAS works independently of the normal Air Traffic
TCAS is an aircraft system using secondary surveillance radar SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar) transponder signals
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PRAKSHEP which operates independent of groundbased equipment to advice the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped with the similar SSR transponder. Basic Principle TCAS depends on radio communication between OWN aircraft and COOPERATING other aircraft. Each TCAS-equipped aircraft radio-interrogates all other aircraft within a predetermined range, about their LAT/LONG position. The interrogation frequency is 1030 MHz0L-band. All other aircraft send their reply to OWN interrogating aircraft at a slightly higher frequency- 1090 MHz This “Interrogation-reply” cycle occurs several times within a second. This is the data acquisition mode. Based on this frequent and constant “interrogation-reply” cycles, TCAS electronic system builds a 3-d map of the aircraft in space, using primary navigational data like bearing, altitude and range. The built-in computer extrapolates current range and altitude differences to anticipated future values, in order to determine, if a potential collision-threat exists. If a threat exists, appropriate aural and visual warnings are provided in the form of either visual warnings or through cockpit displays.
When the threat is removed TCAS-1 announces “CLEAR OF CONFLICT”. TCAS-2 is the second and present generation TCAS system fitted on most of the contemporary commercial airlines. TCAS-2 provides, in addition to whatever TCAS-1 offers, vocal instructions to overcome the impending danger. This is called Resolution Advisory-RA, suggesting to the pilot either “DESCEND, DESCEND” or “CLIMB, CLIMB” or “ADJUST VERTICAL SPPED ADJUST”-meaning, alter the vertical speed. TCAS -2 systems work in a coordinated manner-i.e. if one aircraft is advised to CLIMB, the other aircraft is told to DESCEND, thereby increasing the vertical separation. TCAS-2 essentially ensures vertical separation. Note that TCAS-2 provides only vertical guidance and no lateral guidance. TCAS-3 – (now abandoned) gives not only vertical separation, but also lateral separation. The lateral separation commands are- “TURN RIGHT”, “TURN LEFT” in addition to vertical commands ‘CLIMB’ and ‘DESCEND’. TCAS-3 is not covered in this book. THREAT DETECTION OF TCAS
There are several improvements made in TCAS development since the inception of concept. For example:
There are two parameters used to declare an alarm:
TCAS-1 monitors over a range of 40 km and provide bearing and altitude of other aircraft. It offers TA, warning the pilot that another aircraft is closing on, giving audible synthesized voice “TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC”-No evasive measures are given to the pilot, who has to act on his own, possibly with ATC help.
2. Distance (DMOD- Distance Modified)Based.
1. Time (τ)-based
LIMITATIONS OF TCAS-2
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PRAKSHEP All other conflicting aircrafts in the surrounding airspace must also have TCAS capability. TCAS is not incorporated in smaller aircraft due to high costs involved. Present generation TCAS-2 is limited to vertical separation only. ATC is unaware of RAs to aircraft and may issue conflicting
instructions, thus confusing the pilot. Present TCAS is range-based. Instead, time-based TCAS would be more appropriate. There is a possibility of hitting the local terrain, if RAs are followed. RAs may demand climb/descent rates beyond the aircraft performance capabilities.
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Curiosity
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20. Curiosity Rover's First Test Drive on Mars
here to find them? Yajur Kumar | Final Year
Aliens and extra-terrestrial life are subjects of wide imagination and astrobiological research. Till now, it is the one big question which is still not answered with full faith. It is
are we alone in this really big universe? I fascinated when I was about 8, by seeing Spielbergâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ET, and then MIBs. To that age, I was unaware of the many facts which could
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21. They can be between us! (Boris The Animal - A scene from Men in Black 3) help me sorting out a common and more preferable answer. Today I think in a slightly different manner. The big question: ‘Are we alone in this universe?’ is still the same. But, we know it must be either among ‘No’ or ‘Yes’. If it would be affirmative, that would surely be a great area of research, but if it would be negative, even then, it will left us with a number of curious questions. It is hence important, to find out, if we are alone, what makes us so special in this universe which has billions of galaxies, and so the stars, and the planets. If we are able to reason this question, the chances of our understanding of this vast universe and origin of life, will be easier comparatively. One initial idea before looking into the vast and unending universe for traces of life, is to define life, its nature and how we ensure that it is meaningful to us. There are a few
questions. What is the nature of any other life on any other planet, is it microbial life, life-like bacteria, and if it is so, then how can it be compared with life on Earth and where is it. Or is it intelligent life? What is its level of intelligence, can we communicate with it? If yes, what will be the consequences of communication? These questions are yet obvious. The planet which we live on orbit one of the 200 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy. And our own galaxy is probably one of the many-many billions of galaxies throughout the universe. In truth, we don’t know how many galaxies are there in the universe, they are probably more than 200 billion. So, it seems a reasonable question to ask, is there life on other planet. To understand life on other planets, we need to understand the origin of life on our planet, its connection with the cosmic environment.
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PRAKSHEP Astrobiology presents a multi-step method for the same. Firstly, we need to look on the matter how and where did life originate on Earth? Was it inevitable? Is this a common process that you get life wherever you found suiting conditions? When did this happen? Was it happen when the Earth was newly formed or after a million year? What is the evidence of origin of life on Earth, was it
the life. The next step is estimating the history of life on Earth once it gets emerged. It is filled with questions like how is life related? Looking around, you can see a wide variety of life, varying from dogs, giraffes, to amoeba and viruses. How did multicellular life emerge? What have been the major catastrophes for life? How does life goes vanish? Astrobiologists seeks such questions to respond to answer big questions like is their life on other planets.
