CSW by John D'Amico

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Commission on the Status of Women Yale Model United Nations Korea May 17 - 19, 2013

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Table of Contents History of the Committee 3 Topic I: Human Trafficking History 5 Current Situation 8

Migration and Border Security

Labor 12 Sex 15

Victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Rights and Prosecution

and Data Collection

Goals for the Committee 21 Bloc Positions 22 Questions to Consider 27 Topic II: Reproductive Health Support History 29 Current Situation 33 Maternal Mortality and 33 Infant Death Safe and Accessible Abortion 39 Reproductive Choice 44 Sexual Education 45 Goals for the Committee 49 Bloc Positions 49 Questions to Consider 53 Role of the Committee 54 Structure of the Committee 55 Glossary 56 Suggestions for Further Research

Notes 60

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History of the Committee

The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) is a global policy-making body created on June 21, 1946 as a functional commission of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (ECOSOC). CSW evaluates global progress on gender equality and women’s rights. The Commission works to define international standards and propose policies for the global advancement of women. Since its first session, the Commission primarily worked to “raise the status of women, irrespective of nationality, race, language or religion, to equality with men in all fields of human enterprise, and to eliminate all discrimination against women in the provisions of statutory law, in legal maxims or rules, or in interpretation of customary law.” CSW has since worked closely with NGOs, international human rights treaty bodies, and agencies like UNICEF. These affiliates have provided CSW with vast amounts of relevant research, providing a clear picture of the condition of women around the world. This information has allowed the Commission to successfully start the process of codifying legal rights for

women from 1946 to 1962. During these years, the Commission drafted and adopted the Convention on the Political Rights of Women in 1952, granting all women the right to vote, run for election, and hold any public office under national law. The Commission also drafted and adopted the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women in 1957, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages in 1962, and the Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages in 1965. These constituted the first international agreements regarding the rights of women within marriage relationships. The 1970s and 1980s marked more successes for CSW, including the organization of the first international CSW conference during International Women’s Year in 1975. Over 130 countries participated in the conference, which allowed the international impact of support for women’s rights to grow. This conference was followed by the drafting of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, an international bill defining discrimination Commission on the Status of Women 3

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against women and laying out national agendas to end prejudice, adopted in 1979. In more recent years, the CSW has focused its attention on international development conferences, exposure of violence against women, support of gender mainstreaming, and consideration of women in armed conflicts. The Commission reviewed its progress after the Beijing +5 session of the UN General Assembly, ultimately causing the UN Security Council to pass Resolution 1325. This resolution calls for the prosecution of crimes against women, extra protection for girls and women in war zones, the appointment of more women in

peacekeeping operations, and greater female involvement in negotiations, peace talks, and post-war reconstruction planning. In 2011, the fifty-fifth session of the Commission on the Status of Women commenced with the continuation of this movement to ensure that women have equal rights to education, sexual and reproductive health, and an equal burden of care and responsibility at home. Today, the CSW continues to make an impact in advancing the rights of women, including the proposed Fifth World Conference on Women for 2015.

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Topic I: Human Trafficking Topic History When people mention slavery, they usually discuss it in a historical context, most likely in reference to the American slave trade. Most people would describe slavery as a barbaric practice abolished long ago by civilized minds. While the global slave trade had in large part officially ended by the conclusion of the 19th century, slavery continues today in the form of human trafficking. Human trafficking is a global problem that affects almost every country. Internationally an estimated 800,000 to 900,000 people are trafficked every year. Most of these people come from Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The victims of trafficking are generally the poorest of their regions. Human trafficking has its roots in traditional practices of forced prostitution, as well the forced labor of women and children in the 18th century . The practice first became a political issue in 1902 when the International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic was drafted

with aims to “prevent the procuration of women and girls for immoral purposes abroad.” After several years twelve countries around the world ratified it. Following suit, the United States then passed the Mann Act of 1910, which “forbids transporting a person across state or international lines for prostitution or other immoral purposes.” During the first half of the twentieth century, countries around the world, started to recognize the existence and impact of human trafficking across international borders. The early movement against trafficking mostly focused on female victims and forced prostitution, leading to the 1949 United Nations Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of Prostitution of Others. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons defines human trafficking as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion or abduction...to achieve the consent of a person having control over another

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person, for the purpose of exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.” The Convention requires state signatories to punish any person who “procures, entices or leads away, for purposes of prostitution, another person, even with the consent of that person”, “exploits the prostitution of another person, even with the consent of that person”, and also prescribed procedures for combating international traffic for the purpose of prostitution, including extradition of offenders. Furthermore, signatories are required to abolish all regulations that subject prostitutes “to special registration or to the possession of a special document or to any exceptional requirements for supervision or notification.” After the Convention, human trafficking was all but forgotten until the 1980s, when an increased awareness of migration flows, the feminist movement, the spread of AIDS, child prostitution and sex tourism highlighted the seriousness of this issue. This time, the focus shifted to women and children from Africa, Asia, and Latin America and broadened to include other types of exploitation, such as

forced begging, marriage, and labor. In addition, international organizations paid more attention to male victims but still considered the exploitation of women and children to be the dominant problem. In the last ten years, UN member states have placed human trafficking at the forefront of global concern, devoting increasing efforts to curtail it. For instance, in 2000, the UN passed the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children under the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (also known as the Palermo Protocols), which defines trafficking and calls upon states to criminalize the practice; provide protection to the victims; and establish policies of prevention. As a result, countries and regions from around the world have developed new ways to combat human trafficking. (For the full text: https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/ TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf) Several factors have led to the development of human trafficking as a form of modern slavery. One of the most pressing issues is the cultural tendency to devalue women. Women are often viewed as burdensome to the family due to their being less likely to work outside

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the home and make money for the family . High rates of unemployment amongst women lead many to seek work in other countries which makes them especially vulnerable to traffickers. Also, the current global economy calls for cheap labor in a variety of industries and trafficked workers are a convenient solution for employers seeking to fill sweatshops or brothels. In addition, there is a growing demand for domestic services in the developing world. Due to the unregulated nature of these positions the women who fill them are extremely vulnerable to becoming part of a trafficking situation. The ease with which transactions can be made with the use of the internet has also contributed to a rise in trafficking as it opens channels for traffickers to communicate with one another and to reach out to potential victims. One challenging aspect of work to prevent human trafficking is the difficulty of obtaining accurate data. Even those who conducted the earliest studies of human trafficking believed that it would be impossible to accurately quantify the effects of human trafficking. The reasons for this are first, the difficulty of obtaining accurate data in a systematic way and

second, the lack of a clear definition of human trafficking that can be used in research. Due to the lack of quantifiable data it is hard to adequately develop an understanding of the nature and scale of human trafficking in the modern era. These challenges have made it far more difficult for the international community to develop a cohesive policy against human trafficking that takes into account the various subtopics of the issue. Historically, a definition for trafficking has been hard to come by. Though recent evidence shows that labor exploitation is a serious issue and likely more common than sexual exploitation some in the international community have been reluctant to include forced labor in the definition of human trafficking. Some are concerned that adding in another group of exploited peoples would only create a greater burden on the legal community because it would increase the number of people counted as victims of trafficking. This addition would only increase the scale of the problem in the minds of the international community and would therefore require more resources and manpower to properly address.

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This concern has led for a policy of only addressing the â&#x20AC;&#x153;worstâ&#x20AC;? form of human trafficking, namely, sexual exploitation. In this system the resources can be concentrated in one area instead of being spread out in order to deal with the various subtopics of trafficking. Though the victims of trafficking come from a variety of backgrounds and show great variety in their characteristics certain trends have been noticed in the study of human trafficking. A majority of victims are women under the age of 25, though many are younger, and most come from poor backgrounds. Traffickers obtain their victims in a number of ways. In some instances victims are kidnapped and taken directly into an exploitative situation. Oftentimes victims are lured in by traffickers who offer them lucrative jobs in another country and offer to cover the expenses of transportation until the new job can be started. Sometimes traffickers will even convince families to turn over their children under the false promise of great jobs and a financial payoff. Young women have also been lured in with the promise of marriages though personal ads in the newspaper or through

fake dating websites created by traffickers. Regardless of the way these victims are captured once they are in the hands of traffickers their situation degrades quickly. Those promised jobs are usually placed into low wage jobs and are told they must pay enormous debts to those who transported them to the new country. In this way, they are forced into a sort of slavery until they can pay off their fee. Due to the exploitative nature of the situation it often takes a lifetime to do so and the victim will remain enslaved. Victims also suffer terrible abuse from their captors, both emotionally and physically.

Current Situation According to a 2009 UN report, individual countries have not been paying enough attention to human trafficking, which has caused the problem to worsen. It can sometimes seem as though human trafficking is a new issue due to a recent emphasis on human trafficking in the news. However, the world is merely experiencing a massive increase in human trafficking that has made the issue all the more pressing for the international community.

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The chief of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Antonio Maria Costa, stated that no convictions of traffickers exist in 40% of the countries in which the problem exists. According to Costa, the difficult economy encourages the usage of cheap labor, which can come from exploiting trafficking victims. Why is it that, with all the promising declarations and protocols made by the UN and other organizations, that human trafficking remains such a widespread issue? (For a short interview with the founder of Not for Sale an anti-trafficking organization, visit: http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=YGAaWjsAOCA)

Migration and Border Security Illegal immigrants are susceptible to becoming the victims of labor exploitation. Also, recent decades have seen an increase in female migrant workers seeking domestic employments who are even more vulnerable to trafficking. It is important to note that despite the interrelatedness of these issues illegal immigration and trafficking are two different issues. Not all people who immigrate illegally are trafficked.

In trafficking situations the victim may not have consented to being moved or may have done so under false pretenses. In other words, trafficking implies victimization rather than intentionally breaking the law. Illegal smuggling is defined as the illegal transportation of individuals for the financial gain of the party committing the smuggling, the money making stops once the smuggled person has reached their destination. In contrast, trafficking is the illegal transportation of individuals with the intention to exploit them for profit. Thus, smuggling is a crime against the state while trafficking is both a crime against the state and the rights of the victim. This distinction can be blurred, however, when the victim did intend to immigrate illegally and was only trafficked as a result of the intended crime. In order to properly address human trafficking it is crucial that law enforcement officials learn to distinguish between those who are victims of trafficking and those who are merely illegal immigrants and should find a way to treat these two groups differently under the law. Traffickers tend to utilize weak points in government regulation to facilitate their trafficking efforts. In places where the government has Commission on the Status of Women 9

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already been weakened or is unable to adequately protect the border, traffickers have a much greater chance of being able to move people into the country illegally. Gaps in security create small safe zones for traffickers that allow them to connect and create a larger trafficking body. These organizations are often only loosely organized and despite common conceptions of traffickers they do not belong to large multinational groups. Instead, traffickers usually work in smaller, regional groups. Because such a significant number of trafficked victims are also illegal immigrants, it is logical that policymakers would support tightening of borders to prevent trafficking gangs from crossing their borders. However, increased border security does not guarantee a decrease in trafficking rates; it may actually have the opposite effect. Increased border protections can actually force those seeking to immigrate toward smugglers because they do not have legal options when moving, thus increasing their risk of being trafficked. Furthermore, in some cases border laws that are intended to protect women have actually made them more vulnerable. For instance,

Burmese women under the age of 26 must be accompanied by a husband or parent when they visit border areas. This law is intended to prevent young women traveling alone from being exploited. The actual effect of this law is that women must depend on hired “facilitators” to move across borders, which increases the cost of travel and the risk of exploitation from the men hired to accompany them to move across the border. UNODC Chair Antonio Costa believes that despite the challenges already presented in the area of border security a “well-designed border security might intercept a significant percentage of the victims.” As such it would be beneficial for CSW members to figure out how border laws could be changed so that instead of facilitating the actions of human traffickers, they instead help to regulate and control illegal actions. In 2000, under the umbrella of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the UN General Assembly instated two protocols one regarding human trafficking and the other regarding smuggling of illegal migrants. Though these protocols had some basis in human rights efforts, the main motivation behind both protocols was to address illegal immigration and border security. The main provisions of the trafficking protocol call countries to take Commission on the Status of Women 10

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legal action against traffickers, to facilitate the safe return of trafficking victims, to share relevant information that can help identify victims and traffickers and to strengthen border controls. Though the protocol does include some provisions regarding victim’s rights these provisions are optional and difficult to enforce. The United States, under the Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) created the “T” nonimmigrant visa for those who have been brought to the United States as a victim of trafficking. This visa allows victims to remain in the United States legally despite having entered the country by illegal means and recognizes the special status of trafficking victims. One problem with this policy is that it requires those who receive the visa to cooperate in police investigations against the trafficker. For many trafficking victims this requirement is frightening and may keep many from pursuing the “T” visa. (For an interesting perspective on why, visit: http:// globalnation.inquirer.net/61981/us-offers-t-visa-for-victims-of-human-trafficking) In contrast, the smuggling protocol calls for increased border security and increased measures to prevent the use of fraudulent identification

documents. Though illegal migrants are not liable for smuggling related charges they are not afforded most of the provisions included in the trafficking protocol. This is due to the general notion that those who choose to immigrate illegally have done so willingly and are less deserving of protection. The protocol is recognized as being helpful to the extent that it provides a clear and comprehensive, albeit imperfect, definition of human trafficking. However, the protocol does not provide law enforcement officials with any clear way to distinguish a human trafficking victim from an illegal migrant. In many cases it is more expensive to designate a person as trafficking victim due to the added responsibility of providing necessary protections to the victim. This has led to the worry that governments may use these protocols to inappropriately apply the label of illegal immigrant even when exploitation has occurred because it is more cost effective and easy. Anecdotal evidence has shown that such problems have already occurred. In order to address these problems it is necessary to identify the distinguishing features of a trafficking victim as opposed to an illegal immigrant.

