Yifeng Zhao Thesis Project 2015 RPI SoA by YIFENG ZHAO

From PM to AM

A Research of the Particulate Matters & A Design Intervention of Aggregated Matters Jennifer Yifeng Zhao Rensselaer Politechnic Institute | SoA F14-S15 Final Projfect Critic: Ted Ngai | Studio Framework: Material Agency Graduation Date: 05.30.2015

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0|Table of Contents Design | S’15 Intervention on Aggregated Matters

Material Development

Page 78

Precedent Technologies

Page 80

Material Study Setup

Page 82

Material Study Development

Page 84

Controling Mechanism

Page 88

Design Scenerio

Page 90

Environmental Concern

Page 92

Existing Background

Page 94

Context Correlations

Page 96

Surrounding Infrastructure

Page 98

Final Design

Page 100

Sand Composite Machine

Page 102

Eco-Social Community

Page 104

The Aggregated Habitat

Page 106

Population Accomodation

Page 110

Involvement with the Background

Page 112

Perspective Vision

Page 114

Sand Bonding Agent

Injection Wax Types | Setup Model Simulation Exploded Axon

Sandstorm Causes | Modern Irrigation Haboob | Pivot Irrigation

Haboob | Pivot Irrigation

Site Surrounding Programs

Axon

Preserved Landscape

Physical Engagement

Unit Development and Growth Site Plan Render

Citation and Bibliography

Research | F’14 Research on Particulate Matters

Précis & Thesis Statement

Page 04

Time Scale

Page 06

Size Scale

Page 08

Correlations

Page 10

Concept Support

Page 12

Material Research - Masonry

Page 16

Introduction

Page 18

Innovation

Page 22

Material Research - Sand

Page26

Introduction

Page 28

Innovation

Page 36

Simulation

Page 40

Material Assembly

Page 42

Subsitute Mateirals

Page 48

Design Initiatives

Page 56

Detect

Page 58

Capture

Page 60

Deliver

Page 64

Relocate

Page 66

Form and Control

Page 72

Londuree V.s. Brusqueness Particulate Measurements The Contigency Between Events Two Scales Partical System | Balance | Redeposit

Category | Property | History New Material Reference

Sandstorm Formation | Property | History | Society Inﬂuence New Production Reference

Bonding Agent | Scaﬀold Experiments Hydrauphobic Coating | Cement Study

Wind Study Module Developement | History Reference Model Simulation Site Analogue | Sandstorm/ and Smog Monitoring Reference Structure Reference | Urban Application and Visualization

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Fig 4.1 Image Source: http://images.wisegeek.com/dust-storm.jpg

1|Précis & Thesis Statement “We should worry far more about scenerios that have thankfully not yet happened - but which, if they occured, could only cause such world wide devastation that even once would be too often.” - Martin Rees, What Should We be Worried About, Page 9

“From PM to AM” is a project that harvests the Particulate Matters, specifically sand or dust from the storm hazard conditions to redeposit and aggregate them as usable building material to accommodate efficient urban living scenarios. The project couples a material research and a design intervention by incorporating the different material agency of sand into the practical realm of construction. Ultimately, it aims at inventing a self-constructive method for human beings to convert the catastrophic damages into sustainable lifestyles: Given a scaffolding set around an existing irrigation circle in arid land along the edge of a city, people would be able to progressively build up habitable defensive walls in response to sand storms by aggregating sand itself and preserving the precious green land in the middle.

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Time Longue Durée V.s Brusqueness The evolution of our earth has been through billions of years as what we would call it - Longue Durée. During such long period of time, everything happened in brusqueness are caused by accumulation of certain activities: for instance, earthquake is derived from long period of tectonic plate activity, rock forms over constant calcification. Since oxygen was introduced into the globe 13 billions years ago, different particulate matters have been generated from aggregation or de-aggregation processes that are driven by various sources. The consequences of the these almost invisible particulates have impacted on the balance in the atmosphere, thus raising positive influences such as bio-diversity and negative influences such as pollution.

Volcanic Eruption Fig 6.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Storm Bio Diversity

Construction

Automobile

Air Pollution

Flood

Earthquake

Storm

Debris

Destruction

Scale Plant Animal Mineral Combust

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0.001

0.01

0.1

Molecular Cluster

Viruses / Atmosperic Dust

Smog / Tobacco Smoke / Soot

Oil Smoke / Allergens / Bacteria Human Skin Cells / Paint Pigments

Cement Dust / Settle Dust / Mold

Beach Sand / Human Hair

100

1000

Pollen / Heavy Dust / Fly Ash Cloud

Tephra (Volcano Emit), Catastrophe Debris

Materials are usually measured in their categories and scales; particulate matter is not exemption form this method of research. The diagram shows a range of different type and size of particles from 0.001 micron gas particles up to 1000 micron volcano dust tephra. The type varies from the ones that are generated from urban activities such as auto exhaust, smog and construction waste; and the ones that are generated from nature setting such as bacteria, 8

pollen, mold and unstable soil. The dust can be organic and inorganic. I chose to focus on the inorganic ones that appear more grain like dusts. They are the airborne settle dust that is about the size of human hair highlighted in yellow. Existing in ubiquity, settle dusts are hard to be inhaled into human lungs, but is not benefitial for the air environment either.

Atmospheric Dust

Tephra

Atmospheric Dust

Oil Smokes

Atmospheric Dust

Settle Dust

Atmospheric Dust

Settle Dust

Atmospheric Dust

Atmospheric Dust Atmospheric Dust

Smog

Oil Smokes

Settle Dust

Atmospheric Dust

Bacteria

Smog

Bacteria

Smog

Pollen / Mold

Settle Dust

Atmospheric Dust

Pollen / Mold Bacteria

Atmospheric Dust

Virus

Smog

Virus

Atmospheric Dust

Bacteria

Smog

Bacteria

Smog

Atmospheric Dust

Pollen / Mold Smog

Virus

Atmospheric Dust

Settle Dust

Settle Dust Settle Dust

Smog

Settle Dust

Atmospheric Dust Smog

Smog

Ash Cloud

Atmospheric Dust

Settle Dust

Pollen / Mold Bacteria

Virus

Bacteria

Pollen / Mold

Settle Dust

Smog

Alage

Settle Dust

Bacteria

Smog Smog

Bacteria

Smog

Virus Virus

Bacteria Smog

Smog Virus Smog

Virus

Bacteria

> pm 5

pm 1-5

< pm 1

Fig 9.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

73 mile Stratosphere

How Much Can We Explore From the Air ? 53 mile Troposphere

Air

Outtermost layer of Mantle of the Earth 40 mile Ocean Water Surface

Ocean 71 % Resource

Fig 9.2 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

43 mile Earth Land Surface

Earth

29% Resource

Dust is widely present in outer space where gas and dust clouds are primary precursors for planetary systems. The interstellar dust is found between the stars and the tails of comets are produced by emissions of dust and ionized gas from the body of comet. Dust also covers solid planetary bodies, especially vast dust storms on Mars almost covers the entire planet. On earth, they are even more common existence. 9

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Correlations among Events within Time and Scale

Tsunami Volcanic Eruption Earthquake

Atomosphere Exchange

Tectonic Movement

Flood

Global Warming Deforestation Urbanization Construction Bio-diversity Petroleum Formation

Fig 10.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Science Innovation Revolutionary War Political Force

Pyroclastic Flow Sand Storm Landslide Destruction Bio-degradation Terroist Attack Bombing

Diversity Extinction Ash Cloud More Destruction Building Vulnerability Air Pollution Structural Discontinuities

Algal Bloom

Water Pollution

Human Health Eﬀect

Unbalanced Resources

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Existing Concept Support - Balance

Alchemy

The medieval forerunner of chemistry, based on the supposed transformation of matter. It was concerned particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold or to find a universal elixir.

To achieve the balance in atmosphere, we can refer to philosophical explanations from the ancient Greek culture known as alchemy and the modern scientific concept known as Maxwell’s Deomon.

Fig 12.1 Image Source: http://24.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lklphvPVEl1qcpsvqo1_500.jpg

Maxwell’s Demon In the field of Science, the basic second law of thermodynamics is usually followed by scientists in a strategic way. It is stating the fact of how matters keep going from order to disorder to achieve balance state. However, mathematician James Clerk Maxwell created an imaginary creature, later named as Maxwell’s Demon, contradicted the law by presenting an demonstration shown in the lower right diagram (Fig 12.3). It supposes that you have a box filled with one type of gas at the same temperature prior to the experiment. After the partition is placed in the middle, the assuming creature that guards the opening of the partition would let any molecule that moves faster to the right chamber and any that moves slower to the left. The performance of the guardian action results in a balanced but orderly seperation of particulate matters. Fig 13.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Maxwell’s Demon is referenced as the control agent part of the thesis. The role of the Demon is an analogue for the designer when they need to understand the importance of the recognition of material parameters, environment features and design objectives.

Fig 13.2 Image Source: demonstrations.wolfram.com

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Existing Concept Support - Redposit

Fig 14.1 Image Source:http://www.glogster.com/tirth700/sedimentary-rock-glogster-collage/g-6md0q16tttoko77u98brva0medialib.glogster.com/media/e9/e9236090119376f865348d148b2ad61abeea8949b68c7f91286df103a71cdb52/coquina-jpeg.jpg

Corals grow by the deposition of a calcium carbonate skeleton (calcification) in the form of aragonite by combining calcium ions with carbonate ions. The concentration of calcium ions in sea water is much higher than the concentration of the carbonate ion, therefore the rate of calcification is controlled by the saturation state of carbonate ions in the sea water. The saturation state of calcium carbonate is determined by the concentration of carbon dioxide 14

Fig 14.2 Image Source:http://www.open.edu/ openlearn/sites/www.open.edu.openlearn/files/ ole_images/working-living/scientists-work/microscope-images/forma-shell/forma%20shell.jpg

(CO2), which dissolves in water to form an acidic solution consisting of three species of inorganic carbon; carbonic acid: H2CO3, bicarbonate ion: HCO-3, and carbonate ion: CO2-3. These are related by the following equilibrium equation on the right page.

Coelenteron

Form of Aragonite Supersaturation Precipitation essa

p out pum

proton

Bio-carbonate

ry pro teins

rgan ism

Exc

lud

nec

tl y

ry o

Dir

Protein

es sa

Magnesium Phosphate

CO 2

Calicoblastic Epithelium

Water Column

To Form Gastric Cavity of the Coral Original Source of the Skeleton of Coral

Extracytoplasmic Calcifying Fluid: ECF

Organism

ent chm Atta tly rec Di

Coral Skeleton Fig 15.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao, Information by http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151484/

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO-3↔ 2H+ + CO2-3

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Fig 16.1 Image Source: http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/images/American%20Brick%20Industry/American%20Brick%20Industry,%20Fired%20Brick.jpg

2|Material Study - Masonry

// Masonry consists of a variety of materials. Raw materials are made into masonry units of different sizes and shapes, each having specific physical and mechanical properties. Both the raw materials and the method of manufacture affect masonry unit properties. //

The study of Masonry was assigned to be a thorough group research prior to the project. It was the original inspiration for this thesis. Masonry, as the ancient material that was vastly harvested in the nature and simply processed in the factories is one of the most common building materials in the world. The amount of its categories ensured its position in Architecture. It is not only the formation of one individule masonry unit is worth to study, but also the aesthetic effect that is created with different architects and craftsmman. The similar approach of harvesting, compressing and firing can be mimiced in recreating particulate matters with sand, cement or any other particals.

