City of Yangon
Artist: Albert Hardy
Urban Geographical Development Analysis for Yangon: From Fishing Village Dagon to emerging Megacity
University of New South Wales Faculty of Built Environment UDES0009 - Urban Landscape & Heritage Student number: z3488683 Student name: Yilin Wang
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UNSW: Geographical Analysis for Yangon Urban Development | Yilin Wang
Yilin
Wang
UDES0009
Urban Landscape & Heritage
S2, 2014
Individual Essay
Dr. Scott Hawken
24/09/14
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UNSW: Geographical Analysis for Yangon Urban Development | Yilin Wang
Urban Geographical Development Analysis for Yangon: From Fishing Village Dagon to emerging Megacity 1.0
Introduction
Yangon is Myanmar's former capital and is now the economic and cultural centre of the country. Yangon has transformed from the small fishing village Dagon, to the British colony Rangoon, and then to the soon to be mega-city, Yangon. Geographical features present underneath Yangon played a significant role in influencing not only the urban development but also its politics. Established in the beginning as a prime port location, the British saw to this feature and quickly utilized the terrain to their advantage when they revamped the city under their occupation. Now however in modern times, the terrain has seen to act as a potential limiting factor when trying to evenly develop and expand the city. Based on GIS data, and combined with historical and geographic journals, this report aims at analyzing the impacts of various stages in Yangon's history and how the unique geography induced changes in her journey.
Source: www.flickr.com
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2.0
Background
Data Source: Here Map
Yangon, located in mid-south lower Myanmar between north latitudes 16˚44' and 17˚ 05' and between east longitudes 96˚ 00' and 96˚44' (Aye, 2011), it is Myanmar’s largest and mostpopulated city with 4-5 million residents (Rajawali Foundation, 2012). It is regarded as the economic center and emerging megacity of Myanmar. Yangon's major neighbors consist of, but are not limited to India, China, Malaysia, Lao, Thailand, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Cambodia and Vietnam. Yangon's location allows it to have direct contact with the Burma Sea and the Bay of Bengal near the Indian Ocean; as well as the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea near the Pacific Ocean.
Population map for the southern side of Myanmar, including the city of Yangon. Red peaks indicate high population density at varying magnitudes. Yangon has the highest peak in this region at 4 million individuals. Data Source: US Geological Survey, Here Map 4
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Table 2.1 Population of Yangon City and Yangon Division, 1983-2005 Area
Population
AAGR (%)
1983
1993
2005
1983-1993
1993-2005
Yangon City
2,513,023
3,097,765
4,350,913
2.11
2.87
Outside City
1,452,977
1,870,168
2,111,066
2.56
1.00
Yangon Division
3,966,000
4,967,933
6,461,979
2.28
2.21
Myanmar
35,308,000
43,116,000
55,399,000
2.02
2.00
Source: Adapted from unpublished statistics, Department of Population, Union of Myanmar Note: AAGR = Average Annual Growth Rate
3.0
Geographic Features
Yangon is located at the meeting point between Pazundaung Creek and Bago River. It is centralized between these two water bodies (Lwin. H, 2002). Yangon River and the Bago River are located on the southern sector of Yangon city. These rivers intersect at the mouth of the Andaman Sea, where fertile floodplains are also present.
Combination of STRM elevation data created in ArcGIS and Google Earth's satellite imagery of Yangon. 3D model of terrain elevation coupled with true coloured map of Yangon and its surroundings. Data Source: STRM CIS, Google Earth imagery
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Rivers Located at the Yangon river estuary, Yangon connects with many rivers. The most important river is the Irrawaddy River that originates from the northern mountains and falls all the way south to the delta. Hadden in "The Geology of Burma (Myanmar)" reports that the Irrawaddy River not only is the most commercially significant river for the country, but also is a source of irrigation to the city (Hadden, 2008). The Bago River is also a vital river that is adjacent to the peninsula, flowing from the Pegu ranges. It facilitates a large quantity of rice trade inside Myanmar, from Yangon (Hadden, 2008).
