Phonology by Yesli Cabrera

SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES TOPIC:

PHONOLOGY.

TEACHER: MR. JULIO BLANCO. STUDENT’S NAME: ID: 31-1572-2014.

LAST NAME, NAME: OCHOA CABRERA, YESLI ADILENE.

September 16, 2014: San Salvador, El Salvador, Central América.

OCHOA CABRERA, YESLI ADILENE.

INTRODUCTION.

The present work aims to share important information studied phonology class so understandable and less technique to achieve greater understanding on the part of readers.

INDEX. Introduction.…………………….…………………………………………….3 Index………………………………………………………………………..…4 Body of handaout…………………………………….………….…………..5-28 a) Consonants. b) Vowels. c) Suprasegmentals. 1. Assimilation. 2. Ellipsis. 3. Schwas. d) Clusters. e) Homographs, Homophones. f) Minimal pairs. Conclution………..…………………………………………………………...29 Bibliography………………………………………………………………..…30

TOPICS. a) CONSONANTS.

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Presentation:

A consonant is a speech sound that's not a vowel. The sound of a consonant is produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs. In writing, a consonant is any letter of the alphabet except a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. When two or more consonant sounds are pronounced in succession without an intervening vowel (as in the words dream and bursts), the group is called a consonant blend or consonant cluster. In a consonant blend, the sound of each individual letter can be heard. By contrast, in a consonant digraph (as in the word phone), two successive letters represent a single sound. (Nordquist, n.d.) Many consonant sounds come in pairs. For example, P and B are produced in the same place in the mouth with the tongue in the same position. The only difference is that P is an unvoiced sound (no vibration of the vocal cords) while B is a voiced sound (vocal cords vibrate). Put your hand on your throat as you say the pairs below to feel the difference. (e Learn English Language, n.d.)

• Explanation: Consonants are all the letters of the alphabet except the vocal sound gets each differently and has different form each letter has its pronunciation: Place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing. • Application: Consonant sounds [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [sh], [zh], [h], [ch], [j], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [w], [y]; pen, be, ten, do, Kate, go, feel, very, thin, this, so, zoo, show, beige, he, cheese, just, me, no, sing, live, red, we, yes; The sound [p] as in PEN. peel – piece – peer – pick – pin – pen – pair – pack – palm – part – pause – pour – port – pond – pool – pure – poor – put – pull – person – public – pay – pain – pie – pound – point – pole – post; please – plenty – plan – plural – plug – play – split – splendid – splash – splurge; pretty – press – practice – prune – pray – price – proud – prose – spring – spread – spray – sprout; speak – spin – spend – span – sport – spoon – space – spy – spoil – spoke; paper – pepper – happen – happy – creepy – tipping – kept – napkin – apple – people – staple; tap – nap – cup – lip – drop – trip – keep – help – soup – tape – ripe – rope – grasp – crisp; The sound [b] as in BE. be – beat – beer – big – bit – best – bed – bare – bad – back – balm – bar – bore – boss – bought – boom – beauty – book – burn – burst – bus – bun – baby – buy – bound – boy – bone; bleed – bless – black – block – blue – blur – blood – blame – blind – blow; breed – bring – bread – brand – broad – brother – brain – break – bright – brown – broken;

habit – rabbit – ribbon – robber – robot – absent – number – able – terrible – rouble – gamble – tumble; tab – lab – stub – rub – rib – rob – knob – Bob – robe – bulb; The sound [t] as in TEN. team – tip – tell – tan – task – tar – tall – torn – taught – top – tool – tune – tour – took – turn – ton – take – time – town – toy – toe – tone; treat – trip – trend – track – true – trust – train – trace – try – street – strong – struck – straight – strike – stroke; steam – stick – step – stare – stand – star – store – stop – student – stir – stun – stable – style – stout – stone; city – pity – kitten – total – potato – writer – later – better – little – rattle – title – twenty – mister – pizza; set – meet – rate – write – part – coat – short – tact – draft – belt – point – spent – kept – last – taste – roast; looked – stopped – laughed – passed – released – reached – washed; The sound [d] as in DO. deep – deal – dear – dip – den – dare – Dan – dark – door – dog – do – duty – during – dirt – dull – day – die – down – don't; dream – drink – drip – dress – drag – draw – drop – drew – drum – drain – dry – drown – drone; lady – hidden – admire – edition – Edward – heading – idle – riddle – cradle – handle – bundle; kid – did – read – ride – made – mad – add – odd – cord – heard – would – could – send – kind – wind – round; played – studied – called – bored – lived – turned – managed – hated – started – needed – ended; The sound [k] as in KATE. keen – keep – kill – kiss – Ken – chemistry – can – cap – calm – car – call – corn – cool – cute – cook – curse – come – Kate – case – kind – coast – cone;