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Categories & Properties Alumina (Al2O3) = 20-30%, plasticity to the earth for moulding of the brick earth Silica (SiO3) = 50-60%, exist free or combined, combined with alumnia, determines durability (the cohesions between particles) Lime (CaCo3) = no more than 5%, prevents shrinkage, sand alone is infusible but slightly fuses at kiln temperature in presence of lime. The excess may cause slaking. Oxide of Iron (Fe2O3) = no more than 5%, helps in fusing of sand and provides red color. Magnesia = 1% or less, provide a yellow tint to the brick. Stone The shaped rough pieces of rock crafted into accurate geometry Marble Source: metamorphic rock Usage: sculpture & building Granite Source: feisic intrusive igneous rock Usage: memorials & buildings Travertine Source: mineral springs Terra Cotta Usage: Italian style buildings Limestone Source: organic dicompositions Usage: road base & building Cast Stone Source: concrete masonry Usage: ornament & facades Terra Cotta Source: clay based earthware Usage: pottery & art installation Cob Source: sand & clay & water Usage: construction & insulation Ceramic Marble Source: inorganic, nonmetallic solid Usage: pottery & semi-conductors Stucco Source: aggregate + binder + water Usage: decorative surface coating CMU Source: portland cement + aggregate Usage: cloumn, beams, slabs Brick Source: clay and shales Usage: construction & decoration 18

Cob

Granite

Travertine

Limestone

Cast Stone

Ceremic

Stucco

Concrete

Fig19.1 Image Sources www.rgbstock.com/bigphoto/mnwVpaW/brick+walls

3000 BC, Clay Tablets

The first aqueduct in Rome was constructed: the Aqua Marcia.

Evolution of Masonry Over time, masonry has evolved from a means of communication, to the medium used in ancient art pieces, finally to a construction material of the buildings that would in turn shape the way we understand our history. Brick, stone, cow dung, (CMUs) concrete masonry units, terra-cotta, and glass blocks have shaped architecture’s history and forever defined the tradition and contemporary building typologies.

114 BC

The ancient temples that are affiliated with Greece were constructed during this period.

700-300 BC

The oldest “Black dipylon” style of Greek Pottery was discovered.

740 BC

The first verified use of brick in China was used in Xinzheng County.

The larges pyramid of all time was constructed: Great Pyramid of Khufu, Egypt.

2540 BC

1066-701 BC

Fired clay tablets were first used as writing sources

YEAR

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3000 BC

HIstory

2540 BC, Pyramid

740 BC, Greek Pottery

38 -52 AD, Aqueducts

118-128 AD, Pantheon

1800 AD, Coade Stone

1842 AD, Terra-Cotta

2000 AD, Amsterdam

Fig 21.1 Diagram by Erin Butler

2000

1952

1900s

1842

1800s

1800

The Housing Complex located on Java Island in Amsterdam was constructed out of

The first-ever made bricks were discovered in Jerico during an excavation, led by Kathleen Kenyon.

Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs) were first engineered and used in construction.

A church designed by Edmund Sharpe, near Bolton, England, marks the revival of terra-cotta in Europe.

Fired clay was introduced into USA and became the principal building material.

“Coade stone,” similar to terra-cotta, was used for the mantle in the Octagon House, designed by William Thornton, in Washington D.C, USA.

Masonry appeared in southeastern and southwestern America.

1500s

The Hagia Sophia was constructed and revolutionized the scale at which brick was being used to construct.

537-1453

Oldest surviving images of workmen making brick molds are from Egypt.

Warehouses in Osita was constructed; parallels the greatest Roman decorative brickwork time-period.

150

1450

The iconic Pantheon in Rome was built by Emperor Hadrian, furthering the engineering of domes.

The Roman aqueduct, “Aqua Claudia” was constructed out of brick.

118-128

38 -52

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New Material Reference

Mushroom Brick

Fig 22.1 Image Source: http://dornob.com/fast-fungi-bricks-mushroom-blocks-better-than-concrete/

As Philip Ross states in his project - instaed of cutting down, quarrying, hauling and processing building materials, one could have the option of growing them from scratch - and even eating them later. Philip created a malleable network with mushroom growth pattern and turned the new biodegradable material to building construction bricks. The dried mycelium that is used for the fungi source can be formed into different shape and it has a remarkable 22

consistency that make it stronger than concrete. The fungi can grow to fit the mold in a short term as 5 days. The wall structure itself, thus, is not only more strong as a whole, but also mold and fire resistant to the environment compact. In different industries, mushroom bricks started to be applied to furniture making, lightweight arches construction and exhibition structures. In MOMA PS1 young archi

tect program art installation this year is a tower made of mush room bricks (also known as Hy-Fi) and designed by David Benjamin and his firm “The Living”. The tower is the first large-scale structure to ever use the mushroom technology developed initially by “Ecovative”.

Desert Sand Brick

Fig 23.1 http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/j/MSNBC/Components/Photo/_new/pb-121120-yemen-brick-makers-kb-315p-02.photoblog900.jpg

Algerian and Malaysian researchers have developed new types of cheap, ecofriendly building bricks.

1, Material is consist of waste from the mining coal and steel industries: quarry dust, iron oxide that forms on steel during production and ash from furnaces – with cement and water. The process does not require firing. It uses high pressure which reduces costs. The teams used local waste materials and sand as components of the bricks.

2, Another prototype material is consist of desert sand which provides good heat and sound insulation and minimal cost. If they pass national building codes, they could help solve housing problems.

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New Material Reference

LTGS Brick

Fig 24.1 Image Source: https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSrkadby7chwiTMIokZ4VoGyEIAwpK-oJ7xRXCbCgmIiAQ9_RN4sbtxyhD6

LTGS bricks use cheap materials that is adequate and cheap in emerging countries: lateritic clay earth mixing with a simple geopolymer binder that is compressed to give the shape of a brick. The material that is heated to 85 Celsius Degrees supports building wall structures, to 250 Celsius Degrees resists to freezing, to 450 Celsius Degrees is strong enough for manufacture elements like beams for doors and windows. 24

LTGS bricks saves about 8 times less energy if compared with traditional brick fired to 1000 Celsius Degrees in a kiln. Less expensive and wider range of production facilities.

CO2 Sand Brick

Fig 25.1 Image Source: http://inhabitat.com/new-co2-sand-bricks-are-2-5-times-stronger-than-concrete/co2-sand-emergency-brick-5/

Low-tech brick that can be rapidly produced in disaster areas and applied to the quick construction of long lasting shelter. It is developed by TIS&Partners.

Material is common high silicon content sand. Process of making the brick uses CO2 to harden sand and a binder to provide tensile strength. The mold can be any shape of air tight capsule. The brick can hold large lateral force before the infusion step. After infusing the bricks with a binder such as epoxy or urethane, bathing the blocks in the binder creates a hardened block that has all the proper requirements for a strong building component.

The Bricks are 2.5 times the tensile strength of concrete in one day, meaning that the construction of walls would need much less steel reinforcement and could be used immediately in emergency constructions. It has up to 50 year life span. It also reduce carbon emission.

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Fig 26.1 Image Source: http://pds25.egloos.com/pds/201305/16/47/d0123947_51945094c1800.png

3|Material Study - Sand “Sand storm” is more used in desert areas “Dust storm” is more used in urban areas

Sandstorm, also known as Dust Storm, is a meteorological phenomenon that takes place easily in arid and semi-arid regions. Sand, dust and other light-weight loose particles can be blown up by gust front or other kind of strong wind up into the air and dropp or redoposite by gavity when the wind mediates. The main source of airborne dust is Sahara deserts where sand can travel all the way to American continents, and Arabian Peninsula. The rapid urbanization has been raising the dust storm sizes and frequency by heavy duties on earth.

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Formation

Suspension Wind Wind Saltation

Saltation

Creep

Fig 28.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

As the force of wind passing over loosely held particles increases, particles of sand first start to vibrate, then to saltate (“leap”). As they repeatedly strike the ground, they loosen and break off smaller particles of dust which then begin to travel in suspension. At wind speeds above that which causes the smallest to suspend, there will be a population of dust grains moving by a range of mechanisms: suspension, saltation and creep. [1] A recent study finds that the initial saltation of sand particles induces a static electric field by friction. Saltating sand acquires a negative charge relative to the ground which in turn loosens more sand particles which then begin saltating. This process has been found to double the number of particles predicted by previous theories.[2] Sand is a form of subnature that gathers itself, heaping, sifting but also ready to be unleashed by far-off winds or a passing automobile. The Aeolian process do not only help sand migrate from one dune to another in the desserts, but also helps them travel across the sky, across the ocean. Sand trespass the boundaries of nations and geological prairies and haunts the urban cities. 28

D ɣ R

x ɣ

Fig 29.2 Image Source: http://d2a0do11gpvbrl.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/field/image/shutterstock_64415773_11.jpg

Drought and wind contribute to the emergence of dust storms, as do poor farming and grazing practices by exposing the dust and sand to the wind. One poor farming practice which contributes to dust storms is dryland farming. Particularly poor dryland farming techniques are intensive tillage or not having established crops or cover crops when storms strike at particularly vulnerable times prior to revegetation.[3] 29

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Formation

Fig 30.1 Image Source: http://explanet.info/images/Ch08/08_48a.png

In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, or by strong pressure gradients which cause an increase in wind velocity over a wide area. The vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates. In some cases, dust and sand may be confined to a relatively shallow layer by a low-lying temperature inversion. In other instances, dust (but not sand) may be lifted as high as 20,000 feet (6,100 m) high.

In a semi-arid climate, these practices increase susceptibility to dust storms. However, soil conservation practices may be implemented to control wind erosion. A sandstorm can transport large volumes of sand unexpectedly. Dust storms can carry large amounts of dust, with the leading edge being composed of wall of thick dust as much as 1.6 km (0.99 mi) high.