Hydrograph of Yangon and surroundings. Data Source: OSM GIS data, Here Map
Flats Yangon is also situated proportionally on flat lowlands. These fertile valleys are formed by the Irrawaddy River. "The delta of the Irrawaddy and Sittiang rivers is a completely flat area, perfect for Yangon's city development" (Hadden, 2008). Mountains Situated between the Burma and Indian tectonic plates, Yangon has mountains created by the transform plate boundary. These plates produce mountains ranges that are not as high such as the Alps (Kundu, 2014). A proportion of Yangon lies on top of the Arakan range. This mountain range runs along the Bay of Bengal, up to the Arakan peninsular in the Irrawaddy division (Allen, 2013). 6
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Arakan Mountain Range. Data Source: STRM CIS, Here Map
4.0 Formation of Yangon To the old Myanmar Kings, Yangon, called Dagon in this period, was a riverside fishing village with the Shwedagon Pagonda nearby, which made Myanmar people come to the small village to celebrate a festival every year. Dagon the fishing village then rose to become a small town (Myint et al. 2009, P104). The urban transformation of the fishing village Dagon into Yangon was not only catalyzed by the nearby religious setting, but also the level of potential commerce to be made at its port. An important feature of Yangon was its advantageous seaside location.
Data Source: Google Earth
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Business in the early port grew. Trading commenced with the Bay of Bengal ports in the beginning, but further grew to reach far in places such as China and South East Asian countries. (Spate and Trueblood, 1942). According to Soe in "Trends of Development of Myanmar Fisheries", before British colonization Yangon's rice, oil, teak wood and fishing industry were the most important, generating a large proportion of the cities' exports (Soe, 2008). These exports contributed to the financial success of the city, a factor which helped the exponential growth of the port (Spate and Trueblood, 1942). Cited in the Journal of Southeast Asian History, the Second Anglo-Burmese War was provoked by the British who sought the teak forests in Lower Burma as well as a port between Calcutta (India) and Singapore.
Major trading ports and sea trade routes from Yangon before colonization Data source: George Philip & Son Ltd, 1893; Here Map
Rangoon is the only port of foreign trade in Burma. It fits the role of a port city very well, with its particular affinity with the sea. According to Morley in "Rangoon: Cities" the geographical location of the city on the Irrawaddy Delta has played a critical role in the city's development (Morley, 2012).
5.0
Geographic history
During the reign of Alaungpaya in Burma, the new capital city with preliminary urban form occupied the original area of Dagon fish village along the riverside. Although Yangon with its flourishing ports and well-known goods exported cheap and high quality teak. Unfortunately the unstable relationship with foreign countries resulted in the decline of Yangon's trade. At some time, Yangon’s trade and geographical location attracted British’s eyes. (O. H. K. & L. W. 1942, P58) 8
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Source: “History of Yangon”
Plan of Rangoon When the British army occupied Rangoon, British rulers re-planed the city. Originally, all of the city plan suggested a rectangular urban form at the plateau south of Rangoon. The final plan to be adopted by Rangoon’s new rulers was to relocate the whole city from the old town west of Rangoon and to a new urban area around the Sule Pagoda. (O. H. K. & L. W. 1942, P58)
Data Source: Map of Yangon 1926 & Plan of Rangoon Officially Adopted in 1853 (Than Than NEW 1998,
P93)
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Street pattern The New town-plan increased modern street system and blocks arrangement, it also created progressive infrastructure like water systems. The colonial government moved the public services and infrastructure temple from London and copied the traditional grid urban form which is wide-scale adopted by the metropolitan city in 19th century (Falconer et al. 2012). Because of diversified landforms, these were three typical urban patterns existing in whole Rangoon: grid pattern (Pattern 1), which is the basic pattern of Rangoon's urban form and is used widely at its flat and open space regions; the river side road pattern (Pattern 2), like the wide roads along the rivers; and the mountain contours lane patterns (Pattern 3), which means the streets and blocks were established around the layers of hills. In 19th century, the grid pattern was used as the model urban plan of “old colonial towns� (Moore and Osiri 2014, P159) and used in the city of Yangon as the primary urban plan. The other two patterns mentioned were arranged according to the terrain of Yangon region.