clean – clear – click – class – clue – clerk – club – claim – climb – cloud – clown – close; cream – critical – credit – crash – crawl – cruise – crush – crazy – cry – crowd – scream – scratch – scrape; fact – active – action – token – lecture – awkward – Arctic – mechanics – archive – miracle; [sk] scan – scale – scare – score – school – scope – escape – skate – ski – skin – skirt – skunk – sky; [k] account – accommodate – according – accumulate – accuse – occur; [ks] access – accent – accept – succeed; [ks] fix – relax – maximum – axis – excellent – exceed – except – excess – exchange – explain – explore; [ksk] exclaim – exclude – excuse – excursion; [kw] question – quite – quick – queen – quality – equal – require – request; cake – took – walk – talk – dark – oak – rack – pick – panic – magic – unique – bank – link – risk – task; The sound [g] as in GO. give – gift – get – guess – gas – gap – guard – gorge – gone – goose – good – girl – gun – gust – game – guy – guide – go – gold; glimpse – glare – glance – glamor – glue – gloomy – glum – glide – global – glow; green – grip – grab – grasp – grew – groom – great – ground – grow; begin – again – ago – legal – eager – beggar – regular – ignore – ugly – giggle – eagle – struggle – single – anger – hungry; [gw] language – linguist – Guatemala – Gwen; [gz] exist – exert – exam – exact – exhibit; big – bag – dog – leg – egg – rug – dialogue – vague – vogue; The sound [f] as in FEEL.

feel – feed – fear – fit – finish – fell – fed – fair – fast – far – four – form – fond – food – few – full – foot – fur – firm – fun – fame – fate – final – find – found – phone – photo; flick – flesh – flag – floor – floss – flew – flu – flirt – flame – fly – flight – Floyd – flown; free – freeze – frigid – friend – fresh – fragile – fraud – frog – fruit – frame – phrase – fry – frown – froze; office – offer – often – suffer – effect – coffee – muffin – defend – after – left – drift – soft; if – life – safe – loaf – half – deaf – stiff – staff – cuff – rough – tough – enough – laugh; The sound [v] as in VERY. veal – vivid – vet – very – variant – vast – vault – verb – vein – vague – vine – vital – vouch – voice – void – vote; even – evil – fever – eleven – event – level – lever – ever – every – invest – review – prevail – prevent – provoke; leave – give – live – active – love – move – brave – groove – stove – curve; The sound [θ] as in THIN. theme – thief – theater – theory – thin – thick – thing – think – therapy – thank – thorn – thought – third – thirty – thirsty – thermometer – Thursday – thoroughly – thumb – thunder – thousand; three – thrifty – thrill – thread – threat – throb – through – threw – thrust – thrive – throw – throat – throne; method – author – lethal – anything – everything – nothing – diphthong – without – sympathy; breath – bath – path – booth – tooth – teeth – truth – north – cloth – moth – earth – birth – faith – south – both – growth; health – wealth – length – strength – width – fifth – sixth – thirteenth – thirtieth – with; The sound [ð] as in THIS. these – this – then – them – their – there – that – than – the – they – those – though; other – mother – father – brother – leather – feather – weather – whether – together – gather – either – neither – further; 9