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These protocols also pose interesting problems regarding repatriation. Most countries maintain that they should have the right to deport any person who has illegally immigrated as long as they do so in a humane way. When the people in question are trafficking victims the solution is less clear cut. Protections for human trafficking victims are not mandatory under the protocol and no international guidelines for dealing with trafficking victims exist. Sending trafficking victims back involuntarily is hardly the correct solution. Oftentimes conditions in the home country were definitive factors leading to the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s victimization and in some cases the victimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s family was even involved in selling the person. Also, the physical and psychological trauma that accompanies human trafficking make it necessary for victims to have access to medical treatment and counseling to help them recover from their experience. Resources for shelters that can provide the care needed for trafficking victims are scarce and oftentimes victims are not given the care that they need or the resources needed for them to transition to a normal, free life after they have escaped the trafficking situation.

Labor The majority of trafficked victims are forced into labor after arriving in the new country. In most instances, the trafficked person left his or her home country voluntarily to work in another country and was trafficked into an exploitative situation along the way. First, the person would have sought out a recruitment agency, which would have charged a fee payable by the salary from their new job. As soon as the person arrived in the new country, his or her passport would have been taken with the understanding that it could only be returned when their debts were paid. The actual wage would most likely be much lower than promised, making it all but impossible to get out of debt. In this way, an exploited person remains enslaved to the trafficker. As the victim remains enslaved in a low-wage labor situation they are also likely to be subjected to sexual, physical and emotional abuse at the hands of their captor. (Click here for a British PSA meant to encourage people to report suspicious behavior that could be trafficking: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=3C9VwiCP2bQ)

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Deceptive advertisements have become commonplace as many people seek out employment in other countries in order to combat economic strain at home. As the global economy continues to suffer from the current recession more and more people find themselves impoverished and unable to find employment in their home country. This desperation leads many people to seek employment through disreputable means which leads them into exploitative situations. Also, the importance of producing cheap products has led to an increased need for cheap labor which can be achieved by means of human trafficking. In most cases the victims of trafficking have little or no idea what kind of work they will be doing once they reach the country of destination. Once there, they have no choice but to do the work assigned to them or face severe punishments. These trafficked people have little opportunity for escape and the fear of retaliation keeps many obedient. Additionally, these people often end up alone in a country far from home without any connections or even a grasp of the language to help them through. This isolation prevents trafficking victims from leaving exploitative situations and leaves them trapped indefinitely.

Moreover, a major portion of the forced labor group is made up of fishing industry laborers, because it is relatively easy to smuggle people using fishing boats. Forced labor is commonplace on fishing boats, with traffickers moving trafficked workers from boat to boat as needed. These victims are essentially prisoners, forced to work in severe conditions without seeing land for long periods of time. It is also important to note that not all exploited laborers are adults. Young boys are also forced to work on fishing boats. Other exploited children also work as domestic servants, harvesters on rice and tea farms, beggars, and as thieves in smuggling gangs, etc. Though trafficking for the purpose of labor receives less recognition from the international community it is still devastating for the victims. A study of Burmese workers in Thailand showed that sexual assault, rape, physical abuse, sleep deprivation and other violent acts were commonly inflicted upon trafficking victims. In addition, boys trafficked onto fishing boats are often forced to remain at sea for as long as two years. Researchers estimate that as many as 10% of these boys never return to land because

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those who become ill are usually thrown overboard. Another study conducted by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation found that the majority of East African girls trafficked to the Middle East are bound for â&#x20AC;&#x153;oppressive domestic workâ&#x20AC;?. Along the way these girls are often beaten and raped. There is a need to push for more stringent labor laws that forbid child labor and enforce minimum standards for wages. Additionally, the CSW should discuss ways to distinguish trafficking victims from other migrants and protect them from further exploitation. Past policies have focused on legal efforts against human traffickers as the best way to solve this issue. Yet, as new research shows the ineffectiveness of these policies new ideas that address the root causes of labor trafficking are being explored. For example, the fight against labor trafficking could be brought to the consumer level by creating demand for products that are certified as being produced without the use of forced labor. Consumer awareness and demand for ethically produced products can help force changes in the private sector that will indirectly combat human trafficking.

In addition, leaders in the private sector could contribute to the battle against human trafficking by creating codes of conduct within their industries that will keep supply chains and production free of trafficked labor. Currently, businesses are attempting to address human trafficking by means of social auditing and voluntary codes of compliance. Despite the attempt made to address these issues it is apparent that not enough is being done. For example, social audits are often planned and the foreman made aware in advance. This allows time for workers to be given prepared answers to give auditors and for those in charge to change records as needed. In addition, social audits cannot account fully for the underlying psychological aspects of human trafficking. The absence of physical markers of human trafficking does not rule out the existence of psychological control placed on the trafficking victim by their boss. Also, trafficking victims may fear retaliation if they tell the truth and may be hesitant to reveal their true working conditions to an auditor. Even in cases when social auditors have found problematic practices most of their guidelines for addressing these issues are voluntary and cannot be enforced by the auditing organization.

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Without some sort of enforcing power or way to incentivize compliance these auditing organizations lack the clout needed to effect real change. Though the general trend in the private sector is toward better treatment of workers and prevention of human trafficking much more needs to be done to fully address the complex issues of human trafficking. Partnerships between the private sector and governmental and non-governmental organizations can help to bring awareness of human trafficking to the business community and to further the goal of reducing labor trafficking around the world. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s increasingly globalized world it is necessary for consumers and leaders in the private sector to be aware of the effects their economic choices have on the rest of the world and to use their buying power to contribute to the end of forced labor and human trafficking. (For further information on ways US companies are addressing human trafficking see this article: http://www. huffingtonpost.com/kavitha-sreeharsha/human-trafficking-modern-slavery_b_2481901.html)

Sex The issue of sex trafficking has received widespread media attention and public fury to the extent that some believe human trafficking only includes sexual exploitation. Despite the attention that sex trafficking has received the extent of the problem is still unknown and has not been dealt with adequately. For example, from 2004-2007, 111 cases of sex trafficking were reported to the Singapore police, and yet data collected by foreign embassies show a much higher rate of trafficking. Meanwhile, the International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates that there are at least one million child prostitutes in Southeast Asia alone. Southeast Asia has often been regarded as the center of sex trafficking. Most of the women and girls who have been trafficked originally come from Asia and most remain in Asia when they are victimized. Though labor exploitation is now thought to be the dominant issue related to human trafficking sexual exploitation is still a major concern. According to one estimate more than 30 million women and children have been trafficked in the last thirty years for sexual exploitation.

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The high rate of sexual slavery in the modern world can partly be attributed to a lingering cultural belief that women are second-class citizens. Additionally, since the boom of sex tourism has significantly increased demand for sex workers. Although this aspect of human trafficking is especially volatile, the rates of sexual exploitation and trafficking have not decreased. Though poverty and social inequality are often major factors in occurrences of human trafficking it is often consumer demand for submissive women and children that drives the market for human trafficking. Asia in particularly is susceptible to the development of a major sex trade. The accessibility of Asia via tourism, the migration policies of its governments and the development of sex industry infrastructure has all contributed to the development of a booming sex trade in Asia which is fueled by human trafficking. Sex has become a major industry in Asia and provides huge profits to brothel owners, pimps, hotels and other facets of the tourism industry. The concept of sex tourism has become culturally accepted and has led to an increased demand for women and girls to pleasure travelers. In addition, the sex trade is often portrayed in a positive way that makes

it seem less harmful to the women involved and even glamorizes the entire industry. According to UNICEF the sex industry is growing at an alarming rate, especially in Southeast Asia, and could have dire consequences for the region. This increase can partly be attributed to the increase in the number of young women and girls who leave their home countries in the hopes of finding more opportunities for work while abroad. In addition, social prejudices remain firmly intact in many places in the region leading some to believe that some groups of people are less worthy of protection from traffickers, making these groups more vulnerable to abuse. Recently, certain trends in sex trafficking have developed. More of the women being trafficked originate from rural areas that face severe poverty. The men who frequently buy sex or traffic women for sexual purposes are also those who abuse women and children. These men often feel a need to reinforce their masculinity by showing their power over the weak and vulnerable. For foreign men, elements of racism may also appear as they feel the need to degrade women and children from third world countries through sexual acts.

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There has also been an increase in trafficking of women and children who are minorities in their homelands and face discrimination there. These women and children are also likely to come from places that are wrapped in conflicts. Technology has also developed a crucial role in human trafficking. It is now more common for traffickers to use internet technology to market women online as part of prostitution, pornography or bride-buying operations. Also the rise of legitimate prostitution and sexual tourism has contributed to the development of illegal prostitution and sexual exploitation hiding behind the more legitimate operations. Also, the increase of women migrating for domestic and entertainment work has led to an increase in the number of women who are vulnerable to sex trafficking. Some people have suggested the legalization of prostitution as a means of reducing the need for illegally trafficked persons. These people argue that by making prostitution legal they will open it up to greater regulation and can ensure that sex workers are given adequate care and are not victims of trafficking. Others argue that to legalize prostitution would merely increase the demand for sex workers and lead to greater levels of

prostitution. Countries that have legalized prostitution do so under the belief that exploitation thrives in illegality. In both Germany and the Netherlands sex workers receive social security and other benefits, but only if they are residents in the European Union. Women from other countries and illegal immigrants are not granted these protections and are instead part of a booming underground sex industry that operates outside the legal one. Many who work against human trafficking argue that instead of weakening human traffickers legalized prostitution instead creates a culture that is comfortable with the sex trade which can make human trafficking even harder to combat. The disagreement about whether or not prostitution should be legalized or further criminalized continues to be an important aspect of the human trafficking discussion and provides an interesting point of discussion. In contrast, Sweden has taken a radically different approach. In 1995 Sweden altered its policies so that instead of prosecuting prostitutes they have begun to prosecute those who solicit sex instead. In Swedenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s model, the sex worker is treated as a victim instead of a criminal and outreach

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programs have been established to encourage sex workers to pursue new careers. In contrast, the men who buy sex can be prosecuted and made to serve up to six months in prison. In the first five years of this new law more than 750 men were charged with crimes related to the buying of sex and more than 2/3 were convicted. As a result, Sweden has seen a major drop in street prostitution and a decrease in the number of women trafficked into the area. Based on the success of Swedenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach it may be beneficial to consider ways in which the demand that drives the global sex trade can be diminished as a means of prevention. The sex industry is of particular concern because of the other issues caused by sexual exploitation. With an increase in the illegal sex trade comes an increase in sexually transmitted infections, especially HIV/AIDS. Sex workers are also more likely to contract other communicable diseases like tuberculosis due to deplorable living conditions and close contact with a many people in unsanitary conditions. Sex workers are also likely to face unwanted pregnancies, forced abortions and abortion related complications. In addition, these workers are often raped and physically harmed by those who control them. Beatings

and severe punishments become commonplace for sex workers and lead to profound damage. The emotional toll of trafficking is also of serious concern. Trafficked sex workers often show signs of emotional trauma including nightmares, insomnia, suicidal tendencies, drug and alcohol abuse, suicide and even murder. The general public is also at risk because those who visit brothels are likely to contract sexual diseases and pass them along to other partners. It is necessary for this committee to take action to protect the individual rights of those who have been victimized by the sex trade.

Victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Rights and Prosecution and Data Collection When dealing with the victims of human trafficking it is crucial to correctly define their role in the situation. This has led to an understanding of the nature of agency in regards to human trafficking. In exploitative situations the victim lacks the agency to control their situation and cannot be taken to account for crimes committed while under the control of their trafficker.

