KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD | ISSN 2765-0626 | Volume 3 | Issue 1 | Oct. 2022 by Education Association for Software Empowerment

TABLE OF CONTENTS RESEARCH PAPERS – SCIENCE 8

Study of Computer Programming Language Translation Ahn, Hyeonji

A Study of the Arteriosclerosis Home Testing Device Development Using Time Delay of Blood Pulse Byun, Suhyun

CPT’s Antigravity Is Dark Energy Cho, Eunjae Benedict

Combating Diabetes: A Study on the Fundamental Mechanism behind the Effect of Sugar on Cellular Respiration Carried out by Saccharomyces Cerevisiae and Catabolic Pathways Related to Hyperglycemia Cho, Yezi How Does the Morphology of the Caudal Fin and the Body-to-Fin Ratio Affect the Locomotion of Fish? Chung, Sehwan (Sean) An Assessment of The Yangjaecheon River in Seoul Using Benthic Invertebrates as Indicators of Water Quality Cyhn, Jowon (Layla)

Effect of indoor laundry drying and fabric softeners on indoor PM 2.5 Ha, Jaekyun

Exploring the Relationship Between Heart Rate Variability and Stress Levels via Machine Learning Algorithms Ha, Jaimie Yoon

102

Machine Learning Model to Predict the ADHD Patient from the Text Content Jeong, Seyoon

112

Comparison of Gait Control Algorithms for Multi-legged Centipede Robots Jin, Ivonne Hahyoung

123

Analyzing Chopin Piano Works Jung, Seoeun

142

Distributional Analysis of Echinolittorina Radiata: Its Correlation to Offshore Thermal Power Plants Kim, Dohwui

157

Development of Highly Efficient Cellular Uptake Cell-Penetrating Peptide for Novel Cancer Treatment Kim, Hongji

166

Shape Orientation of a Liquid Jet Stream Launched into Mid-air Kim, Moojin

175

A Study on Blood Glucose Change Using a Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices Kim, SooBin & Han, Gio

199 208

CA2 Gene Silencing Radically Enhances Chemosensitivity in Doxorubicin-resistant Bladder Cancer Cell Model Kwon, Joonghoon Hybrid Metaverse Modeling Through Integration of the Real World and Metaverse Lee, Bright

222 232

240

The Appearance of Drug-Resistance in Candida Species Lee, Eungjay Correlation Between Particulate Matter Concentration and Distribution of Disease Progression among the Residents in Bucheon City, South Korea Lee, Julianne Alternate Approach to GAN Model for Colorization of Grayscale Images: deeper U-Net + GAN Lee, Seunghyun

250

Application of Gene Therapy for Reversing T-cell Dysfunction in Cancer Lee, SuhHyun

258

Detecting Fake Abstract Paintings via Deep Learning Algorithms: MobileNet_V3 Lim, Nahyun (Erica)

268

Utilizing Cicadae Periostracum as a Skin Balm Lim, Taekun

275

Designing an Optimal Structure for a Triphibian Vehicle Park, Jushua Sangjin & Park, Kristen

282

Exosome Encapsulation of Curcumin Blocks TNF-α and IL-2 Dependent Cytokine Storm Park, Seongwon

291

Cortical Thickness Patterns in Cognitively Normal and Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia Populations Seo, Jeong Yeon

301

Using EEG in Productivity Environment Research on Brain Science Approaches Seo, Jiye & Seo, Seungbum

308

A Study on the Effect of Comfortable Sleep Using Polysomnography (PSG) Seo, Seungbum & Seo, Jiye

315

The Divine Harmony Tung, David K.

RESEARCH PAPERS – SOCIAL SCIENCES 336

Beyond Propaganda: Art as Self-Expression in North Korea Ahn, Seojin & Kim, Yewon & Park, Eojin

355

Applying Wittkower’s Palladian Diagram to the Choson Dynasty: A Comparative Analysis of the Five Grand Palace Halls An, Eunje

380

Harnessing Hospitality and Tourism Development to Conserve Indigenous Population: The Case of Haenyeo Divers in Jeju Island Chang, Chaewon

396

Coco Chanel, the Designer Who Imbued Genderneutrality into Outfits of Chanel: The Change of Psychological Concepts of Gender Neutrality in Latest Chanel Apparels Cho, Kristen Yoonseo

409

How Can Crimes be Prevented Through Environmental Design and Art? Choi, Heeseon

422

Natural Language Processing in Gothic Literature: What types of language are used in most famous Gothic novels? Choi, Jiin

433

Security Council Resolutions, Sanctions and their Effectiveness on North Korea Choi, Minsuh

440

The Commodification of Modern Society Han, Brandon Jungwoo

446

Post-pandemic Transnational Humanitarianism and Humanitarian Empire Lite Jeong, Helen

459

The Development of Robot Automation in the Post Pandemic Era and Potential Destruction of the Manual Labor Industry Kim, Conor

467

How Food Consumption is Breaking Boundaries: The Long-Term Economic Effects of Working from Home Kim, Heeseo

470

Korean Wave Loved by Multinational Fashion and Beauty Companies Kim, Jiwon & Sung, Minjae

479

Ultra-fine dust in Korea from China Kim, Taeeun

486

Research on Netflix's Development Strategies in the Time of Rapid Growth of the OTT Industry Kim, Taehee

500

Friends Share Good Things? The Relationship Between Music and Substance Use Through Integrated Research Approaches. Lee, Kris Jung Woo

513

Education Market Opportunities for Addressing Issues of Poverty in Rural China Lee, Soojung

518 528

546

Colony Collapse Disorder: Now Arrived in South Korea? What Can We Do? Lee, Steven Sung Min How is South Korean Green New Deal Progressing So Far: Discourse and the Evaluation of Korean Green New Deal Na, Jeongheum Assessing The Effectiveness of The Container Deposit System (COS) in Republic of Korea (ROK) Oh, Jeongin

564

Korea's Strategic Choice Between the United States and China in the New Cold War Era Park, Bohyun & Park, Yoonki

570

Examining the Causal Relationship Between School Shootings and Public Interest for Gun Control Sim, Youngsung

579

Which Time of Day Is the Air Most Polluted in Jeju: Measuring Six Air Pollutants Wang, Yeeum (Hanna)

592

The Influence of Blockchain on the Art Industry: How NFT Reduces Uncertainty and Information Asymmetry in the Visual Art Market Yoon, Youngseo

RESEARCH PROPOSALS 604

Different Functions of Our Brain, Especially the Amygdala and the Prefrontal Cortex, When Trauma Occurs and How Physiotherapy Can Help in Reducing the Emotional and Psychological Pain Choi, Ann

609

Proposing Vehicle Airbags with Improved Passenger Safety Choi, David

617

Fabrication of Artificial Blood Vessels for Organ Transplantation Chung, Yehwan (Kyle)

628

MST312 as a Potential Glioblastoma Telomerase Inhibitor Jang, Hajun

634

Quantification of Cancer Radiation Therapy Responses in Aspects of Stratified Medicine Jung, Michelle

646

Device Proposal for the Rapid Treatment of Osteoporotic Spinal Fractures Jung, Selice

659

The Effectiveness of the Two Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Treatments on War Veterans: Prolonged Exposure (PE) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Kim, Aaron Junung

665

To What Extent Were Hitler’s Domestic Policies During Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 Beneficial to Women? Kim, Haeun

671

Tendency of the Brain to Purge Bad Memories Highlighted by the Usage of Social Media Kwak, Jungseo (Annie)

677

The Proposal of Contextual Learning in SNN (Spiking Neural Network) Park, Soun

684

Is Higher Social Class Linked to Improved Moral and Ethical Decision-Making? Shin, Phil Gyu

688

Designing a Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging Method for the Early Detection of Pulmonary Fibrosis Song, Minkyung (Katie)

697

Artificial Intelligence for Fair Decision Yoo, Jae Woo HJ

An investment in knowledge pays the best interest. — Benjamin Franklin

Research Papers - Science

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Study of Computer Programming Language Translation Author 1

Full Name

Ahn, Hyeonji

St. Mark’s School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: From popular languages in education such as Python, C, and Java, to other specific programming languages such as Swift, C++, and PHP, many programming languages are available to programmers. With over 10,000 different languages, with their unique advantages and disadvantages, users must implement different languages for different purposes and programs. However, as technology evolves rapidly, the abundance of programming languages may confuse programmers on what language to use. Moreover, implementing the same functionality with different programming languages is burdensome and time-consuming. Through this paper, I will examine currently available programs that can ‘translate’ code between various programming languages and how they can affect computer programming in the future. I will compare each translation method by studying how it works, how it can develop further, and how it can be introduced to the general public. Through code translation, programmers can reuse previously written code to perform the same processes on other platforms and applications in different languages. Code translators understand the functions of codes and variables through specific phrases, such as if, while, and for. Facebook’s TransCoder AI changes Python to C, and Java Language Conversion Assistant translates Java to C#. Through analysis and research on code translation, I aim to get insight into how advances in technology can further develop the existing computer science industry. Code translating AI can be used in translating older languages into newer and more efficient languages. For instance, the Commonwealth Bank of Australia changed its programming language from COBOL to Java. They could have saved thousands of dollars on development costs with a code translator. Moreover, translating technology will allow reusing their code efficiently, as they do not have to spend much time writing code with the same functions in different languages. For example, currently, companies need to code cell phone applications twice to publish for both IOS and Android phones. They do not have to allocate their resources to duplicating applications with Java and Swift when they use code translators. Overall, computer language translation will accelerate the development of computer science.

Keywords: Computer languages, Software engineering, Software Engineering Trend, High level Languages, Multiple Programming Languages

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction More than 10,000 computer programming languages exist in the world. They are all created for different reasons (e.g., running machines, making video games, and building websites). As technology advances, people have replaced old programming languages with new ones with better functionality and intelligibility. For instance, Object-C was the main coding language for Apple electronics. However, they transferred to Swift due to its speed, readability, and simplicity (Smith, 2016). The emergence of new coding languages increased the importance of programming language translators (hereafter referred to as ‘translators’). Instead of learning new languages or finding vocabulary one by one, people use Google language Translators to fasten their work process. Similarly, programmers seek ways to simplify the code language substitution process by developing translators. Despite the countless benefits, such as saving cost and time, translators also have adverse effects - for all newly introduced technology, opportunities and obstacles exist in its development. Therefore, this paper will provide strength, weakness, opportunity, and threats (SWOT) analysis of several code translators. Through analysis and deep research on translators, I aim to get insight into how the technology can further develop the existing computer science industry.

2. Study Selection There are many computer code translators already existing on the Internet. Among them, I decided to primarily select translators that change high-level language to high-level language for consistency in comparison. Translators from high-level language to low-level language focus on simplifying existing code. Conversely, translators from high-level languages to other high-level languages function for userfriendliness and compatibility. Therefore, comparing two different types of translators may distract the purpose of the paper: how technology can advance computer science by determining the strength and weaknesses of each translator. Another criterion applied to the selection is the number of outcome languages. For instance, Haxe can have 13 different computer language outputs for one code. The criterion is to study translators that can accommodate various situations.

3. SWOT Analysis for Translators 3.1. HipHop for PHP (HPHPc) Strength

Weakness Does not fully support PHP (create_function() or eval()) While it does help run time, the benefit flattens as more query is inputted.

Reduced CPU usage Reduced run time Opportunity

Threats

Using HPHPc can improve the runtime once the code is deployed. As it is open source, people can contribute to the development.

As there are three different tools, it is hard to update all three of them at the same time. It takes a long time and lots of costs (memory) to deploy the code.

Figure 1. SWOT analysis for HipHop

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) HPHPc is a translator that translates from PHP to C++. PHP is used on Facebook to gather information and present it to users. However, as PHP codes are executed while interpreting code, they have long runtimes. On the other hand, C++ is a compiled language. Unlike PHP, C++ already has compiled code and uses it as a user request. While there is a pre-runtime, each execution is faster than PHP. Therefore, Facebook decided to improve its performance by creating HPHPc. Facebook also created HPHPd (debugger) and HPHPi (interpret version) for developers. In several tests conducted by a Web application programmer, Artur Graniszewski, HPHPc proved to be faster and more efficient in memory usage by up to 25% compared to PHP.

Figure 2. Run time comparison between HPHPc and PHP (Graniszewski, A., 2011) However, as mentioned in the threats and weaknesses, the translator was hard to maintain. Therefore, Facebook developed a new tool HipHop Virtual Machine (HHVM). While it also has PHP bases, it does not translate to C++ but performs better in both run time and cost. As better technology is available, HPHPc remains an open source, but it is no longer used in web services. 3.2. Haxe Strength

Weakness

Demonstrates flexibility, as it supports JavaScript, Java, C++, C#, PHP, Python, and Lua. Need to learn Haxe to create code and compile it. The company can publish its product on multiple Programmers cannot translate existing C++, Java, platforms without a major code change. or Python code. Language-specific API libraries to provide additional features for each language.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Opportunity

Threats

As the code is based on classes and functions, for programmers with prior experience with an Development of it is slow for some languages, so object-oriented language (e.g., Java, C#), the programmers cannot expect perfect translation for syntax is easy to learn. all the languages. Active updates and communities, so it is easy to get help. Figure 3. SWOT analysis for the Haxe Haxe is more of a cross-platform programming language than a translator. When a programmer writes a function on Haxe, they can easily program for many bases, such as C++, JavaScript, Java, or PHP. Most of its usage is on games or applications, as companies want to publish their product on different systems such as IOS, Android, Windows, and Mac. Active need and development in Haxe is another benefit of using it. Many companies around the globe are using Haxe, including Prezi, Disney, and BBC (Haxe Foundation, n.d.). The company aims for a ‘Universal coding language’ by improving the quality and expanding the range of code it can translate. As the language is getting much attention from programmers, the performance and service will improve over time. However, as mentioned earlier, Haxe may not be viewed as a genuine code translator. To use Haxe, one has to learn Haxe. Different from HPHPc, where users can input PHP files that they were using, the need to learn is added as a disadvantage for Haxe. Also, selective support for a specific language can hinder the developing process for people who need access to other functions. For example, one developer using Haxe for audio development mentioned, “Haxe has a long history of not providing support for communicating to midi ports” (J. Webb, 2019). Although programmers can add extensions, providing a wider range of functionality will be helpful for many users. 3.3. J2ObjC Strength

Weakness

Almost fully supports core features of Java, including inner classes or generic types. Fulfills the needs of application developers, as they try to specialize in supporting all the features for application building.

The UI part of the IOS application cannot be translated. Codes for server and command lines are not well translated. Debugging the code can take a long time due to missing classes in the building process.

Opportunity

Threats

The translator’s code is open to the public, so the functionality of the translator keeps improving. Force workers to work on UI and other systematic Separation of UI and non-UI can help developers code separately. to develop applications that get the benefit of IOS Not an active community recently. application development, but also reduce redundancy in the development process. Figure 4. SWOT analysis for J2ObjC J2ObjC is a translator made by Google for Java to Objective-C in the IOS system. The translator is

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) designed to translate the Java code of the non-UI side of the IOS application. Not only Google, but many developers and companies are also struggling to develop IOS, Android, and web applications for their products. It is time-consuming and redundant as they need to update all three applications. Therefore, Google created a tool to translate business logic code on the client side. They “only focus on what's needed by the application developers, rather than what is needed for completeness” (Google Developers, 2021). They wanted the UI part alive for a separate developing process in Apple’s developing environment to make the application most well functioned in the system. While its ability to translate code accurately and reduce redundancy is praised, J2ObjC also has many problems in starting up. The developing community was active before, but the discussion is not updating for several months, so it would be hard for new developers to get help and set up their system. Moreover, in building the code, the translator might not include all the classes in Java due to other extensions used in XCode (Using J2ObjC for Cross-Platform Development, 2015). Nevertheless, the errors are hard to debug as developers need to read on Github and find bugs themselves. Despite its shortcomings, J2ObjC is currently used in many of Google's products – including Gmail, Google Docs, Google Drive, and Google Calendar – and some applications on the App store.

4. Discussion 4.1. Necessity of Code Translator Based on the SWOT analysis of three computer language translators, I found several benefits of code translation. First, all three code translators successfully addressed the needs of users. HPHPc decreased load on the computer; Haxe allowed the easy transition of one code into different languages and operating systems, and J2ObjC met the needs of application developers who need a smooth transition from Android app to IOS app. Most of the needs were a smooth transition between two different operating systems. Haxe and J2ObjC, especially, are currently used to create the same application that works on several platforms. Second, code translating helps the development process by simplifying redundant code. Before conducting the research, I aimed to see whether code translators can reduce the time and cost of changing code language. Haxe and J2ObjC are made for this purpose. Some functionalities were not fully implemented to support the language. Still, based on their wide use in actual applications and ongoing development, it is apparent that they are successful in helping programmers shorten the development process by reducing the redundant process of rewriting code. In the Haxe community, many people mention how good the language is for trans-compiling on HTML5, mobile, or desktop (benjamin.dasnois, 2018). Lastly, in HPHPc, I observed the unexpected benefit of improving code quality. As PHP is translated into C++, the code could accomplish the same task with reduced CPU use in less time. HPHPc is an excellent example of using the benefits of each language: coders are familiar with PHP, while C++’s runtime is shorter as it is pre-compiled. Run time is always an essential criterion for evaluating computer programs. It can not only improve user experience but also requires fewer server systems as the C++ version of code uses less CPU. Using HPHPc, Facebook could improve the performance of their application and spend less money on the server.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4.2. Cost of Code Translator While there are many benefits to code translation, there are still several shortcomings. The most significant drawback of using a code translator is that since it cannot fully translate some essential features, programmers may prefer to learn the target language and code again. This problem, however, is inevitable for all code translators, no matter what programs they choose to use for their coding process. Each language is designed for a specific purpose depending on its operation system, program use, and developers’ resources. Therefore, most of them have language-specific operations. For example, in Java, an abstract class is used to declare functions and data fields that need to be implemented by subclasses. When there is an abstract class named Shapes, it can contain variables of size, number of vertices, or color. In its subclasses, such as circle, square, and triangle, all those pieces of information and functions should be explicitly written in the value of those variables and what the function can perform. Using the abstract class, programmers can group several objects into one category. This function was developed to fulfill the language’s purpose as an object-oriented language. Therefore, the abstract class is unavailable for functional languages, such as python or PHP. This inconsistency between languages presents barriers for perfect-working code translators. Moreover, the lack of community among code translation developers is a threat to the advance of this technology. As there is no well-formatted help system, it is hard to get support for beginners, and the development speed is slow compared to that of other computer science fields – Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Computational Manufacturing. In those active communities, it is easy to get help, find documentation, and help each other. Therefore, the development speed of those fields is increasing. On the other hand, the current code translation community is isolated to separate companies, and the general public is dormant. Many open sources incorporated in the study have not been updated for a long time, leading to slow growth of the technology and fewer new programmers diving into the industry.

4.3. Future Applications Based on the analysis of three programming language translators, I drew several insights into the future of this industry. At the beginning of the research, I assumed that translation technology can simplify the process of transferring one system to another operating system that has a different computer language base. As programmers can use translators to alter their code, they do not need to go through the hassle of rewriting all the codes. Haxe and J2ObjC addressed this problem. Haxe is used for conversion between computer and mobile, and J2ObjC is used for Mac and Windows. Still, programmers need to recombine the translated files into one application. They cannot input an IOS application and get an android application as a result. Instead, programmers need to translate each file of code and reconstruct the files into a new application. Also, as there are several different types of language in one application, programmers need to find a translator for each language. For example, In J2ObjC, only non-UI Java code could be converted to Object-C code. They do not support conversion from a whole application to another application. If the technology develops more, full support for all types of code would be available. Thus, the incompatibility of operating systems would be nonexistence for programmers. Moreover, code translators would be available to improve the quality of the code. In HPHPc, a code translator is used to decrease the CPU load and the program’s run time. This is done by using the advantage of C++, pre-compiled code. When more code translators of this kind are created, it will change the paradigm of the current method of improving the functionality of code. Currently, people

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ask for code reviews from each other, catching flaws in algorithms, operators, and functions by themselves (Dusko, 2015). However, when more code-improving translators are available, code quality can improve more with both human correction and help from different languages. Lastly, fluent translation from one computer language to another will lead to the creation of a universal coding language, which (in my definition) is a computer language that can fully support all devices. Universal coding language can bring several benefits: easier learning of coding, efficient collaboration between programmers, and faster innovation. The universal coding language is regarded as an unreachable goal by many programmers. It is true that every application has a different goal, and every programmer will use different means to achieve the goal. The diverse needs in computer science have led to the creation of numerous languages. Nevertheless, code translators can bring the gap between computer languages closer. Basically, all computer languages are based on several algorithms of selection and repetition. Therefore, when incompatibility of operating systems is solved by translators, there will be fewer languages used, and finally, programmers can get one step closer to the universal coding language.

5. Conclusion From analyzing several code translators’ benefits and costs, I researched how the technology can impact the current computer science industry. While the research revealed the predicted benefit of ease in transporting platforms using code translators, it also showed that they could help improve the quality of codes. Moreover, the paper showed that code translating is facing a threat due to a lack of active communities and development. Nevertheless, the prediction is merely a prediction, and no one knows how technology will further develop in the future. Still, if code translators keep getting attention and developing actively, this will help advance computer science.

Reference benjamin.dasnois. (2018, March 26). What do you use Haxe for and why? Haxe Community; Haxe. https://community.haxe.org/t/what-do-you-use-haxe-for-and-why/475/5 Dusko, K. (2015, January 15). 10 Tips for C and C++ Performance Improvement Code Optimization. Retrieved from www.thegeekstuff.com website: https://www.thegeekstuff.com/2015/01/c-cpp- codeoptimization/ Google Developers. (2021, December 10). J2ObjC Overview. J2ObjC. https://developers.google.com/ j2objc Haxe Foundation. (n.d.). Who Uses Haxe. Retrieved July 25, 2022, from Haxe - The Cross-platform Toolkit website: https://haxe.org/use-cases/who-uses-haxe.html Graniszewski, A. (2011, April 2). HipHop for PHP: Benchmark. Mindexception: out of context. Retrieved from http:/php.webtutor.pl/en/2011/04/02/hiphop-for-php-bechmark-english-version/. Archived at https://web.archive.org/web/20110516085656/http://php.webtutor.pl/en/ 2011/04/02/hiphop-for-php-bechmark-english-version/ J. Webb, T. (2019, May 10). Strengths and Weaknesses of Using Haxe for Audio Development -

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Webb Master. Retrieved July 25, 2022, from webbmaster.com website: https://webbmaster.com/ 2019/05/advantages-disadvantages-haxe-audio Paroski, D. (2021, March 13). Speeding up PHP-based development with HHVM. Facebook. https:// www.facebook.com/notes/10158791574232200/ Smith, D. (2016, October 14). Why Apple Replaced Objective-C With Swift. Retrieved August 13, 2022, from www.linkedin.com website: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-apple-replacedobjective-c-swift-david-smith Using J2ObjC for Cross-Platform Development. (2015, April 16). Clearbridge Mobile. https:// clearbridgemobile.com/using-j2objc-for-cross-platform-development/ Zhao, H. (2021, March 13). HipHop for PHP: Move Fast. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/ notes/10158791295597200/

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

A Study of the Arteriosclerosis Home Testing Device Development Using Time Delay of Blood Pulse Author 1

Full Name

Byun, Suhyun

Shanghai American School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: As many Asian countries including Korea become aging societies, incidence of cardiovascular disease, along with its interest increases. Among the diseases, arteriosclerosis in particular causes obesity, diabetes, blood flow disorders, and myocardial infarction. Therefore, there is high demand for regular follow-up tests, but most tests are conducted in hospitals. In this study, home testing device for early detection of cardiovascular disease shall be developed and be verified for its feasibility. A device capable of measuring the time delay of the blood pulse measured on the wrist with respect to the heart was developed and used in the study. ATmega328 was implemented as the CPU of the device that can collect and analyze the ECG output from heart and pressure sensor output from wrist. Designing and fabricating extendable circuit board for ECG, force sensor and peripheral components integration were the major portion of hardware preparation. The effective way in designing digital filter and proper sampling rate was studied prior to the analysis as part of data pre-processing. The study on QRS peak of ECG signal enables to decide meaningful reference signal in measuring blood pressure time delay from heart to wrist. The algorithm finding pressure time delay was proposed using ECG and force sensor signal. The research includes the measuring system analysis to verify the effectiveness and repeatability of prototype device as gaging system. The MSA result, 23% of Gage R&R value was reduced to 7% by increasing sampling rate and software optimization. This confirm that the designed prototype device can be used as repeatable instrument in measuring blood pressure delay. Through the study, home use arteriosclerosis test device prototype was developed. The device demonstrated sufficient real-time blood pulse signal collection capability. Several needed improvements were identified for further research and commercial product. From hardware standpoint, signal to noise ratio needs to be improved by customizing the size and sensitivity of the pressure sensor to avoid unintended measuring error caused by user’s inappropriate sensor attachment. In software wise, in-depth study is needed to correlate blood pressure delay and actual arteriosclerosis clinical results

Keywords: Arteriosclerosis diagnosis, Blood pressure delay, Blood pulse delay, FSR. Electrocardiogram, ECG, Gage R&R

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Background With the development of medical technology, human life expectancy increases in proportion; thus, many Asian countries including Korea are becoming aging societies. In fact, an increased incidence rate of cardiovascular disease despite high interest in health is expected to be a consequence of a social aging phenomenon and a meat-oriented eating habit. The study focuses on arteriosclerosis, one of the leading causes of the global mortality rate. Though there is high demand for diagnosis tests, they lack accessibility for being conducted at the hospital. Therefore, it was questioned why arteriosclerosis diagnosis tests were only conducted in hospitals despite the increased purchase of household medical assistance devices. The study began with prior knowledge that blood pressure and pulse contain rich information about health yet are easily measurable, motivating to develop an early arteriosclerosis detection kit by inspecting abnormalities in blood vessel. 1.2. Research Method With the increase of accumulated waste in artery walls, resistance to blood flow increases. As pulse established in the heart takes time to reach specific arteries, increased resistance of blood flow increases the time to transfer. In other words, an increase in blood flow resistance, delay in pulse, and decrease in blood pressure in proportion to the amount of accumulated waste is expected from a hydrodynamic perspective. The study aims to develop and estimate the potential of an arteriosclerosis home testing device by recording and analyzing pulse in real-time. The developed device is composed of ATmega328 One chip controller to measure the time difference between heart rate recorded via electrocardiogram [ECG] and pulse on wrist recorded through Force Sensing Resistor [FSR]. Also, the reproducibility of the device was verified using measuring system analysis.

2. Diagnosing Arteriosclerosis 2.1. Definition of Arteriosclerosis Arteriosclerosis is a disease occurred from the buildup of plaque in the inner lining of the artery (mostly artery walls), eventually weakening and hardening arteries. With decreased blood flow in narrowed arteries, nutrients including oxygen are not effectively delivered to vital organs and tissues of the body. Arteriosclerosis is categorized according to which arteries plaque is buildup. For instance, plaque buildup in arteries of the heart is coronary artery disease [CAD], of legs, arms, or pelvis is Peripheral artery disease [PAD], and of the neck is carotid artery disease. Though the cause of arteriosclerosis is diverse, such as high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes, obesity from an unhealthy diet and smoking is one of the most common causes. Though arteriosclerosis does not immediately lead to death, the cardiovascular diseases derived from arteriosclerosis is fatal; according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], approximately 20.1% of death between March 2020 to October 2021 was due to heart diseases. Though early detection of arteriosclerosis is very difficult as symptoms do not appear immediately, doctors often request the following diagnostic tests after a survey of personal and family health history and lifestyle habits. 2.2. General Method of Diagnosis Though early detection of arteriosclerosis is very difficult as symptoms do not appear immediately, doctors often request the following diagnostic tests after survey of personal life style habits, family or personal health records, and risk factors (age, gender, ethnic group, weight, height, smoke history, personal and family health records); blood tests are also run to obtain collective information of

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) cholesterol, sugar, protein, fat, and protein prior to the diagnosis tests to evaluate general heart conditions. The following are a number of representative diagnostic tests: Pulse Wave Velocity [PWV] is one of the common parameters for analyzing arterial stiffness: stiff or less elastic aorta display low aortic pass wave velocity, indicating slow transfer of blood within the vessels. The whole region of the aortic pass wave, measured through pressure wave propagation, running from the aortic root to bifurcation is estimated from regional aorta. Though the area of measurement varies by the device, it is usually measured from the strongest carotid pulse on neck to the attached cuff at the thigh. Electrocardiogram [ECG] determines heart’s electrical activity by attaching approximately 12 electrodes to the skin of patient’s arm, chest, or legs. The data records enlargement or overwork of heart and speed or rhythm of the heartbeat. Reduced heartbeat speed is one of the risk indicators of arteriosclerosis. Medical imaging tests capture images of patient’s heart or arteries to observe problems in the heart or arteries. Commonly run tests are:  Angiographies utilize a type of x-ray, specifically taking images of arteries. X-ray captures images quicker compared to other imaging tests, but frequent exposure to the radiation enhances a risk of cancer.  Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] observes blood flow in heart or arteries and further explain results from other imaging tests. MRI images with use of magnetic fields and radio waves, enabling detailed image of the heart, but it takes long period of time: the average duration of MRI is approximately 45 minutes to an hour.  Cardiac positron emission tomography [PET] scanning is a nuclear heart scan that can specifically diagnoses “coronary microvascular disease” and general assess of blood flow in blood vessels. PET scans use tracers, a radioactive drug, to expose organ functions on the machine.  Coronary computed tomographic [CT] angiography inspects internal coronary arteries and provide more detailed picture than an ultrasound. Though CT scan capture diverse crosssections of the body, they cannot express internal activity or provide a 3-dimensional view.  Coronary calcium scan: another exemplar CT scan that measures calcium levels in coronary artery walls. Higher scores based on the calcium levels increases the chance of arteriosclerosis. Patients under 40 years old or who are pregnant do not prioritize the method due to a slight risk of cancer from slight amount of radiation. Stress tests determine heart’s condition during physical stress. Patient’s either run or take medicine to increase heartbeat, and blood pump activity are monitored by doctors. ECG are often used together to enable further specific monitoring of heart work activity. Ankle-brachial index [ABI] test monitors blood pressure using Doppler ultrasound with cuffs placed on patient’s ankle and arm. Difference of measurement between ankle and arm indicate possible risk of arteriosclerosis. Patients who have difficulty exercising cannot conduct this test as the doctor requires running to increase the heart activity.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.2. Proposed Method From a fluid dynamic standpoint of view, it is already well known through Darcy–the Weisbach equation that friction inside of fluid pipeline or change in the cross-sectional area of pipeline results in pressure losses or head reduction. If the Darcy-Weisbach equation shown in equation (1) is applied to the blood flow, we can expect increased pressure loss if the cross-sectional area of blood vessels decreases or friction in blood vessels increases due to arteriosclerosis. It can be inferred that depending on the severity of arteriosclerosis, not only pressure loss, but also the arrival time that blood pulse by heartbeat reaches to hand or leg can be delayed as well. 𝑙 ρ𝑉 △𝑝 𝑓 1 𝑑 2 where, Δp = pressure loss f = friction coefficient l = pipe length d = pipe diameter ρ = liquid density V = flow velocity It is necessary to define a reference signal before measuring the time delay until the heartbeat reaches a specific location of the body along the blood vessels. Since the pulsation of blood vessels is generated by the heart, ECG was used to measure the reference signal. An ECG signal is a meaningful electric signal describing a state of heart motion against an electrical stimulus. As described in Figure 1, the ECG signal has five peak values represented by P, Q, R, S, and T. At the moment when the QRS complex is completed, the heart contracts and generates the pressure to deliver the blood to an artery. Completing the QRS complex can be a good reference point for measuring blood pressure delay.

Figure 1. ECG signal When we collect the ECG signal and FSR signal simultaneously then we can observe the offset between 2 peaks. At the moment when the heart contracts to deliver blood to an artery, it takes some time for the pressurized blood arrives to the wrist within the vessel. Figure 2 describes the definition of blood pressure delay time(Δt) using the ECG beat signal and FSR signal attached to the wrist.

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Figure 2. Blood pressure time delay measurement It can be easily inferred that measured blood pressure delay time (Δt) will vary depending on the degree of arteriosclerosis and the blood vessel length from the heart to the wrist. Using the blood pressure delay time measurement as an indicator of the degree of arteriosclerosis is a new arteriosclerosis measurement method proposed in the study. 3. Prototype development 3.1. Hardware configuration of prototype 3.1.1. System diagram The CPU used in the prototype device was an ATmega328 built in Arduino board. As it is not suitable to directly connect the force sensor, ECG electrode and all other peripheral components to the Arduino board, a separate shield circuit board, was designed and fabricated. The sensors and customized peripheral devices were all assembled in the shield circuit board and the shield circuit board was connected to the Arduino board. The diagram of the shield board is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 described the prototype device developed in the study.

Figure 3. Shield circuit board diagram

Figure 4. Prototype device

FSR, ECG, Battery, LCD will be assembled in shield circuit board. And the shield circuit board was designed to be docked to ATmega328 board directly above the I/O pin connectors. 3.1.2. Force sensor TEKSCAN's Flexiforce product line (A201) was used to develop a prototype device. The force sensor consists of a bottom plate electrode, a spacer, and a top plate electrode. As the spacer is compressed by a force applied to the upper plate, the upper plate and the lower plate are close to each other, or a part of the electrodes are in contact with each other. In the situation, the electrical resistance varies in proportional to the amount of the applied force. It is sometimes called a force-sensitive sensor or force-

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) sensitive resistor [FSR]. Silicon is widely used as a material for a spacer, but its deformation is not perfectly linear, and formed silicon has hysteresis in deformation and restoration. Therefore, FSR made out of silicon is suitable for simple force sensing applications rather than accurate force detection.

Figure 5. FSR structure In the experiment, FSR is used to determine the time when the blood pressure in the wrist increases, so the sensitivity to detect the applied force is more important than the accuracy of the applied force. Figure 6 is an electrical diagram for improving the sensitivity of the sensor.

𝑉

𝑅 𝑅 𝐹𝑆𝑅

Figure 6. Electric schematic of FSR The maximum detection range of the FSR used was 400g, and the minimum detection range was 30g to 40g, which differed depending on the sensor. As shown in equation (2), the amount of resistance, R can influence on overall output signal range, which is V0. An improvement trial was made for better sensitivity of the FSR by adding a 20 kΩ of resistance. FSR output range was adjusted as intended. However, the sensitivity by adding resistance has not significantly improved. In theory, the sensitivity may increase if additional resistors are installed, but actual noise also increased in parallel. So, additional sensitivity adjustment was not tried. The picture shown below is the FSR sensor on the wrist before fastening the sensor with a band.

Figure 7. FSR attachment on wrist

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.1.3. ECG Sensor To collect ECG beat signal, an ECG module adapting AD8232 from Analog Device was used in the research. The most difficult problem in ECG signal collection was isolating the original pure signal from the peripheral noise. The 3 kinds of ECG signals were compared in Figure 8. All of these data sets were measured by the same sample and same time but under different environmental conditions.

Figure 8. ECG signal noise comparison While some noise components can be removed using a digital filter, there is a limit to removing noise using only a digital filter due to a delay in the overall signal. In reality, there is also difficulty in removing noise whose frequency is higher than the sampling frequency. Many trials and errors were repeated to eliminate the noise without delay in the signal. As a result, contamination of EGC electrodes, wireless signals coming from mobile phones and Bluetooth mice, and DC power supply were identified as major root causes of noise sources. By removing those factors during data collection, ECG noise could be minimized. 3.2. Data pre-processing 3.2.1. Simple moving average The raw data, especially taken from the analog signal in the electric circuit contains a lot of noise that deteriorates getting reliable analysis results. Depending on the method of eliminating noise, we can remove only noise components effectively or noise removing process distorts the original data that we are interested in. Therefore, effective noise removal, the so-called data pre-process is pretty important in signal analysis. One of the easiest ways of noise removal is known as moving average. The simple moving average [SMA] can be calculated by adding the most recent several data and then dividing the total number of samples added. The equation (3) shows the simple calculation of SMA. 𝑝 𝑝 … 𝑝 𝑆𝑀𝐴 3 𝑘 SMA can eliminate any outlier or unintended chattering signal elements as a smoothing effect. The effect will increase when we consider more samples in averaging. However, there is a limit to implementing SMA if we want to remove any specific component of the raw signal.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.2.2. Digital filter A Digital filter is an effective method to manipulate a raw signal as desired. In general, 3 kinds of digital can be considered.  Low pass filter [LPF]: Eliminates high-frequency component of raw data  High pass filter [HPF]: Eliminates low-frequency component of raw data  Band pass filter [BPF]: Eliminates any signal components whose frequency is outside of a specific frequency band. All of these filters require design parameters defining cutoff frequency or bandpass frequency. In the research, we are interested in removing high-frequency noise components. Thus, HPF was considered in prototype development and the typical pattern of the frequency response of LPF was described in Figure 9 as a Bode plot.

Figure 9. Bode plot for low pass filter Frequency response characterizes the system output when the input is a sinusoidal command. Bandwidth and stopband are the most important properties in frequency response. Bandwidth is the frequency range that system output follows command well without delay and stopband is the frequency that system response decreases compared to the input command. The starting point of the stopband, which is cutoff frequency is the important design parameter in filter design. In other words, any frequency component higher than the cutoff frequency will be removed from collected raw data using LPF. Defining cutoff frequency in designing a filter is one of the big differences compared to SMA. Butterworth LPF is one of the possible choices that can be used for one chip controller for its simple calculation algorithm. Equation (4) shows the general form of Butterworth LPF. 𝑌

𝐵

𝑋

𝐴

𝑌

Where, 𝑛 = filter order Using equation (4), 1st order LPF formula can be expressed as equation (5), and equation (6) shows 2nd order Butterworth LPF. A2, A3, B1, B2 and B3 are the coefficients decided by designed cutoff frequency. 𝑌 𝐵 𝑋 𝐵 𝑋 𝐴 𝑌 5 𝐵 𝑋 𝐵 𝑋 𝐴 𝑌 𝐴 𝑌 6 𝑌 As described in Figure 9, the removal rate of the signal which is higher than the cutoff frequency differs by filter order. The higher order can expect a better removal rate. However, a higher order filter requires more calculation and restricts higher data sampling rates from FSR and ECG electrodes. During the experiments, higher sampling rates using 1st order LPF showed better performance than higher-order LPF with low sampling rates. In developing prototype hardware, 1st order LPF was used and achieved a 333Hz of sampling rate for FSR and ECG data collection.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Figure 10 shows the comparison between raw data and SMA. The X-axis tells the actual time and Y axis means collected input from FSR measured at the wrist. SMA could remove some chattering elements from raw data. However, filtered data was not smooth enough in finding the rising edge of pressure increase.

Figure 10. Raw data vs. SMA comparison However, Butterworth LPF shows some differences from SMA. Depending on the cutoff frequency, filtered data shows a different pattern. The lower cutoff frequency showed a smoother curve. However, excessive filtering showed a delay in the dynamic signal. The trend was described in Figure 11. The sampling rate was 333Hz and the cutoff frequency used in the research was 16.65Hz for force sensor and ECG electrode input.

Figure 11. Low pass filter comparison by cutoff frequency 3.3. Blood pressure delay time calculation As explained in 2.3 using Figure 1, the reference signal is the completing QRS complex in analyzing pressure delay in the time domain. For the analysis, simultaneous data collection on FRS and ECG is required. Figure 12 describes one example of 2 signal set which was sampled together. In the graph, the amplitudes of those signals were scaled to depict the same plot. To standardize the calculating method for blood pressure delay, the research implemented the following method.

Figure 12. Definition on blood pressure delay time

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.3.1. Data sampling  By using timer interrupt embedded on ATmega328, FSR and ECG data were sampled with accurate time intervals. If the sampling rate is too high, then all needed calculations cannot be finished within the time interval. If the sampling rate is too small, then resolution in time delay measurement will be decreased and will cause inaccurate measurement. 333Hz was the actual sampling rate in the experiment.  Whenever new data is updated by a timer interrupt, the index number will be increased by one and the index number will be assigned to the sampled data set. An index is a unique number for the sampled data set.  Calculate the filtered value of 2 signals for the current sampling step. 1st order Butterworth digital LPF was used and 16.65Hz was the designed cutoff frequency. 3.3.2. S-peak finding S-peak is the signal reference when the heart is contracted and sends blood to the artery after the QRS complex.  Calculate the slope of ECG for current sampling by numerical derivative calculation.  Compare the slope of ECG data and update the maximum slope for every sampling.  Find R-peak whose ECG value is the maximum and highest slope of data change.  After finding R-peak, iterate the loop using 50 updated samples updated to search the S-peak whose ECG filtered value is minimum.  Limiting the iteration to 50 samples which are 0.15 sec. of the realistic maximum range will help reduce calculation time and search error.  Store index number when S-peak is found. 3.3.3. Rising edge finding in FSR To find the moment that blood pressure suddenly increases at the wrist, a rising edge of FRS needs to be determined as followings.  From the S-peak index, iterate the loop using 150 updated samples to search minimum FSR value.  Limiting the iteration to 150 samples which are 0.45 sec. of the realistic maximum range will help reduce calculation time and search error.  Calculate the slope of FSR for current sampling by numerical derivative calculation.  When there are 10 out of 12 samples of consecutive positive slope in FSR (continuously increasing), then consider the starting index of 12 samples as the rising edge of blood pressure increase.  Store index when FSR rising edge is found. 3.3.4. Final calculation Using found index number for S-peak and FSR rising edge, the following process can calculate blood pressure delay with respect to a heartbeat from ECG.  Calculate the “index for delay time” using the “index for S-peak – index for FSR rising edge”  1 sampling is 3 milli-second. Multiplying 3 to “index for delay” can calculate the actual time in the milli-second unit.  Repeat the calculation for 4 more QRS complexes continuously sampled from t1 to t5  The measured time delay will be influenced not only by arteriosclerosis but also by the length of the blood vessel from the heart to the wrist. Assuming the blood vessel distance from the heart to the wrist is proportional to the height of individuals, divide the measured time delay by the individual’s height in a metric unit for normalization.

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Figure 13. Blood pressure delay calculation 3.4. Measuring system analysis on prototype 3.4.1. Test method One of the measuring system analysis [MSA] methods, called Gage R&R is a general way to evaluate the gaging system.

Figure 14. Variance in measurement system As described in Figure 14, the variance of the measuring system shall be de-coupled from part-to-part variance in the overall variation analysis. The preferred result would be higher part-to-part variance and lower Gage R&R variance. Gage R&R variance consists of 2 factors. One factor is caused by the measuring operator (σop) and the other is caused by the gaging system itself, which is σgage. During the MSA, gaging variance (σgage) within total Gage R&R(σR&R) variance would be the major interest. Table 1.

Raw data for MSA To execute MSA using the Gege R&R method, 3 people joined the experiment as samples. Another 3 people mentioned as OP in the below table conducted measuring using a prototype device. OP conducted 5 repetitions for each sample. All experimental sequence was randomized to remove any

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) unintended error during the test and summarized in Table 1 3.4.2. MSA result Based on the MSA result shown in Figure 15, part-to-part variance covers 93% of the total variance, and 7% of the variance was caused by the gaging system. The gaging variance was reduced from 23% to 7% by reducing the sampling interval from 5milli-seconds to 3 milli-second. The Gage R&R variance consists of 6.3% of repeatability and 0.8% of reproducibility, which means the gage system itself caused much more variance than the operators who conducted the measurement.

Figure 15. Descriptive attributes in MSA result

Figure 16. Graphs of MSA result

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Result graphs aligned with descriptive attributes described as “%Contribution” and “%SV”. Part-topart variation covers most of the variance. Operator “A” showed a slightly larger variation than the other 2 operators by sample. Operator “C” measurement was a little higher than the other operators based on Xbar-chart. However, the overall variation caused by the operator is negligible. And no interaction was observed between operators and samples. Using the key points on descriptive attributes and graphical results, the developed prototype device in the study can be categorized as a “usable range as a gaging system”. However, 7% of “%Contribution” and 27% of “%SV” tells that the gage needs improvements to be a “Very accurate gaging system”. Within total Gage R&R variance, 6.7% of the repeatability portion would be the focus of major improvement. 4. Conclusion Arteriosclerosis became the root cause of many kinds of disease in modern society. For the importance, there is a lot of demand for diagnosing arteriosclerosis. However, diagnosing arteriosclerosis requires visiting a hospital. To demonstrate the feasibility of making a home diagnosing device for arteriosclerosis, measuring blood pressure time delay at the wrist with respect to the heartbeat is proposed. The prototype device was designed mainly using an ECG electrode, FSR sensor, and ATmega328 one-chip controller. Butterworth low pass filter was implemented as an effective method for noise removal. The algorithm finding pressure delay time was also developed. The increased sampling rate helped improve measuring repeatability. The prototype device showed 7% of Gage R&R. The result clearly told that the most of variance came from part-to-part variance, not by gaging error. Through the study, a home use arteriosclerosis test device prototype was developed. The device demonstrated sufficient real-time blood pulse signal collection capability with good repeatability. Several needed improvements were identified for further research and commercial product. From a hardware standpoint, the signal-to-noise ratio needs to be improved by customizing the sensor size and sensitivity of the FSR to avoid unintended measuring errors caused by the user’s inappropriate sensor attachment. Software-wise, an in-depth study is needed to correlate blood pressure delay and actual arteriosclerosis clinical results.

References A., J. J. E., & Haberman, W. L. (1988). Introduction to fluid mechanics (3rd ed.). Prentice-Hall. Ada, L. (2012, July 29). Force sensitive resistor (FSR). Adafruit Learning System. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://learn.adafruit.com/force-sensitive-resistor-fsr Arteriosclerosis / atherosclerosis. (2022, July 1). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arteriosclerosis-atherosclerosis/symptomscauses/syc20350569#:~:text=Atherosclerosis%20is%20the%20buildup%20of,leading%20to%20a%20blood%20 clot Arteriosclerosis symptoms, causes & treatment: Baptist Health. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.baptisthealth.com/services/heart-care/conditions/arteriosclerosis

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Atherosclerosis (arteriosclerosis). (2022, May 2). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/atherosclerosis/ Atherosclerosis - what is atherosclerosis? (2022, March 24). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/atherosclerosis Electrical4U. (2021, April 16). Butterworth Filter: What is it? (Design & Applications). Electrical4U. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.electrical4u.com/butterworth-filter/ FASTSTATS - leading causes of death. (2022, January 13). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm Kim, U. C., Kim, J. J., Park, B. U., Jo, S. S., Jeon, J. W., Lee, Y. J., Lee, S. Y., Song, M. S., & Park, S. H. (2001). Modern Statistics. Seoul: Youngjimunhwasa. Mathworks. (1996). Matlab: High-performance numeric computation and visualization software. MathWorks. Mello, R. G. T., Oliveira, L. F., & Nadal, J. (2007). Digital Butterworth filter for subtracting noise from low magnitude surface electromyogram. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 87(1), 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2007.04.004 Ogata, K. (2010). Modern Control Engineering (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. Pahwa, R., & Jialal, I. (2022, June 19). Atherosclerosis. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507799/ Rettore Neto, O., Botrel, T. A., Frizzone, J. A., & Camargo, A. P. (2014). Method for determining friction head loss along Elastic Pipes. Irrigation Science, 32(5), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-014-0431-7 Woodall, W. H., & Borror, C. M. (2007). Some relationships between Gage R&R Criteria. Quality and Reliability Engineering International, 24(1), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1002/qre.870 Zhang, X., & Jiang, S. (2021). Application of fourier transform and Butterworth filter in signal denoising. 6th International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Signal Processing (ICSP). https://doi.org/10.1109/icsp51882.2021.940

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CPT’s Antigravity Is Dark Energy Author 1

Full Name

Cho, Eunjae Benedict

Busan Logos International Christian School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: During the Big Bang, particles of both positive and negative energy were created. Scientists can measure quantum fluctuations and infer the existence of anti-gravity energy, dark matter, and dark energy. According to charge, parity, and time-reversal symmetric (CPT), the world is divided into two universes, positive and negative, depending on the direction of the Spatio-temporal vector based on the Big Bang. Our observable universe composed of positive energy forms a gravitational force, which has a time value for the speed of light, ‘c’. The other universe, composed of negative energy, has the same magnitude but different signs for light speed. In other words, the negative universe travels in the opposite direction of our universe's time, forming repulsive forces. This article will demonstrate the following assumptions: 1. Multiverses based on M-theory (the summarization of string theory from an 11-dimensional perspective) undergo CPT symmetry along their time axes; 2. Both the positive and negative universes are parallel to each other in space because both universes were caused by a single Big Bang; 3. Negative energy-matter, called dark matter, was partially transferred to the positive universe due to the instantaneous collisions of numerous dimensions during the Big Bang; 4. Since gravity is the only cosmic force that can cross both dimensions, dark energy is a phenomenon by which matter in the negative universe affects the form of gravity in the observable universe; 5. Materials in the negative universe would have ballooned at a faster rate than the expansion speed of the positive universe due to antigravity. However, the negative and positive universes are on the same time axis, so the force of repulsion goes through the pressure limit and tries to affect the positive universe where gravity overtakes everywhere. Since the only way to influence the positive universe is gravity, it is impossible to observe dark energy and dark matter from the perspective of our observable universe, but by observing gravity anomalies, it is possible to infer their existence.

Keywords: M-theory, CPT Symmetry, Dimensions, Antigravity, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Multiverse

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Our observable universe has amazing symmetry. The greatest evidence is that the laws of physics are always maintained even if the angle, direction, and position are changed in the coordinate system of the universe, and inertial coordinate symmetry. The Big Bang began at every point and all matter had only relative velocities relative to each other, so the center of the universe did not exist. This is because of the symmetry of the universe, where there are no absolute coordinates for all time and space, and only relative coordinates exist. Therefore, I write this paper on a hypothesis that can prove the existence of dark matter and dark energy without breaking the symmetry of the universe on the premise that the universe has symmetry for all mathematical rules. In the observable universe, CPT is likely to be fundamentally symmetrical, and although there are independent symmetry breaks for several elements, scientists have been convinced that the state of the universe does not voluntarily violate CPT symmetry at the same time. The closest antimatter encountered to us is the antimatter made by the collision of the CERN particle accelerator, which is the particle with the opposite charge to the normal material. Since the element of charge amount is mathematically related to time [Book: The Physics of Time], antimatter with opposite charge can be observed to be in reverse on the T-phase. In this paper, I hypothesize that if particles moving backward in the Big Bang time and particles moving in the time direction were created simultaneously, the phenomena of dark matter, dark energy, and inflation cosmology could all be proved without creating a new virtual field. Antimatter generated during the Big Bang is a substance that moves at the speed of light in the opposite direction of time (-), and a general substance is a substance that moves at the speed of light in the time direction (+). From this point of view, a phenomenon in which particles with opposite charges in the Quantum Function simultaneously appear and disappear at the same time can also be understood as A phenomenon in which two opposing particles are created when pair annihilation occurs, and when they occur at the same time, they are pair annihilation from an antimatter point of view, so this phenomenon can be viewed as (a promised causal relationship between two charges on a time vector rather than a sudden causal relationship), which is hypothesized to have an effect on quantum mechanics. In other words, CPT symmetry can be the only theory that can easily explain almost all the disciplines, hypotheses, and uncomfortable assumptions that theoretical physics is currently experiencing. This theory derives a mathematically beautiful result that the universe has mirror symmetry of time T as well as space P and charge C. In addition, the world before the Big Bang, that is, the world that mankind did not encounter recklessly, also draws a simple and perfect result that there is only a universe created by the expansion of anti-materials during the Big Bang. The time direction before the Big Bang is that there is another universe whose charge is opposite to ours. The theory can also explain the awkward prediction of inflation cosmology, a phenomenon in which the universe expanded about 100 times faster than the speed of light immediately after the birth of the universe (a phenomenon that would have a big contradiction if nothing had been created before the Big Bang) and the hypothetical field of the inflation. If a particle-antiparticle pair was created in a universe with opposite time directions at the time of the Big Bang, then the particles would have moved in the time direction and passed through the Big Bang to our universe. From the point of view of the (+) universe, inflation expansion, which is faster than light immediately after the Big Bang, can be observed as if it did not actually expand faster than light, but increased the acceleration of expansion as particles from the twin extinction of the antiuniverse crossed over.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) This paper proves that the theory of modified CPT symmetry does not violate the existing classical dynamics, and discusses that it can best explain the universe mathematically, consistent with the ideas of quantum mechanics, along with the challenges of modern physics such as dark matter and dark energy. The main hypothesis claims are as follows: 1. Due to the interrelationship between the CPT symmetrical universe and the Big Bang of our universe, numerous inactive neutrinos across the (+) time direction are dark matter that are difficult to observe but have the influence of gravity; 2. Dark energy, which is not visually observed and can only be inferred by gravity among the four forces, is the gravitational influence of antigravity in the CPT symmetric universe; 3. Additional elements of this theory modify, supplement, and eliminate contradictions between inflation cosmology and the accelerated expansion of the present universe.

2. Structural Concepts of the Current Universe This chapter describes several factors that are considered important in defining the universe in current physics and generally uses classical and quantum mechanics to explain hypotheses about the modified CPT symmetry that will follow and prepare for understanding. 2.1. Concept of Time and Space Einstein contributed to modern physics by creating special theory of relativity, theory of general relativity, based on the equivalent principle that acceleration and gravity are the same, and by discovering that time is not absolute but changes with moving speed. He also found that there is one more dimension, the time connected to the three-dimensional space of the x, y, and z axes in which we live. Even in the symmetrical nature of the universe, when observing a material, you need to know not only the coordinates of space, but also the coordinates of time to break the symmetry in that space and observe it. German mathematician Hermann Minkowski mathematically calculated Einstein's theory and found that time and space are not separated from each other, but combine time and space to form Spatio-temporal four dimensions. In order to explain the main points of this paper, the concept of time and space is explained first as a detailed build-up process in consideration of the reader and the purpose of the competition. 2.1.1. Principle of Constancy of Light Velocity We see the world through light and light always stays the same speed. What changes is time and space. This time difference can also be observed in reality. The clock in the satellite flows faster than the time on Earth because satellites orbiting the Earth outside the Earth are a little further away from the Earth's distorted space-time curve. Although it is a very small difference, satellites connected to many of Earth's electronic devices periodically adjust their clocks to Earth's because even small changes in time can cause big problems. On the contrary, the center of the earth, which has the most drooping space and time, flows slower than the surface of the earth. As a result, the core of the Earth is about 2.5 years younger than the surface of the Earth we are stepping on. And a scientific community says that the center of the sun, which is much larger than the Earth, is 40,000 years younger than the outer part of the sun. As such, the speed at which time flows throughout the universe varies. The relative speed and time of each object are defined by the distribution of the energy (the limit of the speed of light) of the intrinsic absolute value received when the Big Bang occurred, between the time and space axes.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

[Spacetime diagram from the Wikipedia] I assume that the three-dimensional space is a one-dimensional line such as time for convenience, and draw the dimension of the time axis and draw the relationship between the two in a two-dimensional graph. Since time and speed are relative, I do through experiment with a virtual relative standard, not the subject's standard. Minkowski's diagram is a spatio-temporal graph that allows for more accurate comparisons, but in the current text, I only use the basic spatio-temporal graph frame because I am not comparing more than two objects (However, in 2.1.2, when comparing my time-space with that of A, it is shown by Lorentz transformations.) ct = The absolute amount of energy received from the Big Bang = Time converted into length units x = Distance traveled in space A yellow line = The path of photons ܿ‫ݔ > ݐ‬ All matter in our universe must be

௖௧ ௫

> 1 because it cannot travel above the speed of light. In other

words, any material with positive energy can bring time closer to zero, but it cannot be zero, and it can never move backward in time. The inverse of time is covered in more detail in the CPT symmetry in chapter 4. As long as the Big Bang receives positive energy, all materials have positive light substantial value, and it is impossible to stop time, so no matter how close an object is to the photon speed, the ratio of time to speed cannot be made 1 by a fine difference. The fastest speed humans have ever experienced is 99.95 percent of the speed of light in a particle accelerator at CERN. Beyond the speed of light means breaking a four-dimensional wall of space and time, so time does not go in the direction of (-), but rather in the form of an imaginary number, which means moving to another

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) dimension. This proves again the academic theory that the speed of light is absolute and that no object can exceed the speed of light. 2.1.2. The Unity of Time and Space Time is a non-spatial continuum in which events occur in an apparently irreversible order from the past to the present to the future. Simply put, the space itself on the x, y, and z axes is an absolute element of the universe that irreversibly follows along another dimension of time. We don't live in space, we live in spacetime. Here, a thought experiment will be conducted using Minkowski's spatio-temporal coordinate system. In the existing three dimensions, people mark (x, y, z) when measuring coordinates. However, since we live in space and time, we have to even show the coordinates of time -> (x, y, z, t). However, the initials t, which represent time, are multiplied by the absolute speed of light, c, in order to change into three-dimensional units of space. Also, ct(meters) is multiplied by an imaginary number, i, because there is no fourth coordinate in the world. Finally, Minkowski's four-dimensional spatiotemporal coordinates (x, y, z, ict) are created. People have their own coordinate system consisting of (x, y, z, ict). Because four dimensions cannot be drawn in a three-dimensional world, three dimensions representing space are represented in one dimension, and a graph consisting of time and space coordinates is drawn. This is theoretically possible because there is no contradiction if it is assumed that there is no change in two of the three spatial coordinates. If A moves by m in the x-axis with ct=ax as my observer, the worldline of A in my spacetime basis will represent the origin to the event coordinates (m,am). From the perspective of A's spacetime, since the destination at a distance of m approaches itself, the movement of A becomes x=0, the movement of A’s destination becomes ܿ‫ ݐ‬ᇱ = െܽ(‫ ݔ‬ᇱ െ ݉), and the coordinates (0, am) become the event (the point defined by time and space.) My Spatio-temporal perspective: ܿ‫ ݔܽ = ݐ‬, ‫݁ݒ݅ݐܿ݁݌ݏݎ݁݌ ݕ݉ ݉݋ݎ݂ ݏ݁ݐܽ݊݅݀ݎ݋݋ܿ ݐ݊݁ݒܧ‬: (݉, ܽ݉) A's Spatial Perspective: ܿ‫ ݐ‬ᇱ = െܽ(‫ ݔ‬ᇱ െ ݉) , ‫݁ݒ݅ݐܿ݁݌ݏݎ݁݌ ܣ ݉݋ݎ݂ ݏ݁ݐܽ݊݅݀ݎ݋݋ܿ ݐ݊݁ݒܧ‬: (0, ܽ݉) The equation is ܿ‫ ݐܿ ് ݐ‬ᇱ because the spacetime of A and I have different energy distribution, different coordinate systems, and different utilization of spacetime. However, since both A and I are observing the same event, the length from the starting point of A to the event is the same value.

‫ ׵‬ඥ݉ଶ + (ܽ݉)ଶ = ඥ(െ݉)ଶ + (ܽ݉)ଶ In this concept, the distance in the four-dimensional space-time may be represented by ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݖ‬ଶ + (݅ܿ‫)ݐ‬ଶ . Even if you have different spatio-temporal baselines, the spatio-temporal interval between the two perspectives on one event does not always change.

ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݖ‬ଶ + (݅ܿ‫)ݐ‬ଶ = ඥ‫ݔ‬Ԣଶ + ‫ݕ‬Ԣଶ + ‫ ݖ‬ᇱଶ + (݅ܿ‫)ݐ‬Ԣଶ

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[Spatio-temporal diagram from the Wikipedia] The interval between the events where A was first located in my spatio-temporal reference system and the events that arrived at the destination should be equal to the interval between the events where A was first located and the events that arrived at the destination. We can graphically sum up different time and space by looking at this invariant fact and Lorentz transformation. 2.2. The Basic Four Forces of the Universe The four forces in nature are gravity, electromagnetic force, strong force, and weak force. Each force has different properties and is a force that is almost impossible to unify mathematically, even if it looks similar. In particular, gravity and the other three forces are very difficult to combine into one theory due to factors such as differences in the size of the force and the extent of application and the presence or absence of dimensional passage. Since the information required in this paper is mainly about symmetry and gravity, other factors are briefly described and focused on symmetry and gravity. 2.2.1. 3 Forces Other than Gravity Electromagnetic force, a force that acts a lot in real life except gravity, is the second strongest force of the four interactions, as a photon-mediated force in the gauge boson, and is the source of almost all everyday phenomena. Strong force, the strongest of the four forces, is the force that binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. The weak force is the force that appears when a proton is converted into a neutron and a neutron into a proton, and is a weak force, but is stronger than gravity. It is also the one who broke P symmetry individually among CPT symmetry. All theories, forces, and phenomena in the universe mainly maintain symmetry, but It is force that suggested the possibility that it is possible to break it individual symmetry. Gauge boson is a force mediating particle, gluon mediating strong force, photon mediating electromagnetic force, and Z boson and W (+, -) boson mediating weak force. [The absence of particles

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) that mediate gravity is another way of explaining the peculiarities of gravity.] Bosons are active particles that mediate forces and can be expressed as follows through Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and Einstein's ο‫ = ܧ‬ο‫ ܥܯ‬ଶ . ο‫ ܥܯ‬ଶ ο‫< ݐ‬

݄ 4ߨ

The weak force has a short range of action with a limited ο‫ ݐ‬because the mediating particle is heavy, but the electromagnetic force is very far enough that the range of action ο‫ ݐ‬can go to infinity because the mediating particle has a mass of zero with a photon. Z boson and W boson, which were very mass despite being intermediate particles, caused the birth of a Higgs field that gives mass to intermediate particles. According to Higgs particle theory, gauge bosons have energy due to the collapse of the Higgs field in vacuum energy after ‫ ܧ‬൑ 160‫ ܸ݁ܩ‬in the early Big Bang. Photons (photons) could exist without being affected by the Higgs field because they had a mass of zero, while the rest of the bosons had energy through the Higgs field. While this theory has raised the possibility that weak and electromagnetic forces can be integrated into one, too big a difference between force and gravity and the conflict with inflation cosmology has brought a lot of trouble to modern physics. 2.2.2. Gravity and Its Singularity The biggest peculiarity of gravity, the force that two mass materials attract each other, is that it can cross dimensions. Although it has the weakest of the four forces, it is the only one that can overcome the limitations of the dimension. The dimensional penetration of this gravity is of paramount importance in this paper. Gravity causes objects of mass to distort space-time and create curvature. The curvature acts as a force to attract objects of mass to each other. The universe is symmetrical. All forces of electromagnetic force are symmetrical and have both attractive and repulsive forces. Does the range of gravity, which is the attraction, also have a repulsive force due to symmetry? According to the law of universal gravitation, which represents gravity, the force is as follows. ‫ܨ‬ଵ = ‫ܨ‬ଶ = ‫ܩ‬

݉ଵ × ݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

Let's test whether the repulsion will be mathematically calculated in this law of gravitation by changing the sign of mass. Figure 1: (ܲ‫݉)ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ݅ݏ݋‬ଵ ܽ݊݀ (‫݉)ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ݅ݏ݋݌‬ଶ ݉ଵ ܽଵ = െ‫ܩ‬

݉ଵ ݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

ܽଵ = െ‫ܩ‬

݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

݉ଶ ܽଶ = െ‫ܩ‬

݉ଵ ݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ܽଶ = െ‫ܩ‬

݉ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

The distance between the two decreases because the direction of the acceleration is the -r direction. Ā In the case of ++, both are gravitational effects. Figure 2: (ܰ݁݃ܽ‫ )ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ‬െ݉ଵ ܽ݊݀ (‫݉)ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ݅ݏ݋݌‬ଶ െ݉ଵ ܽଵ = െ‫ܩ‬

(െ݉ଵ )݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

ܽଵ = െ‫ܩ‬

+݉ଶ ܽଶ = െ‫ܩ‬ ܽଶ = ‫ܩ‬

݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

(െ݉ଵ )݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ݉ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

The negative mass object accelerates in the positive mass direction and the positive mass object escapes from the negative mass. ‫ ׵‬In the case of the antimatter-matter relationship, negative mass acts as a repulsive force and positive mass acts as an attraction, so the future of the two objects is determined according to the absolute value of the masses of the two objects. In other words, if one of the two is a negative mass, anti-gravity is possible depending on the absolute value. Figure 3: (ܰ݁݃ܽ‫ )ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ‬െ݉ଵ ܽ݊݀ (݊݁݃ܽ‫ )ݏݏܽ݉ ݁ݒ݅ݐ‬െ݉ଶ െ݉ଵ ܽଵ = െ‫ܩ‬

(െ݉ଵ )(െ݉ଶ ) ‫ݎ‬ଶ

ܽଵ = +‫ܩ‬

െ݉ଶ ܽଶ = െ‫ܩ‬

݉ଶ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

(െ݉ଵ )(െ݉ଶ ) ‫ݎ‬ଶ

ܽଶ = +‫ܩ‬

݉ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ

The two negative mass objects are mathematically attractive to each other, but the effect is repulsive. Interestingly, because the two objects have a negative mass, they mathematically represent gravitational pull and move away from each other due to the repulsive effect from a (+) point of view. Since the existence of repulsion in the universe is mathematically proven, the existence of repulsion energy and dark energy in theoretical empty spaces is mathematically possible. Through this mathematical proof method, I will explain accelerated expansion of the universe (inflation cosmology) and dark matter, dark energy, CPT symmetric world antimatter in the next chapter.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3. The Conundrum of Modern Physics In the past, the universe meant the whole of space and time, including all matter and radiation that existed in the world, but the modern universe has become completely different in concept. In fact, the concept of the word universe, which was used in the past, must now be changed to the word 'Observable Universe'. Because nothing is faster than light by relativity, the extent to which light from stars that are very far away after the creation of the universe can reach us at the speed of light is limited. In the 1900s, physicists discovered that even if all the starlight in the universe was removed, the entire universe was made up of uniform light. Naturally, if the universe was created by the Big Bang, it is true that the entire universe is filled with light by its afterglow and countless star lights, but the problem is that photons are so evenly spread in space with respect to thermodynamics. The observable universe is now accelerating and expanding with the universe beyond, but mankind has not known how inflation can occur. Many galaxies, along with ours, rotate without collapsing, but mankind does not know why galaxies do not undergo rotational decay. Mathematically inferred the existence of dark matter and dark energy on these problems, but no one is sure about the identity. This paper attempts to prove the most mathematically and symmetrically correct candidate for their identities. 3.1. A Minor Problem in which Inflation Cosmology Is Not Established The strange thing is that photons are too evenly distributed in space that you can think of the phenomenon of energy conduction in physics. Energy has the property of moving from high to low by heat conduction. In the end, energy flows in the direction of achieving thermal equilibrium, the second law of thermodynamics, and the law of increasing entropy. The notable problem, however, is that the universe remains uniform, even though time has not elapsed enough to achieve a complete thermal equilibrium from end to end, and heat conduction from end to end. For readers of the paper to understand, examples were given using thermal energy and thermodynamic laws, but in reality, electromagnetic wave energy called cosmic background radiation is evenly distributed throughout the universe. the error range is only about 10ିହ ‫ ܭ‬at the average temperature. To make this enormous fact easier to understand, for example, if there are 10ଵ଺ stars at the end of the universe in the direction of the Earth's north pole, then there are 10ଵ଺ stars at the end of the universe in the direction of Antarctica, and the error is less than 0.001%. Although I have repeatedly emphasized the symmetry of the universe in much of the previous outline and thesis, it is difficult for us to encounter this ridiculous uniformity in our daily lives. This inexplicable problem of uniformity of the universe, the horizon problem, was the greatest challenge in physics until the advent of inflation cosmology. Inflationary cosmology is the theory that the universe exchanged energies from end to end for a while at the beginning of the Big Bang, and suddenly expanded at a tremendous rate faster than light when all energies were parallel. To interpret this way, since the universe expanded faster than the speed of light after the energy was in equilibrium, energy exchange did not occur and the universe was in a uniform state as a whole. This is the core of the inflation theory that solved the horizon problem. However, this theory has created numerous other physics challenges. Considering that the universe itself is an observable universe, the fact that it expanded faster than light and is still expanding faster than light is bound to acknowledge the existence of multiverses implicitly and contradicts the fact that nothing faster than light by relativity. In the end, no matter how advanced human science and technology is, it means that the range we can observe is limited and the universe

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) outside that range cannot be observed forever. This observable universe also contradicts the constitution of quantum mechanics [physical observations and observations of its radiation, and objects that cannot interact with its surroundings cannot be recognized.] 3.1.1. Events Between 10ିଷସ and 10ିଷଶ Seconds After the Big Bang After the Big Bang, there is a contradiction that if inflation is to be faster than light, there is more energy than then, that is, before the birth of the universe, there must be nothing. According to inflation cosmology, massive repulsive forces such as dark energy caused inflation in a very short period of time, including 10ିଷସ and 10ିଷଶ seconds after the Big Bang, and the biggest problem is that the expansion rate of the universe was faster than the speed impossible, c, in modern physics. Data collected by Planck Mission and WMAP and W. M. Keck Observatory by 2018 proved that the rapid inflationary expansion in the early Big Bang caused space-time repercussions, based on the discovery of very fine ripples and gravitational waves in early cosmic background radiation. However, according to modern physics theory, in the early days of the Big Bang, there was a time when the Higgs particle did not give mass to matter existing in space, so there was no mass. In thermodynamics, entropy, the most important concept of the principle of heat, is highly related to mass and without mass, entropy does not increase. Eventually, in the early days of space, entropy cannot increase, resulting in contradictions. It is unlikely that it will be made into a perfect bottle again if it has any physical effect on the broken bottle because already broken bottles cannot go back in time. This is why many scientists often associate time as a process in which entropy changes from low to high. In addition, I came to think of the black hole, the Big Bang concept consistency that the laws of physics can be temporarily broken as the point goes to the Big Bang, which is a singularity like a black hole, based on the time axis of this paper. 3.2. Dark Matter and Dark Energy Human observable materials are 5% in space, 27% in dark matter and 68% in dark energy, which must exist theoretically or only mathematically.

[Galactic rotation curve for NGC 6503 dwarf spiral galaxy from the Researchgate.]

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As described above, dark matter was predicted to exist in the contradiction that matter on the outside of the galaxy circulates around the center of the galaxy at a faster rate than expected, contrary to mathematical predictions based on the rotational motion regarding the center's gravity. Mathematical calculations show that the gravity of the stars in the galaxy does not account for the actual rotational speed of the galaxy today. Because these dark matter account for 85% of the material in the universe, some say that it could be small but large primordial black holes created right after the Big Bang, but this is not possible because dark matter does not emit light, absorb light, and only appears by gravity. The fact that the mechanical mass of the galaxy is heavier than the apparent photometric mass has been demonstrated by actual observations. In the Bullet Cluster, it was observed that dark matter was peeled away as the two galaxies collided quickly. The fact that dark matter has separated further than other general materials means that dark matter has flown away without interacting with other materials. The distribution of mass identified by gravity lenses and gas distribution identified by radio/X-ray observation showed that invisible substances on the outside interact only with gravity without electromagnetic interaction.