The Sahara desert is a key source of dust storms, particularly the Bodélé Depression[4] and an area covering the confluence of Mauritania, Mali, and Algeria.[5] Saharan dust storms have increased approximately 10-fold during the half-century since the 1950s, causing topsoil loss in Niger, Chad, northern Nigeria, and Burkina Faso. In Mauritania there were just two dust storms a year in the early 1960s, but there are about 80 a year today, according to Andrew Goudie, a professor of geography at Oxford University. [6][7] Levels of Saharan dust coming off the east coast of Africa in June (2007) were five times those observed in June 2006, and were the highest observed since at least 1999, which may have cooled Atlantic waters enough to slightly reduce hurricane activity in late 2007.[8][9][10] Dust storms have also been shown to increase the spread of disease across the globe. Virus spores in the ground are blown into the at-

Fig 31.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

mosphere by the storms with the the dry lands, and worse, they minute particles then acting like preferentially remove organurban smog or acid rain.[11] ic matter and the nutrient-rich lightest particles, thereby reducA dust storm in Sydney which cov- ing agricultural productivity. Also ered most of eastern Australia in the abrasive effect of the storm September 2009. damages young crop plants. Dust Prolonged and unprotected expo- storms also reduced visibility afsure of the respiratory system in fecting aircraft and road transa dust storm can also cause sili- portation. In addition dust storms cosis which, if left untreated, will also create problems due to comlead to asphyxiation; silicosis is plications of breathing in dust.[13] an incurable condition that also may lead to lung cancer. There is Dust can also have beneficial efalso the danger of keratoconjunc- fects where it deposits: Central tivitis sicca (“dry eyes”) which, in and South American rain forests severe cases without immediate get most of their mineral nutriand proper treatment, can lead to ents from the Sahara; iron-poor blindness.[12] ocean regions get iron; and dust in Hawaii increases plantain growth. Dust storms cause soil loss from In northern China as well as the mid-western U.S., ancient dust storm deposits known as loess are highly fertile soils, but they are also a significant source of contemporary dust storms when soil-securing vegetation is disturbed.[14]

Fig 31.2 Image Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRuQoa8SYrLLK3PiXc75Wwaiaz0iKZopfV2-DyA87rfNiMHZc47

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History The history reveals that the issue of sandstorm did not only start recently but way back during the large immigration era of human beings in Egypt and China. Recent events have more impact on the society because of the amount of urban construction has boomed due to population growth. Over-farming and lack of protection of vegitation also increased the frequency of dust storms. 1930-35, America Mid West Dust Bowl

524 BC, Siwa Oasis Sand Storm

1971, Arizona, Tuscon Dust Storm

400 AD, China Silk Road Pompei Effect

2005, Iraq, Isad Dust Storm

Egypt / Lybia, 1926

2006, Mongolia Sand Storm

Fig 32.1 Image Source seen in reference section

2007, Texas, Armarillo Dust Storm

2009, Australia, Victoria Dust Storm

2007, Pakistan Yamyin Cyclone Dust Storm

2010, Beijing Sand Storm

2009, Saudi Arabia, Rayadh Dust Storm

2011, Phoenix Haboob

2009, Kingdom of Bahrain Dust Storm

2011, Negave Dessert Dust Storm 33

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Society Influence “ Dust storms bring in an incredible obstacle for anything breathing organism, especially humans. When Black Sunday came, rooms with closed windows and doors still filled with dust, so much dust in fact that one account said they couldn’t see the window of their room, or the lamp in front of their face. Dust storms are incredibly dense, and can block out most to all light from the sun, turning a bright cheery day into a dark nightmare. “ (http://www.crystalinks.com/DustStorm.html)

Sand Storm over city highways

Sand Storm affected on human health

Sand Storm in harbors Fig 34.1 Image Source seen in reference section

Sand Storm around countrysides

Sand Storms did not just start from recent decades but from thousands of thoudans of years ago where desserts were being moved by naturally happened storms and burried few of the civilizations of human society. Since urbanization grew rapidly in every continents along the history, industrialized world took over vegitated lands little by little. The sand storm happened as one of the bad results contrarily affected heavily back on humanbeings and their habitats.

Sand Storm in Beijing, influence on Urban City

Sand Storm in Afghnistan, Influence on army Camps 35

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New Sand Production Reference

3D Print Sand Machine

Fig 36.1 Image Source:

Sand / Dust Art Installation

Fig 37.1 Image Source: http://s3.amazonaws.com/com.artwelove.asset/1d3f5a3beaca84723063d3e55e9eecfb-l.jpg

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New Sand Production Reference

Solar Energy as Bonding Agent

Fig 38.1 Image Source: http://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2011/10/solar-components.jpg

Bacteria as Bonding Agent

Fig 39.1 Image Source: http://i.bnet.com/blogs/biomanufactured_brick.jpg

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Fig 40.1 Image Source: data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAkGBxISEhUUExQUFRUVFxQVFBcXFhQVFRUVFhQWFhQUFBQYH-

4|Simulation

Material can be best understood with practical interaction in the project. The approach of how to select, bond, and form material is not only the pre-recquisite for the final result, but also a way of re-examing and re-exploring the potential of such mateiral and its relationship with others. Simulation of particulate matters involves combining the knowledge referenced in the previous chapters and the physical experiments done in thesis studio. Sand, Cement, and other kinds of dust particles are studied through their physical capabilities and chemical capabilities. Steel, wood, and cotton are introduced to aid the formation.

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Material Simulation - Bonding Agent Bonding material is crutial in the simulation process of joining granular particles-sand together. Through different test, the result shows that sand stays together when applied with large amount of adhesive material over at least one day. It is a slow process not expected for the simulation purpose. Hydraulic Cement, contrarily dries fast and forms steadily in 5 minutes with water or acrylic liquid bonding.

A; Rasin Sand B: White Glue C: Hair Gel D: Rubber Cement

A 42

Fig 42.1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 43.1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao

D 43

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Scaffold Scaffolding construction aims at giving more defined and controlled meaning to the material itself. By testing different kind of fabric: Nylon, Cotton and Metal, I found that metal mesh has the most potential with interacting and bonding sand or cement powder together. Also more complexed mesh is more likely to create a sophiscated form. The experiment also familiarized me with the difference

of water and acylic bonding liquid. The polymeric bonding liquid enhances the drying speed and further strengthen the structure. The pictures below are from Nylon Mesh Scaffolding Experiences.

Fig 44.1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 45.1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao

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Scaffold The simulation process can also take on different material with different mesh systems. During this phase of experiment, the cement powder replaced sand and it was applied to cotton cloth fabric (Left Page) and thick steel wools (right). By simply spraying mist onto the fabric at the same time of applying the powders, the material aggregates in clusters.

Measurement

Wet the fabric

Fig 46.1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao

Dip fabric into PM

Applymore Layers

Fig 47.1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao

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Hydraophobic Coated Sand

Fig 48.1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao

Hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule (hydrobe) that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water. The molecular is essential non-polar structure where as water is polar solvents. The experiment is based on the special sand that adhere to one another and form cylinders when exposed to water. “These properties are achieved with ordinary beach sand, which contains tiny particles of pure silica, and exposing it to vapors of trimethylsila 48

nol (CH3)3SiOH, an organosilicon compound. Upon exposure, the trimethylsilane compound bonds to the silica particles while forming water. The exteriors of the sand grains are thus coated with hydrophobic groups. ” The self forming mechanism generated autonomosly by the repulsive force is the potential direction in terms of constructing an larger scale of particulate collecting simulation. However, the disadvantage is that the sand has to stay in water or

some other solvent to achieve such effect. Hydrophobi Coated Sand Small amount flows on the surface of water. Large amount saty underwater. Flexible and shapablewhen interact with water. Go back to dry particles when taken out from water.

Fig 49.1 Image by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 49.3 Image by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 49.2 Image by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 49.4 Image by Yifeng Zhao

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Cement Study

Fig 50.1 Photo by YIfeng Zhao

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is formed with portland cement creates a paste with water that binds with sand and rock to harden. Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients. Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These ingredients, when heated 50

at high temperatures form a rocklike substance that is ground into the fine powder that we commonly think of as cement. The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through a dry method. The first step is to quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and other materials. After quarrying the rock is crushed.

Fig 51.2 Photo by YIfeng Zhao

Fig 51.3 Photo by YIfeng Zhao

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Cement

Fig 52.1 Photo by YIfeng Zhao

Cement production involves several stages. The first crushing reduces the rock to a maximum size of about 6 inches. The rock then goes to secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 3 inches or smaller. The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln. The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns 52

lined with special firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet in diameter—large enough to accommodate an automobile and longer in many instances than the height of a 40-story building. The large kilns are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from the horizontal. The finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a roaring blast of flame, produced by

precisely controlled burning of powdered coal, oil, alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft. As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the form of gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance called clinker. Clinker comes out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.

Fig 53.2 Image Source:

Fig 53.1 Photo by YIfeng Zhao

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History On April 15th - less than a month ago, the worst sandstorm in more than a decade hit my hometown – the capital of China – Beijing at a speed of 45 miles per hour. “The mighty wind transported several tons of Gobi Desert sand straight into the city center. For hours, anyone not wearing a mask and goggles felt like their eyes and throat were being sandblasted.” 20 million of people suffered from such severe weather phenomenon: the heavy shroud of yellow dust made the visibility drop to less than 1000 meters and the air pollution reached to 1000 micrograms per cubic meter. The residents were either stuck indoor or in the worsened traffic jam. Adding to the already serious condition of smog, people start to fear as if it were “the end of the world” just like the scene in the sci-fi movie “Interstellar”.

+ Saharan

+ Kansas

+ Saudi Arabia + Iraq

+ London

+ Mongolia

+ Kuwait + Afghanistan

+ Tokyo

+ Gansu

+ Pakistan

+ Arizona

Fig 54.1 Image Source: WWW.New.CN _Formation

“It is a form of subnature that gathers itself, heaping, ƐŝĮƟŶŐ ďƵƚ ĂůƐŽ ƌĞĂĚǇ ƚŽ ďĞ ƵŶůĞĂƐŚĞĚ ďǇ ĨĂƌͲŽī ǁŝŶĚƐ Žƌ Ă ƉĂƐƐŝŶŐ ĂƵƚŽŵŽďŝůĞ ͞ Ͳ ĂǀŝĚ 'ŝƐƐĞŶ͕ ͟^ƵďŶĂƚƵƌĞ͗ ƌĐŚŝƚĞĐƚƵƌĞ͛Ɛ KƚŚĞƌ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͟

WĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ďĞĐŽŵĞ ůŽŽƐĞůǇ ŚĞůĚ ŵĂŝŶůǇ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ĚƌŽƵŐŚƚ Žƌ ĂƌŝĚ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͕ ĂŶĚ ǀĂƌŝĞĚ ǁŝŶĚ ĐĂƵƐĞƐ͘ 'ƵƐƚ ĨƌŽŶƚƐ ŵĂǇ ďĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚ ďǇ ƚŚĞ ŽƵƞůŽǁ ŽĨ ƌĂŝŶͲĐŽŽůĞĚ Ăŝƌ ĨƌŽŵ ĂŶ ŝŶƚĞŶƐĞ ƚŚƵŶĚĞƌƐƚŽƌŵ͘ Kƌ͕ ƚŚĞ ǁŝŶĚ ŐƵƐƚƐ ŵĂǇ ďĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚ ďǇ Ă ĚƌǇ ĐŽůĚ ĨƌŽŶƚ͕ ƚŚĂƚ ŝƐ͕ Ă ĐŽůĚ ĨƌŽŶƚ ƚŚĂƚ ŝƐ ŵŽǀŝŶŐ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ĚƌǇ Ăŝƌ ŵĂƐƐ ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ƉƌŽĚƵĐŝŶŐ ŶŽ ƉƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƟŽŶͶƚŚĞ ƚǇƉĞ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵ ǁŚŝĐŚ ǁĂƐ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƵƐƚ Žǁů ǇĞĂƌƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ h͘^͘ &ŽůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƉĂƐƐĂŐĞ ŽĨ Ă ĚƌǇ ĐŽůĚ ĨƌŽŶƚ͕ ĐŽŶǀĞĐƟǀĞ ŝŶƐƚĂďŝůŝƚǇ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ĐŽŽůĞƌ Ăŝƌ ƌŝĚŝŶŐ ŽǀĞƌ ŚĞĂƚĞĚ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ĐĂŶ ŵĂŝŶƚĂŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵ ŝŶŝƟĂƚĞĚ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ ĨƌŽŶƚ͘

+ Puerto Rico

+ Nigeria

+ Egypt

+ Dubai

+ India

+ Beijing

+ Australia

_History

/Ŷ ĚĞƐĞƌƚ ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ĚƵƐƚ ĂŶĚ ƐĂŶĚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĂƌĞ ŵŽƐƚ ĐŽŵŵŽŶůǇ ĐĂƵƐĞĚ ďǇ ĞŝƚŚĞƌ ƚŚƵŶĚĞƌƐƚŽƌŵ ŽƵƞůŽǁƐ͕ Žƌ ďǇ ƐƚƌŽŶŐ ƉƌĞƐƐƵƌĞ ŐƌĂĚŝĞŶƚƐ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐĂƵƐĞ ĂŶ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŝŶ ǁŝŶĚ ǀĞůŽĐŝƚǇ ŽǀĞƌ Ă ǁŝĚĞ ĂƌĞĂ͘ dŚĞ ǀĞƌƟĐĂů ĞǆƚĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĚƵƐƚ Žƌ ƐĂŶĚ ƚŚĂƚ ŝƐ ƌĂŝƐĞĚ ŝƐ ůĂƌŐĞůǇ ĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞĚ ďǇ ƚŚĞ ƐƚĂďŝůŝƚǇ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĂƚŵŽƐƉŚĞƌĞ ĂďŽǀĞ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ĂƐ ǁĞůů ĂƐ ďǇ ƚŚĞ ǁĞŝŐŚƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƚĞƐ͘ /Ŷ ƐŽŵĞ ĐĂƐĞƐ͕ ĚƵƐƚ ĂŶĚ ƐĂŶĚ ŵĂǇ ďĞ ĐŽŶĮŶĞĚ ƚŽ Ă ƌĞůĂƟǀĞůǇ ƐŚĂůůŽǁ ůĂǇĞƌ ďǇ Ă ůŽǁͲůǇŝŶŐ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ ŝŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶ͘ /Ŷ ŽƚŚĞƌ ŝŶƐƚĂŶĐĞƐ͕ ĚƵƐƚ ;ďƵƚ ŶŽƚ ƐĂŶĚͿ ŵĂǇ ďĞ ůŝŌĞĚ ĂƐ ŚŝŐŚ ĂƐ ϮϬ͕ϬϬϬ ĨĞĞƚ ;ϲ͕ϭϬϬ ŵͿ ŚŝŐŚ͘

ϭϵϯϬͲϯϱ͕ ŵĞƌŝĐĂ DŝĚ tĞƐƚ ƵƐƚ Žǁů

ϮϬϬϳ͕ dĞǆĂƐ͕ ƌŵĂƌŝůůŽ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂ͕ sŝĐƚŽƌŝĂ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϱϮϰ ͕ ^ŝǁĂ KĂƐŝƐ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϭϵϳϭ͕ ƌŝǌŽŶĂ͕ dƵƐĐŽŶ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϳ͕ WĂŬŝƐƚĂŶ zĂŵǇŝŶ ǇĐůŽŶĞ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϬ͕ ĞŝũŝŶŐ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϰϬϬ ͕ ŚŝŶĂ ^ŝůŬ ZŽĂĚ WŽŵƉĞŝ īĞĐƚ

ϮϬϬϱ͕ /ƌĂƋ͕ /ƐĂĚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ ^ĂƵĚŝ ƌĂďŝĂ͕ ZĂǇĂĚŚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϭ͕ WŚŽĞŶŝǆ ,ĂďŽŽď

ŐǇƉƚ ͬ >ǇďŝĂ͕ ϭϵϮϲ

ϮϬϬϲ͕ DŽŶŐŽůŝĂ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ <ŝŶŐĚŽŵ ŽĨ ĂŚƌĂŝŶ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϭ͕ EĞŐĂǀĞ ĞƐƐĞƌƚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ƌŽƵŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ǁŝŶĚ ĐŽŶƚƌŝďƵƚĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĞŵĞƌŐĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ͕ ĂƐ ĚŽ ƉŽŽƌ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ĂŶĚ ŐƌĂǌŝŶŐ ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ ďǇ ĞǆƉŽƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĚƵƐƚ ĂŶĚ ƐĂŶĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ǁŝŶĚ͘ KŶĞ ƉŽŽƌ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐŽŶƚƌŝďƵƚĞƐ ƚŽ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ŝƐ ĚƌǇůĂŶĚ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ͘ WĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌůǇ ƉŽŽƌ ĚƌǇůĂŶĚ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ƚĞĐŚŶŝƋƵĞƐ ĂƌĞ ŝŶƚĞŶƐŝǀĞ ƟůůĂŐĞ Žƌ ŶŽƚ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĞĚ ĐƌŽƉƐ Žƌ ĐŽǀĞƌ ĐƌŽƉƐ ǁŚĞŶ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ƐƚƌŝŬĞ Ăƚ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌůǇ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ƟŵĞƐ ƉƌŝŽƌ ƚŽ ƌĞǀĞŐĞƚĂƟŽŶ͘΀ϯ΁ /Ŷ Ă ƐĞŵŝͲĂƌŝĚ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ͕ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƐƵƐĐĞƉƟďŝůŝƚǇ ƚŽ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ͘ ,ŽǁĞǀĞƌ͕ ƐŽŝů ĐŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ ŵĂǇ ďĞ ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĞĚ ƚŽ ĐŽŶƚƌŽů ǁŝŶĚ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ͘

Natural Impact R ࠹

࠹

Ɛ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌĐĞ ŽĨ ǁŝŶĚ ƉĂƐƐŝŶŐ ŽǀĞƌ ůŽŽƐĞůǇ ŚĞůĚ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐ͕ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ŽĨ ƐĂŶĚ ĮƌƐƚ ƐƚĂƌƚ ƚŽ ǀŝďƌĂƚĞ͕ ƚŚĞŶ ƚŽ ƐĂůƚĂƚĞ ;͞ůĞĂƉ͟Ϳ͘ Ɛ ƚŚĞǇ ƌĞƉĞĂƚĞĚůǇ ƐƚƌŝŬĞ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ͕ ƚŚĞǇ ůŽŽƐĞŶ ĂŶĚ ďƌĞĂŬ Žī ƐŵĂůůĞƌ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ƚŚĞŶ ďĞŐŝŶ ƚŽ ƚƌĂǀĞů ŝŶ ƐƵƐƉĞŶƐŝŽŶ͘ ƚ ǁŝŶĚ ƐƉĞĞĚƐ ĂďŽǀĞ ƚŚĂƚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐĂƵƐĞƐ ƚŚĞ ƐŵĂůůĞƐƚ ƚŽ ƐƵƐƉĞŶĚ͕ ƚŚĞƌĞ ǁŝůů ďĞ Ă ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ ŐƌĂŝŶƐ ŵŽǀŝŶŐ ďǇ Ă ƌĂŶŐĞ ŽĨ ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵƐ͗ ƐƵƐƉĞŶƐŝŽŶ͕ ƐĂůƚĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĐƌĞĞƉ͘΀ϭ΁ ƌĞĐĞŶƚ ƐƚƵĚǇ ĮŶĚƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ŝŶŝƟĂů ƐĂůƚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐĂŶĚ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ŝŶĚƵĐĞƐ Ă ƐƚĂƟĐ ĞůĞĐƚƌŝĐ ĮĞůĚ ďǇ ĨƌŝĐƟŽŶ͘ ^ĂůƚĂƟŶŐ ƐĂŶĚ ĂĐƋƵŝƌĞƐ Ă ŶĞŐĂƟǀĞ ĐŚĂƌŐĞ ƌĞůĂƟǀĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝŶ ƚƵƌŶ ůŽŽƐĞŶƐ ŵŽƌĞ ƐĂŶĚ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ǁŚŝĐŚ ƚŚĞŶ ďĞŐŝŶ ƐĂůƚĂƟŶŐ͘ dŚŝƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ĨŽƵŶĚ ƚŽ ĚŽƵďůĞ ƚŚĞ ŶƵŵďĞƌ ŽĨ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ƉƌĞĚŝĐƚĞĚ ďǇ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐ ƚŚĞŽƌŝĞƐ͘΀Ϯ΁

Wind Wind Saltation

Saltation

Creep

_Landscape

ƐĂŶĚƐƚŽƌŵ ĐĂŶ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ ůĂƌŐĞ ǀŽůƵŵĞƐ ŽĨ ƐĂŶĚ ƵŶĞǆƉĞĐƚĞĚůǇ͘ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĐĂŶ ĐĂƌƌǇ ůĂƌŐĞ ĂŵŽƵŶƚƐ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ůĞĂĚŝŶŐ ĞĚŐĞ ďĞŝŶŐ ĐŽŵƉŽƐĞĚ ŽĨ ǁĂůů ŽĨ ƚŚŝĐŬ ĚƵƐƚ ĂƐ ŵƵĐŚ ĂƐ ϭ͘ϲ Ŭŵ ;Ϭ͘ϵϵ ŵŝͿ ŚŝŐŚ͘ ƵƐƚ ĂŶĚ ƐĂŶĚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐŽŵĞ Žī ƚŚĞ ^ĂŚĂƌĂ ĞƐĞƌƚ ĂƌĞ ůŽĐĂůůǇ ŬŶŽǁŶ ĂƐ Ă ƐŝŵŽŽŵ Žƌ ƐŝŵŽŽŶ ;ƐŠŵƻŵ͕ ƐŠŵƻŶͿ͘ dŚĞ ŚĂďŽŽď ;Ś࠯ďƻďͿ ŝƐ Ă ƐĂŶĚƐƚŽƌŵ ƉƌĞǀĂůĞŶƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ^ƵĚĂŶ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ <ŚĂƌƚŽƵŵ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ŽĐĐƵƌƌĞŶĐĞƐ ďĞŝŶŐ ŵŽƐƚ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐƵŵŵĞƌ͘ dŚĞ ^ĂŚĂƌĂ ĚĞƐĞƌƚ ŝƐ Ă ŬĞǇ ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ŽĨ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ͕ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌůǇ ƚŚĞ ŽĚĠůĠ ĞƉƌĞƐƐŝŽŶ΀ϰ΁ ĂŶĚ ĂŶ ĂƌĞĂ ĐŽǀĞƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶŇƵĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ DĂƵƌŝƚĂŶŝĂ͕ DĂůŝ͕ ĂŶĚ ůŐĞƌŝĂ͘΀ϱ΁ ^ĂŚĂƌĂŶ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ŚĂǀĞ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĚ ĂƉƉƌŽǆŝŵĂƚĞůǇ ϭϬͲĨŽůĚ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŚĂůĨͲĐĞŶƚƵƌǇ ƐŝŶĐĞ ƚŚĞ ϭϵϱϬƐ͕ ĐĂƵƐŝŶŐ ƚŽƉƐŽŝů ůŽƐƐ ŝŶ EŝŐĞƌ͕ ŚĂĚ͕ ŶŽƌƚŚĞƌŶ EŝŐĞƌŝĂ͕ ĂŶĚ ƵƌŬŝŶĂ &ĂƐŽ͘ /Ŷ DĂƵƌŝƚĂŶŝĂ ƚŚĞƌĞ ǁĞƌĞ ũƵƐƚ ƚǁŽ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ Ă ǇĞĂƌ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĞĂƌůǇ ϭϵϲϬƐ͕ ďƵƚ ƚŚĞƌĞ ĂƌĞ ĂďŽƵƚ ϴϬ Ă ǇĞĂƌ ƚŽĚĂǇ͕ ĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ƚŽ ŶĚƌĞǁ 'ŽƵĚŝĞ͕ Ă ƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŽƌ ŽĨ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚǇ Ăƚ KǆĨŽƌĚ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚǇ͘΀ϲ΁΀ϳ΁ >ĞǀĞůƐ ŽĨ ^ĂŚĂƌĂŶ ĚƵƐƚ ĐŽŵŝŶŐ Žī ƚŚĞ ĞĂƐƚ ĐŽĂƐƚ ŽĨ ĨƌŝĐĂ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ;ϮϬϬϳͿ ǁĞƌĞ ĮǀĞ ƟŵĞƐ ƚŚŽƐĞ ŽďƐĞƌǀĞĚ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϮϬϬϲ͕ ĂŶĚ ǁĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ŚŝŐŚĞƐƚ ŽďƐĞƌǀĞĚ ƐŝŶĐĞ Ăƚ ůĞĂƐƚ ϭϵϵϵ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŵĂǇ ŚĂǀĞ ĐŽŽůĞĚ ƚůĂŶƟĐ ǁĂƚĞƌƐ ĞŶŽƵŐŚ ƚŽ ƐůŝŐŚƚůǇ ƌĞĚƵĐĞ ŚƵƌƌŝĐĂŶĞ ĂĐƟǀŝƚǇ ŝŶ ůĂƚĞ ϮϬϬϳ͘΀ϴ΁΀ϵ΁΀ϭϬ΁