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This lack of control is inherent in trafficking situations and must be taken into consideration by those who work with trafficking victims. This is manifested when looking at NGO operations which are evaluated as being either regressive or progressive in regards to their attempts to empower the victim. In addition, recovery efforts are now seen as a way to integrate rather than reintegrate the victim. This distinction takes into account the situation that led to a person being trafficked in the first place. Rather than placing this victim back into the conditions that led to their being trafficked it is now considered more important to help the victim build a new life on their own that will separate them permanently from the conditions that made them vulnerable to trafficking in the first place. Part of the problem is the large scale of human trafficking. It is difficult to make serious progress in combating human trafficking by prosecuting regional players while leaving the greater system intact. This problem has made recent attempts to strengthen laws against human traffickers ineffective as they have only been able to capture a small number of traffickers and have not yet been able to bring down the entire operation.

Also, it can be difficult to bring down human traffickers because they often have the support of corrupted government officials helping them bring people across the border. For instance, in recent years both Malaysia and Thailand have had to investigate allegations that government officials and trafficking gangs were working together on the Malay-Thai border. The problem also lies in the difficulty of obtaining correct statistics regarding the issue. According to one study done in Central America and the Caribbean found that, â&#x20AC;&#x153;currently, no statistics are available to accurately quantify the magnitude of trafficking in the region or within particular countries.â&#x20AC;? Few countries have accurate statistics, but those that do such as Germany and the Netherlands have shown an increase in trafficking over time. It is unclear whether or not this increase is due to an actual increase in the number of trafficking victims or due to improved law enforcement methods. Even when statistics are available the definition of trafficking used to obtain them may be too narrow. Both Germany and the Netherlands limit their definition of human trafficking to forced prostitution, severely limiting the data that can be obtained regarding other groups of

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trafficked peoples. Most people assume that the majority of people who are trafficked are forced into prostitution, while in reality new studies have shown that labor exploitation is far more common. The reason for this discrepancy is the faulty definitions that some countries have regarding trafficking. The lack of data on human trafficking can also be linked to the attitudes of law makers and law enforcement officials which have led human trafficking to become and underreported crime. In many countries laws against human traffickers are lacking or confusing which can make prosecuting a trafficking case successfully very difficult. In addition, cases against human traffickers are usually based on witness testimony. Unfortunately, most victims of trafficking are unable to testify either because they are deported as illegal immigrants or because they are too scared to speak out. One study conducted on behalf of the British government found that human trafficking efforts are linked to the willingness of law enforcement officials to monitor vice-related crimes such as prostitution. For most officials the sex industry is considered to be â&#x20AC;&#x153;out of sight, out of mindâ&#x20AC;?, meaning that it does not pose an apparent

enough threat to be worth pursuing. The victims of human trafficking have endured awful human rights violations that may impede their ability to act in the way expected of them. This can often lead to difficulties when law enforcement officials attempt to work with trafficking victims in order to pursue a case against their traffickers. For many victims of trafficking those who surround them either sharing in their struggles or even those who perpetrate them become the only community these women have. Oftentimes, the women have been taught by their traffickers that law enforcement officials are dangerous, sentiments that are only reinforced during the chaos and confusion of a raid on a brothel or other trafficking location. Despite the abuses that many trafficking victims face some may be reluctant to pursue charges against their traffickers for various reasons. Some feel indebted to their traffickers for providing them with employment no matter how low the wage or terrible the conditions. In other cases victims may not have been abused at the hands of co-conspirators who worked primarily in the background and may even have had positive experiences with them. Others may simply need more time and information about their legal rights in

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order to feel ready to pursue a court case. However, when victims who are unwilling or unable to participate in court proceedings against their traffickers lose the special protections afforded to trafficking victims and risk criminal charges for prostitution or deportation for illegal immigration. These mixed feelings toward their captors do not delegitimize the criminal acts perpetrated against these women but they do complicate the use of victim testimony in court cases . This is simply another one of the challenges unique to human trafficking that law enforcement officials must work around in order to make effective strides toward eradicating trafficking. Adequate solutions to this problem must look at ways to obtain information that will inform the international community and direct governing bodies toward the best path forward. Also, it is necessary for the committee to decide whether the strong legal strategies that have been suggested in the past are the most effective way in which human trafficking can be prevented or if there are other ways for countries to minimize local demand for trafficked labor that would be more effective. Also, it is in the committeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best interest to explore

ways to provide care and comfort to those who have been rescued from trafficking in order to help them lead productive lives.

Goals for the Committee The committee should focus on ways to address the various subtopics of human trafficking while keeping in mind the many challenges that face countries attempting to stem the tide of trafficking. It is crucial that the committee start out with a solid definition of human trafficking. After this has been accomplished delegates should attempt to explore new methods for dealing with this problem from a human rights perspective. Delegates are encouraged to approach solutions with the best interests of the women and children involved in trafficking in mind. This is especially important because recent actions against human trafficking have unfortunately ignored the important questions facing the international community regarding how trafficking victims can best be cared for after they have been removed from exploitative situations. Additionally, due to the expansive nature of human trafficking it is vital that the committee explore possible partnerships that will help Commission on the Status of Women 21

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facilitate the fight against human trafficking and address the many problems associated with human trafficking. It is crucial that the committee not forget that the main focus of the committee is to suggest ways for countries to improve the status of women around the world. improve the status of women around the world. This means that the focus of all proposals should be on ways to improve conditions for the victims of human trafficking above other political and economic considerations, although due to the nature of the world we live in these must of course be taken into account and dealt with in all serious proposals.

Bloc Positions No country admits to supporting the actions of human traffickers, but as of yet no successful policy has been adopted by these nations. No one policy is enough to handle all of the different issues that combine to form the overarching issue of human trafficking. It is necessary to look beyond these differences and find a policy that will most effectively address the many issues of human trafficking. North America and Western Europe: In 2000, the United States

made a commitment to serving as the global leader in â&#x20AC;&#x153;fighting modern slaveryâ&#x20AC;? with the passage of the TVPA, the first comprehensive federal law to protect victims of trafficking and prosecute their traffickers. The act introduced measures such as the T-visa, which allows victims of trafficking to become temporary residents of the US, as well as new law enforcement tools and the creation of a three-tier rating system that subjects nations found to be in violation of the TVPA with economic sanctions . That same year, the passage of the U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, brought the issue to the forefront of global discussion. While the US has implemented a complex system of economic sanctions against countries most culpable of human trafficking and other violent crimes, Western European states are generally looked to as donor nations for non-profit and multi-national efforts to suppress global violence against women. Because of a general unwillingness to subordinate its own constitution to global standards, the United States still has not ratified several major conventions on the topic, most notably the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

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Against Woman (CEDAW). Unfortunately, numerable other states have employed this fact to justify their own reservations to the convention. (For the text of the TVPA legislature, read here: http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/10492.pdf) Asia and Southeast Asia: Asia is seen as the hub of human trafficking and it is thought that majority of women trafficked into the sex industry are from Asia or exploited within the region. Though the nations of the region have verbally shown commitment to addressing the issue of human trafficking, as of yet there has been a distinct lack of research into the issue and an even greater lack of effective policies with which to address the issue. The modern slave trade is an especially pressing issue in Asia. Asia maintains one of the highest rates of human trafficking due to high levels of poverty, increased urbanization and its large population pyramid. Part of the issue stems from the high rates of legal migration between Asian nations. For example, in 2005, 13.5 million people migrated from Asian countries. About half of these people moved to other Asian countries. Because populations fluctuate constantly, traffickers have an

easier time flying under the radar. Additionally, a significant portion of victims originating from these states are exploited in the region. Part of the problem in Asia lays in the nature of their recent immigration patterns. Southeast Asia has recently seen an increase in female immigration as well as the immigration of children, which exposes two especially vulnerable groups to the effects of dangers of illegal immigration and the related issue of human trafficking. In addition, prostitution is legal and culturally accepted in many countries, creating a demand for prostitutes that can be filled by trafficked women and children. Also, the crackdown on illegal immigration in many countries has led to increased prosecution of the victims of trafficking though they are forced into their crimes and may have been caused to move illegally by their trafficker. In addition many countries have failed to take strong action against traffickers. Some find themselves engaged in more pressing matters but others are scared to take on the gangs that organize human trafficking rings and therefore leave the matter alone in order to protect themselves from criminal retaliation. As a result, members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations

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approach to trafficking. At the 10th ASEAN summit in 2004, the nations signed a declaration against human trafficking, in particular that of women and children. The nations pledged to “establish a regional…network to prevent and combat trafficking..., intensify cooperation among…immigration and other laws enforcement authorities…, [and] distinguish victims of trafficking in persons from the perpetrators…” among other measures. Additionally, ASEAN has established the Working Group on Trafficking in Persons to take further action. Most ASEAN documents since, including official statements and communiqués, have made note of human trafficking and offer suggestions for combating the issue. However, as of 2007, only five ASEAN members had developed detailed human trafficking policies, and only five had created action plans to prevent trafficking. There still remains much to be done in the region to fully eradicate human trafficking and the work of the CSW can work to offer suggestions to the region that will help to further address the rampant human trafficking problem in Asia.

(For an interesting video on the fight against trafficking in women and children in China please visit: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/ world/2011/12/08/cfp-grant-chinachild-tafficking.cnn) Central and South America: In Latin America as in much of the world, human trafficking was largely ignored until the year 2000 when the international community began serious efforts to curb trafficking. In order to become more aware of the problem the governments of Latin American partnered with several international organizations to fund and execute a research project called The Trafficking of Women and Children for Sexual Exploitation in the Americas. The study found that trafficking is Latin America is largely fueled by the following factors: poverty, political violence, gender inequality and a general indifference toward women, adolescents and children. These problems have been further exacerbated by globalization, liberalized border policies and a new ease of movement, all of which have helped create a growing market for trafficked humans.

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Lack of education and general poverty were shown to be risk factors that lead to trafficking, especially for young people. Several common factors were seen in source countries including low GDP and high levels of poverty. Also, trafficked persons were often found to have been victimized by friends, relatives or other people familiar to them. In Latin America demand for trafficked humans is usually in the prostitution and pornography industries and the rise of sex tourism and large casinos has helped to create an international market. (For a video on the human trafficking problem in Mexico visit: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=op7aFIgKTEQ) The Middle East: The Middle East is home to highest concentration of migrant workers in the world, especially in the oil rich nations of the gulf. The high level of immigration to these countries has created a situation in which large numbers of people move throughout the region, creating a complicated scenario in regards to human trafficking. After the United States began releasing the annual TIP report which ranks countries according to their compliance with international anti-trafficking standards, many Middle Eastern nations have begun to improve their

responses to human trafficking. Many Middle Eastern nations have moved from being Tier 3 countries to Tier 2 countries and have seen a reduction in the number of trafficked persons; however, Israel has become an increasingly popular destination for traffickers. In recent years, migration in the Middle East has been dominated by women. In the year 2000 female migrants accounted for 30% of all immigrants as opposed to only 8% in the 1980s. As mentioned earlier in this paper, increase female migration places more women at risk of exploitation at the hands of smugglers or traffickers posing as recruiters for legitimate jobs. Labor exploitation is a major problem in the region. Oftentimes the policies regarding work visas in the country can contribute to the creation of a trafficking situation. In some Gulf countries the Kafala system is the only way in which workers can legally gain work in the country. The Kafala system offers four types of visas: house visas, company visas, sponsorship by state institutions and sponsorship for business partnership. The house visas are most dangerous for migrant workers because they place the worker under the authority of the kafeel who ensures that they remain in the residence and employment that they

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entered the country to reach. Under the eyes of the law the kafeel essentially becomes the owner of the migrant worker and is responsible for their movements, employment and often retains their identification documents and work permits. The kafala system has been condemned by experts as containing elements of slavery and working to further the practices of human trafficking due to the high risk of exploitation that comes with the house visa. For example, the kafeel has the legal right to loan the worker out to other households without the consent of the worker and the person has little control over their employment or living conditions, Africa: The problem of human trafficking from and in Africa was first recognized in the 1990s and has been a problem ever since. The first major wave of trafficking was from Western Africa to Western Europe in the 1980s and 1990s. This was followed by a second wave of increased trafficking in children. These children were often taken from volatile regions in which instability in the community allowed the problems of trafficking to spread. These children are often forced into exploitative labor situations and are vulnerable to subsequent re-sale into the sex industry.

In many cases the family and child consent to be the child being taken with the understanding that the child will end up in a richer city with greater economic and educational opportunities. However, these promises do not match up to the reality of exploitation that the child will be placed into by their trafficker. Instead of lucrative jobs and education, these children usually find themselves in brutal domestic service industries or in the sex trade with little hope of ever becoming free. In response to these problems many African nations have taken significant steps toward addressing the problem and have made great improvements in recent years. A number of agreements have been reached between the nations of West and East Africa that seek to address trafficking. However, the South African nations are noticeably lacking in such agreements, due the fact that most of these countries deal with human trafficking under the umbrella of their illegal immigration laws. These policies tend to treat the trafficked persons as criminals rather than victims and do not adequately address the issues of human trafficking.