Life is made up of elements. So, when you look at the periodic table, there are over 100 elements, but life on the major fact, is made up of only few of those elements namely, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur, sometimes referred to as a single 22. Mycoplasma Pneumoniae word â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;CHNOPSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. These are the six elements which unicellular or multicellular? Once we have makes most of the life. Hence, at elemental established with the origin of life on the level the life is much simple than we look it planet, we will look at the limits of life. What at physical level. Other elements are also is the limit of extreme in which life can used by the life, such as iron, found in our sustain itself, how far you can push it on the blood, calcium, found in our bones and many level of extreme environment? It is others. But, when we look at the common important for astrobiologists to understand elements among these, we find these six the possibility of life on other planets, which CHNOPS elements. These elements come is known as accessing the habitability of the together to form molecules, such as glycine, planet. By studying life on our planet, finding which is an amino acid, one of the building the traces of life in the extremes on our own blocks of protein, made up of carbon, planet, we will have the pre-requisite hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. One thing information about where and in how much that you can notice here is that carbon is the extreme on other planet we can search for building block of the materials for life. It
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PRAKSHEP bounds the other elements together to form the basic molecules. So, we can say that the life on Earth is carbon based. The molecules like glycine can form long chains together, and when they do so, they end up in in a long chain of what we called proteins. Proteins are a long chain of amino acids and you can imagine them like a long chain made with the beads of amino acids. These chains starts to do complex things like bind to another chain
these molecules we eat, as seen in proteins and sugars, while some of these molecules are made in our body, inside the cell. There is a nice example of complexity that creates inside a cell, an adenine can be transformed to adenosine by adding a ribose sugar inside the cell, adding phosphorus atoms to adenosine which links to gives us phosphate groups, gives us what we called adenosine triphosphate. If we take adenosine
or fold up forming a particular shape, forming a diversity of proteins. Of course, life needs some more sort of molecules, like sugars. Sugars also forms in a similar way and ends up in making complex structures what we known as carbohydrates. These are the building blocks which can be put together think as the initial elements for life. Some of
triphosphate and string it together with a variety of other molecules, it forms a component of Deoxyribonucleic acid-DNA, the information storage molecule of life. It has the so-called genetic code, which transforms the information from one generation of life to other. So, it is the nice example how life can starts from basic
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PRAKSHEP elements of the periodic table to the complex strings of molecules which stores the information about it.
combines together to form rocky planets like Venus, Earth and Mars. There is also the migration of planets like the case with
23. Extensive early Archean rock records preserved in southwest Greenland If we want to know about the conditions on early Earth, conditions in which the early life emerged, we need to know about the formation of Earth in the early solar system. The solar system formed like other star systems in the universe. The molecular cloud begins to collapse under its own gravity, it forms a protostar, a region of much higher density at the center of nebula. Different structures, then, begin to form, causing the ignition of the nuclear fusion reactions, where deuterium fused with tritium and forms helium with a neutron, releasing much light and energy. Beyond the star, the material begins to collapse and forms planets. Beyond the line, known as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;ice-lineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, volatiles like water, helium and hydrogen begins to collapse and forms giant gas planets like Jupiter and Saturn. In the inner region of the nebula, small pieces of rock
Uranus and Neptune. So, once the Earth was originated, the conditions for the formation of life initiated. One fascinating fact is that Earth is formed about 4.5 billion years ago, but the oldest rocks are about 3.8 to 4 billion years old. In other words, we do not have the rock records for first 11 per cent of the rock history. It makes it very challenging to estimate the conditions on early Earth. The oldest rocks that we have accessed yet are from the Asia regions of Greenland, which preserves the oldest evidence for conditions on early Earth. (Continued at www.curiosity.blog.com)
my
blog
So, if you find this interesting, join me at my blog about curious things.
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o We Exists Alone in this Universe? Shiv Om | Fresher Year
The very soon a question arise “Are we alone in this universe?” many of you say ‘yes’ and many ‘no’ but I would say ‘yes’. Can you deny the fact about the crash of 11 UFOs (Unidentified Flying Object) near Roswell New Mexico in past years? “No”. In 1948 Aztec, New Mexico, UFO incident took
diameter. Many sightseeing and crash have been seen in different part of the world. Apart from NASA, some secret societies are running in US, which are doing research on ETs (Extra Terrestrial) on other planet. And they have got more, than our expectations.