Pattern 1: Grid Pattern Data Source: OSM GIS data, Here Map
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Pattern 2: Riverside Road Pattern Data Source: OSM GIS data, Here Map
Pattern 3: Mountain Contours Lane Pattern Data Source: OSM GIS data, Here Map
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Land use According to Moore and Osiri (2014) in their study in Yangon’s colonial urban form. The Indian and Chinese population of the city resided in a web like configuration of the "working premises" areas near the river. Residential areas for these residents were located in the northern regions, near the colonial-fortified Shwedagon pagoda hill (Moore and Osiri 2014, P159) . Combine terrain and land use during the period from 1921-1931(O. H. K. & L. W. 1942, Fig 9), it can be seen from the diagram that educational and religious land occupied the “upland” west area of Rangoon, especially near the Shwedagon Pagoda which is right on the peak of the western piedmont. Followed by 1st residential blocks, recreational area, public buildings and grounds were built in the hillside. While, the industrial area was placed alongside the Rangoon River, as well as the wharves and maritime transport. Commercial zones are concentrated on near the Sule Pagoda to the river side. Open space and agricultural land are located far away from the city center.
Land use in Yangon during the British colonial era. Data Source: OSM GIS data.
On the flood plain south of Rangoon, 3rd and 4th residential blocks are located here with some public buildings. Between the upland and riverside flat, the cinema and restaurant were situated at the foot of the hills. Therefore, privileged class lived in the 1st or 2nd residential blocks on the “upland” with low density to enjoy the best infrastructure, lakes, perfect view, good educational institutions, entertainment services, and larger public space, while civilians who live in the 3rd and 4th residential blocks are located closer to the ports, industry and commercial zones, where they work. 12
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Advanced urban design concepts were brought to Yangon by the British colonists. Such concepts consisted of combining the traditional grid plan design and the use of urban terrain landscaping. The British utilized natural land deviations to divide colonists and original settlers. Yangon had its foundations laid of a modern city form, however this foundation brought alterations to the city's potential future development.
6.0
Current Geographic Influence
White lines represent Yangon during 1893. Present Yangon is indicated in blue. Data Source: OSM GIS Data, Here Map, Indien Handbuch F端r Reisende Map (published by Verlag von Karl Baedeker in Leipzig, 1914).
Yangon's modern city pattern today was upgraded on the basis of the British colonial outward development. These British upgrades did not damage or change any original road patterns, however did have several roads amplified. Creating a more complete city road system.
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Highway infrastructure in Yangon.
Yangon International Airport and railway. 14
Data Source: OSM GIS Data, Here Map
Data Source: OSM GIS Data, Here Map
UNSW: Geographical Analysis for Yangon Urban Development | Yilin Wang
Seen from birds-eye-view, the pattern of Yangon's urban landscape from when it was a colonial city and after it declared independence has not actually changed dramatically. Additional north city roads were added, with the amplification of the city region made both the city's east and west regions uneven with development. Railway is marked by starting on the bottom of the colonial era building to the international airport. This invisible line signaled the segregation of "upland" sections of the landscape. This upland area included additional amenities such as hospitals, banks, schools, commercial businesses and tourism. (Jacobs, 1961)
Yangon: Amenity, Shop & Leisure and Tourism distribution Data Source: OSM GIS Data, Here Map
Yangon has gone through considerable economic development and expansion ever since the end of World War 2. This expansion is seen in all directions. Yangon port city gradually moved from an agricultural city to a global city. The city expansion tended to expand greater in the northern regions, rather than into Yangon's Yangon river or Bago river's shore. Thus, the city's boundaries are almost dictated by the rivers on both sides which give rise to increased regional development in the northern side where there are no rivers to limit development.