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Questions to Consider Keep in mind these questions: • What can ASEAN do to standardize the approach to human trafficking while keeping in mind the very different ideologies and governments of its members? • What are the root causes of the high rate of human trafficking in Southeast Asia? Which of these causes is the most pressing? What can be done to eradicate these causes? • How can ASEAN accurately collect data on human trafficking? How can ASEAN use these data to create effective policies? • How can ASEAN mobilize its members to actively work against human trafficking, especially in an economic situation in which cheap labor and sex tourism may seem to boost a country’s economy? • How can the cultural values of a country that may undervalue women be reconciled with the need to eradicate human trafficking? • In what way can ASEAN cooperate with other international bodies or non-governmental organizations in order to combat trafficking? • How should ASEAN organize its border policies in order to prevent trafficking while maintaining channels for legitimate immigration? • What legal policies should be put into place in order to protect victims of trafficking from being prosecuted for crimes they commit unwillingly? • What legal channels could ASEAN create to effectively prosecute traffickers on an international level?

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• What role should NGOs play in this process, and what, if any, should their limitations be in promoting cultural change? (For example, should NGOs with a religious affiliation be limited in their power to assist in these situations? How do we encourage cooperation between NGOs, international forces, and state governments whose ideologies are incompatible?) • Should individual states impose economic sanctions on states with especially poor track records of preventing human trafficking? For example, are the United States’ sanctions under TVPA more helpful or hurtful to these nations’ women? How should the CSW encourage or discourage similar action from other states?from other states?

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Topic II: Reproductive Health Support Topic History

According to the World Health Organization, reproduction health addresses the “reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life”. Support for women’s rights to these basic health needs has recently developed and requires much work. Reproductive health support means that both men and women are able to obtain access to affordable and effective methods to manage their capability to reproduce. Rights to these basic services will allow women to go through safe pregnancies, childbirths, or even abortions if necessary.

Women’s rights lobbyists in India protest for the ban of the term “honor killing.

The five components of the issue that are mainly focused on today include: improving antenatal, perinatal, postpartum, and newborn care; providing services for family planning and infertility treatments; eradicating unsafe abortion procedures; preventing sexually transmitted diseases and infections; and promoting sexual health and education. It wasn’t until the 1930 Lambeth Conference, that the Anglican Church decided to permit the use of birth control by married couples. Before that, condoms had been banned in 1873 both by the Cornstock laws and state laws in 30 states. Legal limitations on usage of condoms started to decrease during in the 1930s, even though the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement opposing all contraceptives. Similarly around that time period, Italy and Germany both resisted the sale and distribution of condoms as well, only allowing a restricted number of sales for disease prevention purposes. Due to a strong Catholic, conservative presence, Ireland has a long history

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with anti-contraception and anti-abortion efforts. It was not until 1969 that Ireland even opened its first family planning clinic; a clinic that was prohibited by law to sell contraceptives. It took another 10 years for the Health (Family Planning) Act to pass, legalizing contraceptives, including condoms, but only under prescription. Barry Desmond, the Minster of Health in 1985, rallied efforts for better reproductive services and succeeded in legalizing the sale of condoms and spermicides to those over 18 without a prescription under the Health Family Planning Amendment of 1993. Despite being a slightly more liberal nation, even the United States still placed restrictions on condom advertisements, banning them from national television until 1979. (For a video on the current debate in Ireland, look at: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=BF-uBEOGl8s) More recently in 2010, the case of ABC v Ireland resulted in the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights to unanimously reproach the Ireland government for not allowing abortion when it saves the life of the woman. Ireland lost another battle in its fight against contraception and abortion in 2011 when emergency

contraception was made available as an over-the-counter medication by the Irish Medicines Board. Still, many countries still lack contraceptives. The lowest rates of contraceptive prevalence are now found in the African and Eastern Mediterranean regions. Contraceptive prevalence has increased in Asia though, including a purchase by Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s government of 1.9 billion condoms for family planning services in 2004. Even though the United States is one of the most developed countries in the world women have more inadvertent pregnancies, abortions, preterm births, and infant deaths in the US than in other developed countries. The American health care system is a main cause for this. While the majority of European countries have universal health care, America has only recently begun to implement a universal health care policy. Low-income women therefore face a lack of resources when it comes to reproductive health. The recent decreases in government funding for reproductive services and organizations, such as Planned Parenthood, have only further harmed these women, declining their use of contraceptives in the last

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decade. Abortion, while legal in the US, is still a controversial issue that still needs to be addressed. With the shortage of abortion providers, women are finding it harder to obtain abortions, especially those who are low-income and in rural areas. State-level regulations have also increased, and the 2007 federal abortion ban was another restricting factor in women’s reproductive health services. Only 13% of US counties have abortion providers, and from 1982 to 2000, the number of providers decreased by 38%. In 1979, the US reported 1,251,921 legal abortions. This number has decreased to 827,609 in 2007.

Other important issues include maternal mortality and unsafe abortion procedures that occur in countries where abortions are not legalized. Though between 1990 and 2010, the

international maternal mortality rate, as reported by the WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, and the World Bank, dropped 47%, many deaths still occur especially in poverty-stricken areas. Every day, more than 800 women die due to pregnancy or childbirth-related causes that are completely preventable. Sometimes, these causes are due to unsafe abortion procedures. Before 2002, countries like Nepal classified abortions as “infanticide”, banning it regardless of circumstances. The life of the baby took precedence over the life of the woman carrying the child. Women who partook in abortions were mostly poor and ended up being thrown into prison or dead due to unsafe abortion methods. Only after the King of Nepal had signed a bill in 2002 that allowed abortions that the country started to improve access to reproductive health centers. Even then, it took until 2007 for the Interim Constitution to pass, in which women’s reproductive rights were finally recognized as fundamental rights. Today, many countries still classify abortion as a crime, even going so far as to send pregnant women to jail for attempting to obtain an abortion. In the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the UN, which outline goals for the eradication of poverty that the global community would like to

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solve by the year 2015. Goal five of the MDG is to reduce the rate of maternal mortality bye 75% and to promote universal access to reproductive health care. According to the 2012 MDG report, progress has been made in these areas; however, more needs to be done to combat the issue. Currently, more than 2/3 of births in the developing world are attended by skilled health workers but facilities are still unable to truly meet the needs of pregnant women. Additionally, fewer teens are giving birth, helping to reduce pregnancy in one of the groups most at risk for maternal death. Despite the general decrease in adolescent pregnancy in countries in which early marriage is common pregnancy rates remain high among young girls.

Around the world contraceptive use has risen, however, the pace at which contraceptive use rises has decreased since the 1990s. In addition, in communities in which contraceptive use is lacking access to family planning resources remains almost nonexistent and women have few options when attempting to choose how many children to have. The Millennium Development Goals provide a crucial framework for the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fight against poverty and its associated issues. It is important that the global community remember the promises of the MDGs and work to accomplish them. (For a video on the MDG 5 please see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBR2K4QW3IY )

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Current Situation Lack of reproductive rights is a huge issue that women face all around the world. These women face pain, death, and suffering because of the lack of resources that are available to ease pregnancy complications, help them to make crucial reproductive decisions, and to prevent sexually transmitted diseases. Discussion is needed to find solutions to the problems of unsafe and inaccessible abortion problems, maternal and infant death, deficiencies in family planning centers, lack of reproductive choices, and the absence of sexual education. Though we are looking at specific case studies, dialogue should not be limited to these countries. We encourage discussion regarding global policy and international laws that would help improve the status of women overall. Though evidence for the necessity of comprehensive reproductive health care abounds politics can often get in the way of solutions to these problems. In some cases cultural taboos prevent officials from bringing certain issues to light. In addition, policies can sometimes harm interests groups within the nation. For example, the introduction of more qualified

obstetricians in developing countries creates competition for traditional midwives. Also, perceived difficulty in administering new programs can deter politicians. . And in situations in which the poor, women and children are most likely to benefit officials may not see the issue as being worth their time and effort when they could direct resources toward more important interest groups. (For a video providing a dramatic overview of reproductive rights issues click here (the statistics may be a bit out of date by the images are thought provoking): http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=tq-lHK7d5Eo)

Maternal Mortality and Infant Death Bihar, a state in eastern India, has one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the world. For every 100,000 births 300 women die due to maternal complications. Developed countries have rates of around 5 for every 100,000, like Switzerland, or 8 for every 100,000, like the United States. Each year, over 100,000 women die in India due to pregnancy-related causes, the highest number worldwide. In 2005, India tried to combat this problem with its National Rural Health Mission, but health centers in

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these rural areas lack the equipment, resources, management, staff, or infrastructure to complete their mission in supporting and monitoring the health of pregnant women. Currently, the facilities lack even the most basic of needs: beds, electricity, running water, and toilets. Rural health centers are an important aspect of efforts to curb maternal mortality but without adequate financial support these centers will not have the capacity to make meaningful improvements. Impoverished regions face other problems with their reproductive health care services. Yemen, for example, has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world: 102 deaths per 1000 live births for children under 5 years old. This is already an improvement from the rate of 351 per 100,000 live births that occurred from the late 1980s to 90s. In addition to infant deaths, mothers often die from pregnancy or childbirth related complications as well. For women of childbearing age reproductive health issues account for 42% of fatalities in the country. Pregnant adolescents require a specialized care due to their young age and relative immaturity. The maternal death rate of girls ages15 - 19 is almost double that of older women, but with

sufficient antenatal and neonatal care these statistics can be drastically improved. Currently, most pregnant adolescents do not have access to adequate antenatal care and are at a higher risk for unsafe abortions. As long as the pregnancy progresses normally adolescents can be treated in the same way as adults, but there is a greater risk of malnutrition or specific deficiencies going in to the pregnancy that should be watched for. Girls under the age of 15 are also at a much higher risk of premature birth, putting both themselves and their babies at risk. Also, it is vitally important to introduce contraceptives after the pregnancy in order to prevent another pregnancy before the girl has had a chance to recover and has spent a sufficient amount of time breastfeeding the child. Also, it is important to note that pregnancies in girls under the age of 14 are of particular concern and must be monitored much closer than those of older girls. In many cases the technological knowledge can outpace willingness to take meaningful steps to combat maternal mortality. For example, in most sub-Saharan African countries screening for syphilis in pregnant women is supposed to be mandatory. However, despite its cost-effectiveness and high Commission on the Status of Women 34

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success rate the practice still isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t widely implemented and congenital syphilis continues to be a problem in the developing world. Another low cost option, the use of magnesium sulphate to prevent and treat eclamptic seizures has failed to gain widespread traction in the reproductive health community. Though this medication could prevent more than 50,000 maternal deaths each year the international community has failed to find a way to distribute it effectively to those who need it. This failure is indicative of a wider problem. The medical knowledge is there and oftentimes government leaders express a willingness to help women gain access to quality maternal care. Yet, in reality government officials can be reluctant to put in the effort that is required to fully implement effective health policy and need some sort of global encouragement in order to follow through on promised actions. So far the steps that have been taken to end maternal death have largely failed. Policies such as providing antenatal care and training traditional health workers (eg. midwives) have proved over the years to be unsuccessful in the face of the

overwhelming maternal mortality rate in the developing world. Experience has shown that it is necessary to make emergency care available during childbirth. So far, the most obvious solution seems to be the improvement of whole health care systems in the developing world. Often, the resources needed to improve maternal health care exist within the healthcare system even when large parts of the system are inefficient or non-functional. Improvements to the system as whole mean improvements to maternal health. China, Sri Lanka and Malaysia have all seen dramatic drops in the rate of maternal mortality as their medical system has improved. This shows that effective health care systems implemented at the district level can have a profound effect on the health and well-being of mothers throughout the community. The converse has also proven to be true, in Zimbabwe, where a massive decline in the health care system has occurred the maternal mortality rate has skyrocketed. Experts in the reproductive health care field have taken this to mean that maternal mortality is an important marker for the effectiveness of a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health care system and

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strong health care systems can help maternal death. Most maternal deaths occur during labor, delivery or in the first twenty-four hours postpartum. Oftentimes, complications that arise during this period are difficult to predict and prevent. In light of this fact, the location in which a woman gives birth and the qualifications of the people attending her have a profound impact on the likelihood that she will survive a complication during childbirth. It is crucial that women in labor are within reach of facilities that can handle an emergency situation in the case that such a need arises. Evidence has shown that the safest childbirth scenario is one in which the woman gives birth in a clinic with a midwife or doctor as the primary attendant and others to assist the doctor or midwife. Funding for these endeavors is of course necessary and the question of how best to fund projects to end maternal mortality has been widely debated. Some believe that funding should be directed vertically. In other words, funding should be applied directly to projects combatting maternal mortality. Thus, maternal health care would be largely built up without addressing other issues in the healthcare system. The problem in this method

of funding is that underlying societal problems such as the lack of family planning information and contraceptives would not be made available and the root causes of the problem would not be addressed. Others argue for a slightly broader method of funding that includes all aspects of reproductive health care and not just maternal mortality. This approach would strengthen the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to address related reproductive problems that are not necessarily directly related to maternal care . This method is promising because it helps to prevent maternal death through indirect means such as increased knowledge of contraception and family planning that can prevent unwanted or dangerous pregnancies in the first place. One concern in this method of funding is that cultural hesitance to implement family planning or sex education could slow down the progress of the operation and prevent much needed and less controversial programs combatting maternal mortality from being achieved. The final group advocates for funding toward the entire health care system without special regard for reproductive health care or maternal mortality. Advocates of this policy emphasize that the entire health care system needs to be built up to create