place. A hovered flying saucer crash there. A week later on 25 march 1948, 16 dead humanoid found in an attack by Roswell army. The flying saucer was about 30m in
different parts of the world, according to a recent research? It may be till ‘7’ in no. If we can have a copy of ourselves on different places with different environmental
Do you know your “copies” are existing in
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PRAKSHEP conditions. Can’t we have a planet like earth, which is merely a “zero” in this universe but still “zero” have its existence? When this universe formed with the big explosion, a galaxy Milky Way, a solar system and as well our planet earth came in to existence and then life on it. Don’t you think? The very same explosion have created a galaxy similar to milky way, a solar system and an earth like planet,” yes”, because there are 100 billions of galaxies in the universe, 2 to 4 billion stars and about 2000 earth like planet present in our galaxy. In recent study by the rover “Curiosity” on Mars, found the evidence of very large water bodies and fossils of ‘sea’ dead remains. Jupiter’s moon “Europa” have largest oceans, which is an ideal condition for existence of life. Do you know? There is a micro-organism named “Tardigrdes” which can survive in the vacuum of space. Do you know? Life exist in acidic medium, where sustenance of life is very difficult but still there is life. So why can’t on other planet? We can say aliens do exist in other parts of the universe and their science is far more developed than ours because we do not get on Mars yet but they have visited us from light years of distance. Aliens may or may not look like us. They may be made up of unknown elements. They may not have
organic skin but may have skin of iron like material. If so there must be an environment supporting their survival. May be thousands of years ago Mars would have life. Now it is vanished because of great changes in its environment for a very long time. As some unique life vanished from earth like Dinosaurs. Earlier we didn’t know about the oceans on “Europa”, about the fossils on Mars, about the Dinosaurs on earth, about the crash of UFOs. But it came to know only after the exploration and scientist’s research. Some way you think, we are alone here but always you may not be right. We have to accept the infinite possibilities of ETs life on other planets because these discussed facts and figures are saying something. May be this time aliens are thinking the same, what we are thinking now about them.
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oeing 787 Case Study
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Megha Marwari | Final Year
When Boeing’s 787 DREAMLINER completed its first test flight in Dec 2009, it was hailed as the future of commercial aviation. In the statement of Boeing Dreamliner is the company’s most fuel-efficient and the world’s first major airliner to use composite materials as the primary material in the
construction of its airframe. Distinguishing features of 787 includes:
Dreamliner
Electrical flight systems
A four-panel windshield Noise reducing chevrons on its engine nacelles Smoother nose contour First production airliner with fuselage assembled with one piece composite barrel section instead of multiple aluminum sheet.
In this series we have 787-8 and 787-9 airliner. Let us have look at the specification of the both.
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Length
787-8
787-9 Two
242 (3-class) 264 (2-class) 375 (1-class)
250–290 280 (3-class)
186 ft. (56.7 m)
206 ft. (62.8 m)
Wingspan Wing area
197 ft. 0 in (60.0 m) 3,501 sq. ft. (325 m2)
Wing sweepback
32.2 degrees
Height Fuselage dimensions Maximum cabin width
55 ft. 6 in (16.9 m) Width: 18 ft. 11 in (5.77 m) / Height: 19 ft. 7 in (5.97 m)
Cargo capacity
Maximum takeoff weight Maximum landing weight Maximum zero-fuel weight Operating empty weight
18 ft. (5.49 m)
4,826 cu ft. (137 m3) 28× LD3 or 9x (88x125) pallets or 8x (96x125) pallets + 2x LD3 502,500 lb. (228,000 kg)
6,086 cu ft. (172 m3) 36× LD3 or 11x (88x125) pallets or 11x (96x125) pallets 553,000 lb. (251,000 kg)
380,000 lb. (172,000 kg)
425,000 lb. (193,000 kg)
355,000 lb. (161,000 kg)
400,000 lb. (181,000 kg)
259,500 lb. (118,000 kg)
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PRAKSHEP Cruising speed Maximum speed Range, fully loaded Takeoff distance at MTOW (sea level, ISA) Maximum fuel capacity Service ceiling Engines (×2)
Mach 0.85 (567 mph, 490 knots, 913 km/h at 35,000 ft./10,700 m) Mach 0.89 (593 mph, 515 knots, 954 km/h at 35,000 ft./10,700 m) 7,650–8,200 nmi (14,200– 15,200 km; 8,800–9,440 mi)
8,000–8,500 nmi (14,800– 15,700 km; 9,210–9,780 mi)
10,300 ft. (3,100 m) High Thrust Rating: 8,500 ft. (2,600 m)
33,340 US gal (126,210 L)
Thrust (×2)
36,641 US gal (138,700 L)
43,000 ft. (13,100 m) General Electric GEnx-1B or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000
64,000 lbf (280 kN)
INCIDENTS WITH 787-8: • 2012: In July, a fan shaft on an engine fails during runway tests at Charleston International Airport, South Carolina • 4 Dec, 2012: A United Airlines 787 makes an emergency landing in New Orleans after electrical problems • 13 Dec, 2012: A Qatar Airways 787 is grounded after electrical power distribution problems • 17 Dec, 2012: United Airlines finds an electrical problem in a second aircraft • 2013: On 7 Jan, a fire starts in a lithium ion battery pack of a Japan Airlines 787 in Boston
71,000 lbf (320 kN)
• 8 Jan, 2013: United Airlines found faulty wiring to battery • 8 Jan, 2013: Take-off aborted after about 150 liters of fuel spills from Japan Airlines Dreamliner in Boston • 9 Jan, 2013: ANA cancels a flight after a computer wrongly reports a brake problem • 11 Jan, 2013: An oil leak is found in an engine of an ANA 787 flight • 11 Jan, 2013: A cockpit window on an ANA Dreamliner cracks during a Japanese domestic flight. The plane lands safely with no injuries
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PRAKSHEP • 13 Jan, 2013: The same aircraft experiences another, separate fuel leak while undergoing tests in Tokyo
Takamatsu in Japan after a smoke alert goes off • 16 Jan, 2013: Japan's two main airlines, ANA and Japan Airlines, ground their Dreamliners • 17 Jan, 2013: All Dreamliners are grounded amid safety concerns
24. Burned out battery of 787-B • 15 Jan, 2013: Another Dreamliner operated by ANA makes an emergency landing at
REASONS FOR THESE INCIDENTS: The main reason behind these incidents was the battery problem (Lithium –ion battery). The battery caught fire abroad a parked plane in Boston operated by Japan Airlines; another emitted smoke during an All Nippon Airways flight in Japan, forcing the jet to make an emergency landing. The battery had signs of short circuiting and thermal runway but the exact cause of the incident has not yet been detected.