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1988: Yangon land use
Data Source: GIS data map (Aung & Yamazaki 2002), Here Map
2002: Yangon land use
Data Source: GIS data map (Aung & Yamazaki 2002), Here Map
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1988-2002 Yangon Land Use Area (km2) in 1988
Area (km2) in 2002
450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Forest
Water
Urban
Suburb
Farm
1998-2002 Yangon land Use Data Source: GIS data table (Aung & Yamazaki 2002)
7.0
Future development
According to the governmental report: "The Strategic Urban Development Plan of Greater Yangon" from the YCDC, Yangon city will focus efforts on solving the issue of uneven development, which it is currently experiencing in the north due the limiting terrain in the east and west directions from the CBD. Development south of the river will commence in the future and both sides of the Yangon and Bago River will have close connections to the city centre. Six new city centers are expected to emerge from the CBD's neighboring regions. There are hopes to retain the original green landscape, and build on the other side of both the Yangon and Bago River.
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Urban Expansion control and plan. Data source: Yangon City Development Committee
8.0
Mega-city
ď Ź Mega-city As Yangon faces population growth, it also faces the emerging title of being Myanmar's first megacity.
Yangon Land expansion Data source: Landscape Changes for Sustainable Development in Yangon City Area. (Myint. et al.)
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The evolving spatial extent Urban sprawl (in square miles) 250
200
150
100
50
0
1851
1876
1921
1953
1973
1983
1991
2010
Spatial extent of Yangon. Source: Pearn (1939) and Yin May (1999)
The population growth Population (in 1000s) 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1826 1856 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1953 1973 1983 1993 2005 2011
Population growth in Yangon. Data Source: Department of Population, Union of Myanmar
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Population Density (1000s/sqm) Population Density (1000s/sqm) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1850s
1880s
1920s
1950s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2010s
Population density in Yangon. Data source: Department of Population, Union of Myanmar There have been issues associated with drastic population growth. Such as the increased need for transportation, water, electricity, infrastructure and affordable housing. The megacity Yangon is under great prosperity however must also bear obstacles such as social conflicts, extreme inequality, crime, terrorism, homelessness, traffic congestion, suburban sprawl, urban development inequality, and environmental pollution problems.
ď Ź Threat and Opportunity Over the past 20 years, Yangon city has expanded dramatically. This rapid expansion has utilized the method of converting surrounding farmlands into commercial/residential land. A compact shape is created due to the limited expansion of Yangon in the east and west direction to its adjacent rivers. In the foreseeable future, further expansion of Yangon to secure and maintain smooth transportation of passengers must be arranged (Myint, 2009) projects detrimental to the environment must also be carefully controlled to preserve the ecology of the city whilst accommodating further city development. - Environment The city has also converted a large amount of the remaining crop fields into rice plantations. Despite urban expansion policies drafted by the government, the majority of the country's population still rely on agriculture for profit. Natural forests have also been retained for conservation, during urbanization the government and urban residents planted vegetation which provide few benefits. The vast majority of citizens are still relying on hand to mouth poverty systems according to Aung and Yamazaki (Aung & Yamazaki 2000). 20
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Source: www.flickr.com
- Water Supply According to estimation from YCDC, the existing water supply system provide adequate water to Yangon city area. Most of water supply problem appear in towns and small villages because of the lack of water supply pipelines and unordered water usage (Myint et al. 2009, P123) Back to 1870, water supply and export system had already been considered into city planning in terms of landform and local topography. - Climate change Burma has been ranked in the world as one of the most prone nations to climate change. Yangon is also ranked in the top five as the most vulnerable cities to climate change (ADB, 2009). This is due to the fact a large proportion of its residents reside in low elevation areas prone to flooding (as low as 2 meters above sea level). Yangon also faces food insecurities and water scarcity as it battles the problem of having fewer but more intense rainfall due to changing climate (ADB, 2009). This rainfall pattern causes large dry seasons which negatively influence farms, as well the sudden extreme surges of increased water in rainfall periods. - Flooding Some areas of Yangon are prone to annual flooding. Flood seasons occur after long hours of heavy rain, especially in suburban areas as there is a lack of drainage. Towns such as Dagon Myothit, Shwepyitha and Hlaingtharyar are also susceptible due to their low elevation and thick underlying impermeable clay layers. (Myint et al. 2009, P123)