[The SDSS’s map of the Universe] [map of the distribution of so-called dark matter in the Universe] In addition, the distribution of galaxies in the 3D space map, which was steadily prepared by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) since 2000, and released in 2008, was very similar to the distribution of dark matter in the Dark Energy Survey Collaboration. The high distribution of dark matter was dense with galaxies, and the low distribution of dark matter was an empty place with few galaxies. As such, the existence of dark matter itself due to its gravity cannot be denied, but there was little interaction with other materials, so observations failed frequently. neutrinos, the main candidate for dark matter, have little response to other substances and are fast, similar to the characteristics of dark matter, but surrounding observations do not seem to exist as much as dark matter, so scientists are not sure about the identity of dark matter yet. Unlike dark matter, dark energy, on the contrary, refers to the anti-gravity energy that expands the universe. After the Big Bang, it was revealed that the expansion of the universe, which was thought to consistently continue at the same rate, was in fact continuously accelerating expansion, forcing the scientific community to assume unknown anti-gravity energy, which is accelerating and expanding the universe faster. That was the dark energy. Even if the universe initially began to expand temporarily by some force, the gravity of matter eventually forced matter to gather around gravity in the distant future, but dark energy is rather pushing away.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4. CPT Symmetry The law of operation of the universe is based on symmetry, and if you ask me to tell you the history of the universe, it can be said to be the history of symmetry. Symmetry, which is one of the key contents of this paper and means 'unchanging properties', is essential for preserving cosmic laws of physics. CPT is largely divided into charge conclusion (C), parity transformation (P), and time reversal (T). C symmetry is the concept that the same physical phenomenon applies, whether the charge of any particle is positive or negative. In other words, it refers to the symmetry between particles and antimatter, meaning that matter and antimatter are symmetric. P symmetry means reversal, meaning that the world in the mirror follows the scientific laws of the real world. The last T symmetry means that there is symmetry with respect to the direction of time, which means that even if the time of an event is turned backward, the physical theory is applied equally. This universe already exists in a state of maintaining symmetry, and this symmetry can be broken independently for each C, P, and T star. In 1956, during the cobalt-60 radioactive isotope experiment, a break in the P symmetry was discovered from the weak force, and in 1964, American physicists James Cronin and Val Fitch discovered that the CP symmetry was broken with a probability of about 1 in 1000. It has been found that the T symmetry can also be broken independently in a situation where the symmetry of the CP is maintained. But the most interesting thing is that it is impossible for CPT to break at the same time. Using this absolute law, this paper assumes the existence of a negative universe, that is, a world of antimatter on the time axis before the Big Bang, and a mathematically perfect universe with perfect CPT symmetry with our universe. As in the previous chapters, when the Big Bang, which created the universe, created all matter and all matter had the speed of light by its energy, this inertia created at one reference point can only change direction in the graph of space and time, and its absolute size cannot be changed. Antimatter produced by particle accelerator collisions, theoretically somewhere in the universe, or naturally difficult to acknowledge, may be more natural to flow in the direction of T symmetry because the charge is opposite to that of ordinary matter, that is, symmetric with C. If particles moving backward in time and particles moving in the direction of time were created at the same time during the Big Bang, the phenomenon of dark matter, dark energy, and inflation cosmology can be proved. Anti-materials generated during the Big Bang are substances that move at the absolute speed given during the Big Bang in the opposite direction of time, and general substances move in the time direction. According to this theory, the generation of negative electrons and positrons in the quantum fluctuation phenomenon and their pair annihilation can be evidenced as a phenomenon forming CPT symmetry. Unlike the graph used in Chapter 2, a graph is drawn with space expressed in one dimension on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. According to this theory, time and space are the same, so before the Big Bang, there was a universe created by the expansion of antimatter created during the Big Bang. According to a joint paper by Latham Boyle, Kieran Finn, and Neil Turok, “The Big Bang, CPT, and neutrino dark matter,” the time direction before the Big Bang suggests that there could be other universes with opposite charges to ours. This theory can solve the trivial problem of inflation cosmology. From the fact that the universe expanded faster than the speed of light at the beginning of the Big Bang, if at the time of the Big Bang, a particle-antiparticle pair was born due to quantum fluctuations in the universe whose time direction was opposite, and among them, a pair of positive masses, that is, C symmetry (+) If particles that naturally have T symmetry and also have a positive direction due to a factor have been introduced into our universe, the additional existence of the hypothetical quantum field of the inflationary cosmology

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) is unnecessary. Likewise, dark matter can be explained if massive inactive neutrinos or right-handed neutrinos, which were created in the universe in the opposite direction at the time of the Big Bang, flowed in the T+ direction and passed into our universe. In the first place, neutrinos have little interaction and unlike ordinary particles, a large amount can pass over after the big bang, and since these right-handed neutrinos are particles that came from a world where CPT is symmetrical, so it cannot be observed by the laws of physics. Their independent mass can create dark matter. This applies similarly to the argument that dark matter existed before the Big Bang, so we do not see dark matter and are not affected by real-world physics, according to the paper "Dark Matter from Scalar Field Functions", which was not related to the CPT worldview. The interesting thing about this hypothesis is that we don't have to think about the time before the Big Bang. Just like space, time exists before and after the Big Bang, and since the explosion of the Big Bang only divided matter into time-moving matter and counter-time moving matter, it is a concept similar to our universe before the Big Bang, but only with symmetry. It's just that there is an anti-universe that has opposite CPT. The assumption of the CPT symmetric world not only does not paradox the concepts of general physics, but also makes it mathematically beautiful, eliminating the need for complex hypotheses about the beginning of the universe and virtual fields. This theory can also explain the reason why time changes as we approach the speed of light in special relativity. Because approaching the speed of light in spacetime means changing the speed of light moving in the time direction to a direction perpendicular to time, the speed of moving in the time direction is relatively reduced.

5. The Relationship Between the Observable Universe and the Polar World In addition to this CPT symmetrical world, I incorporated the concept of gravity passing through the dimensions of Francis-Yan and Cyr-Racine at the University of New Mexico to try thought experiment, and create an explainable theory of both inflation and dark energy. If time is the same direction as space, you might think that you can make a time machine, but, according to my theory, it may be impossible to make a time machine forever. If the particle moves in the opposite direction in time, the charge is reversed and it must travel back in time to the state of antimatter. At this time, you should not bump into a single particle of mass because it is difficult to withstand even a second in a space full of matter, and the maximum speed in the time direction is light speed, so if you go to the past 100 years ago, you have to spend more than 100 years in an antimatter state. In addition, when the target time coordinates are reached, the amount of charge must be reversed again. Considering all these factors, it is right to view that a time machine is theoretically impossible in the present universe in theory. My modified CPT symmetric world solves the inflation cosmology of the existing CPT symmetric world, solves dark matter, and additionally solves dark energy, which gives the uncertainty of the Hubble constant that determines the expansion rate of the universe. The Hubble constant is a constant representing the redshift of galaxies according to distance. In other words, the farther away an object is, the faster it moves away from us. Recently, it was found that the value of the Hubble constant is smaller than previously estimated, and the cause is a mystery. According to my CPT symmetric cosmology, it is impossible to observe the existence of each other because the positive world and the negative world cannot influence each other with the kind of energy such as electromagnetic or nuclear force. However, with gravity, the only force that can affect each other across dimensions, since the two universes are

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) derived from the same Big Bang, gravity can affect them in a related dimension. This is my secret to dark matter and dark energy. In reality, this symmetrical universe must exist in different dimensions that we do not know, but in three dimensions, it exists right next to us at the same time. Although it looks similar to the general multiworld analysis, the difference is that the multi-world analysis derived from the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics is an interpretation that there are any number of different universes at every junction, but my symmetric world is In addition to exchanging information with each other in the Big Bang, it is said that even if the opposite universe existed on the same time axis as our universe during the cosmic period that we cannot directly observe, gravity affects our world due to the nature of gravity that transcends even time. It may seem like a sci-fi fantasy, but if gravitational waves from antiparticles in this symmetrical world affect us, it can explain the current accelerated expansion of the universe and dark energy. Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) points out that the efficiency of gravity acting on different distance scales can be different. If my symmetrical world partially offset the actual value of the gravitational force that existed in the first place with the attraction and repulsive force of antimatter and matter, and if the values that scientists are calculating are not noticeable because the gravitational force itself is not so great on a small distance scale around us, but if the anti-gravity phenomenon appears conspicuously on the length scale between galaxies with long distances, in addition to satisfying the hypothesis of modified Newtonian mechanics, the existence of dark energy can also be explained by the anti-gravity effect of the symmetric world. Finally, my modified CPT cosmology results in the following solution: 1. Many hypotheses explaining the beginning of the universe are solved with the simple universal notion of symmetry; 2. Dark matter is an inactive neutrino caused by quantum fluctuations in the modified CPT world before the Big Bang; 3. Based on the Big Bang, which is the intermediary point between the positive universe in which we live and the modified CPT universe, dark energy is the effect of the gravitational relationship between the two universes, and the anti-gravity effect is more pronounced when the distance is greater, such as the distance between galaxies. That is, it has a characteristic in which the difference appears sharply according to the distance scale. As a result, my modified CPT symmetric cosmology does not violate the symmetry of the universe, and although it is theoretically and physically beautiful, it has the weakness of being impossible to observe or prove in practice like the superstring theory and other multiverse theories, which were the most beautiful mathematical theories.

6. Contribution to Theoretical Physics and Cosmology My theory may be a science fiction hypothesis to some, but I wonder if it will develop into a theory that will break human stereotypes like the theory of relativity or the discovery of the Higgs particle. As Einstein said, ‘Imagination is more important than knowledge.’ Why is our society so wary and afraid of imagination? It is dangerous to believe that imagination is reality, but it is beneficial to think scientifically through imagination and constantly create new opportunities for leaps and bounds. It must be remembered that historically great discoveries were made through thought experiments, not actual experiments. The theory was created by a young man who had no accomplishments but clearly had a lot of potential for liking quantum mechanics, modern theoretical physics, and the universe itself. Starting with this theory, an integrated theory of the origin of dark matter and dark energy may actually emerge, and even if this theory is wrong, the thesis on the rebuttal of the hypothesis will also contribute greatly to theoretical physics and modern cosmology. Whether the results of my thought experiment

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) are correct or not is not so important. I just hope that it will be of even one help, either positively or as an opportunity for correction, to the scientific development of mankind.

References [1] L. Boyle, K. Finn and N. Turok, “The Big Bang, CPT, and neutrino dark matter,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 2018, 438.10.1016/j.aop.2022.168767. [2] R. Penrose, "Singularities and time-asymmetry," General Relativity: An EinsteinCentenary Survey, edited by S. W. Hawking and W. Israel (Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, 1979). [3] 9 0XNKDQRY DQG 6 :LQLW]NL ³,QWURGXFWLRQ WR TXDQWXP H൵HFWV LQ JUDYLW\ ´ CambridgeUniversity Press (2007). [4] R. P. Feynman, “The Theory of Positrons,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 76, 749 (1949). [5] E. Kolb and M. Turner, “The Early Universe” (1990). [6] Cyr-Racine, Francis-Yan and Ge, Fei and Knox, Lloyd, “Symmetry of Cosmological Observables, a Mirror World Dark Sector, and the Hubble Constant,” Phys. Rev. Lett., may 2022, https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.201301. [7] “Dark Energy, Dark Matter,” NASA Science, https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focusareas/what-is-dark-energy. [8] Ezquiaga, Jose Mar\'{\i}a and Holz, Daniel E., “Spectral Sirens: Cosmology from the Full Mass Distribution of Compact Binaries,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 3 August 2022 [9] Ade, P. A. R. and Ahmed, Z. and Amiri, M. and Barkats, D. et al., “Improved Constraints on Primordial Gravitational Waves using Planck, WMAP, and BICEP/Keck Observations through the 2018 Observing Season,” Phys. Rev. Lett., Oct 2021, https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.151301. [10] Kremen, A., Khan, H., Loh, Y.L. et al,. “Imaging quantum fluctuations near criticality,” Nature Phys 14, 1205–1210 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-018-0264-z.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Full Name

Cho, Yezi

American Community School of Abu Dhabi

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Prompted by the seriousness and urgency of diabetic illnesses in the modern era, a major cause of various health conditions, this study was designed to explore and investigate the potential implications for diabetes research using the relationship between yeast respiration and glucose homeostasis. Saccharomyces Cerevisiae rapidly utilizes sugars in the process of cellular respiration both aerobic and anaerobic. While it is widely recognized that yeast’s capacity to ferment using glucose results in the production of energy, the study starts by examining the effect of six different sugars of the same molar mass - glucose, sucrose, fructose, galactose, lactose, and maltose - on the rate and amount of carbon dioxide produced in Saccharomyces Cerevisiae in a yeast medium. The yeastsugar mixture is connected to a hose that leads to a water displacement system for measuring the volume of carbon dioxide produced. As the yeast uses the sugars to respirate and undergo glycolysis, carbon dioxide is collected in a container of water, and the amount of increasing carbon dioxide is determined by measuring the decreased volume of water. It could be found that glucose, fructose, and sucrose enabled fermentation while sucrose yielded carbon dioxide at a delayed rate. Exploring the fundamental mechanism behind yeast respiration, the information obtained can be used to understand the process of glucose homeostasis and catabolite repression in yeast fermentation. Correlating the insulin transduction pathway and Snf1 protein kinase to the process of glycolysis, we hope to facilitate diabetes research. Using yeast as the experiment’s model system, the catabolic mechanism and respiration process of a eukaryotic model will suffice our understanding of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes. The uptake of glucose and other sugars, along with how insulin sensitivity is induced through the coordination of carbon metabolism pathways will be relevant in researching potential treatment methods for diabetes.

Keywords: Diabetes, cellular respiration, fermentation, glycolysis, insulin, hyperglycemia, insulin transduction pathway, glucose homeostasis, Snf1 protein kinase, catabolite repression

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Purpose of the Study Nowadays, diabetes is a long-term impairment in the body that affects more than 10 percent of the global adult population. Although depending on the individual, the dichotomy of diabetes is that the disease can be life-threatening if left disregarded and untreated, but the patient can learn to manage it by taking the appropriate treatments and keeping a healthy lifestyle. Adhering to the appropriate treatment methods for the disease can positively impact one’s quality of life. The causes and treatments for diabetes vary among the many types of diabetes such as prediabetes, type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes. According to the WHO (World Health Organization), more than 95% of people with diabetes suffer from type 2 diabetes, formerly called non-insulin-dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes. The effect of hyperglycemia - high blood glucose levels - can develop a wide range of complications, from temporary symptoms to damaging conditions. Generally, pharmaceutical methods of injecting insulin for diabetes type 1 and individual efforts to treat diabetes type 2 have been accepted as ways of reducing or avoiding serious complications of the disease. However, aside from the conventional method of treating diabetes, which includes but is not limited to using insulin pumps and/or injections, prescription of medication, diet, and exercise, the study hopes to tackle the disease by investigating the mechanism behind glucose homeostasis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on a cellular level. The following study attempts to demonstrate the effectiveness of S. cerevisiae in the potential treatment of type 2 diabetes. The study focuses on the catabolic pathways in which enzymes and insulin signals can be coordinated to stimulate insulin sensitivity. Researching catabolic repression of glucose during yeast fermentation can help understand the mechanism behind sensing and signaling extracellular glucose levels, giving insight into how to manage hyperglycemia through the coordination of various cellular pathways. 1.2. Background 1.2.1. Diabetes Diabetes is a chronic disease in which blood glucose, or blood sugar, is higher than its normal range in the human body. The accumulation of glucose in the bloodstream is the product of the food intake and becomes the main source of energy for human activity and body temperature maintenance. A hormone that facilitates this process of glucose getting into one’s cells and being used for energy is insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas and it is critical to managing glucose homeostasis in one’s bloodstream. If insulin fails to proceed in aiding glucose to be used for energy, glucose would stay in one’s blood and be unable to reach the cells. An overflow of glucose in the bloodstream would cause hyperglycemia, the effect of diabetes, and various health issues. The irony of diabetes is that the disease has no cure, but one may manage and take care of diabetes daily. Diabetes is commonly subdivided into two types - type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes refers to when one’s body fails to make insulin from the destruction of cells in the pancreas which are responsible for making insulin. It is a disease of the immune system, while genetic factors or viruses may also trigger the destruction of cells producing insulin. Patients diagnosed with type 1 diabetes need to take insulin every day to control blood glucose levels and prevent hyperglycemia. Meanwhile, type 2 diabetes occurs when one’s body does not utilize insulin at a proper level, thus the body being

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) insulin resistant. Type 2 diabetes makes up for most cases of the disease, usually developing after adulthood. In addition to factors related to age, ethnicity, and genetic inheritance, having high blood pressure, along with being overweight or lacking physical activity are the main risk factors for developing diabetes type 2. The study refers to type 2 diabetes when talking about the disease. Patients diagnosed with diabetes suffer from disorders of the circulatory, nervous and immune systems. Symptoms of type 2 diabetes can range from risk factors as common as high blood pressure to heart disease and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Daily symptoms which are easy to neglect to include increased thirst, frequent urination, increased hunger, blurred vision, areas of darkened skin, etc. Because the symptoms of type 2 diabetes happen to develop at a slow rate, some patients live with it without even knowing it. However, accumulating high levels of blood glucose over a prolonged period can result in serious complications in numerous parts of the body vital for survival. As much as diabetes is a chronic disease, its treatment methods consist of management methods that keep one’s blood glucose level within the normal range. Although this helps delay or prevent the symptoms of the disease, there is no direct method of treatment that eliminates the complications at once. Centering around a healthy diet can help manage nutrition intake and keep blood sugar levels more stable. Regular physical activity along with medications depending on the specific condition of the individual will aid in maintaining the target blood glucose levels. Depending on one’s complications, insulin therapy is prescribed - insulin is injected in appropriate doses and schedules, aimed to prevent continuous diabetes complications. 1.2.2. Saccharomyces Cerevisiae

<Figure 1> Saccharomyces cerevisiae, electron micrograph Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as Brewer’s yeast or Baker’s yeast, is used as the main subject of this study, acknowledging its unicellular nature and capacity to perform biological functions apt for eukaryotic research. Available for various biotechnological and medical applications, the organism is easily applicable to genetic manipulation due to its biological characteristics. For instance, S. cerevisiae's resilience to various conditions of pH and osmolarity makes it the perfect choice for tracking its ability to fermentate. The organism is not only useful in familiar food industries such as bakery and wine production, which make use of yeast’s capacity to rapidly ferment, but the biopharmaceutical field. Approximately one-fifth of biopharmaceuticals are produced by S. cerevisiae among these are insulin, vaccines for hepatitis and human papillomavirus, and probiotic treatment for diarrhea. Selecting S. cerevisiae as the subject of the study allowed the understanding of a fundamental eukaryotic system. Having a nucleus with DNA in chromosomes, its metabolic pathways can readily

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) be experimented on to study human cellular metabolism. In the study, its capacity to perform anaerobic respiration under controlled conditions was experimented on. The various aspects of the microorganism contain the potential of providing a data basis for human cell engineering. 1.2.3. Fermentation 1.2.3.1. Cellular respiration Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy-carrying molecule. The main steps of cellular respiration are glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The last step - oxidative phosphorylation - is a process including the electron transport chain. After the electrons are transferred from one molecule to another, releasing energy, oxygen is the molecule that accepts the electrons and allows the continuation of ATP production. Therefore, under circumstances where there is no oxygen, this process is not possible. In this case, yeasts undergo fermentation - an anaerobic process of breaking down glucose for energy. During fermentation, the yeast cells produce ATP during glycolysis, a process in which oxygen is not a contributing factor, and repeat the process through NAD+ regeneration. Classified according to the resulting product, alcohol (ethanol) fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, and butyric acid fermentation are several examples of fermentation. In this study, alcohol fermentation takes place, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as the byproduct. 1.2.2.2 Glycolysis Among the steps of cellular respiration, glycolysis is the initial stage that produces two net molecules of ATP. In simple terms, two phosphate molecules derived from two ATP molecules are used to modify a glucose molecule into the fructose-1,6-bisphosphate molecule; this unstable molecule is then split to form two three-carbon sugars. Each three-carbon sugar is converted to two pyruvates, each producing two ATP molecules and one NADH molecule. Therefore, two ATP molecules and two NADH molecules are produced. In alcoholic fermentation, the electrons of NADH are used to produce ethanol from pyruvates. In detail, a carboxyl group is disconnected from the pyruvate and becomes carbon dioxide, while the pyruvates become two acetaldehyde molecules. The electrons from two NADH molecules turn acetaldehyde into ethanol, and the NAD+ produced can be used for further fermentation.

<Figure 2> Overview of the reactions that occur during alcoholic fermentation. Two NADH+ molecules produced are converted to NADH molecules, while two net ATP molecules are produced.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Experimental Design and Hypothesis 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Sugar Sugar is one of the reactants of cellular respiration that are broken down for energy that powers the body. It is a type of carbohydrate - a molecule formed from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides - one simple sugar, two simple sugars, and a polymer of sugars respectively. The monosaccharides are the basic compounds of sugar. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are isomers - compounds that are formed from the same number and type of atoms but differ in the arrangement of atoms. Due to the identical PROHFXODU IRUPXOD &ၻ+ၶၷ2ၻ WKH PRQRVDFFKDULGHV VKDUH D FRPPRQ PRODU PDVV RI DSSUR[LPDWHO\ 180.16g/mol. Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharide units combined by a dehydration V\QWKHVLV UHDFWLRQ 'XULQJ WKH SURFHVV D ZDWHU +ၷ2 PROHFXOH LV UHOHDVHG LQ WXUQ UHVXOWLQJ LQ D glycosidic bond in the disaccharide. Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are respectively formed from glucose and fructose, glucose and galactose, and two glucose units. Their molar mass is 342.3g/mol - twice the molar mass of two monosaccharides reduced by the molar mass of water(18g/mol). S. Cerevisae’s cellular respiration process was tested using different types of sugars. In total, six types of sugars were used: three monosaccharides - glucose, fructose, and galactose and three disaccharides sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Though cellular respiration is widely known as a process of breaking down glucose, this study also experiments on sugars that are usually not considered direct reactants. Therefore, the following hypothesis is possible: among the certain types of sugar that enable fermentation, the rate of fermentation will vary due to the different enzyme catalysis and metabolic pathways yeast cells undergo.

Independent Variable

Type of sugar

Dependent Variable

Amount of carbon dioxide produced

Control Variable

Amount of water, temperature of water, amount of yeast, type of yeast, amount of sugar(mol)

2.2. Measures and Procedures The materials used for fermentation are active dry yeast obtained from strains of S. cerevisiae, water, sugars, and water displacement systems, each used for one type of sugar. To create the appropriate environment for C. Serevisae to ferment, the water was managed to 35°C. In a container, the same amount of water and yeast was added. The sugars, however, were measured according to their molar mass. While the molar mass of monosaccharides is 180g/mol, the molar mass of disaccharides is 342g/mol due to the process disaccharides are formed: a dehydration synthesis reaction, in which two monosaccharides are combined and one molecule of hydrogen is removed. In order to use an equivalent number of sugar molecules, 2g of monosaccharides and 3.8g of disaccharides were measured. (180: 342 = 2: 3.8) For each sugar and yeast compound, 40g of water and 1g of yeast were used.

To find out which types of sugar enable respiration and to measure the rate of respiration, this study

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) used the water displacement method. Through the displacement method, the increasing volume of carbon dioxide is measured by a decrease in the volume of water. Carbon dioxide is a gas whose solubility in water differs according to pressure and temperature. With a water temperature of 40°C and an atmospheric pressure of approximately 101 kPa, the solubility of carbon dioxide is 1.0g/kg of water. Thus, the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in water was considered a negligible factor in measuring the produced carbon dioxide in this study.

<Figure 3> Experimental design using water displacement method In six identical containers, active dry yeast and sugars are added. The containers are each connected to a thin hose that leads to another container filled with water of 40°C. These containers are fixed upsidedown, submerged in water so that the water stays inside the containers due to atmospheric pressure. As the yeast uses sugar for respiration, the produced carbon dioxide is transferred from the container with the yeast and sugar to the container filled with water, through a hose. As the hose continues to transfer carbon dioxide, bubbles are accumulated at the top of the container, while the displaced water is pushed out from the container. The volume of gas produced was measured every ten minutes for an hour.

<Figure 4> Experimental procedure

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3. Results Initially, the yeast conducted aerobic respiration, using sugar and the oxygen inside the container to produce water and carbon dioxide. After all of the oxygen was depleted for respiration, anaerobic respiration took place, producing carbon dioxide and ethanol as the byproduct. After one hour of observation, whether the yeast fermented using each type of sugar could readily be determined by the volume of carbon dioxide produced. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose yielded carbon dioxide, while lactose, maltose, and galactose did not. This can be interpreted as yeast having the specific enzymes that catalyze the fermenting process using glucose, fructose, and sucrose.

<Figure 5> Results of experiment

The x-axis indicates the number of minutes since the start of the experiment, while the y-axis indicates the amount of carbon dioxide produced(mL) <Figure 6> Chart(top) and graph(bottom) of results

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Among the sugars that enabled fermentation, glucose yielded carbon dioxide at the fastest rate. The steadily increasing amount of carbon dioxide can also be observed in the fermentation using fructose. The notable observation that can be made from the graph is the slope of carbon dioxide produced using sucrose. For the initial 40 minutes, it produced relatively less carbon dioxide than did glucose or fructose. However, the increasing slope of the graph, and the similarity between the amount of carbon dioxide produced in the final stage of the three sugars, indicate that sucrose goes through rapid fermentation after a certain period of delay. This delayed period suggests that sucrose undergoes a period of catalyzation, in which the enzymes that expedite the fermenting process make sucrose easier to use as a reactant. A difference that can explain the difference between glucose/fructose and sucrose is that glucose and fructose are monosaccharides, while sucrose is a disaccharide. Monosaccharides can directly be used for fermentation, while disaccharides have to be broken down into monosaccharides beforehand. Accordingly, sucrose necessitates a process of being broken down to glucose and fructose before fermentation. Once the sugars are broken down by enzymes, the monosaccharides can actively be used for producing energy. On the other hand, yeast does not contain the specific enzymes needed to break down lactose and maltose, nor the enzyme that enables fermentation for galactose.

4. Discussion/Conclusion 4.1. Catabolite repression The experiment concludes that yeast is capable of using glucose as the direct reactant for fermentation. The metabolic mechanism behind yeast’s dominant utilization of glucose amid other carbon sources can be explained through yeast’s glucose sensing and signaling pathways, one of which is yeast’s glucose-repression pathway. Although yeasts can use various carbon sources for producing energy, it prefers to use certain carbon sources before others. This phenomenon had been called ‘glucose repression’, though currently ‘catabolite repression’ is the preferred term to indicate the dominant utilization of particular carbon sources - including glucose - over others. Yeast’s genes are encoded with enzymes, which are transcripted to utilize various carbon sources for respiration. The presence of glucose, and sometimes related sugars such as fructose, repress this transcription, which results in the carbon metabolism of yeast primarily facilitating glucose use. 4.2. Glucose sensing and signaling pathways The mechanism behind catabolite repression is correlated to the glucose-sensing pathways of yeast. The current understanding of glucose-responsive pathways in yeast are generally three pathways: the main glucose repression pathway, the Snf3/Rgt2 glucose-sensing pathway, and the Gpa1/Gpr2 glucosesensing pathway (Ras-cAMP pathway). The first pathway triggers glucose repression when there are other carbon sources and controls yeast’s carbon metabolism. The regulation of catabolite- repression activators and repressors is carried out by Snf1 signaling - the Snf1 enzyme is capable of both activating and suppressing glucose repression. This protein kinase was identified when sucrose was used for fermentation in a state of glucose limitation. It is a vital enzyme for managing cellular energy levels by regulating the level of glucose entering the cell. The second pathway regulates yeast’s capacity to uptake glucose by the induction of HXT (hexose transporter homologs) genes. Among the several signaling genes, Snf3 senses low levels of glucose, while Rgt2 senses high levels of glucose. Through the Snf3/Rgt2 pathway, yeast cells sense extracellular glucose levels and regulate the cell’s glucose uptake. The last pathway involves the synthesis of cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), which controls the general cell cycle related to carbon metabolism and stress

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) resistance.

<Figure 7> Overview of glucose sensing and signaling pathways in yeast. (a) The main glucose repression (Snf1) pathway, (b) The Snf3/ Rgt2 pathway, (c) the Ras-cAMP pathway Focusing on the first pathway, the Snf1 protein kinase in yeast is a homolog of AMPK protein kinase (adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase) in eukaryotic cells, the key regulator for energy homeostasis. Thus, the understanding of the Snf1 kinase pathway can provide insight into how glucose uptake is stimulated by AMPK in the human body. Its energy homeostasis management is central to understanding blood glucose homeostasis, as the entering of glucose into cells triggers glycolysis for energy production. The metabolisms of tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver, and the beta-cells of the pancreas - which are critical to the development and management of diabetes type 2 - are regulated by AMPK and its energy homeostasis capacity. 4.3. Insulin signal transduction pathway To achieve glucose homeostasis, Snf1 kinase activity (or AMPK in eukaryotic cells) needs to be stimulated, and glucose needs to be absorbed into the cell for glycolysis. The key element that enables glucose uptake is the well-known hormone insulin. Secreted from the pancreatic beta cells when increased blood glucose levels are detected, insulin binds to its receptors on the cells and allows the uptake of extracellular glucose. The numerous compartmentalized pathways of insulin signal transduction include the binding of insulin to the IR (insulin receptor), phosphorylation of IRS (insulin receptor substrates), insertion of glucose transporters into cell membranes, and ultimately cellular intake of glucose and initiation of glycolysis. Triggering enzymes to facilitate the insulin receptor signals would be a way to increase insulin sensitivity.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

<Figure 8> Overview of AMPK on the insulin signal pathway. AMPK activation improves glucose uptake by phosphorylation of various substrates and activation of insulin receptors, along with the translocation of GLUT (Glucose transporter) Overall, the study examines the catabolic mechanism of S. cerevisiae that controls glucose homeostasis through the use of sugars as sources of energy during glycolysis. In particular, the catalyst pathway of Snf1 protein kinase and insulin transduction pathway are identified as critical mechanisms behind managing extracellular blood glucose levels. Although the functions of insulin receptors, AMPK, and various proteins have been studied, certain processes of unknown kinases and glucose transport mechanisms that contribute to glucose homeostasis are unclear up to the present day. Further elaborate study on the process of signaling and activation of various enzymes will shed light on the full potential of cell coordination as a means of treating hyperglycemia. In addition, having understood the role of insulin signaling for glucose homeostasis, increasing the body’s insulin sensitivity would be a feasible approach for diabetic treatments. Among the various treatments for type 2 diabetes, nutritional supplements can be employed to enhance insulin sensitivity and decrease insulin resistance. For instance, previous studies verify the medical uses of chromium. Chromodulin has the potential of escalating AMPK activity by stimulating the subunits of protein that sense, control, and manage extracellular glucose levels, along with the potential of aiding the insulin signaling pathway by activating insulin receptors. Once again, S. cerevisiae can be provided as the organic chromium producer that assists the body in building the chromodulin molecule. As a means of elevating insulin sensitivity to address hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, further research necessitates clinical trials.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References Domingues, L., Guimarães, P. M. R., & Oliveira, C. (2010). Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for lactose/whey fermentation. Bioengineered Bugs, 1(3), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.4161/ bbug.1.3.10619 Gancedo, J. M. (1998). Yeast Carbon Catabolite Repression. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 62(2), 334–361. https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.62.2.334-361.1998 Geladé, R., Van de Velde, S., Van Dijck, P., & Thevelein, J. M. (2003). Multi-level response of the yeast genome to glucose. Genome Biology, 4(11), 233. https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2003-4-11-233 Guo, X., Li, H., Xu, H., Woo, S., Dong, H., Lu, F., Lange, A. J., & Wu, C. (2012). Glycolysis in the control of blood glucose homeostasis. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B, 2(4), 358–367. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.apsb.2012.06.002 Hatting, M., Tavares, C. D. J., Sharabi, K., Rines, A. K., & Puigserver, P. (2017). Insulin regulation of gluconeogenesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1411(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/nyas.13435 Hedbacker, K., & Carlson, M. (2008). SNF1/AMPK pathways in yeast. Frontiers in Bioscience : A Journal and Virtual Library, 13(7), 2408–2420. https://doi.org/10.2741/2854 Hosseinzadeh, P., Javanbakht, M. H., Mostafavi, S.-A., Djalali, M., Derakhshanian, H., Hajianfar, H., Bahonar, A., & Djazayery, A. (2013). Brewer’s Yeast Improves Glycemic Indices in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 4(10), 1131–1138. https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3843299/ Hua, Y., Clark, S., Ren, J., & Sreejayan, N. (2012). Molecular mechanisms of chromium in alleviating insulin resistance. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 23(4), 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jnutbio.2011.11.001 Kayikci, Ö., & Nielsen, J. (2015). Glucose repression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Yeast Research, 15(6), fov068. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/fov068 Li, J., Zhong, L., Wang, F., & Zhu, H. (2017). Dissecting the role of AMP-activated protein kinase in human diseases. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B, 7(3), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.apsb.2016.12.003 Rolland, F., Winderickx, J., & Thevelein, J. M. (2002). Glucose-sensing and -signalling mechanisms in yeast. FEMS Yeast Research, 2(2), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2002.tb00084.x Solubility of Gases in Water. (2019). Engineeringtoolbox.com. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ gases-solubility-water-d_1148.html WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. (2021, November 10). Diabetes. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes Metabolomics of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/This-figure-shows-the-insulin-signaling-pathway-The-insulinreceptor-binds-insulin-has_fig1_333230462

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Murtey, M. D., & Ramasamy, P. (2016). Sample Preparations for Scanning Electron Microscopy – Life Sciences. In www.intechopen.com. IntechOpen. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/49652 Biology Pictures: Alcohol Fermentation in Yeast. (n.d.). Biology Pictures. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://biology-pictures.blogspot.com/2012/12/alcohol-fermentation-in-yeast.html Long, Y. C. (2006). AMP-activated protein kinase signaling in metabolic regulation. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 116(7), 1776–1783. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci29044

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How Does the Morphology of the Caudal Fin and the Body-to-)LQ 5DWLR $൵HFW WKH /RFRPRWLRQ RI )LVK" Author 1

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Chung, Sehwan (Sean)

Chadwick International School

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$EVWUDFW Caudal fins are important for the majority of sea animals as it provides forces that allow them to survive in harsh environments. The aspects of different fins and the importance of these fins acquired scientists to find the need to find out why caudal fins are important. Therefore, investigating the effect of the morphology of caudal fins and the body-to-fin length ratio on the locomotion of fishes would emphasize the importance of caudal fins. This topic is important as it would answer the question which experts have been questioning for a long time about the caudal fins and their importance. This is going to be done by using a MATLAB program, which requires coding to binarize the image and get the simplified shape of caudal fins. By comparing the body-to-fin area and length ratio with the videos that are taken in the COEX Aquarium and collected from Youtube, this investigation shows that area and length ratio and swimming locomotion do not have a strong relationship. Therefore, the calculation that was done based on the comparison does not support the hypothesis, but there would be other factors in which they are affected by swimming methods.

$LP 1

Identify what is the most effective shape of the caudal fins for sea animals to swim in harsh environments including currents and waves.

$LP 2

Identify the relationship between the body-to-fin area and length ratio with the swimming locomotion of animals.

.H\ZRUGV caudal fins, locomotion, body-to-fin-length ratio, body-to-fin area ratio, binarize, morphology

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ,QWURGXFWLRQ Caudal fins that the majority of sea creatures around the world have on the end of their body (70; Desvignes et al., 2018). Caudal fins are known to be important for sea animals as the caudal fin provides lift forces, which allows the creatures to travel from perpendicular to horizontally. In addition, the reactive force allows sea animals to balance well in currents as the marine animals are able to gain the ability to swim in the currents even though there is resistance from the water (Giammona, 2021; Muller & van Leeuwen, 2006). The caudal fins also allow the fish to balance in the water with currents and waves. These abilities to balance and generate force are the factors that make scientists say that the caudal fin is the most important type of fin for sea animals to efficiently swim (Lauder, 2000). In addition, marine animals’ fins are composed of muscles, which also make great power that generates the thrust force (Asfaw & Workineh, 2019). Thrust force is important in order to swim in strong currents and waves. Identifying the necessity of various shapes and body-to-fin ratios would be the most significant research as studying the structure and caudal fin’s function would allow scientists to investigate the locomotion of certain marine animals like the leopard fish. While many biologists and bio-engineers have conducted research that led scientists to notice that the caudal fins are the most important types of fins used for swimming, it is hypothesized that fish with a larger body-to-fin ratio will allow fish to swim faster than the fish with smaller body-to-fin ratio. As these animals have a larger surface area than other types of fins, which allows them to have a greater force, fish are able to gain strength against the resistant force when they are swimming in powerful waves or currents. Thus, it is indisputable that the shape and the structure of the fins are significantly valuable to sea creatures. This essay will mainly elaborate on the most important types of caudal fins according to the shape and the body-to-fin ratio of the body.

Caudal fins are recognized for providing various benefits as there are many sections. The fork-shaped caudal fin has five essential components. The first part (C1) of this fin is where an intersection of the branch ray with the body is. The second part (C2) is the farthest part of the fin from the body, located at the upper caudal lobe. The third component (C3) is also the farthest part of the fin from the body, which is located at the lower caudal lobe. The fourth point (C4) is where the unbranched ray intersects with the body and is connected to the lower caudal lobe. The fifth point (C5) is the midpoint of C1 and C4 (Figure 1) (Chang, n.d.). The sixth point would be necessary, at the midpoint of C2 and C3, to

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) examine the exact shape and also the ratio of the fish needed to find what type of fin is the most effective in natural circumstances. The shape of the fin is significantly important as every fin has a different function. For example, fork-shaped caudal fins allow sea animals to burst out and swim rapidly. In addition, the internal skeleton of the caudal fins is uneven, but on the outside of the body, some of the caudal fins seem even. There are several types of caudal fins among animals around the world. The most well-known caudal fins include fins that are rounded, unevenly rounded, truncate, emarginate, forked, and lunate (Caudal Fin Types, n.d.). All of these caudal fins have the caudal base peduncle, which is necessary as it is formed by a large amount of muscle adapted for swimming (Figure 2) (Structure). Therefore, learning what type of fins are the most efficient would allow scientists to visualize the necessity of fins on animals. As caudal fins are the most required fins for fish to swim, it is investigated by many scientists. In addition, the bigger the caudal fin area-to-body area ratio, the faster the fish will be able to swim. This is because the body will rely on the fins, which are bigger than them. With the usage of a large bodyto-fin area and length ratio, they can gain the ability to swim against resistant forces. This essay will discuss the relevance of the hypothesis and if the caudal fin area and length ratio are correlated with the swimming speed of an organism.

Methods and Materials The images and videos were taken from COEX Aquarium and collected from Youtube sources. Each frame was extracted from the videos at the rate of 5 frames per second (fps). Images of each species were used for measuring the body ratio and the shape while the youtube video was used for measuring the swimming speed of marine animals (distance moved/body length). Calculating the ratio by coordinating points on these converted photos was done in MATLAB (Appendix). By using MATLAB, binarizing was able to be done by the function of ‘im2bw’. Then, coordinates of seven morphometric points were appointed by “ginput (#)” function. The coordinating points provide the simplified shape of the caudal fins, which provide the ratio of body-to-fin and the simplified shape of the caudal fins. To measure the length ratio, the coordinate has to start from the mouth, and horizontally across the fish’s body until the line meets the end. By adding two coordinates of (X, Y), one from the head and another from the tail, measuring the length ratio is possible. The body-to-fin area ratio was obtained by subtracting the area of the tail from the area of the body. MATLAB also makes it easier to find out the shape of the caudal fins by coordinating seven points. Simplified shapes of caudal fins would provide the silhouette of the tail. Then, measuring how fast organisms swim is important. The swimming speed of animals can be determined by looking at how much they move per second in terms of fishes’ respective body lengths. By measuring the distance they moved by the body length, measuring how much they move per second is available (distance moved/body length = BL/sec). Therefore, the usage of MATLAB is highly needed to find the required aspects needed to examine necessary components. To investigate the body-to-fin ratio and the shape of the caudal fins of each animal, morphometric calculations are necessary. Morphometrics is a method that uses quantitative measurement and mathematical analysis to outline and analyze an organ or organism. It does not only help with identifying differences between fish populations, but also the ratio, and growth pattern. Fish morphometrics is a statistical procedure used to examine the size and ratio of the organism. It is used by measuring the length, mass, angle, or ratio of other measurements and it can help to investigate specific types of fish (Meristics, n.d.; Tripathy, 2020; Caillon et al., 2018). For example, putting a dot on the joint on

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the jaw and the base of the caudal fins can provide the exact length of the fish without the caudal fins (Figure 3). In addition, by putting coordinates at the start of the dorsal fin until to its stomach, the depth of the dorsal fins can be identified. In this investigation, coordinates were put on seven body parts. There should be a total of seven points that need to be plotted on the caudal fins (Figure 4). The first coordination was located in the part where the branch ray and the body intersects each other. The second point is in the middle of the upper caudal lobe. The third point was designated as the end of the upper caudal lobe. The fourth one is located in the midst of the lower and upper caudal lobe. The fifth coordinate is on the lower caudal lobe while the sixth one is located in the middle of the lower caudal lobe. Finally, the last point is located on the lower part where the branch rays and the body intersect with each other. By coordinating in this manner, morphometrics could be used to find out which shape of the caudal fins is the most significant for swimming as morphometrics can measure the length and the ratio of morphometric points of the fish by choosing a standard length (Anumudu CI, 2015). From here, the distance they moved divided by body length can give the exact swimming speed per second to determine their swimming speed. By measuring the size and the shape of the fins starting from the caudal peduncle depth to the farthest part of the tail and calculating the body-to-fin ratio, determining what shape of the caudal fin is the most efficient for swimming will be easier. By dividing the tail area by the body area, finding out the body-to-fin area ratio is available. Therefore, MATLAB should be used in order to measure the length and the shape of the caudal fins as it converts the data into numerical data, which is needed to identify the shape and the importance of the caudal fins. As morphometrics is used as it provides coordinates rather than linear, area, etc., it is very useful for scientists to measure the coordination and the size of an object taken in the photo. (Liuti & Dixon, 2020).

Results Swimming Speed Area Ratio Length Ratio (BL/Sec) Oblique-banded sweetlips 0.17 0.150 0.246 Pacu fish 0.09 0.163 0.193 Red Spotted Severum 0.29 0.132 0.225 Red Zebra African Cichlid 4.82 0.169 0.180 Nishikigoi 0.34 0.214 0.210 Salmonids 1.46 0.147 0.113 Average 1.195 0.13805 0.19450 Table 1. Average swimming speed, body-to-fin area ratio, and body-to-fin length ratio of six different fish species. Fish Species

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Table 1 shows the average rate of the chosen fish’s swimming speed and the ratio of body-to-fin area and length. The six species that are chosen to be investigated have an average speed of 1.195 Body Length (BL) per second. While the body-to-fin area ratio is 1: 0.13805, the average length ratio is 1:0.19450. These average rate numbers will be compared with the species’ individual swimming locomotion rate, area, and length ratio to determine if the proportion and the shape of the fins affect the swimming speed and the locomotion of these six species (Table 1). Oblique-banded Sweetlips Binarized image

Original image

Body Length FP

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9.1 5.8 10.9 7.4

Simplified caudal fin (lunate)

6ZLPPLQJ Speed 'LVWDQFH Moved / 6ZLPPLQJ Speed (avg) Body length = %/ VHF 0.182 BL / sec 0.116 BL / sec 0.17 BL/sec 0.218 BL / sec 0.148 BL / sec

Area ratio %RG\ WDLO

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1 : 0.150 1: 0.246 Table 2. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of Oblique-banded sweetlip 3DFX fish Original image

Binarized image

Simplified caudal fin (forked unevenly)

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Body Length FP

'LVWDQFH Moved FP

91cm

5.1 5.0 10.1 12.7

6ZLPPLQJ Speed 'LVWDQFH Moved / Body length = %/ VHF 0.056 BL / sec 0.054 BL / sec 0.111 BL / sec 0.139 BL / sec

6ZLPPLQJ Speed (avg)

0.09 BL / sec

Area ratio %RG\ WDLO Length ratio %RG\ WDLO 1 : 0.163 1 : 0.193 Table 2. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of Pacu fish Red Spotted 6HYHUXP Original

Body Length FP

Simplified caudal fin (round)

Binarized image

'LVWDQFH 0RYHG FP

'LVWDQFH Moved / Body length = %/ VHF

11.4

0.57 BL / sec

5.1

0.26 BL / sec

4.6

0.23 BL / sec

1.8

0.09 BL / sec

20cm

6ZLPPLQJ Speed (avg)

0.29 BL / sec

Area ratio %RG\ WDLO

Length ratio %RG\ WDLO

1 : 0.132

1 : 0.225

Table 3. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of red spotted severum

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Red Zebra $IULFDQ &LFKOLG Original image

Binarized image

Body Length FP

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13cm

7.4 25.1 68 84.6

Simplified caudal fin (truncate)

6ZLPPLQJ Speed 'LVWDQFH Moved / Body 6ZLPPLQJ 6SHHG (avg) length = %/ VHF 5.7 BL / sec 1.9 BL / sec 4.82 BL / sec 5.2 BL / sec 6.5 BL / sec

Area ratio %RG\ WDLO Length ratio %RG\ WDLO 1 : 0.169 1: 0.180 Table 4. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of Red Zebra African Cichlid Nishikigoi Original image

Binarized image

Body Length IURP literature FP

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38cm

13.2 15.4 9.1 21

Simplified caudal fin (forked)

6ZLPPLQJ Speed 'LVWDQFH 0RYHG %RG\ 6ZLPPLQJ Speed (avg) length = %/ VHF 0.34 BL / sec 0.41 BL / sec 0.05 BL / sec 0.55 BL / sec

0.34 BL / sec

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Area ratio %RG\ WDLO Length ratio %RG\ WDLO 1 : 0.214 1 : 0.210 Table 5. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of Nashikigoi 6DOPRQLGV Original image

Binarized image

Body Length FP

'LVWDQFH 0RYHG FP

51cm

32.5 17.5 18 7.0

Simplified caudal fin (forked unevenly)

6ZLPPLQJ Speed 'LVWDQFH 0RYHG %RG\ length = %/ VHF 0.63 BL / sec 0.34 BL / sec 0.35 BL / sec 0.14 BL / sec

6ZLPPLQJ Speed (avg)

1.46 BL / sec

Area ratio %RG\ WDLO Length ratio %RG\ WDLO 1: 0.147 1: 0.113 Table 6. Body length, distance moved, swimming speed, and average swimming speed of salmonids Comparing the sizes of fishes Red Zebra African Cichlid is the fastest fish amongst the fishes that are being investigated. Red Zebra African Cichlid has a swimming speed of 4.82 BL/sec with a body-to-fin ratio of 1: 0.169 and the body-to-fin length ratio of 1: 0.180. However, the area ratio is the fourth-smallest among species that are being investigated (Red Zebra Cichlid Breeding and Care, n.d.). Salmonids are the second fastest swimmers among these six fishes as salmonids swim at a speed of 1.46 BL/sec with an area ratio of 1: 0.147 and the length ratio of 0.113. However, even though salmonids are recognized as the second fastest fish in the dataset, the fin’s area is the third smallest while the length ratio is the smallest among the other types of fish (Salmon, n.d.). Nishikigoi is the next fastest fish among the species being investigated as Nishikigoi have a swimming speed of 0.34 BL/sec and an area ratio of 1: 0.214 and a length ratio of 1: 0.210. It is evident that even with these large areas and lengths of Nishikigoi's caudal fins, Nishikigoi is not the fastest swimmers among the other organisms being investigated (Koi Fish Relaxation | Cat TV [10 Hours], n.d.). Despite the fact that the Red Spotted Severum has a large area ratio of 0.132 and a length ratio of 0.225, Red Spotted Severum still lacks the

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ability to swim as 0.29 BL/sec is Red Spotted Severum’s swimming speed (Red Spotted Severums (H D), n.d.). In addition, Oblique-banded Sweetlips have the slowest swimming rate of 0.17 BL/sec in spite of the large fins Oblique-banded sweetlips have an area ratio of 1: 1.150 and a length ratio of 1: 0.246 (4K, n.d.). The slowest fish among the selected fish is the Pacu fish as the pacu fish swim rate only reaches 0.09 BL/sec while Pacu Fish has an area ratio of 1: 0.164 and the length ratio of 1: 0.193 (Pacus, n.d.). The data shows that there is a weak relationship between the area ratio, length ratio, and swimming speed. Therefore, it is likely to say that body-to-fin areas and the length ratio do not affect locomotion and swimming patterns.

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Graph 1. Body-to-fin area ratio and BL/sec

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Graph 2. Body-to-fin length ratio and BL/s

Graph 3. Area Ratio Vs. Fish Species

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Graph 4. Length Ratio Vs. Fish Species Collectively, the Graph 1, 2, 3 and 4 reject the hypothesis that the larger the body-to-fin area and length ratio, the faster the fish swims. This is evident as some of the sea animals with larger body-to-fin area and length ratio are relatively slower than other marine animals. For example, in Graph 2, even though pacu fish have a 1 : 0.163 body-to-fin area ratio and 1 : 0.193 body-to-fin length ratio of their fins, they are the slowest animals amongst those investigated as they swim at the rate of 0.09 BL/sec. In addition, the Swimming speed of the Salmonid is 1.46 BL/Sec despite the fact that they have the bodyto-fin area ratio of 1: 0.147 and length ratio of 1:0.113, which is a body-to-fin ratio that is relatively smaller than the pacu fish. This indicates that the body-to-fish area and length ratio do not affect the swimming locomotion significantly. Graph 3 and Graph 4 indicate that body-to-fin area ratio does not relate to the body-tofin length ratio. For example, Nishikigoi has the largest body-to-fin area ratio, which is 1 : 0.214. However, Nishikigoi has the length ratio of 1 : 0.210, which is the third largest length ratio among other species. As it turns out that there is not relationship between the body-to-fin area ratio and length ratio, there would be other factors that could cause the increase in swimming velocity such as the environment they are living in. For example, there are animals that are adapted to harsh environments such as the Pacific Ocean or in the ring of fire, where a lot of geological formation changes. These adaptations would allow them to have faster swimming locomotion than those who live in mild climates or environments. There is also the possibility of inaccurate data including wrong calculations as there are some limitations to this experiment. As aquariums provide restricted areas for animals to dwell, captive fish have different circumstances as they live in areas controlled by humans. Limited spaces would cause a change in the swimming locomotion of marine animals due to stress. If animals were captive in restricted areas, confined creatures are more likely to commit suicide or harm themselves as stress may cause stereotypic behavior. It has been noted in 2001 that 80% of New Zealand's captive animals experienced stereotypic

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) behaviors. This stereotypic behavior changes instinctual behavior (Stereotypies as Animal Welfare Indicators, n.d.). If this happens to fishes in aquariums, it will be likely for them to swim slowly or show unusual behavior, bringing inaccurate results (Structure). There could also be some inaccuracy in measuring the size of fish. This is because refraction may occur by thick glass and water. If the size is shown larger than usual, it might bring different results than using the actual size of the fish. The third limitation was that the size of the fish was from the internet. As the sizes were not the exact size of the fish in the photo, the BL/sec, the measurement of how fast those fishes may not be accurate due to assumptions made. In addition, if the camera were shaky, it could likely disrupt the way in which fishes travel. Another drawback is that fish do not go straight forward horizontally. This would cause fluctuation in a fish’s locomotion, bringing different and inaccurate results to the measurement of the swimming velocity. To get accurate results, the rulers should be placed in front of the camera to show the exact size of the fish. The final limitation is that plotting might differ, resulting in inaccurate measurements. This is because the coordinates are not always the same to make a simplified caudal fin. This might bring different results in the shape and the ratio of the caudal fins. To resolve this issue and get accurate results, it is better to plot the coordinates in the same place in the images. In fact, more precisely recorded images and videos are thus necessary to improve this research and support the result better. Thus, it is difficult to say that swimming locomotion is significantly affected by the area and the length of the caudal fins since there are many other factors that impact the swimming speed. This research is important as it would improve knowledge on the caudal fins and the importance of caudal fins for swimming locomotion. Even though this method has some limitations, when these limitations are solved, it is likely that this tactic will be used in the field of bioengineering. For example, if scientists use this method to find the body-to-fin area and length ratio, and swimming velocity, it might be possible for scientists to create bio-mimicked products based on their aspects. Therefore, learning and researching about caudal fins and locomotion are highly valued for the future to improve on technologies but also to increase the knowledge of caudal fins.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 5HIHUHQFHV 4K - Beautiful ocean clown fish turtle aquarium - Relaxing and sleeping music. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DP4QDNm6f4Q 70 Trout in the Classroom Activity Guide Types of Fins Dorsal and Anal Fins. (n.d.). https://www.isu.edu/media/libraries/museum/TIC-Activity-Guide-70.pdf Anumudu CI, M. T. (2015). Advanced Techniques for Morphometric Analysis in Fish. Journal of Aquaculture Research & Development, 06(08). https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9546.1000354 Asfaw, D., & Workineh, G. (2019). Quantitative analysis of morphometry on Ribb and Gumara watersheds: Implications for soil and water conservation. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 7(2), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2019.02.003 Caillon, F., Bonhomme, V., Möllmann, C., & Frelat, R. (2018). A morphometric dive into fish diversity. Ecosphere, 9(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2220 Caudal Fin Types. (n.d.). Koaw Nature. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://www.koaw.org/caudalfin-types Chang, J. (n.d.). Landmarking protocol. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/suppl/2015/07/28/023382.DC1/023382-2.pdf Giammona, F. F. (2021). Form and Function of the Caudal Fin Throughout the Phylogeny of Fishes. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 61(2), 550–572. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icab127 Kara, C., Alp, A., & úLPúHNOL M. (2010, January). Distribution of fish fauna on the upper and middle basin of Ceyhan River, Turkey. Koi Fish Relaxation | Cat TV [10 Hours]. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a0w_Uebk_LA Lauder, G. V. (2000). Function of the Caudal Fin During Locomotion in Fishes: Kinematics, Flow Visualization, and Evolutionary Patterns. American Zoologist, 40(1), 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/40.1.101 Liuti, T., & Dixon, P. M. (2020). The use of the geometric morphometric method to illustrate shape difference in the skulls of different-aged horses. Veterinary Research Communications, 44(3-4), 137– 145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-020-09779-8 Meristics and Morphometrics. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2022, from https://fishionary.fisheries.org/meristics_morphometrics/ Muller, U. K., & van Leeuwen, J. L. (2006). Undulatory fish swimming: from muscles to flow. Fish and Fisheries, 7(2), 84–103.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2006.00210.x Pacus or Serrasalminae in aquarium. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgCOiGnvB2M Red Spotted Severums (H D). (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4BE27FYy3c Red Zebra Cichlid Breeding and Care. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fysn81uzgxw&t=3s Ruler Changes Size. (2018, February 12). Cool Science Experiments Headquarters. https://coolscienceexperimentshq.com/ruler-changes-size/#:~:text=The%20index% 20of%20refraction%20for%20water%20is%201.33. Salmon Run at Skagit River - 4K UHD Underwater Salmon Relax Video - 2 Hour. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGbkjrdD_s Stereotypies as animal welfare indicators. (n.d.). Www.zawec.org. Retrieved August 3, 2022, from https://www.zawec.org/en/what-do-we-do/fact-sheets/44-stereotypies-as-animal -welfare-indicators#:~:text=Stereotypies%3A%20definition%20and%20classification &text=Repetitive%20behaviours%20caused%20by%20the Structure and Function - Fish | manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth. (n.d.). Manoa.hawaii.edu. Retrieved August 1, 2022, from https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/biological/fish/ structure-and-function-fish#:~:text=The%20caudal%20peduncle%20is%20the Tripathy, S. K. (2020). Significance of Traditional and Advanced Morphometry to Fishery Science. Journal of Human, Earth, and Future, 1(3), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.28991/hef-2020-01-03-05 Zoochotic - Stereotypic Behaviour. (n.d.). Www.wildlife.org.nz. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from http://www.wildlife.org.nz/zoocheck/zoochotic.htm#:~:text=In%20a%20 2001%20study%20of

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix MATLAB Code clear all Clc close all I = imread('fish_1.png'); BW = im2bw(I,0.15); BW2 = imfill(BW,'holes'); se80 = strel('line',3,90); se0 = strel('line',3,0); BWsdil = imdilate(BW2,[se80 se0]); seD = strel('diamond',1); BWfinal = imerode(BW2,seD); figure imshow(BWfinal); Area_body = bwarea(BWfinal); [X, Y] = ginput(7); P = [X, Y]; tail = polyshape(P); plot(tail); Area_tail = area(tail); Ratio = Area_tail / Area_body;

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

An Assessment of The Yangjaecheon River in Seoul Using Benthic Invertebrates as Indicators of Water Quality Author 1

Full Name

&\KQ, Jowon (Layla)

Korea International School (KIS)

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: People rely on water bodies as sources of natural resources, income, and leisure—and as the quality of the water worsens, so does their quality of life. For instance, contaminated water can cause significant health problems, including cholera, Hepatitis A, and Legionnaires’ Disease with constant exposure. Moreover, these crucial aquatic environments also serve as habitats for key species, whose existence are in constant threat by pollutants. These fish, fowl, and most notably, macroinvertebrates, not only play critical roles in the environment as a whole, but can be used as indicators of the health of the aquatic ecosystem. In addition, this study identified the distribution of invertebrates in three selected locations along the 10-kilometer Yangjaecheon River in Seoul to enhance awareness of the several ways that urban activities can affect water quality. The physicochemical water parameters were measured using ion chromatography systems, total organic carbon analyzers, analytical balances, portable conductivity and pH/DO meters, while the benthic macroinvertebrates were collected with nylon nets. Finally, assessments were performed on Benthic Macroinvertebrates Index (BMI) and Water Quality Index (WQI). As a result, the assessments based on the investigated location of the river provided an insight into ways that urban and human activity affect water quality.

Keywords: Benthic macroinvertebrates, water quality assessments, urbanism, ecological score

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction As urbanization takes over Earth’s terrestrial environments, scientists have begun tracking biodiversity within a range of ecosystems to predict long-term shifts from human activity. The criteria that affect species’ existence or non-existence in certain areas, range from salinity within aquatic ecosystems, to local human activity, to any factor that affects the way specific organisms eat, reproduce, and evade predators. The study of which species, if any, thrive in environments with low or high rates of pollution may identify contributors of species extinction through a collapse of the food chain; a loss of keystone invertebrate species deprives all its predators, and in turn theirs, of a source of energy [1]. This phenomenon is seen as a future complement to current climate policies, which are currently targeting urban communities in an attempt to eradicate toxic practices. The worldwide commitment to obtain this target, and thereby achieve a zero waste footprint, was also supported by the 2016 Quito New Urban Agenda, which presented green restrictions for the construction of cities vis a vis its local environment [2]. One of the tiniest keystone species under observation includes benthic macroinvertebrates, which provide a metric for which scientists can assess water quality and overall aquatic ecosystem health [3]. The way in which this is made possible lies in their name; the term benthic, derived from the Latin word benthos, is a term describing the bottom of aquatic ecosystems, or seafloors. The variety in their physicochemical preferences indicates good, fair, or poor water quality; species such as stoneflies and mayflies, which thrive in clean, sustainable conditions, are good signs for ecosystem health, while others, such as leeches and blackflies, are characteristics of high pollution [4]. Various physicochemical water parameters, such as pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), the concentration of several ion species, biological oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC), and suspended solids (SS), help identify changes in biodiversity and distinguish natural and man-made factors. Previous studies in this field have also monitored activities such as agriculture, washing, and bathing, in order to support the consensus that sources of pollutants must be controlled and water bodies placed under closer monitoring by the appropriate authorities [5]. Figures of merit, such as ecological score (BMI) and water quality index (WQI), were used to measure the health of the Yangjaecheon River in Seoul, South Korea. The water body was specifically chosen as it provides an example of self-sustaining systems in aquatic environments, and their interactions with humans in nearby areas. In this paper, questions related to the application of benthic macroinvertebrates in the innovation sector of the climate change movement are specifically addressed. These include: (1) How do these organisms differ in environmental adaptations and man-made shifts in their ecosystem? (2) What is the connection between the presence of certain species and the saprobic classification of their aquatic habitat? (3) How do external factors affect the survival of certain invertebrate species and how does this affect the food chain dynamic in their area? (4) What actions have been taken based on research on or adjacent to this discovery? (5) What future applications are possible with this new system of evaluation?

2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Collection and identification of benthic macroinvertebrates All sampling of benthic macroinvertebrates and water was conducted at L1, L2 and L3. Benthic macroinvertebrates collection was carried out three times over a period of two months (April and May

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) in 2022). These invertebrate species were collected using a nylon net and the kick-net method, in which a researcher stomped up sediment on the bottom of the riverbed to unearth any invertebrates, which would then flow downstream into the net for further analysis. Those that were caught were released back into the water after being photographed. The benthic invertebrates found were identified using an illustrated book [6]. 2.2 Water sampling and physicochemical analysis On-site measurements were conducted for temperature, conductivity, pH, and DO concentration using portable devices. Water samples were collected in plastic bottles without headspace and transported to the laboratory for additional analysis. The concentration of ionic species (ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), and phosphate (PO43-)) was measured by the ion chromatography system. BOD was determined by the difference between the initial and final (after 5 days) DO concentration. During 5 days, tightly sealed water samples were placed in the constant temperature chamber to maintain a temperature of 20 °C. TOC concentration was analyzed by a total organic carbon analyzer. SS concentration was determined using a vacuum filtration system. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was estimated from TOC data based on correlation between COD and TOC (equation 1) [7]. ‫ = ܦܱܥ‬2.99 ‫ ڄ‬TOC + 7.25

(1)

2.3 Indices for water quality assessment This study used two kinds of indices, benthic macroinvertebrate index (BMI) and water quality index (WQI), to assess the Yangjaecheon river in an ecological and physicochemical manner. BMI is expressed as follows (equation 2) [8]: σ೙ ௦ ௛ ௚

೔ ೔ ೔ ൰ × 25 ‫ = ܫܯܤ‬൬4 െ σ೔సభ ೙ ௛௚ ೔సభ ೔ ೔

(2)

where n is the total number of observed benthic macroinvertebrate species, i is the number assigned to the species, si is the saprobic value of species i, hi is the frequency of species i, and gi is the indicator weight value of species i. The BMI value is calculated between 0 to 100 (0 indicates poor aquatic ecosystem and 100 indicates excellent aquatic ecosystem). In this study, Malaysian WQI was used to assess the physicochemical water quality of the Yangjaecheon river. The Malaysian WQI considers 6 kinds of sub-index (SI) for water quality parameters including DO, BOD, COD, SS, ammonium nitrogen (AN), SS, and pH. Weighting constants were assigned to each sub-index and The Malaysian WQI is expressed as follows (equation 3) [9]: ܹܳ‫ = ܫ‬0.22 ‫ܫܵ ڄ‬஽ை + 0.19 ‫ܫܵ ڄ‬஻ை஽ + 0.16 ‫ܫܵ ڄ‬஼ை஽ + 0.16 ‫ܫܵ ڄ‬ௌௌ + 0.15 ‫ܫܵ ڄ‬஺ே + 0.12 ܵ‫ܫ‬௣ு (3) where SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SISS, SIAN, and SIpH are sub-index for DO, BOD, COD, SS, AN, and pH, respectively. Each SI is calculated with equations 4–9. ܵ‫ܫ‬஽ை = 0 (for DO in % saturation ൑ 8)

(4a)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஽ை = 100 (for 8 < DO in % saturation < 92)

(4b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஽ை = െ0.395 + 0.030 ‫ ڄ‬DOଶ െ 0.00020 ‫ ڄ‬DOଷ (for 92 ൑ DO in % saturation) (4c) ܵ‫ܫ‬஻ை஽ = 100.4 െ 4.23 ‫ ڄ‬BOD (for BOD ൑ 5)

(5a)

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ܵ‫ܫ‬஻ை஽ = 108exp(െ0.055 ‫ ڄ‬BOD) െ 0.1 ‫ ڄ‬BOD (for BOD > 5)

(5b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஼ை஽ = 99.1 െ 1.33 ‫ ڄ‬COD (for COD ൑ 20)

(6a)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஼ை஽ = 103exp(െ0.0157 ‫ ڄ‬BOD) െ 0.04 ‫ ڄ‬COD (for COD > 20)

(6b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬ௌௌ = 97.5exp(െ0.00676 ‫ ڄ‬SS) െ 0.05 ‫ ڄ‬SS (for SS ൑ 100)

(7a)

ܵ‫ܫ‬ௌௌ = 71exp(െ0.0061 ‫ ڄ‬SS) + 0.015 ‫ ڄ‬SS (for 100 < SS < 1000)

(7b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬ௌௌ = 0 (for 1000 ൑ SS)

(7c)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஺ே = 100.5 െ 105 ‫ ڄ‬AN (for AN ൑ 0.3)

(8a)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஺ே = 94exp(െ0.573 ‫ ڄ‬AN) + 5 ‫| ڄ‬AN െ 2| (for 0.3 < AN < 4)

(8b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬஺ே = 0 (for 4 ൑ AN)

(8c)

ܵ‫ܫ‬௣ு = 17.02 െ 17.2 ‫ ڄ‬pH + 5.02 ‫ ڄ‬pHଶ (for 5.5 < pH)

(9a)

ܵ‫ܫ‬௣ு = െ242 + 95.5 ‫ ڄ‬pH െ 6.67 ‫ ڄ‬pHଶ (for 5.5 ൑ pH < 7)

(9b)

ܵ‫ܫ‬௣ு = െ181 + 82.4 ‫ ڄ‬pH െ 6.05 ‫ ڄ‬pHଶ (for 7 ൑ pH < 8.75)

(9c)

ܵ‫ܫ‬௣ு = 536 െ 77.0 ‫ ڄ‬pH + 2.76 ‫ ڄ‬pHଶ (for 8.75 ൑ pH)

(9d)

The Malaysian WQI is classified into 5 classes: I (>92.7), II (76.5–92.7), III (51.9–76.5), IV (31.0– 51.9), and V (>31.0). Lower class indicates better water quality, for instance, Class I water requires no practical treatment and Class III water requires extensive treatment.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 1. Map showing sampling location along Yangjaecheon river based on urban density and manmade additions.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The study area was selected to represent various natural and man-made activities of Yangjaecheon river in Seoul, South Korea. Collecting benthic macroinvertebrate and water samples involved three locations (blue circles), selected based on land activity, aquatic environment, and river length (Figure 1). Locations were labeled as L1, L2 and L3, and the geographic coordinates of locations were: 37° 28' 1.16" N, 127° 1' 45.32" E (L1), 37° 28' 4.34" N, 127° 1' 44.49" E (L2), and 37° 28' 6.33" N, 127° 1' 45.89" E (L3). The river flow goes down in the order of L1, L2, and L3 (refer to the narrow grey arrow). A small scale water treatment facility (orange triangle) located before L1 provides a reference point for water quality in this area. Around the Yangjaecheon river (blue dashed line), construction area (red dotted line), residential area (yellow dashed line), and urban forest (green dashed line) are identified.

Figure 2. External factors influencing the health of river, (a) water treatment facility, (b) bridge, (c) construction site, (d) walking people, (e) dogs, (f) fish, (g) river ducks, (h) pigeons, and (i) birdfeeding. Near L1, there was a water treatment facility (Figure 2a) and an urban forest (Figure 1). Moving northnorth-west at L2, a bridge (Figure 2b), a construction area (Figure 2c), an exercise road (Figure 2d), and several pets (Figure 2e) interacting with the surroundings were also encountered. Finally, L3 revealed several interactions with a nearby residential area (Figure 1), fish (Figure 2f), ducks (Figure 2g), pigeons (Figure 2h), and bird feeders (Figure 2i). Comparing the degrees of human activity among locations reveals that while L1 has the least number of man-made disturbances in its environment, moving further down the river means human activity in the surroundings becomes more significant. The range of different urban characteristics, from construction areas to exercise paths, produces several different effects on the water rather than one general impact.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Table 1. Results of physicochemical assessments run on elements of water quality Sampling location

Conductivity (μS/cm)

DO (mg/L)

NH4+ (mg/L)

NO3(mg/L)

PO43(mg/L)

BOD5 (mg/L)

TOC (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)

7.35

528.97

7.65

6.39

20.07

0.48

7.22

4.07

7.5

7.28

529.37

7.29

8.76

25.70

0.53

6.78

3.79

10.0

7.35

520.83

7.70

6.53

30.36

0.92

6.47

4.16

72.7

To understand the impact of various man-made or natural activities on the river, various physicochemical parameters were assessed. The indexes pH, conductivity, DO, BOD5, and TOC all record values from the three locations within a similar range. This shows that the river’s acidity, general contents of inorganic substances, level of dissolved oxygen, amount of organic matter, and total organic carbon are all generally constant throughout the studied areas, regardless of changes in urban characteristics. However, measurements from NH4+, NO3-, PO43-, and SS have larger differences in value, which indicate changes in runoff composition and level of turbidity. When observing NH4+ measurements closer, it is seen that the maximum value, at L2, is 8.76 mg/L. The higher concentration of NH4+ in L2 compared with other locations means L2 was affected by human activities such as dog walking (Figure 2e) [10]. Dog waste (urine and feces) contains NH4+, and it is believed that abandoned pet waste flowed into the river through run-off. As a consequence of NH4+ concentration increase in L2, the highest NO3- concentration was observed at L3 as NH4+ is converted into NO3- through the nitrification process [11]. The highest PO43- concentration was observed at L3, a result traced back to bird activities in the area (Figure 2g–i), a significant contributor [12] of PO43- concentration. The contents of SS gradually increased with the flow of the water and it is concluded that the severity of human activities (i.e., construction) contributes to the accumulation of SS [13].

Figure 3. The number of observed benthic macroinvertebrate species in Yangjaecheon river.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Out of all three locations, L2 was found to have the greatest biodiversity compared to the number of species found in L1 and L3, as observed by the ratio 3:8:3 (Figure 3). However, in all three locations, the presence of three specific species was constant—the Erpobdella lineata, chironomidae, and Asellus. The level of pollution of river water was estimated using information on saprobic valency for the observed benthic macroinvertebrate species, as summarized in Table 2 [14]. The analysis of the Asellus (Figure 4a) against the saprobic water classification indicates that the water is ȕ- and Į-mesosaprobic, or moderately or severely polluted. The species Chironomidae (Figure 4b) and Limnodrilius gotoi (Figure 4f) reveal a polysaprobic quality, suggesting the presence of heavy pollutants, while the Erpobdella lineata (Figure 4c) can describe ȕ- and Į-mesosaprobic water, which each describe levels of moderate or severe pollution. The Gammarus (Figure 4d) indicates a Xenosaphrobic suggesting healthy water condition, and the Hydropsyche valvata (Figure 4e) and Ephemera orientalis (Figure 4g) represent an oligosaprobic classification, with no or minimal levels of pollution in waters. Finally, the Radix auricularia shows up in both oligosaprobic and ȕ-mesosaprobic water with slight or moderate pollution. At both L1 and L3, only three species were observed—the Asellus, Chironomidae, and Erpobdella lineata. Two out of three of these indicate moderate pollution, while the other one indicates extreme levels of pollution, which show that both locations contain moderate levels of pollution. However, at L2, a range of macroinvertebrates that thrive in a range of clean or polluted environments were present. This implies that L2 is generally clean, as the species that can tolerate unclean waters can thrive in clean ones as well, but those that can only survive in clean water could not, and would die out if L2’s quality was polluted. Table 2. Saprobic valency of observed benthic macroinvertebrate species Saprobic valency Texa Xenosaprobic

Oligosaprobic ȕ-mesosaprobic Į-mesosaprobic polysaprobic

Asellus

0.04

0.14

0.38

0.06

Chironomidae (red type)

0.02

0.05

0.11

0.23

0.61

Erpobdella lineata

0.02

0.11

0.32

0.37

0.17

Gammarus

0.72

0.12

0.07

0.01

0.07

Hydropsyche valvata

0.33

0.50

0.14

0.02

0.01

Limnodrilus gotoi

0.01

0.09

0.20

0.69

Ephemera orientalis

0.31

0.55

0.11

0.02

0.00

Radix auricularia

0.11

0.39

0.36

0.11

0.03

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Figure 4. Photos of observed benthic macroinvertebrate species, (a) Asellus, (b) Chironomidae (red type), (c) Erpobdella lineata, (d) Gammarus, (e) Hydropsyche valvata, (f) Limnodrilus gotoi, (g) Ephemera orientalis, and (h) Radix auricularia.

Figure 5. Graph of relationship between WQI and BMI to elements within sampling locations. While WQI is a physicochemical index and focuses on abiotic characteristics, BMI is a biological index that specifically measures living things. However, both are assessed for a common purpose—to understand the health of the aquatic environment and the interactions within. To begin with, all WQI

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) values were found within a range of 70 ± 3, which indicates a level of slight pollution according to the DOE Water Quality Classification Based on Water Quality Index chart (clean: 81–100, slightly polluted: 60–80, polluted: 0–59) [9]. The highest WQI (72.5) was found at L1, and the values decreased as tests moved from L2 (72.0) to L3 (68.2), demonstrating a decrease in water quality as congruent urban activity increases. On the other hand, BMI values go in a different direction—L2, at 36.9, was measured to have the highest biodiversity, while L1 (27.3) and L3 (20.2) exhibited a decrease in their numbers of different species. The total impact of both urban and bird activities caused the large drop in value between L2 and L3. In summary, L2 had both indexes measure exemplary values showing clean quality in its area, L1 had a combination of exemplary and normal measurements, and L3 finished off with the lowest values, and thereby highest pollution rate, out of all three.

4. Conclusions The Yangjaecheon River is not only a vital ecosystem, but also an important urban characteristic, and this study measured the ways that the two collide. Benthic macroinvertebrates demonstrate different adaptations to water quality—some can only be found in clean water bodies, while others manage to survive in high levels of pollution. These species are not responsible for keeping water clean, but instead serve as indicators of how the ecosystem is maintaining itself, as assessed by saprobic valencies of benthic macroinvertebrates. Runoff, suspended solids, and animal waste are all factors influenced by urbanization, and affect the health of aquatic ecosystems. Appropriate adjustments to the Yangjaecheon have been made in response to this discovery, such as a ban on bird feeding and a requirement for all owners to pick up pet waste. In the future, this system of evaluation could help audiences understand how their actions contribute to changes in water quality and the significance of our water ecosystems.