never know what and by extension who was responsible. According to him 75% of Boeing’s test plans for the plane has been approved and that 25% of the testing was complete. Recently Boeing has received approval from the US FEDERAL AVAITION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) on the company’s plan to test and certify improvements to the 787’s battery system successful completion of each step within the plan will result in the FAA’s approval to resume commercial 787 flight.
Michael K. Sinnett, the Dreamliner Chief Engineer, acknowledged that Boeing had not pinned down the exact cause of the overheating, and said the company might
Recently a Boeing 787 took off from Seattle Monday on a test flight to see if a redesigned battery system works properly while the plane is in the air.
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lying High Apoorva Mehrotra & Devanand Yadav | Fresher Year
Hundred years after Orville Wright’s first flight, K R N SWAMY remembers Shivkur Bapuji Talpade, the Indian who flew an unmanned aircraft, eight years before Wright Orville Wright demonstrated on December 17th 1903 that it was possible for a ‘manned heavier than air machine to fly’. But, in 1895, eight years earlier, the Sanskrit scholar Shivkar Bapuji Talpade had designed a basic aircraft called Marutsakthi (meaning Power of Air) based on Vedic technology and had it take off unmanned before a large audience in the Chowpathy beach of Bombay. The importance of the Wright brothers lies in the fact, that it was a manned flight for a distance of 120 feet and Orville Wright became the first man to fly. But Talpade’s unmanned aircraft flew to a height of 1500 feet before crashing down and the historian Evan Koshtka, has described Talpade as the ‘first creator of an aircraft’.
Sastra (Aeronautical Science) expounded by the great Indian sage Maharishi Bhardwaja. One western scholar of Indology StephenKnapp has put in simple words or rather has tried to explain what Talpade did and succeeded!
As the world observes the one hundredth anniversary of the first manned flight, it is interesting to consider the saga of India’s 19th century first aircraft inventor for his design was entirely based on the rich treasury of India’s Vedas. Shivkar Bapuji Talpade was born in 1864 in the locality of Chirabazar at Dukkarwadi in Bombay.
According to Knapp, the Vaimanika Shastra describes in detail, the construction of what is called, the mercury vortex engine the forerunner of the ion engines being made today by NASA. Knapp adds that additional information on the mercury engines can be found in the ancient Vedic text called Samaranga Sutradhara. This text also devotes 230 verses, to the use of these machines in peace and war. The Indologist William Clarendon, who has written down a detailed description of the mercury vortex engine in his translation of Samaranga Sutradhara quotes thus ‘Inside the circular air frame, place the mercury-engine with its solar mercury boiler at the aircraft center. By means of the power latent in the heated mercury which sets the driving whirlwind in motion a man sitting inside may travel a great distance in a most marvelous manner. Four strong mercury containers must be built into the interior structure. When these have been heated by fire through solar or other sources the vimana (aircraft) develops thunder-power through the mercury.
He was a scholar of Sanskrit and from his young age was attracted by the Vaimanika
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) world’s richest/ most
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feared that only portions of Bharadwaja’s masterpiece Vaimanika Shas-tra survive today. The question that comes to one’s mind is, what happened to this wonderful encyclopedia of aeronautical knowledge accumulated by the Indian savants of yore, and why was it not used? But in those days, such knowledge was the preserve of sages, who would not allow it to be misused, just like the knowledge of atomic bombs is being used by terrorists today! According to scholar Ratnakar Mahajan who wrote a brochure on Talpade. ‘Being a Sanskrit scholar interested in aeronautics, Talpade studied and consulted a number of Vedic treatises like Brihad Vaimanika Shastra of Maharishi Bharadwaja Vimanachandrika of Acharya Narayan Muni Viman yantra of Maharish Shownik Yantra Kalp by Maharishi Garg Muni Viman Bindu of Acharya Vachaspati and Vimana Gyanarka Prakashika of Maharishi Dhundiraj’. This gave him confidence that he can build an aircraft with mercury engines. One essential factor in the creation of these Vedic aircraft was the timing of the Sun’s Rays or Solar energy (as being now utilized by NASA) when they were most effective to activate the mercury ions of the engine. Happily for Talpade Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad of Baroda a great supporter of the Sciences in India, was willing to help him and Talpade went ahead with his aircraft construction with mercury engines. One day in 1895 (unfortunately the actual date is not mentioned in the Kesari newspaper of Pune which covered the event) before an curious
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PRAKSHEP scholarly audience headed by the famous Indian judge/ nationalist/ Mahadeva Govinda Ranade and H Sayaji Rao Gaekwad Talpade had the good fortune to see his un manned aircraft named as ‘Marutsakthi’ take off, fly to a height of 1500 feet and then fall down to earth. But this success of an Indian scientist was not liked by the Imperial rulers. Warned by the British Government the Maharaja of Baroda stopped helping Talpade. It is said that the remains of the Marutsakthi were sold to ‘foreign parties’ by the relatives of Talpade in order to salvage whatever they can out of their loans to him. Talpade’s wife
died at this critical juncture and he was not in a mental frame to continue with his researches. But his efforts to make known the greatness of Vedic Shastras was recognized by Indian scholars, who gave him the title of Vidya Prakash Pra-deep. Talpade passed away in 1916 un-honored, in his own country. As the world rightly honors the Wright Brothers for their achievements, we should think of Talpade, who utilized the ancient knowledge of Sanskrit texts, to fly an aircraft, eight years before his foreign counterparts.