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truly functional societies that will be able to accomplish reproductive health care goals. By building up the entire health care community the chances that a woman will have access to maternal is improved while the rest of the system is upgraded alongside reproductive health care. The danger in this policy is that reproductive health care will not receive enough of the funding or progress will be slowed by the need to improve the entire system at once rather than focusing on a single area of concern. (For an article offering another suggestion â&#x20AC;&#x201C; public sector and private sector partnerships â&#x20AC;&#x201C; check here: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ leslie-mancuso-phd-rn-faan/promoting-publicprivate-p_b_2511327.html) In many countries women prefer to give birth at home or may not have an easy way to get to a clinic in time to give birth. In such areas it has been proposed that increasing the number of people trained to attend home births is a viable alternative to trained staff in clinics. Proponents of this system emphasize that it increases the number of trained workers who are able to provide adequate care in rural areas and also responds to the requests of women who desire home care. However, opponents of this proposal cite the rather basic sanitary

conditions and the lack of necessary supplies. Also, in-home care does not place women in easy reach of emergency care facilities in the event that something goes wrong during the delivery. Delegates should strive to find a balance between the needs and desires of the community and the realities of maternal health care to find a solution that accounts for traditional childbirth practices while providing adequately for maternal health and safety.

Safe and Accessible Abortion Unsafe abortion procedures due to abortion bans are causing women to suffer, and in many cases die. This violation of fundamental rights is both tragic and preventable. It stems from the ban itself as well as the lack of information about access to contraceptives. Because women feel as if they are often left without a choice, especially those who are from low income families, they will try to obtain painful abdominal massages by traditional midwives or even ingest a drug containing misoprostol to induce uterine contractions. Doctors privately perform abortions in clinics, where procedures are safer compared to the induced abortions, but the price of is

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too high for many families. A 2008 study by the Guttmacher Institute estimated that 560,000 induced abortions occur each year. The World Health Organization has calculated that unsafe abortion procedures account for 20% of maternal deaths in the Philippines. In 2000, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo obstructed access to contraceptives, including an executive order in Manila city that prohibited the distribution of contraception in local health centers. This conservative take on abortion has been influenced heavily by the Roman Catholic church. In 2003, 99.1% of the population in Manila City was reported to be Catholic. The church’s influence extends both socially and politically, and is actively involved in the country’s reproductive and health policies. More recently, in August of 2012, Philippine Senator Vicente C. Sotto III has made it his goal to fight the Reproductive Rights Bill that is currently in progress in the Philippine Legislature. In the past, the same bill under different names has been rejected 5 times, the last time in 2010. This bill would introduce legalized abortifacient drugs, free contraceptive services, sterilization procedures, and mandatory sexual education. One of the most

popular Senators in the Philippines, Sotto stated the bill would “violate Philippine sovereignty, the Philippine Constitution and existing penal laws” and even “transgress[] Filipino culture and family values.” Pro-abortion groups are lobbying with millions of donated funds, including $6.6 million from UN Population Fund (2009) donated to to Planned Parenthood arm Family Planning Organization of the Philippines (FPOP), $18.4 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (1997-2008), and $8.86 million from the US Agency for International Development (2004), and $239.5 million from the World Bank (2010-2012). In response, the pro-life group Filipinos for Life (F4L) asked lawmakers to scrutinize the lobbying groups behind the Reproductive Health Bill, and said that the money donated could have been put to better use for poverty relief instead. (For a video on the abortion debate in the Philippines, check out: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=00_tQx8Zu20) In Asia, countries like Nepal are facing difficult challenges in regards to abortion as well. Though abortion was legalized in 2002, many women in poor and rural areas are restricted by the procedure’s fees, physically

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inaccessible facilities, and ignorance regarding abortion’s legalization. In the 2009 case of Lakshmi Dhikta v. Nepal, the Supreme Court of Nepal sought to change this by requiring safe and affordable abortion services and that no woman ought to be denied an abortion because she could not afford the fees.

In addition to being faced with issues regarding high risk abortions, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh also has a maternal mortality rate of 498 deaths for every 100,000 live births. The lack of affordable healthcare, maternal health policies in the state and the low quality of care contribute to Madhya Pradesh’s high maternal mortality rate. In August of 2011, the court even fined the state government for its improper response in establishing functional health facilities.

Latin America where abortion is criminalized without exception is also known for its restrictive abortion laws. Nicaragua, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and El Salvador do not even allow abortion to save the life of a pregnant woman. Besides the lack of choice these women have, the ones who are in the lower income brackets also lack access to information related to their pregnancy as well as prenatal and antenatal healthcare. This severely increases their chances for complications, miscarriages, and unsafe, illegal abortions. Brazil admits that over 90% of maternal deaths are preventable, yet still refuses to sanction measures to eliminate reproductive discrimination. In April 2010, Brazilian police charged 10,000 women with abortion related crimes and even homicide for terminating their pregnancy. The Dominican Republic does the same, even closing clinics or sending military personnel to charge patients with crimes. The lack of access to reproductive health means women often have little control over their health and the number of children they have. Because Latin America’s income distribution is highly unequal, it also has the world’s highest difference in fertility rates among women from the lowest and and highest quintile income brackets. Commission on the Status of Women 41

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In April 2010, Brazilian police charged 10,000 women with abortion related crimes and even homicide for terminating their pregnancy. The Dominican Republic does the same, even closing clinics or sending military personnel to charge patients with crimes. The lack of access to reproductive health means women often have little control over their health and the number of children they have. Because Latin Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income distribution is highly unequal, it also has the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s highest difference in fertility rates among women from the lowest and and highest quintile income brackets. Unsafe abortions plague the Latin America and Caribbean region. Around 3,700 women die every year because of the difficulty of either

obtaining a legal abortion or illegal but safe procedure. In Europe, Poland is one of the most pro-life societies in Europe. In May of 2005, 48% did not believe in abortion, with 76% of its adolescents opting for a complete ban on abortion. In June 2011, over 600,000 signatures were collected for a proposed bill to completely ban abortion. Already, there are up to 180,000 illegal abortions in Poland. Punishment for these abortions include up to 2 years in jail for only those who perform the procedures, not women who terminate their pregnancy. The 2007 European Court of Human Rights case Tysiac v. Poland found Poland in breach of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Commission on the Status of Women 42

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Rights. Since then, the Polish government has not complied with orders to improve access to legal abortion, affordable contraception, and sex education in schools. Sub-Sahara Africa is another region affected by reproductive health problems: restricted access to abortion, high need for contraception, and lack of HIV treatment and prevention. Around 68,000 women die from dangerous methods of abortion each year; 44% of these women are from Sub-Saharan Africa. Only in 1996 did the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act pass, decreasing the number of deaths from illegal abortions by over 90%. Unwanted pregnancy stems from the lack of contraceptives available. While 78% of married women from developed countries use contraception, only 23% of married women in Sub-Sahara Africa use it. HIV also affects many women in the region where women account for more than 60% of those with HIV. Sometimes, even when abortion is legal in writing it can be difficult to come by in practice. For example, under Zambian law women seeking abortions require the consent of three doctors who certify that they meet the requirements for obtaining an abortion. For many women this can prove

to be impossible. Some hospitals or clinics do not have three doctors on staff and are unable to offer abortions at all. Others cannot obtain doctorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; signatures because the doctors object on religious or moral grounds. And in some cases the simple fact of hospital overcrowding and drawn out wait times from appointments can prove to be prohibitive for women seeking to terminate a pregnancy. In these cases the law appears to be on the side of safe abortions, yet the reality of the situation provides real and incapacitating barriers for women seeking to end their pregnancies. In order to combat these problems organizations like the WHO are beginning to offer courses to reproductive health rights advocates designed to help them navigate the political realm. Such courses could be a potentially effective way to help reproductive health rights advocates to cooperate with government authorities in order to further reproductive rights.

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MUN Korea Reproductive Choice In the Middle East, North Africa, and Sub-Sahara Africa, women are often considered to be the socially inferior sex. Many have little freedom or information when choosing how to live their lives, and even less about their health and reproductive choices. In Syria, for example, a study of abused women show that 44.6% ignored contraception, 53.3% never had a cervical cancer screening, and 64.6% had experienced unwanted pregnancy. Most of these women come from families that value having sons, which often means a women will have multiple pregnancies with no way of aborting a child until a son is conceived. In the Middle East and North Africa early marriage and high teenage fertility rates have led to an increase in the rate of STI and HIV/AIDs infections. The minimum age for marriage in Iran is 13 and in Yemen, 15. Religious laws sometimes provide shortcuts, allowing marriage at an even younger age. Studies estimate that 52% of Yemeni girls are married before age 18 and 14% before age 15. More recently, the Al-Azhar Al-Sharif, the most prominent religious body in Sunni Muslim, released a manual on Muslim childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights, expressing

a need for children to mature before they can be married, showing some progress in this area. In 2004, studies showed that 56% of women surveyed faced pressures from health workers to not become pregnant. Of HIV-positive women who become sterilized it is estimated that, only 50% do so voluntarily. in 2010, 27 cases were reported of HIV-positive women encountering forced sterilization in Chile. In other countries in Latin America such as Venezuela, Guatemala, Mexico, Bolivia, Honduras, Colombia, and Paraguay, less than 50% of pregnant, HIV-positive women have any access to antiretroviral therapy for their disease. Provinces in China often lack family planning service centers. This is especially true in poor regions such as Qinghai, where less than 50 percent of local jurisdictions have reproductive health care centers. Even when health care centers are present women with access to these services fear them. These clinics are known for checking for pregnancies even when women come in with other problems; mothers found to be pregnant are often forced to have abortions. Though Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) are common,

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women forego the opportunity to obtain care for them because of due to a fear of getting in trouble. Contraception has also been a crucial issue in the Middle East and North African region because of the high need for it in many sub-Saharan countries. Very little progress has been made since 2000, and investment funding for family planning purposes has decreased since 2000. For women with no education or from low-income families, only 10% use contraception. Even in the wealthiest income bracket, still only 38% of women use contraceptives.

Sexual Education Around the world, adolescents are especially vulnerable to damages to their reproductive health. As societies have become more liberal in sexual practices the institutions have not liberalized at the same pace. This creates a deficit of information about safe reproductive health practices amongst those who need it most. Though the context differs around the world certain common factors can contribute to an improved sexual education system. Sexual education also plays an important role in Latin America where a majority of boys report

having sex before turning 15. In Jamaica, one-quarter of 7th grade girls and one-third of 7th grade boys in low-income areas believe that pregnancy is not possible if it is their first time, and barely any knew when a female was most fertile during her menstrual cycle. Of the girls who had sex before age 15 in El Salvador, only 2% of them report using any contraceptive methods. In Costa Rica and Paraguay the percentages are only slightly higher at 10% and 13% respectively. This problem is aggravated by the fact that health care providers are unwilling to provide minors with contraceptives and reproductive health information. Profamilia, an affiliate organization of Planned Parenthood that operates in Latin America, aims to “work with the Puerto Rican government to… promote sex education in the public schools.” Puerto Rican parents have complained about the immoral pamphlets of information passed out to teens, finding the explicit presentation distasteful. Though progress to implement health education programs in schools has been slow, Latin American health ministers did sign a commitment in 2008 to reduce the numbers of schools that were lacking sexual education curriculum. Such efforts