^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵƐ ĚŝĚ ŶŽƚ ũƵƐƚ ƐƚĂƌƚ ĨƌŽŵ ƌĞĐĞŶƚ ĚĞĐĂĚĞƐ ďƵƚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚŽƵƐĂŶĚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚŽƵĚĂŶƐ ŽĨ ǇĞĂƌƐ ĂŐŽ ǁŚĞƌĞ ĚĞƐƐĞƌƚƐ ǁĞƌĞ ďĞŝŶŐ ŵŽǀĞĚ ďǇ ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůǇ ŚĂƉƉĞŶĞĚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĂŶĚ ďƵƌƌŝĞĚ ĨĞǁ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŝǀŝůŝǌĂƟŽŶƐ ŽĨ ŚƵŵĂŶ ƐŽĐŝĞƚǇ͘ ^ŝŶĐĞ ƵƌďĂŶŝǌĂƟŽŶ ŐƌĞǁ ƌĂƉŝĚůǇ ŝŶ ĞǀĞƌǇ ĐŽŶƟŶĞŶƚƐ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŚŝƐƚŽƌǇ͕ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůŝǌĞĚ ǁŽƌůĚ ƚŽŽŬ ŽǀĞƌ ǀĞŐŝƚĂƚĞĚ ůĂŶĚƐ ůŝƩůĞ ďǇ ůŝƩůĞ͘ dŚĞ ƐĂŶĚ ƐƚŽƌŵ ŚĂƉƉĞŶĞĚ ĂƐ ŽŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ďĂĚ ƌĞƐƵůƚƐ ĐŽŶƚƌĂƌŝůǇ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ŚĞĂǀŝůǇ ďĂĐŬ ŽŶ ŚƵŵĂŶďĞŝŶŐƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞŝƌ ŚĂďŝƚĂƚƐ͘ ͞ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ďƌŝŶŐ ŝŶ ĂŶ ŝŶĐƌĞĚŝďůĞ ŽďƐƚĂĐůĞ ĨŽƌ ĂŶǇƚŚŝŶŐ ďƌĞĂƚŚŝŶŐ ŽƌŐĂŶŝƐŵ͕ ĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůůǇ ŚƵŵĂŶƐ͘ tŚĞŶ ůĂĐŬ ^ƵŶĚĂǇ ĐĂŵĞ͕ ƌŽŽŵƐ ǁŝƚŚ ĐůŽƐĞĚ ǁŝŶĚŽǁƐ ĂŶĚ ĚŽŽƌƐ ƐƟůů ĮůůĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ĚƵƐƚ͕ ƐŽ ŵƵĐŚ ĚƵƐƚ ŝŶ ĨĂĐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ŽŶĞ ĂĐĐŽƵŶƚ ƐĂŝĚ ƚŚĞǇ ĐŽƵůĚŶ͛ƚ ƐĞĞ ƚŚĞ ǁŝŶĚŽǁ ŽĨ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƌŽŽŵ͕ Žƌ ƚŚĞ ůĂŵƉ ŝŶ ĨƌŽŶƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞŝƌ ĨĂĐĞ͘ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĂƌĞ ŝŶĐƌĞĚŝďůǇ ĚĞŶƐĞ͕ ĂŶĚ ĐĂŶ ďůŽĐŬ ŽƵƚ ŵŽƐƚ ƚŽ Ăůů ůŝŐŚƚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐƵŶ͕ ƚƵƌŶŝŶŐ Ă ďƌŝŐŚƚ ĐŚĞĞƌǇ ĚĂǇ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ĚĂƌŬ ŶŝŐŚƚŵĂƌĞ͘ ͞ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ ŽǀĞƌ ĐŝƚǇ ŚŝŐŚǁĂǇƐ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ŚĂǀĞ ĂůƐŽ ďĞĞŶ ƐŚŽǁŶ ƚŽ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƚŚĞ ƐƉƌĞĂĚ ŽĨ ĚŝƐĞĂƐĞ ĂĐƌŽƐƐ ƚŚĞ ŐůŽďĞ͘ sŝƌƵƐ ƐƉŽƌĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ĂƌĞ ďůŽǁŶ ŝŶƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĂƚŵŽƐƉŚĞƌĞ ďǇ ƚŚĞ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ŵŝŶƵƚĞ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ƚŚĞŶ ĂĐƟŶŐ ůŝŬĞ ƵƌďĂŶ ƐŵŽŐ Žƌ ĂĐŝĚ ƌĂŝŶ͘΀ϭϭ΁ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵ ŝŶ ^ǇĚŶĞǇ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐŽǀĞƌĞĚ ŵŽƐƚ ŽĨ ĞĂƐƚĞƌŶ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂ ŝŶ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌ ϮϬϬϵ͘ WƌŽůŽŶŐĞĚ ĂŶĚ ƵŶƉƌŽƚĞĐƚĞĚ ĞǆƉŽƐƵƌĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƐƉŝƌĂtory system in a dust storm can also cause silicosis ǁŚŝĐŚ͕ ŝĨ ůĞŌ ƵŶƚƌĞĂƚĞĚ͕ ǁŝůů ůĞĂĚ ƚŽ ĂƐƉŚǇǆŝĂƟŽŶ͖ ƐŝůŝĐŽƐŝƐ ŝƐ ĂŶ ŝŶĐƵƌĂďůĞ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶ ƚŚĂƚ ĂůƐŽ ŵĂǇ ůĞĂĚ ƚŽ ůƵŶŐ ĐĂŶĐĞƌ͘ dŚĞƌĞ ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ ƚŚĞ ĚĂŶŐĞƌ ŽĨ ŬĞƌĂƚŽĐŽŶũƵŶĐƟǀŝƟƐ ƐŝĐĐĂ ;͞ĚƌǇ ĞǇĞƐ͟Ϳ ǁŚŝĐŚ͕ ŝŶ ƐĞǀĞƌĞ ĐĂƐĞƐ without immediate and proper treatment, can lead ƚŽ ďůŝŶĚŶĞƐƐ͘΀ϭϮ΁ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĐĂƵƐĞ ƐŽŝů ůŽƐƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ĚƌǇ ůĂŶĚƐ͕ ĂŶĚ ǁŽƌƐĞ͕ ƚŚĞǇ ƉƌĞĨĞƌĞŶƟĂůůǇ ƌĞŵŽǀĞ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ŵĂƩĞƌ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚͲƌŝĐŚ ůŝŐŚƚĞƐƚ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ ƚŚĞƌĞďǇ ƌĞĚƵĐŝŶŐ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀŝƚǇ͘ ůƐŽ ƚŚĞ ĂďƌĂƐŝǀĞ ĞīĞĐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƚŽƌŵ ĚĂŵĂŐĞƐ ǇŽƵŶŐ ĐƌŽƉ ƉůĂŶƚƐ͘ ƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĂůƐŽ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ ǀŝƐŝďŝůŝƚǇ ĂīĞĐƟŶŐ ĂŝƌĐƌĂŌ ĂŶĚ ƌŽĂĚ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂƟŽŶ͘ /Ŷ ĂĚĚŝƟŽŶ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ĂůƐŽ ĐƌĞĂƚĞ ƉƌŽďůĞŵƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ĐŽŵƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶƐ ŽĨ ďƌĞĂƚŚŝŶŐ ŝŶ ĚƵƐƚ͘ ΀ϭϯ΁

Industrial Impact

Suspension

^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ŽŶ ŚƵŵĂŶ ŚĞĂůƚŚ

^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ ŝŶ ŚĂƌďŽƌƐ

ƵƐƚ ĐĂŶ ĂůƐŽ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞŶĞĮĐŝĂů ĞīĞĐƚƐ ǁŚĞƌĞ ŝƚ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚƐ͗ ĞŶƚƌĂů ĂŶĚ ^ŽƵƚŚ ŵĞƌŝĐĂŶ ƌĂŝŶ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ŐĞƚ ŵŽƐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞŝƌ ŵŝŶĞƌĂů ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ^ĂŚĂƌĂ͖ ŝƌŽŶͲƉŽŽƌ ŽĐĞĂŶ ƌĞŐŝŽŶƐ ŐĞƚ ŝƌŽŶ͖ ĂŶĚ ĚƵƐƚ ŝŶ ,ĂǁĂŝŝ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐ ƉůĂŶƚĂŝŶ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ͘ /Ŷ ŶŽƌƚŚĞƌŶ ŚŝŶĂ ĂƐ ǁĞůů ĂƐ ƚŚĞ ŵŝĚͲǁĞƐƚĞƌŶ h͘^͕͘ ĂŶĐŝĞŶƚ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚƐ ŬŶŽǁŶ ĂƐ ůŽĞƐƐ ĂƌĞ ŚŝŐŚůǇ ĨĞƌƟůĞ ƐŽŝůƐ͕ ďƵƚ ƚŚĞǇ ĂƌĞ ĂůƐŽ Ă ƐŝŐŶŝĮĐĂŶƚ ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ŽĨ ĐŽŶƚĞŵƉŽƌĂƌǇ ĚƵƐƚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ ǁŚĞŶ ƐŽŝůͲƐĞĐƵƌŝŶŐ ǀĞŐĞƚĂƟŽŶ ŝƐ ĚŝƐƚƵƌďĞĚ͘΀ϭϰ΁ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ ŝŶ ĂƌŵǇ ĐĂŵƉƵƐ

^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ĐŽƵŶƚƌǇƐŝĚĞƐ

;ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ĐƌǇƐƚĂůŝŶŬƐ͘ĐŽŵͬ ƵƐƚ^ƚŽƌŵ͘ŚƚŵůͿ