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Sources: www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov
Most of the heritage suburbs are vulnerable to floods as they are located at the flat plains. Urban designers need to develop feasible and sustainable solutions for this issue as it seriously affects normal life in the city. -
Transportation
Airports now provide an international sector for transportation. Airports like the new Hanthawaddy International Airport will create an additional utility of Yangon's transport industry, as it currently is an important figure for air routes from Europe to the Far East and Australia (Spate, 1942). Yangon must be able to accommodate 10 million people in the foreseeable future. An advanced road network system is planned. Improvements to the circular railway are also underway, as well as the development of a new urban railway. This railway network will accommodate 8 lines for a collective 350 km (YCDC 2014). Land transportation future upgrades must consider the low elevation (flood risk) of a large proportion of the city as well as the rugged mountain terrain. These will pose significant challenges.
Source: www.flickr.com
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Urban Terrain 22
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Although power is no longer symbolized by residing on a higher ground, Yangon faces a significant wealth gap. Now terrain divides the high and low income earning communities. As the development of Yangon is uneven, solutions should be made to bring diversity to the terrain to compliment its unique landscape, instead using it as a tool of segregation between the rich and poor.
Source: www.flickr.com
9.0
Conclusion
The creation of the city, Yangon was brought by many factors. One important factor is the city's location. The excellent location is one of the primary contributors to Yangon's success, due to the fertile delta landscape, allowing the people on Burma a diet of fish to live. Later this geographical location provided an even more advantageous city spot as a trading port. This turned Yangon's original fishing village "Dagon" into Myanmar's most important international port city. Terrain is also another important factor that affects the layout and development of a city. Before British colonization, Yangon residents resided near the river front, which aided in water gathering. In the British colonial period, the British government factored heavily on terrain factors into their urban designs, and took advantage of the terrain elevation brought by the Arkans mountain range. The British used this terrain deviation to separate the colonists and original settlers, and highlighted the colonist's power with higher residential land. Yangon later retained the colonial city model despite declaring independence due to its own population bloom and urban development needs. However, this model was hampered by the river on both sides of the city, thus forcing additional expansion to the northern region of the peninsula. Global warning has brought challenges to Yangon, with additional floods. This influences Yangon's development and city planners must take advantage of the terrain to maintain Yangon's steady development despite flooding As Yangon is approaching a megacity title it faces many new opportunities and challenges. Urban designers must carefully consider the problems, and balance issues set forth by the rapid population growth. 23
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Since the dramatic increase in commerce flowing through the city's ports, Yangon's economy has been booming, this increase means the impact of geographic features will also increase. The development of further more sophisticated air transportation is imperative to negate the limiting factor of land and sea transportation between inter-city transportation. This helps to reduce the level of influence the terrain can have on urban planning and development. This potential solution means, the significance of topography on this emerging megacity will be reduced. However, despite having their influence reduced, Yangon will still need to factor in urban terrain planning, to solve issues such as water supply, as well as flood zones when it comes to its future development. The rich terrain on which the city is built on brings a unique urban and natural landscape for Yangon residents to enjoy and prosper. Yangon is under a lot of pressure due to its rapid growth and the world is watching, anticipating great things for this incredible megacity to be.