References [1] M. Schilthuizen, and V. Kellermann. “Contemporary climate change and terrestrial invertebrates: evolutionary versus plastic changes.” Evolutionary Applications, 7(1) 2014, 56–67, https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12116. [2] “Goal 11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” United Nations, Available: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/, [Accessed Aug. 08, 2022]. [3] L. Tampo, I. Kaboré, E. H. Alhassan, A. Ouéda, L. M. Bawa, G. Djaneye-Boundjou, “Benthic macroinvertebrates as ecological indicators: their sensitivity to the water quality and human disturbances in a tropical river.” Frontiers in Water, 3, 2021, 662765, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2021.662765. [4] “Comparing Macroinvertebrates from Three Habitats at the Savage River of Western Maryland.” 2007. Available: https://www.frostburg.edu/student-life/rmsc/_files/pdf/projects/2007macros.pdf, [Accessed Aug. 08, 2022]. [5] F. Ojija and H. Laizer. “Macro Invertebrates As Bio Indicators Of Water Quality In Nzovwe Stream, In Mbeya, Tanzania.” International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 5(6), 2016, 211–222, https://www.ijstr.org/final-print/june2016/Macro-Invertebrates-As-Bio-IndicatorsOf-Water-Quality-In-Nzovwe-Stream-In-Mbeya-Tanzania.pdf. [6] 傴敄泩, 欬椩濈, 全嶭濈, “祼揜瞄幤撵搅幤囬伸”, 檸椘値搅琄, 2017. [7] D. Dubber, and N. F. Gray. “Replacement of chemical oxygen demand (COD) with total organic carbon (TOC) for monitoring wastewater treatment performance to minimize disposal of toxic analytical waste.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 45(12), 2010, 1595–1600, https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2010.506116.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [8] D. Kong, S. -H. Son, S. -J. Hwang, D. H. Won, M. C. Kim, J. H. Park, T. S. Jeon, J. E. Lee, J. H. Kim, J. S. Kim, J. Park, I. S. Kwak, Y. -C. Jun, Y. -S. Park, S. A. Ham, J. -K. Lee, S. -W. Lee, C. H. Park, J. -S. Moon, J. -Y. Kim, H. K. Park, S. J. Park, Y. Kwon, P. Kim, A. R. Kim, “Development of benthic macroinvertebrates index (BMI) for biological assessment on stream environment.” Journal of Korean Society on Water Environment, 34(2), 2018, 183–201, https://doi.org/10.15681/KSWE.2018.34.2.183. [9] M. G. Uddin, S. Nash, A. I. Olbert. “A review of water quality index models and their use for assessing surface water quality.” Ecological Indicators, 122, 2021, 107218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107218. [10] J. A. Allen, H. Setälä, “Dog Urine Has Acute Impacts on Soil Chemistry in Urban Greenspaces” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 2020, 615979, https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.615979. [11] B. Kholdebarin and J. J. Oertli, “Effect of pH and ammonia on the rate of nitrification of surface water” Water Pollution Control Federation, 49(7), 1977, 1688–1692, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25039761. [12] N. M. Scherer, H. L. Gibbons, K. B. Stoops, M. Muller, “Phosphorus Loading of an Urban Lake by Bird Droppings” Lake and Reservoir Management, 11(4), 1995, 317–327, https://doi.org/10.1080/07438149509354213. [13] G. Quadros, V. Mishra, M. U. Borkar, R.P. Athalye, “Impact of construction and reclamation activities on the water quality of the Thane Creek, Central-west coast of India.” Journal of Coastal Development, 7(2), 2004, 71–78, http://eprints.undip.ac.id/149/. [14] S. Barinova, “Essential and practical bioindication methods and systems for the water quality assessment.” International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources, 2(3), 2017, 1–11, https://dx.doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2017.02.555588.

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Effect of indoor laundry drying and fabric softeners on indoor PM 2.5 Author 1

Full Name

Ha, Jaekyun

Korean Minjok Leadership Academy

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: There has been increased attention to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) post COVID-19. Among pollutants of IAQ, fine dust is one of the key components. Consequently, this study examines one of the possible indoor origins of fine dust. Effect of indoor laundry drying, and effect of fabric softeners on indoor PM 2.5 are studied. Measurements are taken using sensors built from Arduino, utilizing IoT technology and considering integration to smart systems. Results show indoor laundry drying increases PM 2.5, but under the IAQ criteria given by Seoul City Hall. Moreover, using fabric softener increases fine dust density more but will not exceed IAQ criteria if used in the direction given by the manufacturer.

Keywords: Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), particulate matter, fine dust, smart home, IoT, indoor laundry drying

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction The COVID-19, which has occurred since the late 2019s, has infected people around the world through the respiratory tract, causing numerous casualties. Through this, people have been drawing their attention to respiratory health[1], and especially indoor air quality[2]. Including aerosol transmission of COVID, multiple pollutants which can be detrimental to human health exist indoors[3]. Some major pollutants and its effect on human health is listed in Table 1. From a regulatory perspective, the Air Quality Guideline (AQG) exists from multiple sources, including WHO and Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Environment. However, we will focus on Seoul City Hall’s criteria, as the experiment was conducted in the City of Seoul. This criteria is a detailed one which consists of criteria for each type of location and pollutants[5].

Table 1 : Table common indoor pollutants and its effect on human health [4, table 1] Among many pollutants, the effect of fine dust on the respiratory tract is fatal. It is due to the composition of fine dust which are carbon, ionic, metal, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Depending on the size, surface area, concentration, and physical properties of the particles, it adversely affects human health through the respiratory tract. Increasing the concentration of fine dust not only obscures the view and causes discomfort, but also causes respiratory diseases such as conjunctivitis, sinusitis, and middle ear inflammation. Fine dust is classified into two categories according to particle size. Fine dust of 10 um or less is defined as PM 10, fine dust of 2.5 um or less is defined as PM 2.5, and fine dust of 0.1 um or less is defined as PM 0.1. While fine dust also occurs naturally, fine dust that threatens our respiratory system mainly comes from pollution caused by some artificial activities such as cement factories[12]. In addition, the

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) fine dust density and wind direction of Shandong province, the closest part of China to Korea, has correlation with Korea’s fine dust density[12]. To improve Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), one of the key strategies is to develop inexpensive networks and automated systems[4]. These systems are composed of sensors, monitoring, filtration, and SMART systems to manage these components. For sensors, Metal Oxide (MOx) sensors are one of the leading technology for its compatibility with modern electronic devices[6] For monitoring, in the recent industry 4.0 revolution, wireless sensor network (WSN) and Internet of Things (IoT)-based systems are the most popular of real-time IAQ monitoring[4]. Electronic noses (Enoses) are applications of IoT to IAQ monitoring[4]. It refers to a type of device that mimics the functionalities of a mammal's nose. Most of these components can be produced with open-source software and low-cost, easy to install hardware. Such software includes arduino sketches. Hardware includes GP2Y1010AU (dust sensor), DHT22 (temperature and humidity sensor), and 32-bit ESP32 WI-Fi controller which can all be installed on an arduino board. Using these low-cost and easy to build E-noses, data can be collected from various places and sent to a cloud server, where it can be processed to provide useful information. For filtering, HVAC filters are widely used, but show limited performance in high humidity[4] Another problem of using air filters is growth of molds and germs in long-term operations.[7] Non-thermal plasma(NTP) technologies can be used to resolve these issues Advanced-oxidation processes (AOPs)based technologies are also promising [8]. The concept of "smart home" has drawn a lot of interest and is being applied to newly built homes[9] A "smart home" is usually associated with automation of various home components. This system can be applied to reduce IAP-induced diseases. The key to a smart home system is modern sensor technology[10]. By using sensors across multiple locations, IAQ can be improved by running appropriate ventilation and filtration, efficiently[11]. Three directions are required for technology to improve indoor air quality (IAQ). These are the Control of emission sources, development of air purification technologies, and optimization of ventilation systems. At this time, the most important control of mission sources may be changed by various factors occurring indoors. Since indoor laundry drying, which is frequently used by modern people, is also considered to be one of the emission sources, an experiment was planned to investigate the effect of indoor laundry drying on indoor air quality. GP2Y1014AU0F sensor uses laser detection for measuring PM 2.5 values. It takes measurements by shooting an infrared ray and absorbing it through a light detector. Particulate matters inside the sensor will cause a fraction and result in the change of output voltage. The voltage will be sent to Arduino main board, where precompiled and installed code written with Arduino sketch will appropriately convert voltage to ug/m^3 unit.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Methods 2.1. PM 2.5 measurement IoT component The IoT component was made from Arduino UNO R3 board, DHT22 humidity and temperature sensor, GP21014AU0F fine dust sensor(PM2.5), and LED module. A wifi module was also attached to allow remote and real time collection of data.

Figure 1 : Wire connection diagram. “Fritzing” 2.2. Experimental environments I used a simulated environment similar to dormitory rooms. Environment consists of a small laundry hanger with 3 linen inside a box made out of panel with 0.5 t of air vent at top. Linen was washed in a LG drum type washing machine W16WS with Beet strong seven laundry detergent for drum type, Downy high concentrated fabric softener was used. Also, In order to improve the accuracy of the experiment, the testing environment and the sensor were calibrated using an air purifier for a few minutes before the experiment. The sensor’s zero-point calibration was also done before each experiment.

Figure 2 : top view of experimental environment

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.3 Measuring experimental data Collected data were sent real time via wifi module to the laptop’s Arduino Sketch terminal and saved as a text file (.txt) using a serial port communication terminal software CoolTerm. Calculation and postprocessing of data were done with MATLAB. Amount of fabric softener used is the only independent variable. My hypothesis was that the amount of fabric softener used would negatively affect indoor air quality over criteria given in related local regions. Other factors, such as type of linen used, simulated environment dimension, washing machine used, amount and type of laundry detergent used were kept consistent among all experiments. Humidity and temperature differed for each day, and could not be kept consistent.

3. Results A total of three types of experiments were conducted. To determine the effect of indoor laundry drying on the generation of fine dust, an experiment was conducted to compare the values of the two by measuring the concentration of fine dust under conditions not drying laundry and laundry with detergent only. In the second experiment, in order to find out the relationship between the concentration of the fabric softener and the amount of fine dust generated from indoor laundry drying, the concentration of the fabric softener was set to 0, 5, 10, and 40 ml, respectively. Finally, in order to find out the tendency of fine dust concentration while drying the laundry, the change in concentration of fine dust was confirmed while drying the laundry for 13 hours. In order to effectively represent the result values, a line graph is drawn and displayed through a MATLAB line graph. The data was collected every 3.01 seconds for 13 hours. After first conducting an experiment to see dust density trend, the time for laundry to dry was adjusted to 2 hours for fabric softener variation experiment.

Figure 3 : PM 2.5 comparison with indoor laundry drying with only detergent

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The fine dust concentration under conditions in which indoor laundry drying was not performed was 17.2 ug/m^3, which corresponds to the average value of the fine dust concentration measured for the first 1 hour. On the other hand, under the conditions using an appropriate amount of fabric softener (10ml), fine dust of 26.7 ug/m^3 was emitted on average for an hour, and it was confirmed that indoor laundry drying actually affects indoor air quality.

Figure 4: PM 2.5 trend for 13 hour period with 20 ml fabric softener The line graph of indoor dust density after applying (20 ml fabric softener)/(3 kg laundry). The 20 ml is average of the 2 doses suggested by the manufacturer, regular and more perfume. It is also about half of the cap cup provided in most fabric softener bottles. Data points were collected every 3 seconds for 13 hours. In general, the dust density increased overall while laundry was being dried, whereas the dust density decreased overall after it dried. There is also a significant increase in dust density compared to figure 3. Moreover, there is a valley dip in the dust density around the 300-min 5 hr mark. It showed for every experiment result.

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Figure 5 : Average PM 2.5 for 1 hour for fabric softener amount 0, 5, 10 ,40 ml The above graph is a graph showing the average amount of fine dust generated for the first hour. according to the concentration of the fabric softener. It shows that the fine dust concentration increases pseudo linearly as the concentration of the fabric softener increases.

4. Discussion Through this experiment, I showed that indoor laundry drying in a dormitory environment generates excess fine dust. I also showed that increasing the dose of fabric softener increases the amount of fine dust generated. Effect of laundry drying with just laundry detergent on indoor PM 2.5 value The Seoul City Hall’s IAQ criteria for PM 2.5 is under 50 ug/m^3 [5]. When drying laundry that has been washed with just the laundry detergent, while PM 2.5 values does increase compared to a normal room state (17 -> 26), it stays under PM 2.5 < 50 ug/m^3. However, it does exceed WHO’s AQG of PM 2.5 < 15 ug/m^3. Effect of laundry drying with fabric softeners on indoor PM 2.5 value Using fabric softeners greatly worsen IAQ, even when using the appropriate amount suggested by the manufacturer, 20 ml per 3 kg of laundry. In the first hour of drying, it stays under PM 2.5 < 50 ug/m^3 of Seoul City Hall’s IAQ criteria. However, as can be seen from figure 4, PM 2.5 value increases for about 3.5hrs (7 x 30 min) before decreasing. On average, the PM 2.5 value barely meets criteria. Why laundry detergent and fabric softeners generate fine dust Various chemicals exist inside these liquids, such as water softeners, cationic/anionic surfactants, emulsifiers, Some of the chemicals are intended to remain on fabrics after they are washed. One

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) example is diethyl ester dimethyl ammonium chloride (DEEDMAC) in fabric softeners. It smooths the fabric surface by coating it. Then their cationic surfactant properties provide antistatic features, preventing fabrics from generating charges and clinging together. Some chemicals are meant to add good scent to fabrics and stay too. However, some of the chemicals can also evaporate to air and aggregate with other particles, such as H2O or other chemical particles through aggregation and act as fine dust. While most chemicals in this experiment will have much lower vapor pressure to H2O, there are two things to take into account. First, evaporation from a fabric surface can be different from evaporation from a solution surface. Lower affinity with fabric and particles can cause even some of the larger molecules to evaporate to air. Second, even as H2O particles are the first to part the fabric and join air, we have to consider a phenomenon similar to Raoult’s Law. As water particles evaporate earlier, the molecular fraction of other chemicals from softeners and detergents will increase, causing them to also evaporate at a meaningful rate. ĜThe Dip” in Figure 4 4~5 hour interval There is a dip in PM 2.5 value in the 4~5 hour interval. Another 13 hour experiment was conducted to see if this was a one time error, but the same dip occured in around the same time interval. As this phenomena was shown repeatedly, I believe it is something that can be studied more closely with better equipment. One possible hypothesis is that it’s a combination of two phenomenons. One is the effect of water vapors on the GP2 sensor. The second is the majority of water in fabric, with their high vapor pressure, evaporating earlier and being detected faulty in the GP2 sensor, then decreasing afterwards. Indoor Laundry Drying tips from this experiment When in an environment where ventilation is not convenient, it is advisable to forgo using fabric softeners. And when using fabric softeners, it is advisable not to overuse them, as the amount instructed by the manufacturer barely fits the IAQ guidelines. And as always, it is good to ventilate often which will solve most IAQ concerns. Application to dormitory smart system Also, the sensors will be built as an inexpensive IoT component that can be mass produced at low cost, even by high school students, and send collected data via wifi to a collection hub. In a larger, more integrated system, the center hub can collect this data and automatically open small ventilation windows if available. At the very least, it can alert students of a floor or a build to ventilate to ensure IAQ. Experiment environment setup The dimensions of the experiment environment is intended to reflect the actual dorm room in Korean high schools for 6 people. The slight air flow holes are there to simulate air flow caused in actual dorm rooms by 6 people going in and out through the main door. Air flow through the window is not simulated. The material for walls, woodrock panels , were selected for their availability and transformability. They do not simulate the insulated cement/wooden walls of dormitories. Sensor accuracy There are multiple ways to measure PM 2.5. This studies leaser detection method, which is used by the

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Sharp GP2Y1014AU0F PM 2.5 sensor, has more costly but accurate methods available. For example, Seoul City Hall measures fine dust by checking the accumulation of matter on designated filter paper. However, the laser detection method is good for qualitative research, and can also be used for low definition quantitative research. One downside of laser detection is that it can misdetect water vapors in air as fine dust. While zero point and sensitivity calculation can be handled by arduino sketch code before each experiment, this is one flaw of the laser detection method that is hard to correct. Data Post processing An average value of a few minutes was used for drawing graphs that can be interpreted. Using the GP2 sensor, values were measured for every 3 seconds. This is because there were some values from the sensor where it jumped both positively and negatively for every 1~2 values out of ten. So I took as many points as I could and when drawing graphs, used average values to cancel out the jumped points. Laundry detergents and fabric softeners for indoors There are some products one the market which are advertised specifically for indoor uses. A quick search for reviews mostly highlights less perfumes than regular products. It will be a good future study to see if indoor products generate less fine dust too. Taking humidity and temperature into account From the perspective of laundry drying speed, local humidity and temperature are major factors. While these data were taken using the DHT-22 sensor unit, they were not interpreted to show any correlation or causal relations. Moreover, high humidity can lead to easier aggregation of particles, much like the formation of fogs, and show higher PM 2.5 values when using laser detection methods.

5. Conclusion My study showed the effect of laundry drying on IAQ and that the amount of fabric softeners pseudolinearly increases indoor PM2.5 value. In accordance with the IAQ criteria of Seoul City Hall, using the amount of fabric softeners suggested by manufacturers will be appropriate. Also, as most dorms are not ventilated regularly, the simulated environment also reflected the lack of air circulation. The sensors were built using Arduino boards as IoT components, so they can be easily integrated to a smart system to help maintain IAQ. While many practices can help maintain a good IAQ, the most effective and fundamental practice is to ventilate regularly.

References [1] Blake Elias, Chen Shen and Yaneer Bar-Yam, Respiratory health for better COVID-19 outcomes Version 4, New England Complex Systems Institute (October 14, 2021).] [2] Smieszek et al, (2019) Assessing the Dynamics and Control of Droplet- and Aerosol-Transmitted Influenza Using an Indoor Positioning System [3] OSHA. Technical Manual: Indoor air Quality Investigation. Available online: https://www.osha.gov/otm/section-3-health-hazards/chapter-2 (accessed on 5 August 2022)

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [4] van Tran et al(2020), Indoor Air Pollution, Related Human Diseases,and Recent Trends in the Control and Improvement of Indoor Air Quality [5] Seoul Metropolitan Government, IAQ criteria, accessed 06 August 2022, https://cleanindoor.seoul.go.kr/contents.do?contentsNo=32&menuNo=193 [6] Masson,N.;Piedrahita,R.;Hannigan,M.Approach for quantification of metal oxide type semiconductor gas sensors used for ambient air quality monitoring. Sens. Actuat. B Chem. 2015, 208, 339–345. [7] Jung, J.-S.; Kim, J.-G. An indoor air purification technology using a non-thermal plasma reactor with multiple-wire-to-wire type electrodes and fiber air filter. J. Electrostat. 2017, 86, 12–17. [8] Fujishima,A.;Honda,K.Photolysis-decomposition of water at the surface of irradiated semiconductor. Nature 1972, 238, 37–38 [9] Schieweck et al (2018) Smart homes and the control of indoor air quality, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 94,Pages 705-718, ISSN 1364-0321, [10] Kumar,P.;Skouloudis,A.N.;Bell,M.;Viana,M.;Carotta,M.C.;Biskos,G.;Morawska,L.Real-time sensors for indoor air monitoring and challenges ahead in deploying them to urban buildings. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 560–561, 150–159 [11] Schieweck,A.;Uhde,E.;Salthammer,T.;Salthammer,L.C.;Morawska,L.;Mazaheri,M.;Kumar,P.Smart homes and the control of indoor air quality. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 94, 705–718 [12] Park S.; Shin H., Analysis of the Factors Influencing PM2.5 in Korea : Focusing on Seasonal Factors (2017), Korea Environmental Policy and Administrations Society, Korea Environmental Policy, 25(1), p227-248

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Exploring the Relationship Between Heart Rate Variability and Stress Levels via Machine Learning Algorithms Author 1

Full Name

Ha, Jaimie Yoon

Yonsan International School of Seoul

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Heart rate variability (HRV) is the variation of intervals between consecutive heartbeats. In healthy individuals, HRV increases during more calming activities and decreases in stressful conditions. This research focused on exploring how HRV data could measure stress levels. The technology to measure HRV has evolved to instantaneous tracking in the 2010s, but the electrocardiogram (ECG) device used today is based on designs from the 1980s. An ECG works by placing electrodes on the skin, which detects strength and frequency of electrical activity of the heart. Data for this research was collected by recording ECG measurements on 25 subjects in an office setting under three working conditions: no stress, time pressure, and email interruptions. Multiple machine learning (ML) algorithms and deep learning algorithms were implemented in detecting stress levels and comparing for accuracy. Results for the 4 ML algorithms ranged from 99.8% to 100% accuracy and of the four deep learning algorithms, the most accurate was 99.2%. A potential benefit of this research in the future is to harness accurate stress level prediction and alert users of common wearable devices, such as the Apple Watch or Galaxy Watch.

Keywords: HRV, Machine Learning, ECG, KNN, Random Forest

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Background HRV is the variation in the intervals between consecutive heartbeats. Intervals always slightly vary between each heartbeat, but the variation is not large enough to detect. HRV can be affected by respiration, exercise, hormonal reactions, metabolic processes, cognitive processes, stress, and recovery. In healthy individuals, HRV should increase during more relaxing activities and decrease under stress [1]. Over the years of HRV research, many different features have been used for analysis. Up to the late 1960s, mean heart rate, standard deviation, and amplitude of the QRS complex were used. In the 1970s, time-domain features were developed, while in the 1980s, frequency domain features were implemented. In the 2000s, HRV was visualized as a non-linear scatter plot corresponding to cardiac pathologies and reduced HRV. Beginning in 2010, a joint time- frequency domain has allowed researchers to track instant changes in HRV [2]. Along with the changes in features used to analyze HRV, the medical instruments used to measure HRV have also advanced throughout the years. Currently, wearable devices are used to detect physiological signals, as they are more flexible and portable in comparison to traditional ECG devices [2]. Still, ECG technology is relied on in empirical studies due to greater accuracy than the sensors in wearable devices. An ECG records the strength and frequency of electrical activity in the heart, produced by contractions in the heart walls, measured by attaching electrodes to the skin [3]. The common techniques used to classify HRV using ML have also evolved over time. Until 2010, supervised learning was the main mode of classifying HRV through ML. In 2011, feature selection was extensively researched, to gain accuracy while decreasing the classification time. In 2018, utilizing deep learning methods realized greater efficiency and minimal errors in the data. Unsupervised learning to classify stress related to HRV has been trending since 2019 [2].

<Figure 1> Diagram of a normal ECG trace [4]

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1.2. Objectives The purpose of this research is to explore how HRV data can be used to measure stress. Currently, wearable devices such as the Apple Watch and Galaxy Watch possess the technology to collect and analyze heart rate data to notify the user of abnormalities. For example, the Apple Watch notifies users of signs of irregular rhythm, unusually high or low heart rates, and low cardio fitness levels, among others. These devices also measure HRV. Although some devices do indicate the user’s stress level, details as to how the evaluation was carried out are vague. This research intends to improve stress detecting functions of common wearable devices by adding features through ML algorithms to more thoroughly analyze HRV data detected by physiological signals.

2. Related Works In a study conducted by researchers affiliated with the Institute of Computer Science Foundation for Research and Technology at Hellenic Mediterranean University, reliable HRV parameters were explored for the purpose of stress recognition. The proposed experiment tested 24 participants in 11 tasks, lasting around 45 minutes. The minimum Redundancy Maximum Relevance (mRMR) selection algorithm was used to select the most robust features. These features helped the stress recognition mechanism attain a classification accuracy of 84.4% with a 10-fold cross-validation approach. While a greater sample size is needed, this study demonstrates the potential of wearable devices in effectively detecting stress levels as the study only considered ECG signals, which are measured in wearable devices [5]. Previous studies have investigated methods to diagnose illnesses based on HRV analysis and ML. Heart rate variance analysis consists of researching HRV parameters that are unique for various diseases while ML algorithms are used to automate the actual diagnosis. The proposed method consists of three main steps: dataset preparation, ML application, and disease classification. The dataset preparation step is executed in MATLAB, using two datasets that represent a noisy and non-noisy ECG signal. Even if the ECG signal is noisy, the procedure works as expected and HRV analysis is successful in producing the parameters necessary. These parameter values are used as inputs for the ML and disease classification steps [6]. A study conducted by researchers at the School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London has shown the relationship between HRV and cognitive performance through ML models. When testing whether physiological variables acquired from a ultra-short-term (10s) HRV could anticipate the performance of different cognitive domains, the support vector machine (SVM) classifier showed 82% accuracy, while the linear discriminant analysis showed 90% accuracy in assorting data into high or low performance levels. Overall, the results suggest ML models can predict the cognitive performance of individuals based on their HRV. However, future studies can significantly improve the accuracy of these classifiers by providing a larger variety of HRV features [7]. Short-term HRV was frequently used to detect mental stress in recent years, but the use of ultra-shortterm HRV has been moderate. This study, conducted by researchers affiliated with IEEE, used linear and non-linear HRV features extracted from ultra-short-term (3 min) HRV analysis of 42 university student subjects. The HRV features were extracted and inspected using software tools before performing statistical and data mining analysis on the extracted features. The C4.5 tree algorithm returned best results, distinguishing between stress and rest with sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy rates of 78%, 80%, and 79%, respectively. However, the researchers indicate that using a larger sample

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) size would further support the findings of the classifier [8].

3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Data Description This dataset was collected from Kaggle which is available at https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/qiriro/swell-heart-rate-variability-hrv [9] and contained a result of experiments conducted on 25 subjects who were doing typical office work, such as writing reports, making presentations, reading emails and searching for information. During the experiments, the subjects went through typical working stressors such as receiving email interruptions and time pressure. The experiments recorded the subjects' reactions throughout the experiment, including computer logging, facial expressions, body postures, ECG signals, and skin conductance. The subjects’ subjective experiences, such as mental effort, emotion, and perceived stress were also recorded [10][11]. There were three different working conditions applied during the experiment: 1. no stress: the subjects could work on their task for as long as they took. 2. time pressure: the time limit to finish the task was shortened to 2/3 of the time the subject took in the neutral condition. 3. interruption: the subjects received 8 emails during their tasks, some of which were relevant to the tasks, while some were not.

<Figure 2> Visualization of specific columns of the dataset to find out the patterns(Mean_RR, SD2, SDRR_RMSSD_REL_RR, SKEW) 3.2. Random Forest A random forest (RF) is an ensemble algorithm, which is based on a decision tree, and was introduced by Breiman Leo in 2001. RF is capable of handling both classification and regression. The decision tree used in the RF is based on a classification and regression tree (CART) algorithm, while a Gini impurity

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) is used to evaluate the performance. In a three-step process for training the model, first, a given dataset is divided into bootstrap samples followed by applying a decision tree to each sample and choosing the best split. Lastly, the two previous steps are repeated until the RF finds optimal results for classification or regression. Whereas deep learning algorithms cannot yield feature-importance scores because they are “black box” models, RF does have this capability, making it a “white box” model [12].

<Figure 3> Diagram of Random Forest Classifier [13] 3.3. K-Nearest Neighbors Classifier K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) algorithm is supervised learning, which belongs to the ML algorithm category, and is also suited for both classification and regression. The process is similar to that of nearest neighbor rules, but KNN expands its learning process by including the value k in the decision-making step [14]. Even though KNN yields superior performance, two issues are encountered: the selection of the k value and assessing similarity between 2 sample points. Euclidean distance, Mahalanobis distance, and Minkowsky distance have been used for the issue of measuring distance and various numbers are assigned to find the optimal value of k. Multiple algorithms were introduced to address these problems, such as K-Local Hyperplane Distance Nearest Neighbor (HkNN) from Vincent and Bengio, and k Nearest Neighboring Trajectories (k-NNT) from Tang et al [15].

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<Figure 4> Diagram of K-Nearest Neighbor Classifier [16] 3.4. Preprocessing The dataset was divided into train sets and test sets for evaluating the accuracy of the proposed ML models. Train-test-split function from the Scikit-learn (sklearn) library was applied to randomly partition data into 30% for testing and 70% for training. Then, a Min-Max scaler was applied to the whole dataset, which converted the range of values between 0 and 1.

4. Result The accuracy scores presented by different ML algorithms are shown in Figure 5. When tested using Logistic Regression and Adaptive Boosting Classifier algorithms, the accuracy scores were relatively low, resulting in 63.3% and 66.9%, respectively. When run using an XGB Classifier, the accuracy score was 87.2%. The Gradient Boosting Classifier returned an accuracy score of 91.5%. The accuracy scores were virtually perfect when run through the Decision Tree Classifier, LGBM Classifier, Random Forest Classifier, and K-Nearest Neighbor Classifier, 99.78%, 99.96%, 100%, and 100%, respectively.

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<Figure 5> Accuracy scores of chosen ML algorithms

When distinguishing between the three different working conditions based on one’s HRV, the most important feature was the MEDIAN_RR feature, with a feature importance score of about 0.13. This feature was followed by the MEDIAN_REL_RR feature, which had a feature importance score of about 0.08. The least important feature in determining one’s working condition based on HRV was HR_LF and MEAN_REL_RR, both with feature importance scores extremely close to 0.

<Figure 6> Importance of different features utilized in the dataset

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Additionally, when the data was tested through different deep learning algorithms, the gated recurrent unit (GRU) algorithm had a 99.16% accuracy score. Because recurrent neural network (RNN), long short term memory (LSTM), and GRU are specialized deep learning algorithms for time-series data, they achieved higher performance compared to the deep neural network (DNN).

<Figure 7> Accuracy scores of chosen deep learning algorithms

5. Discussion This study found that different ML algorithms can predict levels of stress quite accurately. When the data was processed with the Decision Tree Classifier, LGBM Classifier, RF Classifier, and KNN Classifier, the accuracy scores were 99.78%, 99.96%, 100%, and 100%, respectively. When the data was run through the GRU deep learning algorithm, a 99.16% accuracy score was returned. Previous similar studies conducted at the Hellenic Mediterranean University and the Queen Mary University of London gave only 84.4% and 82% accuracy, respectively. In comparison, this study yielded much higher accuracy scores of up to 100%. With further research, the technology used to determine stress levels in this study can one day feature in wearable devices such as the Apple Watch and Galaxy Watch. While the Galaxy Watch is currently capable of indicating stress levels, it only does so on a scale from low to high, leaving much room for improvement. For instance, it could show the stress level in more detail: ‘no stress,’ ‘time pressure,’ and ‘interruption.’ The Apple Watch lacks a stress level feature entirely. Stress can have a negative impact on one’s psychological, physical, and social health, thus, a function on common wearable devices to detect it on the go and in any situation would prove beneficial.

6. Conclusion The purpose of this research was to examine measuring stress levels through HRV data. The data used in this research was obtained from previous research conducted on 25 subjects who were observed in a normal office setting. The data recorded included ECG signals, computer logging, emotions, perceived stress, and mental effort. Different ML algorithms were tested over the provided stress attributes to

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) explore which could best determine stress levels. Results showed that the Decision Tree Classifier, LGBM Classifier, Random Forest Classifier, and K-Nearest Neighbor Classifier were the most accurate, with all four correctly classifying stress levels at over 99% accuracy. Additionally, when tested through deep learning algorithms, the algorithm GRU showed the highest accuracy score of 99.16%. In the future, the technology used to determine the stress levels of the participants in this study can be carried out in common wearable devices, such as the Apple Watch and Galaxy Watch, to more effectively use HRV data in predicting the stress levels of the wearer.

7. Reference [1] What is Heart Rate Variability (HRV) & why does it matter? | Firstbeat Blog. (2021, February 23). Firstbeat. Retrieved February 1, 2022, from https://www.firstbeat.com/en/blog/what-is-heart-ratevariability-hrv/ [2] Ishaque, S., Khan, N., & Krishnan, S. (2021). Trends in Heart-Rate Variability Signal Analysis. Frontiers in Digital Health, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2021.639444 [3]Electrocardiogram. (2021, August 8). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved February 1, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and- therapies/electrocardiogram [4] Al-Ani, M., & Rawi, A. A. (2014). A rule-based expert system for automated ecg diagnosis. International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology, 6(4), 1480- 1492. [5] Giannakakis, G., Marias, K., & Tsiknakis, M. (2019). A stress recognition system using HRV parameters and machine learning techniques. 2019 8th International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction Workshops and Demos (ACIIW). https://doi.org/10.1109/aciiw.2019.8925142 [6] Timothy, V., Prihatmanto, A. S., & Rhee, K. H. (2016). Data preparation step for automated diagnosis based on HRV analysis and machine learning. 2016 6th International Conference on System Engineering and Technology (ICSET). https://doi.org/10.1109/icsengt.2016.7849639 [7] Alharbi, E., & Alomainy, A. (2022). Machine Learning approach to Predict Cognitive Performance using HRV. 2022 2nd International Conference on Computing and Information Technology (ICCIT). https://doi.org/10.1109/iccit52419.2022.9711625 [8] Castaldo, R., Xu, W., Melillo, P., Pecchia, L., Santamaria, L., & James, C. (2016). Detection of mental stress due to oral academic examination via ultra-short-term HRV analysis. 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). https://doi.org/10.1109/embc.2016.7591557 [9] SWELL dataset. (2019, January 31). Kaggle. Retrieved December 21, 2021, from https://www.kaggle.com/qiriro/swell-heart-rate-variability-hrv [10] Koldijk, S., Neerincx, M. A., & Kraaij, W. (2018). Detecting Work Stress in Offices by Combining Unobtrusive Sensors. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 9(2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2016.2610975

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [11] Koldijk, S., Sappelli, M., Verberne, S., Neerincx, M. A., & Kraaij, W. (2014). The SWELL Knowledge Work Dataset for Stress and User Modeling Research. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction. https://doi.org/10.1145/2663204.2663257 [12] Breiman, L. (2001). Random forests. Machine learning, 45(1), 5-32. [13] Ampadu, H. (2021, May 2). Random Forests Understanding. AI Pool. Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https://ai-pool.com/a/s/random-forests-understanding [14] Xing, W., & Bei, Y. (2020). Medical Health Big Data Classification Based on KNN Classification Algorithm. IEEE Access, 8, 28808–28819. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2955754 [15] Zhang, S., Li, X., Zong, M., Zhu, X., & Cheng, D. (2017). Learning k for kNN Classification. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 8(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1145/2990508 [16] Shah, R. (2022, March 30). Introduction to k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) Algorithm. Medium. Retrieved March 1, 2022, from https://ai.plainenglish.io/introduction-to-k-nearest- neighbors-knnalgorithm-e8617a448fa8

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Machine Learning Model to Predict the ADHD Patient from the Text Content Author 1

Full Name

Jeong, Seyoon

Branksome Hall Asia Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Regarding all the possible innovations that relate to diverse methods including classification and analysis of data, a written text may perform as a valuable resource to inspect one’s symptoms or standing traits. In connection with diagnosing a mental disease or indications implying a certain condition, texts, in any form, can be utilized as a new method of diagnosing and treating patients. Specifically, as people write genuine opinions and comments on the Internet, written data is one efficient source to apply to classification programs. Considering the suggestions of designing a computer model to analyze and determine the diagnosis of mental illness: ADHD, this creation will benefit those who may not have been in favor of taking the economical and social risks of diagnosing the disease in hospitals. Utilizing different types of classification programs and text-analysis machine techniques, the computer model would function as a tool to easily determine the possibilities of ADHD with authentic data sets of the patient from Internet records. Continuing the project after designing and testing the computer models made, models were plotted into a graph to compare their accuracies for correctly analyzing the data text. As a result, LSTM rated highest with an accuracy of 0.75, followed by RNN with a score of 0.65.

Keywords: Data Science, text classification, regression, machine learning, python

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Mental health gives a great influence on our daily lives: it determines how we act, say, think, and even controls who we are. Therefore, it is crucial that we pay close attention to whether we are keeping track of a healthy and thriving mind. It is a quite simple method; a little care and self-reflection can help us maintain our health and stay positive. Though, it actually turns out a majority of people are having difficulty handling such caution, and are prone to various conditions that lead to mental issues. Above the diverse mental issues, ADHD is one of the most common diseases worldwide. The population was recorded to be 139 million for persistent adult ADHD, in addition to 366 million more symptomatic ADHD globally. Furthermore, ADHD is prevalent especially among children between ages 2 to 17: about 6.1 million children are diagnosed with ADHD (Song et al., 2021; ADDitude Editors, 2022) . An abbreviation for “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,” ADHD refers to a mental disorder that affects task behavior such as concentration, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2022). Results in inappropriate consequences, ADHD is often found around students in schools, when one tends to show distracting and rather irrational actions. Such symptoms of ADHD include frequent mood swings, relatively low tolerance for frustration and stress, and impatience. Consequently, patients with ADHD will have difficulty multitasking work and will show restlessness (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Ultimately, if the patient fails to manage their disorder, they are at a higher risk of long-term problems. For instance, a study found out that adolescents with childhood ADHD had a GPA of 2.75, which is lower than the average GPA of 3.0 (Kent et al., 2011). Overall, it is plausible that ADHD students can show distinctive academic underachievement and performance. However, there are tendencies in which people are unwilling to accept, or sometimes even to get diagnosed with, their disorder, regardless of symptoms and potential risks. Social factors are mainly the reason: there are misconceptions that disorders refer to a state of being mentally unfit (TNN, 2017). Moreover, as patients with ADHD are likely more prone to stigma, prejudices, and discrimination, hesitance or mere reluctance is perhaps understandable (Mueller et al., 2012). Dealing with the prior issues, we aim to design a computer model to distinguish whether one shows symptoms of ADHD by analyzing their Internet records. This model will encourage people who may not be willing to be tested themselves due to social or financial factors. We also expect accurate and precise diagnoses, considering that patients are likely to show authentic emotions and thoughts on the Internet.

2. Motivation To a considerably large extent, it can be noticed from patients with ADHD that they are likely to find difficulty in writing. The struggle they go through has a correlation with the symptoms of ADHD. Their fragility with focusing and attention skills eventually lead to errors in writings such as spelling, grammar, or punctuation (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022). Because of such vulnerability when required for tasks that involve comprehensive skills, ADHD patients usually need to constantly practice the basics: organizing their thoughts before actually writing, keeping the most suitable environment for ADHD patients to concentrate on a single task, or having the proper posture and grip of tools are some examples of their necessary effort. Therefore, it cannot be denied that there will be a difference between writings from ADHD patients and those who are not: it genuinely traces back to how they start writing texts (Boring, 2022).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) An abbreviation for Natural Language Process, NLP is an application of computer science, specifically artificial intelligence(AI), that constructs computers to understand the texts or spoken words as humans do. When a computer practices NLP, it first breaks down the input words into text data for program analysis. Usually, this process consists of recognizing the speech spoken, analysis of word components to refer to exact meanings, and generating a finalized natural language that humans can decipher and understand (IBM Cloud Education, 2020). Meanwhile, text classification operates as a branch from this computer technique. By definition, text classification refers to a machine learning program to sort predefined categories into open-ended text. The technique can be utilized to label any kinds of elements within a form of text, such as the structure, language, and topic. Text classification is a vital process of measuring data into natural language as it analyzes and labels each word from the input (Korde, 2012). Considering the differences may be an opportunity to draw out possible patients with ADHD, we aim to determine whether one shows a likelihood to have ADHD from their writing style using NLP and text classification.

Figure 1. Most common words in data

3. Data Exploration 3.1. Data Information The data used to analyze texts with or without possible ADHD symptoms holds information regarding the body, ID, score, and created datetime of 3,356,541 users in total. It consists of comments written on an Internet platform to rate the intensity of ADHD of users. Each data refers to the context of information, user’s ID, comparative ADHD rates, and recorded time correspondingly. Further adjustments were made to exclude any data lacking items mentioned above or data below 8 words. The remaining data consisted of 3,273,270 entries, and was categorized into 3 regarding the degree of the likelihood to have ADHD. The initial data were expressed in scales from -41 to 1620. To sort out the numbers, mean points and the average value of the scales were analyzed, which were 1.8 and 2.5 consecutively. The final process was to categorize the numbers accordingly; scales from -41 to 1.8 were sorted out as -1, 1.8 to 2.5 as 0, and 2.5 to 1620 as 1. The possibility to have ADHD gets higher as the sorted scale increases from -1 to 1, diagnosing patients who show a scale of 1 as the most likely to have ADHD.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Stopwords were also eliminated from the body. In this case, commonly-used words that do not provide much useful information for text analysis procedures, such as ‘the,’ ‘is,’ were all considered as stopwords (Pythonspot, 2021). Then, we processed the lemmatization, which is groups of different inflected forms of words so that they can be analyzed as a single item (Zhou et al., 2020). The data used to analyze texts with or without possible ADHD symptoms holds information regarding the body, ID, score, and created datetime of 3,356,541 users in total. It consists of comments written on an Internet platform to rate the intensity of ADHD of users. Each data refers to the context of information, user’s ID, comparative ADHD rates, and recorded time correspondingly. Further adjustments were made to exclude any data lacking items mentioned above or data below 8 words. The remaining data consisted of 3,273,270 entries, and was categorized into 3 regarding the degree of the likelihood to have ADHD. The initial data were expressed in scales from -41 to 1620. To sort out the numbers, mean points and the average value of the scales were analyzed, which were 1.8 and 2.5 consecutively. The final process was to categorize the numbers accordingly; scales from -41 to 1.8 were sorted out as -1, 1.8 to 2.5 as 0, and 2.5 to 1620 as 1. The possibility to have ADHD gets higher as the sorted scale increases from -1 to 1, diagnosing patients who show a scale of 1 as the most likely to have ADHD. Stopwords were also eliminated from the body. In this case, commonly-used words that do not provide much useful information for text analysis procedures, such as ‘the,’ ‘is,’ were all considered as stopwords (Pythonspot, 2021). Then, we processed the lemmatization, which is groups of different inflected forms of words so that they can be analyzed as a single item (Zhou et al., 2020). The most common words in the data are as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Sentiment percentage of those who are more likely to have ADHD (score =1) 3.2. Sentiment of the Patients Sentiment analysis, as a branch of natural language processing(NLP), is a method of categorization to classify the emotional tone of a text. It is a favored process among organizations to organize and seek insights from informal, unstructured texts such as emails, blog posts, media channels, and comments. Through an operation, sentiment analysis would be able to identify the polarity of the given text. Considering its efficiency in determining whether the text contains positive, neutral, or negative

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) comments, sentiment analysis was used to create model figures of the data (Luo et al., 2013). Figures 2 and 3 were then constructed based on comments written by a range of people. The people were split into two diagrams: those with a score of 1(likely to have ADHD) and those with scores of 0 and -1(not expected to have ADHD). The overall variation between the comments were categorized into three degrees of emotion: comments with either positive, neutral, or negative messages. As shown in figure 2, people who are likely to have ADHD were recorded to write positive comments the most, followed with negative and neutral comments. With positive comments taking up 64.6% of the total, there is a significant gap between positive comments and the others. Meanwhile, neutral comments scored the highest among comments written by people who are not likely to have ADHD. It can also be observed that the percentage of positive comments, formerly scoring at the top, depleted to 22.9%. While the percentage of negative comments stay relatively stable, the notable difference of the level of emotion between people who are and are not likely to have ADHD implies that a distinction could be made by analyzing written comments.

Figure 3. Sentiment percentage of those who are less likely to have ADHD (score = -1, 0)

4. Classification Model The following section holds a brief introduction to the designed model: classifying whether one has higher or lower possibilities of ADHD according to written texts. In this case, all classifications are determined by the relative rates of -1, 0, and 1. 4.1. Split train and test data Using Sklearn, all sets were randomly divided into either ‘train’ or ‘test.’ 80% of the data were put into ‘train,’ and the remaining 20% in ‘test.’ To avoid any underfitting scenarios, the dividing process was repeated 5 times, creating 5 different sets of train and test data. 4.2. TF-IDF TF-IDF is a combination of two terms ‘TF’ and ‘ IDF,’ which means the ‘term frequency’ and ‘inverse document frequency’ respectively. Term frequency overviews the frequency of a specific term within a data/document. An inverse document frequency would examine how common or uncommon a word is among the corpus (Capital One, 2022). Together, TF-IDF measures the frequency/relativity of a

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) certain word within a document among a set of documents (Quaiser et al., 2018). Considering the functions of TF-IDF, the collected test data was shown in terms of TF-IDF rates by applying for the program. The application is shown in Figure 4. The t-f of the word can be calculated as: ‫ݐ(݂ݐ‬, ݀) =

௙೟,೏ σ

(1)

௧ᇱ‫א‬ௗ ௙೟ᇲ,೏

where ݂௧,ௗ is the raw count of a term in the document and denominator represent the total number of terms in document d.

Figure 4. Tf-Idf processing result With Equation (1) we can calculate the inverse document frequency (IDF) as follow: ‫ݐ(݂ݐ‬, ݀) = 0.5 + 0.5 ‫ڄ‬

௙೟,೏

௠௔௫൛௙೟ᇲ,೏ ‫ ׷‬௧ᇱ‫א‬ௗൟ ே ݂݅݀(‫ݐ‬, ‫{| ݃݋݈ = )ܦ‬ௗ‫א‬஽‫׷‬ ௧‫א‬ௗ}|

(2) (3)

where N is the total number of documents in the corpus. 4.3. Basic classification model The four types of classification models used to distinguish the accuracy of the program conducted on test data and their descriptions are as follows: 1. Logistic Regression: Logistic regression modeling technique is when there are two possible outcomes for a given variable. The algorithm will predict the outcome when the outcome is binary (RSS, 2022). 2. Random Forest: Random forest is a learning algorithm which uses various data samples and takes their 1. majority vote for classification 2. average for regression. In this case, random forest is apt in managing both regression and classification cases. In the case of regression, it

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) will contain data sets with continuous variables, while categorical variables are to be analyzed in the case of classification (E R, 2021). 3. Naive Bayes: Derived from the Bayes Theorem, the Naive Bayes learning algorithm is used upon a wide range of classification data sets. Briefly explained, the Bayes Theorem is a method to find a specific probability when there are already other probabilities known prior to the task (Chauhan, 2022). 4. SVM: The term is an abbreviation from “Support Vector Machine.” This algorithm uses classification algorithms for two-classification problems. They have an advantage in working with a limited data set (Evgeniou & Pontil, 2001).

Figure 5. Model Accuracy with different classification algorithms Figure 5 indicates the level of accuracy of each algorithm model. Logistic Regression scored 0.45, Random Forest 0.4587, Naive Bayes 0.482, and SVM 0.483 out of a total of 1. All algorithms showed an accuracy of approximately 50%, and among the 4 techniques used SVM rated the highest accuracy. Figure 5 also indicates the level of accuracy of each algorithm model. Logistic Regression scored 0.45, Random Forest 0.4587, Naive Bayes 0.482, and SVM 0.483 out of a total of 1. All algorithms showed an accuracy of approximately 50%, and among the 4 techniques used SVM rated the highest accuracy. 4.4. Advanced classification model Since the accuracy of the basic classification model is not enough to accurately predict the status of patients, we suggested the advanced classification model using the Recurrent Neural Network and Long-Short-Term Memory. Recurrent Neural Network, shortened as RNN, is a branch of an algorithm network for analytically indicating and responding to a given sequential data set. Though first developed in the late 20th century,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the potential of RNN is gaining more recognition lately as advanced deep learning for algorithms, such as natural language processing(NLP) and speech recognition, also rises significantly in the algorithm field. Applications of RNN can be easily found in general implementation in modern technology suppliants, for which Apple’s Siri and Google Translate are examples (Donges, 2022). Redirecting to the basics of the algorithm, RNN functions with input from sequential data and runs through multiple loop processes to predict the final output. During the procedure, it would gather information about the input sequence, expressed as the term ‘memory.’ Regarding the functions of RNN, most cases which use RNN are related to modeling language and writing components. Provided the prior pieces of writing, the machine would finish the sentence or passage by predicting from the given data. In other words, RNN can be considered as a program of computer algorithms mimicking human expression styles. Consequently, RNN is preferred in experiments dealing with speech, video, texts, audio, and much more with a deep understanding of the data (Donges, 2022).

Figure 6. Model Accuracy with RNN and LSTM Expanding on with the concept of Recurrent Neural Network(RNN), Long-Short-Term-Memory, otherwise, LSTM is a kind of RNN but has features that compensate for the shortfall of RNN’s. Although RNN scores to predict accurate outputs based on the given data, it requires the input to be fairly recent in storage; while the information in long-term memory is likely to fail the process. Regarding the problem with short and long-term storage, Hochreiter & Schmidhuber designed LSTM to handle the time-related issues of RNN (Yao & Guan, 2018). As a result, RNN stems from the purposes and functions of RNN but contrasts with additional units called ‘memory cells’ that can maintain information for a long period. These cells allow the network to deal with long-term dependency. As shown in Figure 6, RNN and LSTM show better accuracy than the basic classification model. LSTM shows average of 65% at the end of training and RNN shows average of 75% accuracy at the epochs 60.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 5. Conclusion Utilizing a classification program and text analysis machine technology, this study is meaningful in proposing a tool to easily determine the likelihood of ADHD from Internet records to actual data sets of patients. The proposed model was designed and tested to correctly analyze the correct data text. The models were graphed to compare their accuracy. As a result, the LSTM received the highest rating with an accuracy of 0.75, and the RNN scored a score of 0.65 checked the accuracy.

6. References ADDitude Editors. (2022, July 13). ADHD Statistics. ADDitude; ADDitude. https://www.additudemag.com/statistics-of-adhd/ American Psychiatric Association. (2022). What Is ADHD? American Psychiatric Association; American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patientsfamilies/adhd/what-is-adhd Boring, M. (2022, February 18). The Common Problems that Lead to Writer’s Block — and How Parents Can Help. ADDitude. https://www.additudemag.com/common-writingproblems-for-children-with-adhd-or-dysgraphia/ Capital One. (2022). Understanding TF-IDF for Machine Learning. Capital One. https://www.capitalone.com/tech/machine-learning/understanding-tf-idf/ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 9). ADHD in the Classroom. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/school-success.html Chauhan, N. (2022, April 8). Naïve Bayes Algorithm: Everything You Need to Know. KDnuggets. https://www.kdnuggets.com/2020/06/naive-bayes-algorithmeverything.html Donges, N. (2022). A Guide to RNN: Understanding Recurrent Neural Networks and LSTM Networks. Built In. https://builtin.com/data-science/recurrent-neural-networks-and-lstm E R, S. (2021, June 17). Random Forest | Introduction to Random Forest Algorithm. Analytics Vidhya. https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/understandingrandom-forest/ Evgeniou, T., & Pontil, M. (2001). Support Vector Machines: Theory and Applications. Machine Learning and Its Applications, 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540- 44673-7_12 IBM Cloud Education. (2020, July 2). What is Natural Language Processing? Ibm. https://www.ibm.com/cloud/learn/natural-language-processing Kent, K. M., Pelham, W. E., Molina, B. S. G., Sibley, M. H., Waschbusch, D. A., Yu, J., Gnagy, E. M., Biswas, A., Babinski, D. E., & Karch, K. M. (2011). The Academic Experience of Male High School Students with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(3), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9472-4 Korde, V. (2012). Text Classification and Classifiers: A Survey. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence & Applications, 3(2), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.5121/ijaia.2012.3208 Luo, T., Chen, S., Xu, G., & Zhou, J. (2013). Sentiment Analysis. Trust-Based Collective View Prediction, 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7202-5_4 Mayo Clinic. (2019, June 22). Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Symptoms and Causes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/adult-adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350878

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Mueller, A. K., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Koerts, J., & Tucha, L. (2012). Stigma in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 4(3), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0085-3 Pythonspot. (2021, July 22). NLTK stop words. Pythonspot. https://pythonspot.com/nltk-stopwords/ Qaiser, S., & Ali, R. (2018). Text Mining: Use of TF-IDF to Examine the Relevance of Words to Documents. International Journal of Computer Applications, 181(1), 25– 29. https://doi.org/10.5120/ijca2018917395 RSS. (2022). Module 4 - Logistic Regression | The Programming Foundation. Learn.theprogrammingfoundation.org. https://learn.theprogrammingfoundation.org/getting_started/intro_data_science/modul e4/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwqPGUBhDwARIsANNwjV7eXgEDV4s4HIdX6FGImARa9AL YinqiRoRSFl-smFHtHYD_dp8LjncaAruxEALw_wcB Song, P., Zha, M., Yang, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Rudan, I. (2021). The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Global Health, 11(04009). https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.11.04009 TNN. (2017, October 10). Lack of knowledge. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/photo-stories/world- mentalhealth-day-7-reasons-people-dont-seek-treatment-for-mentaldisorders/photostory/61017322.cms?picid=61017454 Yao, L., & Guan, Y. (2018, December 1). An Improved LSTM Structure for Natural Language Processing. IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/IICSPI.2018.8690387 Zhou, X., Gururajan, R., Li, Y., Venkataraman, R., Tao, X., Bargshady, G., Barua, P. D., & Kondalsamy-Chennakesavan, S. (2020). A survey on text classification and its applications. Web Intelligence, 18(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.3233/web-200442

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

Comparison of Gait Control Algorithms for Multi-legged Centipede Robots Author 1

Full Name

Jin, Ivonne Hahyoung

Cheongna Dalton School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Biomimicry is the creation of models, designs, systems, or anything that copies a concept that can be seen in nature for solving problems, usually for human use. Similarly to bio-inspired robotics, biomimetics can also play a role in designing and creating mechanisms for various types of robots. Centipede robots are usually made up of multiple body segments as well as various legs that have to move in synchronization. Due to this type of design, YDULRXV DOJRULWKPV KDYH EHHQ IRUPHG LQ WKH SDVW IRU PD[LPXP H൶FLHQF\ LQ DOO NLQGV RI WHUUDLQs and settings. In this paper, we conducted an experiment by comparing two types of leg movement algorithms for multi-legged centipede robots or other similar myriapod-base robots in their ability to cross through various terrains. The algorithms discussed in this paper control various structures within the robot’s body, mostly the legs and body VHJPHQWV :H FRPSDUHG WKH H൶FLHQF\ RI HDFK W\SH RI OHJ PRYHPHQW DOJRULWKPV LQ WHUPV RI VSHHG LQ WKH VDPH terrain, under the same conditions. By completing this experiment, the results can be used to suggest the more H൶FLHQW DOJRULWKP WR XWLOL]H ZKHQ FUHDWLQJ IXWXUH URERWV

Keywords: Centipede robot, gait control algorithm

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction %LRPLPLFU\ DOVR ZHOO NQRZQ DV ELRPLPHWLFV LV D ODUJH ¿HOG RI research and development that utilizes and mimics concepts that can be found in the natural world to solve problems that may arise in various ¿HOGV RI GHVLJQ UHVHDUFK RU SURGXFWLRQ Bio-LQVSLUHG GHVLJQV LV D ¿HOG LQ ZKLFK VXFK QDWXUDOO\ LQVSLUHG FRQFHSWV DUH DOWHUHG WR ¿W FHUWDLQ XVHV RU functions before being used in a design or product. In recent years, biomimicry and bio-inspired designs have been used more and more frequently in engineering projects. One example of such bio-inspired designs can be found in multi-limbed centipede robots [1][2]. These URERWV DUH XVXDOO\ FUHDWHG IRU H൶FLHQW PRYHPHQW RYHU URXJK WHUUDLQV DQG UHO\ RQ WKH ELRORJLFDO VWUXFWXUH of centipedes or other similar myriapods for their body structure designs and movement patterns [3][4][5][6]. Centipede robots usually consist of multiple segmented bodies and at least 6-8 legs. Because of their GL൵HUHQFH LQ EDODQFH RU WKH DPRXQW RI OLPEV FRPSDUHG WR TXDGUXSHG RU ELSHG URERWV FHQWLSHGH URERWV UHTXLUH D VSHFL¿HG DOJRULWKP WKDW FDQ RSHUDWH WKH URERW¶V QXPHURXV OHJV LQ DQ H൶FLHQW PDQQHU ZKLOH NHHSLQJ WKH OHJV IURP JHWWLQJ GDPDJHG RU RYHUODSSHG ,Q SUHYLRXV ZRUNV PRVW RI WKH OHJ PRYHPHQW SDWWHUQV IROORZHG RQH RI WZR W\SHV RI PRYHPHQW SDWWHUQV the locomotory waves [7], or the follow-the-contact-point (FCP) movement pattern [8]. We explored IXUWKHU LQWR WKH VSHFL¿F OHJ PRYHPHQW SDWWHUQV RI WKH FHQWLSHGH URERWV DQG DV DQ H[WHQVLRQ WKH JDLW control algorithms of these robots [9]. Though previous projects had explored centipede locomotion to FUHDWH DOJRULWKPV PDQ\ SDVW ZRUNV ODFNHG H[DFW UHDVRQLQJ EHKLQG WKH XVDJH RI VSHFL¿F OHJ SDWWHUQV RU DOJRULWKPV 6LQFH WKHVH ZRUNV DOVR ODFNHG WKH FRPSDULVRQ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR FRPPRQ FDQGLGDWHV IRU WKH JDLW FRQWURO DOJRULWKPV ZH H[SORUHG WKH GL൵HUHQFH LQ WKH H൶FLHQF\ RI WKH WZR FRPPRQO\ VHHQ OHJ PRYHPHQW SDWWHUQV DQG LI WKH WZR GL൵HUHQW JDLW FRQWURO DOJRULWKPV KDG D GL൵HUHQFH LQ SHUIRUPDQFH ,Q WKLV SDSHU ZH H[SORUH WKH H൶FLHQF\ GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WZR GL൵HUHQW FHQWLSHGH URERW JDLW FRQWURO algorithms by comparing their speed and general stability. We demonstrate that the FCP algorithm will be faster and more stable than the locomotory waves algorithm because the motion of restepping the same points can ensure that the robot does not step on something the robot wasn’t expecting or VRPHWKLQJ WKDW FRXOG KDUP WKH URERW (൶FLHQF\ DQG EDODQFH LV YHU\ LPSRUWDQW LQ FHQWLSHGH URERWV EHFDXVH FHQWLSHGH URERWV DUH XVXDOO\ FUHDWHG IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI H൶FLHQWO\ PRYLQJ RYHU URXJK WHUUDLQ The comparison in speed helped ZLWK FRPSDULQJ H൶FLHQF\ DQG EDODQFH KHOSHG LQ FRPSDULQJ WKH stability of each gait control algorithm.

2. Methods 2.1. The two algorithms In previous models created for centipede robots, two gait control algorithms were commonly observed: the locomotory waves algorithm and the FCP algorithm. The locomotory waves algorithm operates in a way in which the robot’s legs will move in a cycle, XVXDOO\ UHSHDWLQJ WKDW F\FOH IRU HDFK VWHS HDFK OHJ WDNHV 7KH VDPH SDWWHUQ LV XVHG WR PRYH DOO RI WKH legs, but with a bit of delay added to each leg so that the legs do not overlap. Though this leg movement SDWWHUQ LV EDVHG R൵ RI UHDO centipede motion, its focus is put on the repetition of the same movement by

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) all of the legs. The FCP method gait control operates the robot in a way in which a leg’s tip would touch the point on the ground surface that the leg in front of it contacted. This leg movement pattern is a mimicry of the centipede’s leg movements, and puts the focus on the legs’ stepping points. This leg movement pattern was developed as an improvement to the Follow-the-leader (FTL) leg movement pattern, which is also D PRYHPHQW SDWWHUQ WKDW PDNHV WKH OHJV RI WKH URERWV FRQWDFW WKH VWHSSLQJ SRLQW RI WKH SUHYLRXV OHJV The FCP algorithm was created to maNH XS IRU WKH FRPSXWDWLRQDO EXUGHQ RI WKH )7/ DOJRULWKP ZKLFK operates on motion planning of the whole body, and therefore mostly used in hexapods. 2.2. Creation of centipede robot model We utilized the Webots program in order to create the centipede robot model we needed for the algorithm comparison. The Webots program uses standard Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) for 3D graphics and simulations of the robots. We created our centipede robot with segmented bodies and 2 joints for each leg, the shoulder and elbow joint. The shoulder joint connects the leg and the body, and the elbow joint splits the leg into the upper and lower leg, and allows the whole leg to bend in the middle for movement. 2.2.1. Body and Arms When creDWLQJ DQ DOJRULWKP GHWDLOV VXFK DV WKH URERW SDUW¶V GLPHQVLRQV DQG ZHLJKW PDNH D JUHDW GL൵HUHQFH LQ WKH URERW¶V DELOLWLHV DQG VWDELOLW\ ,Q RXU VLPXODWLRQ WKH ERG\ RI WKH URERW ZDV VLPSO\ PDGH in a rectangular box shape. These were the weight and dimensiRQV RI WKH ¿QDOL]HG ERG\ SLHFH ZDV DV follows: Weight Dimensions

NJ 0.1m x 0.8m x 0.04m 7DEOH 5RERW %RG\ 6SHFL¿FDWLRQV

The arms were designed from two identical rectangular prisms. Each arm was divided into the upper arm, or the section between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint, and the lower arm, the section FRQQHFWHG WR WKH XSSHU DUP E\ WKH HOERZ MRLQW ,Q WKH ¿QDO PRGHO RI WKH URERW ZH DGGHG D WRWDO RI arms. Upper leg weight Upper leg dimensions Lower leg weight Lower leg dimensions

NJ 0.1m x 0.01m x 0.01m NJ 0.1m x 0.01m x 0.01m

2.2.2. Base & Shoulder Joint The robot’s arms were added to the body with a “Hinge2joint”, or a double hinge joint, connecting the two pieces. The Hinge2joint is a hinge that creates 2 axes that cross at the anchor, or the center point of both axes. The double hinge allows the joint that connects the leg and the body, or the shoulder joint, to have 2 degrees of freedom. Each of the axes were given a rotational motor that moves the legs in the GLUHFWLRQV ZH QHHG ,Q RXU FDVH WKH ¿UVW KLQJH DQG PRWRU ZDV XVHG IRU PRYLQJ WKH OHJ KRUL]RQWally IRUZDUGV DQG EDFNZDUGV IRU WKH SXOOLQJ PRWLRQ RI WKH OHJV ZKHQ LQ PRWLRQ :H QDPHG WKLV PRWRU WKH ‘base’ motor. The second hinge and motor was used for moving the leg vertically up and down for the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) OLIWLQJ PRWLRQ QHHGHG WR WDNH D VWHS IRUZDUG 7KLV PRtor was named as the ‘shoulder’ motor. The legs cannot be dragged on the ground because it could cause damage to the leg’ tip if done in real life, and EHFDXVH WKH GUDJJLQJ PRWLRQ PD\ SXOO WKH URERW EDFN LI VWXFN LQ UHDO OLIH DV ZHOO DV LQ RXU VLPXODWLRQ 2.2.3. Elbow Joint Our robot’s upper and lower leg sections are connected by a hinge joint to allow the stretching PRYHPHQW WKDW KDSSHQV ZKHQ WKH URERW LV UHDFKLQJ RXW WR WDNH D VWHS RU ZKHQ WKH URERW LV SXVKLQJ WKH JURXQG VXUIDFH EDFN LQ WKH ODWHU parts of the step cycle. The hinge allows the lower arm to move vertically, stretching out in the same direction that the second motor moves the upper arm in the shoulder joint. 2.3. Terrain design 7KH 7HUUDLQ XVHG LQ RXU VLPXODWLRQ ZDV PDGH RI ÀDW SODLQV. We created 3 separate worlds to conduct RXU VLPXODWLRQ LQ ZLWK HDFK ZRUOG FRQWDLQLQJ RQH RI ÀDW XSZDUG RU GRZQZDUG VODQWHG WHUUDLQ (DFK WHUUDLQ ZDV PDGH E\ RYHUOD\LQJ D VODQWHG SODQH RQWR WKH RULJLQDO ÀDW SODQH ZKLFK ZDV SURYLGHG E\ WKH webots as a ‘Àoor’ node. The upward slanted terrain was sloped 7.5 degrees up towards the y direction of the simulation, or the direction that the robots were moving towards. The downward slanted terrain was set to slope 7.5 degrees downward toward the negative y direction, or -7.5 degrees towards the y direction as shown in Figure 1.

Figure1. Upward and Downward Slanted Terrain Design )LJXUH 6FKHPDWLF GLDJUDP VKRZV WKH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH \ D[LV UHODWLYH WR WKH PRWLRQ RI WKH URERW DQG the orientation of the positive sloping angle. This also gives a sense of the steepness of the 7.5o curve XVHG LQ WKH VLPXODWLRQV DQG GH¿QHV WKH WHUP ³*URXQG´ WR EH WKH ÀDW ]HUR-sloop condition. Left shows upward slope, right shows downward slope case. In our simulation, both these scenarios were explored.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.4. Gait control algorithm 2.4.1. Standing At the original standing position, the upper and lower arm, which have the same length of L, form a 60 degree angle, while the upper arm forms a 30 degree angle with the ground surface. The lower arm is VHW WR EH SHUSHQGLFXODU WR WKH JURXQG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJXUH 7KLV VWDQGLQJ SRVLWLRQ LV WDNHQ DW WKH beginning of both gait control algorithms.

Figure 2. Robot Standing Stance Depiction and Measurements

Figure 3. Robots Standing Stance in Simulation 2.4.2. Locomotive Waves In the locomotive gait control method, each motor’s angle is generated with a sinusoidal function. In RUGHU WR FUHDWH D IRUZDUG PRWLRQ ZH FUHDWHG DPSOLWXGHV SKDVHV DQG R൵VHWV IRU HDFK EDVH VKRXOGHU, and elbow motors. To have each right and left leg move according to the sinusoidal wave, we had to DGG SKDVHV WKDW DUH SURSRUWLRQDO WR WKH OHJV¶ LQGH[ 7KH ¿UVW PRGHO RI WKH URERW ZH WHVWHG WKLV DOJRULWKP on had 8 legs, and in order to have 4 of them at WKH VDPH KHLJKW ZH VHW WKH SKDVH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ each index at 90 degrees. As a result, the equations are as follows: $QJOH $PSOLWXGH VLQ 3KDVH 2൵VHW 3KDVH ʌ )UHTXHQF\ 7LPH 3KDVH2൵VHW 3KDVH2൵VHW

116

(1) (2)

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) In the equation ( WKH 3KDVH2൵VHW LV WKH SKDVH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH EDVH VKRXOGHU DQG HOERZ PRWRUV ZKLFK FUHDWH WKH UDLVLQJ DQG IRUZDUG PRWLRQ RI WKH $UP 7KH 3KDVH2൵VHW LV FDOFXODWHG EDVHG RQ WKH OHJV¶ ,QGH[ IRU H[DPSOH 3KDVH2൵VHW /HJ ,QGH[ ʌ The DFWXDO YDOXHV RI DPSOLWXGH IUHTXHQF\ DQG R൵VHWV IRU VPRRWK PRYHPHQW ZHUH IRXQG DIWHU PDQ\ trial-and-errors in simulations. It is not easy to 2.4.3. FCP Though the original template for the FCP method came from actual centipede locomotion, the algorithm ZH FUHDWHG RSHUDWHV LQ D VOLJKWO\ GL൵HUHQW ZD\ 7KH SRLQW RI WKH DOJRULWKP ZDV SXW VROHO\ RQ WKH restepping of the points where previous legs have stepped on, instead of replicating the leg movements of an actual centipede. Due to these changes, the movement pattern of this gait control algorithm may GL൵HU LQ PDQ\ DVSHFWV IURP WKH DFWXDO PRYHPHQWV RI D FHQWLSHGH Because the arm has to move to its fore arm’s previous location, the upper arm and the lower arm’s angles increase during the movement, increasing the distance between the body and the landing point.

)LJXUH 7KH &XUUHQW * DQG 7KH 1H[W *¶ /DQGLQJ 3RLQW After moving to the new starting point, the angles formed by the body, upper arm, and lower arm are as follows:

Figure 5. Distances and Angles When a Foot Moves to the Next Landing Point

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) )URP )LJXUH WKH DQJOH EHWZHHQ XSSHU DUP DQG ORZHU DUP ș FDQ EH GHULYHG JHRPHWULFDOO\ 7KHWD LV QHFHVVDU\ IRU HOERZ PRWRU FRQWURO )LUVW WKH ULJKW WULDQJOH IRUPHG E\ $*¶ DQG JURXQG JLYHV alpha:

$SSO\LQJ WKH &RVLQH /DZ RQ WKH LVRVFHOHV WULDQJOH IRUPHG E\ $*¶ DQG WZR DUPV

Therefore, the shoulder motor’s angle, or the angle between the body and the ground surface can be VKRZQ DV í ș í Į 7KH HOERZ PRWRU¶V DQJOH RU WKH DQJOH between the upper and lower arm is HTXDO WR ș Using these equations, position 1 is set to the following angles and can be organized as such: Motor

Position 0

Position 1

Base

0°

45°

Shoulder

30°

22.2°

Elbow 60° 80.4° Table 3. Organization of Angles from Position 0 to Position 1

3. Results 3.1. Speed On average, the Locomotory Waves robot was slightly faster than the FCP The speed of the robots were FROOHFWHG E\ FDOFXODWLQJ WKH GLVWDQFH HDFK URERW PRYHG IRU D VSHFL¿F WLPH IUDPH &RQVLGHULQJ WKe GLUHFWLRQ WKH URERWV ZHUH VHW WR PRYH WRZDUGV WKH PHDVXUHPHQWV RI WKH URERW¶V SRVLWLRQ ZDV WDNHQ E\ WKH \ FRRUGLQDWH RI WKH URERW LQ WKH VLPXODWLRQ ¿HOG %RWK URERWV VWDUWHG DW WKH \ FRRUGLQDWH RI -2. The distance moving during 60 seconds provides the average speed: ‫ ÷ )ݏݎ݁ݐ݁݉(ݐ݊݁݉݁ݒ݋ܯ ݈ܽݐ݋ܶ = )ݏ ݉( ݀݁݁݌ܵ ݁݃ܽݎ݁ݒܣ‬60 (‫)ݏ݀݊݋ܿ݁ݏ‬

(5)

3.1.1. Flat Surface ,Q WKH ÀDW VXUIDFH VLPXODWLRQ WKH URERW XVLQJ WKH ORFRPRWRU\ ZDYHV DOJRULWKP ZDV IDVWHU WKDQ WKH URERW that used the FCP algorithm. The FCP robot moved a total of 2.645 meters in 60 seconds, while the Locomotory Waves robot moved a total of 2.777 meters. The Locomotory Waves robot moved 0.132 PHWHUV PRUH WKDQ WKH )&3 URERW %\ FDOFXODWLQJ WKHVH QXPEHUV ZH FDQ ¿nd the robot’s average speed (meters per second), which is 0.04408333 for the FCP robot and 0.04628333 for the Locomotory Waves robot. The Locomotory Waves robot was detected to move about 0.0022 meters more per second than the FCP robot, therefore proving that the robot with the locomotory waves algorithm is faster than the FCP robot.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) FCP

Locomotory Waves

Starting Point

y = -2

Ending Point

y = 0.645

y = 0.777

Total Distance

2.645 meters

2.777 meters

Average Speed

0.04408333 P V 0.04628333 P V Table 4. Flat Surface Simulation Measurements

3.1.2. Upward Slanted Slope Similarly WR WKH ÀDW VXUIDFH VLPXODWLRQ UHVXOWV WKH URERW WKDW XVHG WKH ORFRPRWRU\ ZDYHV DOJRULWKP ZDV faster than the robot that used the FCP algorithm in the upward slanted slope simulation. The amount RI PHWHUV PRYHG LQ WRWDO ZDV ERWK VKRUWHU WKDQ WKH ÀDW VXUIDce results, but considering the weight and physics of the robot, the measurements didn’t change as much as expected. The total movement for the robot that used the FCP algorithm was 2.514 meters, and the robot that used the locomotory waves algorithm moved 2.579 meters in total. The average meters traveled per second was 0.0419 meters for the robot using the FCP algorithm, and 0.04298333 for the robot using the locomotory waves algorithm. The average meters traveled per second for the locomotory waves robot was about 0.00108333 meters more than the FCP robot, so the locomotory waves robot was proven to be faster in the uphill simulation as well. FCP

Locomotory Waves

Starting Point

y = -2

Ending Point

y = 0.514

y = 0.579

Total Distance

2.514 meters

2.579 meters

Average Speed

0.0419 P V

0.04298333 P V

3.1.3. Downward Slanted Slope The robot using the locomotory waves algorithm was faster than the robot that used the FCP algorithm in the simulation run on the downward slanted slope. Both robots were faster on average compared to WKH WZR RWKHU VLPXODWLRQV PRVW OLNHO\ EHFDXVH RI WKH Jravity pull moving to the robot’s advantage in WKH GRZQKLOO HQYLURQPHQW 7KLV VLPXODWLRQ KDG WKH ODUJHVW GL൵HUHQFH LQ WKH DPRXQW RI PHWHUV WUDYHOHG SHU VHFRQG ZLWK WKH GL൵HUHQFH EHLQJ DW DERXW PHWHUV SHU VHFRQG 7KH DYHUDJH DPRXQW RI meters traveled per second for the FCP robot was about 0.04906667 and was 0.0525 for the locomotory waves robot. FCP

Locomotory Waves

Starting Point

y = -2

Ending Point

y = 0.944

y = 1.15

Total Distance

2.944 meters

3.15 meters

Average Speed

0.04906667 P V

0.0525 P V

Table 6. Downward Slanted Slope Simulation Measurements

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.2. Stability Test on a Flat Plane The robot that used the FCP algorithm was very stable with no change in its z coordinate value, while the robot that used the locomotory waves algorithm was unstable. We measured the z coordinates of WKH URERWV LQ WKH VLPXODWLRQ SODQH WR PHDVXUH WKH VWDELOLW\ RI WKH GL൵HUHQW OHJ DOJRULWKPV 7R JHW DFFXUDWH DQG FOHDU UHVXOWV WKH VLPXODWLRQV ZHUH UXQ RQ WKH ÀDW SODQH HQYLURQPHQW The measurements for the z FRRUGLQDWH PRYHPHQWV ZHUH WDNHQ DIWHU VHFRQGV SDVVHG LQ WKH VLPXODWLRQ DV WKDW LV WKH WLPH LW WDNHV for the robot to get into the default standing position. To get data on the z coordinate movements, we edited the robot so that it prints its z coordinates into a console for every z coordinate movements it detects. The organized data showed that the FCP robot’s z coordinates did not change during the 20 second simulation and constantly stayed at 0.0472, while the locomotory waves robot moved up and down according to an arcing pattern that repeated every 2 seconds. The maximum coordinates was 0.0438, while the minimum was 0.0382, showing that the total range of instability at about 0.0056 units. With these measurements, we concluded that the robot that used the FCP algorithm was more stable than the robot that used the locomotory waves algorithm.