+ Kansas

+ Saudi Arabia

+ Saharan

+ Iraq

+ London

+ Mongolia

+ Kuwait + Afghanistan

+ Tokyo

+ Gansu

+ Pakistan

+ Arizona + Puerto Rico + Nigeria + Egypt + Dubai + India + Beijing Fig 55.1 Map by Yifeng Zhao, Information from by http://en.community.epals.com/science_center/b/science_center_col-

+ Australia

_History

ϭϵϯϬͲϯϱ͕ ŵĞƌŝĐĂ DŝĚ tĞƐƚ ƵƐƚ Žǁů

ϮϬϬϳ͕ dĞǆĂƐ͕ ƌŵĂƌŝůůŽ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂ͕ sŝĐƚŽƌŝĂ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

Natural Impact ϱϮϰ ͕ ^ŝǁĂ KĂƐŝƐ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϭϵϳϭ͕ ƌŝǌŽŶĂ͕ dƵƐĐŽŶ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϳ͕ WĂŬŝƐƚĂŶ zĂŵǇŝŶ ǇĐůŽŶĞ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϬ͕ ĞŝũŝŶŐ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϰϬϬ ͕ ŚŝŶĂ ^ŝůŬ ZŽĂĚ WŽŵƉĞŝ īĞĐƚ

ϮϬϬϱ͕ /ƌĂƋ͕ /ƐĂĚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ ^ĂƵĚŝ ƌĂďŝĂ͕ ZĂǇĂĚŚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϭ͕ WŚŽĞŶŝǆ ,ĂďŽŽď

ŐǇƉƚ ͬ >ǇďŝĂ͕ ϭϵϮϲ

ϮϬϬϲ͕ DŽŶŐŽůŝĂ ^ĂŶĚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϬϵ͕ <ŝŶŐĚŽŵ ŽĨ ĂŚƌĂŝŶ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

ϮϬϭϭ͕ EĞŐĂǀĞ ĞƐƐĞƌƚ ƵƐƚ ^ƚŽƌŵ

Industrial Impact

;ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ĐƌǇƐƚĂůŝŶŬƐ͘ĐŽŵͬ ƵƐƚ^ƚŽƌŵ͘ŚƚŵůͿ

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Fig 56.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

4|Design Initiatives

“Dust is largely innocuous, it registers its particular power against and over architecture, through neglecting over expanses of time” - John Ruskin

Traditional design associated with sandstorm and duststorms are set on the parimeter of urban city where vegitations are implented by layers. When saltation process of the sand is interruped by the tree branches, the velocity of sandstorm would be decreased, thus less impact on the urban city. Assumption can be made that any type of barrier that block concentrate the same amount of sand will be re-utilization of the material resource that exists in abundance form. By directing sand to certain locations, forms and spaces can be created for architectural expansion.

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Detect

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

The detect process involves a study with wind pattern. The traditional wind trap in Middle East countries inspired me to establish a wind simulation box. The box is still in progress of construction, but the idea is to translate the typical laminar and turbulent flow into the circulation process.

Fig 58.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

De Ca

Detect

Capture

De Deliver

Relocate

Po So

Control

Output

Fig 59.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

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Capture - Module Development

Fig 60.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 61.1 Image Source: http://www.strutpatent.com/image/get/2007/full/US07156744-20070102-D00008.jpg

Fig 61.2 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

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Capture -Technology Reference

Wind Trap Tower

Fig 62.1 Image Source: http://www.nividar.com/full/d5ec37740b685b3c0722233c6bc57f934b4507cb.jpg

One of the most common use of the windcatcher is to cool the inside of the dwelling; it is ofen used in combination with courtyards and domes as an overall ventilation and heat-management strategy. The tall, capped tower with one face open at the top receives the prevailing wind and brings it down to the interior to maintain air flow, sand drops in the well before pollutiong the air in the room.

Vortex Seperator

Fig 63.21http://extremeequipment.in/images/lab3g.jpg

Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream, without the use of filters, therough vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used to separate fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.

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Deliver - Material Aggregation

Module X = 4 Angle = 30 degrees Linear Connection

Module X = 48 Angle = 360 degrees Loop Connection

Module X = 24 Angle = 180 degrees Linear Connection

Module X = 36 Angle = 360 degrees Linear + Loop Connection

Module X = 72 Angle = 360 degrees Linear + Loop Connection

Fig 64.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 65.1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 65.2 Photo by Yifeng Zhao

Relocate - Site Analogue

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fig 66.1 Diagram by YIfeng Zhao

Fig 67.2 Diagram by YIfeng Zhao

Fig 67.3 Image Source:

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Relocate - Typical Metropolitan Scale Reference The selection of relocation should be a spontaneous process because the project is autonoumous overall. Since the air quality is the main target of the project, comparisons before and after air polluted atmosphere is conducted. The visual effect of air pollution are presented in the comparison pictures at one fixed location. The output possibilites of the particulates that are causing the air pollution are briefly laid out from urban scale, to architecture scale, to industrail scale. It will be further studied in the later chapters.

Fig 69.2 Image Source:

Fig 69.3 Image Source: http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/11/photos-beijing-blanketed-in-smog

Form and Control

Fig 70.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Tensil Structures

Suspension Bridge

Gridshell

Compression

Column

Arch

Long Span

Dome

Orthogonal Slab

Tensegrity Structure

Truss System

Fig 71.2 Image Source: http://eu.lib.kmutt.ac.th/elearning/Courseware/ARC261/chapter8_5.html

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Formation

Fig 72.1 Section Drawing by Yifeng Zhao

Expansion, Prolongation, Reciprocation and Intermediation of a city center depends on self assemblied material structures. Module scales can be adjusted by functions and programs. The prediction of its growth can be controled by initial light weight frame. 72

Fig 73.1 Axonometric Drawing By Yifeng zhao

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Existing Concept Support - New Material Research

Fig 74.1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 75.1 Plan Drawing by Yifeng Zhao

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Scale

Fig 76.3 Image Source:

The schematic design was rather ambitious in terms of the scale. According to the uncontrollable incidents and the time durations, the scheme can only be realized in computer simulation and material representation. The social affect of the project, though, has been succssefully acknolwedged by the renderings. The dramatic visulizations became the driven force for the later development.

Fig 77.1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 77.2 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhao

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Fig 78.1 Image Source: Photo by Yifeng Zhao

6|Material Development

“Toward material things, which necessarily have a limit, it is best to be satisfied with what you have, but with regard to the limitless development of spiritual qualities, you should never be satisfied with a mere portion, but continually seek higher development.” - Dalai Lama

The second phase of material studies abandoned the previous try and error approach. It quickly focused on the most feasible bonding agent to help progress the simulation of particulate aggregation. The existing technologies were being re-examined as the important transformation logic of particles are reitereated. The scientific measurement was taken during the material development to ensure the validity and consistency.

Existing Technologies and Aggregation Logic Study Coelenteron

Organism

Water Column

To Form Gastric Cavity of the Coral Original Source of the Skeleton of Coral

CO 2

Bio-carbonate

ry pro teins

Extracytoplasmic Calcifying Fluid: ECF

essa

proton p out pum

sar

y or ganis m

Exc

lud

n ec

tly

Protein

ec Dir

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Calicoblastic Epithelium

Form of Aragonite Supersaturation Precipitation

Magnesium Phosphate

ent chm Atta tly rec Di

Coral Skeleton

Particulate Matter Aggregation has been studied by various scientists and inventors. The logic of mimicing coral reef precipitation and growth by adding the bonding agent (Calcium and CO2) onto the base Coral skeleton was realized in creating the new materials with diﬀerent adhesives and granular sand. By ﬁlling in the tension gap created among sand particles, a saturated mold can be technically formed. The technologies below demonstrates the possibility of the project.

Dry Grains

Partially saturated

Highly saturated

Slurry

Cohesion negligible

At small volume fractions, liquid bridges are formed between grains near point of contact

At higher volume fractions, liquid bridges merge to give trimers, tetrahedra and pentamers.

At still higher volume fractions, larger contiguous wet clusters form.

The Pores space is fully saturated with liquid. Cohesion is negligible again.

Ginger Krieg Dosier - “Better Bricks” microbial induced calcite precipitation (MICP) - utilize microbes as bonding agent to produce sustinable sand bricks. 2010

TIS & Partners - Japanese construction and design ﬁrm - low tech brick that can be rapidly produced with carbon dioxide compressing technique in emergency constructions.

Peter Trimble - Biostone created by urine injection in the sand mold (sporosarcina pasteurii is a bacterium with binding quality for solidifying soil in practical constructions.)

Markus Kayser - Sun Cutter Project - Using solar machine as a sintering device to heat silicia sand and solidify them to hardened glass structures in the Egyptian desert.

Assistant architecture professor Ginger Krieg Dosier recently unveiled a new breed of biologically “grown” bricks that are durable, sustainably manufactured, and easily produced from readily available materials. Called “Better Bricks,” the building material can be “grown” from sand, common bacteria, calcium chloride, and urea (yes, the stuff in your pee) instead of being baked, which consumes a ton of energy. The concept, which recently won Me-

jah, in the United Arab Emirates, as a solution to the enormous environmental impact of producing all of the bricks the world needs each year. “We’re running out of all of our energy sources,” said Dosier in a March phone interview. “Four hundred trees are burned to make 25,000 bricks. It’s a consumption issue, and honestly, it’s starting to Better Bricks were conceived by scare me.” Ginger Krieg Dosier, an assistant architecture professor, in a lab at the American University of Shartropolis Mag‘s 2010 Next Generation design competition, may seem simple, but it has the potential to have a global impact when you consider that producing the 1.23 trillion bricks manufactured per year right now creates more pollution than all the airplanes in the world!

Fig 81.2 Image and Text Source: http://inhabitat.com/researcher-grows-durable-bio-bricks-from-sand-bacteria-and-urea/

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Material Study Research and Setup

Injection Wax Type

Fig 82.1 Image Source: http://www.freemanwax.com/freeman-flakes-injection-waxes.html

Injection wax performs in a consistant manner. It is widely used in small scale sculpturing, home decoration, dental alloys and jewelry making industries. The material can resemble a hight level of detail reproduction and reach a relatively fast speed of solidification. With the minimum shrinkage, excellent flow and low ash content, the injection wax was chosen to simulate the adhesive agent to bond granular sand together for the project. 82

Different type of wax (indicated by different color) possess different characteristics: Purple has highest flow, flexibility, carvability and fastest solidification; it was ideal for instant form making, but not as perfect for its compatibility with sand mixture. Pink has low flexibility and fast solidification which indicate the worst scenerio for the mixture; Red, tuquoise and tuf Green all have medium level of flexibility and solidification speed and they were tested to be the

best combination qualities. Green was chosen at last for its representational color for nature and life; it was also the most accesible product at the time.

Experiment Set Up

Fig 83.1 Image Source: Photography taken by Yifeng Zhao

The mixture is made of fine beach sand and green injection wax. By applying heat to the mixture, wax melts on the top of the water bath and blends in with sand. The ratio of sand to wax was throughly studied and 1:3/4 was applied for the best option to mimic aggregated particulate matters effect.