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show progress, however, statistics regarding STIs and unwanted pregnancy in teens show that more still needs to be done. The conditions of adolescents around the world vary and as such any credible solutions will also need to vary based on the culture and economic status of the area in which the program is implemented. Despite the need for variety there are a few key elements of any adolescent outreach program that have been shown to be effective in bringing sex education to adolescent populations. The most important is the availability of clinical services. It is important that adolescents have access to community clinics that are economically accessible as well as culturally acceptable for them to use. It is also important that these clinics be equipped to handle the specific reproductive health concerns of adolescents. In the developing world many sexually active girls are married and contrary to expectation are more at risk for risky sexual practices. Married adolescents are less likely to use condemns and other forms of contraception and are more likely to face early pregnancy. Married adolescents usually come from backgrounds in which they have little to no control

over their own lives and are subject to the control of their husband, parents and in-laws. The unique situation of married adolescents is an important consideration within the discussion of approaching sex education. Even when clinics exist there are oftentimes barriers that prevent adolescents from obtaining the full benefits of these services. Adolescents are generally healthy as a group and individuals may not feel compelled to make the trip to a health clinic even if they have some worries about a particular health topic. In addition, sexual health clinics are often stigmatized. Adolescents fear that if they are caught attempting to access reproductive health services they will be shamed for engaging in sexual activities. In conservative countries this can be especially damaging because the sexual practices of a young girl could have profound consequences for her future as well as her familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s honor and dignity. Finding ways to circumvent the cultural boundaries that prevent adolescents from taking advantage of the full range of health services available to them is an important aspect of this discussion. In addition to health clinics sexual education programs designed for the target group are an

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important aspect of reproductive health. It is important for communities to offer evidenced based curriculum that provides detailed information about the risks of certain sexual behaviors as well as methods of STI prevention and contraception. In a review of 83 sexual education programs around the world, including 18 in the developing world, curriculum based approaches were found to be effective in reducing risky sexual behaviors in young people. The successful programs all shared certain characteristics in the way they were developed and implemented. The characteristics of successful programs included: were formed by people from a variety of backgrounds, were designed with certain health goals and target groups in mind, created a safe social group for the participants, focused on specific health goals and provided simple ways to reach these (i.e. Condom use to prevent HIV/AIDS and STIs), used personalized teaching methods that were culturally relevant, addressed and attempted to overcome barriers to adolescent participation in the program and attempted to gain at least minimum support from relevant authorities in the community. Though these programs were successful in reducing risky sexual

behaviors the results were unfortunately limited. Typically these programs were only able to reduce risky sexual behaviors by 1/3 or less and in isolation these programs did little to reduce unwanted pregnancies or STIs. Interestingly, programs became more effective when they were implemented both in the school and in the community, with only slight adjustments to the curriculum. Methods for improving the effectiveness of these programs are important in order to reach more adolescents and to further decrease risky sexual behaviors. In some countries, cultural beliefs have led to the implementation of abstinence only sex education. These programs are meant to give students a very basic level of reproductive knowledge while advocating that students wait to engage in sexual activity until they are married. These programs are mainly meant to appease those who worry that sex education increases an adolescentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s willingness to engage in sexual activity. However, studies have shown that contraception based sex education does not encourage children to have sex earlier than they otherwise would. It simply prepares them to make healthy decisions should they make the decision to have sex. Studies have shown that when students who

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have only had abstinence education are less likely to use condoms when they do engage in sexual behaviors and are therefore at a much greater risk of unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS.

because of its effectiveness in preventing the transmission of disease. Though the condom is an adequate method of birth control it has a relatively high failure rate compared to other contraceptives. Oftentimes condoms become the preferred method because of the emphasis on disease prevention as well as their widespread availability and low cost. The danger in this is that women will forgo other, more effective methods of contraception, because condoms are most familiar to them. Instead, a dual contraceptive strategy may be the best form of prevention. Condoms can be used to prevent sexually transmitted diseases while more effective contraceptives can be used to prevent pregnancy.

Part of the problem in current sex education programs is the emphasis on HIV/AIDS and STI prevention. When preventing sexually transmitted infections is the main focus health educators are likely to emphasize condom use

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MUN Korea Goals for the Committee Throughout the debate delegates should attempt to balance the needs of women around the world with the cultural and political implications of reproductive health policy in societies around the world. Reproductive health policy has wide ranging implications for the rights of women as well as for the success of a community and country as a whole. With access to family planning and female controlled contraception comes greater freedom and an enhanced ability to control their own future. This is vitally important for women in the developing world who are struggling to empower themselves and to lift their families out of poverty. Delegates are encouraged to pursue policies that will address the complicated issues of reproductive health. Delegates should not limit themselves to things that have been done before or policies that have proved to be only mildly effective when implemented. Instead, delegates should consider what else can be done and how successful policies can be applied in differing cultural contexts. Reproductive health rights are a large and complicated topic and solutions are unlikely to be easy or simple.

Instead, delegates are encouraged to take a nuanced approach to the issue and try to find policies that will bring reproductive health rights to those who need them most.

Bloc Positions North America and Europe: European and North American countries are often seen as leaders in making contraception and reproductive health services available to their citizens and in many areas they have succeeded in providing adequate care. Despite these positive achievements these countries still have much room for improvement. In some European countries access to birth control is limited by health insurance policies that make it difficult for women to access affordable contraceptive coverage. In these countries the reproductive health care system isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t developed enough to ensure care for all women. For example, in Slovakia drugs used only to prevent pregnancy are known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;lifestyle-drugsâ&#x20AC;? as a result are banned from coverage under public health insurance. The United States still faces significant problems in the implementation of universal access to reproductive health services. This became

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abundantly clear when women’s health rights became a central issue in the 2012 presidential election. In the United States poor women, who are mostly Black-American or Latina, face restricted access to sex education, contraceptives and safe abortion. The US government has allowed many barriers to reproductive health care to remain in its laws. For example, pharmacists and other health care providers are allowed to arbitrarily deny contraceptives to certain customers based on their own moral or religious beliefs. In addition, access to emergency contraception is restricted in some areas and can be difficult to come by, especially in rural or low-income areas. In some areas schools have maintained abstinence-only sex education. The predominant problem in current US reproductive health policies is the great racial disparity in access to health care. Maternal mortality rates for African-American women in the US are four times that of white women. Additionally, black babies born in the US are 2.5 times more likely to die than white babies and Native American babies are 50% more likely to die. More than 50% of the Latina population lacks health insurance and unsurprisingly Latina women are least likely to use birth

control. This has led to a high rate of unintended pregnancy in the Hispanic population and while teen pregnancy rates have dropped in the US, the rate of teen pregnancy has remained high and stable amongst the Hispanic-American population. Middle East and Africa: In the Middle East and much of Africa traditional values tend to compete with women’s rights. In a large portion of this region, Islam is the dominant religion. To Westerners Islam is perceived as being counter to women’s rights, especially regarding their reproductive health. Despite this perception Islam and the implementation of its tenets varies widely across the world. There are many factors besides Islam that contribute to the treatment of women and their access to sound reproductive health care. In many of these countries Islamic law coexists alongside secular laws and is only one of the cultural and political factors affecting women’s health and status in the region. In most MENA countries abortion is allowed in cases in which the life of the mother is at risk. In Turkey and Tunisia abortion is legal until the end of the first trimester, regardless of the reason for the abortion or the

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marital status of the pregnant woman. Despite these permissive laws abortion remains a taboo subject and is heavily stigmatized throughout the region. In this case, the conservatism of the populace exceeds that of the government hindering progress toward women’s reproductive rights. In addition, traditionally a woman’s life is valued less than that of a man’s and therefore maternal health may not be considered as important as the need to produce more sons. In addition, women are often see as a reflection of the family’s and are expected to remain virgins until marriage in order to protect the family’s reputation and her chance of marriage. This emphasis on sexual purity can lead to the stigmatization of sexual health services because girls fear the dire consequences of being suspected of having had sex outside of marriage. Latin America: Latin America is far from achieving universal access to reproductive health support. Approximately 9200 maternal deaths and 110,000 infant deaths occur in the region each year. Additionally, due to the illegality of abortion and the high rate of unwanted pregnancy Latin America is home to one of the highest rates of

unsafe abortion in the world. Each year approximately 2,000 women die from abortion related complications each year. Many of these women are under the age of 24 . Adolescent reproductive health is of particular concern in the region due to certain trends in adolescent behavior. After sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America has the highest rate of adolescent motherhood. It is currently estimated that 30-50% of sexually active women unmarried women between the ages of 15 and 24 are not using any type of contraception. Oftentimes legal policies in the country deny the reality of teen sexual habits. In some cases, teen sex, even when consensual is criminalized leading teens to fear steep consequences if they seek access to contraceptives or other reproductive services. The situation in Latin America is further complicated by the strong influence of the Catholic Church in public policy. The church has been heavily involved in Latin American society for centuries and oftentimes reproductive health services are stigmatized due to church influence.

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Asia: China has faced an onslaught of economic and cultural changes in the past few decades. The conservative culture that once shrouded the country is slowly dissipating, and premarital sex is on the rise. In a 2012 survey, 71.4% of people surveyed indicated that they had sex before marriage while only 24.6% disapproved of the practice. This is a major change from the results of the 1989 survey which found that only 15% of participants said they had engaged in premarital sex. The World Women’s conference in Beijing in 1995 sped along the process of valuing women’s health rights and reproductive health knowledge; however, reproductive health care has continued to be focused on married couples. The new culture changes have not impacted the health sector yet. Given the high rates of abortion it seems more teenage girls are getting pregnant due to a lack of sex education. In the Shanghai 411 Hospital, the majority of teens getting abortions are 14 and 15 years old. In fact, surveys show that only 9.1% of the sources for sexual knowledge in China are from school, and even less – 1.7% - are from parental guidance. A study in 2009 showed that more than 50% of Chinese adolescents use no contraception

during their first sexual encounter. China is slowly trying to implement much needed sexual education programs, even in primary schools, though criticisms from parents and the more conservative older generation have been heavy. Culturally speaking, many Southeast Asian countries view sexual and reproductive health information as a vice to their people. Education and services are seen as unneeded and morally repugnant. However, a number of women, especially those from lower socio-economic statuses, are susceptible to becoming prostitutes, making HIV/AIDs and other STIs a grave reality for them. The lack of sexual and reproductive health education is a major problem. In fact, only 5 percent of married girls in Bangladesh, India, and Indonesia between ages 1519 know that condoms prevent HIV while only 9 percent in the Philippines do. Still, even though programs such as the Reproductive Health Program in Cambodia exist, not all regions of the country have the same level of education available. For example, areas like Khmer Rouge limit access causing women in this region to severely lack much-needed reproductive health knowledge. Commission on the Status of Women 52

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Questions to Consider Keep in mind these questions: • Exactly what ought to be the confines of the definition “reproductive health rights”? How do we place a limit on rights that should be included in this definition? • What are the basic reproductive rights that women deserve to have? Which policies should be universally accepted and attained? • Which policies should rely more on the country’s citizens or leaders to decide? Are these less important rights, or those that are harder to reach a consensus on? • What policies does the CSW recommend given the history of the fight for women’s reproductive rights? • Which countries would disagree with these policy recommendations, and how can the CSW work to solve conflicts between countries? • Is there a global effort that could be made to help ensure the reproductive rights of women? • How should abortion regulated in a country with a large community of dissenters? • What is the best way to guarantee a standardized health education plan for all participating countries?

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Role of the Committee The Commission on the Status of Women is a policy-making body focused on identifying the challenges that face women around the world and finding solutions to these problems through policies that advance the rights of women worldwide. The CSW encourages its members to determine the most pressing issues regarding reproductive health and sex trafficking and to recommend solutions or policies these problems. These solutions may include local policy changes or a united international policy effort. Members of the commission should focus on: 1. Identification of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s struggles in regards to these issues both in specific regions and internationally as a whole. 2. Establish guidelines for policies that would work to relieve women of their struggles. 3. Partake in finding cohesive and agreeable solutions through policy changes or suggestions for greater efforts by separate organizational entities. Since its establishment, the CSW has successfully advocated for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights and promoted policy measures that many countries have cooperated with. To continue with this success, participants must carefully define and recommend approaches to solving problems in a collaborative manner.

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Structure of the Committee The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) is a functional commission of the United Nations Economic and Social Counsel (ECOSOC), with forty-five Member States of the United Nations serving as members of the Commission on a rotating basis. One representative from each of the 45 Member States serve based on the following geographical distribution: thirteen from Africa; eleven from Asia; nine from Latin America and Caribbean; eight from Western Europe and other States, and four from Eastern Europe. The CSW does not limit participation to states only; other parties, such as NGOs and non-member states may attend caucuses and panels, though only the 45 aforementioned representatives may vote. Debate will follow the standard rules of parliamentary procedure – the Speaker’s List, moderated and unmoderated caucuses, and suspensions of the rules will be entertained as appropriate. In lieu of resolutions, the CSW produces “agreed conclusions.” While similar in structure to a resolution, agreed conclusions are presented only as recommendations. As in any committee, it is important that delegates understand the limitations on the Commission’s powers when drafting these documents.