Fig 6. z-&RRUGLQDWH 7UDFNLQJ 5HFRUGV IRU WKH /RFRPRWRU\ :DYHV 5RERW

Fig 7. z-&RRUGLQDWH 7UDFNLQJ 5HFRUGV IRU WKH )&3 URERW

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4. Conclusion & Discussion In this paper, we explored two of the commonly seen gait control algorithms in centipede robots. Centipede robots, or multi-legged robots with at least 8 legs, are, as stated previously, developed for H൶FLHQW PRYHPHQW WKURXJK URXJK WHUUain. By comparing two of the more common gait control DOJRULWKPV ZH H[SORUHG WKH GL൵HUHQFH LQ SHUIRUPDQFH IRU HDFK DOJRULWKP Our hypothesis stated that the locomotory waves algorithm would be faster than the FCP algorithm. Our other hypothesis was that the FCP algorithm would be more stable than the locomotory waves algorithm. Both of our hypotheses were proven correct. The average distance traveled in a second was higher in the locomotory waves robot, in all three terrain simulations that we conducted. The FCP robot was more stable than the locomotory waves robot because the FCP algorithm’s z coordinates did not move while the locomotory waves algorithm’s z coordinate moved in an arcing pattern that repeated every 2 seconds. The reason the locomotory waYHV DOJRULWKP ZDV D ELW IDVWHU WKDQ WKH )&3 DOJRULWKP LV PRVW OLNHO\ because the locomotory waves algorithm has constant leg movements compared to the FCP algorithm, ZKLFK VWRSV PRYLQJ WKH URERW V OHJV WR SXVK EDFN DOO OHJV DW RQFH 7KH VWDELOLW\ VLPXODWLRn’s results RFFXUUHG OLNH WKDW PRVW OLNHO\ EHFDXVH WKH )&3 DOJRULWKP DOZD\V KDV DW OHDVW WZR SDLUV RI OHJV VXSSRUWLQJ the robot in the default stance at all times, while the locomotory waves algorithm does not. A longer or segmented body may have changed the results. The results of this paper can be used to assess which of the two gait control algorithms would be better to use when creating future robots. Both gait control methods have their pros and cons, so by comparing and exploring them thoroughly in detail, we hope that this paper can help future projects choose the gait FRQWURO PHWKRG WKDW ¿WV WKHLU QHHGV PRUH HDVLO\ 7KRXJK WKHUH DUH D ORW RI SDUWV WKDW FDQ EH LPSURYHG DERXW WKLV H[SHULPHQW WKH SDUW WKDW ZH WKLQN FRXOG be the most improved is the model of the centipede robot. The model that we made for the simulations LQ WKLV H[SHULPHQW ZDV D YHU\ VLPSOL¿HG YHUVLRQ RI WKH URERW WKDW IXQFWLRQHG R൵ RI EDVLF PRWRUV DQG shapes. If the simulations could have been run on a fully and physically developed robot, the results PD\ KDYH EHHQ PRUH XVHIXO RU PRUH DSSURDFKDEOH E\ SHRSOH ORRNLQJ IRU UHVRXUFHV LQ FUHDWLQJ IXWXUH PRGHOV 7KH VLPSOLFLW\ RI WKH PRGHO OLPLWHG WKH DVSHFWV ZH FRXOG PHDVXUH IRU H൶FLHQF\ DV ZHOO VXFK DV WKH H൶FLHQF\ RI WKH URERW¶V HQHUJ\ LQput or output, which is also very essential when comparing URERW H൶FLHQF\ :H ZHUHQ¶W DEOH WR DGG VHJPHQWHG ERGLHV RQWR WKH URERW OLNH PRVW RWKHU FHQWLSHGH URERW PRGHOV VR WKLV GHWDLO PD\ KDYH D൵HFWHG VRPH RI WKH SHUIRUPDQFH UHVXOWV DV ZHOO

5. Future Works Centipede robots have a bright future in front of them if they are further developed. Though these robots still have many aspects that can be explored more thoroughly, they are promising in their possibilities. With the rise of AI technology, centipede robots could utilize such systems in their algorithms to further DGYDQFH WKHLU H൶FLHQF\ DQG DFFXUDF\ )RU LQVWDQFH IXWXUH SURMHFWV FDQ LQVWDOO FDPHUDV WR WKH IURQW RI the robots and utilize the view to predict the environment in front of them. This can help the robot SUHGLFW LWV SDWK DQG PRYH PRUH DFFXUDWHO\ 6SHFL¿F SDUWV RI WKH URERWV DOVR KDYH SRVVLELOLWLHV IRU enhancement, such as the joint section of segmented bodies, which are usually seen in other centipede robots.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References 1. 2. 3.

Katie /\QQ +R൵PDQ ³'HVLJQ DQG /RFRPRWLRQ 6WXGLHV RI D 0LQLDWXUH Centipede-Inspired Robot”, doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, May 2013. Brian Jimenez-*DUFLD ³&HQWLSHGH 5RERW /RFRPRWLRQ´ 0DVWHU 3URMHFW (FROH 3RO\WHFKQLTXH Fédérale De Lausanne, July 2007 4. %XOLFKHY 2OHJ .OLPFKLN $OH[DQGU 0DYULGLV 1LNRODRV 2SWLPL]DWLRQ RI FHQWLSHGH robot body designs through evolutionary algorithms and multiple rough terrains simulation. 290 52%,2 5. 6KRWD .DVKLZDGD .D]X\XNL ,WR ³3roposal of semiautonomous centipede-OLNH URERW IRU UXEEOHV´ 7KH 6HYHQWHHQWK ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 6\PSRVLXP RQ $UWL¿FLDO /LIH DQG 5RERWLFV $52% WK ¶ B-Con Plaza, Beppu, Oita, Japan, January 19-21, 2012 6. 0LQHU 'RQ *ODURV -RKQ 2DWHV 7LP 6elf-&RQ¿JXULQJ 0RGXODU &HQWLSHGH 5RERW 7. /RLF 0DWWKH\ /XGRYLF 5LJKHWWL DQG $XNH -DQ ,MVSHHUW ³([SHULPHQWDO VWXG\ RI OLPLW F\FOH DQG chaotic controllers for the locomotion of centipede robots” 8. %D[L &KRQJ HW DO ³$ JHQHUDO ORFRPRWLRQ FRQWURO IUDPHZRUN IRU multi-legged locomotors”, KWWSV DU[LY RUJ SGI SGI -DQXDU\ 9. ,QDJDNL 6 1LZD 7 6X]XNL 7 )ROORZ-the-Contact-Point gait control of centipede-OLNH PXOWLOHJJHG URERW WR QDYLJDWH DQG ZDON RQ XQHYHQ WHUUDLQ ,QWHOOLJHQW 5RERWV DQG 6\stems (IROS), ,((( 56- ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFH RQ SS - 2FW GRL IROS.2010.5651324. 10. 6KLQNLFKL ,QDJDNL +LGHR <XDVD 7DNDQRUL 6X]XNL DQG 7DPLR $UDL ³:DYH &3* PRGHO IRU autonomous decentralized multi-OHJJHG URERW *DLW JHQHUDWLRQ DQG ZDONLQJ VSHHG FRQWURO´ Robotics and Autonomous System, Volume 54, Issue 2, pp.118-126, February 2006.

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Analyzing Chopin Piano Works Author 1

Full Name

Jung, Seoeun

Boylan Catholic High School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: I used a machine learning approach to assess Chopin's piano compositions for this project. I conducted both a supervised and an unsupervised machine learning study to examine the link between the keys, titles, dates of music composition, and publication of Chopin's piano compositions in a dataset. In the introduction, I analyzed the biography of Chopin both in light of not only his works but also the historical moments that might have shaped his compositions. Following this section, I described the dataset I utilized for a thorough analysis – Kaggle, a machine learning platform hosting machine learning competitions as well as storing large datasets. In succession, I delineated the method that I used to analyze the datasets and Chopin’s works. Before applying the machine learning methods, I tried to visualize the datasets using graphs and bar plots to elucidate the distribution of the features. Subsequently, I applied the K-means algorithm to evaluate the presence of common communities of data in Chopin’s piano works. I applied the algorithm and obtained three subgroups of the original datasets of Chopin's piano works: one of 26 operas, one of 36 operas, and one of 165 operas. I could conclude that the keys and dates of composition were more effective to distinguish among operas, than the titles of the composition themselves. Afterward, I applied linear regression to three models. Findings suggest that keys and dates of compositions were important predictors for opera titles. This is in line with what I noticed for the clustering case - that keys and dates of composition appear to be the most relevant features for predicting and discerning Chopin’s operas. I believe that computational and machine learning approaches are important. To the best of our knowledge, such computational approaches to analyze Chopin's piano works have never been used. This, however, could help musicologists and researchers in the field to find lurking correlations and patterns in the composer’s opera, and, thus, shed light on possible findings behind his compositions.

Keywords: Machine learning, Chopin, K-means, algorithm, linear regression, cluster

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction and Motivation Chopin was a Polish composer, born under Napoleonic occupation. Nationalism and his cult personality greatly influenced Chopin's music, not to mention the Polish culture and lifestyle that he was born under [1]. The aesthetics of Polish music that portray heroic expressions through robust and energetic tempos has been one way in which early biographies of Polish nationalism defined Chopin’s work. He was known as a representative musician of French Romanticism. After Romanticism, there was a period of impressionism, and the famous impressionist musician Debussy was influenced by earlier works of Chopin [1].

Figure 1: Chopin portrait (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin) Chopin composed more than 230 works and devised the concept of instrumental ballade [6, 7]. His light, delicate, and flexible playing style are all shared in the music he wrote. [8]. He composed masterpieces such as Waltz No.3 In A Minor, Op. 34 No.2 and Mazurka No. 13 in A Minor, Op. 17 No.4 [9]. More than any other, Chopin is responsible for the development of modern piano techniques and style. His influence on succeeding generations of piano composers was profound and lingering. He conceived a whole new range of colors, harmonies, and means of expression by utilizing every facet of the new developments in piano construction. The larger keyboard (seven octaves) and improved mechanism opened up new possibilities for musical expression [10]. Frederic Chopin was known as a poet of the piano because of the way he composed and played. Chopin devised the concept of the instrumental ballade. His other major piano works include sonatas, mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, and preludes, and some were published only after his death. Many contain elements of both Polish folk music and classical tradition of J. S. Bach and Mozart who he admired. His innovations in style, musical form, harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period [11]. In this paper, we analyzed Chopin's piano works to understand the relationship between operas’ publication dates, keys, and titles.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Dataset The dataset contains the piano works of Chopin, publication years, and the date of composition. The dataset was obtained from the website Kaggle [2]. Chopin's piano works from op.1 to op.74 and op. posth, are contained in the dataset. The dataset is composed of 251 observations and 6 features (columns). In section number 4.1, we will describe in detail the distributions of the various features. A symbol or character in the data file indicates the following meaning for the 6 features columns: 1. Op: opus number, ჟ published during lifetime without opus number, ს and ფ posthumous works, Anh.Ia: doubtful works of Chopin. 2. Title: title of the composition. 3. Subtitle: subtitle of the composition. 4. Key: music key of the composition 5. Dates of composition: the year worked on the composition. 6. Publication Year: the year in which the opera was published.

3. Method 3.1. Data Visualization Methodologies Histogram: a graphical representation that organizes a group of data points displaying distributions of them through bar heights [3]. On the x-axis are the actual values and on the y-axis, the height of the bars represents the frequency of the specific range of values. Barplot: is used to show a distribution of data points or perform a comparison of metric values across different subgroups of your data [4]. Different from histograms, bar plots are used for categorical data (while histograms are used for continuous data). 3.2. Clustering Methodologies: K-Means K-Means: clustering algorithm that is used to find groups that have not been explicitly labeled in the data [5]. K represents the number of groups we want to obtain and needs to be specified in advance. Therefore, we can experiment using a different number of K, and then compare the groups found. 3.3. Linear Regression As a supervised machine learning approach, Linear Regression was used. In this model, it can be assumed that there is a relationship between the features and the target value, which in mathematical terms is defined as linear (graphically seen as a straight line).

4. Experiments and Results 4.1. Data Visualization and Statistical Analysis We first performed data visualization and statistical analysis through the use of histograms and barplots. 4.2. Data Visualization and Preprocessing In this section we present histograms and bar plots we obtained for the features described in Section 2.

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Figure 2: Barplot representing the distribution of Chopin Piano Works Operas. X-axis shows the name of the Operas that Chopin composed and the Y-axis shows the number of works that have the same opera name as the others. As it can be seen from the Barplot in Figure 2, Mazurka, Nocturne, and Waltz were the three titles and types of operas that were mostly written. In fact, Chopin wrote 60 Mazurka, 22 Nocturne, 19 Waltz, and 16 Polonaise. Moreover, as it can be seen from Figure 3, A flat major was the most used key, while F sharp major and G sharp major were the least used keys. 26 Chopin operas are in A flat major while 4 Chopin operas are in F sharp major and G sharp major respectively. For the case of Figure 2 and Figure 3, bar plots were used, as the type of data shown is categorical.

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Figure 3: Barplot representing the distribution of Chopin Piano Works Keys. X-axis contains keys while the Y-axis means the number of works that have the same key. A histogram was used to plot the distribution of the publication year. However, since this visualization was not so clear the number was transformed into categorical values in R and plotted as a barplot of the publication years. This is shown in Figure 4. In particular, 25 operas were published in 1839, 23 operas in 1855, 20 operas in 1837, and 18 operas respectively in 1831 and 1833.

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Figure 4: Histogram representing the distribution of Chopin Piano Works publication Years. Xaxis highlights publication year and Y-axis highlights the number of works that were composed in the same year.

Figure 5: Barplot representing the composition years of Chopin’s works. X-axis shows the composition years while the Y-axis shows the works with the same composition years.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Figure 5 displays the distribution of Chopin's piano operas' composition years. Looking at the plot it was noticed that there were some operas composed in 1855, which was after Chopin’s death. Thus, the 17 operas removed from the database were considered written in 1855, since this date is after the composer’s death. Looking at these operas it is noticeable that they were the 17 Polish songs that Chopin wrote. However, the composition years are not clear from the sources. The original dataset was 251 rows. However, it was reduced to 244, because the rows with missing values were discarded. In addition to this, we decided to remove these 17 Polish operas from our databases, and hence, our dataset was reduced from 244 observations to 227. As shown in figure 5, the majority of Operas were composed between 1830-1832 and 1838-1839. In particular, 24 operas were composed between 1838-1839, 24 operas were composed between 1830-1832, and 12 operas were composed between 1835-1837.

Figure 6: Correlation plot of Chopin piano works features Further correlational analysis for the features in our dataset was performed. In particular, we considered the correlations between the types of operas, titles, keys, dates of compositions, and publication years. The types of operas and publication years had the strongest correlation while the dates of composition

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) and titles had the weakest correlation. Between the types of operas and dates of composition, we can see there is a negative correlation of -0.22. Also, dates of composition and titles had a negative correlation of -0.29, and between publication year and dates of composition, we can find a negative correlation of 0.18. We can find a positive correlation of 0.29 between titles and the types of operas, while the titles and publication years had a positive correlation of 0.16. Lastly, publication year and the types of operas had a positive correlation of 0.63. As we can see from figure 6, there aren’t any strong correlations present with only one correlation value higher than 0.5. This is because the Opera numbers are organized by publication year. 4.3. K-Means Experiments Results K-means was run to obtain the following 3 clusters: keys, dates of composition, and title. These clusters varied in size, with these clusters having 49 data points, 49 data points, and 129 data points, respectively. After obtaining these data clusters, we performed an analysis. In figure 7, we closely examined the distribution of dates of composition for the 26 operas which ended up clustered in the first community. As we can see, the majority of them were composed between 1838 and 1839. In Figure 8, we can see the distribution of the keys of composition for cluster 1. In this case, we can see that the majority of operas that ended up in this cluster were composed of A flat major and E major. Moreover, as we can see from Figure 9, most of the operas which were clustered in community number 1 were Waltzes.

Figure 7: Dates of compositions for Chopin work which ended up in Cluster 1. X-axis lists the dates of composition and Y-axis represents the number of works that were composed in the same year.

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Figure 8: Keys of compositions for Chopin work which was clustered in Cluster number 1. X-axis lists the different keys of compositions and Y-axis portrays the number of compositions with the same keys.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Figure 9: Names of compositions for Chopin work which was clustered in Cluster number 1. X-axis highlights the different names of compositions and Y-axis counts the number of compositions under the same name. We performed a similar analysis for the operas which were clustered in cluster number 2 (the one colored red in figure 7). As we can see from figure 10, the majority of cluster 2 was written in 1835-1837. This is different from what we noticed in cluster number 1. In figure 11, we can glance at the keys of composition for the operas in cluster number 2. We can see that the majority of operas are in key A minor, A-flat Major, and D-flat Major. The keys that we mention here are different from the ones we saw before. In cluster 1, the majority of keys were in A flat major, while in cluster 2 the majority of operas are in A minor, A-flat Major, and D-flat Major. In figure 12, we see the distribution of titles for the operas in cluster 2. The majority of operas in this cluster are Etudes. This deviates from what happened for the operas grouped in cluster number 1.

Figure 10: Dates of operas compositions for Chopin, that ended up in Cluster number 2. X-axis enumerates the dates of operas compositions and Y-axis represents the number of works that were written on the same dates.

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Figure 11: Figure representing the keys of the operas which were clustered in cluster number 2. Xaxis lists the keys utilized in the operas and Y-axis tallies the number of operas within the same keys.

Figure 12: Plot showing the distribution of operas titles for cluster 2. X-axis shows the opera titles and Y-axis shows the works with the same titles.

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Figure 13: Dates of composition in cluster number 3. X-axis compiles the dates of composition and Y-axis enumerates the number of works with the same dates of composition. Figure 13 shows that the majority of the operas were composed between 1838-1839 and 1830 - 1832. Furthermore, the data in Figure 14 reflects that the majority of operas were written in A flat major which differs from the behavior shown for cluster 1 and cluster 2. The titles of compositions for cluster 3 can be seen in Figure 16. It can be seen in the data that the majority of the operas were Mazurkas. Among cluster 1, cluster 2, and cluster 3, the biggest differences were the dates of composition. Moreover, the differences rely on the keys for the majority of all three cases. Using these three features we were also able to create groups with different types of operas composing the majority (having mainly Waltz in cluster 1, Etudes in Cluster 2, and Mazurkas in Cluster 3).

Figure 14: Keys of Compositions for operas in Cluster 3. X-axis shows keys of compositions and Y-

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) axis shows the number of compositions with the same keys.

Figure 15: Title of composition for cluster number 3. X-axis highlights titles of composition and Yaxis highlights works with the same titles. 4.4. Linear regression modeling We further performed linear regression modeling. In the first model, we predicted the keys of the composition using titles and dates of composition and we noticed that neither titles nor the dates of composition are significant for the prediction. The only variable between the two that is statistically significant is the title which has a P value of 0.0706. We then ran an experiment in which we predicted the dates of composition using titles and keys, and the titles turned out to be very significant for the prediction of dates of composition. In the last experiment, we predict the variable titles using dates of composition and key. In this case, the dates of composition turned out to be very significant for the prediction of the titles while the keys were not significant.

5 Discussion and Conclusion This paper analyzes Chopin's piano works by considering the dates of compositions, keys, and titles. We performed clustering with K-Means and showed the obtained clusters through preliminary analysis. The analysis displayed the similarities for dates of composition such as Cluster 1 in Figure 8 which has the majority of composing pieces between 1838-1839. Then, we analyzed cluster by cluster. To be precise, we analyzed the features that could help us discern vectors between groups of clusters. From such analysis, we figured that dates of composition and keys are the elements that help better distinguish different Chopin operas. Subsequently, we continued our analysis using a supervised learning algorithm. We applied linear regression to our data and applied three different types of models. In one case, we predicted the dates of composition from keys and titles. Then, titles from keys and dates of composition, and vice versa. We found out that keys were almost significant with a p-value of less than 0.07. The dates of composition were highlighted significantly (with a p-value less than 0.05) in the prediction of titles.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) This finding suggests that these two features are more discriminative, helping more in predicting Chopin operas than the titles. This is in line with the findings of the clusters, which explicated how the 3 clusters obtained with K-Means are effectively distinguished using dates of composition, titles, and keys of the compositions. The Limitation of the study is that the dataset was manually curated. This means that there might be some typo or incorrect information added, urging the need for further validation. Then, another limitation could be the dimension of the dataset and this could have been solved by further comparison of other Chopin pieces. For example, future tasks could be to compare Chopin’s piano works with other piano composers' works or to compare Chopin's piano operas to other instruments-based operas to enlarge the spectrum. We believe our work is important, as such a machine learning approach can help uncover important patterns inside the composers’ work, helping researchers in the study of Chopin operas.

References Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Frédéric Chopin. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Chopin ken_1kag. (2020, October 19). Chopin Piano Works. Kaggle. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.kaggle.com/ken1kag/chopin-piano-works Chen, J. (2022, July 6). Histogram definition. Investopedia. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/histogram.asp A complete guide to bar charts. Chartio. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://chartio.com/learn/charts/bar-chart-complete-guide/ Blogs.oracle.com. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://blogs.oracle.com/ai-anddatascience/post/introduction-to-k-means-clustering Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849) pronounced “show-pan.” (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.scasd.org/cms/lib/PA01000006/Centricity/Domain/2146/Chopin%20Biography%20Activ ity.pdf Music 101. Frederic Chopin | Music 101. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-musicapp-medieval-modern/chapter/frederic-chopin/ Frederic Chopin Music - an overview of the piano poet's style and pieces. The Life and Works of the World's Favorite Classical Composers. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://www.favoriteclassical-composers.com/chopin-music.html Roberts, M. S. (2021, April 16). Best chopin music: 10 essential pieces by the romantic composer. Classic FM. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.classicfm.com/composers/chopin/bestworks-music-romantic-polish-composer/

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) MA Music, Leisure and Travel. (2010, March 22). Frédéric Chopin – a bicentenary focus. Gramophone. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.gramophone.co.uk/features/article/frederic-chopin-a-bicentenary-focus Frédéric Chopin - Classical Music composers. Philadelphia Chamber Music Society. (2015, March 25). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.pcmsconcerts.org/composer/frederic-chopin/ Weisberg, S. (2005, April 1). Applied linear regression. Google Books. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://books.google.com/books/about/Applied_Linear_Regression.html?id=xd0tNdFOOjcC

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Supplementary material: The R code used for the project chopin_piano_works=read.csv(file="../../../Downloads/chopin_piano_works.csv")

barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$title),cex.names = 0.3,las=2)

##Colours for the plots barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$key),cex.names = 0.5,las=2) colors=c("pink","red","blue") #barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$key),cex.names = 0.5,las=2,col=colors) barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$title),cex.names = 0.3,las=2,col=colors)

library(RColorBrewer) colors <- brewer.pal(8,"Set2") colors <- brewer.pal(8,"Pastel2")

barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$key),cex.names = 0.3,las=2,col=colors)

#To make the barplot of years of compositions barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$dates.of.composition),cex.names=0.3,las=2,col=colors)

#Make the barplot of the subtitles of Chopin compositions barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$subtitle),cex.names=0.3,las=2,col=colors)

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#Make a barplot of the operas of Chopin piano work compositions barplot(table(chopin_piano_works$Op.),cex.names=0.3,las=2,col=colors)

#Transform a vector into a factor

#Transform the keys to a factor chopin_piano_works$key=as.factor(chopin_piano_works$key) #Transform the titles to a factor chopin_piano_works$title= as.factor(chopin_piano_works$title) #Transform the substitles to a factor chopin_piano_works$subtitle=as.factor(chopin_piano_works$subtitle) #Transform the operas to a factor chopin_piano_works$Op.=as.factor(chopin_piano_works$Op.) #Transform dates of composition chopin_piano_works$`dates of composition`=as.factor(chopin_piano_works$`dates of composition`)

### Transformation to numeric values for all of the columns chopin_piano_works$key=as.numeric(chopin_piano_works$key) chopin_piano_works$title = as.numeric(chopin_piano_works$title) chopin_piano_works$subtitle=as.numeric(chopin_piano_works$subtitle) chopin_piano_works$Op.=as.numeric(chopin_piano_works$Op.) chopin_piano_works$dates.of.composition=as.numeric(chopin_piano_works$dates.of.composition)

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#Remove a column chopin_piano_works=chopin_piano_works[,4]

#Remove the rows which contains a NA value (a missing value) chopin_piano_works=chopin_piano_works[complete.cases(chopin_piano_works),]

#Correlation plot library(corrplot) corrplot(cor(chopin_piano_works[,2:6]),method="number")

### Perform K-Means in our Chopin Dataset #With three clusters cluster_chopin_1=kmeans(chopin_piano_works[,3:4],3) plot(chopin_piano_works[,3:4],col=cluster_chopin_1$cluster) #With four clusters cluster_chopin_2=kmeans(chopin_piano_works[,3:4],4) plot(chopin_piano_works[,3:4],col=cluster_chopin_2$cluster)

#All of the elements in cluster number 1, which is the age of composition? #Step 1 we take all of the rows of chopin_piano_works which are in cluster 1

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) #Step 2 is to take the subset of cluster 1 and all of the other clusters (having selected these using at the previous step) #And analyze the distribution for example of the age of composition of this subset

chopin_piano_works=read.csv(file="chopin_piano_works.csv")

#STEP 1: Analyze cluster 1 chopin_piano_worksnew=read.csv(file="../../../Downloads/chopin_piano_works.csv") chopin_piano_works_cluster1=subset(chopin_piano_worksnew,cluster_chopin_1$cluster==1) #Let's plot the dates of compositions barplot for the elements in cluster 1 chopin_piano_worksnew=read.csv(file="../../../Downloads/chopin_piano_works.csv") barplot(table(chopin_piano_works_cluster1$dates.of.composition),cex.names=0.3,las=2,col=colors)

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Distributional Analysis of Echinolittorina Radiata: Its Correlation to Offshore Thermal Power Plants Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Dohwui

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Unexpected survival of invasive fish species near thermal power plants can affect water ecological systems. Especially in saltwater environments, discharged freshwater can be predicted not only to contribute to the adjustment of temperature but also simultaneously affect the salinity level. I aimed to study how much the discharge of the constant releasing of warm water affects, categorizing an affected environment and an unaffected environment, comparing the distribution of population of the subject, and further analyzing the correlation of offshore thermal power plants. Population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata wasthe population of the subject five times from two coastal environments as a function of distance, population distribution of the environment was measured. It was concluded that thermal power plants affect the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata by introducing saltwater in freshwater regions.

Keywords: Echinolittorina radiata, thermal power plant, population distribution, coastal environment, salinity

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction The “Guppy Stream,” located in Incheon, South Korea, is a well-known place for breeders and its distinct characteristics [1]. As most of the Poecilia reticulata, a tropical fish species, are released by irresponsible aquarium keepers from the stream, people assumed the species would not survive during the winter because of their temperature-sensitive traits in winter as a tropical fish species. The large population of Poecilia reticulata, however, was found to be alive and thriving in recent years due to the stream’s distinct water condition, which eventually leads to the well-marked effect. Several concerns are raised as Poecilia reticulata is considered to be an alien species and has the potential to become invasive to the near ecosystem. This particular phenomenon, however, is assumed to occur as the nearest factories, e.g. SK hynix, periodically discharge warm water; the stream eventually becomes able to maintain relatively high temperature for water conditions from the upper stream even in winter. From this particular occurrence in Guppy Stream, I assumed that the discharge of warm water can act majorly on the distribution of marine species thriving in the near discharged area and considered whether the other marine species can be influenced by the discharged water environment. It is also intriguing to compare the distributional population in saltwater environments, as discharged water assumes not only to contribute to the change in temperature but salinity level as well.

Figure 1. Echinolittorina radiata captured from the experimental site. Photograph from Dohwui Kim, March 13, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. The subject was selected based on its major distributions in marine ecology of Korea. In the academia of marine science, Echinolittorina radiata is one of the most populated species of sea snails in Korean coastlines, which plays an important role in decomposing and decaying organic matter of the rocky shore environment. Its diversification in the sea water environment has been extremely viable during the investigation, as the experiment aims to achieve the data showing the difference in the distribution and population of Echinolittorina radiata in coastal areas with and without warm water discharge, which has been a major reason behind using the species as a subject. [2] Investigations began in early March, and the seawater was still cold, about 10 degrees Celsius. It is

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) expected that zooplanktons and algaes will thrive easily in warmer places, and that Echinolittorina radiata, a cold-blooded animal species, will also be attracted to warmth, so there will be no change in the unaffected environment, while the population will be concentrated toward the power plant where hot water is discharged. In conclusion, it is hypothesized that the population of Echinolittorina radiata will be concentrated toward the power plant, unlike its natural state, and the reason is that the place is expected to have higher temperature than normal environment. At the same time, the research question “to which extent does the presence of thermal power plants affect the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata?” is generated.

2. Methods

Figure 2. Satellite Picture of the Experimental Site. Captured from Google Earth, March 13, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Prior to the main investigation, two coastal sites with similar environmental properties - such as climate, rock composition, and species diversity - were selected, one with a thermal power plant releasing warm water and one with an unaffected environment. Since it is impossible for two natural places to be in the same environment, there was a difference in the depth of water and the speed of current. In the affected site, the deeper the water depth became as far away from the thermal power plant, and in the areas A and E, the currents were strong, but in the unaffected site, the difference in water depth or currents was not significant. Both sites will have 5 square areas (labeled area A, B, C, D, and E for affected site and A’, B’, C’, D’, and E’ for unaffected site) sized 1m2, where the data of the population of Echinolittorina radiata is collected.

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Figure 3. Zoomed Satellite Picture of the Experimental Site. Captured from Google Earth, March 13, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Each area is selected with an interval of 5 m, and the first area (area A) will be located in the location where warm water is discharged. A 20-meter straight line K will be made using a stanley-fatmax magnusson 20m tape measure placed perpendicular to the coastline to construct the rest of the areas. B, C, D, and E are determined in order far from the coastline. With the same method, the line perpendicular to the coastline in the unaffected site will be constructed before establishing site A’, B’, C’, D’, and E’, and labeled as line L.

Figure 4. Picture of Site A, releasing warm water into the coastal environment. CPhotograph from Dohwui Kim, March 13, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The basic experimental apparatus and devices were provided for the purpose of collecting the data of the population of Echinolittorina radiata in a given area. Prior to collecting the data of population, sites in unaffected and affected environments were determined by Species diversity was measured using a quadrat. Quadrat with the size of 1.0m² was placed on each site. Temperature was measured by placing mercury thermometer RS-45 in the center of the quadrat, and salinity was measured using salinity meter SS-31AN.

Figure 5. Picture of the Experimental Apparatus. Photographed from Google, March 13, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. In each 10 areas, the population of Echinolittorina radiata, temperature, and salinity was measured eight times, in a one week interval, during the lowest tide. The data of Echinolittorina radiata population will be compared with the data of the temperatures, by calculating pearson’s moment correlation coefficient. Same process will be held between the data Echinolittorina radiata population and the data of salinity of each site. These calculations of relations are to find out how much the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata is affected by temperature and salt concentration. Finally, the data of Echinolittorina radiata population will be compared with the data of the distance from the coastline through pearson’s moment correlation coefficient calculation. Duncan's new multiple range test will be performed in order to support the idea that there is significant population difference between the sites. Through this process, it will be determined what the original distribution of the environment

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) is and how it changed by warm water discharge.

3. Results The raw data in Appendix A were collected from both unaffected and affected environments. Overall, the closer the distance from the thermal power plant, the smaller the number (and therefore closer to the sea). The opposite tendency appears for the affected environment. In addition, overall, the higher the temperature and salinity, the greater the population seems to be. To examine if there is any link between these variables more accurately, Pearson’s moment correlation coefficient (PMCC) was used to calculate p-value which determines the relationship between two data sets. In unaffected sites, p-value of 0.579 was calculated between population and salinity, while p-value of 0.246 was calculated between population and temperature. This result suggests not only that salinity has a positive moderate correlation with population, but also that temperature is not correlated with the distribution of population. In addition, the correlation between the distance from the shoreline and the population of Echinolittorina radiata produced the p-value of 0.611, suggesting that there is positive correlation between the distance and population. Site A’ in an unaffected environment always showed salinity of 0. This indicates that the location where the thermal power plant, releasing hot saltwater, exists is likely to be the location where the freshwater zone existed. In affected sites, p-value of 0.519 was calculated between population and salinity, while p-value of 0.514 was calculated between population and temperature. This result suggests that both temperature and salinity have a positive correlation with population. In addition, the correlation between the distance from the shoreline and the population of Echinolittorina radiata produced the p-value of -0.434, suggesting that there is negative correlation between the distance and population. Due to the datas collected in site A, Echinolittorina radiata population trend of affected environment is not linear. Datas in site A is significantly lower than those in site B, and the data trend becomes more linear without site A. According to the data, the closer it is to a thermal power plant, the more the population of Echinolittorina radiata increases, but the nearest, which is site A, is the exception. Verily, when Pearson calculation is held without site A’s datas, it produces p value of -0.594, showing stronger positive correlation.

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Figure 6. The set of graphs present the relationship between the population of Graph A and B showing Temperature in °C and Average E.radiata Population of corresponding temperature value in Unaffected & Affected Environment, and Graph C and D showing Salinity in ‰ and Average E.radiata Population corresponding to each salinity value in Unaffected & Affected Environment. Graphed by Dohwui Kim, August 04, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. The graph shown above presents the average of the population values corresponding to each temperature and salinity values. For example, the mean of all the values corresponding to the salinity of 0 is represented by the point whose x value of graph B is 0. Graphs A and B, which show temperature, have the trendlines with the opposite gradients, while graphs C and D, which show salinity, have the trendlines with similar gradients. This indicates the presence of a high possibility of effect that salinity exerts on the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata more consistently compared to temperature. The trendlines displaying the relationship between Echinolittorina radiata population and temperature show so different angles in the two environments that it is difficult to conclude that this is one of the factors that determine the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata.

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Figure 7. Relationship between Average Echinolittorina radiata population in XQDIIHFWHG DIIHFWHG HQYLURQPHQW ȝ DQG GLVWDQFH IURP 7KHUPDO 3RZHUSODQW P Graphed by Dohwui Kim, August 03, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. The graph shown above presents the average Echinolittorina radiata population values corresponding to each distance value, with standard error and p-value derived from the student's t-test are proposed. Student’s t-test was calculated between raw datas of Echinolittorina radiata population in affected and unaffected environments in the same distance from the thermal power plant. Bars on each bar represents standard error of each Echinolittorina radiata population value, while stars(*) on each set of bar graphs represents p-value. If a p-value is less than 0.01, it is flagged with 2 stars (**). If a p-value is less than 0.001, it is flagged with three stars (***). Overall, all the p-values are extremely low, indicating that the Echinolittorina radiata population in unaffected and affected environments do not share a similar distribution pattern.

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Figure 8. The set of graphs showing the relationship between Average E. radiata population in unaffected and affected environmeQW ȝ DQG GLVWDQFH from Thermal Power Plant (m) Graph A presents the relationship between average E. radiata population and distance in unaffected environment while Graph B presents that in unaffected environment Graphed by Dohwui Kim, August 03, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Graph A shown above presents the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in the unaffected environment. Additionally, the result of Duncan's new multiple range test and standard error on raw data sets from each site is displayed. Standard error is shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 7. Duncan’s test results are shown as alphabets above the bars; bars with the same alphabet are not necessarily from the different group. Therefore, it is possible to mention that the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in site B’, C’, D’ and E’ is likely to be different from that of site A’. Graph B shown above presents the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in the affected environment. Additionally, the result of Duncan's new multiple range test and standard error on raw data sets from each site is displayed. Standard error is shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 7. Duncan’s test results are shown as alphabets above the bars; bars with the same alphabet are not necessarily from the different group. Therefore, it is possible to mention that the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in site A, B, and C is likely to be different from that of sites D and E. To reduce the impact of potential experimental errors, Duncan's test was repeated after excluding statistical anomalies. Anomalies are considered as the datas above ‫ݍ‬3 + 1.5 ‫ ܴܳܫ כ‬or below‫ݍ‬1 െ 1.5 ‫כ‬ ‫ ܴܳܫ‬, where ‫ ܴܳܫ‬refers to the interquartile range of the data set, ‫ݍ‬1 refers to the 1st quartile of the data set, and ‫ݍ‬3 refers to the 3rd quartile of the data set. When at least one statistical anomaly was found between site temperature, salinity, or Echinolittorina radiata population, all three values in the same trial and the same site will be ignored in further calculations. Rejected values are shown in Appendix B. As shown in the table, statistical anomalies, which are the values sharded darkly, are found to have occurred frequently in the early stages of investigation, and also in unaffected sites. This is likely to prove that the initial observation was insufficient due to lack of experience, or that the place designated as an

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) unaffected environment was more ecological volatile than the place designated as an affected environment. In affected environments, potential statistical anomalies appeared frequently in site D and E, which are two furthest sites from the thermal power plant.

Figure 8. Relationship between Average Echinolittorina radiata population in DIIHFWHG HQYLURQPHQW ȝ DQG GLVWDQFH IURP 7KHUPDO 3RZHUSODQW P EDVHG RQ refined datas, Graphed by Dohwui Kim, August 03, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Graph A shown above presents the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in the affected environment, but using refined data without statistical anomalies. The graph also includes the result of Duncan's new multiple range test and standard error on refined data sets from each site. Standard error is shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 7. Duncan’s test results are shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 8. When compared to graph A in Figure 8, graph A in Figure 9 has its difference in its smoother shape. Excluding the freshwater area, A', the remaining areas show a fairly linear trend of population growth. The presence of ab in the graph established this trend. Graph B shown above presents the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in the affected environment, but using refined data without statistical anomalies. The graph also includes the result of Duncan's new multiple range test and standard error on refined data sets from each site. Standard error is shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 7. Duncan’s test results are shown in exactly the same way as it was presented in Figure 8. When graph B in Figure 8 and graph B in Figure 9 are compared together, no significant difference in the approximate and overall shape of the data can be found.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Lastly, the whole raw data set of the Echinolittorina radiata population in the affected environment was compared with the whole raw data set of the Echinolittorina radiata population in the unaffected environment, via the student's t-test. Critical value is set as 0.05 and null hypothesis is set as “there is no difference in Echinolittorina radiata distribution in the two environments”. As a result, the student's ttest produced a p-value of 0.0220, showing that there is significant difference in the distribution of Echinolittorina radiata in two environments.

4. Discussion As the result of Duncan’s test demonstrates the distributional relationship within the unaffected site, the major distribution has not been significantly changed with each site (A',B',C',D',E'); however, the site A' showed slightly different in its distribution of population due to the distinct water condition of the site, in which near freshwater continuously flows in from the upstream. Echinolittorina radiata is a highly resistive species with the variation of temperature [4], which can be explained that species of Echinolittorina radiata is likely to be varied in different distributions between saltwater and freshwater regions, which it is presumed being affected by salinity not by the temperature. This was prevailed earlier within the result of Pearson’s moment correlation coefficient (PMCC). While the distributional result of the unaffected sites showed a slight change during the Duncan’s test, the result from the affected sites illustrates other results in comparison to the result of the unaffected site. The sites (A, B, C), where closest to the thermal power plant, showed a different distribution than the farther sites (D, E) from the thermal power plant. It can be estimated that the number of Echinolittorina radiata increased as the thermal power plant has continuously affected the distributions of the species up to 10 m of a distance, where site C is located. It is presumably caused by an increase in plankton population and algae due to a sharp rise in temperature, or by the influx of salt into the original freshwater environment. Whatever the causes, the reason behind this particular phenomenon can be explained by the presence of thermal power plants affecting the distribution of E. radiata since the t-test showed a value of 0.05 or less. It is highly unlikely that there is no distributional difference in affected and unaffected environments. Ttest produced the value of 0.0220, which is significantly below the critical value of 0.05. This rejects the null hypothesis of “there is no difference in Echinolittorina radiata distribution in two distinct environments”. Therefore, it is expected that thermal power plants create the environment where Echinolittorina radiata is oppositely distributed. Population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata is more likely to be changed by salinity than temperature3. Echinolittorina radiata appears to be a species that is tolerant to lower temperature, as shown by its low p-value when PMCC calculation with temperature was held. According to the results, it is presumed that the change in the distribution, where the presence was proven as a result of the t-test, was caused by the introduction of salt in the freshwater region. This indicates that the hypothesis of “the population of Echinolittorina radiata will be concentrated toward the power plant, unlike its natural state, and the reason is that the place is expected to have higher temperature than normal environment” is partially rejected. Echinolittorina radiata is likely to be oppositely populated in affected and unaffected environments, but there is high possibility that this is not determined by temperature, but salinity or other factors. It is expected that it will be helpful to understand ecological characteristics by calculating plankton species, pH, and nitrate/ammonia concentration of the given area in further studies. However, the investigation has multiple sources of error in the data collection process. These potential errors may result in the degradation of the quality and reliability of the whole investigation. For instance,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the exceptionally low population in site A may have been caused by difficulty for Echinolittorina radiata to inhabit due to the high flow rate of the thermal power plant, or for the observer to count Echinolittorina radiata on rapid flowing water. The difference in time when I visited the regions. This is because the low tide phase was different every day, but the temperature could be affected; more sun’s rays will result in higher temperatures. In coastal environments, there are species similar to Echinolittorina radiata, such as Littorina brevicula. In its natural state, these species may have been found to be discolored or partially broken by algae or physical damage, so it is possible that other species may have been mistaken for Echinolittorina radiata and thus made errors in the population calculations. It did not add up to the population calculation if it did not turn out to be Echinolittorina radiata for sure, but this resulted in a difference between the population collected in the first investigation and the last investigation. Each time I visited a region, I improved my skills to identify Echinolittorina radiata population, and the number of Echinolittorina radiata found in the later field studies increased. This potential error source questions the reliability of the datas from earlier investigations. The effect of these potential error sources are expected to be partially neutralized by error calculation explained above. When comparing the two figures generated to reduce the effect of potential errors, graph A and B in Figure 9, the graphs are not only showing the difference in general trends, but also in the degree of change. While graph A shows drastic decrease in population, between sites A, B, C and sites D and E, graph B shows general smooth increase. This finding supports an extra-detailed potential conclusion: The thermal power plant changed the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata, which should increase slowly as it approaches the coastline, to the population distribution of Echinolittorina radiata, which rapidly decreases approaching the coastline. This investigation could be an important bridgehead to understand the ecological changes of line environment by using Echinolittorina radiata as a test subject and selecting two coastal sites with similar environmental properties. Appendix A. Table showing raw data of Echinolittorina radiata population, temperature, and salinity of each site collected from the experimental site. Collected by Dohwui Kim, March 10, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Echinolittorina radiata population trial site

temperature(° C)

salinity(‰)

Unaffected Environment

Echinolittorina radiata population site

temperature(° C)

salinity(‰)

Affected Environment

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temperature(° C)

salinity(‰)

Unaffected Environment

Echinolittorina radiata population site

temperature(° C)

salinity(‰)

Affected Environment

133

122

127

108

115

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix B. Table showing the processed data of Echinolittorina radiata population, temperature, and salinity of each site collected from the experimental site. Darkly shaded values are considered as statistical anomalies, and were excluded in further calculations. Collected by Dohwui Kim, May 01, 2022. Seogwipo, Jeju, Korea. Echinolittorina trial radiata population site

Temperature (°C)

Salinity (‰)

Echinolittorina radiata population

Unaffected Environment

site

Temperature (°C)

Salinity (‰)

Affected Environment

133

122

127

108

115

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Echinolittorina radiata population trial site

Temperature (°C)

Salinity (‰)

Unaffected Environment

Echinolittorina radiata population site

Temperature (°C)

Salinity (‰)

Affected Environment

Acknowledgements This paper and the research behind it would not have been possible without the exceptional support of my supervisor, Lawrence Magister. His enthusiasm, knowledge and exacting attention to detail have been an inspiration and kept my work on track from my first encounter with the log books of British Naval Ships MS VII.2.77 to the final draft of this paper.

References [1]Moonkyu Bae, "Mystery 'Goofy Chun' ... once scooped up dozens of 'bagels'," last modified June 6, 2018, https://m.khan.co.kr/environment/environment-general [2]CABI, "Invasive Species Compendium," last modified November 21, 2019, https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/68208 [3]Galli C., "WMSDB - Wolrdwide Mollusc Species Data Base," last modified July 10, 2013, https://www.bagniliggia.it/WMSD/HtmSpecies/1370804050.htm [4]Ng, T.P.T., Lau, S.L.Y., Davies, M.S., Stafford, R., Seuront, L., Hutchinson, N., Hui, T.T.Y. and :LOOLDPV * $ %HKDYLRUDO UHSHUWRLUH RI KLJKဨVKRUH OLWWRULQLG VQDLOV UHYHDOV QRYHO DGDptations to an extreme environment. Ecology and Evolution, 11(12), pp.7114–7124. doi:10.1002/ece3.7578. [5]㧊㩫㨂, ṫἓ㻶 and ₖ㫛㻶 (2001). [⏒ⶎ]䢪㑲㫆Ṛ╖ 㩖㍲ ╖䡫ⶊ㻯㿪☯ⶒ㦮 ὋṚ㩗㫛┺㟧㎇㠦 ὖ䞲㡆ῂ. 䞲ῃ䕾⮮䞯䣢㰖 = The Korean journal of malacology, [online] 17(1), pp.63–70. Available at: https://scienceon.kisti.re.kr/srch/selectPORSrchArticle.do?cn=JAKO200111921145648&dbt=NART

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Development of Highly Efficient Cellular Uptake Cell-Penetrating Peptide for Novel Cancer Treatment Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Hongji

Yongsan International School of Seoul

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short peptides, which can carry various types of molecules into cells. Therefore, CPPs have been predominantly used in preclinical and basic cancer research for more than 30 years. However, low cellular uptake of CPPs caused severe side effects for breast cancer treatment. CPPs are rich in positively charged amino acids such as arginine and lysine and are able to translocate over membranes and gain access to the cell interior. Therefore, we hypothesized that adding positive charge peptides to cell-penetrating peptides would enhance the cellular uptake of CPPs. In this study, we constructed three types of CPPs: BR2 (+7 charge), R9 (+9 charge), BR2-R9 (+16 charge). To localize the CPPs inside the cancer cells, we added Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), which is a bright green fluorophore, on the C-terminal of each peptide. BR2-R9 showed much higher cellular uptake than BR2 and R9 on both human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB231). This result indicates that BR2-R9, which contains the most positive amino acids, can be applied for efficient drug delivery in cancer treatment. This study successfully develops a novel CPP for enhancing the cellular uptake in cancer cells and provides new insights into clinical applications of cancer treatment.

Keywords: Biology; Cancer Biology; Cell-penetrating peptide; Cancer Treatment

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Breast cancer occurs everywhere around the world, among women who are in the after stages of puberty. In 2022, 2.3 million women were diagnosed with breast cancer, with about 680,000 deaths worldwide. However, near the end of 2022, 7.8 million women who had breast cancer were still alive. This made breast cancer the most “prevalent” cancer globally because of its 90% 5-year survival rate. 1 In breast cancer chemotherapy, drugs are used to target and destroy breast cancer cells specifically. The drugs are usually injected into a vein or taken as pills. It works by preventing the cancer cells from growing, dividing, or making more cells. Chemotherapy is often used with several other treatments like surgery, radiotherapy, or hormone therapy. It helps increase the chances of a cure, reduce the risk of cancer recurrence, or lessen cancer symptoms. Importantly, if breast cancer has spread vastly to other parts of your body, chemotherapy can be used as the primary treatment. However, it carries a risk of side effects such as hair loss, easy bruising, infection, and many more. 2 In radiotherapy, high-energy X-rays, protons, or other particles are used to kill cancer cells, as cancer cells are more prone to the effects of radiation therapy than normal cells. Radiation therapy kills cancer cells or slows their growth/division by damaging their DNA, as cancer cells whose DNA is damaged stop dividing or eventually die. The radiation for breast cancer may be delivered through external and internal radiation. It is an effective way to decrease breast cancer recurrence and ease the symptoms caused by cancer. Many patients also use radiotherapy if breast cancers are too big to remove through surgery or have inflammatory breast cancer. However, there may be side effects like fatigue, skin irritation, or breast swelling. 3 Hormone therapy is used to block hormones from attaching to the receptors of cancer cells or even to reduce the body’s production of hormones. This method is often used after surgery to decrease the risk of cancer recurrence. It may also be used to shrink a tumor before going into surgery. Hormone therapy is mainly used for hormone receptor-positive breast cancers, also called ER-positive or PR-positive by doctors. However, there can also be significant side effects such as nausea, vaginal irritation, muscle pain, and many more. Apart from therapy, medications like tamoxifen, toremifene, or fulvestrant block hormones from attaching to cancer cells. 4 Cell-penetrating peptides consist of peptides (short chains of amino acids) that transport the molecules they are linked with across the cell membrane, and CPPs are considered to be taken up by different endocytic pathways. Many of them are known to mediate intracellular delivery of nucleic acids, proteins, or nanoparticles. 5 The peptide sequences have a positive charge and are rich in lysine or arginine. CPPs are also classified by their physicochemical properties into cationic, amphipathic, and hydrophobic classes. Many approaches have been made to enhance the permeability of therapeutic proteins by attaching them to a CPP. 6 A relevant application of the cell-penetrating peptides can be in cancer therapeutics. The peptide-based delivery can increase the consumption of drugs in tumor cells and increase the effectiveness of certain treatments of either small molecule drugs or oligonucleotide-based therapeutics. Additionally, as CPP can transport cargoes into the cell, CPP-based delivery is a promising strategy for cancer drug delivery. CPP can be helpful to both chemotherapeutics and modern gene-based drugs that could be delivered into tumor cells. 7

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Method and Materials Cell culture and maintenance Human breast cancer cell line MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 were purchased from Korea Cell Line Bank. RPMI 1640 (Gibco) with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin and streptomycin was used to culture cancer cell lines. The cells were maintained in a 37 °C CO2 cell incubator. CPP stock solution preparation To prepare the stock solution for each CPP (BR2, R9, and BR2-R9), the weight of the CPP powder was measured. The stock concentration of 1 mM of each CPP was prepared. 1.2 mg of BR2 powder was measured and 535.7 mL DMSO was added. 1.7 mg of R9 powder was measured and 882.7 mL DMSO was added. 0.8 mg of BR2-R9 powder was measured and 204.1 mL DMSO was added. CPP delivery optimization test To test the CPP delivery efficiency, two glass slides were prepared. Each glass slide has eight sections. One slide was used for MCF7, and the other slide was used for MDA-MB-231. Both slides consisted of two no treatment sections, and the other sections were contained with 5 mM and 10mM concentration for BR2, R9, BR2-R9 (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cell containing slide for testing CPP delivery efficiency.

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CPP delivered cell fixation and fluorescence imaging After removing all the cell media from the cell slide, 300 μL of methanol was added to each slide. After 10 minutes of incubation, the methanol was removed. 15 μL of DAPI containing mounting solution (VECTASHIELD) was added in the middle of each sample. The glass slide was covered on top of the cell containing the slide. Then, the slide was placed on the fluorescence microscope (Nikon), and the image of the cells were photographed. Quantification of green fluorescence cells After the cell media was removed, we added the Trypsin-EDTA and incubated the cells for five minutes. With cell preparation, 400μL RPMI media, cells, and the CPPs (BR2, R9, BR2R9) were added to each tube. The tubes were incubated for 10 minutes. 15 μl of the cell suspension was added into a PhotonSlide (Logos Biosystem). The LUNA-FL, a cell counting device, was used to count the green fluorescent cells.

3. Result and discussion Table 1. The CPPs used in this study and charge number. Name

Sequence

Charge

BR2

RAGLQFPVGRLLRRLLR (17 aa)

RRRRRRRRR (9 aa)

BR2-R9

RAGLQFPVGRLLRRLLRRLLR-RRRRRRRRR (30 aa)

+ 16

We used herein to design several CPP with cancer cell specificity. BR2, a motif of an anticancer peptide buforin IIB, is a 17-amino acid peptide that was found to have cancer-specificity without toxicity to normal cells (Table 1). BR2 enters the cancer cells after targeting them with gangliosides through lipidmediated macropinocytosis. BR2 also showed a higher membrane translocation efficiency than the other CPPs. 8 Arg9, a synthetic homoplyarginine nona-peptide (R9), plays an important role in cellular uptake. R9 is a cell penetrating peptide(CPP) with a cationic guanidinium group that forms electrostatic interactions with anionic cell membrane components like phospholipids and sulfated proteoglycans. 9 The interaction can also trigger intracellular signaling and internalization in many pathways. Since R9 has a simple peptide structure with positive charges, R9 has been extensively studied with many peptide modifications for specific drug delivery. 10 Since BR2 shows relatively low cell delivery on cancer cells, a high concentration of BR2 is needed for cancer cell delivery. We combined BR2 and R9 to synthesize the BR2-R9 fusion peptide to solve this problem. BR2 has a charge of +7, and R9 has a charge of +9, which makes BR2-R9 have a charge of +16 (Table 1). The positive charge will increase the electrostatic interaction, and this property will allow more cellular uptake in cancer cells.

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Figure 2. BR2-R9 showed the most efficient cell penetration on MCF7 breast cancer cell line. MCF7 cells were incubated with either 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2, R9, or BR2-R9 for 48 hours. The green fluorescence cells indicate the CPP uptake cells. We aim to analyze the cellular uptake level of BR2, R9, and BR2-R9 on MCF7 breast cancer cells. Either 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2, R9, or BR2-R9 were incubated with MCF7 cells for 48 hours. Then, we photographed the green fluorescent positive cells using a fluorescence microscope. The green fluorescent cells indicate the CPP cellular uptake (Figure 2). Both 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2 treatment conditions showed the lowest number of cells with green fluorescence. The treatment conditions of 5 μM and 10 μM of R9 showed an increased number of green fluorescent cells compared to BR2 treatment conditions (Figure 2). This result indicates that the cellular uptake of R9 is higher than BR2. As expected, both 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2R9 treatment conditions exhibited the highest number of green fluorescent cells than BR2 and R9 (Figure 2). We speculate that this result is due to the positive charges of BR2 and R9 fusion peptides. In conclusion, BR2R9 fusion peptides show the most efficient cellular uptake on MCF7 breast cancer cells.

Figure 3. BR2-R9 showed the most efficient cell penetration on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. MDA-MB-231 cells were incubated with either 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2, R9, or BR2-R9 for 48 hours. The green fluorescence cells indicate the CPP uptake cells.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Next, we analyzed the cellular uptake of CPP on different breast cancer cell lines to confirm the result in figure 2. MDA-MB-231, known to have more invasive characteristics than MCF7 was used to test the cellular uptake of BR2, R9, and BR2-R9. MDA-MB-231 was incubated with 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2, R9, or BR2-R9 for 48 hours. To see the results of the green fluorescent positive cells, photos were taken through a fluorescence microscope. The green fluorescent cells and their CPP cellular uptake are shown (Figure 3). The 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2 treatment conditions showed the lowest number of cells with green fluorescence (Figure 3). The treatment conditions of 5 μM and 10 μM of R9 showed a greater increased number of green fluorescent cells compared to BR2 treatment conditions (Figure 3). This result indicates that the cellular uptake of R9 is higher than BR2 in both MCF7 and MDA-MB-231. As hypothesized, both 5 μM and 10 μM of BR2-R9 treatment conditions appeared to have the highest number of green fluorescent cells than BR2 and R9 on MDA-MB-231 cells (Figure 3). Additionally, there was more cellular uptake in MDA-MB-231 than MCF7, as we can see that there are more green fluorescent cells present in MDA-MB-231 than MCF7 (Figure 3). BR2R9 fusion peptides showed the highest cellular uptake on MDA-MB-231 (Figure 3). Table 2. Quantification of green fluorescence cells using cell counter device CPP concentration

Cell type

Type of CPP MCF7

0 μM 5 μM

10 μM

MDA-MB-231 0%

BR2

11.2 %

21.7%

4.1%

BR2-R9

73.8%

BR2

5.5%

4.5%

BR2-R9

56.1%

97.6%

84.1%

After the treatment of BR2, R9, and BR2-R9 on both MCF7 and MDA-MB-231, we used the cell counter device to calculate the percentage of green fluorescent cells. We used three CPP treatment concentrations to quantify the green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and MDA-MB-231. Each CPP was incubated with the cells for only 10 minutes. After the incubation, the cells were inserted into cell counting slides. Finally, the cell counter device quantified the percentage of green fluorescent cells. The 0 μM CPP concentration showed no green fluorescent cells, indicating no green fluorescent cells without CPP treatment (Table 2). The 5 μM of BR2 shows 0% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 11.2% on MDA-MB-231 (Table 2). The 5 μM of R9 shows 21.7% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 4.1% on MDA-MB-231 (Table 2). The 5 μM of BR2-R9 shows 73.8% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 97.6% on MDA-MB-231 (Table 2). The 10 μM of BR2 shows 0% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 0% on MDA- MB-231 (Table 2). The 10 μM of BR2 shows 5.5% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 4.5% on MDA-MB-231 (Table 2). The 10 μM of BR2 shows 56.1% green fluorescent cells on MCF7 and 84.1% on MDA-MB-231 (Table 2). In conclusion, BR2-R9 had the most cellular uptake in both MCF7 and MDA-MB-231.

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Figure 4. BR2-R9 penetrates the cell membrane and localizes inside the breast cancer cell lines.

(A) Green fluorescence of BR2-R9 inside MDA-MB-231 cells. (B) Green fluorescence of BR2R9 inside MCF7 cells. Scale bar = 10 μm Next, we used a 200x magnification microscope to observe BR2-R9 localization inside the breast cancer cells in higher resolution. Since BR2-R9 contains a FITC tag, which emits green fluorescence signal, we hypothesized that green fluorescence signal would be detected inside the cancer cells. After we incubated MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with BR2-R9 for 48 hours, the image was captured to analyze the internalization of BR2-R9. We detected that BR2-R9 was localized inside the cells as the green fluorescent signal appears to cover about 60% of the cells. This indicates that BR2-R9 covers more than half of the cell components. We can also see that BR2-R9 CPPs were aggregated towards a certain side of the cell, rather than being present in all parts of the MDA-MB-231 cells (Figure 4A). We detected that MCF7 was present inside the cells, but the green fluorescent signal covers less than MDA-MB-231. The BR2-R9 CPPs in MCF7 were aggregated towards a certain side of the cell similar to MDA-MB-231 (Figure 4B). In conclusion, we can see that BR2-R9 successfully penetrates the cell membrane of both MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. When BR2-R9 enters the cells, they are aggregated in specific regions of the cells. Even after 48 hours of incubation, the BR2-R9 still remained inside the cells. This indicates that this fusion peptide is stable in breast cancer cells for at least 48 hours.

4. Conclusion The fusion peptides that we created can be used to make better drug delivery or breast cancer treatment. Because of high efficiency, we can also use low concentrations of CPP which can also lower the cost of the treatment strategies. Using low concentrations will reduce the side effects as well. The cellular cytotoxicity of CPPs can be a limitation because it was not investigated in this study. Additionally, more human cancer cells can be tested because this study only used two models. In the future, we can widen our field and experiment with other types of cancer cells, and also use mouse models for our study and test the CPP delivery in these different kinds of cancer cells. More investigation on how the CPP actually enters the cells should be studied in the future.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 5. Acknowledgment I would like to thank my teacher Woo Rin Lee for helping me with this project. He allowed me to work on this project in detail. Along with that, I would also like to thank my parents for supporting me.

6. Reference 1.

DeSantis, C. E.; Ma, J.; Gaudet, M. M.; Newman, L. A.; Miller, K. D.; Goding Sauer, A.; Jemal, A.; Siegel, R. L. Breast Cancer Statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2019, 69 (6), 438–451. 2. Waks, A. G.; Winer, E. P. Breast Cancer Treatment: A Review. JAMA 2019, 321 (3), 288–300. 3. Balaji, K.; Subramanian, B.; Yadav, P.; Anu Radha, C.; Ramasubramanian, V. Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer: Literature Review. Med. Dosim. 2016, 41 (3), 253–257. 4. Abdulkareem, I. H.; Zurmi, I. B. Review of Hormonal Treatment of Breast Cancer. Niger. J. Clin. Pract. 2012, 15 (1), 9–14. 5. Feni, L.; Neundorf, I. The Current Role of Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Cancer Therapy. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2017, 1030, 279–295. 6. Shin, M. C.; Zhang, J.; Min, K. A.; Lee, K.; Byun, Y.; David, A. E.; He, H.; Yang, V. C. CellPenetrating Peptides: Achievements and Challenges in Application for Cancer Treatment. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2014, 102 (2), 575–587. 7. Regberg, J.; Srimanee, A.; Langel, U. Applications of Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Tumor Targeting and Future Cancer Therapies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2012, 5 (9), 991–1007. 8. Lim, K. J.; Sung, B. H.; Shin, J. R.; Lee, Y. W.; Kim, D. J.; Yang, K. S.; Kim, S. C. A Cancer Specific Cell-Penetrating Peptide, BR2, for the Efficient Delivery of an ScFv into Cancer Cells. PLoS ONE 2013, 8 (6), e66084. 9. Yamashita, H.; Kato, T.; Oba, M.; Misawa, T.; Hattori, T.; Ohoka, N.; Tanaka, M.; Naito, M.; Kurihara, M.; Demizu, Y. Development of a Cell-Penetrating Peptide That Exhibits Responsive Changes in Its Secondary Structure in the Cellular Environment. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 33003. 10. Liu, B. R.; Huang, Y.-W.; Lee, H.-J. Mechanistic Studies of Intracellular Delivery of Proteins by Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Cyanobacteria. BMC Microbiol. 2013, 13, 57.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) GBD Results. (n.d.). Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbdresults/ Gutierrez-Bustamante, M., & Espinosa-Leal, L. (2022). Natural Language Processing Methods for Scoring Sustainability Reports—A Study of Nordic Listed Companies. Sustainability, 14(15), 9165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159165 Lee, O., Joo, H., Choi, H., & Cheon, M. (2022). Proposing an Integrated Approach to Analyzing ESG Data via Machine Learning and Deep Learning Algorithms. Sustainability, 14(14), 8745. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148745 Nielsen, D. (2016). Tree boosting with xgboost-why does xgboost win" every" machine learning competition? (Master's thesis, NTNU). NLP: Reports & News Classification. (2021, October 15). Kaggle. https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/vbmokin/nlp-reports-news-classification Raman, N., Bang, G., & Nourbakhsh, A. (2020). Mapping ESG Trends by Distant Supervision of Neural Language Models. Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, 2(4), 453–468. https://doi.org/10.3390/make2040025 Srivastava, N., Hinton, G., Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Salakhutdinov, R. (2014). Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting. The journal of machine learning research, 15(1), 1929-1958. Statista. (2022, May 23). Share of professional investors increasing their ESG investments worldwide 2020–2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1191755/esg-etf-increased- investment-nextyear-worldwide/ Tang, D., Qin, B., & Liu, T. (2015). Deep learning for sentiment analysis: successful approaches and future challenges. WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 5(6), 292–303. https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1171 Wang, Y., & Xu, W. (2018). Leveraging deep learning with LDA-based text analytics to detect automobile insurance fraud. Decision Support Systems, 105, 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2017.11.001 Zhang, L., Wang, S., & Liu, B. (2018). Deep learning for sentiment analysis: A survey. WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1253

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Shape Orientation of a Liquid Jet Stream Launched into Mid-air Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Moojin

Korean Minjok Leadership Academy

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Predicting the movement of fluids has always been a hardship for scientists. Fluid movement without a specific boundary has much more limitations than the movements in a pipe. This paper goes over the prediction of the forms that can be made when a jet stream of water is launched through certain apertures, which mainly include chain and spiral shapes.

Keywords: Jet stream; Weber number; Fluid flow

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction A liquid jet launched from certain apertures leads to oscillatory movements due to surface tension. The oscillatory motion of liquid jets has been studied for centuries, based on well-known theories led by Lord Rayleigh[1]. Many extensions of the theory exist, using symmetrical properties of the aperture, going through the twisting motion of the jet spirals[2]. The movement and instability are also investigated by analyzing the force exerted on each fluid part. There also exist trials using the LatticeBoltzmann method to analyze the shape orientation of the liquid jet streams [3]. However, most of them are centered on the instability, not the initial conditions of the jet streams and how they are formed. Prior estimation of pitch lengths of each phase of the jet stream exists and has been verified through computational fluid dynamics[4]. Still, it has certain limitations in assumptions of rotating jet streams without a source of angular velocity and lacks real-world experiments. In this paper, we introduce a new toy model, the “ball and spring model,” to investigate the chain model and spring model, which has its strength in explaining the trajectory of each layer of the jet stream. In contrast to the prior works, which focus on the instability of jets, we focus on the initial conditions of the jet stream and how it influences the phase of the plane. As shown in Figure 1, the jet streams exhibit a particular shape. By applying a simple model and thinking of the tension of the spring as the net surface tension, the movement of the laminar flows can be simplified. Differences in initial conditions introduce the formation of two shapes of jets. A chain-like structure is exhibited when a symmetrical aperture is made. At the same time, a spiral-shaped jet stream is found by giving an initial angular momentum to the oscillating jet stream.

Pitch

1cm

Figure 1. Photograph of two jet streams of 50% glycerin and 50% water with added green food coloring generated from an aperture in a cylindrical vessel. The two different behaviors are generated due to different initial aperture shapes. Unlike the chain model, the spiral model gains initial momentum when launched from the aperture.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Method We utilize the ‘ball and spring model’ to analyze the movement of the layers of the chain model and spiral model. As a ball and spring fall due to gravity, it leaves a trajectory, which is in a similar shape to the jet stream. Using our model, we predict the complex movement of fluid flow. A. Chain model We linked the movement of a stretched and dropped spring which exhibits an oscillatory motion as it falls, with the movement of a fluid layer, as shown in Figure 3. An eight shape from a fluid layer is observed when a liquid jet is launched from a non-regular polygonal aperture with a geometrically symmetrical axis, such as a rectangle or isosceles, by going through a cycle of being squished by the gap, becoming a circle due to surface tension, and getting squeezed due to the momentum generated by the surface tension while becoming a circle. The only difference with the free-falling oscillating spring is that the fluid layer has an area. The oscillating surface was observed using a numerical simulation applying the Lattice-Boltzmann method.

Figure 2. Cycle a layer of fluid goes through as it falls. The cycle starts with the top left, following the arrows. The difference in shape occurs due to surface tension and the momentum due to surface tension.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of one cross-sectional layer of the jet stream. The thicker part of the layer is labeled A, while the thin part of the layer is labeled B.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) We observe part A (see figure 3) of the jet stream as the ball and part B of the jet stream as the spring. The eight shape forms due to the velocity difference between the jet stream's corner sides and the jet stream's center. When launched, the fluids that flow over the corner of the apertures are faster than other sections of the jet stream. This is due to three main reasons: 1) adhesion and cohesion since the atoms of the same substance have a stronger cohesion than adhesion, the force between the surface and the fluid, 2) flow rate, and 3) the boundary layer. The first two reasons are self-evident. The boundary layer is the thin fluid layer near a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary condition, which leaves the borders of the jet streams to almost free fall. Therefore, the edges have a faster velocity than the other parts of the jet stream layer that get the viscous friction effect. We run a numerical simulation demonstrating the corner flow using the Wolfram demonstrations project[5]. We prove that the fluids closer to the corners have faster velocity. However, the tip of the corner limits numerical simulations since the speed at the corner diverges to infinity. Using Euler’s equations on the x-y plane and the equation of continuity, the numerical solution displays the velocity for each minimum block in the diagram.

Figure 3. Two-dimensional plot of numerically simulated fluid speed traveling around a corner flow. The other parts of the fluids are relatively slow compared to the liquid parts adjacent to the corner(black). Now, an assumption of potential flow is used to predict the pitch lengths of the spirals. We set the flow as a potential flow, an idealized fluid flow model that occurs in incompressible, inviscid, and irrotational flow. The velocity potential of a potential flow satisfies Laplace's equation, and lord Rayleigh used this in the past. However, as shown in (4), some variables are hard to fit through experiments or estimate theoretically.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

ࣦ൫ߜ, ߜሶ ൯ =

‫߮ߘ = ݒ‬

(1)

߮ = ܿ‫ ݎ‬௡ cos ݊ߴ

(2)

ߩߨ‫ݎ‬଴ସ ଶ ߪ‫ݎ‬଴ ߨ(݊ଶ െ 1) ଶ ߜሶ െ ߜ 2݊ 2

(3)

‫߬ = ߱ ׵‬ఙିଵ ඥ݊(݊ଶ െ 1)

(4)

Due to the difficulties, we use the Weber number to develop the wavelength equation. First, the chainlike structure of the jet stream with an elliptical orifice is analyzed using the n-fold symmetry of the aperture. The prediction of the wavelength of the chain model is made. ܷ ܹ݁ ‫ ܷߩ ؠ‬ଶ ‫ݎ‬଴ = ( ଴ )ଶ ‫ݑ‬ ߣ = 2ߨܷ/߱

(5)

2ߨξܹ݁ ߣ = ‫ݎ‬଴ ඥ݊(݊ଶ െ 1)

(7)

(6)

To consider the gravity term, we use the laws of Newton. ߣ= ߣ௡௘௪ =

2ߨ‫ݎ‬଴ ܷ

(8)

‫ݑ‬଴ ඥ݊(݊ଶ െ 1)

2ߨ‫ݎ‬଴ ܷ‫ݑ‬଴ ඥ݊(݊ଶ െ 1) + ߨ ଶ ‫ݎ‬଴ ଶ ݃ ‫ݑ‬଴ ଶ ݊(݊ଶ െ 1)

(9)

B. Spiral Model Unlike the chain model, when a liquid jet stream is launched from an aperture but with initial angular momentum, it develops a twisting movement, which generates a spiral. To explain this phenomenon, we again use the “ball and spring model, simple toy model.” Thinking of one layer of a fluid stream as a ball and spring, we can imagine the liquid layer initially stretched and wanting to become a circle due to surface tension. With a stretched spring and two balls, the spring is initially stretched, and the balls want to collide. However, due to the initial angular momentum, the tension acts as a centripetal force, helping the system spin. To generate initial momentum, we used a geometrical asymmetry. When there is symmetry in shape, it is self-evident that the movements are symmetrical on each side, and the net force and torque are stable. However, with a body with no geometrical symmetry, there are asymmetrical movements, which is proven through torque analysis. The torques of the L-shape, a well-known asymmetrical shape, will be calculated by integrating the surface tension on each side and summing the torque.

170

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The center of mass was used as the axis of the torques since the center of mass does not move. Figure 5 shows the calculation methodology used to find the center of mass. When the fluid passes the aperture, the net force converges to zero, keeping the axis constant. However, there exists a net torque, which makes the system rotate. The torques were calculated using the moment arm and simple integrations on each side.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the initial shape of the aperture from which fluid emerges. The center of mass is the axis of rotation since the net force is zero. As shown in (10) and (11), it is possible to use the angles of each side to find the net torque. However, for ease of calculation, we used the moment arm for analysis, as shown in (12).