FACT FILE. How powerful are jet engines? In May 2000, a chartered jet carrying the New York Knicks basketball team taxied too close to a line of cars parked on the tarmac. The blast from the taxiing jet’s engines flipped the car of head coach, Jeff Van Gundy, into the air and over three other cars, completely demolishing it.
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मंजिलें Akshay Malik | Pre-Final Year _____________________________________________________________________
मंजिल सामने थी, मैं कदम बढ़ा ना पाया,
आि याद आती िै उन रािों की
दो कदम की दूरी थी, मैं जिम्मत िटु ा न पाया,
मन करता िै दौड़ पड़ूँ नंगे पैरों से
बस ऐसे िी पीछे िटता गया
और न िी ड़र िै साूँसे रुकने का,
और अपनी रािों में खोता गया
अब ड़र निीं िैं कांटे चभु ने का,
ड़र िै मंजिल किीं दरू चली िाएगी ,
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और उसकी तलाश मे शायद ये जिंदगी गज़ ु र िाएगी,
एक आजखरी मौका िै मंजिल को पाने का, अब उन रािों पर दौड़ा चला िाऊंगा,
अगर ये ड़र पिले लगा िोता तो आि मंजिल से इतना दूर न िुआ िोता, पर अभी वक़्त बाकी िै रािों को जिर से ढूंढने का,
कांटे चभु े तब भी कदम पीछे न िटाऊूँगा, सपने देखे िैं उस मंजिल के मैंने , उन सपनों को पूरा करने के जलए अब अपनी िान पर खेल िाऊंगा मैं।
थोड़ी मेिनत तो करनी िोगी, थोड़ी जिम्मत तो करनी िोगी,
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उड़ान का इतिहास Archana | Pre-Final Year
एकल िीव श्रंखला से िब मनष्ु य का आगाि िुआ ,
िै इजतिास इसका साक्षात गवाि , ग्रीक , फ़्ांस या इंग्लैंड िुआ ,
तभी उसके अन्तमम न में उड़ने का परवाज़ िुआ ।।
परथ्वी की सति से आकाश छूने का प्रयत्न बारम्बार िुआ ।।
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आसमान छू सकते िैं िम , बात ये िब लोगों ने मानी , सर जलयानाडो दा जवंन्सी ने तब पंख बनाने की ठानी ।। असिल िोकर भी उन्िोंने उड़ने का आधार जदया , अन्य आजवष्कारकों के मन में ऊिाम का संचार जकया ।।
वाययु ान की कल्पना को मूतम रूप में जदया सिा ।। 17 जदसम्बर 1903 की सबु ि को िमने उड़ने का आगाि जकया, िब प्रथम वाययु ान ने 36 मीटर का सिर 12 सेकंड में तय जकया ।। इस तरि 1903 में प्रथम वाययु ान का उद्भव िुआ,
सर िॉिम कै ले ने उड़ने की िर कला को था छुआ,
जिर मनष्ु य ने पजक्षयों को भी उड़ने में नीचा जदखा जदया ।।
मीन की गजतजवजधयों से वाययु ान का रूप था बता जदया ।।
36 मीटर दरू ी का अब मीलों में जवस्तार िुआ, धरा से ऊपर उठने का सनु िरा सपना
अथक , अथाि प्रयासों से राइट ब्रदसम ने इजतिास रचा
आि ग्रि , उपग्रि और नक्षत्रों से भी पार िुआ ।।
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Creative among Us
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et Your Goals Pushpa Kumari | Final Year BE OPTIMISTIC optimism is faith that leads to achievement. BE INTELLIGENT when the best and brightest come together the possibilities are endless. BE DIFFERENT not going along with the crowd can help you to stand in the crowd. BE PERSISTENCE life is full of stop light but eventually they all change to go. BE GLOBAL it only takes the single thought to move the
world. BE INNOVATIVE a small idea is the birthplace of a great accomplishment. BE A WINNER winner must have a definite goal and a burning desire to achieve it. Well defined goals give a person a sense of direction, a feeling of accomplishment when he reaches his goals. More important than goal is sense of purpose and vision. They give meaning and fulfillment to life. What we get upon achieving our goals is a lot less than what we become. It is the process of becoming that gives us a good feeling. In goal-setting, we need to be realistic. Unrealistic goals remain in beyond accomplishment, leading to poor self-esteem,
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PRAKSHEP whereas realistic goals are encouraging and build high self-esteem. So, set your goal first and try to achieve it until you get success. GIVE THRUST YOURSELF INTERNALLY BE CONFIDENT When confidence in your eyes and hope is your wings then the sky is yours. BE CHALLENGING whatever you think or dream just begins it by believing yourself. BE PROGRESSIVE if you are willing to grow and learn progress is possible. BE FOCUSSED in the field of observations chance favors only the prepare mind. BE DARING you will never know what you can achieve, unless you try it. BE CONSISTENT concentration is the secret of strength.