Material Studies Result Samples

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Fig 84.1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao

Ratio Sand to Wax 1/2:1

1:1

1-1/4 : 1

1-1/2 : 1

1-3/4: 1

2:1

2-1/4 : 1

2-1/2 : 1

Paraffin Wax

Turf Green Injection Wax

Purple Injection Wax

Grid Print

Aggregated Accumulation

Water Solidification

Air Solidification

Fig 85.1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao

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Material Studies Result Samples

Sand-Wax Mixture Droplets

Fig 86.1 Image Source: Photograph taken by Yifeng Zhao

The solidification of heated wax and sand mixture requires a dedicated surface area and lower temperature. The droplets of the mixture were tested to be droped directly on paper, wood, steel, water, and frozen snow. They each form solid fragmented pieces within different range of times but the general physical shape resembles between each other.

The snow instantly condensed the material mixture to clusters of solid pieces. Depending on the amount of snow and amount of one drop of mixture, the size of drplets vary.

How the droplets disperse and permeate through the ice volume needed more control with more focused extrusion point. A specific mechanism needed to be designed for the specific extrusion radius and heat range.

Sculpturing Experiences

Fig 87.2 Image Source: Photography taken by Yifeng Zhao

Sculpturing with constantly flowing material needs pre-fabricated scaffolding assistance. The fully blended mixture is required to be prepared as the experiment progresses.

Fig 87.3 Image Source:

Bio-degradable Packing Peanuts were discovered to be a sculpturing possibility as they form temporary voids and are able to dissolve in the water after.

A boundary condition was also introduced to test how well the material mixture interact with smooth surfaces and rough voids at the same time. The method is similar to slip casting. The results projects an aesthetic that is not as natural as expected.

Deposit Mechanism

Fig 88.1 Image Source: Photograph taken by Ted Ngai

The mechanism for material deposition is simply involved with a rotating motion accompanying with longitudinal movements. The rotating mechanism is composed of a wooden framework that holds up basic motor and speed controler, a set of hollow core belt, and rotating platform. The material extruder is composed of a temperature controller, a metal heating tube, a heat sensor and the relative framework. Due to certain constraints, the x-y axis sliding rail was not assembled on the bottom of the machine for the final physical production.

Material Extruder

Heat Assistant

Turner Base Driving Belt Framing Box

Motor

V-Slot Y-Direction Machanism

Fig 89.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

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Fig 90.1 Image Source: http://www.goodfon.su/wallpaper/nlo-pole-krugi-na-polyah-3727.html

7|Design Scenerio

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.” - Mahatma Gandhi

To reach an optimum efficiency level of living, we, as human beings, have the obligation to take the initiative to alternate the unbalanced environment we have caused from massive overinhabitation of the earth and over-exploitation of natural resources. The current conventional solutions towards such sustainable discussions are more likely focusing on the pragmatic strategies that include promoting efficient industrial production, encouraging recycling, establishing waste management policies and so on. However, I would like to argue that building a sustainable environment does not necessarily mean implementing new tangible or intangible energies as an additive disciplinary approach. We can simply look more carefully into the situation we are already in, acquire a deeper recognition of the existing world, and creating autogenous possibilities.

Re-examination of Sandstorm Causes

Suspension Wind Wind Saltation

Saltation

4 Creep

5 0

Horizon consists of tiny particles of declayed leaves, twigs and animal remains

2 Secondary organic material break downs and soluble matters

Urbanization 4%

Overexploitation of land for fuelwood 7% �educed source of seed stock Loss of leaf litter, which is the founcation of food chain �uno� water is acidic and detrimental to marine life

Debris may prevent disperal of seeds Seagrass beds decline

Sedimentation

�rosion

Soil oxidizes and subsides

Deforestation 30%

Deep Layer bedrock that has solid minerals 4

Overgrazing 35%

Agricultural Activities 28%

Fig 92.3 Image Source Found in the Reference Appendex

100

Modern Agriculture Practice in the U.S

Fig 93.1 Image Source: Google Map Screen Shot

The general increase of natural resource intake from human beings is considered as the main cause of sandstorm from the manmade perspective. As top soil being overly plowed by the excessive material exploitation, loose fragments of soil or rock bed gets blown into the air by strong wind gust and starts a process saltation across the land, sometimes reaches a distance that is over the width of Atlantic Ocean.

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.[1] Also environmental degradation is the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals activities or natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[2]

Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires. (Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of Environmental Quality 26: 581-589.)

Site Environment - Phoenix

Haboob Condition in Phoenix

Fig 94.1 Image Source: https://arizonahighways.wordpress.com/2011/07/07/lets-talk-haboob-people/

The word “haboob” comes from the Arabic word habb, meaning “wind.” A haboob is a wall of dust as a result of a microburst or downburst. The air forced downward is pushed forward by the front of a thunderstorm cell, dragging dust and debris with it, as it travels across the terrain. Haboobs occur mostly during the summer months in Phoenix, but are not restricted to the monsoon period. These dust storms 94

are much more serious than dust ences on average about three haboobs per year during the months devils. of June through September. (http://phoenix.about.com/od/arizonamonsoon/qt/haboob.htm) The wind during a haboob is usually up to about 30 mph and dust can rise high into the air as it blows over the Valley. A haboob can last for up to three hours. Phoenix experiences various degrees of dust storms, but the haboob is the largest and most dangerous. According to the National Weather Service, Phoenix experi-

Pivot Irrigation Agriculture

Fig 95.1 Image Source: http://www.irrigationworks.co.nz/images/zimmatic.jpg

Fig 95.2 Image Source: http://41.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m71qv8tWEg1rb44xko1_1280.jpg

Turbine pumps. In the 1940s, irrigators adapted oil pumps to raise underground water to the surface. Combined with more powerful internal combustion and electric motors, these pumps could deliver water under pressure to the new pivot systems.

Pipes. After World War II, more and more irrigators started using steel or aluminum pipes – either with sprinklers or with gates to flood plant rows – to water their fields. Pivots raised the same pipes off the ground and moved the pipes around automatically.

Fig 95.2 Text Resource - http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/water_07.html

Sprinklers. In the early 1900s, urban areas had pressurized water systems and used new sprinkler heads to water lawns in town. Gradually, plant nurseries adapted the sprinklers to their use and then farmers combined sprinklers with high pressure pumps and pipes. In 1946, sprinklers irrigated less then 250,000 acres of farmland. By 1959, 3.4 million acres were under sprinklers.

Boundary Condition - between urban center and suburbs

Fig 96.1 Image Source: Google Map

4 3 1 2 Site Location

Fig 97.1 Image Source: Google Map

Surrounding Infrustructure

1. Industrial Fig 98.1 Image Source: http://aroundguides.com/Arizona

2. Suburban 98

Fig 98.2 Image Source: http://www.meteoweb.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/tempesta-di-sabbia-washington.jpg

3. Commercial Fig 99.1 Image Source: http://static.panoramio.com/photos/large/44982467.jpg

4. Urban Fig 99.2 Image Source: http://buzfairy.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Arizona-sand-storm-2.jpg

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Fig 100.1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhap

100

8|Final Design

The final design acted upon the previous research background. Taken the boarder of urban center in Phoneix as the site, large sand collectors are implanted dispersely on the grand open ground. The semi-arid land hazard prone condition drives the urge of prserving farmland. By inner-connecting with each other and mimicing the real sand dune formation, the field of sand dune habitation is simutaneously generated as the natural sand storm disaster attacks the civilization.

101

Urban Control | U.S.A

Vidgelmir Cave | Iceland

Tulou Housing | China

Ivangorod Fortress | Ukraine

Vernacular Architectural References

102

Fig 102.3 Image Source: seen citation section

Fig 103.1 Image Source: Photograph by Ted Ngai

103

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Sand Composition

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support Structure Y Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation Beam XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

Fig 104.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

104

The Sand Composite Mechine

Sand Composite Mechanism

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support StrucY Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation System XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

-S Eco

y unit mm

Co cial

nes

u le D itab b a H Main

ti Exis

Va Arid

Lan cant

ding roun r u S l praw

an S

Ur b

E B

E C A

E C E A

E B D

D A

Pro ster Disa

d ou n ckgr a B ne

B Surrounding Program Typologies

A Industrial Fig 105.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

B Commercial

C In-Between D Luxury Commune E Suburbia Commune

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Eco-Social Community

Pivot Irrigation - Preserving Agriculture

Enclosed Greenhouse - Projecting experiments

Bike Trail - Promoting Green Lifestyle

Zen Garden - Achieving Calming Eﬀect

Landscape - Reviving the Nature

Water Plant - Managing Resources

Fig 106.1 Image Source: Drawing by Yifeng Zhao

106

Sand Composite Mechanism

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support StrucY Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation System XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

The Eco-Social Community

-S Eco

y unit mm

Co cial

nes

u le D itab b a H Main

ti Exis

Va Arid

Lan cant

ding roun r u S l praw

an S

Ur b

E B

E C A

E C E A

E B D

D A

Pro ster Disa

d ou n ckgr a B ne

B Surrounding Program Typologies

A Industrial Fig 107.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

B Commercial

C In-Between D Luxury Commune E Suburbia Commune

107

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Aggregated Habitation

Fig 108.1 Image Source: Photograph by Yifeng Zhao

108

Sand Composite Mechanism

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support StrucY Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation System XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

The Aggregated Habitat -S Eco

y unit mm

Co cial

nes

u le D itab b a H Main

ti Exis

Va Arid

Lan cant

ding roun r u S l praw

an S

Ur b

E B

E C A

E C E A

E B D

D A

Pro ster Disa

d ou n ckgr a B ne

B Surrounding Program Typologies

A Industrial Fig 109.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

B Commercial

C In-Between D Luxury Commune E Suburbia Commune

109

Aggregated Habitation

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110

Fig 110.1 Image Source: Photograph by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 111.2 Image Source:

Fig 111.1 Image Source: Photograph taken by Yifeng Zhao

111

Phase 2 - Multi-Community

Phase 1 - Single Community

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Phase 3 - Urban Development Network

Morphology Development

112

Fig 112.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

Sand Composite Mechanism

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support StrucY Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation System XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

-S Eco

y unit mm

Co cial

nes

u le D itab b a H Main

The Sprawling ti Exis

Va Arid

Lan cant

ding roun r u S l praw

an S

Ur b

E B

E C A

E C E A

E B D

D A

Pro ster Disa

d ou n ckgr a B ne

B Surrounding Program Typologies

A Industrial Fig 113.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

B Commercial

C In-Between D Luxury Commune E Suburbia Commune

113

114

Phase 2 - Multi-Community

The populated dune complex hovers around the edge of the city. It serves a new living scenerio to accomodate population growth. The new kind of urban creations adjust to the natural prevailing wind directions. The side of the strong wind gust gets built higher serving both as defense wall and front facade looking towards the city.