although – without – southern – northern – rhythm – clothes; breathe – bathe – soothe – smooth – clothe – with; The sound [s] as in SO. seem – seen – sin – simple – city – send – center – sad – sack – saw – sore – song – soon – suit – sir – certain – sun – suck – save – sail – side – sign – sound – sour – so – soul; lesson – listen – associate – society – privacy – agency – test – waste; sleep – slope – smell – smile – snake – snow – speak – span – split – splash – spray – spring – stay – stone – strain – stripe – sweet – swim; [sk] scale – scare – escape – scatter – score – school – scoundrel – screen – scrub – skate – skin – sky; [s] scene – scent – science – scissors – scythe – miscellaneous; [ks] accent – access – accept – except – excess – explain – relax – fix – mix; kiss – pass – advice – nice – notice – release – increase – reduce – use (n.) – loose – rinse – since – chance; looks – takes – asks – stops – keeps – types – laughs – coughs – fits – hates – tests – insists; The sound [z] as in ZOO. zebra – zero – zip – zigzag – zest – zap – zoo – zoom – zone; music – reason – poison – present – dozen – citizen – horizon – razor – resign – resist – busy – crazy – lazy – puzzle – sizzle – dazzle – realism – idealism – capitalism – socialism; [gz] exist – exert – exam – exact – exhibit; lose – choose – use (v.) – rose – those – wise – always – advise – surprise – organize – quiz – jazz; is – does – has – pays – runs – teams – finds – tells – rubs – lives – classes – loses – changes – fixes;

The sound [sh] as in SHOW. she – sheep – sheer – chic – ship – shed – share – champagne – short – shot – shoe – sure – sugar – should – shook – shirt – shut – shame – shake – shape – shine – show; shriek – shrimp – shrink – shrug – shrine; special – social – official – financial – politician – efficient – patient – delicious – suspicious – precious – cautious – discussion – expression – mission – pressure – fashion – nation – section – condition; push – bush – leash – fish – flash – rash – cash – cache – publish – foolish; The sound [zh] as in BEIGE. usual – casual – visual – vision – explosion – erosion – measure – pleasure – treasure – leisure; beige – mirage – collage – sabotage – prestige – garage – rouge; The sound [h] as in HE. he – heat – here – him – history – help – hair – hand – have – half – heart – hard – horn – hot – who – whose – hook – her – heard – hurry – hunt – hundred – hate – hide – how – home – hope – hold – whole; behind – behold – inherit – inhibit – inhabit – inhale;

The sound [ch] as in CHEESE. cheese – cheap – cheer – chip – chin – check – chess – chair – chance – chapter – charity – chart – charter – chalk – chore – choose – chew – church – chunk – chain – China – chime – chose – choke, teacher – preacher – kitchen – matching – watching – teaching; much – such – touch – search – torch – teach – rich – branch – lunch – batch – catch – patch – pitch – watch – Dutch; The sound [j] as in JUST. jeans – jeep – Jim – gin – gym – jet – general – gentle – jam – jazz – John – journey – journal – just – jump – judge – June – jail – Jane – giant – joint – joke;

region – surgeon – agent – angel – danger – stranger – engine – Egypt – tragic – energy – object – subject – injection – suggest – fidget; age – page – rage – large – huge – emerge – package – message – hostage – manage – bridge – badge – porridge – change – range – strange – sponge; The sound [m] as in ME. me – mean – mere – middle – mint – men – man – mark – more – Mommy – moon – mute – murder – must – mother – main – make – mind – my – mode – most; smell – smash – smart – small – smooth – smug – smile – smoke; summer – Emma – command – memory – murmur – family – female – mumble – ramble; seem – some – dame – time – form – firm – stem – plum – lamb – thumb – climb – comb; The sound [n] as in NO. need – neat – knee – never – nap – nasty – normal – not – noon – new – nutrition – nut – name – nature – knife – night – nine – now – noun – nose – know – no; sneeze – sniff – snack – snap – snore – snob – snug – snake – snail – sniper – snow; funny – manner – inner – winner – annoy – finish – internal – Nancy – kindness – signature; lunch – bench – branch – change – range – find – mind – bend – sound – round – aunt – faint – point – student – sent – dance – science – sense; ban – tan – kin – pin – thin – sin – son – sun – born – sane – main – sign – nine – noun – known – own – Indian; The sound [ŋ] as in SING. [ŋ] sing – singer – singing – sang – sung – hang – hanger – hanging – hung – lung – song – king – bang – slang – ring – ping – thing – wrong – long – young – strong – tongue – going – cooking – reading; [ŋ]+[g] finger – anger – angry – hunger – hungry – linger – longer – longest – younger – youngest – stronger – strongest – congress (n.) – single – angle – strangle – tangle – lingo – language – linguist;