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ho is Responsible? Namrata Saini | Final Year
The auxiliary force of Royal air force the Indian air force came into existence on 8th October 1932. Starting with 5 pilots and 4 Westland wapiti biplanes Indian air force now runs its organization with more than 100s of pilots and high-technology fighter aircrafts. Facing many ups and down in Indian history and fighting vulnerable wars like world warll(1939-1945) , Cargill war(1999) and many more Indian air force has shown an epic progress . But since every coin has two faces and the dark side of the air force is not in vain. It is my personal opinion that every individual of a country is responsible for development, growth, invention, decline or downfall of a country so we all must be acknowledges that what is going on in these defense organizations. Here let’s have a look upon some of the deals, project and scams happened and happening in Indian air force reading them you yourself find out who is responsible?
two years. The CBI said it filed the criminal charges based on evidence it had gathered from the men and from documents it obtained from Italy and India’s defense ministry that indicated that alterations were made in the helicopter specifications to favor AgustaWestland. Tyagi has denied any wrong doing in the case. India has become the world’s biggest arms and defense equipment buyer in recent years and is expected to spend $80 billion over the next 10 years to upgrade its military.
Bribery in 750 million chopper deal
Previous aviation minister A.K. Antony in a meeting with Rajya Sabha informed that India has met 482 MIG accidents till 2012, which leads to the loss in the life of 171 pilots, 39 civilians and eight other servicemen. In last five years 34 MIG aircraft have gone through sever accidents that leads to the death of six pilots and 5 civilians. After
Former air force chief Shashi Tyagi and 11 of other people were found guilty of taking a huge bribe to steer the contract of Italian Finmeccanica’s helicopter division, AgustaWestland. They received bribes to clinch the purchase of 12 vvip helicopters
The company chairman when asked by the Italy government refuse for the charges as same as Mr. Satish Tyagi. The big deal faces the biggest scam in air force history. Aviation minister Ajit Singh asked Tyagi and 11 other involved to give their resignation. Although Country system faces shame in front of entire world. Is India Ready for making such deals? Or first we need to check our entire system. Whom to trust and whom not to be a big question now. MIG (the flying coffin)
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PRAKSHEP investigation it was found that the accident held due to technical problem in the aircraft and human errors though the actual cause of this increasing rate is still unknown. These accidents include accidents cases like MIG27, where luckily pilot got escaped. But no one could save the life of rest 5 ones. If this rate continues than Indian would lose remaining aircraft in coming 20 year and ultimately the decline of air force. A. K. Antony said that, “every accident is thoroughly investigated by a Court of Inquiry to ascertain the cause of accident and remedial measures are taken accordingly”. Rafale deal of $15 billion delayed “Dassault says HAL does not have the capacity and capability to assemble the aircraft” India planned to buy 126 fighter-jets from Dassault Aviation under the terms that, Dassault would provide 18 fighters in “flyaway” condition, and then let HAL manufacture the rest in India. However Dassault now wants two separate contracts to be singed- one for the ready-made ones, and another for the rest to be built by HAL. The sources said that the dispute leads to a delay in the deal which is in a need for the country. Dassault Rafale is a French twinengine delta wing fighter aircraft with semistealth technology capable of undertaking air supremacy interdiction and airborne nuclear mission. The time where other countries are running with 5th and 6th generation fighter aircraft, we are far behind and hence we need to improve our defense system very soon, as the power of any
countries are increasing and countries are like south Korea are pushing towards world war-3. The deal got halted in one statement that Is HAL is really not capable of manufacturing the aircraft. India today has 7 divisions of HAL consisting of both mechanical and avionics but then also we are lagging somewhere that we still cannot confidently say on international level that yes we are capable of manufacturing Rafale. Now who is responsible for this delay? Dassault who is trying to make profit? HAL department which lack the confident to justify the Dassault statement? HAL Chairman who is ignoring the progress or amendments required? Or the Head of the authority our very own Prime Minister? Millions spend on upgrading platforms The Brahmos- ALCM and Brahmos SLCM are spending millions OF DOLLAR in upgrading platforms. Are the cost justified? The SLCM variant of the Brahmos is designed to be carried in a modular launcher within the pressure hull of the submarine, which means the submarine would have to be lengthened by fitting another section. According to DRDO this will increase the offensive power but not the defensive power. Instead it believes that spending money on modification of the missile so that it passes through sub torpedo would be more beneficial and is the norm running worldwide. Brahmos is a 9m long, has a diameter of .7m and weight of 3.2 tones which is significantly larger than nirbhay. DRDO working under project-75i need the
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PRAKSHEP upgraded form of Brahmos because present missile needed another section to be added in the submarine that leads to the compromisation with the stealth characteristic besides being prohibitively expensive. The airborne variant of the Brahmos, Brahmos-A is under development and can be used only in one aircraft i.e. (Su30MKI). Now are we making wise decision? And who will take responsibility for the money and efforts being put forward DRDO who has given its statement? Brahmos Variant who
are manufacturing platforms? Or someone else? With all the above news update I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want you people to blame the system or to believe the system is insensible or corrupted. I just want you all to thing that who is exactly responsible for the problems? And what efforts should be taken to improve them? We all being an Upcoming Future of Aviation Industry must have our own views towards the system. So that we do not depend upon what we see or hear. But believe what is correct.