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Glossary • Protocol – In the UN a protocol is used for matters that are less formal that those that require treaties or conventions. Protocols are usually added to existent treaties or conventions and may be optional. Protocols can also be used to amend previous treaties. • Repatriation – Repatriation is the process of returning to one’s home country and reestablishing a life there. Here it refers to the process of returning a trafficking victim to their home country with necessary assistance from the government or NGOs in the country they were trafficked to. • Social auditing - Social auditing is a practice in which companies, particularly those in the apparel industry, allow internal or external parties to review company practices, including safety and labor standards. • Population pyramid – The term population pyramid refers to a graphic representation of population used to show the age distribution of a population. Typically, young people make up the largest age group and mortality rates increase by age, creating the pyramid shape of the distribution. • Kafala – A system popular in the Arab Gulf States that requires all unskilled migrant workers to have a sponsor in the host country. The kafala system is meant to regulate the population of migrant workers in the Gulf States. • Kafeel – The official title of the sponsor/employer under the kafala system. This sponsor is usually their employer and is largely responsible for controlling the whereabouts and living situation of the worker while they remain in the host country.

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• Antenatal/Prenatal – The period during pregnancy and before birth. • Perinatal – The period of time, usually limited to a number of weeks, immediately preceding and following birth. • Postpartum – The period that follows childbirth. • Contraceptives – For the purposes of this discussion contraceptives will include all medications and devices that contribute to pregnancy prevention. This includes hormonal methods such as the estrogen and progesterone pills or the birth control implant, both chemical and hormonal intrauterine devices, condoms, hormonal shots and patches, and emergency contraception (such as the morning after pill). For a more complete list of the different types of birth control please follow either of these links: http://www.americanpregnancy.org/preventingpregnancy/overviewtypesbirthcontrol.html, http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control-4211.htm) • Neonatal – The term neonatal is applied to all things related to the care and special needs of newborn babies. • Misoprostol – Misoprostol is a drug used to treat a number of conditions that can also be used to induce abortion when taken early in pregnancy. Misoprostol can be safely used as an abortifacient when combined with other drugs but when taken illegally alone the side effects can be very dangerous for patients.

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Suggestions for Further Research • Belse, Patrick. “Forced Labor and Human rafficking: Estimating the Profits” (Working Paper). International Labour Office, March 1, 2005. • Hughes, Donna, Laura Joy Sporcic, Nadine Mendelsohn, and Vanessa Chirgwin. The Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation, Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 1999. • Kristof, Nicholas D. “The 21st-Century Slave Trade.” The New York Times, April 22, 2007. • Skinner, E. Benjamin. A Crime So Monstrous: A Shocking Exposé of Modern-day Sex Slavery, Human Trafficking and Urban Child Markets. N.p.: Mainstream, 2008. • U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report 2012, 2012. • Not for Sale Campaign Website: https://secure.notforsalecampaign.org/about/ slavery/#rs_1 • Global Freedom Center Website: http://globalfreedomcenter.org/GFC/index • Trafficking in Persons Reports can be found at: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/ • More information regarding the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and its Associated Protocols can be found here: http://www.unodc. org/unodc/treaties/CTOC/index.html • Reichenbach, Laura, and Mindy Jane Roseman. Reproductive Health and Human Rights: The Way Forward. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.

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• “Reproductive Rights: Advancing Human Rights: UNFPA.” UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. http://www.unfpa.org/rights/rights.htm. • “Reproductive rights approach to reproductive health in developing countries.” National Center for Biotechnology Information. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC3241939/. • “Health Care & Reproductive Rights | National Women’s Law Center.” National Women’s Law Center. http://www.nwlc.org/repro. • “International human rights and women’... [Stud Fam Plann. 1993 Mar-Apr] PubMed - NCBI.” National Center for Biotechnology Information. http://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8511808. • Two part documentary regarding unsafe abortions (set in the Philippines) produced by the Likaan center: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qUgZSBc_asc and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HgKB_Z8p-DI • International Family Planning Perspectives (Journal available online) Publication covering specific topics in reproductive health on a quarterly basis. • Center For Reproductive Rights – Provides regional information related to specific aspects of the current reproductive rights debate. http://reproductiverights.org/ • “Women’s Health, Sexual and Reproductive Rights | Amnesty International USA.” Amnesty International USA | Protect Human Rights. http://www.amnestyusa.org/ourwork/issues/women-s-rights/women-s-health-sexual-and-reproductive-rights.

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Notes UN Women. “Commission on the Status of Women-Follow-up to Beijing and Beijing + 5.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/. United Nations. “Short History of the Commission on the Status of Women.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/CSW60YRS/CSWbriefhistory.pdf. “Convention on the Nationality of Married Women.” Twin Cities - University of Minnesota. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/w1cnmw.html. “Choike - 1st World Conference on Women, Mexico 1975.” Choike: A Portal on Southern Civil Societies - Southern NGO Web Portal. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.choike.org/nuevo_eng/informes/1453.html. “Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/. Mu, Tuoyang. “Human Rights, An Endangered Concept: The United Nations and the Advancement of Human Rights.” The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.una-westtriangle.org/hrc/Women’s%20Human%20Rights%20Handout.pdf. “International Women’s Health Coalition - Commission on the Status of Women.” International Women’s Health Coalition - Home. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.iwhc.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3554&Item id=1232. “The NGO Committee on the Status of Women, NY.” NGO/CSW/NY. Accessed May 28, 2012. http://www.ngocsw.org/. Masci, David, “Human Trafficking and Slavery,” The CQ Researcher 14-12 (2004): 275. Masci, David, “Human Trafficking and Slavery,” The CQ Researcher 14-12 (2004): 275. Cree, V.E. “Confront Sex Trafficking:Lessons from History”. International Social Work (2008): 763-776 The Protection Project. Accessed August 16, 2012. <http://www.protectionproject.org>. The Protection Project. Accessed August 16, 2012. <http://www.protectionproject.org>. Derks, Annuska, “Combating Trafficking in South-East Asia,” IOM Migration Research Series, http://www.unesco.org/ most/migration/ctsea.pdf, 9. United Nations General Assembly, PROTOCOL TO PREVENT, SUPPRESS AND PUNISH TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS, ESPECIALLY WOMEN AND CHILDREN, SUPPLEMENTING THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION AGAINST TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME (2000). <http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/Conventions/dcatoc/ final_documents_2/convention_%20traff_eng.pdf> UN General Assembly, Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949, A/RES/317 <http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38e23.html> UN General Assembly, Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949, A/RES/317 <http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38e23.html> UN General Assembly, Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949, A/RES/317 <http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38e23.html> UN General Assembly, Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949, A/RES/317 <http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38e23.html> UN General Assembly, Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 2 December 1949, A/RES/317 <http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38e23.html> Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, 2000, http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/Conventions/dcatoc/final_documents_2/convention_%20traff_eng.pdf, 2-5.

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MIKO, FRANCIS T., AND GRACE PARK. “TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN: THE US AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE.” CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 2003. MIKO, FRANCIS T., AND GRACE PARK. “TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN: THE US AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE.” CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 2003. STOECKER, SALLY. “THE RISE IN HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND THE ROLE OF ORGANIZED CRIME.”DEMOKRATIZATSIYA 8, NO. 1 (2000): 129-144. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. MIKO, FRANCIS T., AND GRACE PARK. “TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN: THE US AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE.” CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 2003. MIKO, FRANCIS T., AND GRACE PARK. “TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN: THE US AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE.” CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 2003. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears to be Worsening,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2009, http:// www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html, 1. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears to be Worsening,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2009, http:// www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html, 1. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears to be Worsening,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2009, http:// www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html, 1. Larson, Jacqueline Joudo, “Migration and People Trafficking in Southeast Asia,” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 401 (2010), 2. VÄYRYNEN, RAIMO. ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND ORGANIZED CRIME. NO. 2003/72. WIDER DISCUSSION PAPERS//WORLD INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS (UNU-WIDER), 2003. VÄYRYNEN, RAIMO. ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND ORGANIZED CRIME. NO. 2003/72. WIDER DISCUSSION PAPERS//WORLD INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS (UNU-WIDER), 2003. FEINGOLD, DAVID, “THINK AGAIN: HUMAN TRAFFICKING,” FOREIGN POLICY, 30 AUGUST 2005, HTTP:// WWW.FOREIGNPOLICY.COM/ARTICLES/2005/08/30/THINK_AGAIN_HUMAN_TRAFFICKING?PAGE=FULL. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears to be Worsening,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2009, http:// www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html, 1. Feingold, David, “Think Again: Human Trafficking,” Foreign Policy, 30 August 2005, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/ articles/2005/08/30/think_again_human_trafficking?page=full. Feingold, David, “Think Again: Human Trafficking,” Foreign Policy, 30 August 2005, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/ articles/2005/08/30/think_again_human_trafficking?page=full. Feingold, David, “Think Again: Human Trafficking,” Foreign Policy, 30 August 2005, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/ articles/2005/08/30/think_again_human_trafficking?page=full. “UN Says Human Trafficking Appears to be Worsening,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2009, http:// www.rferl.org/content/UN_Says_Human_Trafficking_Appears_To_Be_Worsening_/1492561.html, 1. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. GALLAGHER, ANNE. “TRAFFICKING, SMUGGLING AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRICKS AND TREATIES.”FORCED MIGRATION REVIEW 12, NO. 25 (2002): 8-36. Larson, Jacqueline Joudo. “Migration and People Trafficking in Southeast Asia.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 401 (2010): 1-6.

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Larson, Jacqueline Joudo. “Migration and People Trafficking in Southeast Asia.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 401 (2010): 1-6. Larson, Jacqueline Joudo. “Migration and People Trafficking in Southeast Asia.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 401 (2010): 1-6. Graham, Euan, “Transnational Crime in the Fishing Industry: Asia’s Problem?,” RSIS Commentaries, 25 April 2011, http://www.rsis.edu.sg/publications/Perspective/RSIS0622011.pdf, 2. Graham, Euan, “Transnational Crime in the Fishing Industry: Asia’s Problem?,” RSIS Commentaries, 25 April 2011, http://www.rsis.edu.sg/publications/Perspective/RSIS0622011.pdf, 2. Kloer, Amanda, “Is ASEAN Faling to Protect Asian Children,” 18 June 2010, http://news.change.org/stories/is-aseanfailing-to-protect-asian-children. Kloer, Amanda, “Is ASEAN Faling to Protect Asian Children,” 18 June 2010, http://news.change.org/stories/is-aseanfailing-to-protect-asian-children. FEINGOLD, DAVID, “THINK AGAIN: HUMAN TRAFFICKING,” FOREIGN POLICY, 30 AUGUST 2005, HTTP:// WWW.FOREIGNPOLICY.COM/ARTICLES/2005/08/30/THINK_AGAIN_HUMAN_TRAFFICKING?PAGE=FULL. FEINGOLD, DAVID, “THINK AGAIN: HUMAN TRAFFICKING,” FOREIGN POLICY, 30 AUGUST 2005, HTTP:// WWW.FOREIGNPOLICY.COM/ARTICLES/2005/08/30/THINK_AGAIN_HUMAN_TRAFFICKING?PAGE=FULL. Sreeharsha, Kavitha. “It’s Human Trafficking Prevention Month, But Is Awareness Enough?” The Huffington Post. January 16, 2013. Accessed January 21, 2013. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kavitha-sreeharsha/human-trafficking-modern-slavery_b_2481901.html. Larson, Jacqueline Joudo. “Migration and People Trafficking in Southeast Asia.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 401 (2010): 1-6. Schreiber, Penny, “Activist Combats Sex Trafficking,” The University Record, 11 February 2008, http://ur.umich. edu/0708/Feb11_08/10.shtml. Burnett, Bob, “Global Sex Trafficking,” Huffington Post, 24 October 2005, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bob-burnett/ global-sex-trafficking_b_9397.html. Derks, Annuska. “Combating Trafficking in South-East Asia.” IOM Migration Research Series. http://www.unesco.org/ most/migration/ctsea.pdf, 9. HUDA, SIGMA. “SEX TRAFFICKING IN SOUTH ASIA.” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GYNECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS 94, NO. 3 (2006): 374-381. HUDA, SIGMA. “SEX TRAFFICKING IN SOUTH ASIA.” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GYNECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS 94, NO. 3 (2006): 374-381. “Slavery â “ Not For Sale: End Human Trafficking and Slavery.” Slavery â “ Not For Sale: End Human Trafficking and Slavery. Accessed January 21, 2013. https://secure.notforsalecampaign.org/about/slavery/. “Slavery â “ Not For Sale: End Human Trafficking and Slavery.” Slavery â “ Not For Sale: End Human Trafficking and Slavery. Accessed January 21, 2013. https://secure.notforsalecampaign.org/about/slavery/. HUDA, SIGMA. “SEX TRAFFICKING IN SOUTH ASIA.” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GYNECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS 94, NO. 3 (2006): 374-381. FEINGOLD, DAVID, “THINK AGAIN: HUMAN TRAFFICKING,” FOREIGN POLICY, 30 AUGUST 2005, HTTP:// WWW.FOREIGNPOLICY.COM/ARTICLES/2005/08/30/THINK_AGAIN_HUMAN_TRAFFICKING?PAGE=FULL. “ASEAN-Make Human Rights a Regional Concern,” 25 February 2009, http://reliefweb.int/node/299117. HT1 LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16.