[ŋ]+[k] bank – banker – frank – spank – tank – ankle – drink – think – sink – link – ink – pink – punk – drunk – skunk – uncle; The sound [l] as in LIVE. lead – leap – live – let – less – lack – last – lark – law – lord – lock – lot – lost – lose – loop – look – learn – luck – lady – late – life – like – light – lie – loud – loyal – Lloyd – load; blood – blow – plain – plan – clear – close – glide – glow – split – splash; sleep – slip – slap – slash – slot – sluice – slur – slum – slave – slight – slide – slouch – slow – slogan; alone – alive – Elizabeth – elect – valley – lily – silly – really – lonely – nicely – wisely; cold – hold – held – mild – field – build – fault – salt – felt – melt – consult; apple – couple – table – terrible – little – bottle – needle – idle – miracle – vehicle; all – fall – call – tell – well – will – whole – role – roll – soul – deal – boil – mail – tale – file – cool – girl; The sound [r] as in RED. read – reap – real – rear – risk – wrist – red – rest – rare – ran – rap – raw – wrong – roof – route – room – run – rust – rain – raise – rise – right – round – royal – road – rope – rose – wrote; bring – proud – spread – true – stripe – dry – free – crow – scrape – grab – throw – shrink; around – arrange – arrive – arrogant – narrow – berry – carry – sorry – hurry – during – period – barbaric – murderous – careless – reference – tolerance – story – salary; carp – hard – park – large – carve – born – form – horse – porch – morgue – term – earn – birth – first – girl – curb – curl – hurt – turf; more – tore – four – car – bar – far – care – pair – fear – hear – sir – were – fur – purr – fire – hire – poor – tour – our – power; The sound [w] as in WE. we – week – wheel – wind – will – wet – west – when – where – wax – wall – war – warm – water – want – wool – would – word – worse – won – one – once – way – wait – wild – why – white – wound – won't; 13

sweet – swim – swift – sweat – swear – swallow – twelve – twenty – twice – twinkle – twist – dwell – dwarf; [kw] question – quite – quick – queen – quality – equal – request – require; [gw] language – linguist – Guatemala – Gwen; The sound [y] as in YES. year – yield – yes – yesterday – yellow – yet – yard – yawn – York – yacht – yearn – young – yoga – yolk – you – use – unit – utility; beyond – canyon – Tanya – Tonya – million – billion – onion – union – music – human – few – view. (useful english, n.d.) b) VOWELS:

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Presentation:

When sounding vowels, your breath flows freely through the mouth. Five of the 26 alphabet letters are vowels: A, E, I, O, and U. The letter Y is sometimes considered a sixth vowel because it can sound like other vowels. Unlike consonants, each of the vowel letters has more than one type of sound or can even be silent with no sound at all. (ABC Fast Phonics, n.d.) A vowel letter can represent different vowel sounds: hat [hæt], hate [heit], all [o:l], art [a:rt], any ['eni]. The same vowel sound is often represented by different vowel letters in writing: [ei] they, weigh, may, cake, steak, rain. Open syllable: Kate [keit], Pete [pi:t], note [nout], site [sait], cute [kyu:t]. Vowels and vowel combinations. 14

The vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y alone, in combination with one another or with R, W represent different vowel sounds. The chart below lists the vowel sounds according to the American variant of pronunciation.