Phase 1 - Single Community

Fig 114.1 Image Source: Plan drawing by Yifeng Zhao

Phase 3 - Urban Development Network

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Site Plan

Sand Composite Mechanism

Adhesive Tank

Weight Balance Rod Sand Collector Side Support StrucY Axis Slider Log Vertical Structural Trusses Material Extruder Center Pivot Irrigation System XY Axis Spinning Wheel

Water and Adhesives Storage

-S Eco

y unit mm

Co cial

nes

u le D itab b a H Main

ti Exis

The Disaster Prone Background

Va Arid

Lan cant

ding roun r u S l praw

an S

Ur b

E B

E C A

E C E A

E B D

D A

Pro ster Disa

d ou n ckgr a B ne

B Surrounding Program Typologies

A Industrial Fig 115.1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao

B Commercial

C In-Between D Luxury Commune E Suburbia Commune

115

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Fig 116.1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhao

Fig 124.1 Image Source:

9|Citations & Bibliography

124

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Bibliography Fig 4.1 Image Source: http://images.wisegeek.com/dust-storm.jpg Fig 6.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig 9.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig 9.2 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig 10.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig 12.1 Image Source: http://24.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lklphvPVEl1qcpsvqo1_500.jpg Fig 13.1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig 13.2 Image Source: demonstrations.wolfram.com Fig 14.1 Image Source:http://www.glogster.com/tirth700/sedimentary-rock-glogster-collage/g-6md0q16tttoko77u98brva0medialib.glogster.com/media/e9/ e9236090119376f865348d148b2ad61abeea8949b68c7f91286df103a71cdb52/coquina-jpeg.jpg Fig 15.1 Image Source:http://www.open.edu/openlearn/sites/www.open.edu.openlearn/files/ole_images/working-living/scientists-work/microscope-images/ forma-shell/forma%20shell.jpg Fig 15.2 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao, Information by http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151484/ Fig 16.1 Image Source: http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/images/American%20Brick%20Industry/American%20Brick%20Industry,%20Fired%20Brick.jpg Fig 19.1 www.rgbstock.com/bigphoto/mnwVpaW/brick+walls Fig 21.1 Diagram by Erin Butler Fig 22. 1 Image Source: http://dornob.com/fast-fungi-bricks-mushroom-blocks-better-than-concrete/ Fig 23.1 http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/j/MSNBC/Components/Photo/_new/pb-121120-yemen-brick-makers-kb-315p-02.photoblog900.jpg Fig24 .1 Image Source: https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSrkadby7chwiTMIokZ4VoGyEIAwpK-oJ7xRXCbCgmIiAQ9_RN4sbtxyhD6 Fig 25.1 Image Source: http://inhabitat.com/new-co2-sand-bricks-are-2-5-times-stronger-than-concrete/co2-sand-emergency-brick-5/ Fig26 .1 Image Source: http://pds25.egloos.com/pds/201305/16/47/d0123947_51945094c1800.png Fig28 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig29 .2 Image Source: http://d2a0do11gpvbrl.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/field/image/shutterstock_64415773_11.jpg Fig30 .1 Image Source: http://explanet.info/images/Ch08/08_48a.png Fig31 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig31.2 Image Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRuQoa8SYrLLK3PiXc75Wwaiaz0iKZopfV2-DyA87rfNiMHZc47 Fig32 .1 Image Source seen in reference section Fig34 .1 Image Source seen in reference section Fig36 .1 Image Source: Fig37 .1 Image Source: http://s3.amazonaws.com/com.artwelove.asset/1d3f5a3beaca84723063d3e55e9eecfb-l.jpg Fig 38.1 Image Source: http://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2011/10/solar-components.jpg Fig 39.1 Image Source: http://i.bnet.com/blogs/biomanufactured_brick.jpg Fig40 .1 Image Source: data: image/jpeg; base64, /9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAkGBxISEhUUExQUFRUVFxQVFBcXFhQVFRUVFhQWFhQUFBQYH Fig42 .1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig43 .1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig44 .1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig45 .1 Images All Taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig46 .1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao Fig47 .1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao Fig48 .1 Images and Diagrams All by Yifeng Zhao Fig49 .1 Image by Yifeng Zhao Fig49 .2 Image by Yifeng Zhao Fig49 .3 Image by Yifeng Zhao Fig49 .4 Image by Yifeng Zhao Fig50 .1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig51 .1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig51.2 Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig53 .1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig54 .1 Image Source: WWW.New.CN Fig55 .1 Map by Yifeng Zhao, Information from by http://en.community.epals.com/science_center/b/science_center_col Fig56 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig58 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig59 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig60 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig61 .1 Image Source: http://www.strutpatent.com/image/get/2007/full/US07156744-20070102-D00008.jpg Fig61 .2 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig62 .1 Image Source: http://www.nividar.com/full/d5ec37740b685b3c0722233c6bc57f934b4507cb.jpg Fig 63.2 http://extremeequipment.in/images/lab3g.jpg Fig64 .1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig65.1, 2 Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig66 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig67 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig69 .1 Image Source: http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/11/photos-beijing-blanketed-in-smog Fig70 .1 Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig71.1 Image Source: http://eu.lib.kmutt.ac.th/elearning/Courseware/ARC261/chapter8_5.html Fig 72.1 Section Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig 73.1 Axonometric Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig74 .1 Photo by Yifeng Zhao

Fig75 .1 Plan Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig77 .1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhao Fig78 .1 Image Source: Photo by Yifeng Zhao Fig81 .1 Image and Text Source: http://inhabitat.com/researcher-grows-durable-bio-bricks-from-sand-bacteria-and-urea/ Fig82 .1 Image Source: http://www.freemanwax.com/freeman-flakes-injection-waxes.html Fig83 .1 Image Source: Photography taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig84 .1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig85 .1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig86 .1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig87 .1 Image Source: All Photographs taken by Yifeng Zhao Fig88 .1 Image Source: Photograph taken by Ted Ngai Fig89 .1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig90 .1 Image Source: http://www.goodfon.su/wallpaper/nlo-pole-krugi-na-polyah-3727.html Fig92 .1 Image Source seen in reference section Fig93 .1 Image Source: Google Map Screen Shot Fig94 .1 Image Source: https://arizonahighways.wordpress.com/2011/07/07/lets-talk-haboob-people/ Fig95 .2 Image Source: http://41.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m71qv8tWEg1rb44xko1_1280.jpg Fig95 .2 Text Resource - http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/water_07.html Fig96 .1 Image Source: Google Map Fig98 .1 Image Source: http://aroundguides.com/Arizona Fig98 .2 Image Source: http://www.meteoweb.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/tempesta-di-sabbia-washington.jpg Fig 99.1 Image Source: http://static.panoramio.com/photos/large/44982467.jpg Fig99 .2 Image Source: http://buzfairy.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Arizona-sand-storm-2.jpg Fig100 .1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhap Fig102 .1 Image Source seen in reference section Fig103 .1 Image Source: Photograph by Ted Ngai Fig104 .1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig105 .1 Image Source: Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig106 .1 Image Source: Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig108 .1 Image Source: Photograph by Yifeng Zhao Fig110 .1 Image Source: Photograph by Yifeng Zhao Fig112 .1 Image Source: Diagram by Yifeng Zhao Fig114 .1 Image Source: Drawing by Yifeng Zhao Fig116 .1 Image Source: Render by Yifeng Zhao

Books: 1. Kreh, R. T. Simplified masonry skills. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, 1982. Print. Section 1-4 2. Pfeifer, Günter. Masonry construction manual. Basel Boston München: Birkhäuser Edition Detail, 2001. Print. Part 1-2, Image from page 80-83 3. Masonry, carpentry, joinery : [the art of architecture, engineering, and construction in 1899. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1980. Print. Masonry Section. 4. Beall, Christine, and Rochelle Jaffe. Concrete and masonry databook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Print. 5. Drysdale, Robert G., Ahmad A. Hamid, and Lawrie R. Baker. Masonry structures : behavior and design. Boulder, Colo: The Masonry Society, 1999. Print. 6. “Life Cycle Assessment of Cladding Products – A comparison of aluminum, brick, granite, limestone, and precast concrete”. By University of Tennessee Center for Clean Products, December 2009 Reports: 1. Mosalam, K., L. Glascoe, and J. Bernier. “Mechanical Properties of Unreinforced Brick Masonry.” 2009. https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/379158.pdf. 2. “Masonry.” http://www.ce.memphis.edu/7119/PDFs/FEMA356/ps-ch07.pdf. 3. “Technical Notes on Brick Construction.” 1992. http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical notes/tn3a.pdf. 4. Seinfeld, John; Spyros Pandis (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 97. ISBN 0-471-17816-0. 5. “Health | Particulate Matter | Air & Radiation | US EPA”. Epa.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2015-02-01. 6. Mary Hardin and Ralph Kahn. “Aerosols and Climate Change”. 7. Chung, C E; Ramanathan, V (2006). “Weakening of North Indian SST Gradients and the Monsoon Rainfall in India and the Sahel”. Journal of Climate 19 (10): 2036–2045. Bibcode:2006JCli...19.2036C. 8. “Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Carbonaceous aerosols”. Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1. UNEP. 2001. 9. Perraud, V.; Bruns, E. A.; Ezell, M. J.; Johnson, S. N.; Yu, Y.; Alexander, M. L.; Zelenyuk, A.; Imre, D.; Chang, W. L.; Dabdub, D.; Pankow, J. F.; Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. (January 30, 2012). “Nonequilibrium atmospheric secondary organic aerosol formation and growth”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 (8): 2836–41. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.2836P. 10. Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2013. “Persian Gulf Desert and Semi-desert.” Biomes & Ecosystems, Vol. 3, Robert Warren Howarth (ed.). Ipswich, MA: Salem Press, pp. 1000-1002. 11. “the Dust Bowl”. Mishe Vanatta. Retrieved 2013-11-20. Other References: http://www.rgbstock.com/bigphoto/mnwVpaW/brick+walls http://www.bilnet.sk/press/nezvycajne-sochy-vyrezavane-vyhradne-z-tehal/# https://www.flickr.com/photos/60584010@N00/4484918266/ http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=24533 http://www.archiproducts.com/en/products/100524/pietramuro-marble-wall-tiles-i-marmi-appia-marmi.html http://www.exbali.com/bali_building_materials/stone_cladding_f.htm http://myfactoryrep.com/InfoSheets/PIERREXPERT/travertine_wall.aspx http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-dry-stone-wall-blue-sky-image12219594 http://calstarproducts.com/calstar-adds-chiseled-unit-cast-stone-lineup/ http://funpict.com/terracotta-floor-tiles.html http://www.nbne.org/natbuild/cob.php http://retaildesignblog.net/tag/ceramic-tile/ http://depositphotos.com/32117017/stock-photo-black-stucco-wall.html http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photo-cinder-block-wall-background-brick-texture-image3390938 http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/density-building-materials.htm http://www.pinehallbrick.com/page/FAQ http://www.gobrick.com/Resources/American-Brick-Industry http://www.masoncontractors.org/2012/05/17/masonry-mortars-and-grouts-webinar/ http://www.sallsa.com/fascinating-effectively-cope-of-water-seepage-with-waterproofing-paint/dry-basement-floor-paint-sealer-exterior-waterproofing-sealing-diy-concrete-interior-waterproof-foundation-bentonite-wet-mix-mortar-for-waterproofing-wall/ http://www.block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/teaching/scaffolding-to-structure-construction-in-thin-shell-masonry_1374767827 http://www.readersdigest.com.au/types-of-bricks http://jhoriental.en.ecplaza.net/ http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article_print.php?L=219&C=878 http://www.ustudy.in/node/2529 http://www.geopolymer.org/applications/ltgs-brick-low-cost-construction-material Mushroom brick http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/education/architect-creates-a-bio-brick-1.637115 http://idsnmow.blogspot.com/2012/11/mycotecture-mushroom-building-bricks-by.html Mud and Straw Brick http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/11/20/15315118-yemenis-make-mud-bricks-for-unique-architecture http://www.shutterstock.com/s/mud-brick/search.html