ఏమ

߬௡௘௧ = න ‫ ܶݎ‬sin ߠ ή ఏభ

߬௡௘௧ = ‫(ܶݎ‬െ ln cos ߠଶ + ln cos ߠଵ ) = ‫ ܶݎ‬ή ln ฬ ௬ మ ା௫ିଵ ଶ(௫ା௬ିଵ)

߬=න మ

௬ ା௫ିଵ ି௬ ଶ(௫ା௬ିଵ)

(10)

1 ݀ߠ cos ߠ cos ߠଵ ฬ cos ߠଶ

(11)

(12) ܶ ή ݈݈݀

Validation We used an acryl pipe with a 9-centimeter diameter and 30-centimeter height to verify the theoretical analysis. Five slits are made every 5 centimeters, and each is used as a leakage for the fluid, as it needs to stay at the same height for constant pressure. A water pump is used to fill the liquid into the acryl pipe. Therefore, observing a jet stream generation with constant pressure was possible. Three fluids were mainly used: water, a mixture of water and glycerin, and hypochlorous acid.

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Figure 5. Photograph of actual experimental setting used to observe the liquid jet stream(left), and schematic diagram of the experimental setting with labels(right). A water pump is used to supply a fluid of 50% glycerin and 50% water into a vessel with slits on the side every 5 centimeters for leakage, which keeps the fluid column’s height pressure constant. The aperture’s size on the bottom of the vessel is 10mm*1mm. A. Chain Model Method and Results We develop rectangular apertures with different width and length ratios to generate a chain. As Figure 7 displays, we could measure the different pitch lengths as the pressure by the liquid column changes due to the height of the column. By running experiments with twelve different fluid column heights or by other means by running experiments with twelve different pressures of the fluid, we can verify the pitch length estimation by using the weber number, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 6. Photogram of diverse pitch lengths of the liquid jet stream. The change in pitch length due to different liquid column heights can be observable.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Fluid Height vs Pitch Length Pitch Length(cm)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Fluid Height(cm) ɉ̴new

ɉ̴exp

Figure 7. Graph about the result of the experiment of pitch length estimation. The aperture used here was a rectangle with 10mm width and 1mm height. B. Spiral Model Method and Results To verify the torque analysis, 17 L-shaped holes with different ratios of x and y are made. We used the torque equation in (13) to compare the torque and actual torque prediction. Using a high frame camera, the period of one spiral rotation was found. We used the period that was found to calculate the angular acceleration of the spiral and fitted the rotational inertia by assuming a layer of fluid as a rigid body. Our assumptions are applicable since the jet stream is a laminar flow, and the layers fall, keeping their shape. As in Figure 9, the experimental results highly fit the actual values. (13)

߬ = ‫ߙܫ‬

‫ݔ‬/‫ ݕ‬vs Torque(Nm) 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 Torque

Experiment

Figure 8. Graph of comparison of torque prediction and experiment. As the data approaches the ends and the asymmetry increases, the torques decrease. This is due to the increasing symmetry of one side, as the x and y values differ significantly.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Discussion There exist former studies that go over the shape orientation of jet streams launched through certain apertures. However, the former studies lack the actual quantitative reasoning for shape formation. Also, the lack of experimental data and verification only by CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) limit the existing theories. This study quantitatively explains why a particular jet stream shape when launched midair and constructs the ‘Ball and Spring’ model, a theoretical model which links the fluid movement with the mechanical movement of a falling ball. There are certain limitations to the toy model since the link between mechanical movement of the ball and the spring model is a mechanical movement, and the actual fluid is possibly weak. However, the data highly match the theoretical predictions, proving that the forces we consider to have a strong effect on the movement are correct.

References [1] Lord Rayleigh, “On the Capillary Phenomena of Jets,” Proc. R. Soc. Lond., vol. 2, pp. 71–97, 1879. [2] D. A. Caulk and P. M. Naghdi, “The influence of twist on the motion of straight elliptical jets,” Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 1–30, 1979, doi: 10.1007/BF00248407. [3] Why Your Pee Looks Like A Chain, (2021). Accessed: Aug. 29, 2022. [Online Video]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOuai2p3qgw [4] A. Kageyama and Y. Goto, “Formation of twisted liquid jets,” Phys. Rev. Fluids, vol. 5, no. 6, p. 064002, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevFluids.5.064002. [5] M. Bradley, “Fluid Flow around a Corner.” Jul. 2015. [WOLFRAM Demonstrations Project]. Available: http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/FluidFlowAroundACorner/

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A Study on Blood Glucose Change Using a Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices Author 1

Author 2

Kim, SooBin

School Name

Sookmyung girls' middle school

Full Name

Han, Gio

Sookmyung girls' middle school

Full Name (Last Name, First Name)

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

A continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) has been recently developed for diabetic patients who need to precisely monitor changes in glucose levels. This diagnostic kit is linked with the app to show the blood glucose level due to food intake as a continuous graph. Therefore, we were curious about the changes in blood glucose according to the type of food and what factors affect blood glucose other than food, so we started the experiment. As a research method first, an experiment is conducted to measure changes in blood glucose before and after eating food using a continuous blood glucose monitoring devices. Second, update blood glucose measurement information with a continuous blood glucose meter linked to the application and observe the change. Third, continuous blood glucose measurement for 2 weeks, diet, exercise time, sleep time, etc. are investigated. As a result of the study, the foods that raise blood glucose were generally high-calorie meals such as tteokbokki, jajangmyeon, and hamburgers, and drinks with a lot of caffeine or sugar. The longer the fasting time, the greater the increase in blood glucose levels after eating. If you exercise after eating, your blood glucose drops faster, and if you take a nap or don't move, your blood glucose drops more slowly. During this experiment, the diagnostic kit with a biosensor for continuous blood glucose measurement can immediately see your blood glucose level through the application, so it can be managed for diabetic patients and has the advantage of preventing diabetes in advance. Due to COVID-19, the frequency of using the diagnostic kit at home has increased rather than visiting a crowded hospital. Therefore, the development of disease diagnosis kits linked to applications as well as diabetes is expected to have a bright outlook in the healthcare market.

Keywords: continuous glucose monitoring (CGM), blood glucose changes, food

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Objectives I heard that an acquaintance of my mother is suffering from diabetes. It is said that he is constantly checking his blood glucose and patiently controlling the food he wants to eat. People suffering from diabetes, which is called a disease in developed countries, always have to manage their glucose levels. Usually, it was known that glucose level was measured by drawing blood, but a diagnostic kit that can be measured continuously in daily life has been developed. This diagnostic kit is linked with the application to show the blood glucose level as a graph. So, I was curious about how the continuous blood glucose meter app works, what kind of food the glucose raises in response to, and whether there are other factors other than food, so I started an experiment. In addition, as I needed experimental subjects for each age group, I was able to collaborate with a friend. My friend said that her mother sometimes complained of headaches, but when we searched on the Internet, it was suspected that it was hypoglycemia. As for hypoglycemia, diabetes was a related search term, and we wanted to measure whether my friend's mother's glucose level was high enough to belong to diabetes, so we started exploring it together. 1.2. Purpose Know the relationship between food and blood glucose so that you can have a correct and healthy diet. Look for factors that raise blood glucose levels. A continuous blood glucose meter can monitor blood glucose by itself, thereby enhancing the effect of blood glucose management. Therefore, it can be reflected in lifestyle modification later. 1.3. Method An experiment was conducted to measure the change in blood glucose before and after eating food using a continuous blood glucose meter. Update blood glucose measurement information with a continuous blood glucose meter linked to the app and observe the change trend. For a total of 7 subjects, a continuous glucose meter sensor was inserted for 2 weeks to measure blood glucose and prepare a meal plan.

2. Theoretical & Scientific Development 2.1. Theoretical background Diabetes was thought to be a disease that only 'obese adults who like to drink and eat too much', but recently it is increasing among children and adolescents before the age of 18. It is also said to be related to childhood obesity. When our body receives nutrients from food, it is digested and absorbed in the body and delivered to the cells of the body to be used as an energy source. At this time, the decomposition product of nutrients that supplies energy to cells is called glucose. Glucose is transported to each cell through the blood and is used as fuel for activity. There is always a certain amount of glucose in human blood. Blood sugar refers to the glucose contained in the blood, and in a healthy person, the blood glucose level is kept constant at about 80-130 mg/dL for 24 hours. On an empty stomach, it is maintained between 80 and 100 mg/dL, and increases to 130 mg/dL 2 hours after a meal, and returns to 80-100 mg/dL 3 hours after a meal. As such, our body maintains the concentration of glucose in the blood within a certain range.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) This is called glucose homeostasis. Diabetes refers to a breakdown of insulin secreted for good homeostasis.1 ÂBlood glucose: refers to the concentration of glucose in the blood.2 In order to maintain homeostasis, the human body must always maintain blood glucose levels within a certain range. Hormones that contribute to maintaining blood glucose level include glucagon, adrenaline, insulin, and thyroid hormone, and due to the antagonistic action of these hormones, the blood glucose level of the human body is always maintained at about 90 mg/dL (= about 0.9 g/l). When an abnormality occurs in the secretion of these hormones, the blood glucose level becomes unstable, and a representative example of this phenomenon is diabetes. Diabetes mellitus is a disease caused by abnormal secretion of insulin, which lowers blood glucose, among hormones, and is currently being treated by a method that includes a diet while receiving insulin externally.3 ÂDiabetes mellitus: A type of metabolic disease characterized by insufficient insulin secretion or failure to function normally, characterized by high blood glucose levels.4 ÂGlucose: It is a type of sugar having an aldehyde group, and it is often present in a hexagonal shape rather than a chain shape. The molecular formula is C6H12O6 and the molecular weight is about 180. There are alpha and beta types depending on the form when combined with polysaccharides. In the brain, nerve, and lung tissue, glucose is essential as an energy source, and it responds sensitively to the blood glucose concentration and, when deficient, causes convulsions.5 ÂComplications due to diabetes: Acute complications of diabetes include hyperglycemic coma, ketoacidemia, and hypoglycemia, and chronic complications include hypertension, novascular infarction, renal disease diabetic nephropathy, eye disease diabetic retinopathy, cardiovascular disease arteriosclerosis, skin diseases, pyoderma, eczema, diabetic itch, gangrene, and oral disease.6

2.1.1. Diagnosis of Diabetes Diagnosis Criteria for Diabetes ཛ When the blood glucose (fasting blood glucose) measured in the state of fasting for more than 8 hours is 126 mg/dL or higher ཛྷ Dissolve 75 g of glucose in 300 cc of water and drink it for 5 minutes (oral glucose tolerance test). If the blood glucose measured 2 hours later is 200 mg/dL or higher 1

Samsung Seoul Hospital diabetes class reference: http://www.samsunghospital.com/dept/main/index.do?DP_CODE=DM&MENU_ID=001001

2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_glucose_level 3 Wikipedia, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%88 4 Wikipedia, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%B9%EB%87%A8%EB%B3%91 5 Wikipedia, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%80%EB%A3%A8%EC%BD%94%EC%8A%A4 6 Korean Diabetes Association:

https://www.diabetes.or.kr/general/class/complications.php?code=complication&number=336&mode=view&idx=2

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ཝ When the glycated hemoglobin test result is 6.5% or more ཞ If you have typical symptoms of diabetes, such as polyuria, polydipsia, and weight loss, and your blood glucose level is 200 mg/dL or higher regardless of meal time Table 1 Diabetes by glucose level fasting glucose 126 mg/dL or more 100-125 mg/dL

division diabetes impaired glucose tolerance fasting glucose disorder

glucose 2 hours after eating 200 mg/dL or more 144-199 mg/dL -

Table 2 Normal glucose levels according to age division

fasting glucose

glucose 2 hours after meals

3-6 years old childhood adolescent period adult

100-200 mg/dL 100-150 mg/dL

200 mg/dL under 160 mg/dL under

glycated haemoglobin (%) 9.0 % under 8.0 % under

80-150 mg/dL

140 mg/dL under

7.5 % under

80-120 mg/dL

140 mg/dL under

7.0 % under

2.1.2. Diabetes Test £ Blood tests: - Simple blood test LFT (liver function test) to check the glucose level spandrel 2 hours after meals

normal 100 mg/dL under 140 mg/dL under

pre-diabetes 100 - 125 mg/dL 144-199 mg/dL

diabetes 126 mg/dL more than 200 mg/dL more than

Glycated hemoglobin (HbAlc)7 test: The glycated hemoglobin increases in proportion to the high glucose level and the duration of exposure of red blood cells to glucose. The glycated hemoglobin range for normal people is 4-6%, and the target for glycated hemoglobin control for diabetic people is to keep it below 6.5%. An increase in glycated hemoglobin by 1% means that the blood sugar level rises by an average of 30 mg/dL. - Glucose tolerance test: After eating enough the night before and psychologically stable, add 75 g of glucose to 300 ml of water on an empty stomach for 10 hours, and then take blood for 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes, and 120 minutes after drinking. Diagnosis is made by measuring the concentration of blood drawn. Diabetes is diagnosed when blood glucose is 200 mg/dL or higher. ཛྷ Urine test: When the urine glucose level is positive, a diabetes test is performed. ACR test (Albumin Creatinine Ratio) when the urine protein excretion amount is 30mg/g or more per day, microalbuminuria is detected at an early stage. ཝ Self-diagnosis questionnaire According to the diabetes self-diagnosis table for Koreans developed by Professor Seok-Won Park of Endocrinology Department at Bundang CHA Hospital in 2012 and Professor Dae-Jung Kim of the Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism at Ajou University Hospital in 2012, according -

7 When blood glucose rises, glucose binds to some hemoglobin. In this way, glucose is bound to hemoglobin

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) to the diabetes self-diagnosis table for Koreans, if the evaluation criterion is 5 or higher, there is a possibility of diabetes, so it is recommended to have a blood glucose test. Also, even if you do not have diabetes as a result of the test, you may be diabetic in the future, so you should prevent it by adjusting your eating habits. Table 3 Diabetes self-diagnosis chart for Koreans8 clause Evaluation Criteria Score Under 35 (0 points), 35 to under 45 (1 point), age 45 or older (2 points) Does one of your parents or siblings No (0 points), Yes (1 points) have diabetes? Are you taking blood pressure medicine? Or Is your blood pressure No (0 points), Yes (1 points) 140/90 mmHg or higher? Male: less than 84 cm (0 points), 84 cm or more and less than 90 (2 points), 90 cm or more (3 points) Waist circumference Female: Less than 77 cm ((0 points), 77 cm to less than 84 (2 points), 84 cm or more (3 points) Smoking

No, I smoked in the past (0 points), yes (1 points)

average daily drinking

Less than 1 drink (0 points), 1 to less than 5 drinks (1 point), 5 or more drinks (2 points)

In diabetes, genetic factors do not act alone, but environmental and immunological factors act together. However, genetic factors are more likely to be diabetes.

3. Experimental Methods & Materials 3.1. Experimental methods Do eating foods that are good for blood glucose and foods that are bad for blood glucose make a big difference in blood glucose levels? Table 4 Foods good and bad for blood glucose foods bad for blood glucose foods good for blood glucose9 Beans (kidney beans, black beans, etc.), tofu, Processed meat with a lot of fat, such as hot lean meat, dark green leafy vegetables (kale, dogs and bacon, Foods high in sugar, such as spinach, etc.), citrus fruits (grapefruit, orange, fried foods, sweets, cookies, and syrups, lemon, etc.), sweet potatoes, berries Refined grains such as white flour and white (blueberries, strawberries, etc.), tomatoes, rice, canned fruits, jams, jellies and stored omega-3 Fatty acid-rich fish, nuts (walnuts, foods, carbonated drinks, etc. flaxseed, etc.), whole grains (oats, quinoa), milk and yogurt According to research, foods that are good for blood glucose are foods rich in vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fiber. 8 https://m.health.chosun.com/svc/news_view.html?contid=2012080100001 9 American Diabetes Association data: https://www.diabetes.org/healthy-living/recipes-nutrition/eating-well/diabetessuperstar-foods

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Five hypotheses were established as predictions for the experiment, and the blood glucose measurement results for each individual were analyzed.

£ Hypothesis 1: A person with a high BMI will also have a high average blood glucose level. ¤ Hypothesis 2: Blood glucose during the day will show a lower distribution while sleeping (fasting time). ¥ Hypothesis 3: Teenagers will see their blood glucose return sooner than adults, even if they eat the same food. ¦ Hypothesis 4: People who exercise a lot return blood glucose faster than people who exercise less.

Individual blood glucose measurement For each individual, blood glucose is measured on an empty stomach in the morning, before meals, 30 minutes after meals, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, before eating snacks, and 30 minutes after eating. If they exercise, the experimenters measure their blood sugar before and after exercise. In order to determine the relationship with the food, the type of food eaten should also be entered. Capture graphs on a daily basis.

3.1.1. Experimental tool: Freestyle Libre Flash Glucose Monitoring System (Abbott products)10 Observe and investigate using a continuous blood glucose meter to see how much food raises the blood glucose level. Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS) selected a product called “Freestyle Libre” from among commercially available products. This is because it is easy to attach and has the simple advantage of displaying real-time blood glucose levels and graphs by linking with the app.

How Freestyle Libre Measures Blood Glucose: It is a principle of checking blood glucose by inserting a 5mm-long thin filament in a coin-sized sensor into the skin. Measure the glucose of the intracellular Interstitial Fluid 11 under the subcutaneous fat every minute. Unlike other continuous blood glucose monitors that have sensors, transmitters and receivers, Freestyle Libre consists of sensors12 and receivers13.

10 https://www.freestyle.abbott/us-en/home.html 11

Interstitial Fluid: Most of the fluid that makes up the extracellular fluid is called the interstitial fluid. Interstitial fluid is widely distributed in the space between tissues and plays a role in supplying nutrients to the cells of our body and removing waste products. (Source: Asan Medical Center, Seoul http://www.amc.seoul.kr/asan/healthinfo/easymediterm/easyMediTermDetail.do?dictId=79) 12 The sensor is made of a thin, soft wire, is inserted subcutaneously through an inserter, and measures the blood glucose of glucose in the interstitial fluid. “Becoming a master to a Continuous Glucose Monitoring System”, Samsung Seoul Hospital Diabetes Center, 2020.07.01, book publishing Malu, p13. 13 Show blood sugar information on your Smartphone. In Freestyle Libre, information stored for 8 hours is transmitted all at once.

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Figure 1 The principle of Freestyle Libre x

Experimental participants individually attached a continuous blood glucose meter to their arms and checked their diet and blood glucose. - Record blood glucose after exercise, sleep time, and food and beverage intake.

Figure 2 Freestyle Libre and sensor attached 3.2. Continuous blood glucose measurement experiments Experimenter A £ Special feature - Female, age 46, housewife - She doesn't do any special exercise, and she walks an average of 4500 steps a day. - Eat less dinner than breakfast and lunch

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Figure 3 Daily graph of female A's 8/2~8/16 glucose level

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Figure 4 Expected glycated hemoglobin/daily pattern/Numbers per hourly average (female A) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter A - The average glucose for 2 weeks was 103 mg/dL, and during that time it was between 95 and 109 mg/dL. - If you look at the trend of rising glucose in the morning, noon, evening, and night, you can see that the glucose rises sharply after breakfast. - After a meal, glucose would be raised approximately 20-30 minutes after eating, and when drinking beverages, glucose would be raised immediately. - After ingestion, the foods with a significant increase in blood sugar were jjolmyeon, dumplings, bibimbap, tofu sushi, tteokbokki, chodang corn, and juice, and the fruits were peaches and grapes. In particular, on the day when tofu sushi, corn, and grapes were eaten together for lunch, it took about 4 hours for glucose to rise to 186 mg/dL and then to drop to around 100 mg/dL. Rather, glucose after eating two donuts coated with sugar syrup did not increase much compared to the above foods. - Drew a curve in which glucose rose if you took a nap right after eating.

Experimenter B ཛ Special feature - Female, age 52, freelancer - She usually has migraines and sometimes she can't get a good night's sleep. - Drink one or two cups of coffee daily - She does light walking.

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Figure 5 Daily graph of female B's 8/8~8/21 glucose level

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Figure 6 Expected glycated hemoglobin/daily pattern/Numbers per hourly average (female B) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter B - The average glucose level was 83 mg/dL due to many days of low glucose levels. Overall, the glucose was in the normal range, but the average glucose was not higher than that of others. - After breakfast and dinner, glucose showed a rapid rise. - Hypoglycemia occurred mainly in the morning, and the week with low glucose levels during the day was a week with insufficient sleep time. - Among the foods consumed, the foods that raised glucose were bibimbap, coffee, and vitamin water.

Experimenter C £ Special feature - Female, age 46, Telecommuting freelancer living in the U.S.A - Driving a car is more common than public transport. - Dinner is less than breakfast and lunch.

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Figure 7 Daily graph of female C's 7/31~8/12 blood sugar level

Figure 8 Expected glycated hemoglobin/daily pattern/Numbers per hourly average (female C)

ཛྷ Graph analysis result of experimenter C - The mean blood glucose for 2 weeks was 100 mg/dL, and the range was 97 to 106 mg/dL. - The increase in glucose was greater after breakfast and lunch than in the evening. Half of corn increased glucose more than a normal meal of white rice, side dishes, and soup, and even if the amount of food was small, glucose rose after eating. - Foods with high glucose levels were sushi, fried rice, corn, tofu sushi, McMorning (hot cakes marinated in honey), ramen, ice cream, French fries, chicken, tteokbokki, mangolassi, peaches, watermelon, lemon freeze cola, and lemonade. - If she exercised after eating, her glucose went down about 30 minutes later, and her glucose didn't go down well when she sat or slept after eating.

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Experimenter D £ Special feature - Female, age 46, Office workers - Since she is at work, she usually eats out for breakfast and eats out for lunch. - According to her family history, her pancreas is weak, so she controls her food. - Around 9 pm, she walks for about an hour every day. - During the measurement period, there was a vacation period from 8/13 to 16. - During the vacation period, there was an irregular eating pattern.

Figure 9 Daily graph of female D's 8/9~8/18 glucose level

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Figure 10 Expected glycated hemoglobin/daily pattern/Numbers per hourly average (female D) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter D - Her glucose range was 86mg/dL - 104mg/dL during the walking exercise. - The average daily glucose was 93 mg/dL. - The graph showed that glucose rose after lunch rather than in the morning. - It was predicted that there would be an effect of eating less breakfast and eating out for lunch. - Foods with high glucose levels were tteokbokki, jajangmyeon, and coffee. - During the vacation period, glucose was higher in the morning and evening than before due to irregular meal times and eating out.

Experimenter E ཛ Special feature - Male, age 73, retired senior - He usually lives a regular life and exercise for 1-2 hour every day. - He goes hiking regularly every Sunday. - Bedtime is between 9pm and 10pm and wake up time is 5am. - Coronary angiography was performed 7 years ago, and blood pressure is checked every morning and evening. His blood pressure range is normal.

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Figure 11 Daily graph of male E's 8/9~8/21 glucose level

Figure 12 Expected glycated hemoglobin/daily pattern/Numbers per hourly average (male E)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter E - Glucose rose sharply after breakfast among three meals. The average glucose was 106 mg/dL. - When eating rice cakes dipped in honey for breakfast, the glucose rise rate was high. - Grapes, watermelons, and peaches rose glucose more than apples and melons. - Blood pressure was measured from 111 to 138 mmHg (normal range below 120 mmHg), and when blood pressure was high, glucose was also high.

Experimenter F ཛ Special feature - Male, age 16, he is 175 cm tall and weighs 63 kg, high school student in U.S.A - He belongs to a basketball club, so he plays basketball for 2 hours every day. - It was a vacation during that time, but school started on August 23rd.

Figure 13 Daily graph of male F's 8/11~8/24 glucose level

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Figure 14 Glucose Pattern Insights (male F) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter F - He had an average glucose of 109mg/dL, and his average glucose was significantly higher during school holidays (from August 23rd) than during vacation. - Especially on the 23rd and 24th, when glucose levels were high, it was time to do homework after meal. Therefore, it was possible that stress from study acted together as a factor in the rise of glucose - Foods that raise glucose included sushi, chicken burger, mango slush, and jelly. In particular, his glucose increased by 30mg/dL even if he ate only 5 jelly. - When the same food (hamburger) was eaten before and after school started, the glucose rise was different. - His glucose level (120mg/dL), checked before exercise, and dropped to 85mg/dL after exercise.

Experimenter G

£ Special feature - Male, age 53 50-year-old male living in the U.S.A. - Height 172 cm, weight 86 kg. - It has been about 7 years since I developed diabetes as a diabetic patient.

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Figure 15 Daily graph of male G's 8/12~8/25 glucose level

Figure 16 Glucose Pattern Insights (male G) ¤ Graph analysis result of experimenter G - The average glucose level was 183 mg/dL, and the range for 2 weeks was 135 to 210 mg/dL. - Comparing the daily pattern with the general public, the glucose measurement range was wider than that of the general public. - When he ate high-calorie foods, his glucose rose. Glucose rose to 235 mg/dL on the day he ate a hamburger with male F (youth), and he received insulin injections. It came down to 171

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) mg/dL about 3 hours and 30 minutes after the injection. On the other hand, male F (youth) took about 2 hours for his glucose to drop from 120 mg/dL to 85 mg/dL even if he ate the same hamburger. 4. Conclusion 4.1. Results of testing hypothesis ཛ Hypothesis 1: A person with a high BMI will also have a high average blood glucose - Both women A and C have normal BMI values, but c was close to obese. Although the BMI values of the two were different, the average blood sugar level was similar. - Therefore, looking at the results of this experiment alone, the relationship between BMI and blood glucose levels seemed to be insignificant.

Figure 17 BMI of female A

| BMI of female C

Figure 18 Mean glucose in female A | Figure 19 Mean glucose in female C

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ཛ Hypothesis 2: Blood glucose during the day will show a lower distribution while sleeping (fasting time).

Figure 20 Daily blood glucose graphs of experimenters

Figure 21 Average blood glucose before and after meals of the experimenters -

The blood glucose levels of the experimenters were, on average, lower during sleep. In most of the experimenters, the longer the fasting time, the greater rose in blood sugar levels after eating. Because the longest fasting time was sleep time, blood sugar rose significantly after breakfast.

¥ Hypothesis 3: Teenagers will see their blood glucose return sooner than adults, even if they eat the same food.

Figure 22

Blood glucose graphs in Teenager (male F) 90 -> 120 -> 85mg/dL

Blood glucose graph of diabetic patients (male G) 105 -> 235 -> 171mg/dL

Under the circumstances, there was no result that all the experimenters ate the same food, only the adolescent and diabetic adult ate the same food (hamburger). According to this,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the blood sugar rose rate of adolescents was smaller than that of diabetic patients (adults), and the blood sugar returned faster. ¦ Hypothesis 4: People who exercise a lot return blood glucose faster than people who exercise less.

Figure 23 Changes in glucose after exercise and during a nap

Figure 24 Changes in glucose while climbing -

Changes in glucose at home

Most of the experimenters showed a graph of the blood glucose level pattern with a gentle slope regardless of the amount of exercise or amount of exercise. However, taking a nap or not

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) moving after eating slows blood glucose recovery, and exercising after a meal speeds up the drop in blood glucose. 4.2. Other experimental results As a result of overlapping the graphs of the subjects, the distribution of the general public was almost the same. However, in the case of diabetic patients, the range of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia was wide and the average value was higher than that of the general population. Diabetic patients showed more rapid changes in blood glucose levels than the general population, and showed higher blood glucose values at the beginning in the upper part of the normal range. In addition, even if you ate the same food, the rise was larger and the time to fall was longer.

Figure 25 Comparison of average daily glucose between diabetic patient and the general experimenters

Stress and sleep duration affected blood sugar levels. Female B had a high level of hypoglycemia even during the daytime on days when she slept less than 3 hours, and male F, a teenager, showed a certain range of hyperglycemia during two days and two nights of hard work and homework. According to the above experimenters, sleep duration was inversely proportional to blood glucose levels, and stress and blood glucose levels were proportional.

Figure 27 Glucose levels in male F

Figure 26 Glucose levels in female B

According to the experimental results, the foods that rapidly raised blood glucose include corn, bibimbap, tteokbokki, jajangmyeon, hamburger, tofu sushi, coffee, drinks with high sugar content, and jelly. Among fruits, when watermelon, peaches, and grapes, which were fruits with high glucose content and water, were consumed, the rate of increase in blood glucose was

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steeper. Drinks rather than meals raised blood glucose immediately. This was because liquid beverages were absorbed directly into the bloodstream from our body and acted on blood glucose. Therefore, it was found that blood glucose varied according to the food consumed, exercise, lifestyle, and stress level.

5. Discussion 5.1. Limitations It was disappointing that we could not compare the error or reaction speed between measuring blood glucose by blood sampling and the biosensor. There was a box to write the amount (g) of carbohydrates in the app, but we couldn't write it down because we couldn't measure the amount. It would have been easier to compare the blood glucose level according to the intake of carbohydrates if you could write down the amount of carbohydrates consumed in grams. The sensor must be checked at least every 7 hours so that the continuous blood glucose measurement graph did not stop. However, we thought that it would be good if the app had an alarm function, as there were test subjects that I sometimes forgot and did not check. If the continuous blood glucose measurement application was linked with the smartphone's basic health application (walking, running, stair exercise), it would have been nice to know the changes according to the intensity of exercise. We would like to compare the relationship between blood glucose, exercise intensity, and stress with the blood glucose measurement function (non-invasive method) of a smart watch that would be released in the future if given the opportunity. 5.2. Usability and future recommendations The continuous blood glucose meter used in this experiment measures blood glucose continuously, allowing you to view your own blood glucose levels directly through the app. In relation to the food you eat, you can measure your blood sugar level immediately, making it easy to manage your diet. Currently, the default health application for smart phones can measure the degree of walking, running and climbing stairs. In addition, recent smart watches are strengthening health management functions such as hand washing alarm, optimal sleep time recommendations, and calorie consumption due to dance activities.14 In the future, it is said that a non-contact blood glucose measurement system will also be installed on the smart watch.15 During this experiment, we thought that the fact that diabetic patients could see their blood sugar graph with a diagnostic kit with a biosensor attached to them without having to draw blood every time at the hospital would be good for their health care. It also has the advantage of being able to prevent patients who are not patients in advance. The healthcare market, including the in vitro diagnostic device industry using such biosensors, is expected to have great potential for development in the future. We are looking forward to the era of receiving various types of health-care information through smart devices.

14 biotimes , http://www.biotimes.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=3707 15 hankyung newspaper, https://www.hankyung.com/it/article/202108181975g

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 6. Reference Book • Samsung Seoul Hospital Diabetes Center, “Become a master about continuous blood glucose meter”, book publishing malu, 2020.07.01. Online Dataset Reference Using a Website Address • Definition of Diabetes: Asan Medical Center, Diabetes Center [Online]. Available: http://dm.amc.seoul.kr/asan/depts/dm/K/content.do?menuId=1465 • Diabetes Diagnosis, Types of Diabetes Diagnosis Test: Apr.19, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://lunilla.tistory.com/12 • Diabetes, glucose: Samsung Medical Center, Samsung Diabetes Newsletter Vol.311~315, 2020. [Online]. Available: http://www.samsunghospital.com/webzine/smcdmedu/315/webzine_315.html • Smartwatch Market Forecast: Apple, dominate the future healthcare market with smart wearables, Jun. 24, 2020. [Online]. Available: http://www.biotimes.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=3707 • Smartwatch Market Forecast: Apple Partners, New smartwatch sensor unveiled, Jul.17, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.techm.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=86117 • Smart Healthcare Market: Blood glucose measurement with smart watch, Aug.19, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.hankyung.com/it/article/202108181975g • Definition of Blood glucose level, glucose, diabetes: Wikipedia [Online]. Available: https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%88%EB%8B%B9, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%B9%EB%87%A8%EB%B3%91

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CA2 Gene Silencing Radically Enhances Chemosensitivity in Doxorubicin-resistant Bladder Cancer Cell Model Author 1

Full Name

Kwon, Joonghoon

The Peddie School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Bladder cancer is the fourth most prevalent cancer for men in the world with a high recurrence rate of 70%, and the injection of doxorubicin into arteries feeding tumors has been shown to provide a survival advantage to bladder cancer patients. However, resistance to doxorubicin emerged as a central problem limiting the treatment of patients with bladder cancer. In this study, we hypothesized that targeting the Carbonic Anhydrase 2 (CA2) gene by small interfering RNA (siRNA) may increase the sensitivity of doxorubicin in bladder cancer treatment. First, we found that CA2 was one of the top-ranked overexpressed genes in cardiomyocytes that survived from the doxorubicin treatment by transcriptomic analysis using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data. Second, when T24 bladder cancer cells were treated with doxorubicin, cell viability generally decreased in higher dosage of doxorubicin. Third, through agarose gel electrophoresis, we confirmed successful siRNA transfection and thus CA2 gene knockdown as cells treated with siRNA targeting CA2 (siCA2) exhibited significantly lower CA2 expression. Last, we found that only 15% of cancer cells with CA2 knockdown survived in contrast to 85-92% survival rate of the other three cells with active CA2 in the cell viability test. In conclusion, because CA2 silencing induces a significant decline in cancer cell viability, CA2 knockdown therapy can be combined with doxorubicin so that cancer cells can be treated with increased doxorubicin sensitivity.

Keywords: Bladder cancer; Carbonic Anhydrase 2; Doxorubicin; Chemoresistance; siRNA

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction 1. Bladder cancer basic information Bladder cancer is the 6th most common type of cancer among men around the world; approximately 573,000 patients were diagnosed with bladder cancer in 2020, of which 212,500 lost their lives (Kaseb & Aeddula, 2022). Bladder is a muscular sac regulating urine located below the abdomen, and the most common cause of its cancer originates from the outermost mucosal cells and can spread through the bladder walls into the lymphatic system to spread, or metastasize, into the rest of the body, including the lungs, liver, and pelvis (Metts et al., 2000). The standard treatment for bladder cancer is to remove the entire bladder through surgery (cystectomy) (DeGeorge et al., 2017). Thus, patients need an alternative apparatus that is often injected or constructed through another surgery in order to properly store and release urine when needed (Dobruch 2V]F]XGáRZVNL . Accordingly, endeavors to research a new process of preserving the bladder is necessary. 2. Bladder cancer genetic marker and application Rather than an old-fashioned surgery removing bladder, gene therapy utilizing gene expression and genetic markers is a relatively novel technique (Bratu et al., 2021). Recently, large-scale gene expression and sequencing data supported the development of novel targeted treatments and effective immunotherapies for bladder cancer (Bellmunt et al., 2003). Contemporary technological advancements regarding gene expression have enabled us to locate biomarkers of bladder cancer (Bednova & Leyton, 2020). These biomarkers can indicate the pathways and development of cancer pathogenesis and have become an innovation in bladder cancer diagnosis with higher precision. 3. Doxorubicin One of the more promising advancements in the treatment of bladder cancer is the delivery of cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents directly to the tumor (Fukuokaya et al., 2020). The injection of doxorubicin into arteries feeding tumors has been shown to provide a survival advantage to bladder cancer patients. However, resistance to doxorubicin has emerged as a central problem limiting the treatment of patients with bladder cancer (Christowitz et al., 2019). Therefore, one of the important goals of doxorubicin therapy for bladder cancer is to better understand the molecular mechanisms of doxorubicin resistance in bladder cancer with a novel development of chemosensitization methods. 4. siRNA in cancer therapy Accordingly, siRNAs, or small interfering RNAs, are rising to become a popular cancer therapy. Via RNA interference (RNAi), siRNAs can inhibit gene expression by targeting messenger RNA (mRNA) (Mahmoodi Chalbatani et al., 2019). Even though siRNA therapeutics have limited stability and successful delivery in vivo, this technique has been developed as a novel therapeutic agent for cancer. 5. Hypothesis In this study, we focused on the overexpressed genes in doxorubicin-treated cells. The previous study performed whole-genome transcriptome profiling in human embryonic stem cells derived cardiomyocytes treated with doxorubicin. After analyzing the overexpressed genes in doxorubicin treated cells, we downregulated Carbonic Anhydrase 2 (CA2) gene, one of the top-ranked overexpressed genes in doxorubicin treated cells in T24 bladder cancer cell line, with CA2 targeting siRNA (siCA2). T24 cells, established from a human urinary bladder cancer patient, were used in this study because of their high-grade and invasive transitional cell carcinoma (TCC). After optimizing the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) siRNA transfection, we analyzed the cell viability using a cell counter device and found that CA2 knockdown T24 bladder cancer cells were more sensitive to doxorubicin-dependent cell death.

Research Method and Materials Cell culture and maintenance T24 bladder cancer cell line, purchased from Korea Cell Line Bank, was maintained in RPMI1640 cell culture media (Gibco) supplemented with 10% FBS (Gibco) and 1% PS (Gibco). The culture media was exchanged every two to three days to maintain healthy T24 cells. Doxorubicin treatment in T24 cell 10 mM stock solution of doxorubicin (Sigma) was prepared in the DMSO solution. 0, 0.01, 0.03, and 0.06 μg/ml diluted concentration was treated in T24 cells for 72 hours. siRNA transfection The siRNA targeting CA2 with the following sequence information (CACUCACAAUUGUUGACUA=tt for antisense and UAGUCAACAAUUGUGAGUG=tt for sense) was transfected using jetPRIME transfection reagent (Polyplus). siRNA (10nM) was mixed with the 4 μL jetPRIME reagent in 200 μL to make them complex. Then, siRNA and reagent complex were added to the corresponding prepared T24 cells in a 6 well culture plate. RNA extraction Total RNA was extracted using AccuPrep Universal RNA extraction kit (Bioneer). RNA was extracted from cultured T24 cell samples. The protocols provided by the manufactured company were used. RNA was eluted with a 50 μL elution buffer. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR using agarose gel electrophoresis The cDNA was synthesized from oligo-dT primers with the Reverse Transcription System (Q]\QRPLFV 7KH IROORZLQJ 3&5 FRQGLWLRQ ZDV XVHG WR V\QWKHVL]H F'1$ Û& IRU PLQ Û& IRU PLQ Û& IRU PLQ DQG LQILQLWHO\ 7KHQ DPSOLILFDWLRQ Rf CA2 and GAPDH was performed XVLQJ WKH IROORZLQJ 3&5 UHDFWLRQ Û& IRU PLQ Û& IRU VHF Û& IRU VHF Û& IRU VHF UHSHDW VWHS WR IRU WLPHV Û& IRU PLQ Û& LQILQLWHO\ 7KHQ WKH DPSOLILHG cDNA product was loaded into agarose gel electrophoresis to visualize the amplified band. The ImageJ program was used to quantify the band intensity after the image was taken in a blue light illuminator. Cell viability assay using automated cell counter device Cell viability was quantified using the LUNA-FL cell counter device. 18 μl of the cell sample were mixed with 2 μl Acridine Orange/Propidium Iodide Stain, and 12 μl of the mixed cell suspension were loaded into a PhotonSlide. Then the slide was inserted into the slide port of the instrument, and the focus knob was adjusted to get an appropriate cell image. The “Count” button was used to analyze the cell viability that was displayed on the screen.

Research Result Table 1. The top 20 information of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) from the significant analyses results based on log2 fold change.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) log2FC rank

gene_symbol

log2FC

P.Value

adj.P.Val

RP11-468E2.2

4.69

0.00498

0.00740

CA2

4.14

1.11E-05

3.21E-05

AP003419.11

4.11

0.04190

0.05357

RP11-777B9.5

4.08

0.26780

0.30161

RP11-290H9.2

3.98

0.02568

0.03402

ADAMTS7P4

3.87

6.33E-06

2.00E-05

CTC-429P9.4

3.71

0.01042

0.01470

RP11-500M8.7

3.68

0.12556

0.14942

AL365273.1

3.59

0.05680

0.07118

AMIGO3

3.53

0.10702

0.12866

ZCCHC12

3.45

1.75E-07

1.28E-06

GAPDHP72

3.44

1.25E-06

5.40E-06

RP11-641D5.1

3.41

0.00026

0.00050

ADM5

3.38

8.08E-07

3.88E-06

AL031664.1

3.30

0.08215

0.10049

AHSG

3.22

0.00616

0.00902

CTSF

3.20

9.20E-07

4.29E-06

C6ORF25

3.18

0.01152

0.01613

GS1-393G12.13

3.16

1.09E-05

3.16E-05

SULT1A4

3.00

1.51E-05

4.17E-05

Previous study performed the whole genome transcriptome profiling via RNA-seq in human embryonic VWHP FHOOV GHULYHG FDUGLRP\RF\WHV WUHDWHG ZLWK GR[RUXELFLQ ȝ0 RU YHKLFOH RQO\ FRQWURO IRU hours. (Maillet et al., 2016) We reanalyzed this RNA-seq data and found the top 20 genes that are overexpressed in doxorubicin-treated cells (Table 1). Among the top 20 genes, we focused on the Carbonic Anhydrase 2 (CA2) gene. Since the CA2 protein is one of several isozymes of carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide, it is one of the crucial proteins that regulate pH in human tissue. CA2 is ranked 2nd in table 1, and this gene is significantly overexpressed in doxorubicin-treated cardiomyocytes.

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Figure 1. Doxorubicin induces cell death in T24 bladder cancer cells. Doxorubicin is one of the most popular drugs utilized in chemotherapy for cancer (Johnson-Arbor & Dubey, 2022). To test its ability to kill cancer cells, a cell viability test was conducted based on the concentration dosage of a cancer drug. As the concentration of doxorubicin increased, lower viability of cells was expected in a linear form. Five concentrations of doxorubicin were used for this test: 0, 0.01, 0.03, 0.06 μg/ml. Cell viability test was done via Fluorescence Cell Counting feature of the Luna Dual Fluorescence Cell Counter. As expected, most of the results showed a generally linear pattern of cells with cell viability decreasing in higher dosage of doxorubicin, with a significant reduction between 0.01 and 0.03 μg/ml. The result for 0.12 μg/ml is assumed to be a source of error because it is highly unlikely that more cells survived from a significantly higher dosage of doxorubicin. The most reasonable explanation for this error is the method of collecting the cells living in media: attached cells were collected with a micropipette, and cells already killed by doxorubicin were excluded when analyzing cell viability. This is supported by the relatively few number of total cells measured for the 0.12 μg/ml concentration compared to lower doxorubicin concentrations. As shown by the result, doxorubicin successfully demonstrates its anticancer effects by inducing T24 bladder cancer cell death.

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Figure 2. siRNA targeting CA2 (siCA2) decreased CA2 expression level in T24 bladder cancer cells. (A) Amplified cDNA of CA2 and GAPDH bands were visualized by agarose electrophoresis. (B) A bar graph representing the normalized expression level of CA2 was quantified by the ImageJ program. Because optimizing the efficiency of siRNA transfection is very important to effectively deliver siRNA and deactivate our target gene (CA2), we calculated CA2 expression in genes using gel electrophoresis. We expected siRNA targeting CA2 (siCA2) to decrease the level of CA2 expression. Using RT-PCR, we amplified cDNA products in four samples: two with 0.12μg/ml doxorubicin treatment, and the other two without any doxorubicin treatment. Each dosage had one control siRNA (siCon) sample and siCA2 to analyze the effect siCA2 has on CA2 expression. During gel electrophoresis, CA2 expression level was normalized by GAPDH. After analyzing amplified cDNA products in agarose gel electrophoresis, we calculated the band intensity of cDNA products in arbitrary units via the ImageJ program. As shown in Figure 2A, it is visibly evident that CA2 expression decreased as a result of siCA2 while they had similar band intensity in GAPDH samples. Band intensity was quantified in each sample using ImageJ, and the results are graphed in Figure 2B. The normalized CA2 expression level decreased from 0.89 to 0.47 in 0 μg/ml doxorubicin and from 0.61 to 0.26 in 0.12μg/ml. The siCA2 efficiently knockdown CA2 gene expression in both doxorubicin concentrations of 0 and 0.12 μg/ml.

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Figure 3. CA2 knockdown increased doxorubicin-dependent cell death indicating the increased doxorubicin sensitivity. Green fluorescent cells indicate the live cells and red fluorescent cells represent the dead cells. Based on the data according to Table 1, we developed a hypothesis that deactivating CA2 will result in an increase of doxorubicin drug sensitivity, and doxorubicin + siCA2 sample will thus have a significant reduction in cell viability. Four solutions of test samples were created to test the hypothesis, including a control group without any treatments. Three other samples were exposed to 0.12μg/mL doxorubicin, and two of them were treated with siRNAs. To ensure that the error does not come from siRNA, we created another control with doxorubicin and controlled siRNA. Finally, the experimental group consisted of doxorubicin and CA2-specific siRNA. Each cell was incubated for 72 hours, and cell viability was tested with the Fluorescence Cell Counting feature of the Luna Dual Fluorescence Cell Counter. As expected, the sample containing doxorubicin and CA2 siRNA had a very low cell viability of 15% while the other three samples had a similar result. Control group with no treatment had the highest cell viability of 91.1%, while the sample with doxorubicin only and doxorubicin and control siRNA had 85% and 88%. Finally and most importantly, cells treated with doxorubicin and CA2 siRNA only exhibited 15% viability, a huge reduction from the other three cells. In conclusion, consistent with our hypothesis, CA2 knockdown effectively induces doxorubicin-dependent cell death in T24 cells.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Discussion In this study, we found that CA2 was one of the top-ranked overexpressed genes in cardiomyocytes that survived the doxorubicin treatment by transcriptomic analysis using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data. We also found that when T24 bladder cancer cells were treated with doxorubicin, cell viability generally decreased in higher dosages of doxorubicin. Through RT-PCR and agarose gel electrophoresis, we confirmed that siRNA targeting CA2 (siCA2) exhibited significantly lower CA2 expression. Last, we found that only 15% of cancer cells with CA2 knockdown survived, in contrast to 85-92% survival rate of the other three cells with active CA2 in the cell viability test. Overall, this study indicates that CA2 knockdown therapy combined with doxorubicin can be applied so that cancer cells can be treated with increased doxorubicin sensitivity. This study has a few limitations. First, we only tested one type of bladder cancer cell line T24. Therefore, more bladder cancer cell lines should be used to verify this result. Second, only one type of siRNA targeting the CA2 gene was used in this study. siRNA targeting different regions of the CA2 gene should be investigated further. Last, we performed only in vitro experiments. Therefore, in vivo experiments such as mouse models should be used in the future. The molecular mechanisms of how CA2 enhances the sensitivity of doxorubicin are unclear. CA2 protein, which functions in the reversible hydration reaction of carbon dioxide, may be linked to pH homeostasis in human tissues (Mboge et al., 2018). CA2 may increase doxorubicin sensitivity by upregulation of intracellular pH in T24 bladder cancer cells. However, further experiments are needed to confirm the detailed molecular mechanism.

Reference Bednova, O., & Leyton, J. V. (2020). Targeted Molecular Therapeutics for Bladder Cancer-A New Option beyond the Mixed Fortunes of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors? International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21197268 Bellmunt, J., Hussain, M., & Dinney, C. P. (2003). Novel approaches with targeted therapies in bladder cancer. Therapy of bladder cancer by blockade of the epidermal growth factor receptor family. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology, 46 Suppl, S85-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/s10408428(03)00067-2 Bratu, O., Marcu, D., Anghel, R., Spinu, D., Iorga, L., Balescu, I., Bacalbasa, N., Diaconu, C., Savu, C., Savu, C., & Cherciu, A. (2021). Tumoral markers in bladder cancer (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 22(1), 773. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.10205 Christowitz, C., Davis, T., Isaacs, A., van Niekerk, G., Hattingh, S., & Engelbrecht, A.-M. (2019). Mechanisms of doxorubicin-induced drug resistance and drug resistant tumour growth in a murine breast tumour model. BMC Cancer, 19(1), 757. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-019-5939-z DeGeorge, K. C., Holt, H. R., & Hodges, S. C. (2017). Bladder cancer: diagnosis and treatment. American Family Physician, 96(8), 507–514. 'REUXFK - 2V]F]XGáRZVNL 0 %ODGGHU FDQFHU FXUUHQW FKDOOHQJHV DQG IXWXUH GLUHFWLRQV Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania), 57(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57080749

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Fukuokaya, W., Kimura, T., Miki, J., Kimura, S., Watanabe, H., Bo, F., Okada, D., Aikawa, K., Ochi, A., Suzuki, K., Shiga, N., Abe, H., & Egawa, S. (2020). Effectiveness of Intravesical Doxorubicin Immediately Following Resection of Primary Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer: A Propensity Score-matched Analysis. Clinical Genitourinary Cancer, 18(2), e55–e61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clgc.2019.09.005 Johnson-Arbor, K., & Dubey, R. (2022). Doxorubicin. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Kaseb, H., & Aeddula, N. R. (2022). Bladder Cancer. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Mahmoodi Chalbatani, G., Dana, H., Gharagouzloo, E., Grijalvo, S., Eritja, R., Logsdon, C. D., Memari, F., Miri, S. R., Rad, M. R., & Marmari, V. (2019). Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in cancer therapy: a nano-based approach. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 14, 3111–3128. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S200253 Maillet, A., Tan, K., Chai, X., Sadananda, S. N., Mehta, A., Ooi, J., Hayden, M. R., Pouladi, M. A., Ghosh, S., Shim, W., & Brunham, L. R. (2016). Modeling Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity in Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Derived-Cardiomyocytes. Scientific Reports, 6, 25333. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep25333 Mboge, M. Y., Mahon, B. P., McKenna, R., & Frost, S. C. (2018). Carbonic anhydrases: role in ph control and cancer. Metabolites, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo8010019 Metts, M. C., Metts, J. C., Milito, S. J., & Thomas, C. R. (2000). Bladder cancer: a review of diagnosis and management. Journal of the National Medical Association, 92(6), 285–294.

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Hybrid Metaverse Modeling Through Integration of the Real World and Metaverse Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Bright

Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: As the idea of Metaverse, which is a virtual universe where people can interact with each other, became a trend in the modern world, the usage of the Metaverse diversified. However, because of the limitation of the Metaverse, it can only provide benefits in the metaverse world, but not in the real world. For example, in a pandemic situation like covid-19 crisis, people can have a virtual meeting through the Metaverse, but people cannot carry out the idea in practice. Therefore, this attractive concept of Metaverse has a weakness in a certain aspect. The study progressed to research a way to utilize the Metaverse in jobs with high-risk environments, medical services, or examination sites by constructing a world called ‘Hybrid World’, which is the union of the real world and the metaverse. Before the model of the hybrid world is made, information about some of the extant Metaverse flatforms and the developmental trend of each flatform should be collected and manipulated to deduct the limitation of the modern Metaverse technology. Then, because the disadvantages and the synergy resulting from those disadvantages should not affect the model, hybrid world, those flaws, and other confounding variables of the real world and metaverse should be sorted out. Therefore, the list of the service model of the Hybrid World can be yielded without any ethical or theoretical issues. For the final step for the research, to unite the two universes in practice, we need VR technology that can project the background, 360-degree camera and hologram technology, to create the model. The output of the model will help people, who are in a high-risk workplace or having difficulty with meeting people in person, to meet or work in the hybrid world with current technology. Eventually, people will build on this model to make this model even more stable so that the new era of the universe will begin.

Keywords: Metaverse, Hybrid Metaverse, virtualization

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction There are still many experts who think that the definition of metaverse is not fixed or defined exactly. However, we are already using the word ‘Metaverse’ in many different places and many Metaverse related services and products are exploited. Then when was the word ‘Metaverse’ first started to be used by people? The term ‘Metaverse' originated in the science fiction novel Snow Crash, in 1992, as a portmanteau word of "meta" and "universe". Humans have been recording and changing all the information into data in order to digitize everything. For instance, when someone takes a photo of themselves, it automatically records the time, date and even the location (altitude and longitude) if their camera or phone contains GPS technology. Furthermore, if someone uses A.I. technology, the photo also saves the information about all the people in the photo. As the example above, all the information recorded becomes historical artifacts themselves in the future or becomes small pieces of big data and are reproduced into newly created information. From this concept of information and data, the opposite concept is called ‘Metaverse’. If people can record the world into Metadata, it is possible to create a world composed of Metadata. In this world made of Metadata, people would be able to create lots of different worlds just by using the ‘Add’ button and delete worlds by using the ‘Delete’ button. Also, people would be able to create a world that does not exist in the real world by processing new data. This concept of Metaverse allows humans to consider the Real World as a Metaverse made by someone or something else. This is the reason why Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) keeps bringing up the topic of Multiverse because if we think the multiverse is also one of the kinds of metaverses created by changing the data or random data, the presence of metaverse can be proved. As shown in the Google Trends data below, the word ‘Metaverse’ can only be found after 2006 and the search frequency reaches its peak in 2020. This is mainly resulted in the change of the name of ‘Facebook’ into ‘Meta’. Consequently, the idea of Metaverse grew as big as ‘Blockchain’ or ‘Big Data’, which is certainly an engaging situation.

Figure 1. Google Trend Result

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) During the beginning of 21th century, what people call the first generation of Metaverse, and several other Metaverse-related services, including Digital Twins (2002), Second Life (2003), Roblox (2006) and 3D online games, were developed. Then a decade later, the appearance of AR, and VR technology helped people to further develop the technology of smartphones and this resulted in innovation of games and VR services based on various platforms. Nevertheless, the services using the concept of ‘Metaverse’ have a serious deficiency that is still limited in one-dimensional. In many different fields of technology, of course, people are making an effort to create remote medical treatment, remote site investigation, and remote open house systems. However, these services cannot make a whole new Meta world, but instead, those services only remote-control robots and look into a camera. Therefore, I want to convert the real world, which we are currently living in, into the Metaverse and even if the real world somewhat changes, the same change will occur in the Metaverse too. On the other hand, if the data in the Metaverse changes, after getting an agreement by the society, I would try to apply that change in the Metaverse into the real world. Through the hybrid model in this document, I am trying to make an active Metaverse using the interaction between the real world and the Metaverse but not neglecting the real world.

2. Trend of technologies required Since the beginning of the 2020, the field of online and contact-free systems, including telecommuting, virtual video call education, ext…, developed quite rapidly and services also varied as the worldwide pandemic, Covid-19, spread all around the world. According to Deloitte's survey–targeted Koreans, the results showed that online shopping and shipping (60%), cooking at home(49%), buying fresh groceries(37%) and take-out and food delivery(33%) are expected to increase accordingly after the pandemic. (Einfomax, 2021) In the past, these technologies were only focused on individual level of completion; however, in order to provide services based on contact-free and online, artificial reality technology, super-speed network and security, etc.., should be developed at the high level of completion and fusion between each technology should be properly manipulated. In other words, in order to provide Meta Service, the service has to guarantee a certain level of interlink-ability at an online setting and make the infrastructure setting that can share real-time information; therefore, fusion between technologies for service formation is necessary. If either one of the technologies is left behind or can not be fused together, the service provision is almost impossible to be processed. Then, let’s investigate the current state of Metaverse technology market and application field of Metaverse and check out some cases that have been applied and advanced Metaverse in practice. 2.1 Metaverse Configuration Technology Everyone has experiences with virtual reality through games or multi-medias. Watching a movie is even considered to be one of the virtual realities because it allows audiences to get into the movie itself. The way of experiencing varies and the degree of immersion and reality depends on the level of completion of the device, but people can experience something that they could never have done in reality; therefore, movies are also a kind of Virtual Reality. Current Virtual Reality technology can even help people to feel all the five senses in the Virtual World, which makes the goal of making Virtual Reality as real as possible into progression. What are the standards that differentiate the metaverse and virtual reality? Virtual Reality is programmed in the perspective of the first person. In other words, there is already a world programmed and users are just experiencing the programmed world with scenarios. (IETT, 2022) However, in the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) case of Metaverse, because it allows people to interact and live their own lives inside of the virtual world, it’s not just the same as the service that lets people experience a fixed scenario. Also, there are plenty of contents other than the contents made outside the Metaverse because those contents can be reproduced by users in the Metaverse or the users can create brand-new contents within the service. Despite the fact that Metaverse is virtual, users can create their own scenarios by interacting with other people in the Metaverse, which is a lot similar to people’s normal life in reality. Furthermore, one of the most important differences between Virtual Reality and Metaverse is the time continuity. It is possible for Virtual Reality to reset or reload to a certain point of time after saving data; however, those functions are not possible in Metaverse. Metaverse’s time system does not allow people to stop the time by certain people or at a certain point of time because the time goes on continuously since the birth of the Metaverse. Metaverse, of course, is one of the virtual realities, so it might be possible to try those time stopping or reloading functions. Nevertheless, in order to stop or reload the time, there must be unanimity among the Metaverse users. Since people’s opinions and values differ with one another, it is fairly impossible to carry out those functions. Namely, Metaverse neither has the beginning nor the ending, but instead, it is an open world system that the time flows on continuously and opens an infinite number of scenarios and contents; this is the major difference between the Metaverse and Virtual Reality. However, because Metaverse is just an expanded concept of Virtual Reality, people have to find a way to combine several different technologies instead of researching and developing a new theoretical technology in depth. As an aspect of interacting and communicating through the connection and activities in virtual reality, there are various major technologies, such as Virtualization Technology, Computer vision, Head Mounted Display, Network and computing technology, three-dimensional video modelling technology, big data analysis, image processing technology, cloud computing, Internet of things (IOT), block chain, Artificial Intelligence (A.I.), and Hardware (Display, semiconductor, etc…), are needed in order to create a Metaverse. In this document, there are three of the major technologies explained including Virtual Reality, Network and high-speed computing, and Security Technology. 2.2 Virtualization Technology Virtualization Technology can mainly be assorted into VR (Virtual Reality), AR (Augmented Reality) and MR (Mixed Reality). You can experience VR by wearing a goggle-like device on your eyes and see the virtual world through the device. In the case of AR, like a game called “Pocket Monster Go” which was in fashion a few years ago all around the world, a Virtual Object is projected on a device like a phone screen. Furthermore, MR is a combination of VR and AR, which means the real world and the virtual world are combined through goggles. In addition, even though the clear definition is not set yet, other than VR, AR, and XR, there is a technology called XR (eXtended Reality) that can create a virtual world and any other virtualization technology without any extra tools but using holograms. 2.2.1 Computer Vision Any technology needs ‘Computer Vision’ to make the virtual setting and object as real as possible and to compose a three-dimensional content. Computer Vision was once started from the technology that detects an object’s rim and distinguishes the shape of the object into various categories like circle, rectangle, and triangle. This distinguishing shape of an object is the root of all the other vision technologies. Currently, as A.I. (Artificial Intelligence) interprets and understands the visual world (Vision sense), people not only distinguish and sort objects through Deep Learning models like

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Computer Vision, but they can also predict and reenact a certain object’s movement based on the big data which was cumulatively observed over time. 2.2.2 (HMD) Head Mounted Display HMD generally used for accessing into the Virtual World was first made by Ivan Edward Sutherland, who made GUI (Graphic User Interface) earlier, in 1968 and commercialized since 1994 in earnest; Another HMD used in VR is made by the founder, Palmer Luckey. Because HMD should make users feel three-dimensional contents as real and high-immersed as possible with their two eyes when a virtual world device (VR goggle) is equipped, three-dimensional modelling, rendering technology, and display technique have also been developed along with the HMD. In addition, as MR (Mixed Reality) appeared, HWD changed its form into a smart glasses form; therefore, HWD is currently being developed as displaying information of an object just by looking at it, telling current temperature, humidity, GPS, and altitude. In fact, in the future, HMD is expected to provide five main senses (hearing, vision, touch, taste and smell) through Virtual Reality to users.

Figure 2. HMD | Namu Wiki 2.3 Network and Computing technology The most prior factor needed to provide Metaverse Service is visual elements. In order to make people interact with each other, people should be able to look at other people’s eyes in the first place. It is possible to communicate with other people just by using voice, but this is just the same as a normal phone call, which does not fit into the definition of ‘Metaverse’. Then, how is it possible to make people, who are far away from each other, to interact in the Metaverse? For people to interact smoothly in Virtual Reality, the communication speed and quality of the users should be the same as the real world's speed and quality. Even though lots of people connect to Virtual Reality at the same time, the delay or error in service should be prevented by providing service infrastructures. This problem was resolved enough to ease the concerns as the high-network and high-computing technology came up.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.3.1 Network Technology The maximum saving speed of the memory card that is generally used for storing 4K video is 30MB/s(240Mbps). This means that if the network transmission speed is over 240Mbps, it is possible to send data live. If it’s 8K video, the speed is 480Mbps, and if it’s FHD video, the speed is calculated as 60Mbps. If this transmission speed is converted into a concurrent connection situation, 100 people is equal to 24 Gbps in 4K and 1000 people is equal to 480Gbps in 4K. However, we are not transmitting 2D video, but 3D screen. Therefore, this requires at least two 180degree angles of view with 2 screens. Then, the network capacity needed for 1000 people is 480Gbps in 4K. Then, at this point, let’s talk about cable, wireless, and mobile communication maximum bandwidth. First, cable’s maximum speed is 400Gbps Ethernet; Wireless is Wi-Fi 6 maximum of 6Gbps; Mobile communication’s maximum speed is 20Gbps. These Network bandwidths are not enough for a tremendous number of people to transmit data without any loss in data. However, the network has a multicast technology that allows all users who request data from a single data transmission for real-time data services to receive data. Therefore, although it is not possible if it’s not live service, if it is live service, it can provide service without exceeding the minimum speed of 6Gbps among cable, wireless, and mobile communication theoretically. The Metaverse that we are trying to build is live-based service, so there is no problem with providing service with the current technology. Outside of that, due to the development of various video compression and transmission, the actual amount of live data is very little compared to the saved video data. We calculated this based on the sharpest picture quality and image data when stored in the frame. The amount of data is not only occupied by resolution, but also Frame as well as video-quality. The Streaming video that changes in real time has relatively low Frame then the saved data. In case of the video-quality, the streaming video does not have to keep its quality as high-definition. In accordance with NETFLIX, the 4K video Streaming speed is about 25Mbps, which is only about 10 percent of 240 Mbps and FHD is about 8 percent of 60Mbps-5Mbps. YouTube’s 4K video is around 35~45Mbps, and FHD is 8Mbps, which the values are overtaking Netflix’s speed, but YouTube also has a short Bandwidth. 2.3.2 Computing Technology With a centralized way of running all of the computing on the server, even a supercomputer will experience system down or failure if millions of people connect at the same time. Raja Koduri from INTEL once said we need a solid computing technology that is thousand times better than the current high-advanced technology in order to provide continuous and immersive live computing all around the world for Metaverse. In order to do rendering realistically for Virtual Environment and interact with other objects or users in real time, huge amounts of Data should be collected, transmitted and analyzed to diminish the delay in time as short as possible. Therefore, the Computing Technology, which is the footing of Metaverse, is being developed as a distributed processing computing method that the computers connected to the Metaverse use messages to process huge calculations organizationally. Only certain critical workloads are built from Core on-floating and performing computing on a central system. Then, by locating this center system in the cloud, it can be utilized as an innovative cloud service. Also, the effort of reducing Infrastructure risk is in progress in order to get resources at any time. 2.4 Security Technology Because Meta Service is a service that makes people interact with others by sharing each other’s information, it can possibly cause a serious problem as an aspect of security. For instance, the company

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) with the first place in world’s tele business occupation rate, Zoom, had a security problem that its clients’ information leaked in the past. User account information leak, meeting screen extortion (also called as zoom bombing or zoom trolling), and weak key algorithm are the main security problems. Hacking for extorting people’s online information is still actively happening at this moment. (KOIT, 2020) As Meta service varies and the number of Metaverse users increases, the users’ activity patterns, habits, and new kinds of information are stored in many different system databases in the Metaverse. However, it is certainly hard to control and administer those tremendous amounts of data without any single security problem happening simultaneously in the Metaverse; this will be the most important issue when it comes to offering Meta Service. The most important security factor within the Metaverse environment is leak of personnel information, and virtual financial systems for economic activities in the Metaverse. As of now, even though there are already some people purchasing and selling their virtual properties, in the future, which we predict to have an increase in Meta service users and various services in a short period, we can predict economic activities within the Metaverse would eventually be possible. Then, while even the security incidents are happening in reality with high-tech, how would or could Metaverse (Virtual World) respond to this security threat? In 2021 October, KISA (Korea Internet & Security Agency) mentioned a total eight security threats in the Metaverse Environment in an announcement. The announcement mainly tells people that Metaverse security issues are the same as the issues that are currently happening in the real world. After all, the Metaverse Environment is just an expansion of the environment of the real world. Therefore, there are lots of common issues and problems among the topics of security. (LG CNS, 2022) Therefore, if it is possible to keep the real world’s level of security as well as in the Metaverse, lots of parts will be resolved. Furthermore, security in Metaverse is not only necessary because of the users’ personal information, but also to keep users’ virtual properties. Because his security market is also expected to be developed, combinations including NFT (Non-Fungible Token) and Metaverse, and other technologies with Metaverse are indispensable nowadays.

3. Metaverse System Architecture In order to provide Metaverse Service by conflating all the technologies described above, Metaverse Architecture is needed. Since the lucid definition of Metaverse is not there yet, Architecture is also published in many different forms. To plan out for the Metaverse Modelling, which is the main goal of this Research, understanding Architecture is crucial and essential; therefore, we have to know what the Metaverse Architecture is about. In this Research, I am trying to examine the Architecture standards covered in the ‘Realizing the Metaverse with Edge Intelligence: A Match Made in Heaven’ from IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) that standardizes the industry’s devices about electrical electronics announced in 2022 January. (IEEE, 2022)

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Figure 3. The Metaverse system architecture | Realizing the Metaverse with Edge Intelligence In cases like Figure 3, after dividing the Metaverse system into four different Domains Infrastructure, Metaverse Engine, Virtual World, Physical World, Architecture is composing the (object) based on the associative relation in each component. Each domain’s features are as follows. ‘Infrastructure’ is composed of a domain that exists to support Metaverse service’s Scalable, Shardless, Ubiquitous, and Trustworthy (network bandwidth for interaction between users in the Virtual World), ‘Communication’ that defines Network service Quality including latency, packet loss/error rate, system capacity, ‘Computation’ that defines the GPU, that can do rendering even with hundreds of people accessing the service at once, and Server Performance, and ‘Storage’ that defines Storage capability that can administer, search and save large capacity of data happening in the live-managed Metaverse service. “Metaverse Engine” is the domain for supporting Metaverse service’s Immersion, Real-time/Intelligent, Physical-Virtual World Ecosystem. The Metaverse Engine is composed of a ‘Human-machine’ that is similar to Haptic for controlling Virtual World users’ input depending on each role, ‘XR devices’ that is similar to AR/VR for controlling user’s output, ‘Digital Twin’ that reflects the real world by making

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the real world’s objects inside the Virtual World and makes it able to simulate possible outcomes in the real world inside the Metaverse, “AI” that is made to predict and reflect the changes and reactions in the Virtual World depending on the users’ output, and ‘Blockchain’ for providing confirmation about data, integrity, and encipherment. ‘Virtual world’ and ‘Physical world’ are domains where mapping of objects and services takes place between the virtual world and the real world, and components cannot be easily defined in very different areas depending on Metaverse’s purpose. Nevertheless, if I list the essential factors, those would be service environment, user, and offer service. Some people may think economic activity is necessary, but in fact, Metaverse service provided to the public institution, public corporation and religious group is not for monetary profit; therefore, economic activity can never be the essential factor. The Following are an example of planned Service Modelling and Application based on Architecture.

Figure 4. Applications of Edge Intelligence for the Metaverse | Realizing the Metaverse with Edge Intelligence 4. Hybrid Metaverse Modeling

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The meaning of “Hybrid” from “Hybrid Metaverse” is not simply the fusion of the existing Metaverse platforms and services. In this Research, “Hybrid” means the fusion of the Metaverse and the real world, which can create a new value of the Metaverse Service’s goal and value without the limitation of Virtual Reality, marketing of products, and online games. Specifically, the early Metaverse Service’s goal was to make a Metaverse that is completely separated from the real world; however, the goal of “Hybrid Metaverse” is to reflect the real world inside the Metaverse and make a Metaverse Service that can mutually connect with the real world. The difference between AR is that the service does not make the Metaverse in the Real World, but it is like putting the Real World system into the system of Virtual Reality and reflects many features of the real world. 4.1 Framework of Hybrid Metaverse Then, let’s organize Hybrid Metaverse’s Framework in terms of Service Modelling based on the Metaverse Architecture introduced. Because I am going to organize the Framework based on service rather than technology, in this research, I am not going to define the Metaverse Engine from Architecture. Instead, I will mention the definition of Framework of Infrastructure, Virtual World, and Physical World domains. 4.2 Infrastructure 4.1.1 Communication In order to put the Real World system into the Metaverse System, high level technology like holograms is needed. If this high-level technology is applied to the Metaverse Service, the cost would exceed the expectation. However, even if we are living in three-dimensional space, the way we practically see information with our two eyes is the two-dimensional world caused by perspective representation. This means there is no need to use high level technology to see all the angel's perspectives in order for Meta Service users to feel the Metaverse as the Real World. Simply, it is enough to use two cameras or just one camera that contains more than two 3D lens. Therefore, if a total of four people are having a discussion in a virtual meeting room, they do not have to use any avatar for the meeting and appear as their actual physical appearance unless one of them does not have cameras to use. (Robotics, 2016)

Figure 5. 3D Camera Furthermore, VR devices like goggles are difficult and very uncomfortable to use continuously for a long period of time. To resolve these difficulties, there is a way that projects the video recorded with a 3D camera on the wall by a beam projector and actualizes the video by using 3D Glasses. This method, of course, will only be used for the first few years of the Metaverse. After Smart Glasses are developed

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) or the price of a high-level VR device becomes less expensive, it will be possible to make virtual space and 3D objects easily without the use of a beam projector.

Figure 6. Communication of Hybrid Metaverse 4.1.2 Computation The demonstrated content from the “Communication” part is simply not much different from the remote video meeting embodied with 3D. In fact, the differentiation factors between those two contents appear in “Computation”. The videos in “Hybrid Metaverse” do not always reflect everything about the real world, but it can select partial features from the real world to reflect in the Metaverse. After sorting the video from Core System in real time into users, space, and objects, it is able to delete and change each one of those depending on the users’ demand and make the Master limitation of deleting or changing range in some services that need a Master. Also, by making the object be perceived, which users want to change or delete, into 360-degree from the Local area of “Computation” and by rendering the object into 360-degree 3D video from the Core area and displaying the object to users, it is possible to combine with AR solutions. The availability of this way will be high in many different fields including business marketing, remote medical system, entertainment, and many industries depending on its method of use.

Figure 7. Computation of Hybrid Metaverse

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4.1.3 Storage The possibility of background and object manipulation from “Computation” is highly risky since someone can operate data without permission. Therefore, the original video should be preserved 100% and time, object, and activity log about manipulated data should be saved precisely and safely. That is the reason why “Storage” should be composed of at least Data Cloud Zones. The Data Cloud Zones should be divided into the Zone where the original data is preserved, and two zones that save the original data using the Sharding method. Expandability and stability should be secured by composing the Backup mutual to each Shard.

Figure 8. Storage Sharding of Hybrid Metaverse 4.3 Virtual World & Physical World 4.3.1 User and Avatar The biggest difference between Hybrid Metaverse and other XR systems is that it does not use Avatar. Even if Avatar is used, Avatar must obtain permission from the Master if the user requests anonymity, and two principles must be observed even if the user requests anonymity. It means that the original images should contain the user's image as it is, and Avatar should be a graphic that copies the user's words and actions as they are, not a whole new graphic. In a virtual environment, user-to-user reliability is inevitable, but in order to ensure reliability, video must be proven not to be manipulated within the service, and audits must be possible in any case. 4.3.2 Environment It is not easy for the general public to have the system described in the "Communication" section. The cost of equipment is also one of the problems, but the biggest problem is the space where equipment will be installed. There may be various ways to overcome spatial constraints but considering the geometric growth of the "Metaverse" industry, the value of facility investment is sufficient. The method of facility investment can be separated into public and private projects. First of all, for public works projects, SmartSpace with "Hybrid Metaverse" connectivity will be installed in necessary areas where people’s behavior is inconvenient or geographically difficult to

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) access. SmartSpace can create virtual communities to engage in community activities with users in other regions, create virtual government offices to handle various complaints, and create virtual health centers to provide simple health care services. The second private business is to build SmartSpace facilities such as meeting rooms, karaoke rooms, and Internet cafes to provide paid services in the Metaverse. It is clear that selling drinks and simple foods, which are impossible in the virtual world, will create ROI (Return On Investment) as well as facility rental costs. SmartSpace configurations combined with existing VR game centers may also be considered. 4.3.3 Services The form of service can be divided into three different major categories-Virtual Community Service, Virtual Location, and Virtual Education Service. Virtual Community Service is a virtual space-to-people communication service, such as public complaint services, consulting services for experts (accountants, doctors, lawyers, etc.), video conferencing services, and remote social gathering services. Such a service can be a safer way than a real-world face-to-face service because all information is recorded and stored besides the general advantage of reducing distance constraints and reducing travel time. In addition, it will be the fastest way to meet customers in the virtual world with 3D manufacturers to sell various products. Virtual Location Service is a service, including real estate open house service, tourist attraction guide service, hotel/resort marketing service, and various event services such as weddings, that virtualizes a particular space and invites others. It does not only have the advantage of being able to experience the other cultures or world at a long distance, but it can also be a means of virtualizing the interior of the event halls/house or exploring and monitoring dangerous areas in conjunction with robots. Virtual Education Service is an example of a typical service that includes remote lecture services, Webinar services, and various presentation services in schools and academies. It can be used as a remote testing center for SAT, AP, and various qualification tests by applying presenters to administrators and participants to test-takers using 1:1 and 1:N service features along with the advantages of increasing concentration on presenters and checking participants or students’ level of interest. Hybrid Metaverse Modeling's core goal and future value is that if only the infrastructure for services is configured like this, new services and opportunities can be created through infinite ideas based on the configured infrastructure.