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GLOBAL FREEDOM CENTER. SEX TRAFFICKING: AFTER THE RAID. GLOBAL FREEDOM CENTER, 2012. ACCESSED JANUARY 23, 2013. HTTP://GLOBALFREEDOMCENTER.ORG/SEXTRAFFICKINGAFTERTHERAID.PDF. U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services. “TRAFFICKING VICTIMS PROTECTION ACT OF 2000 FACT SHEET.” October 2000. “Declarations, Reservations, and Objections to CEDAW.” Division for the Advancement of Women:Department of Economic and Social Affairs. <www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reservations-country.htm>. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf, 8. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf, 9. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf, 9. MIKO, FRANCIS T., AND GRACE PARK. “TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN: THE US AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE.” CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 2003. “ASEAN Signs Declaration Against Trafficking in Persons Particularly Women and Children,” humantrafficking.org, 29 November 2004, http://www.humantrafficking.org/updates/126, 1. “ASEAN Signs Declaration Against Trafficking in Persons Particularly Women and Children,” humantrafficking.org, 29 November 2004, http://www.humantrafficking.org/updates/126, 1. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf,10. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf,10. Cameron, Sally, “Trafficking and Related Labor Exploitation in the ASEAN Region,” International Council on Social Welfare, November 2007, “http://www.icsw.org/doc/Trafficking%20Labour%20Exploitation%20in%20ASEAN%2007. pdf, 10.. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. LACZKO, FRANK. “DATA AND RESEARCH ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING.” INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 43, NO. 1‐2 (2005): 5-16. TRUONG, THANH-DAM, AND MARIA BELEN ANGELES. “SEARCHING FOR BEST PRACTICES TO COUNTER HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN AFRICA: A FOCUS ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN.” PARIS: UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2005). TRUONG, THANH-DAM, AND MARIA BELEN ANGELES. “SEARCHING FOR BEST PRACTICES TO COUNTER HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN AFRICA: A FOCUS ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN.” PARIS: UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (2005). “WHO | Reproductive health.” http://www.who.int/topics/reproductive_health/en/. “WHO | About us.” Accessed September 10, 2012. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/about_us/en/index.html. Collier, Aine. The Humble Little Condom: A History. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2007.

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“Ireland’s Sexual and Reproductive Health History | Irish Family Planning Association.” Irish Family Planning Association. Accessed September 10, 2012. http://www.ifpa.ie/Media-Info/History-of-Sexual-Health-in-Ireland. “WHO | Contraceptive Prevalence.” Accessed September 12, 2012. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/monitoring/contraceptive_prevalence.pdf. “Annual Report of the Tariff Commission for the 2005-06.” Tariff Commission, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India. Accessed September 12, 2012. http://tc.nic.in/areports/annualreport-2005-06.pdf. “Ibis Reproductive Health.” Ibis Reproductive Health. Accessed September 11, 2012. http://www.ibisreproductivehealth. org/where/unitedstates.cfm. “Surveillance SummaryAbortion Surveillance: Preliminary Analysis, 1979-1980 --United States.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed September 10, 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001243.htm. “Abortion Surveillance --- United States, 2007.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed September 11, 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6001a1.htm?s_cid=ss6001a1_w. “RH Reality Check: Nepal Advances As U.S. Backslides on Women’s Rights | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed September 12, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/feature/rh-reality-check-nepal-advances-as-us-backslides-on-womens-rights. “Reproductive Rights in Nepal.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed September 13, 2012. http://reproductiverights. org/sites/crr.civicactions.net/files/documents/RR%20in%20Nepal%20Factsheet%20FINAL.pdf UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS REPORT. REPORT. NEW YORK: UNITED NATIONS, 2012. ACCESSED JANUARY 23, 2013. HTTP://WWW.UN.ORG/MILLENNIUMGOALS/PDF/MDG%20 REPORT%202012.PDF. “India and Poland Urged to Improve Reproductive Rights | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. http://reproductiverights.org/en/press-room/india-and-poland-urged-to-improve-reproductive-rights. “Progress on Accountability for Maternal Health Care and Mortality in Bihar, India | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed August 20, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/press-room/progress-on-accountability-for-maternal-health-care-and-mortality-in-bihar-india. Sunil, T.S., and Vijayan Pillai. “Women’s Reproductive Health in Yemen.” Cambria Press. Accessed August 8, 2012. http:// www.cambriapress.com/cambriapress.cfm?template=4&bid=361. BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103. RHR6 BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103. GLASIER, ANNA, A. METIN GÜLMEZOGLU, GEORGE P. SCHMID, CLAUDIA GARCIA MORENO, AND PAUL FA VAN LOOK. “SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: A MATTER OF LIFE AND DEATH.” THE LANCET 368, NO. 9547 (2006): 1595-1607. BEARINGER, LINDA H., RENEE E. SIEVING, JANE FERGUSON, AND VINIT SHARMA. “GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS: PATTERNS, PREVENTION, AND POTENTIAL.” THE LANCET 369, NO. 9568 (2007): 1220-1231. BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103.

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CAMPBELL, OONA MR, AND WENDY J. GRAHAM. “STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING MATERNAL MORTALITY: GETTING ON WITH WHAT WORKS.” THE LANCET 368, NO. 9543 (2006): 1284-1299. GOODBURN, ELIZABETH, AND OONA CAMPBELL. “REDUCING MATERNAL MORTALITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: SECTOR-WIDE APPROACHES MAY BE THE KEY.” BMJ 322, NO. 7291 (2001): 917-920. GOODBURN, ELIZABETH, AND OONA CAMPBELL. “REDUCING MATERNAL MORTALITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: SECTOR-WIDE APPROACHES MAY BE THE KEY.” BMJ 322, NO. 7291 (2001): 917-920. BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103. GOODBURN, ELIZABETH, AND OONA CAMPBELL. “REDUCING MATERNAL MORTALITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: SECTOR-WIDE APPROACHES MAY BE THE KEY.” BMJ 322, NO. 7291 (2001): 917-920. CAMPBELL, OONA MR, AND WENDY J. GRAHAM. “STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING MATERNAL MORTALITY: GETTING ON WITH WHAT WORKS.” THE LANCET 368, NO. 9543 (2006): 1284-1299. “Choike - Sexual and reproductive rights.” Choike: A Portal on Southern Civil Societies - Southern NGO Web Portal. Accessed August 8, 2012. http://www.choike.org/2009/eng/informes/1197.html. Conde, Carlos H. “Philippines abortion crisis - The New York Times.” The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. Accessed August 10, 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/world/asia/15iht-phils.html. “PHILIPPINES: Illegal abortions - the risks and the misery.” IRIN Asia | humanitarian news and analysis. Accessed August 8, 2012. http://www.irinnews.org/Report/84021/PHILIPPINES-Illegal-abortions-the-risks-and-the-misery. “Forsaken Lives:The Harmful Impact of the Philippine Criminal Abortion Ban | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed August 6, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/forsakenlives. “The Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines | Helping women help themselves, their families and communities —Reproductive health —Family planning —Community health.” Likhaan Center for Women’s Health (Philippines) | Helping women help themselves, their families and communities —Reproductive health —Family planning —Community health. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.likhaan.org/content/roman-catholic-church-philippines. “Philippines: Senator Denounces Global Abortion Lobby | LifeNews.com.” LifeNews.com - The Pro-Life News Source. Accessed August 14, 2012. http://www.lifenews.com/2012/08/23/philippines-senator-denounces-global-abortion-lobby/. “Philippines: Pro-Abortion Groups Funding RH Bill Backers | LifeNews.com.” LifeNews.com - The Pro-Life News Source. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.lifenews.com/2011/12/02/philippines-pro-abortion-groups-funding-rh-bill-backers/. “Nepal Supreme Court: Abortion Is a Right | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/feature/nepal-supreme-court-abortion-is-a-right. “Indian Activist Sues State for Neglecting Maternal Mortality | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/document/indian-activist-sues-state-for-neglecting-maternal-mortality. “Reproductive Rights of Women in Latin America and the Caribbean.” The Human Rights Brief. Accessed August 4, 2012. http://hrbrief.org/2011/03/reproductive-rights-of-women-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean/. “Gender Equality Observatory.” CEPAL. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.cepal.org/oig/noticias/noticias/3/47303/ Fact_Sheet_5_reproductive_rights_EN.pdf. “Latin America and the Caribbean.” Ibis Reproductive Health. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.ibisreproductivehealth.org/where/latin.cfm. “Polish Abortion Ban Defeated; Pro-Life Leaders Optimistic.” The New American | Home. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/europe/item/8837-polish-abortion-ban-defeated-pro-life-leaders-optimistic.

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“Poland Moves One Step Closer to Passing Abortion Law | Medindia.” Medindia - Medical/Health Website. Accessed August 6, 2012. http://www.medindia.net/news/Poland-Moves-One-Step-Closer-to-Passing-Abortion-Law-87174-1.htm. “India and Poland Urged to Improve Reproductive Rights | Center for Reproductive Rights.” Center for Reproductive Rights. Accessed August 6, 2012. http://reproductiverights.org/en/press-room/india-and-poland-urged-to-improve-reproductive-rights. “Ibis Reproductive Health | Sub-Sahara Africa.” Ibis Reproductive Health. Accessed August 8, 2012. http://www.ibisreproductivehealth.org/where/sahara.cfm. BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103. BUSE, KENT, ADRIANE MARTIN-HILBER, NINUK WIDYANTORO, AND SARAH J. HAWKES. “MANAGEMENT OF THE POLITICS OF EVIDENCE-BASED SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH POLICY.” LANCET 368, NO. 9552 (2006): 2101-2103. “Poor reproductive health among a group of socially damaged Middle East.” Dove Medical Press - Open Access Publisher of Medical Journals. Accessed August 10, 2012. http://www.dovepress.com/poor-reproductive-health-among-a-groupof-socially-damaged-middle-east-peer-reviewed-article-IJWH. “World Bank eLibrary Reproductive Health in the Middle East and North Africa.” World Bank eLibrary home. Accessed August 10, 2012. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/content/book/9780821349205. “Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa - Population Reference Bureau.” Home - Population Reference Bureau. Accessed June 17, 2012. http://www.prb.org/Articles/2010/menachildmarriage.aspx. “Yemen’s Child Marriages - Middle East - News.” OnIslam.net. Accessed August 19, 2012. http://www.onislam.net/english/news/middle-east/456444-yemens-child-marriages.html. Center for Reproductive Rights. “Dignity Denied.” BlogHer | Life Well Said. Last modified October 15, 2010. Accessed June 19, 2012. http://www.blogher.com/frame.php?url=http://reproductiverights.org/en/document/dignity-denied-download-report. “Forced Sterilization: Oppressing Latin America’s Womb | BlogHer.” BlogHer | Life Well Said. Last modified November 19, 2010. Accessed June 17, 2012. http://www.blogher.com/oppressing-latin-america%E2%80%99s-womb. China’s Quest for Reproductive Health: An Interview with Yu Xuejun - Population Reference Bureau.” Home - Population Reference Bureau. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.prb.org/Articles/2001/ChinasQuestforReproductiveHealthAnInterviewwithYuXuejun.aspx. “How Universal is Access to Reproductive Health?.” UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2010/universal_rh.pdf. Elizabeth Eggleston, Jean Jackson and Karen Hardee. 1999. “Sexual attitudes and behavior among young adolescents in Jamaica.” International Family Planning Perspectives 25(2):78-84 & 91. Ann K. Blanc and Ann A. Way. 1998. “Sexual behavior and contraceptive knowledge and use among adolescents in developing countries.” Studies in Family Planning 29(2):106-116. Llaguno, Magaly. “Sex Education Programs Subject Latin American Youth to Wholesale Immorality.” EWTN Global Catholic Television Network. Accessed August 7, 2012. http://www.ewtn.com/library/ISSUES/SEXLATIN.TXT. “Newsfeed : Sex Ed Implemented Slowly in Latin America.” POZ - POZ Magazine - POZ.com - HIV - AIDS - HIV AIDS. Accessed July 10, 2012. http://www.poz.com/articles/sex_ed_latin_america_slow_1_18873.shtml. BEARINGER, LINDA H., RENEE E. SIEVING, JANE FERGUSON, AND VINIT SHARMA. “GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS: PATTERNS, PREVENTION, AND POTENTIAL.” THE LANCET 369, NO. 9568 (2007): 1220-1231. BEARINGER, LINDA H., RENEE E. SIEVING, JANE FERGUSON, AND VINIT SHARMA. “GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS: PATTERNS, PREVENTION, AND POTENTIAL.” THE LANCET 369, NO. 9568 (2007): 1220-1231.

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