(The above article contains personal opinion of the writer.)
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rief History of Flight Pankaj Mishra | Final Year
Since, the dawn of human intelligence, the idea of flying in the same realm as bird has possessed human mind. All early thinking of human flight centered on the imitations of birds. The various unsung ancient and
with sometime disasters and always unsuccessful, consequences in a leaping tower or roof, flapping vigorously. In time, the idea of strapping a pair of wing to arms fell out of favor. It was replaced by the concept of wings flapped up and down by
medieval people fashioned wing and met
various mechanical mechanisms. Powered
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PRAKSHEP by some type of human arm, leg, or body movement. These machines are called Ornithocopters. . Human effort to fly literally got off the ground on November 21, 1783, when a balloon carrying Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis de Arlandes ascended into the air and drifted 8047m across Paris.
A red-letter date in the progress of aeronautics in 1799. In that year Sir George Cayley in England engraves on a silver disk his concept of a fuselage, a fixed wing, and horizontal and vertical tails. He is the first person to propose separate mechanism for generation of lift and propulsion system. He is the grand parents of modern airplanes.
Figure 25. Catering in 60s Airplane
Leonardo da Vinci conceives the Orthithopter and leaves more than 500 sketches of his design down from 148-1490. However, this approach to flight proved to be unsuccessful over the ensuring countries. The Montgolfier hot air balloons floats over Paris in the November 21, 1783, for the first time in the history, a human being is lifted and carried through the air for a sustained period.
Otto Lilienthal designed the first fully successful gliders in the history. During the period from 1891-1896, he achieves more than 200 successful glider flights, if he had not been killed in a glider crash in 1896, Lilienthal might had achieved powered flight before Wright Brothers. Samuel Pierpont Langley, secretary of the Smithsonian Institute achieves the first sustained heavier than air, unmanned, powered flight in the history with is small
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scale aerodrome in 1896. However, is attempt to manned flight are unsuccessful, the last one failing on December 8, 1903, just nine days before the stunning success of Wright Brothers.
Another reed letter date in the history of aeronautics, indeed in the history of humanity in December 17, 1903. On the day at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina, Orville and Wilbur Wright achieves the first control, sustained, powered, and heavier than air,
manned flight in a history. This flight is to revolutionize life during the twenty century. The development of aeronautics takes up exponentially after the Wright Brothers public demonstration in Europe and the USA in 1908 the ongoing works of the Glenn Curtiss and The Wrights, the continuous influence of Langleyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s early work form an important aeronautical triangle in the development of aeronautics before world war first.
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he Paper Airplane Rateesh & Abhishek | Sophomore Year Air — the stuff that's all around you. How easily an airplane moves through the air, or its aerodynamics, is the first consideration in making an airplane fly for a long distance. If you want your plane to fly as far as
keep your plane's weight to a minimum to help fight against gravity's pull to the ground. Long flights come when these four forces — drag, gravity, thrust, and lift — are balanced. Two Important terms: 1. Centre of gravity 2. Aerodynamic Center – at a distance of 1/4th of the wing from the front. A plane is stable if the center of gravity is before the aerodynamic center. So, these should be enough for us to make a paper plane. Let’s start making the plane: 1. 2. 3.
Start with an ordinary A4 sheet. The exact size is not important; it should be rectangular and not square. Fold over the left hand corner as shown. Crease
4. 5. 6.
Result Fold over the right hand corner. Crease
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7. 8. 9.
Result Carefully close in the sides as shown. Fold down the center line from front to back.
10. Fold the resulting left hand tip up as shown. 11. Crease along the bottom edge. 12. Repeat the same procedure on the right section.
13. Fold the left hand point back. 14. Crease
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16. Bend the left panel as shown. 17. Crease from back to front only 2/3 of the way. 18. Study photos 18 and 19 carefully. These folds are difficult to describe. Try to duplicate them as shown in the photos.
19. Mirror the folds on the right. 20. Turn the plane over and fold the point back and crease as shown. 21. Turn the plane over again. The result should be similar to the photo.
22. Crease wing as shown. 23. Moisten the crease with your tongue. Do this slowly and carefully or you could receive a painful paper cut on your tongue.
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25. To make the tail, fold down the center of the strip of paper to form a trough. 26. Tear as shown to form control surfaces. The folds should be parallel with the bottom of the trough. 27. Fold wings up.
28. Fold the right wing down as shown in photos 28 and 29. Take special care to angle this fold in such a way so that the leading edge of the wing is slightly higher than the trailing edge. 29. Study this photo and you will see that the fold is not exactly parallel with the trough at the bottom but slightly angled as described in photo 28. 30. The plane should look like this at this point.
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FACT FILE. One of the strangest forms of lightning is ball lightning, which can form inside an airplane and appear to be rolling down the aisle while glowing and sparkling. Although it's startling, it has never harmed anyone.