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Explanation:

Long vowel sounds (Long vowels) Long sounds are pronounced as the respective name of the letter in English and are indicated by a second vowel in the same syllable move (diphthongs). Examples: beats / leɪt / seal / if: l / bike / baɪk / boat / bəʊt / juice / ʤu: s / Short vowel sounds (Short vowels) Short sounds are more common and are usually found alone and within a syllable. The short vowels are often followed by double consonants. Examples: hat / DTFY / bus / bʌs / stop / stɑ: p / set / set / ill / ɪl / Examples: not / nɑ: t / note / nəʊt / mad / MAED / made / meɪd / bit / bɪt / bite / baɪt / tub / tʌb / tube / tu: b / Schwa (schwa)

The neutral and reduced schwa sound is known as the most common vowel sound in English. Almost always it found in an unstressed syllable (see next lesson intensity accent syllables and words for more information). Its pronunciation is determined by the consonants that are before and / or after it. Examples: above / əbʌv / camera / kæmərə / occasion / əkeɪʒən / pencil / pensəl / industry / ɪndəstri / Diphthongs (diphthongs) Diphthongs, also known as gliding vowels, referring to two different vowel sounds within the same syllable. The pronunciation of diphthongs it is marked by a movement of the tongue. Examples: gate / geɪt / row / rəʊ / soul / səʊl / toy / tɔɪ / •

Application:

Sounds

Letters

Examples

[i:]

e, ee ea ie, ei

be, eve, see, meet, sleep, meal, read, leave, sea, team, field, believe, receive

i y e ea a ai, ay ei, ey ea a

it, kiss, tip, pick, dinner, system, busy, pity, sunny let, tell, press, send, end, bread, dead, weather, leather late, make, race, able, stable, aim, wait, play, say, day, eight, weight, they, hey, break, great, steak cat, apple, land, travel, mad;

[i] [e]

[ei] [æ]

Notes been [i]; bread, deaf [e]; great, break [ei]; friend [e] machine, ski, liter, pizza [i:] meter [i:] sea, mean [i:] said, says [e]; height, eye [ai]

[a:] [ai] [au] [o]

[o:]

[oi] [ou]

[yu:]

[u:]

[u]

neutral sound [ə]

[ər]

ar a i, ie y, uy ou ow o or o aw, au ought al, waoi, oy o oa, ow u ew eu ue, ui u o, oo ew ue, ui ou oo u ou u, o ou a, e o, i er, ur, ir or, ar ear

AmE: last, class, dance, castle, half army, car, party, garden, park, father, calm, palm, drama; BrE: last, class, dance, castle, half ice, find, smile, tie, lie, die, my, style, apply, buy, guy out, about, house, mouse, now, brown, cow, owl, powder not, rock, model, bottle, copy more, order, cord, port, long, gone, cost, coffee, law, saw, pause, because, bought, thought, caught, hall, always, water, war, want oil, voice, noise, boy, toy go, note, open, old, most, road, boat, low, own, bowl use, duty, music, cute, huge, tune, few, dew, mew, new, euphemism, feud, neutral, hue, cue, due, sue, suit rude, Lucy, June, do, move, room, tool, crew, chew, flew, jewel, blue, true, fruit, juice, group, through, route; AmE: duty, new, sue, student look, book, foot, good, put, push, pull, full, sugar, would, could, should gun, cut, son, money, love, tough, enough, rough, about, brutal, taken, violent, memory, reason, family serve, herb, burn, hurt, girl, sir, work, word, doctor, dollar, heard, earn, earnest, earth

war, warm [o:]

group, soup [u:] know, own [ou] work, word [ər]

do, move [u:] how, owl [au]

guide, quite [ai]; build [i]

Also: stressed, [ʌ]; unstressed, [ə].

heart, hearth [a:]

c) SUPRASEGMENTALS. 1. ASSIMILATION:

• Presentation: Assimilation has a very precise meaning when it’s related to studies of languages. Is a common phonological process by which the phonetics of a speech segment becomes more like another segment in a word. In other words it’s when a letter (sound) is influenced by the letter (sound) before or after it so that it changes its sound and/or spelling. The word assimilation it self it’s said to be assimilated; it is derived from the latin prefix ad- meaning to and simil- meaning like but, instead of being adsimilated, it has the easier pronunciation of assimilated. A common example of assimilation is “don’t be silly” where the /n/ and /t/ are assimilated to /m/ by the following /b/, in many accents the natural sound is “dombe silly”. Assimilation can be synchronic being an active process in a language at a given point in time or diachronic being a historical sound change. There are 4 18

configurations found: the increase in phonetic similarity may be between adjacent segments or between segments separated by one or more intervening segments; the changes could be in reference to a preceding segment or a following one. Even when all four occur, it changes in regard to a following adjacent segment account for virtually all assimilatory changes. Assimilation to an adjacent segment are vastly more frequent than assimilation to a non-adjacent one. (Phonetics and Phonology., 2010) •