5. Conclusions The "Metaverse" world is already evolving into another real world, not a virtual world. On the one hand, people are developing "Metaverse" to lead the market to realize many benefits, and on the other hand, they are talking about risks such as security threats and loss of relationships. Of course, most people experience it indirectly through YouTube and other media or experience it for a while through exhibitions and seminars, so the discussion of Metaverse is not a crucial topic for them. However, people do not recognize "Metaverse" technology, while many contents are provided using VR and AR technology, starting with the game industry.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Therefore, an "Metaverse" industry must have a foundation to lead the industry through more investment, while minimizing the various risks inherent in the "Metaverse" industry. For this purpose, the implementation of Architecture for "Metaverse" is the most necessary, and a variety of service frameworks should be created to be service modeling based on Architecture. In the end, it is most important who makes industrial standardization as all technology-based industries do. Also, research on how the "Metaverse" industry can affect the real world is an important part of whether "Metaverse" will stop in a simple consumer industry such as the game industry or develop into an innovative industry that can help people’s lives. To meet these needs, we have devised and designed a new service model, Hybrid Metaverse. However, to minimize the limitations of exactly matching Architecture in Hybrid Metaverse, we selected Architecture, which is considered the closest to our Hybrid Metaverse among existing Architectures and designed the service framework. In the future, it is necessary to create and develop an architecture for Hybrid Metaverse, and to create various service modeling through service frameworks applicable to each industry.

References [1] Einfomax, Deloitte “䆪⪲⋮ 19 㧊䤚㠦☚ 㡾⧒㧎㑒䞧෹㰧⹻ Ἒ㏣䞶 ộ”, 2021. 5. 7 [2] IITP, 㧊▫㤆 “Ⲫ䌖⻚㓺 ₆㑶 ⹥ ㌆㠛 ☯䟻”, 2022. 4. 6 [3] Namu wiki https://namu.wiki/w/HMD [4] KOIT, 㾲㞚⯚ “‘㭢’ ⽊㞞䀾㟓㩦䢫㧎…㩫⿖㹾㤦 ╖㺛 Ⱎ⩾ 㔲 ”, 2020.10.12 [5] LG CNS, ⹫⹒㤆 “[⽊㞞☯䟻] 䡚㔺㠦㍲☚, Ⲫ䌖⻚㓺㠦㍲☚ ‘↟ 㧷㞚⽊㞞”, 2022.03.30 [6] IEEE, Wei Yang Bryan Lim, Zehui Xiong, Dusit Niyato, Xianbin Cao, Chunyan Miao, Sumei Sun, Qiang Yang “Realizing the Metaverse with Edge Intelligence” DOI: 10.1109/MWC.018.2100716 [7] Robotics, Qiang Liu, Ruihao Li, Huosheng Hu Dongbing Gu “Extracting Semantic Information from Visual Data” 2016.02.23

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The Appearance of Drug-Resistance in Candida Species Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Eungjay

The Frederick Gunn School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Recently, human infections caused by fungi have increased; One of the most famous species that is fatal to humans is the "Candida" strain. Some species of Candida can cause infection in people; Candida normally lives on the skin and inside the body, such as the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina, without causing problems. To treat this, people use a lot of azole-based treatments such as fluconazole and clotrimazole, but these are briefly fungistatic. This experiment identifies the frequency of resistance to azole-based drugs in Candida. As a result, it was confirmed that resistant cells were well present in Candida glabrata during the experiment; that resistance to drugs also developed during the experimental period in Candida albicans.

Keywords: Fungal infection, Candida strains, Fungicidal drugs, Drug-Resistance

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction According to freshly created data from surveys conducted on the same samples using both culturedependent and culture-independent methods, there are 12 (11.7-13.2) million different species of fungi on earth.1 Are they all friends or foes? The answer to this question is “both”: fungi are two-faced organisms, meaning some are friends and others are enemies to humans. Fungi are essential companions of many creatures and key decomposers in several habitats; also, they act as experimental organisms and supply medicines and enzymes. On the other hand, fungi may harm crops, infect people with illnesses like candidiasis and ringworm, and cause mildew and rot in clothing and food.2 Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by a yeast called Candida. According to the CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Candidiasis is “Some species of Candida can cause infection in people; the most common is Candida albicans. Candida normally lives on the skin and inside the body, such as the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina, without causing problems. Candida can cause infections if it grows out of control or if it enters deep into the body. For example, a Candida bloodstream infection, called candidemia, is the most common form of invasive candidiasis. ” The main species that account for 92% of cases of candidemia are Candida albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, and C. krusei.3 According to figure 1, Candida albicans accounts for more than half of the causes of candidemia in almost every country. <Figure 1>

Wu, Bing, et al. "Current insights into fungal species diversity and perspective on naming the environmental DNA sequences of fungi." Mycology 10.3 (2019): 127-140. 2

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "fungus summary". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Apr. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/summary/fungus. Accessed 18 August 2022.

Guinea, J. (2014, June 1). Global trends in the distribution of Candida species causing candidemia. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. Retrieved August 22, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1198743X14603268

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Also, except for Spain, the second most important Candida specie in candidemia is Candida glabrata. Both Candida albicans and Candida glabrata can cause serious health problems in the future, but there are no drugs that are effective and utterly curable because they are very quickly resistant to drugs and can overcome them. Currently, overdoses can kill them completely, but overdoses are not effective and are not very good for the human body. Initially, Polyene antifungal drug was used to treat fungal diseases: it interacts with sterols in the cell membrane (ergosterol in fungus, cholesterol in humans) in order to create channels via which tiny molecules leak from the interior of the fungal cell to the outside.4 However, Polyene antifungal drug affects negatively not only fungal cells but also normal cells in the human body. To solve this, azole antifungal agents have added greatly to the options for the treatment of systemic fungal infections.5 Unlike previous drugs, azole-based drugs have a role in inhibiting further growth, rather than killing cells. There are two famous azole drugs: Clotrimazole and Fluconazole. Clotrimazole, a synthetic imidazole derivative, is mainly used locally to treat skin and vaginal infections by yeasts and dermatophytes. Dermatophytes or candida-related skin infections have been treated topically with clotrimazole. Similar to Whitfield's ointment, tolnaftate, and nystatin, clotrimazole cream proved equally effective in treating dermatophytoses and cutaneous candidiasis in comparative tests.6 Clotrimazole is used widely, such as “Clotrimazole skin cream and Cruex Prescription Strength.” Fluconazole is a triazole antifungal agent widely used for therapy in patients with immune deficiencies. Also, it creates notable work against oropharyngeal/ oesophageal candidiasis whether it is administered as treatment or secondary prophylaxis in AIDS patients or as treatment or primary prophylaxis in neutropenia brought on by cancer therapy. Its rate of relapse is low: only 7% of 99 patients relapsed after six months of therapy.7 However, despite the presence of these drugs, human infections with Candida fungus are not resolved. So I assumed that the reason is that Candida fungi are resistant to these drugs. Therefore, it is vital to understand how Candida species create drug-resistant cells against drugs. This experiment is constructed to confirm the frequency of the appearance of Drug-Resistance of Candida Species against two famous azole class drugs, clotrimazole and fluconazole.

Dixon, Dennis, and Thomas Walsh, editors. “Antifungal Agents.” Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996, chapter 76. National Library of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8263/#:~:text=The%20polyene%20antifungal%20agents%20include%20nystatin%2C %20amphotericin%20B%2C%20and%20pimaricin. 5

Ashley, Elizabeth. “Pharmacology of Azoles.” UptoDate, 15 Mar. 2022, www.uptodate.com/contents/pharmacology-of-azoles#:~:text=Azole%20antifungal%20agents%20have%20added,a nd%20the%20imidazoles%20(ketoconazole). 6

Sawyer, Phyllis R., et al. "Clotrimazole: a review of its antifungal activity and therapeutic efficacy." Drugs 9.6 (1975): 424-447. 7

Goa, Karen L., and Lee B. Barradell. "Fluconazole." Drugs 50.4 (1995): 658-690.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Materials & Methods 2.1. Materials: 2 fungi strains( Candida albicans ATCC24433)/ Candida glabrata (ATCC2001), two types of drugs(Clotrimazole, Fluconazole), YPD agar plate, YM agar plate, RPMI 1640, 3DW, MOPS(3-(N-Morpholino) propane sulfonic acid), 10M NaOH 2.2. Methods: Preparation of Candida strains The key to this experiment is that the two strains Candida albicans ATCC24433 and Candida glabrata ATCC2001 used in the experiment should grow well. If they grow up unhealthy, it can affect the result of the experiment. To achieve this key, we raised both strains to suit their respective raising environment for two days:

Candida albicans ATCC24433: YPD plate at 35°C (Fig 2.1) Candida glabrata ATCC2001: YM plate at 25°C (Fig 2.2)

Fig 2.2: Candida glabrata ATCC2001

Fig 2.1: Candida albicans ATCC24433

Media: RPMI 1640 RPMI 1640 is needed for this experiment to test the specimens that are fresh and unfixed. And, when we progress this experiment, RPMI is used for dilution before some steps, such as using UV Spectrophotometer and counting cells. Here is a procedure for creating RPMI 1640(1L): 1) Put RPMI 1640 Powder 10.4g, 3DW (890mL), and MOPS(34.53g) in the Erlenmeyer flask and blend them using a magnetic bar and stirrer 2) Using a pH meter, check the pH of the mixture in the Erlenmeyer flask and set the pH of the mixture as 7.0 by putting NaOH (Before using a pH meter, establish the standard pH value(4.0, 7.0, 10.0) in the pH meter with three pH solutions) 3) Add 3DW 60mL so that the total volume is 1L 4) Through a vacuum filter bottle system, remove all contaminants from the solution 5) Put the solution in a 4°C showcase

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) MIC Value The minimum inhibitory concentration, or MIC, is the lowest concentration of an antifungal agent expressed in mostly mg/L or ug/mL, which, under carefully monitored in vitro circumstances, entirely inhibits the test strain of an organism from exhibiting any observable growth.8 Drugs with lower MIC scores are more effective antifungal agents because they suppress the organism's development with fewer doses of the antibiotic, as shown by a lower MIC value. Here is a table9 that shows common Clotrimazole MIC values for Candida albicans and Candida glabrata(figure 2.3): Species\MIC(mg/L)

<0.008

C. albicans(61)

0.008

0.03

0.06

0.125

0.25

0.5

C. albicans(420)

C. Glabrata(38)

C. glabrata(250)11

0.015

252

But we are not going to use MIC value, but use MIC50. It is called the median MIC value and means the minimum inhibitory concentration required to inhibit the growth of 50% of organisms.12 If we vaccinate two strains with drugs with MIC concentration, drugs can kill cells at all, and we can not figure out any anti-drugs cells. Thus, we use MIC50 because MIC50 provides the so-called “intrinsic activity” of an antimicrobial.

Kowalska-Krochmal B, Dudek-Wicher R. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Antibiotics: Methods, Interpretation, Clinical Relevance. Pathogens. 2021 Feb 4;10(2):165. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10020165. PMID: 33557078; PMCID: PMC7913839. 9

Frej-0ąGU]DN 0 *ROHF 6 :áRGDUF]\N . &KRURV]\-Król I, Nawrot U. Susceptibility to Clotrimazole of Candida spp. Isolated from the Genitourinary System-A Single Center Study. Pathogens. 2021 Sep 4;10(9):1142. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10091142. PMID: 34578174; PMCID: PMC8467132. 10

Richter S.S., Galask R.P., Messer S.A., Hollis R.J., Diekema D.J., Pfaller M.A. Antifungal susceptibilities of Candida species causing vulvovaginitis and epidemiology of recurrent cases. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005;43:2155–2162. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.5.2155-2162.2005. 11

Footnote #10 and Costa C., Ribeiro J., Miranda I.M., Silva-Dias A., Cavalheiro M., Costa-de-Oliveira S., Rodrigues A.G., Teixeira M.C. Clotrimazole drug resistance in Candida glabrata clinical isolates correlates with increased expression of the drug: H (+) antiporters CgAqr1, CgTpo1_1, CgTpo3, and CgQdr2. Front. Microbiol. 2016;7:526. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00526. 12

Yamazhan, Tansu et al. “In vitro activities of various antimicrobials against Brucella melitensis strains in the Aegean region in Turkey.” Medical principles and practice : international journal of the Kuwait University, Health Science Centre vol. 14,6 (2005): 413-6. doi:10.1159/000088122

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Drug Solutions: Clotrimazole and Fluconazole We make two solutions for each drug: a solution with MIC50 and a solution with four times of original MIC50. We set MIC50 of clotrimazole as 0.03ug/mL for Candida albicans ATCC24433 and 0.5ug/mL for Candida glabrata ATCC2001; set MIC50 of fluconazole as 1.0 for Candida albicans ATCC24433 and for Candida glabrata ATCC2001. <Clotrimazole solution> Type

1Xor 4X(IC50)

Concentration( ug/mL)

0.03

Candida albicans ATCC24433 Candida albicans ATCC 24433 Candida glabrata ATCC2001

0.12

0.5

Candida glabrata ATCC2001

2.0

<Fluconazole solution> Type Candida albicans ATCC24433 & Candida glabrata ATCC2001

1Xor 4X(IC50) 1X

Concentration( ug/mL) 1.0

Candida albicans ATCC24433 & Candida glabrata ATCC2001

4.0

When we dilute original drugs, add DMSO(Diethyl Sulfoxide) to dilute for 1X and 4X solutions. To calculate the ratio between the original drug and DMSO, use this equation: Initial concentration*initial volume= Final concentration *final volume Ex) We want to make 1mL 0.012ug/mL solution by diluting 0.1ug/mL solutions. Using the equation above:

Identification of drug-resistant cells Over time, if the number goes over 10ၮ ZH FDQ VD\ WKDW WKH\ KDYH UHVLVWDQW VWUDLQV 7ZR VWUDLQ¶V ၮ DEVRUEDQFH YDOXHV DUH UHTXLUHG WR GHWHUPLQH ZKHWKHU WKH VDPSOH LV RYHU ၮ XVLQJ D 89 VSHFWURPHWHU ILJ :KHQ WKH WRWDO QXPEHU RI FHOOV LV ၮ WKH DEVRUEDQFH RI Candida albicans ATCC24433 is close to 0.3, and Candida glabrata ATCC2001 is close to 0.09~0.1. In one cap tube, there are 10mL RPMI 1640, 100uL drug solution, and 100uL Candida albicans ATCC24433 or Candida glabrata ATCC2001. Take 50mL one tube from the shaking incubator and dilute to 1/10 for the following reasons: 1mL out of 10mL in one tube is too much, and dilution helps to capture the UV absorbance into the appropriate range. Then, check absorbance through UV Spectrophotometer to confirm whether the absorbance of the sample is bigger or smaller than the absorbance value of 10ၮ FHOOV ,I WKH DEVRUEDQFH RI WKH VDPSOH LV ELJJHU WKDQ WKDW RI ၮ LW LQGLFDWHV WKDW the sample contains drug-resistant strains.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Since the experiment will take about 13 days, if the absorbance of the sample is less than 10ၮcells, put the sample in a shaking incubator and recheck it the next day; if larger, we remake a new cap tube ZLWK ၬFHOOV IURP WKH SUHYLRXV RQH P/ RI 530, DQG X/ RI WKH GUXJ together.

Figure. 2.5: Center square in the hemocytometer Count 3-4 squares out of 25 => Find mean => Mean* 25 squares* 10^4*10= Concentration (10^4= converts the count from cells per 0.1 mm^3 to cells per ml) (*10= because of dilution as 1/10)

Figure.2.4: UV Spectrophotometer

Figure. 2.6 The appearance of cells in the middle square through the hemocytometer

3. Result Table 1: Frequency of drug-resistant strains of Candida glabrata ATCC 2001 Drugs\Day

1X Fluconazole

4X Fluconazole

1X Clotrimazole

4X Clotrimazole

Absorbance of every sample of Candida glabrata ATCC 2001 is checked every day through UV 6SHFWURSKRWRPHWHU :KHQ DEVRUEDQFH LV ELJJHU WKDQ WKH DEVRUEDQFH YDOXH RI ၮ FHOOV LW LV ZULWWHQ DV O, which means enough appearance of resistant strains in the sample. And, it is written as X, which represents No or very few resistant strains appear in the sample, if the absorbance of the sample is less WKDQ WKH DEVRUEDQFH YDOXH RI ၮ FHOOV

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Table 2: Absorbance measurement of Candida albicans ATCC 24433 Drugs\Day

1X Fluconazole

0.062

0.066

0.078

0.086

0.089

0.125

0.129

4X Fluconazole

0.062

0.064

0.068

0.078

0.079

0.105

0.133

1X Clotrimazole

0.070

0.071

0.073

0.074

0.099

0.131

0.167

4X Clotrimazole

0.061

0.062

0.069

0.072

0.086

0.107

0.134

I confirmed that Candida albicans ATCC 24433 did not grow well when observed through a microscope. 1RQH RI WKH DEVRUEDQFHV RI WKH VDPSOH LV RYHU WKH DEVRUEDQFH YDOXH RI ၮ FHOOV GXULQJ -13 days. Instead, I made a different chart above to compare the absorbance of each day, so we can still see how many drug-resistant cells appear.

4. Discussion The primary purpose of this experiment was to investigate the Appearance of Drug-Resistance in Candida Species. The hypothesis was the longer they could adapt to the drug, the more and faster drug-resistant cells would emerge. According to Table 1, drug-resistant cells in Candida glabrata ATCC 2001 with Fluconazole 1X and Fluconazole 4X solutions were not confirmed until day 2, but they started to emerge on day 3( “Confirmed” means when the number of cells is over 10䈱). Since the absorbance level had exceeded the 10䈱㻌standards level every day after day 3, 10 䈯cells from the previous cap tube and drugs were added to the new cap tube every day. Its result proves that fluconazole 1X and 4X have weak drug efficacy against Candida glabrata ATCC 2001. Candida glabrata ATCC 2001 with clotrimazole 1X and 4X show a little different result. Cells grow faster and faster despite all of them being drugged during the experimental period. The cells in the clotrimazole 1X did not grow well for the first two days, but for the first time on day 3, they exceeded 10䈱. After a new replacement, the cells did not grow well for just one day but reached again 10䈱㻌 on day 5. And, from day 7, the number of them every day exceeded 10䈱. The result with the clotrimazole 4X shows a similar result: Because the drug concentration was four times higher, the cycle in which the number of cells exceeded 10䈱 decreased to three days, two days, and daily. In summary, clotrimazole drugs prevented cell growth a little better than fluconazole drugs, but both drugs made it easier for Candida glabrata to acquire resistant strains over time. Here is one limitation in the experiment about Candia albicans ATCC 24433: I confirmed that Candida albicans ATCC 24433 did not grow well when observed through a microscope. So, I guess that drugs could easily restrict the growth of drug-resistant strains. During the experimental period, the number of cells never exceeded 10䈱. So instead of counting the number of cells through a microscope, I compared the absorbance day by day to see if there were any resistant strains. The RPMI color did not change until Day 2, so I did not measure the absorbance. Between day 3 and day 7, the absorbance

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) was measured every day, but the increase per day was too slight. So after day 7, the absorbance was measured every three days. The result was astonishing because, regardless of the type and concentration of the drug, the reactions of Candida albicans to the four-drug solutions were very similar. During the experimental period, the number of cells increased little by little. Based on the absorbance value of Day 3 to Day 13, the sample with the most considerable change was the sample containing clotrimazole 1X with a difference of 0.097(0.167-0.070=0.097). The differences of the other samples are around 0.070 (Flu.1x:0.1290.062=0.067, Flu.4x:0.133-0.062=0.071, Clo.4X:0.134-0.061=0.073) Although the difference in absorbance indicating an increase is not constant from day to day, this sufficiently proves that all samples have some resistant strains. The results of this experiment show that clotrimazole and fluconazole can temporarily inhibit the growth of Candida species, but candida strains can easily gain resistance to drugs. In particular, it was found through this experiment that Candida glabrata species are remarkably easily resistant to azole-based drugs. It was also confirmed that candida albicans have sufficient ability to develop resistance to these drugs.

5. Conclusion To sum up, the widely known types of azole drugs like clotrimazole and fluconazole are not an efficient fungicidal way against Candida species. The drugs have some effect on inhibiting the growth of bacteria, but they easily become resistant over time, and their numbers continue to increase. Therefore, we need the continuous interest and research of many scientists to develop new drugs that are not only effective in killing fungi that can be harmful to the human body but also in developing new drugs that are harmless to the human body.

References [1]: Ashley, Elizabeth. “Pharmacology of Azoles.” UptoDate, 15 Mar. 2022, www.uptodate.com/contents/pharmacology-of-azoles#:~:text=Azole%20antifungal%20agents%20have% 20added,and%20the%20imidazoles%20(ketoconazole). [2]: Berman, J. (2012). Candida albicans. Current Biology, 22(16), 620–622. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(12)00630-6.pdf [3]: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "fungus summary". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Apr. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/summary/fungus. Accessed 18 August 2022. [4]: Costa C., Ribeiro J., Miranda I.M., Silva-Dias A., Cavalheiro M., Costa-de-Oliveira S., Rodrigues A.G., Teixeira M.C. Clotrimazole drug resistance in Candida glabrata clinical isolates correlates with increased expression of the drug: H (+) antiporters CgAqr1, CgTpo1_1, CgTpo3, and CgQdr2. Front. Microbiol. 2016;7:526. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00526. [5]: Dixon, Dennis, and Thomas Walsh, editors. “Antifungal Agents.” Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996, chapter 76. National Library of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8263/#:~:text=The%20polyene%20antifungal%20agents%20include %20nystatin%2C%20amphotericin%20B%2C%20and%20pimaricin.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [6]: Goa, Karen L., and Lee B. Barradell. "Fluconazole." Drugs 50.4 (1995): 658-690. [7]: Guinea, J. (2014, June 1). Global trends in the distribution of Candida species causing candidemia. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. Retrieved August 22, 2022, from https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/cookieAbsent [8]: Kowalska-Krochmal B, Dudek-Wicher R. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Antibiotics: Methods, Interpretation, Clinical Relevance. Pathogens. 2021 Feb 4;10(2):165. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10020165. PMID: 33557078; PMCID: PMC7913839. [9]: Richter S.S., Galask R.P., Messer S.A., Hollis R.J., Diekema D.J., Pfaller M.A. Antifungal susceptibilities of Candida species causing vulvovaginitis and epidemiology of recurrent cases. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005;43:2155–2162. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.5.2155-2162.2005. [10]: Sawyer, Phyllis R., et al. "Clotrimazole: a review of its antifungal activity and therapeutic efficacy." Drugs 9.6 (1975): 424-447. [11]: Wu, Bing, et al. "Current insights into fungal species diversity and perspective on naming the environmental DNA sequences of fungi." Mycology 10.3 (2019): 127-140.

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Correlation Between Particulate Matter Concentration and Distribution of Disease Progression among the Residents in Bucheon City, South Korea Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Julianne

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

Particulate matter in the form of solid or liquid droplets has the potential to cause severe damage to human health. It has previously been reported that these fine particles are responsible for progression of certain respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. This paper investigated the relationship between particulate matter exposure and disease progression among the residents of Bucheon city. Total 150 participants answered the questionnaire on progression of neurological, cardiovascular, and respiratory diseases. The results were compared to that of the control group - the residents of Gyeongbuk. It was found that there is a direct relationship between the period of exposure and progression of these diseases. The longer the period of exposure is, the more the effect from this exposure is felt by the lungs and other organs as there are more people with respiratory and other related diseases. The effects to the cardiovascular system were also evident with the number of people living with related conditions. The neurological effects seemed small initially but become more evident after a long-term exposure, mainly among senior citizens. However, the neurological results may be inconclusive since various factors may be responsible. Thus, further in-vitro and in-vivo experiments should be carried out to generate conclusive results on this matter. The results also map an established pathway through which particulate matters are transported into our bodies. Majority of the cases were respiratory; this proves that particles enter our bodies through the respiratory system via which they are transported to the circulatory system during gaseous exchange. The circulatory system then transports them through the heart and eventually to other parts of the body. Further research should be carried out to investigate their effect on the liver and the kidneys since they are major organs of the excretory system.

Keywords: Particulate matter (PM), disease progression, oxidative stress, inflammation

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) INTRODUCTION South Korea is exposed to massive amounts of dust throughout the year [1-2], which is called particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter is any material suspended in air in the form of minute solids or liquid droplets [3]. It is mixed in a heterogeneous manner with varying chemical composition and size. Particulate matter is classified in terms of the size, being distinguished by the diameter [4, 5]. There is a particular range of diameter that has potential negative effects on human health: 2.5 -10 μm [6-7]. PM2.5, the minimum diameter, is mainly generated by fuel combustion from power plants or oil refineries, mainly traffic and industrial [10- 11]. Moreover, PM10, the maximum diameter, is a result of particulates from agricultural dust, construction sites, wildfires, tire wear emissions and more [8-9]. Particulate matter with a small radius is believed to pass through the environment into our bodies and therefore lead to progression of various diseases [12-13]. Most fine particulates enter our bodies through the respiratory system along with air as we breathe in. Some will accumulate in the lungs causing inflammation and other related diseases, while others are fine enough to pass through the alveoli into the bloodstream through the pulmonary vein [14-15], then into the heart where some become localized or be pumped to other body parts along with oxygenated blood through the aorta. The next possible areas of infection include the brain, liver, kidneys and other organs. Particulate matter can affect the organs in the body both directly and indirectly. When the ultrafine particles enter the body through the lungs, they can accumulate in the organs causing direct effect as well as indirect effect by induction to inflammation and oxidative stress which damages the proteins and tissues [16-17]. For prevention, numerous researchers have expressed interest in finding out more pathways through which these fine particulates affect our health. There were more conclusive results that have been reached with respiratory and cardiovascular related conditions [18-20]. However, still not much is known, concerning how these particulates will affect other cells like neurons and if there will be a relationship between exposure to particulates and neurodegeneration.

233

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The purpose of this research is to establish a link and draw conclusions on the relationship between exposure to particulates and disease progression among residents in Bucheon city. The research was carried out around the Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon St. Mary’s hospital. Certain location was chosen as it is located in an area that has moderately high particulates.

METHODOLOGY In order to compare the size, composition, and distribution of particulate matter in Bucheon city, South Korea and Gyeongbuk, South Korea, the data of minimum and maximum concentrations of each particulate matter or gas was acquired from South Air Korea Environment Corporation. Questionnaires were used to collect data around the Catholic University of Korea Bucheon St. Mary’s hospital to assess how particulate matter exposure affected the health of individuals. Assessed types of diseases were respiratory, cardiovascular and neurological. The participants were 50 volunteers each from age groups of 0-15, 16-59 and those above 59 years, having 150 in total. The age groups were initially divided into 4 groups with the age range of 20 per age group, but was manipulated into current intervals after the data collection for better and more clear interpretation of results as disease progression is dependent on age. Disease progression among different genders was also assessed using the 16-59 age groups to find out if the gender of an individual influenced the results. Data collection for the questionnaire-based research was carried out over a period of 2 weeks, and the results were averaged and analyzed to establish the relationship. 150 people participated in the research. As a control group, data was collected from Gyeongbuk that has low fine particulate concentration, and the results were compared with those from Bucheon city.

RESULTS The minimum and maximum concentrations of each gas composition - PM2.5, PM10, O3, NO2, SO2, and CO - in both Bucheon city and Gyeongbuk are analyzed into the tables (see Table 1 and Table 2). The results from questionnaires on disease progression at Bucheon City (see Graph 1) and Gyeongbuk (see Graph 2) are analyzed as the graph. ‘Prism 9 - Graphpad’ was used to draw the graph and conduct statistical analysis on two-way ANOVA. As there were two groups of variables which are age groups and types of disease, two-way ANOVA was used to investigate the significance of correlation between the age groups, types of disease, and the number of sufferers from the certain type of disease. Results from Table 1 were considered to be statistically significant when P ZKLOH UHVXOWV IURP Table 2 were found to be statistically insignificant, having P > 0.05. Additional comparisons of the number of sufferers by gender and by age group among the female participants aged between 16-59 are also shown through the tables below (see Table 3 and Table 4).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Minimum and maximum concentrations of each gas composition in Bucheon city Particulate Matter & Toxic Minimum Concentration (AQI) Maximum Concentration (AQI) Gases PM2.5 17 137 PM10 16 68 O3 2 41 NO2 17 75 SO2 4 7 CO 3 6 <Table 1. Table of minimum and maximum concentration of each size of particulate matter and toxic gases in Bucheon city> Minimum and maximum concentrations of each gas composition in Gyeongbuk Particulate Matter & Toxic Gases PM2.5

Minimum Concentration (AQI) Maximum Concentration (AQI) 5

PM10

NO2

SO2

CO 1 1 <Table 2. Table of minimum and maximum concentration of each size of particulate matter and toxic gases in Gyeongbuk>

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626)

<Graph 2. Graph representing the number of people who responded to have certain type of disease due to the exposure to particulate matter per age groups in Gyeongbuk> Number of Sufferer from Each Type of Diseases in Each Gender (Age Range: 16-59) Gender

Neurological

Cardiovascular

Respiratory

Female

Male

<Table 3. Table of number of people who suffered from neurological, cardiovascular, or respiratory disease in each gender in Bucheon city, within the age group 16-59> Number of Sufferer from Each Type of Diseases among Different Age Groups of Female Gender

Neurological

Cardiovascular

Respiratory

16 - 25

26 - 39

40 - 59

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) DISCUSSION Table 1 shows toxic gas composition including particulate matter with different sizes around Bucheon city. The presence of ultrafine particles of diameter 2.5μm shows that the air particulates are small enough to penetrate the mucous membrane and enter the circulatory system where they can be transported to organs to cause damage and disease progression. The table shows that toxic gases such as O3, NO2 and SO2 are present as well, which enter the respiratory system and damage organ tissues. Table 2 shows toxic gas composition including particulate matter with different sizes around Gyeongbuk. Presence of fine particulate - PM2.5 - but in lower concentration shows that even if the particles enter through the respiratory system, the damage caused is lower in comparison to that in Table 1. Also, there are low concentrations of other toxic particles like O3, NO2 and SO2 as compared to Bucheon city. Hence it could be interpreted as less damage is experienced by these particles in Gyeongbuk compared to Bucheon City. Graph 1 shows the effect of the length of particulate matter exposure in Bucheon city. From the results, it is evident that as the age goes up, there is a significant increase in the number of patients affected by neurological and cardiovascular diseases. This is proof that with increase in the time of exposure, neurological and cardiovascular conditions become more pronounced. The respiratory disease followed a similar trend, but their variation was not as significant as that in the previous two conditions. Graph 2 shows the effect of the length of particulate matter exposure in Gyeong-buk. Since the particulate concentration in this area is lower, the number of patients who suffered or are suffering from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases seems lower compared to those in Bucheon city. This supported the conclusion that disease progression is dependent on concentration of the particulates. As well as the results from Bucheon city, the cases of neurological diseases increase along the age groups even at lower concentration of particulates. This solidifies the finding from Graph 1 that progression is dependent on period of exposure. However, in contrast to the neurological disease, though lowest cases were found in children for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, the number of sufferers peaked at the age group from 16-59. This disobeys the result from Graph 1 that progression is dependent on period of exposure, while still supporting the result within the age range of 0-59. Table 3 and Table 4 show the effect of gender on particulate matter induced disease progression. By breaking the data of the most active age group (16-59) that is prone to have more exposure into female and male data, it was evident that long-term exposure showed increased cases of diseases, especially in cardiovascular conditions, mainly among postmenopausal women as compared to males and the premenopausal women. This calls for an extended research to find out what triggers the increase in of cardiovascular related diseases among postmenopausal women exposed to particulate matter for a long time.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) CONCLUSION Particulate matter affects mainly the cardiovascular and respiratory systems compared to other parts of the body because these systems house the organs that are the first recipients of the particles as they enter the body. The two systems are directly or indirectly affected by these particles leading to disease progression and mortality. To add from the research results, it is evident that senior citizens who reside in areas with more concentration of these particulates are more prone to neurological diseases than those in areas of low concentration as well. Also, postmenopausal women showed largest increase in cases of cardiovascular diseases if they reside in highly polluted areas. However, these results need accompanying in-vitro and in-vivo experimentation to draw better conclusions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Dr. Nabweteme Reginah for her guidance during this research and manuscript writing.

REFERENCES [1] T. Nam, T. Nguyen, K.S. Jung, J.M. Son, H.O. Kwon and S.D. Choi, Seasonal variation, phase distribution, and source identification of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a semirural site in Ulsan, South Korea, Environmental pollution, 236 (2018) 529-539. [2] H.C. Kim, S.T. Kim, B. Kim, C.S. Jin, S. Hong, R. Park, S.W. Son, S.H. Bae, M.A. Bae, C.H. Song and A. Stein, Recent increase of surface particulate matter concentrations in the Seoul metropolitan area, Korea, Scientific reports, 7 (2017) 4710. [3] J.I. Levy, J.E. Clougherty, L.I. Baxter, E.A. Houseman and C.J. Paciorek, Evaluating heterogeneity in indoor and outdoor air pollution using land-use regression and constrained factor analysis, Research report (Health effects institute) 152 (2010) 5-80. [4] J. Zhao, M. Liu, L. Liang, W. Wang and J. Xie, Airborne particulate matter classification and concentration detection based on 3D printed virtual impactor and quartz crystal microbalance, Sensors and actuators A: physical, 238 (2016) 379-388. [5] W. Schumacher, M. Kuhnert, P. Rosch and J. Popp, identification and classification of organic and inorganic components of particulate matter via Raman spectroscopy and chemometric approaches. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 42 (2011) 383-392. [6] G.H. Hwang, J.Y. Lee, S.M. Yi and H. Kim, Associations of particulate matter and its components with emergency room visits for cardiovascular and respiratory disease. PlosOne, August 15. 2017. [7] K.H. Kim, E. Kabir and S. Kabir, A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter, Environmental International, 74 (2015) 136-143. [8] J.S. Lighty, J.M. Veranth and A.E. Sarofim, Combustion aerosols. Factors governing their size and composition, and implications to human health, Journal of the air and waste management association, 50 (2000) 1619-1622

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [9] A.W. Gertler, J.A. Gillies, W.R. Pierson, C.F. Rogers, J.C. Saebiel, M. Abu-Allaban, W. Coulombe, L. Tarnay and T.A. Cahill, Real-world particulate matter and gaseous emissions from motor vehicles in a highway tunnel, Research report ( Health effects institute) 107 (2002) 79-92. [10] Marko Vallius, Characteristics and sources of fine particulate matter in urban air, National Public Health Institute, Kuopio Finland 2005. [11] R. Zhang, G. Wang, S. Gao, M. Zamora, Q. Ying, Y. Lin, W. Wang, M. Hu and Y. Wang, Formation of urban fine particulate matter, Chemical reviews, 115 3803-3855. [12] Y.F. Xing, Y.H. Xu, M.H. Shi and Y.X. Lian, The impact of PM2.5 on the human respiratory system, Journal of thoracic disease, 8 (2016) 69-74 [13] M.S. Peixoto, M.F. Gavao and S.R. Batistuzzo, Cell death pathwats of particulate matter toxicity, Chemosphere 18 (2018) 456-470 [14] X. Rao, J. Zhang, R.D. Brook and S. Rajagopalan, Effect of particulate matter air pollution on cardiovascular oxidative stress pathways, Antioxidants and redox signaling, 28. 9. [15] X. Zhang, J. Kang, H. Chen, m. Yao and J. Wang, PM2.5 meets blood: In vivo damages and immune defenses, Aerosol and air quality research, 18 (2018) 245-470 [16] R.W. He, F. Shirmohammadi, M.E. Gerlofs, C. Sioutas and F.R. Cassee, Pro- inflammatory responses to PM2.5 from airport and urban emissions, The science of the total environment, 1 (2018) 640-641. [17] L. Pison, P. Moller and S. Loft, Oxidative stress-induced DNA damage by particulate air pollution, Mutation Research/ Fundamental mechanisms of mutagenesis, 459 (2005) 119- 137. [18] R. Chen, B. Hu, Y. Liu, J. Xu, G, Yang, X. Xu and C. Chen, Beyond PM2.5. The role of ultrafine particles on adverse health effects of air pollution. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) General subjects, 1860 (2016) 2844-2855. [19] M. Miri, A. Alhabadi, M.H. Ehrampush, A. Rad, M.H. Lofti, M.H. Sheikha and M.J.Z. Sakhridi, Mortality and morbidity due to exposure to ambient particulate matter, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 165 (2018) 307-313. [20] C. Han, Y. Lim, K. Jung and Y. Hong, Association between ambient particulate matter and disorders of vestibular function, Environmental research 155 (2017) 242-248

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Alternate Approach to GAN Model for Colorization of Grayscale Images: deeper UNet + GAN Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Seunghyun

Korea Minjok Leadership Academy

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Image colorization refers to applying appropriate colors in a given grayscale image, such that the viewer can accept the results as close to reality. By analyzing existing colorization algorithms based on AutoEncoder and VGG-16, this paper showed that they are not able to provide an accurate result in most cases, and are inefficient in terms of computation time. In contrast to these models, we suggested a new model developed from an established GAN model. By reforming the generator part and adding 1x1 convolutional layers based on VGG-11, we were able to create a deeper model where we could also apply nonlinear functions such as ReLU, and LeakyReLU. Comparing the results printed by our new model and the conventional model, we proved that our model produced better results in terms of the accuracy and clarity of colors and computation time. However, there is still room for further research in which one can investigate the optimal number of convolution layers and depth that maximizes accuracy and minimizes computation time. Still, this research holds value in that it successfully provides an alternate algorithm with better performance, and opens a path toward further development for colorization algorithms.

Keywords: Colorization, Deep Learning, GAN, CNN, U-Net, Autoencoder

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Background Image colorization refers to when the input is a grayscale photo and the objective is to set a natural, appropriate color to the photo as an output. As grayscale information does not guarantee what color is appropriate for a certain section of the given photo, we use color information from typically colored photos to construct an algorithm that determines a plausible color for the grayscale photo. Due to the ambiguity of the problem, it is yet to be perfectly solved, nor does it have a definitive approach towards the solution. Apart from just colorizing the given photo, the two crucial factors of this research are to 1) determine a color that seems natural for any viewers, 2) use a wide variety of colors to capture significant details. These factors serve to make this problem even more challenging, as it has to be achieved without clear criteria to determine the accuracy of the output. The evaluation of the algorithm’s accuracy is entirely dependent on the satisfaction of the human viewers, who will use their experiences to determine whether the colorization has been done naturally. Thus, although we have a method to determine the accuracy, the method requires extensive effort and is difficult to guarantee objectiveness [1]. 1.2. Purpose This research aims to construct a new image colorization program. Colorization programs that already exist involve deep learning, shown in figure 1 (as a means of gathering immense data), which opens various methods upon which the program can be established upon. Thus, this research will investigate which model is able to provide an algorithm with lower computation speed and high resolution. Accuracy is another aspect to be focused on in this research. Existing colorization programs suffer from low accuracy in their output due to the existence of “outlier” photos. For example, a grayscale photo of an exotic-colored flower such as orange would be colorized as relatively red or pink, since the algorithm mostly gathers data on the typical color of a flower. In this research, typical methods were utilized- CNN-based U-net, Autoencoder, GAN - and compare these methods in terms of time efficiency and accuracy. This will show the limitations of the currently available colorization algorithms. A new algorithm based on the original GAN model will be suggested, and compare the results with the original algorithm to see how much the algorithm has improved. The rest of the paper proceeds as follows: firstly, in the related work section, we introduce several previous kinds of research related to our topic. Then, in the material and methods section, some deep learning models and datasets were introduced. In the results section, the experimental results, especially the generated photos from the proposed model were exhibited. In the discussion section, the principal finding of our research, real-life usage of this finding, and future research were covered. Lastly, we summarize those sections mentioned above in the conclusion section.

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Fig. 1. The architecture of deep neural networks consists of three hidden layers

2. Related Work Kinani et al. used the DIV2K data set, from the NTIRE image coloring challenge. The dataset includes 1000 color images of 2K resolution, 800 of them being training images for the algorithm, another 100 being validation images, and the rest of the 100 being test images. For training, they used the VGG19 model, a convolutional neural network(CNN) that is pre-trained with a large dataset and consists of 19 layers. They also produced the tested results and compared with original photos to show the accuracy of the result visually. However, they failed to provide a detailed analysis on their result’s accuracy. Although they define the PSNR index to represent accuracy numerically, they do not provide insights to the linkage between the index value and the actual accuracy, making it difficult to interpret the accuracy from the index itself. Although the team presents their program as the second most accurate program out of the other DIV2K dataset programs, they still fail to maintain high accuracy in the “outlier” photos which hold completely different colors from the colorized image [2]. An et al. used the VGG-16 as a basic reference but mainly trained on ImageNet in order to learn a variety of colors. They provide a more detailed function that expresses the accuracy of the result. They also use it to provide an objective standard for evaluating the accuracy of each colorization algorithm, which they apply to compare their algorithm with other prominent algorithms. They conclude that Zhang et al. resulted with the greatest per-pixel RMSE [3]. Shankar et al. used Inception ResNet V2, a pre-trained model that Google publicly released, as the basis of their model, and a fusion layer to train the model further and gain a closer, required output. Then they used it as an example to measure the algorithm’s performance in terms of the degree of error. They also defined an error function and applied it to find the optimal number of epochs and steps per epoch [4]. Varga et al. referred mainly to images in SUN database and other images too. They used VGG- 16 and a two-stage CNN as their model. They differ from other researches in that they established a two-stage algorithm based on CNN that predicts the U and V channels of the input. They also relied on Quaternion Structural Similarity (QSSIM) as a base for evaluating the accuracy of colorization. They provide reasons as to why they chose QSSIM, and quantitative analysis using QSSIM. Three different experiments were carried out to compare each model. The first one is utilizing autoencoder-based

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) convolution, while the second and third ones are vgg16 based U-net, and our proposed model, respectively [5]

3. Methods and Materials 3.1. Data Description This study used a dataset of approximately 14,300 image files consisting of photos portraying streets, mountains, buildings, glaciers, trees, etc. Each image exists in two versions: a colored version and a grayscale version. Using this data, we train our algorithm to accurately estimate the colored version from a given grayscale image. The dataset is gathered from the Kaggle website, which can be accessed via https://www.kaggle.com/theblackmamba31/landscape- image-colorization. The figures, which are demonstrated in figure 2 show the sample images(color, and grayscale) from the given dataset [6].

Fig. 2. Examples of the image datasets gathered from the Kaggle website 3.2. CNN A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a popular deep neural network, which consists of multiple layers to perceive patterns within large amounts of data. Layers include the convolutional layer, nonlinearity layer, pooling layer, and fully-connected layer. Convolutional and non-linearity layers have

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) parameters, while pooling and fully-connected layers do not have any parameters. The convolution layer conducts convolution operations in order to extract the features from the input images, and then the pooling layer resizes the output from the convolutional layer [7]. Lastly, the fully-connected layer is used to add a certain layer for better performance and classification [8] , and these procedures are described in figure 3.

Fig. 3. The general architecture of convolutional neural networks 3.3. Autoencoder An Autoencoder(AE) belongs to the unsupervised learning in a machine learning criteria and is mainly used for the noise reduction for the given dataset [9]. Unsupervised learning utilizes a dataset that does not contain any label, and this is a significant difference compared to supervised learning [10]. AE mainly consists of an encoder and a decoder, and it simply compresses the input data into a lowerdimensional one through the encoder and reconstructs it via the decoder [9]. The convolutional autoencoder is used for the image dataset, and it adds a convolution operation from the normal autoencoder, as described in figure 4 [11].

Fig. 4. The general architecture of an autoencoder consists of an encoder and decoder

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.4. Proposed Model Unlike previous research, we propose a novel approach based on the GAN(Generative adversarial network). The GAN model consists of the generator, and discriminative part respectively. The generator generates the synthetic data based on the probability distribution of the given data, and the discriminator decides whether the generated data is genuine or not. In previous research, the authors suggested a model which has similar architecture to the GAN model. They utilized the U-net architecture, Patch GAN as a generator and discriminator, respectively [12]. However, we propose a new model, which is based on asymmetry U-net architecture. The origin U-net network has a symmetry architecture, which is similar to the autoencoder. However, we tried to construct a deeper deep model than the previous research, in order to attain better performance. Therefore, for the encoder parts in the U-net, we added a 1x1 convolution layer before every single encoding layer. The 1x1 convolution layer is mainly used for reducing a computation, and it is a principal background of the GoogLeNet, presented by Google [13]. Through this approach, we could add non-linearity to our encoder layers with activation functions, rectified linear activation function(ReLu), and leaky ReLu. The mathematical expression of the ReLu function is ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬0 (݂‫ݔ ݎ݋‬ < 0), ‫ => ݔ ݎ݋݂( ݔ‬0) while the leaky Relu’s expression is ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬0.01‫ < ݔ ݎ݋݂( ݔ‬0), ‫ => ݔ ݎ݋݂( ݔ‬0) . Main difference between those functions is that leaky ReLu could prevent to prevent the value from converging to zero. These activation functions are dscribed in figure 5. In collaboration with asymmetry architecture, we successfully constructed a deeper model, while reducing the total number of parameters, which could efficiently decrease the computation time and memory. In other words, previous approaches utilized a lot of memory for both GPU and RAM, which made it difficult to apply the model in relatively simple environments such as Colab. Furthermore, with using a lot of memories, applying the colorization techniques in a mobile environment would be tough.

Fig. 5. Visualization of two non-linear activation functions: leaky ReLu, and ReLu Our proposed model mainly consists of two parts: generator and discriminator, which is quite similar to other GAN models. The encoder part utilizes asymmetry U-net architecture which has the same architecture as the VGG11, and the PatchGAN was utilized for the decoder part. As the PatchGAN utilizes a patch unit for determining the authenticity of the generated image, it is far more effective in colorization compared to the original GAN model. The overall process could be found in figure 6.

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Fig. 6. The overall architecture of the proposed model: a deeper VGG 11 for the generator and patch GAN for the discriminator: the generator produces fake images, and the discriminator decides whether the input images are fake or not.

4. Result 4.1. AutoEncoder based approach The below figures, figure 7 present more predicted images produced by this algorithm. These images are based on the test cases used for our improved algorithm, and the results are an evident failure, being a nearly grayscale image. It is questionable whether these images are really colorized. In the below section, we will reexamine these test cases, and see how the results are improved in our newly constructed algorithm.

Fig. 7. Colorization results from the autoencoder based approach 4.2. U-Net(VGG16) based approach The below figures (figure 8) are also predicted images produced by this code. Notice that these images are identical to the images used to test our improved code below. Comparing the results, we see a clear distinction between the first and the third test case. Results from this algorithm are overall monotone in color, and are distinct from the actual color image, while the improved algorithms provide a more vivid colorization of the grayscale images. The second test case turns out to be almost similar for both algorithms, but notice that the improved algorithm provides a clearer colorization compared to the above results.

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Fig. 8. Colorization results from the U-Net(VGG 16) based approach 4.3. Proposed Model The below figures (figure 9) present three test cases and compare grayscale images with their color image and their predicted image printed by the algorithm. All three results are evidently similar to the actual color image in terms of the overall color. There are detailed parts where the colors are different, but we take credit in that distinct objects such as the sky, computer, the desk has nearly accurate colors. Also, referring to the results of these test cases via the two previously examined algorithms, we clearly see that the results via this algorithm are more accurate. Even though huge amounts of the datasets were utilized for evaluating our model, we chose those three different pictures because we believed those images were quite hard to colorize. For instance, the photo of the pizza and the third image contain diverse colors and the divider boundary of each object was complicated. Furthermore, for the second image, the gradation of the sky was difficult to depict, so for those reseasons, these three images were chosen for the representations of our results. In addition to the performance of colorization, the proposed model was much better than other models in terms of the time required. For other models, training in the same environment took almost an hour, but for the proposed model, it took less than 20 minutes.

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Fig. 9. Colorization results from the proposed algorithm

5. Discussion 5.1. Principal Finding In this research, we examined the typical methods used by the colorization algorithm: autoencoder and CNN-based U-net. We tested these algorithms by using sample data to compare the color image and the predicted image produced by the algorithm. As a result, we found that the conventional algorithms lacked accuracy in the majority of the test cases. This research also suggested a new model by improving the traditional GAN model. This method turned out to produce better-predicted images than the previously examined algorithms, and we concluded that the GAN model can be made more accurate with less memory usage(RAM, GPU) and computation time. 5.2. Real-Life Usage and Application The usage of this research links to the usage of the colorization algorithm itself. In the status quo, colorization is already used to reinforce research in fields like history. For example, we can restore the color of gray photos taken in the 19th Century, and help find further resources within the photos. It can also let viewers capture the scene more realistically. 5.3. Future Research The topic of colorization still has room for further research. Colorization algorithms can be improved in terms of time complexity and especially accuracy. To achieve the ideal colorization algorithm which maintains a sufficient level of accuracy, future research will have to be focused on finding the adaptive deep learning technique or model that maximizes the accuracy of the results.

6. Conclusion This research proposed an alternate colorization algorithm, which was developed upon the conventional GAN model. We reformed the generator part of the original GAN model, which was based on the unit model of VGG11, by adding convolution layers to the symmetric unit model. This led us to create a deeper model and use nonlinear functions like the ReLU function. As a result, the number of parameters involved in the algorithm was reduced, and the computation time was shortened. By comparing the results formed by the original algorithm and the reformed algorithm, we also confirmed that our algorithm had greater accuracy, in terms of the plausibility of the colorization.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References 1. 2. 3.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

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Zhang, R., Isola, P., & Efros, A. A. Colorful Image Colorization. Computer Vision – ECCV 2016, pp. 649–666 (2016). Kiani, L., Saeed, M., & Nezamabadi-Pour, H. Image Colorization Using a Deep Transfer Learning. 2020 8th Iranian Joint Congress on Fuzzy and Intelligent Systems (CFIS) (2020). An, J., Gagnon, K. K., Shi, Q., Xie, H., & Cao, R. Image Colorization with Convolutional Neural Networks. 2019 12th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing, BioMedical Engineering and Informatics (CISP-BMEI) (2019). Shankar, R., Mahesh, G., Murthy, K. V. S. S., & Ravibabu, D. A Novel approach for Gray Scale Image Colorization using Convolutional Neural Networks. 2020 International Conference on System, Computation, Automation and Networking (ICSCAN) (2020). Varga, D., & Sziranyi, T. Fully automatic image colorization based on Convolutional Neural Network. 2016 23rd International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR). (2016). Kaggle. https://www.kaggle.com/theblackmamba31/landscape-image-colorization, last accessed 2022/1/23 Joo, H., Choi, H., Yun, C., & Cheon, M. Efficient Network Traffic Classification and Visualizing Abnormal Part Via Hybrid Deep Learning Approach : Xception + Bidirectional GRU. Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology, pp. 1–10 (2022). Albawi, S., Mohammed, T. A., & Al-Zawi, S. Understanding of a convolutional neural network. 2017 International Conference on Engineering and Technology (ICET) (2017).. Badino, L., Canevari, C., Fadiga, L., & Metta, G. An auto-encoder based approach to unsupervised learning of subword units. 2014 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics (2014). Ye, M., Ma, A. J., Zheng, L., Li, J., & Yuen, P. C. Dynamic label graph matching for unsupervised video re-identification. In Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on computer vision, pp. 5142-5150 2017). Seyfioglu, M. S., Ozbayoglu, A. M., & Gurbuz, S. Z. Deep convolutional autoencoder for radarbased classification of similar aided and unaided human activities. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, 54(4), pp. 1709–1723 (2018). Ren, H., Li, J., & Gao, N. Two-Stage Sketch Colorization With Color Parsing. IEEE Access, 8, pp. 44599–44610 (2020). Szegedy, C., Liu, W., Jia, Y., Sermanet, P., Reed, S., Anguelov, D., ... & Rabinovich, A. Going deeper with convolutions. In Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition pp. 1-9 (2015).

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Application of Gene Therapy for Reversing Tcell Dysfunction in Cancer Author 1

Full Name

Lee, SuhHyun

Yongsan International School of Seoul

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: T cells are the key players of antitumor function that sense antigens produced by tumor cells and specifically target cancer cells to induce cell death. Therefore, it is widely understood that T cells are critical for cancer immunotherapy. Many recent studies discovered that T cells enter a dysfunctional or inactivated state. Cancer cells induce functional impairment of T cells by sustained expression of inhibitory receptors in T cells. Therefore, reversing T-cell dysfunction is critical for increasing the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. In this research, we analyzed the cellular inhibition and activation of T cells using two cell line models: Jurkat (T cells) and MDAMB-231 (breast cancer cells). We hypothesized that the knockdown of T-cell inhibition-causing genes might reverse the T-cell dysfunction caused by cancer cells. Therefore, we targeted Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 1 (PCSK1) gene in T cells and programmed death-ligand 1 (CD274) in cancer cells. We used small interference RNA (siRNA) to knock down the target gene. We used four μg/ml of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to activate Jurkat cells. MDA-MB-231 co-culture with Jurkat cells reduced IL-2 expression level on Jurkat cells. We found that siRNA targeting CD274 in MDA-MB-231 reversed the reduced IL-2 expression level on Jurkat induced by Jurkat and MDA-MB-231 co-culture. Also, when the PCSK1 knockdown Jurkat cells and CD274 knockdown MDA-MB-231 were co-cultured, the most effective recovery of IL-2 expression level in Jurkat cells was observed. Overall, this study provides a novel strategy for reactivating T cells whose activation has been suppressed from cancer cells.

Keywords: T-cell; Cancer Treatment, Immunotherapy, T-cell Exhaustion; T-cell Dysfunction

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Cancer immunotherapy is a method of cancer treatment in which doctors utilize the body’s immune systems to fight against the cancer cells (1). The main cells used in cancer immunotherapy are T cells (2). T cells play a major role in the human immune system as they attack foreign substances, mainly cancer, and fight against them. In order to do so, they use their receptors to detect and react to antigens related to various tumor cells (3). For example, immunotherapy in which scientists conduct adoptive cell transfers of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), endogenous peripheral blood-derived T cells (ETC), and chimeric antigen receptor-engineered T cells (CAR-T) are undergoing rapid development (4). Likewise, immunotherapy using T cells has shown great promise and has the potential to contribute to the cure of cancer. Although immunotherapy using T cells has shown great possibilities, the research also includes challenges (5). One major challenge to T-cell immunotherapy is that the T cells when with cancer cells, are inactivated (6). Unlike the ideal response in which T cells recognize and respond to the tumor cells, they are inhibited and unable to defend the body against the rapid growth of tumor cells. Previous research points to the fact that cancer cells inhibit T-cell activity and disable them as a response to the T-cell defense mechanism (7). More specifically, cancer cells contain inhibitory receptors such as PD1, TIM-3, and LAG-3 that are directly related to the dysfunction of T cells in the tumor microenvironment (8). In short, the inhibitory receptors of tumor cells disable T-cell activity, thus preventing the T cell from activating its host defense mechanism. LPS, also known as lipopolysaccharides, are molecules in gram-negative bacteria. According to previous research, it was shown that LPS has the ability to activate T cells. When LPS binds to Tolllike receptor 4 (TLR4), it initiates a signal transduction pathway that leads to the stimulation of T cells (9). Thus, we used LPS to activate the T cells in this experiment. To check whether or not the T cells were activated, we measured the IL-2, which stands for interleukin2 expression levels. IL-2 is a pleiotropic cytokine that aids in the control of the immune system by regulating white blood cell activities. This is because other research papers had pointed to the positive correlation between the expression levels of IL-2 and T-cell activation: the higher the IL-2 expression levels, the greater the activation level of T cells (10). Moreover, in this experiment, we included the MCF7 and the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. These cell lines were cell lines that, according to past research articles, showed the most inhibition in T cells (11). These cell lines were used to ensure the inhibiting effects of the cancer cells on the T cells and validate the reactivating effects of the treatment on the T cells. We hypothesized that the knockdown of T-cell inhibition-causing genes might reverse the T- cell dysfunction caused by cancer cells. To reactivate T cells, we first searched for genes that activate the immunosuppressive response of T cells. In the breast cancer cell (MDA-MB-231), we selected the &' JHQH WKDW LQDFWLYDWHV WKH 7 FHOO $ SUHYLRXV VWXG\ LQGLFDWHG WKDW 3'ဩ/ &' H[SUHVVLRQ levels on tumor cells affect their immunosuppressive activity (11). Additionally, in the T cell (Jurkat), we selected the LAG-3 (PSK1), which is expressed on inhibited CD4+ and CD8+ tumor-infiltrating T cells that are defective in cytokine production (12). In detail, PCSK1 is a gene known for encoding the proprotein convertase 1, while CD274 encodes the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). Proprotein convertase 1 is a protease that processes protein and peptide precursors transported through various branches of the secretory pathway. On the other hand, PD-L1 is an immune inhibitory receptor ligand in various types of cells, including T cells and cancer cells (11). We hypothesize that siRNA targeting PCSK1 and CD274 will reverse the inactivated T cells to an activated state. Since cancer cells inhibit T-cell activity, if the T cells are reversed to normal through gene therapy, then the T cells would become effective once again, fighting cancer cells. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to reverse the T cells back to an activated state and possibly provide a method of treatment for cancer by inhibiting proprotein convertases (PCSK1) in T cells and programmed deathligand 1 (CD274) in cancer cells. Overall, IL-2 expression level in T cells showed that targeting both genes using siRNA showed the most significant T-cell activating effect compared to the individual treatment.

2. Results

Figure 1. LPS treatment activated Jurkat (T cells), and MDA-MB-231 (Breast cancer cells) reversed the LPS-dependent Jurkat cell activation. (A) Agarose gel electrophoresis image of amplified IL-2 and GAPDH cDNA. (B) A bar graph representing the mean and standard deviation of normalized IL-2 expression level. Quantification of IL-2 expression level was normalized by GAPDH expression level (n = 3). One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test, p < 0.001 (***), p < 0.05 (*). The main purpose of this experiment was to experimentally demonstrate Jurkat (T cell) activation by LPS (lipopolysaccharide, E. coli cultured). Furthermore, the experiment was also designed in order to inactivate the T cells within breast cancer cells. There were six independent variables: a control group (with no treatment), LPS (1, 2, 4 μg/ml), LPS (4 μg/ml) + MCF7, and LPS (4 μg/ml) + MDA-MB-231 (Figure 1A). The results of the experiments showed that, when comparing the control group and the LPS (4 μg/ml) samples, the IL-2 expression

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) levels were increased significantly by about threefolds (Figure 1B, p < 0.0001, one-way ANOVA). The increased levels of IL-2 suggest that the T cells were activated once again (Figure 1B). Next, to test whether the cancer cells directly affected the T-cell inactivation, we co-cultured LPS (4 μg/ml) + MCF7 and LPS (4 μg/ml) + MDA-MB-231 and compared the IL-2 expression levels. When comparing the IL-2 expression levels of the LPS (4 μg/ml) sample and the LPS (4 μg/ml) + MCF7 sample, there was no significant difference (Figure 1B, p = 0.977, one-way ANOVA). However, when comparing the LPS (4 μg/ml) sample and the LPS (4 μg/ml) + MDA-MB-231 sample, the IL-2 levels significantly decreased about 20% (Figure 1B, p = 0.045, one-way ANOVA). From this data, we can conclude that MDA-MB-231 has a greater effect on T-cell inactivation than MCF7.

Figure 2. siRNA targeting CD274 (siCD274) and siRNA targeting PCSK1 (siPCSK1) successfully decreased the expression level of target genes in MDA-MB-231 and Jurkat cells, respectively. After the cells were transfected with the siRNA for 24 hours, gel-based RT-PCR was performed to check the band intensity of CD274, PSK1, and GAPDH. After selecting two genes, we utilized siRNA to knock down these genes and observed the knockdown efficiency of the target genes (Figure 2). We used siRNA, which are small interfering RNA molecules, to knock down the genes as they can inhibit gene expression by contributing to the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) (13). Furthermore, there were four independent variables in this experiment, including siControl and siCD274 of MDA-MB-231 and the siControl and siPCSK1 of the Jurkat cells. siControl was a negative control in which we used a siRNA that is unable to target a human gene. The results of this experiment showed that each siRNA decreased the target gene expression. To begin, the siRNA targeting CD274 (siCD274) decreased the expression level of CD274 on MDA-MB-231 cells. In addition, the siRNA targeting PCSK1 (siPCSK1) also decreased the expression level of PCSK1 on Jurkat cells. In sum, the experiment confirmed that the siRNA successfully reduced the expression of the target gene. As a result, we optimized the transfection condition.

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Figure 3. CD274 gene knockdown on MDA-MB-231 reversed T-cell dysfunction induced by cancer cells. (A) Agarose gel electrophoresis image of amplified IL-2 and GAPDH cDNA. (B) A bar graph representing the mean and standard deviation of normalized IL-2 expression level. Quantification of IL-2 expression level normalized by GAPDH expression level (n = 3).A combination of CD274 gene knockdown on MDA-MB-231 and PCSK1 gene knockdown on T cell reversed T-cell dysfunction induced by cancer cells. After Jurkat and MDA-MB-231 cells were transfected, both cells were coincubated for 48 hours. Then, the IL-2 expression level of Jurkat cells was analyzed (n = 3). One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test, p < 0.001 (***), p < 0.05 (*), p > 0.05 (ns). The next experiment confirmed if the knockdown of genes we selected (CD274 and PCSK1) can recover the immunosuppressive effect induced by cancer cells (Figure 3A). In this experiment, we tested a total of six different variables. First, we prepared Jurkat cells transfected with siControl in three different conditions: Control (Jurkat cells incubated without cancer cells), MDA-MB-231 siControl (Jurkat cells incubated with MDA-MB-231 transfected with siControl), and MDA-MB-231 siCD274 (Jurkat cells incubated with MDA-MB-231 transfected with siCD274). We transfected the next three variables of Jurkat cells with siPCSK1 along with the same three variable conditions mentioned above. When comparing the results between the Control group and the MDA-MB-231 siControl sample, MDA-MB231 significantly decreased the expression level of IL-2, meaning that this cancer cell line induces T-cell dysfunction (Figure 3B, p = 0.004, one-way ANOVA). Moreover, when comparing the results between MDA-MB-231 siControl and MDA-MB-231 siCD274, the IL-2 expression is recovered up to ~ 80% in MDA-MB-231 siCD274, meaning that CD274 knockdown on MDA-MB-231 reactivated dysfunctional T cell induced by cancer cells (Figure 3B, p = 0.006, one-way ANOVA). The three samples that were explained above depict the expression pattern of Jurkat cells that were transfected with siControl. Next, the three samples analyze the IL-2 expression patterns in each condition of Jurkat cells with the siPCSK1 knockdown.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) When comparing the results between the Control group and the MDA-MB-231 siControl samples of the Jurkat cells with siPCSK1 knockdown, the IL-2 expression levels decreased significantly for the MDA-MB-231 siControl sample (Figure 3B, p = 0.003, one-way ANOVA). This decrease in the IL-2 expression levels was due to cancer cells. Furthermore, when we incubated both MDA-MB-231 cells with and without the CD274 knockdown, the data displayed that Jurkat cells with MDA-MB-231 cells with CD274 knockdown showed significantly increased expression of its IL-2 levels compared to MDA-MB-231 siControl sample (Figure 3B, p = 0.004, one-way ANOVA). Also, the IL-2 expression level of the MDA-MB-231 siCD274 sample was about 90% of the IL-2 expression levels of the Control group. In conclusion, the results of this experiment support the claim that the downregulation of the PCSK1 of Jurkat cells aids the recovery of T- cell dysfunction due to cancer cells.

3. Discussion In this study, we engineered T cells and breast cancer cells to reverse T-cell dysfunction induced by cancer cells. We targeted two genes, PCSK1 in T cells and CD274 in breast cancer cells, by siRNA to inhibit the target gene expression. We hypothesized that siRNA treatment targeting both genes in each cell showed the significant reversing effect of T-cell dysfunction induced by cancer cells. IL-2 expression level in T cells indicated that targeting both genes showed the most significant T-cell activating effect compared to the individual treatment. A previous research paper indicated that MCF7 down-UHJXODWHG 3'ဩ/ &' H[SUHVVLRQ OHYHO (11). Since the IL-2 gene is a different cytokine gene, MCF7 may not be able to inhibit IL-2 by the same molecular mechanism as PD-L1 (CD274). The limitation of this research is that we only tested one type of T cell and one type of breast cancer cell. Other types of cell models should be tested to verify the effect of reversing T-cell dysfunction induced by cancer cells. Also, in vivo experiments such as mouse models should be used to verify this siRNA gene silencing strategy. We also have not defined the molecular mechanism behind this phenotype. Therefore, future studies need to identify the detailed molecular interactions between T cells and cancer cells. For example, the genetic or molecular interaction of PCSK1 and CD274 is unknown. Therefore, RNA-sequencing should be performed to investigate the gene expression patterns of T cell and breast cancer cells. Also, protein interactions translated from PCSK1 and CD274 should be tested further. Previously, many people believed that it was essentially impossible to change gene expression in the tumor cells in patients. However, recent research indicates that siRNA-loaded nanoparticles targeted several gene expressions of tumor cells in patients (14). Even though many siRNA-targeted genes are known for cellular growth and survival, targeting genes associated with T-cell interaction could be vital. Since tumor cells evade the T-cell mediated apoptosis, increasing the sensitivity of T cell detecting tumor cells may decrease the tumor progression (15). However, the side effects of T-cell immunotherapy should be further investigated in the future. The results of this study yielded many significant conclusions. First, our investigation identified that knockdown of the two target genes, PCSK1 in T cells and CD274 in breast cancer cells, reversed T-cell dysfunction. Additionally, we demonstrated that T cell dysfunction depends on the expression level of PCSK1 in T cell and CD274 in breast cancer. Therefore, targeting the gene expression level on both types of cells may efficiently recover the T-cell dysfunction caused by cancer cells.

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4. Materials and Methods Cell culture and maintenance Jurkat, MCF7, and MDA-MB-231 cells were purchased by Korea Cell Line Bank. The cells were maintained in the cell media RPMI1640 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin and streptomycin. The cells were incubated at 37°C on a 5% CO2 incubator (Eppendorf). Cells were subcultured every three days with 0.25% Trypsin-EDTA (Gibco). T-cell activation test For testing Jurkat activation, we prepared four cell culture conditions in a six-well cell culture plate: 1) Jurkat and water, 2) Jurkat and LPS (1 μg/ml), 3) Jurkat and LPS (2 μg/ml), 4) Jurkat and LPS (4 μg/ml). Cells were incubated for 24 h and harvested. Then, the RNA was extracted using Total RNA extraction kit (Bioneer), and the IL-2 gene expression level was quantified using gel-based RT-PCR. siRNA transfection After seeding the 0.3 x 106 cells in six-well culture plates, two types of samples were prepared. Jurkat cells were transfected with 20 nM siRNA targeting PCSK1 (siPSK1) and 20 nM siRNA for negative control (siCon). After siRNA was mixed with the Lipofectamine RNAimax transfection reagent for 5 min (Invitrogen), the cells were incubated for 24 hours. The same condition was used for cell seeding on MDA-MB-231. Then two types of samples were prepared with the MDA-MB-231 cell line. MDAMB-231 was transfected with siRNA targeting CD274 (siCD244) and siCon. After incubating for 24 hours, Jurkat and MDA-MB- 231 cells were incubated together for 48 hours. The following siRNA was purchased from bioneer for PCSK1 (Cat # 5122-1, HPLC) and (Cat # 29126-1HPLC). RNA extraction Total RNA was extracted using a Total RNA Extraction Kit (Bioneer). The protocol provided by the RNA extraction kit was used to isolate RNA from the cell-cultured samples. For each sample, 350 μl of lysis buffer supplemented with 1% 2-mercaptoethanol were used to lysis the cells. After 5 minutes of incubation, 350 μl of 70% ethanol was added to precipitate the RNA. After the solution was mixed well, the solution was moved to the RNA binding column. After the centrifugation, the flow-through was discarded, and two washing buffer was used to increase the purification of the RNA. Finally, 50 μl of elution buffer was used to extract the RNA from the RNA binding column. cDNA synthesis Using the extracted RNA, cDNA was synthesized by reverse transcriptase enzyme (Enzynomics). The O RI F'1$ ZDV V\QWKHVL]HG E\ PL[LQJ ȝO RI [ 57-EXIIHU ȝO RI G173 ȝO RI ROLJR G7 ȝO RI UHYHUVH WUDQVFULSWDVH HQ]\PH DQG ȝO RI H[WUDFWHG 51$ 7KH IROORZLQJ FRQGLWLRQ ZDV XVHG LQ WKH thermocycler (Bioneer): 25 °C for 15 min, 45 °C for 60 min, 95 °C for 5 min, 4 °C for infinite. RT-PCR The primer pairs targeting IL-2, PCSK1, CD274, and GAPDH were used to amplify synthesized cDNA. For each sample, 20 μl reaction was prepared with the PCR kit (Bioneer). The following PCR reaction was used: denaturing step (95 °C), primer annealing step (60 °C), and the extension step (72 °C). Thirty-four cycles were used to amplify target cDNA. The following primers were used in this study. For IL- ) ƍ-

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) TCCTGTCTTGCATTGCACTAAG- ƍ DQG 5 ƍ-CATCCTGGTGAGTTTGGGATTC- ƍ )RU 3&6. ) ƍ-GGACCTCTGAGTATGACCCG- ƍ DQG 5 ƍ- AGCTTTGGCATTTAGCAAGCC- ƍ )RU &' ) ƍ-TGGCATTTGCTGAACGCATTT- ƍ DQG 5 ƍTGCAGCCAGGTCTAATTGTTTT- ƍ )RU *$3'+ ) ƍ- GGAGCGAGATCCCTCCAAAAT- ƍ DQG 5 ƍ-GGCTGTTGTCATACTTCTCATGG - ƍ Agarose gel electrophoresis After preparing 1.3% of agarose gel with the Redsafe DNA staining solution (Intron), the amplified DNA samples were loaded on the gel. The gel-electrophoresis device (Mupid) was set to run for 25 minutes. After running the gel, the gel was illuminated on the blue light gel documentation (Biobox). The image was taken for band analysis. Quantification of gene expression level The band image from the electrophoresis was analyzed using the ImageJ program. After selecting the rectangle region of the band, the band intensity was plotted. The area of the plotted graph was used to quantify the band intensity of each gene. The GAPDH expression level was used to normalize the target gene expression level. After GAPDH normalization by dividing the target gene intensity by GAPDH intensity, the bar graph was created. Statistical test We used Prism 8 program to calculate the p-value. We used One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

References 1.

5. 6.

Esfahani, K., et al. “A Review of Cancer Immunotherapy: From the Past, to the Present, to the Future.” Current Oncology (Toronto, Ont.), vol. 27, no. Suppl 2, Apr. 2020, pp. S87–97, doi:10.3747/co.27.5223. Farhood, Bagher, et al. “CD8+ Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes in Cancer Immunotherapy: A Review.” Journal of Cellular Physiology, vol. 234, no. 6, June 2019, pp. 8509–21, doi:10.1002/jcp.27782. van der Leun, Anne M., et al. “CD8+ T Cell States in Human Cancer: Insights from Single-Cell Analysis.” Nature Reviews. Cancer, vol. 20, no. 4, Apr. 2020, pp. 218–32, doi:10.1038/s41568019-0235-4. Sterner, Robert C., and Rosalie M. Sterner. “CAR-T Cell Therapy: Current Limitations and Potential Strategies.” Blood Cancer Journal, vol. 11, no. 4, Apr. 2021, p. 69, doi:10.1038/s41408-021-00459-7. Marofi, Faroogh, et al. “CAR T Cells in Solid Tumors: Challenges and Opportunities.” Stem Cell Research & Therapy, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2021, p. 81, doi:10.1186/s13287-020-02128-1. Xia, Anliang, et al. “T Cell Dysfunction in Cancer Immunity and Immunotherapy.” Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 10, July 2019, p. 1719, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01719.