Source: www.wallarc.com
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Appendix: Literature Review: O.H.K Spate, L. Trueblood 1942, "Rangoon: A study in Urban Geography", American Geographical society, Vol.32, No. 1, pg. 56-73, New York
Written in 1942 by O.H.K. Spate and L. W Trueblood for research in Yangon geography, the book "Rangoon: A study in Urban geography" is a rare study found made in the mid-20th century. This article has a reasonable structure, with clear informative reviews and rich data charts. Despite being an old publication it still has important reference value. The structure of this reference was utilized as a basis for the essay. Beginning with a review of the origins of Yangon, citing causes and origins of the name "Yangon", and history leads to Yangon's geographical advantage, the book shows Yangon's particular geographical research value. However, no summary of general information on Yangon was provided, which was needed. The second part of the reference aided the essay is the general description of Yangon's demographical factors and characteristics, such as the rivers and mountains. These two separate landscape features were written well in-depth. The third advantage was the answer to how Yangon transited from a small fishing village into a city. This answer provided by the reference talked about the colonial history, and how the British affected Yangon city's formation and urban structure with significant modifications and impact. In this section, this book provides few important facts: (1) British colonial movement generated the initial urban planning structure program; (2) Yangon street layout patterns and its geographic defects; (3) Yangon and its water supply problems; (4) Yangon colonial land use overview, which provided data for further tables and graphs. This part of the article structure provided a very important section for the essay and the structure was also implemented as the basic structure in the essay. Third stage of the reference is the city's demography. The residents were of different (such as Burmese, Indigenous Hindu, Moslem, Indian, Chinese, European, Anglo-India and others) ethnicities. Population growth data between 1872 and 1931 was taken and converted into a table for analysis. The analysis brought further understanding into Yangon's demographic composition and its growth patterns. In the essay, as population growth is an important factor for emerging megacities, this article provides concise data to support hypotheses. It also provided additional data for the proportion of male and female populations, national immigration and births, these parameters however were not useful to the research essay. Water supply was the fourth section that was of important content for the essay. Yangon is located at the junction of two rivers, as well as being an estuary next to the sea by the Irrawaddy Delta. Despite being protected by the mangrove forests, the city still suffers heavy flooding intrusions. Mountains foothills to the north of the city also collect water, however because of the perennial southern riverbank erosion only brackish water can be brought up from wells. Since the essay requires the study of the Yangon River's interactions with the surroundings as well as the foothills, this section creates new issues for the essay to consider.
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In the fifth section, it is Yangon's communication. The main waterway and port is regarded of high importance for Yangon, this is mentioned in the essay. However after simple generalisations, the article suddenly jumps to structures and the city centre of Yangon. This content despite having certain reference value, was structured in a confusing manner. In the essay, this was solved by splitting the communication category into two different chapters. The reference starts this section by describing the land, then railway traffic and then the railway history as well as detailed description of Yangon's land used characteristics. This structure eventually changes dramatically and reveals data regarding Yangon's waterway for imports, exports and transportation, as well as urban structures, buildings and land type. Despite being extremely rich in content and data (which was utilized in multiple points in the essay) the structure was clumsy and the subject theme was not well established. These above points were utilized by classifying them into four sections to describe: shipping and export (British occupation before and after), transport (including rail and road), urban form and land use. This provided a more cohesive essay structure. Among these four sections additional questions arise such as: Why improve the infrastructure when the majority of the amenities are built on a hill? What social class and type of residents live in the mountains? What are the benefits and costs for the differentiation of two divided regions in Yangon, which segregate the rich and the poor? On one hand these questions do not affect the terrain analysis, however are good questions to reveal more about Yangon's urban form and how it has been influenced indirectly by the geography. The outer suburb section of the article is the section which provided the least information for the essay. It did however probe the issue of flooding faced in Yangon. This suggestion lead to further research and revealed that Yangon's flooding problem had long existed and has had extremely serious consequences. Floods not only impacted urban life and production, resulting in significant economic losses, but also the fact that Yangon's city centre is located in plains where elevation above sea level is minuscule. Combining these two factors cause Yangon's CBD to be extremely vulnerable to floods. If this problem hasn't been solved with the essay, serious consideration should be made to lessen the impacts caused with flooding in the future. Summing up the reference, "Rangoon: A study in Urban geography" has high relevance in the essay. However, as the article was published in the 1930s, there are lots of data points that are either incomplete or inconsistent with current collected data. Some of the reference's structure is also confusing and the content is not entirely in-depth. In the final essay, there must be a more comprehensive study for Yangon as an emerging megacity to be, and how its development has been influenced by the terrain. With additional more recent references, unsolved questions that have cropped up from this reference hopefully can be answered.