Explanation:

Assimilation is done when several words are similar in sound and this changes their pronunciation, and spelling. • Application: Types of assimilation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

/ t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / / d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p / / n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / / t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g/ / d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g / / n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g / / s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / / z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / /θ/ changes to / s / before / s /

/ t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / basket maker

mixed bag

2. ELLIPSIS.

• Presentation: What Is Ellipsis? An ellipsis (...) is three dots used to show that words have been omitted from a quotation or to create a pause for effect. More specifically, an ellipsis can be used: To show an omission of a word or words (including whole sentences) from a text. To create a pause for effect. To show an unfinished thought. To show a trail off into silence. Examples of Ellipsis Here are some examples of ellipsis: The brochure states: "The atmosphere is tranquil ... and you cannot hear the trains." (omitted text) A credit card stolen in London was used to pay for a Chinese meal five hours later ... in Bangkok. (pause for effect) "Yeah? Well, you can just…." (unfinished thought) Standing tall and with the Lord's Prayer mumbling across our lips, we entered the chamber…." • Explanation: The ellipsis omission of a word in a sentence is considered understandable without being in prayer is replaced with 3 dots.

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Application: 20

3. SCHWAS.

• Presentation: An unstressed mid-central vowel (as the usual sound of the first and last vowels of the English word America): the symbol ə used for the schwa sound and less widely for a similarly articulated stressed vowel (as in cut) (Merrian Webters, n.d.) What's the difference between Schwa (/ə/) and Wedge (/ʌ/)? Today, I’d like to discuss a question which troubles many people when they’re first learning to use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): What is the difference between the Schwa (/ə/) and Wedge/Carat/Caret (/ʌ/) symbols, and how can you tell which is which in transcription? The basic idea of the IPA is that every sound used contrastively in language should have one symbol associated with it. This makes sense and is quite true until we come upon a phonetics textbook which has something like the following for descriptions of the different English vowels: /ʌ/: Used in words like “cut”, “mutt”, “butter”, “nun” or “luck” /ə/: Used in words like “sofa”, “photograph”, or “adore” For every other English vowel, we choose the proper symbol based on how the vowel sounds. The vowel in “look” sounds a lot like the vowel in “put” (/pʊt/), so it too must be an /ʊ/. The vowel in “free” sounds like the vowel in “me” (/mi/), so clearly, that’s an /i/ vowel. But what do you do with the vowel in “trust”, which sounds like both the “uh” in “cut” (/ʌ/) and the final “uh” in “sofa” (/ə/)?

The very first step is to stop trying to hear a difference between /ə/ and /ʌ/. Acoustically, for speakers of General American English, there’s little to no difference between the two, and trying to listen to one will only bring you pain. In fact, /ə/ is a vowel unlike any other in the English vowel inventory. It’s not described (and differentiated from /ʌ/) phonetically, based on its sound or production, but instead, /ə/ is a phonological beast, arising from the sound structure of the word, the type of speech, and the speaker’s desire to minimize time spent on unimportant sounds. /ɜ˞/ and /ə˞/: A similarly stressful distinction tter” (/skæɾə˞/). Both of these vowels sound like “er”, and again, like /ə/ and /ʌ/, they can’t be distinguished by sound. The beautiful thing about the /ɜ˞/ vs. /ə˞/ distinction is that it’s exactly the same as the /ə/ vs. /ʌ/ distinction. In stressed syllables, an “er” vowel is going to be /ɜ˞/, whereas in unstressed syllables, you get /ə˞/. By learning to differentiate /ə/ vs. /ʌ/, you’ve also learned to differentiate their rhotic counterparts, /ɜ˞/ and /ə˞/. Wondə˞ful! (Notes from a Linguistic Mystic, n.d.)

• Explanation: The schwas is a sound that occurs in the middle of an unstressed syllable and represents words pronounced with stress or unestress. •

Application:

d) CLUSTERS.