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Detecting Fake Abstract Paintings via Deep Learning Algorithms: MobileNet_V3 Author 1

Full Name

Lim, Nahyun (Erica)

Seoul International School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The concept of AI art has been around ever since the late 1960s, where Harold Cohen made the first machine to produce art autonomously, AARON. Now, after numerous developments on the technique, various different art forms can be created through algorithms. As AI develops in the art field, possibilities of AI art forgery increase as well. This calls for a need to develop AI that can differenciate artificial abstract paintings from handmade ones. APP allows its users to scan various abstract paintings and can determine if it’s made by AI or not. Abstract art is art that does not attempt to represent a clear depiction of subjects but instead use shapes, colours, forms and gestural marks. Most well-known abstract paintings include Composition VII by Kandinsky, Les Demisielles by Pablo Picasso, and Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow by Piet Mondrian. Upon experimenting with several deep learning (DL) algorithms, the DL algorithms with the lowest accuracy were CNN with a tied accuracy level of 80%, while the algorithm with the highest accuracy was MobileNet, at 96.1% out of 100% in accuracy. Since APP is a mobile app, it can also be used almost everywhere, making it very convenient and easy to use. Alt hough as of now the app can only detect AI in traditionally drawn abstract art, future research will attempt to make APP more comprehensive towards other art categories.

Keywords: Deep Learning, Art, GAN, Abstract Painting

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction The world today has technology advanced enough to craft human faces, fabricate voices, and create artworks identical to the original artist’s [1]. While there aren’t notable cases regarding robots copying and selling art illegally, there are a lot of cases regarding people copying other people. NFTs, digital art, art on canvas, charlatans copy artwork (or screenshot it) and claim it as their own [2]. While people cannot tell the difference between authentic and fraud, people can make an algorithm that can [3]. Such is the case with this report. The primary objective of this report is to tell the difference between authentic abstract artwork and that of the copied to prevent future artist frauds. Abstract art is art that does not attempt to represent a clear depiction of subjects but instead use shapes, colors, forms and gestural marks [4]. Fakes can utilize the said modern technology to steal artwork and earn thousands off of stolen work. Fake artworks could be generated easily nowadays through artificial intelligence technologies, especially generative artificial neural network(GAN) algorithms [5]. Furthermore, as the GAN algorithms are now developed more precisely and even can create artificial faces or voices from humans, it could be concluded that authentic artworks could be created more easily in the upcoming future [6]. Especially, as shown in the graph below, the number of deep fake videos have been increasing since 2018, and as those technology has been developed more, there would be a lot of fake image.s or videos in the upcoming years [7]. However, as mentioned above, most people could not distinguish between genuine or fake paintings easily, so this paper intends to generate sophisticated deep learning models which could figure out the fake ones. Furthermore, numerous programs for generating abstract images could easily be founded on websites which means that painters of abstract paintings are more likely to be suffered from fake images [8]. Therefore, through this paper, our proposed model targets abstract paintings and is expected to be utilized in the auction, galleries, or even in the museum where detecting fake artworks is necessary.

Figure 1. An increasing number of deep fake videos online: double every 6 months

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Related Works The goal of this research from Marra et al. was to propose an algorithm that could discern original images from rendered images. The image-to-image translation from the GAN algorithms generated a problem by transforming one specific scene into another one. As these kinds of attacks have increased since the advent of various GAN-based algorithms, the author of this paper proposed convolutional neural networks (CNN) algorithms to detect fake images more efficiently. 36302 images were utilized as the dataset and numerous deep learning algorithms such as GAN discriminator, XceptionNet, and DenseNet were used to detect the fake images. Even though some algorithms yielded about 89% of accuracy score, conventional and deep learning detectors achieved a 95% of accuracy score [9]. Bai et al. claimed that the advent of deep learning algorithms, especially style-transfer algorithms based on GANs caused a problem such as generating fake paintings of famous artists. Therefore, they suggested a Fake Generated PaintingDetection via Frequency Analysis (FGPD-FA), which is a deep learning detection algorithm mainly based on the Fourier frequency domain. For the dataset, they generated the Digital Painting Forgery Detection (DPFD) Database which includes 10310 genuine paintings, and 58292 fake-created paintings generated via AAMS, CycleGan, and GatedGan. The accuracy score and F1 score were utilized to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm, and it achieved 94.85%, and 94.62% respect [10]. In the research conducted by Niu et al., they proposed a method to generate industrial defect images– a new way to find defect images. The industrial generation was needed because the traditional recognition method had two disadvantages: that different types of defects required different algorithms, and handcrafted features are deficient and often contain errors. At the end of the study, they discovered a new defect image generation method called SDGAN, which is “designed to use industrial, defect-free images fully to generate defect samples”. In terms of anomaly detection, the proposed model achieved a 1.77 percent error rate and a 49.43 percent relative improvement (IMP) on the CCSD-NL defect data set. Furthermore, in terms of defect classification, the proposed model yielded a 0.74 percent error rate and a 57.47 percent IMP on the CCSD-L defect data set [11]. Birunda et al. constructed a deep learning model and flood fill algorithm to detect fake paintings. The data were collected from Twitter, which is a corpus of verification about the paintings. Forged objects from the images on Twitter are highlighted through the flood fill algorithm, and then a deep neural network(DNN0 was applied to distinguish those paintings. Naive Bayes, SVM., and Random Forest were also utilized to compare the result to the proposed model. The proposed model surpassed other machine learning algorithms by achieving 96% accuracy, Furthermore, precision and recall scores were also evaluated, and the proposed model achieved the highest accuracy, which was 94.5%, and 98.6% respectively [12]. With these related researchers mentioned above, it could be concluded that various researches were conducted to detect fake paintings generated from AI technologies. However, those researchers did not mention the size of those models. For instance, if the size of the proposed algorithm is large, these algorithms could not be utilized in mobile environments, such as smartphones. Since our research aims to help people to detect whether the given painting is genuine or not, we focus on developing algorithms that could be operated in the mobile environment. Furthermore, the proposed model would also yield the anomaly parts of the paintings, so that it could help people make better decisions.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3. Materials and Methods Data Description Fake abstract painting datasets were collected from the Kaggle website, which could be accessed through this URL: https://www.kaggle.com/bryanb/generated-abstract-dataset-diffusion?select=Abstract_10.png [13]. Generative x Diffusion models were utilized to generate the synthetic paintings, and those image sizes were 512x512. Furthermore, 2782 genuine abstract painting datasets were also gathered from the Kaggle website, which can be found at https://www.kaggle.com/bryanb/abstract-art-gallery [14]. In order to use those images as input data for the proposed deep learning models, several preprocessing tools were used. Firstly, as deep learning requires a huge amount of datasets, the data augmentation method from the Keras was applied to the given dataset. Then, all the augmented pictures were rescaled by dividing by 255. Lastly, as the proposed deep learning model (MobileNet-V3) requires 224x224 size as the input, all preprocessed images were resized to 224x224.

Figure 2. Examples of the real abstract paintings from the Kaggle website

Figure 3. Examples of the real abstract paintings from the Kaggle website

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) MobileNet As the name suggests, the MobileNet series algorithms are specialized in mobile environments such as smartphones. The MobileNet, the first series, could reduce the model size compared to VGG models through depthwise separable convolution. The MobileNetV2 also achieved the goal through the linear bottleneck and inverted residual [15]. The Depthwise Separable Convolution consists of Depthwise Convolution and Pointwise Convolution. The 3x3 Conv and 1x1 Conv filters yielded each feature map in the Depthwise Convolution, and Pointwise Convolution, respectively. The Depthwise Convolution refers to a spatial correlation, while the Pointwise Convolution denotes a cross-channel correlation. It could be found that almost every convolution layer. MobileNet utilizes Depthwise Separable Convolution, and also batch normalization and Rectified Linear Unit were utilized to achieve higher performance [16]. MobileNetV3 In the MobileNetV3, swish non-linearities and hard sigmoid were introduced for efficient mobile building blocks. For the network search, which is efficient for optimization of the network, platformaware-NAS, and NetAdapt algorithms were utilized. To compare the performance of the MobileNetV3 to another existing model, the Imagenet dataset was used for classification. The MobilNetV3 yielded higher classification accuracy than other algorithms such as MobileNetV2, MnasNet, and ProxylessNas. The experiment showed that utilizing swish non-linearities reduced 10% of the runtime, Furthermore, in detecting and segmentation tasks, the COCO dataset was utilized for the comparison, and this stateof-art algorithm, MobileNetV3, yielded higher performance than other backbone models [17].

Figure 4. The overall procedure of the MobileNetV3

4. Result Upon experimenting with several deep learning (DL) algorithms to determine which most accurately differentiated AI-made abstract painting from hand-made paintings. The DL algorithms with the lowest accuracy were CNN with a tied accuracy level of 80%, while the algorithm with the highest accuracy was MobileNet, at 98 % out of 100% in accuracy. However, as our aim of this paper is to propose a system that can be launched in the mobile environment so that people could easily find whether the given picture is fake or real, the model size of the algorithms is vital. Since the MobileNet and MobileNetV3Large are specialized in the mobile environment and also achieved the highest accuracy score with a high speed, it could be concluded that the MobileNetV3Large would be a proper algorithm for our proposed model.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The figure below shows the size of each model when importing through Keras API, and it yielded that the VGG16 showed the largest memory size which is not suitable for our experiment. Even though we could not find the accurate size of the MobileNetV3 which would be used for our system, Howard et al., who is the author of the MobileNetV3 paper, claimed that the MobileNetV3 has a similar size compared to MobileNet and MobileNetV2 while showing better performance, it would be satisfactory for our system.

Figure 5. The graph showing accuracy scores from each algorithm: CNN, VGG16, MobileNet, EfficientNetB0, MobileNetV3Large, NASNetMobile, Xception

Figure 6. The graph showing size of each algorithm: VGG16, MobileNet, EfficientNetB0, NASNetMobile, Xception, MobileNetV2

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Below are images that were scanned by the app. The red area symbolizes “the area of suspicion,” meaning that the red part of the photos scanned below was most likely made by AI. A class activation mapping (CAM) from the proposed model was utilized to visualize the suspicious parts. The other colors that are surrounding the red are also areas of suspicion, however, those areas are less likely to have been made by AI. This is a positive feature of the app because it makes the results more accurate by showing the users the level of accuracy of the assessment.

Figure 7. Visualization of the anomaly parts in the given fake images through MobileNetV3 Proposed System When the app is opened the first screen will give a brief description of the capabilities of this program and its purpose of this program. When the “Get Started” button is pressed, the screen will change and a camera and gallery icon will appear. If the user presses the camera icon, it will take the user to her camera screen, but if the user presses the gallery icon it will take her to her gallery, where it contains all the photos she took using the app. After taking a photo the camera screen will then change to a result screen, where it will determine whether the abstract painting was made by a human or an AI. If it takes a photo of anything other than an abstract painting, it will not be able to differentiate. The last screen appears when the user presses the question icon on the first screen; if pressed, the last screen will pop up, and give the user a brief explanation of how the app is used.

Figure 8. UX/UI app design for the proposed algorithm

5. Discussion Many benefits of this program are that it can differentiate between hand-drawn abstract artwork from abstract artwork made by AI. Furthermore, as shown in the data, this algorithm can work in networks

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) like MobilenetV3, meaning that the program can not only run on big software like the computer but also on small devices like the phone. This means that the program can be run anywhere if the user has a phone. However, there are some limitations to this program. As of now, this program is only limited to abstract paintings. More in detail, this means that the program will not be able to produce accurate results for any other painting other than paintings containing more defined and detailed subjects (still life and portrait art, for example) and the program may face a difficult time differentiating between digital-based paintings. The app also separates the areas of suspicion (mentioned above) into different colors to show the users different levels of likelihood of the parts of the picture that was made by AI. While this shows that the program has much accuracy, it also shows the specifics and provides data of optimal accuracy.

6. Conclusion In the digital age where fraud is commonplace through platforms like DeepFake, algorithms that can differentiate between artificially crafted and authentically crafted are necessary. The objective of this research was to create an algorithm that could distinguish between abstract artwork made by AI and made by a human. Theoretically, there are more instances of art fraud regarding abstract art; this is because, unlike art that focuses on realism, abstract art focuses on vague, expressive strokes. At the end of the research, a successful app was created. The app was able to detect AI-made abstract art at around 97% accuracy and also showed capability in working across many networks such as MobilenetV3, CNN, and Xception and could work anywhere as long as the user had a phone. Furthermore, the app could even visualize the anomaly parts of the given abstract images. However, one problem is that while the app itself is functional and successful it has a problem with identifying abstract art that is digitally made. In future research, algorithms that can differentiate between AI-made digital abstract art from handdrawn, or algorithms that can differentiate between AI and authentically made art in general.

Reference [1] Nightingale, S. J., &#38; Farid, H. (2022). AI-synthesized faces are indistinguishable from real faces and more trustworthy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(8). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120481119 [2] Kshetri, N. (2022). Scams, frauds, and crimes in the nonfungible token market. Computer, 55(4), 60–64. https://doi.org/10.1109/mc.2022.3144763 [3] de Vries, K. (2020). You never fake alone. Creative AI in action. Information, Communication &#38;amp; Society, 23(14), 2110–2127. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2020.1754877 [4] Oxford languages and google - English. (2020). Oxford Languages. https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/ [5] Gragnaniello, D., Cozzolino, D., Marra, F., Poggi, G., &#38; Verdoliva, L. (2021, July 5). Are GAN generated images easy to detect? A critical analysis of the state-of-the-art. 2021 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icme51207.2021.9428429

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [6] Wang, R., Ding, Y., Li, L., &#38; Fan, C. (2020, May). One-Shot voice conversion using star-gan. ICASSP 2020 - 2020 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icassp40776.2020.9053842 [7] Saulles, M. D. (2021, March 26). How deepfakes are a problem for us all and why the law needs to change · Information Matters - Where Farming Meets Technology and Data. Information Matters. https://informationmatters.net/deepfakes-problem-why-law-needs-to-change/ [8] Gonsalves, R. A. (2021, October 23). MachineRay: Using AI to create abstract art. Towards Data Science. https://towardsdatascience.com/machineray-using-ai-to-create-abstract-art-39829438076a [9] Marra, F., Gragnaniello, D., Cozzolino, D., &#38; Verdoliva, L. (2018, April). Detection of gangenerated fake images over social networks. 2018 IEEE Conference on Multimedia Information Processing and Retrieval (MIPR). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mipr.2018.00084 [10] Bai, Y., Guo, Y., Wei, J., Lu, L., Wang, R., &#38; Wang, Y. (2020, October). Fake generated painting detection via frequency analysis. 2020 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icip40778.2020.9190892 [11] Niu, S., Li, B., Wang, X., &#38; Peng, Y. (2022). Region- and strength-controllable GAN for defect generation and segmentation in industrial images. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 18(7), 4531–4541. https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2021.3127188 [12] Selva Birunda, S., Nagaraj, P., Krishna Narayanan, S., Muthamil Sudar, K., Muneeswaran, V., &#38; Ramana, R. (2022, January 27). Fake Image Detection in Twitter using Flood Fill Algorithm and Deep Neural Networks. 2022 12th International Conference on Cloud Computing, Data Science &#38;amp; Engineering (Confluence). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/confluence52989.2022.9734208 [13] BryanB. (n.d.). Generated abstract art. Kaggle. https://www.kaggle.com/bryanb/generatedabstract-dataset-diffusion?select=Abstract_10.png [14] BryanB. (n.d.-a). Abstract art gallery. Kaggle. Retrieved July 5, 2022, from https://www.kaggle.com/bryanb/abstract-art-gallery [15] Qian, S., Ning, C., &#38; Hu, Y. (2021, March 26). MobileNetV3 for image classification. 2021 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things Engineering (ICBAIE). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icbaie52039.2021.9389905 [16] Howard, A. G., Zhu, M., Chen, B., Kalenichenko, D., Wang, W., Weyand, T., ... & Adam, H. (2017). Mobilenets: Efficient convolutional neural networks for mobile vision applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:1704.04861.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [17] Howard, A., Sandler, M., Chu, G., Chen, L. C., Chen, B., Tan, M., ... & Adam, H. (2019). Searching for mobilenetv3. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF international conference on computer vision (pp. 1314-1324).

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Utilizing Cicadae Periostracum as a Skin Balm Author 1

Full Name

Lim, Taekun

Valor International Scholar High School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Cicadae Periostracum(CP), the cast off skin of cicada insect, was a long used ingredient as traditional medicine and recently used as therapeutic treatment for diseases such as atopic dermatitis, parkinson’s disease, and pruritus. There were multiple research papers that scrutinized CP's effectiveness on diseases, but the actual utilization of CP has not been studied well. Throughout this research, the potent and cost-effective CP balm was created followed by a comparison with other products currently in the market. The evaluation was conducted with five measures: absorption, paper solidity, natural flavors, skin feeling, and price.

Keywords: Cicadae Periostracum, Atopic Dermatitis

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Cicada, one type of Hemiptera, has 4 stages of life: egg, larva, pupa and adult stages. During the larva stage, cicadas go into the ground and sleep for an average of 7 years underground [1]. When they come out from the ground, they climb to the tree and start a pupa stage which takes around two to six hours. The brownish cast skin that cicadas need to get out to enter the adult stage is Cicadae Periostracum. Cicadae Periostracum(CP), brownish cocoon-like skin that cicadas need to get out to enter the adult stage, has known to be effective for skin disease such as atopic dermatitis, parkinson’s disease, etcs. [2] Skin allergies show a significant difference in people's appearance from its early symptoms. People infected by atopic dermatitis or pruritus start to feel itchy in their skin and scratches when they cannot endure it. [3] As mentioned above, CP is one of the natural medicines to reduce the symptoms of skin trouble. In order to obtain the CP, it must be collected in trees around their habitat during July because cicadas venture out from the ground and finish their pupa stage during early summer. In developing countries, people are more exposed to chemical substances, such as smokes, chemically flavored foods, and new medicines. Additionally, fine dust and an extremely sanitized environment also make people’s bodies vulnerable to skin diseases. However, the majority of medicines produced in companies are using chemical substances which could cause a backfire. Because many of these chemical medicines contain antibiotics, the human body starts to build resistance which leads to using more of the product or finding a stronger alternative. According to prior study, researchers found the amount of chitin each CP had [4]. CP has about 37 % of chitin, 40% of protein, and 12% of minerals. As a result, CP is a good substance for skin sedative drugs due to its abundance and effectiveness of chitin on skin wounds and allergies. Furthermore, vitamins can prevent skin aging, remove keratinocytes, and recover vulnerable skin. [56] Utilizing all the previously researched data, a new batch for skin balm was found. The brand new skin balm contained green tea oil, jojoba oil, moringa oil, vitamin E, essential oil, shea butter, candelilla Wax, lemon, lavender, and CP powder, which are purely extracted or gathered from natural sources such as trees flowers, and seeds. These ingredients contain ample vitamins and minerals that are effective at dermatitis. People have a stereotypical tendency to think that organic products are more expensive than chemically produced products from companies. It is mostly true because in the market, organic vegetables are almost twice as expensive than vegetables that use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However it is not always true for lotion type products. To counter this stereotype, materials that are listed above are selected. Throughout the experiment, the process of making CP balm and comparing with other products are shown. Throughout a carefully conducted experiment, a finished prototype was created and it was compared to other products that are open in the market. The prototype proved to be as effective as those in the market while managing its price lower by more than 20%. More experiments and safety tests are required to verify its efficacy and safety, but this research shows potential medicine that is made with all natural products which helps the environment as well as keeping the price cheaper for a wider

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) range of users.

Materials and Methods Cicadae Periostracum Treatment After collecting enough CP, dirt and exterior substances on the surface of the CP were cleansed by water. Then the cleansed CP was dried for 72 hours in 30 degree celsius (86 Fahrenheit). When the CP was completely dried, all the legs were removed, due to weak toxic elements in the legs. After removing the legs, the CP was grinded by using mortars and pestles. After grinding them thoroughly, a CP powder is made. It is acceptable to use a mixer to grind CP. If CP is bought from reliable online sources, the washing and drying process may be skipped. Ingredients of balm: We use only natural ingredients in balm, however without knowing what components are subsisting, it’s impossible to make one. The first ingredient was shea butter. Shea butter is a well known supplement that is semi-required for making ointments or balms. Shea butter’s abundance in minerals and vitamin E, protects our skin from being oxidized.[5] Jojoba oil is a liquid form of oil extracted from Simmondsia seed, which contains vitamin E and B-complex, and moreover repairs our skin. [5-6] Moringa oil, which is extracted from moringa that grows in Africa and India, has ample oleic acid. Oleic acid enhances our skin and prevents the dehydration of skin.[7-8] Green tea oil, which is a liquid form of oil that is extracted from green tea seed, has plenty of vitamin A, B2, and C. Vitamins have an effect on skin protection from UV light and sedate skin. Vitamin oil, as mentioned previously, has a proven to show significant effect on skin protection. Canderlila wax, extracted from candelilla which grows in Texas and northwestern Mexico, structures skin and makes it flexible. Last but not least, lemon juice and lavender oil is required to create a good scent.

Procedure Balm is usually filled in small cases that have capacity of around 30 grams. By following the fundamental recipe of balm, the weight of each material was chosen. Green tea oil, jojoba oil, moringa oil, and shea butter were chosen to put five grams, candelilla wax and CP was chosen to put two grams each, and one gram for Vitamin E. To measure the exact weight of each material, a scale was used. Then a measuring cup that could handle all the materials was used to mix the materials. After mixing the materials one by one, the mixture was boiled in a weak heat until the wax and shea butter were fully melted without burning and until the candelilla wax was put in. Then, five drops of lemon and lavender oil, one gram of vitamin E and two grams of CP were put into the measuring cup. The final step was to add wax and shea butter into the mixture and heat the mixture up until they are completely dissolved. After many stirring processes, the product became semi-solid. The point was to stir it one direction to prevent the decomposition of the mixture. When 10 minutes pass after the stirring process, the measuring cup is cooled, and the mixture is poured into the case. Figure below shows the abstract of making CP skin balm.

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Fig 1. Manufacturing steps of CP skin balm The following step was setting up the price for this balm. Saying one gram is equal to one ml, 500ml Green tea oil’s price was 11000 won(22won per gram),100ml of jojoba oil was 8000 won(80 won per gram) 100ml moringa oil was 10000 won(100won per ml), 1kg of organic shea butter was 28600 won(28.6 won per gram), 50 gram of candelilla wax was 2500 won( 50 won per gram), 50ml of vitamin E oil was 23000 won(460 won per gram), 10ml of lemon oil was 1800 won(180 won per gram), 100ml of lavender oil was 18200 won ( 182won per gram) and lastly, in this research CP was collected naturally so the price was 0 won but for people who are buying CP, 300g of CP was 88000 won ( 293 won per gram). Knowing that each material was used in a certain amount, the price of the ingredient of the balm 2661 won. In addition, the price of the cup was 800 won so the final price of the balm was 3461 won. Considering that CP balm is a product for the market, the final estimated price was 4000 won. The last step of the procedure was comparing the balm with other medicines. Because CP balm wasn’t approved as a safe medicine, paper was used to test its absorption. Considering the raw materials that are used in this balm and other medicines, 3 different types of creams and medicines were chosen. First was L'occitane, a famous hand cream product in France, used 20 % of shea butter, contained several chemical components such as PEG-100 Stearate, and polyacrylamide [9]. Next wasa fucidin, a famous skin ointment in Korea, containing a steroid named fusidic acid [10]. Lastly, Chamomile hand cream, a typical hand cream for moisturizing. Although Chamomile hand cream advertised that it used a lot of natural ingredients, the cream ironically contained Chlorphenesin, which causes an allergic reaction when used more than the suggested amount[11]. 4 different medicines were applied on the same sheet of paper with equal amounts of product and time. Then, These balms and medicines were photographed for every 10 minutes, 3 times.

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Fig. 2. Time sequences of the paper test of four different skin balms. When 30 minutes passed, the result of each lotion and ointment clearly showed its properties. L’occitane and Camomile hand cream cream were both lotion type ointments (refer to the first panel of Fig. 1). When 30 minutes passed, these lotions permeated well to the paper, but the paper became soft. For oil type ointment, the paper was maintaining its hardness but oil couldn’t penetrate well into the skin. CP skin balm, which is in between lotion and ointment, kept the advantages of both. While the oil from CP balm absorbed into paper easily, the paper maintained its solidity. Table below shows the summarized result. The numbers from one to four indicate ranking. L’occitane Co.

Fucidin Co.

Camomile cream Inc.

CP Skin Balm

Absorption

Paper solidity

Natural flavors

Skin feeling

price

Overall rate

3rd

4th

2nd

1st

Table 1. Comparison of four different skin balms based on chitin. The last column shows the properties of the CP skin balm. The price of each product varied. 30 grams of L'occitane's price was 13500 won, 15 grams of fucidin was 4490 won, 75 grams of chamomile hand cream was 2240 won, and lastly 30 grams of CP skin balm was 3500 won. CP balm was approximately 11.1 percent cheaper than fucidin and had twice

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) more contents. CP balm was 70.4 percent cheaper than l’occitane and 1.79 times more expensive than chamomile cream. CP balm had twice more content than fucidin, but it had 60 percent less content compared to chamomile cream.

Conclusion and Discussion The CP balm requires more in-depth research to be completely ready for the market. Through this research however, the possibility of making the product cheaper than those of competitors and using only the organic materials was proved. In addition, this product can reduce e-waste and carbon emission, which will significantly help the environment. To make CP skin balm, CP collected from trees was cleaned using water. CP is dried in 30 degree celsius for 72 hours and then legs are removed. CP was grinded by using mortar. Selected materials were put in order and at a certain ratio, and when all materials were mixed, they were boiled for several minutes and cooled down until the compound became semi solid. Because the color of CP was brown, the finalized CP balm’s color also came out as brown. By calculating the price of each material, the approximate price of CP balm was 3500 won, but in order to make a reasonable profit, the finalized price was recommended to be 4000 won. Three different commercial products were selected and compared by their price, absorption, and other several factors that people consider when they purchase the product. Because the company products contain at least one chemical component, CP skin balm proved its merit, and it also proved great absorption which was an advantage for people who have dry skins. For the price, it was mostly cheaper than other ointments, but there was one shortcoming. Even though CP was grinded softly, particulate residues in CP balm could provide less soft feeling on skins when compared to other ointments. But considering that CP could be grinded more smoothly by utilizing a better grinder and/or CP could be sieved, CP balm demonstrated a great potential.

Reference 1. Lloyd, Monte, and Henry S. Dybas. "The periodical cicada problem. II. Evolution." Evolution (1966): 466-505. 2. Chayavichitsilp, Pamela, et al. "Herpes simplex." Pediatrics in review 30.4 (2009): 119. 3. Cenini, Giovanna, Ana Lloret, and Roberta Cascella. "Oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage in neurodegenerative diseases: from molecular mechanisms to targeted therapies." Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2020 (2020). 4. Poerio, Aurelia, et al. "Extraction and Physicochemical Characterization of Chitin from Cicada orni Sloughs of the South-Eastern French Mediterranean Basin." Molecules 25.11 (2020): 2543. 5. Kosari, Payman, et al. "Vitamin E and allergic contact dermatitis." Dermatitis® 21.3 (2010): 148-153. 6. Rembe, Julian-Dario, Carolin Fromm-Dornieden, and Ewa Klara Stuermer. "Effects of vitamin B complex and vitamin C on human skin cells: is the perceived effect measurable?." Advances in skin & wound care 31.5 (2018): 225-233. 7. Leone, Alessandro, et al. "Moringa oleifera seeds and oil: Characteristics and uses for human health." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 17.12 (2016): 2141. 8. Naik, Aarti, et al. "Mechanism of oleic acid-induced skin penetration enhancement in vivo in humans." Journal of controlled release 37.3 (1995): 299-306. 9. 㢸㨴䜵, et al. "㡔ⵝ ㉥䝉 ⯝㤵㡰⦐ 䔨⫠㙸䆠⫨㙸⫼㢨☐ 㨰㢹䟸㜄ⵐ㈑䚐䔄䔠㻐䜼 1 㜼."

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ␴䚐⇨Ḱ䚍䟀㫴 88.4 (2015): 438-441. 10. Turnidge, John, and Peter Collignon. "Resistance to fusidic acid." International journal of antimicrobial agents 12 (1999): S35-S44. 11. Herman, Anne, Laurence de Montjoye, and Marie Baeck. "Re-emergence of allergic contact dermatitis from chlorphenesin." Contact dermatitis.

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Designing an Optimal Structure for a Triphibian Vehicle Author 1

Full Name School Name

Author 2

Park, Jushua Sangjin

Yongsan international School of Seoul

(Last Name, First Name)

Full Name

Park, Kristen

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Yongsan international School of Seoul

Abstract: Currently, it is composed of various types of countries consisting of a large continental country 1 topographically, a country 2 composed of islands along the sea, and a coalition of countries. It is trying to develop the diversification of transportation methods with these topographical and other environmental characteristics, and these personal transportations are developing. In particular, the commercial production of flying cars with the functions of cars and airplanes in Slovakia recently began, and the entire volume of preorders was sold out, and in 1976, WIGship developed in Russia began to be used again by neighboring countries It is possible to fly at an optimum height and speed of 550Km per hour in an improved direction to the existing WEGship, and its utilization is expanding. With the development of these individual and small transportation methods, I came to think about Tripivian. It is possible to develop transportation that can move freely on land, sea, and air. First of all, I thought that aerodynamic and hydrodynamic design for river seas was important to develop a triphibian. So I thought of the design of each part that can be used on the road, river, or sea, especially the design of wings when flying, the wheel design of tires, which is important for water and land movement, and the whole design of tires. Lastly, the design of the upper and lower designs, which are the core designs of the triphibian, was studied in depth to design a structure that minimizes frictional force in a space where air or water can pass naturally and in consideration of the optimal location of the air intake design and the triple triangle of the lower part. Therefore, although there are not many designs for Travian, various designs are designed in a way that is close to the optimal design, and before discussing Travian's technical problems, a solution to the design problem was proposed.

Keywords: Triphivian, optimizer design, Amphibious vehicle, WIGship, Triple valley

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction 1.1. Basic situation

Automobiles were first developed and became a necessity for human movement, allowing long-distance manpower to move due to the invention of airplanes, and opening the way for mass transport. In addition, amphibious vehicles [1] are developed for off-road and river leisure purposes and are used for tourism in Singapore, a country with a sea and vehicles crossing rivers. It was developed in 1976 by the former Soviet Union for defense purposes and as a means of moving the current small populations. Recently,[2] So far, two types of transportation have been developed: sky and road, road and river, sea, river, and sky[3]. I thought that such technological development would be possible to invent the Triphibian Vehicle, which can be done on roads, skies, rivers, and seas. I thought about the optimal design for the development of the Triphibian Vehicle.

Figure1. flying car and amphibian car Data source: flying car left https://www.aeromobil.com/company flying car right https://www.klein-vision.com/ amphibian car https://gibbsamphibians.com/platform/aquada/ 1.2. Problem There are issues about the design of wings for flight, roads that can fly in rivers and seas, design using ground effects [4] at the bottom of rivers, and design using tires in rivers, or finally using engines instead of tires [5] in rivers. 1.3. How document resolves

A surface designed to achieve useful reaction or lift by air passing through it. Airfoil, which is indispensable for flying airplanes, is used as devices such as airplane wings, propeller blades, and A surface designed to achieve useful reaction or lift by air passing through it. Airfoil, which is

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) indispensable for flying airplanes as devices such as airplane wings and propeller blades, is used, and the lower part of the body of the Trafibian uses a design that optimizes the ground effect[6].

Figure2. Airfoil nomenclature against drag Data source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoil

2. Methods and Apparatus 2.1. Intro to the methods section 2.1.1. We will find the optimal main wing structure by simulating it with an airfoil. The data in the chart were calculated for Airfoil based on the vehicle size based on the classification criteria for small cars according to the classification under the Road Traffic Act in Korea [7], and UIUC open source was used for the calculation program. Design requirements Cruising speed 120km/h Maximum speed 400km/h Gross weight 1780Kg Empty weight 1620Kg Load factor 260kg Engine thrust 3000cc Aerodynamic configuration Length 4900mm Height 1490mm Wing area 30000mm Wing span 5000mm Root chord 1000mm Tip chord 500mm Airfoil Modified NACA6412, http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/naca4digit Target weight of a wing Table 1. Specification of small-scale Triphibian vehicle Name = NACA 2412 Airfoil M=2.0% P=40.0% T=12.0%Chord = 100mm Radius = 4350mm Thickness = 100% Origin = 50% Pitch = 180° Simulate GUI programming in UIUC

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Figure3.Airfoil diagram with NACA 6412graphic by Data source: http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/details?airfoil=naca641il#polars

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.1.2. Use ground effect with Water Ground effect? The ground effect refers to the effect that the horizontal surface of the aircraft wing becomes smaller or narrower when it is close to the ground. This effect is a result of the distortion of airflow under the surface due to the proximity of the ground. The surface design is less resistant to air as the drag coefficient is closer to zero. Currently, Hyundai Motor's Ioniq6 has a surface drag coefficient of 0.21, which can be useful for upper designs of the Triphibian Vehicle design. Equation 1. Drag Equation ‫כ ܦܥ = ܦܨ‬

ଵ ߩǨ²A ଶ

Legend ‫ = ܦܨ‬Drag force, CD = Drag coefficient, ȡ Fluid density, V= The relative velocity of an object to a fluid, A= Cross-sectional area

Reynolds number calculation:[8]

5H\QROGV FRHIILFLHQW ZKHQ IO\LQJ DW WKH WHPSHUDWXUH RI ႏ DW NP K

Reynolds' FRHIILFLHQW ZKHQ VDLOLQJ DW WKH WHPSHUDWXUH RI ႏ DW NP K Data Source: Reynolds number calculator (airfoiltools.com)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.1.3. Materials and Main Materials for Lightening Triphivian[9] Examples of CFRP introduced cars

Table2. Comparison of the properties of CFRP, FRP, aluminum, and steel

Figure4. Effects of weight reduction when carbon composite is employed in vehicles. Data source: https://www.cf-composites.toray/markets/mobility/aircraft/specialty.html

3. Result 3.1. Intro to result in section The lower part borrows the design of an amphibious vehicle that maximizes ground effect and speeds up on water.

Figure5. Modeling about Triphibians by blender[11]

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References [1] Gibbs amphibians brand, https://gibbsamphibians.com/platform/aquada/ [2] Hye Seung Lee*·Hee Yeon Lee**Differential Changes in Commuter’s Mode Choice after the Integrated Public Transit System in Seoul Metropolitan City [3] http://www.aron.co.kr/aronk/main.html [4] Joh, Chang-Yeol ;Kim, Yang-Joon, Computational Aerodynamic Analysis of Airfoils for WIG(Wing-In-Ground-Effect) -CraftJournal of the Korean Society for Aeronautical & Space SciencesVolume 32 Issue 8/Pages.37-46/2004,1225-1348(pISSN),2287-6871(eISSN) [5] Kim Byoung-Sam, A Study on the Pattern Noise Prediction of Automobile Tire,Transactions of the Korean Society of Machine Tool Engineers,Volume 14 Issue 6/Pages.68-73/2005/1598 0987(pISSN) [6] http://moj.go.kr [7] Nicola de Divitiis, Performance, and Stability of a Winged Vehicle in Ground Effect, Published Online:22 May 2012 https://doi.org/10.2514/1.4830 [8] Reynolds number calculator (airfoiltools.com) [9] Ki-Seok Kim, Kyong-Min Bae, Sang-Yeob Oh*and 3person, Trend of Carbon Fiber-reinforced Composites for Lightweight Vehicles [10] blender 2dand 3d design site Free and Open 3D, https://www.blender.org

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Exosome Encapsulation of Curcumin Blocks TNF-Į DQG ,/- 'HSHQGHQW &\WRNLQH 6WRUP Author 1

Full Name

Seongwon Park

Branksome Hall Asia

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV2), a highly contagious virus, has caused a pandemic of a respiratory disease named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The disease is fatal because of a systematic cytokine storm that causes excessive inflammatory responses in the lung. However, no drugs are available to calm severe inflammatory responses that cause lung injury. Through its antioxidant activity and ability to release different anti-inflammatory cytokines, curcumin could be a therapeutic drug for COVID-19. Also, cancer-derived exosomes, which can carry biological molecules inside the cell, induce immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment. Previous research indicated that curcumin does not inhibit TNF and IL-2 in COVID19 patients and has a limited effect on inhibiting cytokine storms. To solve this limitation of curcumin treatment, we hypothesized that exosome encapsulated curcumin would enhance the inhibiting effect on cytokine. We tested 12 conditions using curcumin and exosomes in different concentrations and ratios on T-cells (Jurkat), finding the optimal condition for inhibiting TNF and IL-2. As a result, we found that the 1:3 ratio (curcumin: exosome) treatment most efficiently inhibits the expression of TNF and IL-2 in Jurkat cells. Our result indicates that encapsulating the curcumin with an exosome can be used as a therapeutic application in calming the cytokine storm for COVID-19 patients.

.H\ZRUGV Exosome, curcumin, cytokine storm, COVID-19

282

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ,QWURGXFWLRQ At the end of 2019, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in Wuhan, China, and caused an outbreak of unusual viral pneumonia. 1 This novel coronavirus disease, known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has spread fast worldwide. The ongoing epidemic of COVID19 still threatens global public health in 2022. 2 While COVID-19 has caused a million deaths worldwide, approximately 15% of the patients developed respiratory failure from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a product of inflammatory cytokine storm. 3 Notably, COVID-19 has a broad spectrum of disease severity for the patients, including ARDS. Previous research showed that ARDS and cytokine storm is a causative syndrome of death in over 70% of fatal COVID-19 cases, where inflammatory responses occur aggressively. 4 As respiratory disorder caused by ARDS is the leading cause of death from COVID-19, many immune cells resulting from the cytokine storm are activated in the lungs. 5 Curcumin is a polyphenol pigment derived from the perennial plant Curcuma longa L., commonly known as the turmeric spice. It inhibits tumor cell proliferation, regulates anti-inflammation, and induces a neuroprotective effect on brain cells. 6 The previous study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of curcumin (dose- 160 mg in four 40 mg capsules daily for 14 days) on regulating inflammatory cytokines IL- ȕ ,/- 71)Į DQG ,/-18. 7 They found that decreased expression and secretion of IL- ȕ DQG ,/-6 were discovered in the COVID-19 patients. 7 +RZHYHU WKHUH ZDV QR SRVLWLYH HIIHFW RQ 71)Į concentration and IL-2 expression with curcumin treatment. To solve this limitation of curcumin treatment on inhibiting cytokines, we used cancer-derived exosomes to encapsulate the curcumin. Many research papers indicated that cancer-derived exosomes have an immunosuppressive effect in the tumor microenvironment. 8 Tumor-derived exosomes from glioma (brain cancer) GHFUHDVHG WKH H[SUHVVLRQ OHYHO RI 71)Į ,/-2, IFN-Ȗ ,/-4, IL-5, IL17, GM-CSF of Jurkat cells. 9 $V 71)Į DQG ,/-2 are present in the blood and disease tissues of patients with COVID-19, it acts as an amplifier of inflammation and is essential in acute inflammatory reactions. 10 Moreover, excessive production of both TNF and IL-2 is involved in inducing cytokine storms, which may cause severe damage to lung tissue. 11 Therefore, in this experiment, we tested a total of 12 conditions using curcumin and exosomes in different concentrations and ratios on T-cells (Jurkat), analyzing its potential effect on inhibiting TNF and IL-2.

0HWKRG DQG 0DWHULDOV Cell culture and maintenance Jurkat and A172 cells were purchased from Korea Cell Line Bank. The cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 media (Gibco) in a 5 % CO2 LQFXEDWRU DW ႏ (SSHQGRUI 7KH FHOOV ZHUH VXEFXOWXUHG LQWR D new plate every three days to maintain the cells in healthy condition. RNA Extraction from cultured cell After adding 400 μL RB Buffer (lysis buffer) to the cell pellet and 300 μL ethanol (80%) to the cell samples, transfer the samples to the 2 mL collection tubes. The cells were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 20 seconds. Repeat the centrifuging process after adding each 700μl RWA1 Buffer (washing buffer

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1) and 500 μl RWA2 Buffer (washing buffer 1). The ethanol was completely removed from the tube by centrifuging the tube once more at 14,000 rpm for 1 minute. 50~200 μL of ER Buffer (elution buffer) was added to the new tube after transferring the cells. After waiting 1 minute at room temperature a ႏ FHQWULIXJH WKH WXEHV DW USP IRU PLQXWH WR HOXWH cDNA synthesis For each cDNA synthesis reaction sample, we added 1 μL RT Buffer, 0.5 μL RT enzyme, 1 μL dNTP mixture, 0.5 μL T primer, and 7 μL of RNA, with a total of 10 μL. This step was repeated 13 times to make 13 samples for cDNA synthesis. Then, the reaction sample was placed inside the thermocycler machine to synthesize cDNA from extracted RNA. The following temperature and time conditions were XVHG ႏ IRU PLQ ႏ IRU PLQ ႏ IRU PLQ ႏ IRU VDPSOH VWRUDJH Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) PCR reaction was performed to amplify cDNA RI 71)Į ,/-2, and GAPDH. For each PCR reaction sample, we added 0.5 μL synthesized cDNA, 17.5 μL water, 1 μL primer-F, and 1 μL primer-R, with a total of 20 μL. Pre-mixed PCR reaction tubes (Bioneer) were used and the premix solution contains DNA Polymerase, dNTP, and buffer mixture. The process was repeated 13 times to make 13 samples IRU 3&5 UHDFWLRQ 7KH IROORZLQJ SULPHU VHTXHQFHV ZHUH XVHG WR DPSOLI\ 71)Į ,/-2, and GAPDH. 71)Į )RUZDUG &&7&7&7&7$$7&$*&&&7&7* 71)Į 5HYHUVH GAGGACCTGGGAGTAGATGAG. IL2- Forward: TCCTGTCTTGCATTGCACTAAG, IL2Reverse: CATCCTGGTGAGTTTGGGATTC. GAPDH Forward: GGAGCGAGATCCCTCCAAAAT, Reverse: GGCTGTTGTCATACTTCTCATGG. The following WHPSHUDWXUH DQG WLPH FRQGLWLRQV ZHUH XVHG ႏ IRU PLQ ႏ IRU VHF ႏ IRU sec ႏ IRU VHF UHSHDW VWHS WR IRU WLPHV ႏ IRU PLQ ႏ IRU VDPSOH VWRUDJH Agarose gel electrophoresis $JDURVH JHO ZDV SUHSDUHG WR YLVXDOL]H WKH DPSOLILHG F'1$ RI 71)Į ,/-2, and GAPDH. To prepare the gel, 1.3 g agarose was added to 100 mL of TBE Buffer. After microwaving for 3 minutes until the mixture is completely solubilized, add 5 μL of Red Safe (Intron) DNA staining solution. For the gel to be completely solidified, pour the solution into the gel caster and wait for 20 minutes. After the gels were solidified, the gel was placed inside the gel tank. The TBE buffer was poured until the gel was completely submerged. Then, 7 μL of amplified cDNA sample was carefully loaded into the empty well of the agarose gel. The gel was run for 20 minutes and placed on the blue illuminator to visualize the amplified DNA band. Then, the photo was taken to analyze the band intensity. The band intensity was quantified using the ImageJ program. Statistical test analysis An unpaired t-test was used to calculate the statistical significance. Prism 8 program was used to calculate the p-value, and a p-value less than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

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Figure 1. The expression level of TNF-Į ,/-2, and GAPDH on Jurkat cells using 12 different treatment conditions: 1) no treatment (negative control), 2) LPS only, 3) LPS + Curcumin, 4) LPS + Exosome, 5) LPS + Combination (1X), 6) LPS + Combination (2X), 7) LPS + Combination (3X), 8) LPS + Combination 4X), 9) LPS + Ratio (1:2), 10) LPS + Ratio (1:3), 11) LPS + Ratio (2:1), 12) LPS + Ratio (3:1) We prepared 12 different treatment conditions in this experiment. We used lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a natural adjuvant synthesized by gram-negative bacteria to activate the human T-cell (Jurkat). The high expression level of TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 represents the cytokine storm phenotype. GAPDH was used to normalize the expression level of TNF-Į DQG ,/-2. This experiment aims to find the optimal condition for inhibiting the expression level of both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2. As we expected, when we compared the band intensity of TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 between no treatment and LPS only condition, LPS treatment increased the band intensity of both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 on Jurkat cells (Figure 1). Also, the individual treatment of both curcumin and exosome decreased the band intensity of TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 compared to the LPS only condition. This result indicates that curcumin and exosome inhibit TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 dependent cytokine storms. Next, we tested the combination treatment of curcumin and exosome. We investigated four different combination conditions by increasing the concentration of both curcumin and exosome up to four times. The combination treatment of 1X and 2X showed lower band intensity of both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2. However, combination treatment of 3X and 4X showed increased band intensity compared to 1X and 2X. In addition, we also tested four different ratios of curcumin to exosome. All four combination treatments with different ratios decreased the band intensity of both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 compared to LPS only condition. In conclusion, our result indicates that combination treatment effectively inhibits the expression level of both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2, which may block the cytokine storm on T-cells.

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Figure 2. The ratio (1:3) treatment condition significantly decreased the expression level of TNF-Į compared to LPS only condition. The normalized TNF-Į H[SUHVVLRQ OHYHO ZDV FDOFXODWHG XVLQJ WKH following equation: (band intensity of TNF-Į / (band intensity of GAPDH). The mean and standard deviation is graphed. (n = 2), Unpaired t-test, ** P < 0.01. To find the optimized condition that efficiently inhibits TNF-Į GHSHQGHQW F\WRNLQH VWRUP ZH TXDQWLILHG the gene expression level of TNF-Į LQ all twelve conditions. Compared to LPS only condition, we found that Ratio (1:3) significantly decreased the expression level of TNF-Į LQ -XUNDW FHOOV )LJXUH 6LQFH an increased expression level of TNF-Į LV FRPPRQO\ IRXQG LQ WKH &29,'-19 patient’s blood with severe cytokine storm, this treatment condition may calm the overexpression of TNF-Į LQKLELWLQJ inflammation in patients lung tissue.

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Figure 3. The ratio (1:3) treatment condition significantly decreased the expression level of IL-2 compared to LPS only condition. The normalized TNF-Į H[SUHVVLRQ OHYHO ZDV FDOFXODWHG XVLQJ WKH following equation: (band intensity of IL-2) / (band intensity of GAPDH). The mean and standard deviation is graphed. (n = 2), Unpaired t-test, * P < 0.05. To find the optimized conditions that efficiently inhibit IL-2-dependent cytokine storm, we quantified the gene expression level of IL-2 in all twelve conditions. Compared to LPS only condition, we found that Ratio (1:3) significantly decreased the expression level of IL-2 in Jurkat cells (Figure 3). A high expression level of IL-2 is found in COVID-19 patients since it induces a severe cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients’ lungs. Previous studies indicated that curcumin treatment did not effectively suppress IL-2 in COVID-19 patients. However, our result showed that this Ratio (1:3) treatment would efficiently prevent the cytokine storm induced by IL-2.

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Figure 4. The proposed model for exosome encapsulated curcumin delivery that inhibits cytokine storm. Three treatment conditions were listed: 1) curcumin only, 2) exosome only, and 3) Exosomeencapsulated curcumin. Previous research indicated that curcumin alone did not inhibit TNF-Į DQG ,/-2-dependent cytokine storm. Therefore, our experiment aimed to find an optimal condition that efficiently inhibits TNF-Į DQG IL-2-dependent cytokine storm on T-cell. In this study, we tested three treatment conditions with varying curcumin and exosome concentrations and ratios; twelve conditions were investigated. Since exosome efficiently delivers the cargo into target cells, we expected that exosome encapsulated curcumin would be delivered more efficiently than curcumin alone. As a result, combination treatment with a ratio (1:3) demonstrated the most efficiency in inhibiting both TNF-Į DQG ,/-2 expression on Tcells. The prolonged half-life and increased delivery efficiency via exosome encapsulation may enhance the stability and activity of curcumin to block the cytokine storm (Figure 4).

Conclusion COVID-19, which SARS-CoV-2 causes, is expressed by diverse symptoms ranging from moderate fatigue to life-threatening problems, including cytokine storm and multiorgan failure. 12 Especially, cytokine storm was also found in patients with SARS and often led to poor outcomes. Previous studies indicated that cytokine blockade improved the survival rate of patients with COVID-19 at risk of respiratory failure. 13 However, since many cytokines induce inflammation in the lungs, current cytokine blocking treatment is limited. Also, previous studies showed that high serum IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-Į OHYHOV DW KRVSLWDOL]DWLRQ ZHUe strong and independent predictors of low patient survival rates. 14 Therefore, our study aims to find the effect of blocking TNF-Į DQG ,/-2. We focused on the curcumin treatment, which has shown blocking inflammation effects on COVID-19 patients. However, curcumin alone cannot block IL-2 and TNF-Į-dependent inflammation. 15 To

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) increase the efficacy of blocking both IL-2 and TNF-Į ZH HQFDSVXODWH WKH FXUFXPLQ ZLWK WKH KXPDQ brain cancer cell exosome, which is known to change the cytokine molecules in T-cell. As we hypothesized, the combination treatment of curcumin and exosome with 1:3 ratio showed the most effective blocking cytokines of IL-2 and TNF-Į 7KLV UHVXOW LQGLFDWHV WKDW RXU QHZ PHWKRG FDQ EH applied to patients with COVID-19-dependent inflammations to calm the cytokine storm. One of the limitations of our study is that only Jurkat T-cell was used during the experiment. More types of immune cells (T-cells) should be used to validate our experimental result. Moreover, the mouse model should also be tested to confirm our results, while our study only performed cell experiments. In the future, clinical studies comparing control groups to exosome encapsulated curcumin treatment groups should be performed. Another limitation is that our experiment only investigated blocking IL-2 and TNF-Į $V F\WRNLQH VWRUPV FDQ EH LQGXFHG E\ KXQGUHGV RI JHQHV GHSHQGLQJ RQ JURZWK IDFWRUV DQG hormones, we should explore more types of cytokine genes that can be controlled by exosome encapsulated curcumin.

$FNQRZOHGJPHQW I would like to express my special thanks to my primary supervisor, who guided me throughout this project in research and experiments. I would also like to show appreciation to my family, who supported me and allowed me to extend my insight into the study.

Reference (1)

(2) (3) (4) (5)

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Dhama, K.; Khan, S.; Tiwari, R.; Sircar, S.; Bhat, S.; Malik, Y. S.; Singh, K. P.; Chaicumpa, W.; Bonilla-Aldana, D. K.; Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. Coronavirus Disease 2019-COVID-19. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2020, 33 (4). Van Kerkhove, M. D. COVID-19 in 2022: Controlling the Pandemic Is within Our Grasp. Nat. Med. 2021, 27 (12), 2070. Tang, Y.; Liu, J.; Zhang, D.; Xu, Z.; Ji, J.; Wen, C. Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: The Current Evidence and Treatment Strategies. Front. Immunol. 2020, 11, 1708. Hojyo, S.; Uchida, M.; Tanaka, K.; Hasebe, R.; Tanaka, Y.; Murakami, M.; Hirano, T. How COVID-19 Induces Cytokine Storm with High Mortality. Inflamm. Regen. 2020, 40, 37. Conti, P.; Caraffa, A.; Gallenga, C. E.; Ross, R.; Kritas, S. K.; Frydas, I.; Younes, A.; Ronconi, G. Coronavirus-19 (SARS-CoV-2) Induces Acute Severe Lung Inflammation via IL-1 Causing Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: A Promising Inhibitory Strategy. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents 2020, 34 (6), 1971–1975. Hewlings, S. J.; Kalman, D. S. Curcumin: A Review of Its Effects on Human Health. Foods 2017, 6 (10). Ahmadi, R.; Salari, S.; Sharifi, M. D.; Reihani, H.; Rostamiani, M. B.; Behmadi, M.; Taherzadeh, Z.; Eslami, S.; Rezayat, S. M.; Jaafari, M. R.; et al. Oral Nano-Curcumin Formulation Efficacy in the Management of Mild to Moderate Outpatient COVID-19: A Randomized Triple-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Food Sci. Nutr. 2021, 9 (8), 4068–4075. 2OHMDU] : 'RPLQLDN $ ĩRáQLHU]DN $ .XELDN-Tomaszewska, G.; Lorenc, T. TumorDerived Exosomes in Immunosuppression and Immunotherapy. J. Immunol. Res. 2020, 2020, 6272498.

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Domenis, R.; Cesselli, D.; Toffoletto, B.; Bourkoula, E.; Caponnetto, F.; Manini, I.; Beltrami, A. P.; Ius, T.; Skrap, M.; Di Loreto, C.; et al. Systemic T Cells Immunosuppression of Glioma Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Is Mediated by Monocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. PLoS ONE 2017, 12 (1), e0169932. Luo, W.; Zhang, J.-W.; Zhang, W.; Lin, Y.-L.; Wang, Q. Circulating Levels of IL-2, IL-4, TNF-Į ,)1-Ȗ DQG &-Reactive Protein Are Not Associated with Severity of COVID-19 Symptoms. J. Med. Virol. 2021, 93 (1), 89–91. Costela-Ruiz, V. J.; Illescas-Montes, R.; Puerta-Puerta, J. M.; Ruiz, C.; Melguizo-Rodríguez, L. SARS-CoV-2 Infection: The Role of Cytokines in COVID-19 Disease. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020, 54, 62–75. Coperchini, F.; Chiovato, L.; Croce, L.; Magri, F.; Rotondi, M. The Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: An Overview of the Involvement of the Chemokine/Chemokine-Receptor System. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020, 53, 25–32. Jose, R. J.; Manuel, A. COVID-19 Cytokine Storm: The Interplay between Inflammation and Coagulation. Lancet Respir. Med. 2020, 8 (6), e46–e47. Del Valle, D. M.; Kim-Schulze, S.; Huang, H.-H.; Beckmann, N. D.; Nirenberg, S.; Wang, B.; Lavin, Y.; Swartz, T. H.; Madduri, D.; Stock, A.; et al. An Inflammatory Cytokine Signature Predicts COVID-19 Severity and Survival. Nat. Med. 2020, 26 (10), 1636–1643. Zahedipour, F.; Hosseini, S. A.; Sathyapalan, T.; Majeed, M.; Jamialahmadi, T.; Al-Rasadi, K.; Banach, M.; Sahebkar, A. Potential Effects of Curcumin in the Treatment of COVID-19 Infection. Phytother. Res. 2020, 34 (11), 2911–2920.

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Cortical Thickness Patterns in Cognitively Normal and Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia Populations Author 1

Full Name

Seo, Jeong Yeon

Chadwick International

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that gradually impairs cognitive ability to the extent that it interferes with the ability to perform everyday activities. Recent findings have shown that early diagnosis is important for delaying disease progression. With advancements in technology, machine learning (ML) has the ability to support traditional methods of clinical decision-making. In this study, we compared the patterns of cortical thickness in cognitively normal individuals and those with AD dementia to build ML algorithms capable of accurately predicting the diagnosis. We first processed the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative dataset using the CIVET pipeline. After filtering out participants who did not meet the inclusion criteria, we applied two different ML algorithms, random forest and neural network, and compared the two ML models with a traditional logistic regression method. Our results indicate that the ML algorithms allow prediction of patients with AD with a higher accuracy than logistic regression. Our findings demonstrate the potential of ML algorithms for use in clinical trials to reduce failures in the screening process during the recruitment of participants with AD.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with the loss of neurons and reduction in brain volume, which the amyloid cascade hypothesis proposes to be caused by the deposition of beta-amyloid and tau proteins. Brain atrophy causes continuous cognitive deterioration, which affects an individual’s ability to function independently. AD is a growing threat to public health given the increasingly aging world population. The World Alzheimer’s Report in 2021 estimated that over 55 million individuals suffer from AD and other forms of dementia worldwide, and this number is projected to reach 78 million by 2030, and 139 million by 2050 (Gauthier et al.). Given the detrimental psychological and economic impact of dementia on society, the exponential rise in the number of patients has brought about a renewed focus on understanding its pathogenesis and attempts to find better treatment strategies for AD, the most predominant cause of dementia. The process of formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neurotic plaques, which are suggested to be causative of AD, occurs in a series of five stages. At the macroscopic level, the transentorhinal (stage I) and entorhinal regions (stage II) are initially affected, followed by the limbic area (stages III and IV). Afterward, changes occur in the neocortical higher-order sensory association and prefrontal areas (stage V) and, ultimately, in the primary sensory fields (Braak and Braak, 1991). At the microscopic level, pathological changes in AD predominantly occur in the cortical gray matter, resulting in cortical atrophy (Mirra et al., 1991), although some studies also report white matter changes in the early stages of AD (Schletens et al., 1995). A previous study demonstrated that cortical atrophy is correlated with ADrelated cognitive decline (Mungas et al., 2002). Previous studies on AD using structural neuroimaging have measured atrophy of the medial temporal lobe in manually traced regions of interest (Jack et al., 2004). Particularly, the reduction of cortical gray matter volume in AD has been studied using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). Although this method allows the measurement of atrophic changes across the entire cortex (Karas et al., 2004; Bell-McGinty et al., 2005; Chetelat et al., 2005; Pennanen et al., 2005), it does not allow accurate measurement of gray matter morphology and localization in the sulcal regions, where fine anatomical details are often obscured by the partial volume effect. In contrast, the recently developed cortical thickness measurement method uses cortical surfaces, and distinguishes between cortices with opposing sulcal walls within the same sulcal bed, enabling more precise measurement in deep sulci and analysis of brain morphology in the form of a cortical sheet (Lerch and Evans, 2005). Advances in technology have led to the development of machine learning (ML) to support traditional methods of clinical decision-making. ML uses a combination of problem-solving algorithms, methods, and strategies from the branches of statistics, computer science, and data science to support the clinical field. Prior to the growth of machine-learning approaches, researchers used complex rule-based algorithms that required constant complicated modifications whenever oddities were discovered in data. These methods of human-based observations and judgment are subject to limitations such as biases due to differences in individual standards. In contrast, ML allows for human-free, objective diagnosis as its algorithms standardize the benchmarks. ML facilitates this process by learning latent patterns to discover additional patterns of increased complexity or abstraction within data. Classifiers such as random forest (RF) and neural network (NNET) are examples of the use of machine learning as alternative analytical method for diagnosis.

292

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) In this study, we aimed to investigate the cortical thickness patterns in cognitively normal (CN) individuals and those with AD by analyzing magnetic resonance images of the participants’ brains. First, we compared cortical thickness between patients with AD and CN participants. Second, we developed ML-based classifiers using the distinct features of cortical thickness in patients with AD, to discriminate between patients with AD and CN participants, and further compared the ML algorithms with a traditional logistic regression method. Based on previous findings of cortical atrophy in AD, we hypothesized that patients with AD might have decreased cortical thickness compared with CN participants. Furthermore, we also hypothesized that the ML classifiers, by use of distinct features of cortical thickness, might show good to excellent accuracy and more effectively discriminate the two participant groups than logistic regression.

Methods Data acquisition Data used in the preparation of this article were obtained from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) database, a public-private partnership launched in 2003, led by Principal Investigator Michael W. Weiner, MD. The main goal of ADNI has been to test whether clinical and cognitive assessments, positron emission tomography, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other biological markers can be combined to evaluate the progression of CN, mild cognitive impairment, and early ADD populations. Study participants This study included 808 CN participants and 391 ADD-diagnosed patients from the ADNI dataset. Detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria of the ADNI data are provided on the ADNI website (http://www.adni-info.org). Briefly, all participants were between the ages of 55 and 90 years, had completed a minimum of 6 years and maximum of 20 years of education, and were free of any other significant diseases. All participants fulfilled the criteria for probable AD proposed by the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke and the Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association (McKhann et al., 1984). CN participants met the following criteria: (1) no complaints of memory issues; (2) normal memory function score on the Wechsler Memory Scale; Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) score of 24–30; clinical dementia rating = 0; memory box score = 0; and (3) cognitively normal, based on an absence of significant impairments in cognitive functions or activities of daily living. All participants provided written informed consent and underwent the protocols approved by the institutional review board of each participating site. The data use and publication by the authors were approved by the ADNI Data Sharing and Publications Committee. Image acquisition and processing, and cortical thickness measurement The three-dimensional MRI acquisition protocols used for ADNI data are described elsewhere (www.adni-info.org). To obtain local cortical thickness measurements for each participant, all T1 volume scans were processed using the CIVET pipeline (version 2.1.0) developed at the Montreal Neurological Institute for fully automated structural image analysis. In brief, using linear transformation, native MRI images were registered to the MNI-152 template. The N3 algorithm was used to correct the nonuniform intensity caused by inhomogeneities in the magnetic field. Next, the tissue was classified into white

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) matter (WM), gray matter (GM), CSF, and background based on the T1-weighed images. The brain was split into left and right hemispheres for surface extraction. The inner and outer cortical surfaces were automatically extracted using constrained Laplacian-based automated segmentation with Proximities algorithm. The inner and outer surfaces had the same number of vertices, and there was close correspondence between the counterpart vertices of the two surfaces. Cortical thickness was defined as the Euclidean distance between the linked vertices of the inner and outer surfaces. There were 40,962 vertices in each hemisphere in the native space. Cortical thickness values were calculated in the native brain spaces rather than in Talairach spaces because of the limitations of linear stereotaxic normalization. Intracranial volume (ICV) is defined as the total volume of GM, WM, and CSF. We calculated ICV by measuring the total volume of voxels within the brain mask. Brain masks were generated using the bet algorithm of the functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain software library. Because cortical surface models were extracted from MRI volumes transformed into stereotaxic space, cortical thickness was measured in the native space by applying an inverse transformation matrix to the cortical surfaces and reconstructing them in the native space. Surface-based diffusion smoothing with a full-width at half-maximum of 20 mm was used to blur each cortical thickness map, which increased the signal-to-noise ratio and statistical power (Chung et al., 2003; Im et al., 2006). For global and lobar regional analyses, we used the lobe-parcellated group template that had been previously divided into frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes using the SUMA software (http://afni.nimh.nih.gov) (Im et al. 2006). The cortical thickness of each lobe was calculated as the average of all vertices in each lobar region. The global cortical thickness was calculated as the average of the cortical thickness of all lobes. To measure hippocampal volume, we used an automated hippocampus segmentation method using a graph cut algorithm combined with atlas-based segmentation and morphological opening, as described in an earlier study.

Development of classifiers We developed two ML algorithms: RF and NNET. The RF algorithm, proposed by Breiman, builds a tree ensemble predictor with multiple decision trees, in which the predictions of multiple trees are aggregated by averaging or majority voting. RF is a group of learning methods for classification, regression, and other functions that constructs a multitude of decision trees. NNET, proposed by McCullough and Pitts, is a network of artificial neurons or nodes that models complex patterns in datasets by utilizing multiple hidden layers and nonlinear activation functions. Predictive performance was estimated using the area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC). For further assessment of accuracy, the ML classifiers were compared with logistic regression, a widely used traditional binary classification method. Statistical analysis The present study compared the demographic and clinical variables using the Student’s t-test and chisquare test for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. To compare the patterns of cortical thickness between the CN and AD groups, we performed logistic regression after controlling for age, sex, education, and ICV. All analyses were performed using the stats package from R (version 3.6.1; R Project for Statistical Computing).

294

KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Approach to develop classifiers First, we preprocessed the ADNI dataset by cleaning and filtering out data that did not meet the inclusion criteria of this study. We merged the demographic data with the MRI dataset using the patient ID (RID) and visit code (VISCODE). In the merged data, we selected relevant variables, such as age, sex, educational attainment, MMSE score, clinical diagnosis, and cortical thickness. Subsequently, using the createDataPartition function in the R caret package, we divided the data into training and testing sets with a 60/40 split. To create the demographic table, we acquired the mean and standard deviation values for participants with CN and AD diagnoses using the R statistics package. We then derived the p-values by conducting a t-test for continuous variables and a chi-square test for categorical variables. For the box plots, we conducted a t-test for the MRI cortical thickness variables between the two diagnosis groups (CN and AD) to determine whether there was a significant difference. A t-test compares the mean values of the two groups to assess whether they originated from the same distribution. A significant p-value suggests a significant difference in the patterns of cortical thickness between CN and AD groups, which would allow for the development of classifiers that discriminate the two groups based on MRI features. Finally, we developed the ML classifiers, RF, and NNET by conducting 10-fold cross-validation on the training dataset. Subsequently, the classifiers were tested on the test dataset. The predicted diagnosis probabilities were compared to the actual diagnostic values of the testing dataset to measure the accuracy of each classifier. ROC curves were constructed to compare the accuracies of the classifiers. For the RF classifier, a grid search approach was used to find hyperparameters, such as mtry (the number of predictors sampled for splitting at each node). Similarly, a grid search approach was also used for the NNET classifier to tune the hyperparameters, such as the size (number of units in the hidden layer) and decay (regularization parameter to prevent overfitting). Finally, a logistic regression classifier was developed to compare the accuracies of the machine learning-based approaches with those of traditional methods.

Results Participant characteristics The demographic and clinical characteristics of the participants are summarized in Table 1. The participants in the AD group were older than those in the CN group (AD 74.6 ± 8.0 years vs. CN 72.5 ± 6.1 years). The proportion/frequency of female participants was higher in the CN group (56.1%) than in the AD group (47.3%). The CN participants had longer years of education than the patients with AD (CN 16.5 ± 2.6 years vs. AD 15.3 ± 3.0 years). There was no difference in ICV values between the two groups (AD 1526321.2 ± 175567.3 vs. CN 1504924.0 ± 160342.8). Lastly, patients with AD showed significantly lower MMSE scores than CN participants (AD 29.1 ± 1.1 vs. CN 23.0 ± 2.1).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Table 1. Demographics of the participants in the CN and AD groups CN (N=468)

AD (N=252)

p-value

Age, years (mean ± SD)

72.8 ± 6.4

75.0 ± 8.0

< 0.001

Sex, % female

260 (55.6 %)

117 (46.4%)

0.02

Education, years (mean ± SD)

16.6 ± 2.7

15.1 ± 3.0

< 0.001

ICV (mean ± SD)

1506964.0 ± 158586.7

1529758.3± 181697.9

0.09

MMSE (mean ± SD)

29.1 ± 1.1

23.2 ± 2.1

< 0.001

Abbreviations: CN, cognitively normal; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; SD, standard deviation; ICV, intracranial volume; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination Comparison of cortical thickness between CN and AD groups

As shown in Figure 1, the hippocampal volumes in patients with AD were significantly lower than those in CN participants (p < 0.001) (Table 2). Patients with AD also showed significantly decreased cortical thickness in the frontal, parietal, and temporal regions compared with CN participants (p < 0.001) (Table 2). Figure 1. Comparison of hippocampal volume and regional cortical thickness between CN and AD groups. Abbreviations: CN, cognitively normal; AD, Alzheimer’s disease

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Table 2. Hippocampal volume and cortical thickness in CN and AD groups CN (N=483)

AD (N=237)

p-value

HV mm³ (mean ± SD)

3718.549 ± 436.0524

2998.973 ± 507.0569

< 0.001

Cth_Frontal mm (mean ± SD)

2.258 ± 0.1014

2.147 ± 0.1283 < 0.001

Cth_Temporal (mean ± SD)

2.264 ± 0.1242

2.096 ± 0.1580

< 0.001

Cth_Parietal mm (mean ± SD)

2.754 ± 0.1139

2.512 ± 0.1750

< 0.001

CN, cognitively normal; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; HV, hippocampal volume; Cth, cortical thickness Classifier Performance Figure 2 presents the AUCs of logistic regression, RF, and NNET. The logistic regression classifier yielded an AUC of 0.946. The highest AUC was 0.981, which was achieved using the RF classifier. The NNET classifier had an AUC of 0.950. The RF and NNET classifiers showed greater accuracy and AUC than the logistic regression classifier. Figure 2. ROC Curves of different classifiers

Abbreviation: ROC, receiver operating characteristic; AUC, area under the curve

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Discussion In the present study, we developed ML approaches for the prediction of AD using cortical thickness patterns from the ADNI dataset. Our major findings were as follows: First, participants with AD showed decreased cortical thickness compared with CN participants. Second, the classifiers that we developed exhibited excellent accuracy. Taken together, our findings suggest that an ML-based algorithm allows us to individually predict patients with AD in clinical practice and research. Furthermore, our newly developed ML algorithm may provide important information for the recruitment of AD participants in clinical trials, which would be helpful in reducing screening failures. Our first major finding was that patients with AD showed decreased cortical thickness compared with CN participants. Our findings are consistent with those of previous studies, which showed significant differences in cortical thickness between CN participants and patients with AD, using various neuroimaging methods. The average cortical thickness was reported to be substantially lower in the frontal, parietal, temporal, and cingulate regions in patients with AD than in CN participants throughout these studies (Lerch, 2004; Dickerson and Wolk, 2012). Our results are consistent with the widely accepted fact that individuals with AD tend to show decreased cortical thickness compared to CN individuals. AD is characterized by predominant damage to frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes of the brain. The frontal lobe, the most anterior part of the brain, plays a crucial role in cognitive skills including planning, self-monitoring, attention, and decision-making. The temporal lobe, located in the inferior part of the brain, performs vital functions, such as emotion processing and language comprehension. Embedded deep in the temporal lobe is the hippocampus, the cortical region that plays a major role in regulating learning and memory. The parietal lobe, which is located behind the frontal lobe and above the temporal lobe, is essential for sensory perception and integration as well as spatial awareness. In individuals with AD, the neurons are injured and degenerated, breaking the connections between neural networks and causing shrinkage in many brain regions. When this damage occurs in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, it reflects symptoms of AD. Damage to the frontal lobe results in loss of motivation, increased feelings of lethargy, difficulty concentrating or planning, and an increase in impulsivity. The loss of neurons in the temporal lobe leads to complications in language comprehension, production, and selfcontrol. Additionally, impairment of the hippocampus can cause spatial disorientation and memory disorders such as amnesia or long-term memory loss. Finally, damage to the parietal lobe can cause navigation difficulties and a lack of awareness of the surrounding space. These deficits are examples of the classic symptoms of AD. These AD symptoms, such as memory loss, spatial disorientation, difficulty in language comprehension, impulsivity, and loss of motivation, can hence be viewed as the consequence of brain atrophy. Our second major finding was that the classifiers we developed showed excellent accuracy. In general, an AUC of 0.8 to 0.9 is considered excellent (Mandrekar, 2010). All three classifiers that we developed showed AUCs of over 0.9, with the two ML classifiers showing higher accuracy than the traditional logistic regression classifier. A previous study showed an RF classification accuracy of 89% between patients with AD and CN participants (Gray et al., 2013). Another study which used NN showed an AUC of 0.897 for the discriminating patients with AD from CN participants (Wang et al., 2019). Previous investigations using ML classifiers to discriminate between patients with AD and CN participants showed excellent accuracy, which is consistent with our results.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) We were able to conduct this study because of the availability of various clinical data through the ADNI, which is a large cohort of well-characterized participants. The clinical and imaging data provided therein were based on standardized protocols and analyses. However, this study has a few limitations. First, although participants clinically diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies and who had moderate to severe white matter hyperintensity were excluded from the ADNI dataset, we did not consider the effects of other neurodegenerative pathologies, including FHUHEURYDVFXODU GLVHDVH Į-synuclein, transactive response DNA-binding protein, argyrophilic grain pathology, and hippocampal sclerosis, on the progression model. Second, there is a limitation to the generalizability of the outcomes of this study, since this was conducted only using the ADNI dataset. External validation in another independent cohort should be conducted in the future. Nevertheless, our study is noteworthy in that it demonstrated that an algorithm can estimate the individual prediction of patients with AD. Therefore, developing a better understanding of the algorithms and integration of machine learning into clinical practice is a critical step to support the development of general population prediction models for patients with AD. In conclusion, this study developed an ML algorithm to predict patients with AD. This ML algorithm is expected to be useful in clinical practice and in the research field because it can identify the degree to which individual risk factors influence each patient.