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Bibliography/ References: Aung Lwin, Myint Myint Khaing 2012, ‘Yangon River Geomorphology Identification and Its Environmental Impacts Analysis by Optical and Radar Sensing Techniques’, International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XXXIX-B8, 2012 XXII ISPRS Congress, 25 August – 01 September 2012, Melbourne, Australia Aung. L, Yamazaki. F 2002, ‘Assessment of Urban Environmental Changes in the Cities Of Myanmar Using Landsat Images’, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani B. Kundu, V.K. Cahalaut 2013, ‘Tectonic geodesy revealing geodynamic complexity of the indo-Burmese arc region, North Easy India’, CSRI-National geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad Crawfurd. F 1826, Account of Rangoon in the Summer of 1826, SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, Yangon F. Krass, H. Gaese, M. M. Kyi 2006, Megacity Yangon: Transformation processes and modern developments. Southeast Asian Modernities 7. pg 237-245, Berlin I. Morley 2012, ‘Rangoon: Cities’, Department of History, Fung King Hey Building, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong J. Allen, A. J. Smith, J. Smith, Myanmar (Burma) 2011, ‘Chapter 2: Geography, History and Politics’, 11th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd, Yangon J. Jacobs 1961, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House, New York Khaing. H 2006, ‘Water Supply in Yangon City. Megacity Yangon: Transformation Processes and Modern Developments’, Southeast Asian Modernities 7. Berlin: 237-245. K. M. Soe 2008, ‘Trends of Development of Myanmar Fisheries: With References to Japanese Experiences’, V.R.F. Series, Institute of Developing economies, Japan External Trade Organization, Tokyo Lwin. A, Myint. K 2012, ‘Yangon River Geomorphology Identification and its Environmental Impacts Analysis by Optical and Radar Sensing Techniques’, International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Melbourne Lwin. H 2002, ‘Current Status of Solid Waste Management in Yangon’, Yangon City Development Committee, Yangon More. E 2014, ‘Urban forms and Civic space in nineteenth-to early twentieth-century Bangkok and Rangoon’, Journal of Urban History, 40, 158-177. 27
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Myint et al. 2009, ‘Landscape Changes for Sustainable Development in Yangon City Area’ Yangon University of Distance Education Research, Vol. 1, No.1 103-126 Myo A. Yamazaki. F 1993. ‘Assessment of Urban Environmental Changes in the Cities Of Myanmar Using Landsat Images’, School of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand O.H.K Spate, L. Trueblood 1942, ‘Rangoon: A study in Urban Geography’, American Geographical society, Vol. 32, No. 1, pg. 56-73, New York Pearn B. R 1939, ‘A history of Rangoon. Rangoon’, American Baptist Mission Press, New York Rajawali Foundation Institute for Asia 2012, ‘Yangon's development Challenges’, Rajawali Foundation Institute for Asia, Myanmar R.L Hadden 2008, ‘The Geology of Burma (Myanmar): An Annotated Bibliography of Burma’s Geology, Geography and Earth Science’, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York Schellinger, Paul E. and Salkin, Robert M. 1996, ‘Bago (Myanmar)’, International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Vol. 5, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers Tilley. L 20014, ‘Coloniality and Decoloniality in Rangoon's city space, the mediated city conference’, City Conference architecture, Woodbury University, London Than Than NEW 1998, ‘Yangon: The Emergence of a New Spatial Order in Myanmar's Capital City’, SOJOURN, Vol. 13, No. 1, P86-113, Yangon
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