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CAREERS Career options in Aviation Fields – An Overview of Companies in the field by Megha Marwari & Yajur Kumar
Here’s a list of few aeronautics based companies in which aeronautical engineering fresher and students can apply for the purpose of training, jobs and internships. COMPANIES
CONTACT SOURCE
BaeHAL- BANGLORE
BAeHAL Software Ltd. HAL Esatate, Airport Road ,Banglore, India -56017 Phone:+918025225418, 25226332 Fax:+918025220915 Email:marketing@baehal.com , hr@baehal.com Website:www.baehal.com
Applied Thermal Technologies- PUNE
Applied Thermal Technologies India Pvt. Ltd. Kapil Towers, c-wing, 3rd Floor, Next to R.T.O Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune-411001 Phone:+91-20-66030625 Fax:+91-20-66030626 Email:contact@appliedthermal.co.in Website:http://www.appliedthermal.co.in
LMS India
BANGLORE: No.36,Ground Floor B, Crown Point, Lavelle Road, Kasturaba Rod Cross, Bangalore-560001 Phone:+91 80 4078 6800 Fax:+91 80 4078 6820 Email:info.in@lmsintl.com
Infotech Enterprises ltd.
Infotech IT Park Plot No-110A & 110 B Phase 1, Electronics City Hosur Road Banglore- 560 100 Phone:+91 80 2852 2341
Safran India Liason
Safran India Liason office(Safran) Hindustan Times House- INDIA
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CADES Digitech
ESI Software Pvt. Ltd. No.24-25, 27th Cross Banashankri 2nd Stage Banglore 560070 Phone:+91 80 4181-8400 Fax:+91 80 4181-8405 CADES Digitech Pvt. Ltd. Kirloskar Business Park, Block ‘C’ 2nd floor , Hebbal Banglore-560 024, India Phone:+91-80-4193 9000 Fax:+91-80-4193 9099 Email:info@cadestech.com
Zeus Numerix Mumbai
Zeus Numerix Pvt. Ltd Mumbai Postal: ISquareIT Campus P-14 ,Rajiv Gandhi Infotech Park, Phase 1, Hinjwadi Pune-411057 India Phone:+91 20 64731511, +91 20 64739964 Fax:+91 22 39167159 Email:contact@zeusnumerix.com
Geometric – Banglore , Pune, Mumbai
Email:info@geometricglobal.com
Ingersoll Rand –Banglore, Pune, Chennai
Bangaluru: Plot No 35, KIADB Industrial Area, Bidadi Bengaluru 562109 Phone:+91 80 22166001
ProSIM Banglore
ProSIM R&D Pvt. Ltd. #4, 1st b main, 1st N Block, Rajaji Nagar, Banglore-560010 India Phone:+91 80 2332 3020 Fax:+91 80 2332 3304 Email:info@pro-sim.com
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Abaqus Engineering Analysis Solutions Chennai
Abaqus Engineering Analysis Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 3m, prince Arcade, 22-a, Cathedral road, Chennai 600086 Phone:+91-44-28114624, +91-44-28115087
BRAHMOS AEROSPACE THIRUVANANTHAPURAM LIMITED
HR-in-Charge(BATL), BrahMos Aerospace Pvt. Ltd. 16 Cariappa Marg, Kriby Place New Delhi Cantt 110 010 India
QuEST Global
QuEST Global Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Ground Floor, Building-5 B, Primal Projects Pvt. Ltd. SEZ(pritech II), Bellandur Village, Varthur Hobli, Bangalore East Taluk, Bangalore Karnataka-560 103 Phone:+91(80)4119 0900 Fax:+91(80)4152 3060 Email:career@quest-global.com, info_india@questglobal.com
Ignis Aerospace
Registered office: No 17/17 , 30th Main , 7th Cross, Banashankari 3rd Stage, Banglore-560085 Phone:+91-80-2679 2906 Fax:+91-80 2679 2944 Email:enquiry@ignisaerospace.com
Besides these, there are several other companies which are mentioned below.
ANSYS PUNE ATENA BANGLORE ATKINS BANGLORE NFOTEC DIGITAL ENGINEERING –BANGLORE,MUMBAI CSM SOFTWARE BANGLORE
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MENTOR GRAPHICS-HYDERABAD,BANGLORE,NOIDA TRANSOFT INTERNATIONAL-BANGLORE PACIFIC MINDWARE ENGINEERING PVT.LTD. PUNE GODRICH AEROSPACE INGERSOLL RAND-BANGLORE,PUNE,CHENNAI HONEYWELL-BANGLORE CAE SIMULATION-BANGLORE TRIDIAGONAL SOLUTIONS-PUNE TETERAHEDRIX ENGINEERING –PUNE AIRBUS-BANGLORE ESSENTIAL ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS PVT.LTD.-BANGLORE CADMAXX SOLUTIONS –BANGLORE ONWARD TECHNOLOGIES LTD.-MUMBAI,DELHI,CHENNAI ALTRAN TECHNOLOGIES-NOIDA ,BANGLORE 3D CAD PRIVATE LTD.-BANGLORE,PUNE GE-BANGLORE ALSTOM-NOIDA GGS TECHNICAL PUBLICATION SERVICES –CHENNAI,BANGLORE MAHINDRA ENGINEERING –BANGLORE MAHINDRA SATYAM TAAL-HOSUR-BANGLORE GENSER –BANGLORE SHAURYA AERONAUTICS PRIVATE LTD.-DELHI VESTAS- CHENNAI HYDE AVIATION ENGINEERING AND PRIVATE LTD. CAE SIMULATION TECHNOLOGIES PRIVATE LTD. ROLAND AND ASSOCIATES BEML LTD. MERRIN & ASSOCIATES JUPITER AVIATION
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