â&#x20AC;˘ Presentation: A consonant cluster is a group of two or more consonant sounds that come before (onset), after (coda), or between (medial) vowels. Also known simply as cluster. Consonant cluster simplification (or reduction) sometimes occurs when one consonant (or more) in a sequence of adjacent consonants is elided or dropped. In everyday speech, for instance, the phrase "best boy" may be pronounced "bes' boy," and "first time" may be pronounced "firs' time"). (About Education, n.d.) â&#x20AC;˘ Explanation: The consonant clusters are the words that have two letters that have a similar sound and pronounced as one. 24

â&#x20AC;˘ Application: Examples and Observations "The combination /st/ is a consonant cluster (CC) used as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. . . . "English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of these larger onset clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must always be /s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/, /w/). You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square." (George Yule, The Study of Language, 4th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2010)

e) Homographs and Homophones.

• Presentation: Homographs are words that are spelled alike, but have different meanings and sometimes different pronunciations. The root graph comes from the Greek word meaning “drawn or written,” thus these terms are written the same. For example, stalk is both a plant stem and a verb meaning to pursue stealthily. Homographs also have different etymologies. Not all words that are spelled the same are pronounced identically, so they may be homographs without being homophones, e.g., lead as a metal and as the verb “to show the way.” Homophones are words that are pronounced the same but are different in spelling and meaning. In this case the combining from phone comes from the Greek word phōnḗ meaning “voice.” One commonly confused trio of homophones is to, two, and too. Homophones, also known as sound-alike words, are words that are pronounced identically although they have different meanings and often have different spellings as well. These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; and plain and plane. VocabularySpellingCity is a particularly useful tool for learning to correctly use and spell the soundalike words. • Explanation: Homographs is a word that is pronounced the same as another but are spelled differently with different meanings. Homophones are words that are spelled the same but with different meanings.

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Application:

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and are often pronounced differently as well. Some examples of homographs are: Bass as in fish vs bass as in music Bow as in arrow vs bow as in bending or taking a bow at the end of a performance Close as in next to vs close as in shut the door Desert as in dry climate vs desert as in leaving alone. A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another word but is spelled differently and has a different meaning: to/two/too there/their/they're pray/prey

f) MINIMAL PAIRS.

• Presentation: A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like the /f/ and /v/ in fan and van, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk. (English Club, n.d.)

• Explanation: A minimal pair is two words that differ in only one sound.

â&#x20AC;˘ Application: Minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in a single phoneme. Minimal pairs are often used to show that two sounds contrast in a language. For example, we can demonstrate that [s] and [z] contrast in English by adducing minimal pairs such as sip and zip, or bus and buzz. Since the only difference in these words is the [s] vs. [z], we conclude that they belong to distinct phonemes. However, a similar test would show that [a:j] and [Aj] are distinct phonemes in English, since writer and rider appear to be minimal pairs distinguished in their second elements, not their fourth." (James Alasdair McGilvray, The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky. Cambridge University Press, 2005)

CONCLUTION. In the present work it was unveiled different topics with respective examples in order to make this information more quickly understood and easily.

Bibliography. ABC Fast Phonics. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://www.abcfastphonics.com/vowel-letters.html About Education. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/ConsonantCluster-Cc.htm e Learn English Language. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/blog/learnenglish/pronunciation/consonants-voiced-unvoiced/ English Club. (s.f.). Obtenido de https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/minimalpairs.htm Merrian Webters. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://beta.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/schwa Nordquist, R. (s.f.). About education. Obtenido de http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/consonaterm.htm Notes from a Linguistic Mystic. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://linguisticmystic.com/2012/10/17/whats-the-difference-between-schwa-andwedge/ Phonetics and Phonology. (Diciembre de 06 de 2010). Obtenido de http://phoneticsandphonology701.blogspot.com/2010/01/assimilation.html useful english. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://usefulenglish.ru/phonetics/practice-consonants https://www.emaze.com/@AIRZFLCO/phonologyyesli https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8xNKTspte0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MX3Wbwp19s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TyCn4NZ5OTQ https://prezi.com/pagp4_aj_yp0/phonology/