References Bell-McGinty, Sandra, et al. “Differential Cortical Atrophy in Subgroups of Mild Cognitive Impairment.” Archives of Neurology, vol. 62, no. 9, 2005, p. 1393., https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.62.9.1393. Braak, H., and E. Braak. “Neuropathological Stageing of Alzheimer-Related Changes.” Acta Neuropathologica, vol. 82, no. 4, 1991, pp. 239–259., https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00308809. Chung, Moo K., et al. “Cortical Thickness Analysis in Autism with Heat Kernel Smoothing.” NeuroImage, vol. 25, no. 4, 2005, pp. 1256–1265., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.12.052. Chételat, G., et al. “Using Voxel-Based Morphometry to Map the Structural Changes Associated with Rapid Conversion in MCI: A Longitudinal MRI Study.” NeuroImage, vol. 27, no. 4, 2005, pp. 934–946., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.05.015. Gauthier, Serge, et al. Alzheimer's Disease International, London, England, 2021, World Alzheimer Report 2021: Journey through the Diagnosis of Dementia. Gray, Katherine R., et al. “Random Forest-Based Similarity Measures for Multi-Modal Classification of Alzheimer's Disease.” NeuroImage, vol. 65, 2013, pp. 167–175., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.09.065. Im, Kiho, et al. “Gender Difference Analysis of Cortical Thickness in Healthy Young Adults with Surface-Based Methods.” NeuroImage, vol. 31, no. 1, 2006, pp. 31–38., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.042.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Jack, C. R., et al. “Comparison of Different MRI Brain Atrophy Rate Measures with Clinical Disease Progression in AD.” Neurology, vol. 62, no. 4, 2004, pp. 591–600., https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000110315.26026.ef. Karas, G.B., et al. “Global and Local Gray Matter Loss in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease.” NeuroImage, vol. 23, no. 2, 2004, pp. 708–716., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.006. Lerch, Jason P., and Alan C. Evans. “Cortical Thickness Analysis Examined through Power Analysis and a Population Simulation.” NeuroImage, vol. 24, no. 1, 2005, pp. 163–173., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.045. Mandrekar, Jayawant N. “Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve in Diagnostic Test Assessment.” Journal of Thoracic Oncology, vol. 5, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1315–1316., https://doi.org/10.1097/jto.0b013e3181ec173d. McKhann, G., et al. “Clinical Diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease: Report of the NINCDS-Adrda Work Group* under the Auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease.” Neurology, vol. 34, no. 7, 1984, pp. 939–939., https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.34.7.939. Mirra, S. S., et al. “The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD): Part II. Standardization of the Neuropathologic Assessment of Alzheimer's Disease.” Neurology, vol. 41, no. 4, 1991, pp. 479–479., https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.41.4.479. Mungas, D., et al. “Volumetric MRI Predicts Rate of Cognitive Decline Related to AD and Cerebrovascular Disease.” Neurology, vol. 59, no. 6, 2002, pp. 867–873., https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.59.6.867. Pennanen, C. “A Voxel Based Morphometry Study on Mild Cognitive Impairment.” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, vol. 76, no. 1, 2005, pp. 11–14., https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2004.035600. Scheltens, Philip, et al. “Visual Assessment of Medial Temporal Lobe Atrophy on Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Interobserver Reliability.” Journal of Neurology, vol. 242, no. 9, 1995, pp. 557–560., https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00868807. Wang, Yunli, et al. “Harnessing Pre-Trained Neural Networks with Rules for Formality Style Transfer.” Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP), 2019, https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d19-1365.

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Using EEG in Productivity Environment Research on Brain Science Approaches Author 1

Author 2

Full Name

Seo,Jiye

School Name

Fayston Preparatory School

Full Name

Seo, Seungbum

Fayston Preparatory School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

Recently, many studies have been conducted on the effect of a pleasant environment on productivity through brain science. According to the American Society of Sleep Medicine, as a result of the EEG of PSG, it was found that the beta wave increased by 6% depending on the frequency band. In addition, it was also examined through the NASA-TLX Scale. K-WS: Included in the Wechsler Intelligence experiment are the Language Comprehension Index (VCI), the Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), the Working Memory Index (WMI), and the Processing Speed Index (PSI). The evaluation result of 91.3% was secured in the Productivity environment. It was found that 12.7% showed a high concentration evaluation and improved performance. Environmental controls affect arousal and productivity, so they are expected to be used in schools and offices.

Keywords: NASA-TLX Rating Scale, K-WS: Wechsler Scale of Intelligence, PSG(Polysomnography), EEG, AHI(Apnea–hypopnea index)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Concentration-related research to improve work ability and improve comfort through productivity improvement is continuously being conducted. First of all, good sleep quality is necessary to improve concentration. The higher the quality of your sleep, the more focused you can work the next day. Sleep is the most important resting method as a mechanism for restoring body functions and maintaining strength and health. Sleep affects various parts, such as the quality of life, energy, thinking ability, productivity, general health, and longevity, and recent studies have shown that cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes are also related to sleep. While adequate sleep promotes health, lack of sleep causes fatigue, drowsiness, decrease in memory and concentration, agitation, and tension affecting daytime function. In the previous study results, Fisk1), Apt2), Shaughnessy3), and Samura 4) showed that the higher the CO2 concentration, the lower the work performance, and the higher the ventilation rate, the higher the performance score. Recently, there is an increasing number of cases in which AI and IoT are combined with artificial intelligence to reduce drowsiness and improve arousal so that work ability is analyzed together. 5) In this study, the contents were reflected in the concentrated airflow through the results of a customer survey on the analysis of the preferred wind and air conditioner usage patterns in summer and winter in advance. In this experiment, through Apnea Link in advance, the experiment was conducted on subjects with excellent sleep quality of Level 5 or lower, and the reliability of the experimental results was increased. As a basic study for improving concentration, this study evaluated how much more concentration is improved in temperature and airflow environments through brain waves and human physiological responses.

2. Research Design and Methods 2.1. Sleep environment evaluation index (PSG: Polysomnography) In this study, it was decided to set the brain wave, which is the most important factor as an index related to concentration, as an evaluation index. In addition, evaluation indicators such as NASA-TLX (task load index) were supplemented as indicators of the experiment. In the experiment, polysomnography (PSG) was used to determine the effect of EEG results on concentration. PSG is an experimental method standardized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM). Polysomnography (PSG) is a kind of medical test that provides objective data to accurately diagnose sleep disorders and evaluate the degree of the disorder. For polysomnography, the main items of sleep electroencephalography (EEG), eye movement (EOG), mandibular electromyography (Chin EMG), leg electromyography (Leg EMG), and electrocardiogram (EKG) are the main items. 2.2. Human side conditions Subjects, through a preliminary review that the quality of sleep the day before affects concentration the next day, subjects who did not have an average level of sleep disorder in advance with Apnea Link, BMI standard body type (20-25, Sleep Test (AHI <5)) was selected and the experiment was carried out.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The experiment mainly started from 12:00 pm until about 6:00 pm and evaluated the concentration of the subjects during the time of high activity in consideration of the circadian rhythm. Each subject was subjected to an experiment for a total of 2 hours, with 1 hour of preheating time and 1 hour of main experiment. (*AHI : Apnea-hypopnea index) 2.3. Experiment environment In the preheating environment such as temperature and humidity, an environment of 30 degrees was configured, and then the experiment was conducted under the experimental conditions suitable for each condition. Clothing was a short-sleeved T-shirt, shorts, and underwear, about 0.32 clo. (7) The experiment was conducted in the summer over two years from June 2020 to August 2021. 2.4. Experiment sequence 1) The experiment outline was explained to the subjects and the conditions were randomized. 2) When the subject arrives, first check the health status (measurement weight, blood pressure, write a questionnaire), attach the sensor, and normalize the initial environment for 60 minutes in this laboratory. 3) The EEG sensor was directly attached by a clinical sleep technician to see the effect on EEG by raising or lowering the temperature. 4) Conduct the word test and the questionnaire related to concentration twice during the warm-up time and the experiment time. Subjective evaluation of the thermal environment is conducted every 10 minutes. 5) In the word memorization test method, 40 randomly selected words were memorized for 5 minutes, and the memorized words were written for 5 minutes. 6) After the end of the experiment, remove the EEG sensor. Figure 1 shows an experimental photo with sensor attached.

Figure 1. Experimental photo with sensor attached

3. Results and Potential Contribution 1) Preferred wind patterns in summer and winter were analyzed. In summer, natural and pleasant winds were preferred, and in winter, winds that were not directly touched and felt were preferred. In addition, in the analysis of air conditioner usage patterns, air conditioners are essential when working or studying

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) in summer (74.29%), and only 20% answered that they are necessary only when it is occasionally hot.( 35 respondents were surveyed using Survey Monkey Online Program) Figure 3 and Figure 4 shows preferred airflow customer survey results.

Figure 2. Summer Preferred Airflow Customer Survey Results ( N=35) Q: Check two or more of your favorite winds in summer.

Figure 3. Winter Preferred Airflow Customer Survey Results ( N=35) Q: Check two or more of your favorite winds in winter.

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Figure. 3 EEG frequency bands and their associated mental state and EEG band

Increased alpha and beta waves

Figure 4. Increase of alpha and beta waves before and after the experiment

Figure 5. Performance Results

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2) In the evaluation of human concentration, 78.6% in an environment of 26 degrees and 91.3% in an environment of 24 were obtained. It was found that the concentration airflow improved the performance by showing a 12.7% higher concentration evaluation in an environment of 24 degrees. 3) As a result of EEG analysis in a focused environment, it was found that beta waves were improved by more than 6%. Through this experiment, it was predicted that cooling of the body could be avoided and concentration could be improved for a long time through vane control that gave airflow volume and fluctuations rather than general comfortable cooling. In the case of beta waves, it mainly occurs in the frontal part of the brain, and it appears during all conscious activities such as waking and talking, and it appears predominantly in an anxious state, tension, or complex calculation processing.

Figure 6. Beta Wave Results During the EEG experiment, there was a high risk of noise from the surrounding environment, so it was analyzed that good results could be affected by conducting and controlling the experiment one by one. The concentration environment shows a high evaluation through the survey, and the high score on the word memory test has a large effect on arousal and efficiency, so its use in improving work efficiency in schools and offices is greatly expected. 5. References (1) R. J. Shaughnessy, et al, A preliminary study on the association between ventilation rates in classrooms and student performance, Indoor Air, 2006 (2) WJ Fisk, P Price, D Faulkner, et al. , Productivity and Ventilation Rate: Analyses of Time-Series Data for a Group of Call-Center Workers (3) M.G.Apte, W.J.Fisk and J.M.Daisey , Associations between indoor CO2 concentrations and sick building syndrome in US office buildings: An analysis of the 1994-1996 BASE study data , Indoor Air, 2000 (4) 葱貐膟虼ஆ缋莇譣蹥(2018)澀蘯ြ斍藞輠綖ံ斍藞峠縠္鿉ဧၙ舻纛G ( 説 9 荨) CO2 翑聏挰輀缝၁硐蝁輠綖ယ覥蛩蔒ံ蒥膱蘴膱胴္缝၊ဧ蝞蹫, 趮蔔 30 羭聏縙瘾諝輁࣭袤蒥縒斍奁耵奁, p.169-172

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) (5)蓁蚢藁 et.al(2018), 譪訝蒥葦蔒ၠ緷၏ၙ縙糩ၠ旆躇ဧၙଞ஛ண࣭ண௉ம輥蠯躧譪訝輠綖誡蛌ႃႅ႒Ⴌြ舻纛紹股ஂ説஌荨ஃ႞Ⴑ࣮ႪႿႡၭၻႋ࣮ံဥဴ贒訫蔒ံ舦瘾ၠ編胺ဥိ蘯宬輠綖誡蛌ြ獃赟, 趮蔔 30 羭聏縙瘾諝輁࣭袤蒥縒斍奁耵奁 P.177-180 (6) Fanger,P.O.:Thermal Comfort, McGraw- Hill Book 1970 (7) Kurazumi, Y.et al., 1999, The effective radiation area and configuration factor for the person sitting on a floor, J. Archit. Plann. Environ. Eng., AIJ, No.479, pp. 27-33 (8) The influence of sleep on auditory learning: a behavioral study, Gaab, Nadine; Paetzold, Miriam1; Becker, Markus2; Walker, Matthew P.3; Schlaug, GottfriedCA , NeuroReport: March 22nd, 2004 Volume 15 - Issue 4 - p 731-734 (9) Hart, S. G. & Staveland, L. E. (1988) Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In P. A. Hancock and N. Meshkati (Eds.) Human Mental Workload. Amsterdam: North Holland Press. (10) Liu, Y. L., & Wickens, C. D. (1994) Mental workload and cognitive task automaticity - An evaluation of subjective and time-estimation metrics, Ergonomics, 37 (11), 1843-1854 (11) Rubio, S. et al (2004), Evaluation of subjective mental workload: A comparison of SWAT, NASA-TLX, and Workload Profile, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(1), 61-86. (12) Somer M. Nacy, Controlling a Servo Motor Using EEG Signals from the Primary Motor Cortex, American Journal of Biomedical Engineering 2016, 6(5): 139-146 (13) ASHRAE55-1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions For Human Occupancy, ASHRAE Atlanta (14) Lee,J.Y., Han J.K.(2010), Optimal Air Temperature Summer Sleep Environment in Rem Sleep., SLEEP 2010 24th Annual Meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, LLC (APSS), June 5 ~ 9, San Antonio, Texas, USA

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A Study on the Effect of Comfortable Sleep Using Polysomnography (PSG) Author 1

Author 2

Full Name

Seo, Seungbum

School Name

Fayston Preparatory School

Full Name

Seo,Jiye

Fayston Preparatory School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

This study evaluated the comfort of a customer using an air conditioner in a tropical night environment, verifying a comfortable sleep effect. The experiment was conducted during the summer season at night time. Verification and evaluation were carried out through physiological and psychological evaluations. In the physiological evaluation, the skin temperature 7-point scale, rectal temperature, and PSG(polysomnography) were obtained through sleep efficiency and awakening through EEG, EMG, safety, and PLM. That's right. Psychological assessments were performed before and after sleep, through evaluation of warmth, comfort, room temperature, and satisfaction. In this study, the awakening result according to the temperature change of the REM cycle was able to derive the comfort sleep effect through the development of a comfortable environment.

Keywords: PSG(polysomnography), REM(Rapid Eye Movement), Thermal Sensation Vote(TSV), Thermal Comfort Vote (TCV), EEG(Electroencephalogram)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Sleep is the most important resting method as a mechanism to restore body functions, maintain strength, and is known to affect the quality of life. While adequate sleep promotes health, and wellbeing, lack of sleep affects daytime function by causing fatigue, drowsiness, decreased memory, concentration, agitation, and tension. Therefore, sleep is absolutely essential for maintaining physiological and mental improvement which affects the quality of life. However, the sleeping environment has recently deteriorated due to the surrounding environment, and according to the National Nutrition and Health Survey Report of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, the average lifespan is less than 6.85 (male: 6.86 Ą female: 6.84 hours) 1) In Korea, the older the age, the more insomnia. In the case of an overseas survey, 54% of respondents answered that they suffered from insomnia several times a week3). , 33% reported that they experienced it at least once every day. Recently, sleep had a great impact on physical and mental growth, stability, and brain development in children aged 0-7, including adults. In the case of elementary school students, 16.8% showed sleep disturbance, and it increased to 26% with an increase in age. To be in the best condition, people need to sleep for a third of their life. The human brain recharges its neurotransmitters through sleep, which act as essential messengers for stimulating and organizing the neural networks needed for memory, learning, problem-solving, creativity, and critical abilities.

Figure1. Average sleep time [Ministry of Health and Welfare National Nutritional Health Survey, Adult Health Awareness Behavior, 2006]

2. Objectives and Aims In previous studies, it was found that there was no significant difference between temperature and the REM cycle, which plays a role in brain activation, even when the ambient temperature state changed. In other experimental results, it was comparatively lower than the thermal comfort temperature in the environment of 13 degrees, 16 degrees, 19 degrees, 22 degrees, and 25 degrees.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Basically, the circadian rhythms of REM sleep time and body temperature were tightly coupled. In this study, paying attention to the fact that the human body cannot regulate body temperature in REM sleep, comfortable sleep was induced by improving sleep efficiency under the influence of air conditioning. The quality of sleep depends on whether the cycle of REM sleep and Non REM is repeated 3 or 4 times, and whether the 3rd or 4th stage of ‘deep sleep’ occurs. Also, during sleep, the hormones decrease, and growth hormone begins to be produced in the state that dominates the conservation, recovery, and growth of energy. It plays a role in helping adults to regenerate and recover on their own instead of growing.

3. Research Design and Methods 3.1. Experimental method 3.1.1. Sleep environment evaluation index ( PSG: Polysomnograpy) Polysomnography (PSG) is a kind of medical test that provides objective data to accurately diagnose sleep disorders and evaluate the degree of the disorder. Polysomnography tests include brain wave (EEG) during sleep, eye movement (EOG), Chin EMG, Leg EMG, electrocardiogram (EKG), snoring, breathing (Respiratory Airflow), and respiration. By measuring exercise (Respiratory Effort) and blood oxygen saturation level, physiological changes during sleep are comprehensively measured to provide accurate diagnosis and treatment of patients with daytime sleepiness, insomnia of unknown cause, periodic extremity dyskinesia, and abnormal behavior during sleep. It also plays an important role in diagnosing snoring and sleep apnea patients, determining the treatment direction and prognosis after treatment. Based on the data provided by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) and the American Electroencephalographic Society, techniques and readings required for polysomnography are described. In this experiment, the experiment was conducted according to the polysomnography method prescribed by the American Society of Sleep Medicine. The experimental result analysis report shows each EEG result as the following graph. 3.1.2. Human side conditions Subjects: According to the results of the study that the quality of sleep affects concentration the next day, subjects without an average level of sleep disturbance were previously selected as Apnea Link (*AHI: Apnea-hypopnea index). BMI standard body type (20~25) was selected and the experiment was carried out, and the body surface area was calculated by the Kurazumi equation 7) adapted to the body type of Japanese people. 3.1.3. Experiment environment The experiment was conducted at the Seoul Sleep Environment Research Institute. Prepared from 9:00 p.m., attached a sensor, and conducted various sleep disorder tests in advance through tests such as breathing and restless legs. The laboratory was preheated to an environment of 30 degrees Celsius as a summer environment, and was allowed to sleep for at least 6-8 hours. Figure 2 shows experimental photo with sensor attached. Figure 3 shows skin temperature displayed on the thermal camera.

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Figure 2. Experimental photo with sensor attached

Figure 3. Skin temperature displayed on the thermal camera

4. Results and Potential Contribution In this study, as shown in Figure 5, in the experimental results of subjects A and B under the optimal algorithm conditions, the REM was longer, and the sleep efficiency was significantly increased. In the measured CO2 result, it was found that the CO2 value in the early stage of elevation greatly decreased in the deep sleep stage, while the low concentration was maintained until the wake-up stage, and the low metabolic rate was continuously maintained during sleep, consistent with the existing ISO research results. In the PSG results, the lower 3 degrees in the REM phase increased sleep efficiency by 98.10%. Figure 5 shows REM sleep results. The number of awakenings decreased from 7.09 to 2.25. Figure 6. shows TWT(total wake time) and Sleep Efficiency. Figure 7 shows Polysomnograhy analysis results. This study showed that temperature control affects sleep efficiency and REM sleep rate.

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Figure 4. CO2 data during sleep time

Figure g 5. REM sleep p results

Figure 6. TWT(total wake time) and Sleep Efficiency TWT(total wake time) : Percentage of time the brain is awake during sleep(%)

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Figure 7. Polysomnograhy analysis results.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References 1. Health Awareness Behavior of Adults 3rd Period of the National Nutrition and Health Survey by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2006 2. Survey on the status of sleep disorders, internal data of the Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs, 2000 3. ‘2005 Sleep in America Poll’, National Sleep Foundation 4. Muzet A, Ehrhart J, Candas V, Libert JP, Vogt JJ. , REM sleep and ambient temperature in man. Int J ,Neurosci 1983; 18:117-126. 5. Czeisler CA, Zimmerman JC, Ronda JM, Moore-Ede MC, Weitzman ED. Timing of REM sleep is coupled to the circadian rhythm of body temperature in man. Sleep 1980; 2:329-346. 6. The influence of sleep on auditory learning: a behavioral study, Gaab, Nadine; Paetzold, Miriam1; Becker, Markus2; Walker, Matthew P.3; Schlaug, GottfriedCA , NeuroReport: March 22nd, 2004 - Volume 15 - Issue 4 - p 731-734 7. Kurazumi Yoshihito et al, The Body Surface Area of Japanese, Japanese Journal of 8. Biometeorology, Volume䠖 31 Issue䠖 1 Page䠖 5-29 Publication year䠖 Apr. 1994 9. Takegawa Hirozo .et al. (1996): Development of Tem perature Control Technology Utilizing Physical and Psychological Responses in Changing Room Temperature,Proceeding of The 20 th symposium on Human-Environment System,pp4346 10. ASHRAE55-1981,Thermal Environ-mental Conditions For Human Occupancy, ASHRAE 1981 11. ISO7730:Moderrate Thermal Environments Determination of the PMV and PPD Indices and Specification of the Condition for Thermal Comfort,1984 12. Hardy,J.D. and DuBois, E.F.(1938): The Technic of Measuring Radiant & Convection, Journal of Nutrition, Vol.15, No. 5 13. Hanada,Y., Mihira, M. and Ohhata,K. (1981): Studies on the Thermal Resistance of Women's Underwear,Japan Res. Assn. Test. End-Uses.,Vol.22 No.10, pp 31-41 14. Fanger,P.O.:Thermal Comfort, McGraw- Hill Book 1970 15. Handbook of Physiological Science Vol.22.(1987), Physiology of Energy Exchange and Thermo- regulation, Igaku-Shoin

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The Divine Harmony Author 1

Full Name

Tung, David K.

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Tung, David Music, a seemingly abstract measure of aesthetics, is predicated around a complex system of patterned harmonics. Aimed to explore the foundational mathematical connections in musical notes, this paper explores the harmonic value of music which satisfies most ears in the world. This research paper proposes a significant contribution in further patterning our auditory perception of music and its attraction to beauty, as well as understanding how musical instruments assist in reasoning why music is a language of art.

Further investigating why and how they reach a measure of satisfaction to our auditory senses, an exemplary methodological approach is implied comprising one fundamental triad and one popular music song (My Everything by Ariana Grande) utilizing said triads. Each investigation will follow with an application of the key determinator of the mathematical approach to music: The Fourier Series. After the chord(s) are chosen, The Fourier series is applied with a supporting applet. Then, the resulting mathematical frequency will lead to the corresponding note, which is verified by authentically performing on a grand piano. All of the notes are verified with a tuner application. The results of the study support that music is formed by patterned frequencial patterns, concluding that our auditory senses significantly prefer and recognize a marginalized mathematical system.

Keywords: Harmonies, Musical notes, Fourier Series, Sound waves, Equal Temperament

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Music presides at the alchemy of human emotion. They are the potent symbols of euphoria, the primary source of motivation and hope known throughout the history of humanity. By a monolithic effort of frequencies, the chords reach a harmonic symphony. Although the satisfaction of music is predominantly influenced by culture and history, mathematicians and physicists were able to settle the fundamental question of why we consider frequencial patterns and combinations “satisfying” to hear. Even in a modern, idiosyncratic melody, we can still find fundamental mathematical properties that drive throughout the score. Aimed to explore the foundational mathematical connections in musical notes, this paper explores the harmonic values of music which, in historical evidence, are favorable to our auditory senses. This paper will specifically provide exemplary chords and songs with graphical representations with the implication of a representative mathematical formula to provide conducive support. It’s acute to examine the mathematical properties of music as it is one of the cornerstones of entertainment. Since the beginning of the history of humanity, we have constantly made rhythms and songs which we recognize now as harmonies. Even without the reliance on math and technology, we have somehow developed a systematic approach (e.g. music scales) and unconsciously deducted the complex patterns of music. Consequently, a notion was born, that there must be a deep, primal reason why these discrete structures should be at the heart of such a diverse, abstract piece of art.

Sound, Notes, and Chords A sound is a form of a pressurized wave which is caused by vibrations, a repeated motion of particles when displaced from their resting position (Britannica, 2022). This periodic back-and-forth motion of the particles generates waves of compressed and decompressed particles, known as rarefactions (R) and compressions (C, Fig. 0)

Fig. 0, Rarefactions and Compressions of sound (Singh et.al, 2021)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) A note is a symbol denoting a sound. Each note is represented by 8 different English letters, from A to G. When the note returns back to the starting letter, both of them become an octave. Each note could raise or lower half of the pitch by # (sharp, raising half note) or 䘍(flat, lowering half note). Note A has a fundamental wavelength frequency of 110Hz. Assume that the fixed displacement from 0 to 1 is əƫ, The fundamental (first harmonic, Apd 1.3) would have a period of əƫ, with one antinode and two nodes at each end (Fig. 1); the second harmonic would have a period of ƫ, which would oscillate twice as fast as the fundamental, and so on. The diagram below provides an accurate representation of an oscillating wave, where the nodes are the intersecting point between two representations of the movement of the wave (two lines were drawn with each ࡠ Ű ࡟ maximum amplitude). Each split fractional value is added ɘ by Ֆ࡟ɘ , which we will call the Ֆth harmonic (Peterson, 2015).

Fig. 1. Harmonic waves (Wikipedia, 2022) Within the range of standing waves, as the Ֆth harmonics increases, the wavelength Ʀ (Lambda, one cycle) decreases (Fig. 0, Fig. 2). Under the assumption that a string is plucked once and that the velocity of string oscillation ՞ is constant the frequency Վ increases. Hence, to find the frequency of a note, the ՞ equation Վ ࡦ Ʀ is necessary (Wolfram, 2017).

Fig. 2. Graphical representation of sound pressure vs time

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) We perceive pitch logarithmically in regard to frequency. Each successive octave is a doubling of the frequency of the previous one—1ƒ, 2ƒ, 4ƒ, 8ƒ, 16ƒ... and they are perceived as an equivalent octave. It is thought that because a doubling of frequency causes a response at an equal distance on the basilar membrane, we hear octaves as related. For example, the second harmonic (220 Hz) expresses a note of one higher octave than the first fundamental (Britannica, 2021). Squaring the second harmonic reaches a fourth harmonic (440 Hz), expressing A in two higher octaves than the fundamental. Because of the logarithmic spacing of pitch placement on the basilar membrane, we perceive musical intervals not as differences in frequency, but as ratios between frequencies (fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Logarithmic Octave shifts (Apd 0.1) A220 to A440 are perceived as the same pitch interval as A440 to A880, even though one pair has a frequency difference of 220 Hz and the other a frequency difference of 440 Hz because they share a 2:1 frequency ratio. Combination of which, on the other hand, requires the Fourier series (Apd 1.5), an expansion of a periodic function in terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines, to represent the sine values of each combination of pitches (chords). Any consistent pitch plated on any instrument can be graphed with the right combination of sine waves using this particular series, which will calculate any musical chords mathematically. As:

And when Ֆ ࡦ ɘŜ əŜ ɚşşş note that the coefficient of the constant term Չɗhas been written in a special form compared to the general form for a generalized fourier series in order to preserve symmetry with the definitions of ՉՖand ՊՖ. Since sound saves are a sine function, the Fourier would need to represent an ideal addition of odd functions. If a function is even so that Վഈՠഉ ࡦࡠ Վഈՠഉ, then Վഈՠഉ ՛ՑՖഈՖՠഉ is odd. Therefore, ՊՖ ࡦ ɗ for all Ֆ. Similarly, if a function is odd so that Վഈՠഉ ࡦࡠ Վഈࡠ ՠഉ, then Վഈՠഉ Ջ՗՛ഈՖՠഉ is odd. Therefore, ՉՖ ࡦ ɗ for all Ֆ. The odd function is needed as sound waves are graphically represented to start with ɗՓԾՉ at ՜ ࡦ ɗ which then instantaneously starts oscillating (Wolfram, 2020).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) However, the perfect pitch that the Fourier series provides differs slightly from what we perceive as a perfect pitch. This irregularity could be adjusted with the equal temperament chart (EQT, Fig. 4). This chart will be used to verify and test the accuracy of the mathematical calculation of chords, as the formula for successive twelve-tone equal temperament (12tet) is a frequency ratio equal to the twelfth root of two (12¥2 or 21/12), which approximately equals to 1:1.05946 (Apd 1.2). That resulting smallest interval (1/12 the width of an octave), is called a semitone (or a half step). Throughout this paper, the number system will be used to demonstrate chords, and each higher octave will add 12 to the previous octave (e.g. 1-3-5 and 13-15-17 denote the same notes but the latter is one octave higher). It can be visualized by the keyboard of a piano:

Fig. 3.5. Visual representation of 12tet To verify the Fourier transform of my test chords in the next section, the following sections will be calculated and played on a piano (which exerts sound by applying force onto strings with different lengths) as this particular instrument separates each note clearly with respect to the 12tet separation method of the pitch. It is then going to be measured on a tuner, verifying that the piano has been played. However, as the equal temperament chart remains irregular, a series of calculations are required to resolve the issue of the ratio between notes in the 12tet chart which will be calculated by the following formula, where Հ ࡦ ՚Չ՜Ց՗Ŝ Ֆ ࡦ ԻԷԲԷ Ֆ՗՜Ս Ֆ՝ՕՊՍ՚Ŝ ՛ ࡦ Ֆ՜Ր ՛ՍՕՑ՜՗ՖՍ՛ ՉՎ՜Ս՚ ԯ: Հ ࡦ

Ֆ՗՜ՍՖ࡟՛ ԯՖ

, e.g.

ԱɌɜɞ࡟ɛ ԯɜɞ

əɞɞ

ࡦ əəɗ ࡦɘş əɜɠ

Note

1.059

1.118

1.186

1.259

1.331

1.414

1.495

1.586

1.677

1.777

1.886

R, 1:

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Fig. 4. Equal temperament chart (Indiana, 2019)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) “A Major” Triad: AC#E A major triad AC#E follows the 1-5-8 12tet system (fig. 3.5) which creates one of the fundamental chords in music theory. To produce this signal, I have chosen “A major” as each A of the octave has a logarithmic value from the fundamental from 110Hz (Fig. 9).

Fig. 5. A Major Triad AC#E Within the 12tet equal temperament ratio, the scale factor calculated within the range of the applet (Falstad applet, details in Apd 1.4) used to accurately represent the sine function to produce the pure chord signal to verify that the chord sounds correct (Apd 1.6), the calculation is shown that:

ՎՌՍ՛Ց՚ՍՌ Ֆ՗՜Ս ࡦ ԯ՗Ջ՜Չ՞Ս ՗Վ ՜ՐՍ Ֆ՗՜Ս ࡢ ՚ԳԿՂ Ŝ ՐՍՖՋՍŞ ԯ ࡦ ɟɟɗ ԶբŜ ԱɌ ࡦ ɟɟɗ ࡢ ɘş əɜɠ ࡨ ɘɘɗɟ ԶբŜ Գ ࡦ ɟɟɗ ࡢ ɘş ɛɠɜ ࡨ ɘɚɘɝ Զբ.

To determine which sine wave functions are included in the final graph, the calculation of wavelength (ɘƦ ࡦ əƫ) is needed, where Ր ࡦ ՜ՐՍ ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ՛՘ՔՑ՜ Վ՚ՉՋ՜Ց՗ՖՉՔ ՞ՉՔ՝Ս: Ր ࡦ

՞ ƦՎ

Based on the fixed wavelength (əƫ), with the integration of the velocity of the applet wave function (440ƫ, set in this particular speed to produce the frequency of note A as the first term verified by the tuner), and within the applet range of the fourier sine function points (Apd 1.4), the calculation is shown as the following: Րԯ ࡦ

ɛɛɗƫ ɛɛɗƫ ɛɛɗƫ ࡦ ɗş əɜ, ՐԱɌ ࡦ ࡨ ɗş əɗ, Րԯ ࡦ ࡨ ɗş ɘɞ ɟɟɗࡢəƫ ɘɘɗɟࡢəƫ ɘɚɘɝࡢəƫ ɘ ɗş əɜ ࡦ ࡦ ɛ՜Ր ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɛՠഉ ɛ ɘ ɗş əɗ ࡦ ࡦ ɜ՜Ր ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɜՠഉ ɜ ɘ ɗş ɘɞ ࡨ ࡦ ɝ՜Ր ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɝՠഉ ɝ

By using the fourier transform, the final chord frequencial wave could be graphed with the addition of all three notes, which are calculated above. Each harmonic sine function denotes the corresponding notes of the A Major Triad: ՛ՑՖഈɛՠഉ ࡦ ԯŜ ՛ՑՖഈɜՠഉ ࡦ ԱɌŜ ՛ՑՖഈɝՠഉ ࡦ Գş With the final equation below, the graph is therefore verified by the applet’s echoic response and desmos graphing, as:

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FINAL EQUATION ɝ

Վഈՠഉ ࡦ ʜ ՛ՑՖ ഈՖՠഉ Ֆࡦɛ

Desmos: Basic graphing

Falstad applet

Note. This java applet demonstrates the Fourier series, which is a method of expressing an arbitrary periodic function as a sum of cosine terms. In other words, the Fourier series can be used to express a function in terms of the frequencies (harmonics) it is composed of. By Edward Calver, Version 1.6i, posted Nov. 15, 2014. No Copyright.

The final product through the calculation, though it was done by an equation that is commonly used in application physics, still has uncertainties as the ratio of 12tet equal temperament is rounded by three significant figures, and each frequency is rounded up to the nearest positive integer. However, since it has resulted in the desired note, the error calculation is going to be neglected as this paper aims to deduce each semitone, but not each cent (1/100 of a semitone). To verify that the playing note is similar, a tuned piano was used to manage a comparison between the applet and the actual note. The application used for the verification is only capable of detecting one note at a time, so all of the notes were separately measured.

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Falstad Applet

Grand Piano

Note. This application used an iPhone 13 Pro Microphone to record the sound playing in the corresponding categories. Then they were recorded for 10-15 seconds until the tuner settled on a relatively steady cent value fluctuating between ࡠ ɜ ࡩ ՠ ࡩ ɜ. Adapted from Tuner T1. JSplash Apps, 2022.

The piano was played one octave lower than the calculated value. Notice how they produced the same notes, but that they have a few cents of difference. For example, note E has a cent difference of 15.6. Further distinction and ambiguity are noted in the Evaluation section.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Chord Progressions Since “using mathematics to create a chord” has been successful in the previous section, A further examination of whether chord progressions are equally valid in contemporary popular culture music. To examine within a rather standard measure, the song My Everything by Ariana Grande was used. Four different chords are used to provide the repetitive underlying chord progression throughout the song (Fig. 6): GBDG ĺ DGBF ĺ CEGA ĺ CB䘍AA. This chord progression from the G major is used throughout the song.

Fig. 5. “My everything” Major chord progression The same calculation method is used to determine whether this chord progression is able to be replicated by the Fourier Series. For example, the calculated chord of G clef G#BD would be processed through the 12tet conversion of the 12-15-18 ratio (15 means one octave up (12) + 3 semitones). This time, since the sheet has both G and F clef, the calculation would have an additional note under one or two octaves depending on the chord. In this case, the F clef note is an octave lower G (12tet value of ɘə ࡠ ɘ՗Ջ՜), which varies the base frequency such that ԯԴ ՋՔՍՎ ࡦ ɘɘɗ ԶբŜ ԯ

ԵɌ

ࡦ əəɗ ԶբŜ ԯ԰ĨԲ ࡦ ɛɛɗ Զբ .

Following the table created above the equal temperament chart, we can calculate that Ե ࡦ əəɗ ࡢ ɘş ɞɞɞ ࡨ ɚɠɘ ԶբŜ ԰ ࡦ ɛɛɗ ࡢ ɘş ɘɘɟ ࡨ ɛɠə ԶբŜ Բ ࡦ ɛɛɗ ࡢ ɘş ɚɚɘ ࡨ ɜɟɝ ԶբŜ Ե ࡦ ɘɘɗ ࡢ ɘş ɞɞɞ ࡨ ɘɠɜ Զբ. While the wavelength (əƫ) is still fixed, the playing frequency in the first term should be altered from the note A (110 Hz) to the note G (195 Hz) since the song is in G-Major scale, which would then alter the velocity of the wave from 440ƫ to 390ƫ. This simple conversion is effective as it would follow the same harmonic ratio as it increases in the Ֆ value while shifting the note. Thus, it would create an easier and more accurate representation of pitch within the Fourier applet spectrum. Hence, the calculation is shown as the following: ɚɠɗƫ ɚɠɗƫ ࡨ ɗş ɜɗŜ Ր԰ ࡦ ࡨ ɗş ɛ0, ɚɠɘࡢəƫ ɛɠəࡢəƫ ɚɠɗƫ ɚɠɗƫ ՐԲ ࡦ ࡨ ɗş ɚɚ, ՐԵ ࡦ ࡦ ɘ ɜɟɝࡢəƫ ɘɠɜࡢəƫ ɘ ɗş ɜɗ ࡦ ࡦ əՖՌ ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈəՠഉ ə

Ր Ե ࡦ

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ɘ ࡧ ɜ՜Ր ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɜՠഉ* əşɜ ɘ ɗş ɚɚ ࡨ ࡨ ɚ՚Ռ ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɚՠഉ ɚ

ɗş ɛɗ ࡦ

ɘ ࡦ ɘ՛՜ ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈՠഉ Note that the starred equation does not necessarily correlate with the number produced from the previous calculation above. This equation is an example of an outlier, which produces a non-positive integer harmonic value. This cannot be plugged into the graph as it only has natural numbered sine waves. Though it might not be projected in the right octave, the harmonic would be calculated by: ԰ ࡦ ɟɟɗ ࡢ ɘş ɘɘɟ ࡨ ɠɟɛ ԶբŜ so that: Ր ԰ ࡦ

ɚɠɗƫ ɘ ࡨ ɗş əɗ ࡦ ࡨ ɜ՜Ր ՐՉ՚Օ՗ՖՑՋ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɜՠഉ ɠɟɛࡢəƫ ə

Hence, the following sample equation could be further expanded to calculate the rest of the chords. Each corresponding harmonic is then again graphed both in desmos and to the Falstad applet. The results are as follows: FINAL EQUATION OF < GBDG > Վഈՠഉ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɘՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈəՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɚՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɜՠഉ Desmos: Basic graphing

Falstad applet

FINAL EQUATION OF < DGBF# > Վഈՠഉ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɝՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɞՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɟՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɘəՠഉ Desmos: Basic graphing

Falstad applet

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FINAL EQUATION OF < CEGA > Վഈՠഉ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɛՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɠՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɘɘՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈəɞՠഉ Desmos: Basic graphing

Falstad applet

FINAL EQUATION OF < CB䘍AA > 4/8/9.5/13 Վഈՠഉ ࡦ ՛ՑՖഈɘɘՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɘɗՠഉ ࡟ ՛ՑՖഈɠՠഉ Desmos: Basic graphing

Falstad applet

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) This section of calculation contains a crucial limitation where the applet only allows positive integers of Ֆ work through the applet. This not only blocks a fluent workflow and accuracy of the notes and chords but also disrupts the graph in the final product; furthermore, the equations not only project the notes in the incorrect octaval position but also would mislead the overall intention and interpretation of the original score itself. On the other hand, this has allowed us to demonstrate the exact notes which have been proven by playing the same notes on a grand piano to portray comparison (for an authentic play of the chord progression, listen to the piano recording in Apd 0.5):

GBDG FIRST CHORD TUNER COMPARISON Falstad Fourier Applet

Grand Piano

As seen, except for cents of difference, the produced pitch by the applet is similar to those by the piano. In this trial, several different changes of octaves were composed between calculations which serves as a limitation, since it is an irregular calculation rather than a ubiquitous calculation to reach the chord. Some of the areas of improvement could be made in integer applet calculation, whereby rather than using this integer interactive platform, the Falstad applet could be improved to include rational and irrational numbers, hence further increasing the accuracy of this trial in a much more detailed manner without octave shifts.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Evaluation This calculation method simplifies the authentic output of a note or a chord, as a note produced by an instrument contains countless audible and inaudible frequencies which underlie beneath the note we hear. The combination of which determines the feel of the sound to deduct the instrument of which the note/music was played, and the differences are found when two or more instruments were compared.

Fig. 6. Graphical Evidence of Overtones (Huang, 2020) This is a graphical representation of the same note (A) played on a clarinet and a guitar (Huang, 2020). Each peak denotes a distinct harmonic frequency, and the volume of each decrease as the harmonics increase in value. We interpret the lowest peak as the note we hear. The higher tones produced by the note we hear are overtones. The specific composition of the overtones allows us to distinguish the difference between a clarinet and a guitar. Although the sine waves graphed within this paper ignore such factors, the underlying frequencies are neglected as they do not substantiate the primary aim of the study, which focuses on the perceived note. However, it is ultimately unknown, within this paper’s parameter, whether those frequencies affect the ultimate result of generalized harmonic satisfaction. This paper has assumed that such differences are largely based on subjective preference. Consequently, the calculations and verifications were all done under the same instrumental choice: The Grand Piano. Simultaneously, this paper has another limitation that each note produced and received from an electronic microphone and amplifier had been automatically exported including the factor of quantization error, the difference between analog and natural signal processing. A natural sound (any sound that is not from an electronic device) produces a pure sine wave without any bumps. However, a machine needs to process the sounds by data. Hence, an electronic device would produce the closest value of a tone, forming a stairs-like shape in the graph (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Graphical representation of a quantization error (Errington, 2013) For our modern-day laptops and speakers, these differences may be minimal, or even indistinguishable, to the human ear. However, the differences could potentially determine the “few cents difference” found in tuner comparisons. For mathematics requires absolute precision, eliminating such value would significantly improve the correlation between nature and technology. Due to the complexity of the problem, however, this could not be solved easily, nor could it be solved as this paper is also currently being calculated and delivered electronically (Zigbee, 2008).

Conclusion Before an hour-long symphony, an oboe expresses a steady B-flat with clarity. The sound, almost as pure as the mathematical calculation of harmonics, sets the standard for the rest of the orchestra to tune. The full orchestra, originally composed of chaotic out-of-tune notes, reaches the exact pitch that communicates with the musicians and audience that the symphony is ready to be performed. Then, everyone stops, waiting for the composer to start. This process is all done without any verbal or physical communication, but through the communication of audial harmony. Applying the results from this paper, everyone in the orchestra is unconsciously seeking the perfect sine wave that represents the pitch of a B-flat. Mathematical calculations are thus proven to have the ability to create musical chords with the use of the harmonics, frequency function, and the Fourier transform. With the further verification of the grand piano, this paper is justified and concluded in ways that leave less room for error. Nonetheless, the factor of octave shifting during the chord progression calculation should be resolved for a much more explicit and clearer calculation methodology in a potential further investigation. Regardless, the results provide great significance in improving the understanding of patterned aesthetics within the auditory senses of human nature. This explains how certain music genres, such as traditional choir songs that use harmonics as their main musical conduct, were able to remain a major component within the field of music throughout the history of humanity. They were, ultimately, satisfactory to the human ear, transcending the consequences of evolution.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Bibliography Britannica. (Feb. 2021). Standing Wave. Encyclopædia www.britannica.com/science/standing-wave-physics. Britannica. (2021). Sound. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 30, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/science/sound-physics. Errington, J. (2013). Skillbank: Introduction to data conversion. Quantization Error and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). Retrieved August 30, 2022, from https://skillbank.co.uk/SignalConversion/quanterror.html. Huang, A. (2020, May 7). The most mind-blowing concept in music (harmonic series). YouTube. Retrieved October 4, 2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wx_kugSemfY&amp;ab_channel=ANDREWHUANG Peterson, Mark. (Aug. 2015). Math Music - Applied Mathematics. Mathematical Harmonies. www.amath.colorado.edu/pub/matlab/music/MathMusic.pdf. Indiana. (2019). Indiana University. Acoustics Chapter One: Pitch and Tuning. Retrieved August 30, 2022, from https://cmtext.indiana.edu/acoustics/chapter1_pitch.php Wikipedia. (2022, Jan. 10). String Harmonic. Wikipedia. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_harmonic. Wolfram. (2017). Fourier Series. From Wolfram MathWorld. www.mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierSeries.html. Wolfram. (2020). Harmonic Series. From Wolfram MathWorld. www.mathworld.wolfram.com/HarmonicSeries.html. Zigbee. (2008). Quantization Error - an Overview. ScienceDirect Topics. www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/quantization-error. Singh, L., &amp; Kaur, M. (2022). Science For Class 9 Part-1 Physics (2022nd-2023rd ed.). Chand Publishing.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix 0.1 ĺ Source used for making music scores: https://flat.io/score/624f04f0ce396400146637c7/edit 0.2 ĺ Desmos Calculator link: https://www.desmos.com/calculator 0.3 ĺ My Everything by Ariana Grande: https://youtu.be/HxWSDUC-KTU 0.4 ĺ My own piano sound of the A major Triad Link 0.5 ĺ My own piano sound of “My everything” fundamental chord progression Link 1.1

1.2 As an example, to find the frequency of the A# semitone above A440, multiply 440 by 1.05946 to get ~ 466.163. For larger intervals, the formula Pref * 2n/12 where Pref is the initial reference frequency and n is the number of semitones above it you wish to calculate, so a minor 3rd above A440 would be computed as 440 * 23/12 (or 3/12¥2). This results in 440 Hz * ~1.189207 and yields a C at ~523.25116 Hz. 1.3 The harmonic series (words are straight from wikipedia) “A harmonic series (also overtone series) is the sequence of frequencies, musical tones, or pure tones in which each frequency is an integer multiple of a fundamental. Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously. At the frequencies of each vibrating mode, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic

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series.The musical pitch of a note is usually perceived as the lowest partial present (the fundamental frequency), which may be the one created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player. The musical timbre of a steady tone from such an instrument is strongly affected by the relative strength of each harmonic.” 1.4 Falstad Applet link: https://falstad.com/fourier/ This java applet demonstrates Fourier series, which is a method of expressing an arbitrary periodic function as a sum of cosine terms. In other words, Fourier series can be used to express a function in terms of the frequencies (harmonics) it is composed of. For this paper, I have used the sine function. Each dot can be pulled up, and you can control how many of them can be on display by the “Number of terms” slider. You can control the frequency of the first term by using the “playing frequency” slider (which in this paper will be used to adjust the fundamentals, therefore making calculations easier).

1.5

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No research without action, no action without research — Kurt Lewin

Research Papers - Social Sciences

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Beyond Propaganda: Art as Self-Expression in North Korea Author 1

Author 2

Author 3

Full Name

Ahn, Seojin

School Name

Chadwick International

Full Name

Kim, Yewon

School Name

Chadwick International

Full Name

Park, Eojin

Chadwick International

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

The North Korean government’s harsh censorship of media outlets and strict limitations on freedom of speech to maintain totalitarian control have led to the widespread belief that the country’s art functions solely as a means for the Kim regime to promote its own messages. Indeed, ongoing conversations about North Korean art have concentrated on its formal similarity to Social Realism, arguing that the depictions of daily activities in the art of the nation are employed to celebrate the values of Communism on which the country is established. However, this paper argues that rather than being a mere apparatus to disseminate state propaganda, North Korean art in fact attempts to subvert censorship and serves an outlet for self-expression for artists in the country. In particular, it aims to explore how North Korean artists use art as a means to articulate the conditions of their daily lives that would not be otherwise made known in any form whatsoever, focusing on the strategies that they have developed in order to convey their ideas while ensuring that the government is unaware of its covert messages. While most research will be conducted through reviewing secondary sources given government regulations on accessing North Korean art from South Korea, the paper will complement these findings through interviews with experts such as Professor BG Muhn and journalist Nicholas Bonner. In so doing, the paper hopes to broaden the understanding of postwar Korean art that has been mostly limited to the South Korean context and further burgeoning interest in various forms of artistic production in North Korea beyond the realm of fine art.

Keywords: North Korea, Art, Propaganda, Chosunhwa

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction While the word “art” encompasses a multitude of diverse definitions, it is generally accepted that propaganda is not included in its scope. At best, a small proportion of propagandic art receives grudging acknowledgement for its effectiveness in conveying messages through visual artistry. More often than not, it is denounced for its overt support of tyrannical dictators or inhumane governments. This is the conception that North Korean art has faced: while North Korean artists insert subtle messaging and gripping techniques in their paintings, the art world and the public remain uninterested, and even disdainful of these merits of North Korean art. Admittedly, the North Korean regime notoriously maintains an iron grip on all types of freedom of expression. Superficially, North Korea’s constitution protects freedom of speech. Despite this, in practice, the press is controlled strictly by the state, and the government only allows speech that supports it and the ruling Workers’ Party of Korea. As a matter of fact, North Korea occupied the very last place on Reporters Without Borders’ annual Press Freedom Index in 2020. Newspapers are biased, with journalists having to undergo a strict selection process. For example, candidates for journalism school need to prove themselves “ideologically clean,” and their family heritage is also examined to prove that their background is “politically reliable.” In The Great Teacher of Journalist, the former Supreme Leader of North Korea Kim Jong-il states that newspapers should only “carry articles in which they unfailingly hold the president in high esteem, adore him and praise him as the great revolutionary leader,” eliminating the possibility of any news item that may criticize or point out the flaws of his government. If the journalists do not follow these severe regulations, they are punished by hard labor or imprisonment. To make matters worse, North Korean citizens are only allowed access to domestic media and are prohibited from reading stories by foreign media—if they do so, they are punished. With constant surveillance and repression, the citizens also lack other rights beyond these topics of discussion. Because of this, the North Korean people are isolated from the rest of the world and remain unaware of what "freedom" truly is. Artistic freedom is no exception. A vast majority of artworks produced by North Korean artists, often rigorously trained at an early age by the state, attempt to portray the Kim dynasty as glorified, superhuman beings. Thus, it has become easy for scholars and the general public to denounce North Korean art, as many do not perceive it as a legitimate form of art in the first place. North Korean art has been described as "searing propaganda" (The Guardian) and has been previously dismissed by academics. Despite these perspectives, the world is beginning to recognize North Korean art's artistic value, including "portraits, industrial scenes and landscapes that evoke classical Chinese ink-painting" (The Economist). Some even contain subtle messaging that empowers North Korean citizens rather than legitimizing North Korean dictatorship and authoritarianism. Creative techniques and expressiveness of North Korean artists, combined with discreet imbuing of themes subversive to the totalitarian state, emphasize the value of North Korean art and its potential role in mitigating the despotism of the North Korean state. Historical analysis of three North Korean paintings will be discussed in this paper. The first is BongSan Mask Dance (2005) by Kim Senghee. Kim is one of the most prominent figures in the North Korean art world, given many titles for her exquisite work. The work BongSan Mask Dance won an award in Beijing international art biennale in 2006. The artwork was purchased by Frans Broersen during his visit to North Korea, then the work became public through Broersen's art exhibitions.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The second artwork titled When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day is by Tak Hyeyeon. It was revealed by Frans Broersen, one of three art collectors from a Dutch art foundation named Springtime Art, at the Beijing International Art Biennale in 2006. The last painting to be discussed is Rescue in the Dark Sea by Kim Song-keun, Cha Yong-ho, Kim Chol, and Ri Ki-song, painted in 1997. The three paintings were chosen as they were not conveying merely propaganda, but due to the fact that they reflect the artists’ creative expression. There are many ways to analyze and interpret a message of an artwork; the three paintings convey much more than what they are superficially communicating, which all tie back to the artists’ self-expression and their intentions. The historical analysis of the three North Korean paintings mentioned above will be enriched by analysis of other paintings. When examining BongSan Mask Dance, additional versions of the artwork painted by Kim Senghee will be discussed in order to delve deeper into how Kim expresses her nostalgia for the unification of North and South Korea. In addition, photographs of paintings—one that depicts Kim Il-Sung as the sun, another that features Kim Jong-il and Kim Il-sung—and February of the Northern Part, an artwork by Won Chol Kim, that embody the characteristics of North Korean propaganda art will be utilized when investigating how When The Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day differentiates itself through its artistry and use of artistic techniques. Finally, when analyzing Rescue in the Dark Sea, The Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault will be inspected to justify how Song-keun Kim alluded to French Romanticism in her painting. Other paintings, such as Tiger by Park Myeong-cheol and Heaven Lake of Paektu Mountain by Sun Woo-young will be referenced as examples of nature as thematic subjects in North Korean art that deviates from its propagandic counterparts. The methodology of this paper will primarily focus on visual and historical analysis of the aforementioned three paintings, as they incorporate a diverse range of subjects and artistic techniques to convey hidden political messages that protest against inequality or, at the very least, depict the current plight of North Korean citizens. In addition, two more methods will be used to substantiate the claims made in this paper. One will be the incorporation of secondary sources, predominantly through the examination of reviews of literature written on the topic of North Korean art. The other will be the usage of primary sources, mainly by referencing interviews with scholars such as Professor BG Muhn, Nicholas Bonner, Choi Sung-gook, Sun Mu and Kang Nara to corroborate current research on North Korean art. 2. Analysis of Artwork 2.1. Analysis of BongSan Mask Dance

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BongSan Mask Dance (2005) by Kim Senghee The first artwork of discussion is BongSan Mask Dance (2005) by Kim Senghee. The painting was introduced to the public at the Beijing International Art Biennale in 2006 by Frans Broersen, an art collector of North Korean art. According to Broersen, the painting was created in 2005 for the yearly Asian Art Exhibition held in Beijing. His wife mentioned how Kim Senghee, the painter, is referred to as a "pop star" in North Korea (Kim, 2017). Artist Kim was given the Merited Artist award in 1989 and People's Artist in 1999. She was also awarded the Kim Ill Sung Award, the most honored among all the prizes in North Korea. Some of her works, including Resentment of Gwangju (n.d.) , were chosen as national treasures and are currently stored in the Chosun Art Museum in North Korea (Park, 2013). According to Kim Senghee, she has freedom of expression and creativity in her paintings (Kim, n.d.). Frans Broersen also noted that more famous painters have much more artistic freedom to “create artworks which find their way into a vivid art collecting community in the country itself” (Broersen, 2022). As a prominent artist in North Korea, Kim's statement suggests that freedom of expression can be pursued beyond propaganda and Communist values in North Korea. Bongsan Mask Dance depicts people dancing while wearing traditional Korean masks, illustrating their movements across the picture plane. Below the dancers are lyrics for the song to be performed during WKH GDQFH ZULWWHQ E\ .LP +RZHYHU WKH DUWZRUN FRQYH\V D GHHSHU PHDQLQJ WKDQ SHRSOH PHUHO\ GDQFLQJ in masks. Through the painting, Kim conveys her desire for peace and unification while implicitly criticizing the North Korean authority, which can be seen through formal and conceptual analysis of the work. For one, the piece uses traditional oriental painting methods. Oriental paintings of Korea focus on delicate lines and blank spaces, expressing the painter's beliefs (Seo, 2010). In the painting, more specifically, Kim uses soft, round lines to effectively convey the dynamic movements of the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) dancers. Furthermore, Kim only shows the dancers in her painting, leaving out other elements in the background. The depiction of the dancers alone provides blank spaces around them, hence allowing the audience's focus on the dancers. Dancing is a means of expression; people tell stories and connect with others through dancing. Above all, dances convey emotions. The mask dances in the area of BongSan county, North Korea, are particularly known for their colorful and expressive movements compared to mask dances in other areas (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture, n.d.). The swinging of the dancers' arms and the ample use of space show that the dancers are free from their stresses and concerns and are genuinely enjoying the performance. In BongSan Mask Dance, as such, Kim uses dancing as a symbol of freedom of expression. The underlying message of the BongSan Mask Dance could also be inferred from the origins of mask dances. The origin dates back to the Chosun Dynasty, during which mask dances were perceived as plays where the actors wearing masks perform on a stage and dance to a song. At the time, the actors performed plays discussing injustice in society and made satire, mocking the upper class and the authority. For this reason, mask dances were popular among the middle-to-lower class people, who suffered from the enormous gap between the rich and the poor at the time. They could relieve stress and lodge complaints by watching mask dances and performing them. This background of mask dances is mirrored in Kim's BongSan Mask Dance. The satirical and rebellious nature of mask dances reveals that the dancer could be performing against North Korean authorities. Furthermore, as it was the workingclass people in Chosun Dynasty that mainly performed mask dances, the dancer in the"BongSan Mask Dance could be seen as speaking for the working class as well. The lyrics provide another clue into interpreting the painting as an implicit gesture to argue against propaganda, as the text joyfully calls for unification with the South. The lyrics say to get together and "do a unification dance." As the traditional mask dance predates the division between the North and the South Koreas, the artwork shows the artist's nostalgia for a unified Korea. In addition, the remarks "let's fulfill our wishes" and "cheers for unification" emphasize Kim's longing for unification. Another aspect to consider here is that mask dances in Korea originated traditions of exorcism that shamans continued to evict spiritual evils from possessed bodies. In the lyrics, Kim refers to the exorcizing nature of the mask dance by saying, "let's drive away all kinds of evils that block unity." In the BongSan Mask Dance, then, the evil that the dancer is referring to is the North Korean authorities, which stops the two Koreas from unification. As Broersen states, the artwork is an “inspiration concerning the big dream of millions of Korean people to be united again.” North Korea is a country of surveillance and censorship. Voicing one’s opinions against the country in any form whatsoever results in treason and may result in severe consequences, such as capital punishment or three-generation punishment (Singh, 2021). Under these oppressive laws, North Korean citizens must constantly stay cautious of their words and actions. In BongSan Mask Dance, such a dimension is reflected as the dancers are wearing masks, which allows them to stay anonymous. As the dancers' faces remain hidden under the mask, the dancers express their feelings, not having to worry about the consequences. The dancer's moves and the mask's anonymity imply that the dancer is conveying a message that might contradict the North Korean government. As evidenced by the text that calls for unification and peace, Kim presents how the people of North Korea who want unification unfortunately should remain quiet. A close look into the painting also reveals that the dancers' masks differ while the clothes are all the same. The different masks of the dancers represent varying individuals and identities. The identical outfits, on the other hand, depict how the different individuals share the same culture and dance. The

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) lyrics regarding the unification of the two Koreas imply that the dancers represent individuals from two Koreas and how they could come together to enjoy the traditional mask dance under a reunified Korea. In addition, the anonymity of the dancers shows that people, regardless of their age or gender, can enjoy the mask dance, adding a sense of diversity to Kim's work. In Kim's work, the eyes of the masks are not facing the front but looking at different places. Such a composition implies that the dancers are enjoying the dance without caring about others, particularly the North Korean authorities in this context, and calling for unification.

Fig. 1. Kim, S. (2021, 7 23). 怱揘珰烌. 悩碄张效撴佄 '殘摈祼檀侘櫍衚-檠濄, 盱祼檀兠橬検嘌' 檀张. http://www.kyeongin.com/main/view.php?key=20210723010004440 Kim also produced different versions of the BongSan Mask Dance. The same clothing among the artworks shows the continuation of the dance. The illustration of unceasing dance also emphasizes the dancers' call for unification and peace. The dancer's movement in the center is "Ulsu," a traditional exclamation of joy in music or dance performances. Kim's use of traditional knowledge again highlights her nostalgia for the Chosun dynasty and united Korea.

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Fig. 2. Kim, S. (2007, 2 27). 怱揘珰烌. https://blog.daum.net/1735y/2975622 Figure 2 is another work by Kim which depicts BongSan Mask Dance, in which the center dancer of figure 2 is illustrated. Here, the mask of the dancer is depicted in a particularly delicate manner. In traditional mask dances, fierce and intimidating masks were used to eliminate evil spirits (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture, n.d.). However, the mask in Kim's BongSan Mask Dance is not intimidating. Instead, it gives a friendly mood with its huge smile and big eyes. Kim's intention of portraying the mask this way can be interpreted as North Koreans having the freedom to express their happiness and enjoyment behind the masks.

Fig. 3. Joonguen, K. (2014). Talpan. [儠峤檥棜氤喼叐檸] 全氨儤 ‘珰瘸.’ Kyunggi Ilbo. Retrieved 4AD, from https://www.kyeonggi.com/article/201408050591267.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Figure 3 is Talpan (n.d) from Kim Jun Geun. The painting is from the late Chosun Dynasty and depicts actors performing plays in masks. Kim depicts the scene of traditional mask dance, with audience and traditional instruments such as drums and Kwang-gwali. Talpan shows similar movements to those of the BongSan Mask Dance; the extensive use of arms and sleeves are characteristics of both dances. At the same time, though, there are some differences with BongSan Mask Dance. In Talpan, individuals are assigned roles to play, and the actors tell a story, whereas BongSan Mask Dance focuses solely on the dancers and their movements, evidenced by the same clothes of the dancers. This difference shows that BongSan Mask Dance depicts mainly the expression of feelings and freedom rather than performing a play to engage the audience. As such, Kim Senghee’s BongSan Mask Dance deviates from the prevalent artworks of propaganda and Communist values, instead portraying freedom of expression in North Korea. Broersen states that North Korea puts more emphasis on commercial works today since art can “generate considerable amounts of money that can benefit political and other purposes.” Given the comparatively large freedom of expression as a renowned artist, Kim Senghee uses creative techniques to convey her messages, such as masks as a symbol of anonymity and the origins of the mask dance. BongSan Mask Dance calls attention to North Koreans' desire for peace and unification with the South, showing the traditional mask dance as a means of expressing the people's repressed feelings of fear and anxiety. 2.2. Analysis of When The Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day

When The Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day (2006) by Tak Hyoyeon The artwork above, titled When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day, was painted by a North Korean artist named Hyoyeon Tak in 1988. The artwork was first revealed by Frans Broersen, one of three art collectors from a Dutch art foundation named Springtime Art, at the Beijing International Art Biennale in 2006. The painting depicts pedestrians walking down a rainy street, as the title implies. As they hurry down the street, only their back silhouettes are visible, aside from a few blurred figures in the background. Three subjects are drawn the most clearly: on the left side of the painting, two women share a blue umbrella as they run, and on the far right side, a person holding a white umbrella walks in a less hurried

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) manner. Meanwhile, a tree occupies the far right side of the painting, while a building occupies the far left side, delineating how the painting portrays a common sidewalk. When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day has been valued by some experts for both its commonplace setting as well as its utilization of advanced artistic techniques. According to Frans Broersen, the painting portrays “daily life in Pyongyang for ordinary people just like us.” When selecting North Korean paintings to exhibit, Broersen focused on whether the paintings were both artistically valuable and employed advanced technique - When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day met his criteria superbly (BBC). Through an email interview we were able to conduct with Broersen, he expanded more specifically on why as a collector, he thought both artistry and technique were sublime in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day: The…rain [in the painting] immediately catches your attention, [as] there is so much happening in this work…the movements are [very] catchy…one can almost feel [as if they are] walking with the people…what is also striking is that the speed of the brush from the artist makes [the painting] astonishing, detailed, and a great delight to look at.” Despite such favorable perspectives of artwork like When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day, experts are skeptical with regards to the authenticity of North Korean artwork shown in exhibitions. A painting featured in the exhibition Hidden Treasures, also organized by Frans Broersen and his partners in association with the Springtime Art Foundation, depicted a woman “in a bright-red bikini, unusual for typically prudish North Korea, where women, when not pictured in military uniform, are usually shown long, loose-fitting skirts and dresses (LA Times, 2015).” Koen De Cuester, who studies North Korean art at Leiden University in the Netherlands, told Agence France-Presse the painting of a woman in a bikini was likely produced specifically for a foreign audience and would not be accepted in North Korea. He stated, that ”they produce a lot that caters explicitly to foreign tastes — or what they perceive foreign tastes to be — and the artistic merit of those works is questionable, no matter how well executed (LA Times, 2015).” These opposing views call to question whether or not these artworks are simply an attempt by the North Korean state to manipulate an uninformed audience. While it is admitted that the artistic techniques used by the artists are of high quality, critics still deem that these works are not worthy of recognition. In their perspective, because these artworks would have to be approved by the North Korean state, paintings such as When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day would not challenge the regime’s propaganda, still adhere to the North Korean government’s regulations, and would only function as a means for North Korea to accumulate capital and international acknowledgement. In response to these views, Broersen responded: “Of course, one has to bear in mind that a great deal of North Korean artworks are pure propaganda works in order to honor the system the country is functioning in. However, the more famous painters [as in the case of Hyoyeon Tak] have much more artistic freedom to create artworks which find their way into a vivid art collecting community in the country itself.” He also stated, “...the opinion of those so-called experts are purely based on political and insufficient knowledge of North Korean art and its painters…during all my visits and meetings, [I saw] so many promising painters, one can only conclude that many of them are true artists committed to the world of art.” In addition, Broersen clarified that when he bought When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day:

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) “[When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day] was commonly known by a big audience in North Korea. The day I bought the painting from Tak personally, it was shown on national TV where they announced that it was bought by Springtime Art.” This statement clearly represents how the North Korean state, regardless of whether or not the government understands the underlying subversiveness of the paintings they promote, When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day does not have the sole purpose of catering to an ignorant foreign audience and instead is a product of a fully-fledged and renowned artist’s imagination and artistry. It is important to note that both the artist’s technical skills and insertion of subliminal messages greatly separate it from its far more notorious propagandic counterparts. If we examine the artist’s utilization of artistic techniques, the first technique that catches the eye is the artist’s usage of a cool color palette. Blues, whites, and greens are the colors used the most in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day. This creates a clear contrast with the tonal palettes normally used in North Korean propaganda, which usually feature Naples yellow, red earth, and sienna as predominant colors. In comparison, as seen in fig. 3 below, drastically different colors are utilized. The now deceased dictator Kim Il-Sung, the forefather of the Kim Dynasty, is depicted in a manner that is reminiscent of the sun - his portrait is surrounded by an incandescent white halo that slowly fades into bright orange. Red is the most dominant color used, with the Communist flag and the North Korean flag depicted in warm tones. As the North Korean government claims to be a Communist nation, red is the preferred color used in many of the paintings the country produces. However, Hyoyeon Tak’s deviation from this standard color palette distinguishes When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day from other North Korean paintings that intentionally employ a warmer color palette to align Communism with the interests of the North Korean people.

Fig. 4. Lafforgue, E. (n.d.). [North Korean founding leader Kim Il Sung depicted as the sun, a common theme carried over from imperial Japan, in a Pyongyang propaganda poster.]. The single most important fact for understanding North Korea. https://www.vox.com/2016/1/6/10724334/northkorea-history The second technique is the homage to the Impressionist movement. The medium used in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day was oil on canvas. The painting’s stylistic elements, including its use of vibrant colors, loose brushstrokes, and its portrayal of a fleeting moment suggest that the artist was inspired by Impressionist art.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) When we examine both fig. 4 and fig. 5, all of the figures in the painting are clearly defined, with their faces, gesticulations and facial expressions visible. Their clothing and body language are also conspicuous: in fig. 4, a man in military clothing, symbolic of the Korean People’s Army of North Korea, takes up most of the space on the far right of the painting, delineating citizens’ loyalty towards the North Korean state. Fig. 5 also depicts a boy with a military green cap atop his head, a vibrant red symbolizing both the nation of North Korea and Communism clearly apparent. In addition, both fig. 4 and fig. 5 emphasize a single subject. In the case of fig. 4, the subject emphasized is Kim Il-Sung through having dutiful North Korean people gazing up towards the former supreme leader of North Korea with prideful eyes and blank smiles. Fig. 5 places Kim Il-sung in the center, with Kim Jong-il occupying a large portion of the right side of the painting, with a flock of children surrounding the two. This naturally directs the viewer’s eye towards the now-deceased North Korean dictators, dramatically accentuating their presence amid a scenic background. However, as mentioned, in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day, shapes are painted with quick and loose brushstrokes, almost creating an illusion that the objects and human figures in the background are almost dissolving. The obscure human figures flitting back and forth in Hyoyeon Tak’s painting do not wear any clothing that is noteworthy or holds a specific denomination that proclaims loyalty and adoration towards the North Korean state. This delineates how there is no singular event happening in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day that attracts the attention of the viewer - rather, it prioritizes conveying movement in an extremely ordinary scene, without any highly defined subject that stands out from the rest. This forms a direct contrast with the dramatic, narrative quality characteristic of North Korean social realism paintings, which attempts to glorify and directs the viewer’s attention towards a specific member of the Kim Dynasty. Ultimately, the Impressionistic traits of When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day greatly differentiates it from its propagandic counterparts.

Fig. 5.Klamar, J. (n.d.). [Painting featuring Kim Jong-il and Kim Il-sung, surrounded by adoring children.]. North Korea's Kim dynasty: the making of a personality cult. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/16/north-korea-kim-jong-il-birthday The third and last artistic technique is the shift in perspective of the audience. The majority of North Korean propaganda paintings portray ordinary North Korean citizens in sycophantic postures towards Kim Jong-un or other members of the Kim dynasty. Fig. 5 embodies this trend, as Kim Jong In fact, there is a plethora of paintings that represent an idealized version of peasant life in North Korean paintings: this phenomenon is exemplified by fig.6 as it illustrates rosy-cheeked workers with identical

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) smiles and expressions, absorbed in tasks that are meant to benefit the North Korean state or hold symbolic meaning for the North Korean government. In fact, the crimson flowers in fig. 3 are illustrations of the Kimjongilia, a flower of the begonia family named after Kim Jong-il, the former supreme leader of North Korea (The Telegraph, 2019). The subjects of the paintings are often saluting, looking up in adoration or in servile positions towards members of the Kim Dynasty. Otherwise, the subjects are depicted as looking at a point outside of the canvas or an attention-grabbing scene. Fig. 5 also portrays how the North Korean people are illustrated as either facing the viewers or members of the Kim Dynasty in servile positions. However, it is difficult to find North Korean artworks that seek to illustrate their subjects in different angles and ways. When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day breaks this pattern by solely showcasing the back silhouettes of moving figures, and their facial expressions are not visible.

Fig. 6, Kim, W. (2005). February of Northern Part [Every February flower festivals take place across North Korea, displaying the Kimjongilia: a flower of the begonia family named after Kim Jong I]. Anti-American posters disappear in Pyongyang as positive artwork helps cement cult of Kim Jong-un. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/31/anti-american-posters-disappear-pyongyang-positiveartwork-helps/ Then how does the artist subtly inject subliminal messages that contradict the North Korean regime’s ideology and undermine the effectiveness of its propaganda? Firstly, in this painting, the individuality of citizens are emphasized. This is underscored by the different colors of the umbrellas the people are holding as they rush back and forth through the rain. This is in opposition to how, in the majority of North Korean paintings, the individual is less prioritized - subjects within the painting oftentimes wear the same attire, usually military uniforms or clothing with dull colors. However, the variety of color, including blues, yellows and whites, allows each subject in When the Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day, no matter how blurred they appear and whether or not their faces are visible, to maintain their individuality. Secondly, the painting’s objective is to depict daily life for North Korean people instead of commemorating a noteworthy scene, such as historical moments and heroic accomplishments by the Kim Dynasty. This has the final impact of directing attention away from the North Korean regime instead, the painting turns the viewer’s attention to the everyday people, who give no indication that they are interested in anything related to the North Korean state and its dictatorial rulers.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2.3. Analysis of Rescue in the Dark Sea

Rescue in the Dark Sea (1997) by Kim Song-keun, Cha Yong-ho, Kim Chol, Ri Ki-song Rescue in the Dark Sea (1997), also known as the title Brave Men of Kajin, is a grand collaborative chosunhwa produced by the input of four North Korean artists: Kim Song-keun, Cha Yong-ho, Kim Chol, and Ri Ki-song. This piece depicts a scene of multiple men in two different boats battling against the great force of nature, the strong sea tides putting them in great danger. As the words “dark sea” in the title suggest, the overall color scheme of the painting is dark, demonstrating the deepness of the ocean waves and emphasizing the peril in the scene. Thus, this artwork is an example of how not all paintings in North Korea serve the ideological purpose of disseminating propaganda and promoting national qualities. This piece is rather depicting a scene under the classical theme of “man versus nature,” a topic often explored in French Romantic artwork as well. Similarities of French Romantic art and Rescue in the Dark Sea, in fact, go further beyond a common theme. In particular, some argue that one of the most significant artworks of the French Romanticism era, The Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault, has some similar elements to this piece and that it influenced the production of the North Korean painting. BG Muhn, a visual artist and professor of painting in the Department of Art and Art History at Georgetown University, expands on this argument in his book “North Korean Art: The Enigmatic World of Chosunhwa.”

Fig. 7. Géricault, T. (1818). The Raft of the Medusa. https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/33797630784/

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) BG Muhn alludes to the key characteristics of Romanticism that both artworks share. According to him, as a historic representation of romantic art, The Raft of the Medusa contains all of the key characteristics of Romanticism: its depiction of a historic moment, the liveliness of the environment surrounding the people in the artwork, and their facial expressions dramatically showing their emotions. Rescue in the Dark Sea is similar in that it also contains all of such elements. As a matter of fact, the environment surrounding the men is even more dynamic compared to The Raft of Medusa, as the strong, deep sea tides pulling the men apart dramatically captures a historical moment.

Fig. 8 Muhn, B. (2019) [Structure of The Raft of the Medusa (left) and Rescue in the Dark Sea (right)]. https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=dst7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT404&lpg=PT404&dq=%EA%B0%80%EC%A7 %84%EC%9D%98+%EC%9A%A9%EC%82%AC%EB%93%A4&source=bl&ots=l8UILUM96&sig=ACfU3U09E7HFTp9Qd7rms1rXuE8Mn4_Xw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXhdGFxpr5AhUMEogKHWF6BHMQ6AF6BAgcEAM#v=one

Examination of the composition and structural elements of both artworks also reveals a dynamic sense in the two artworks. In The Raft of the Medusa, there is a powerful diagonal movement from the lying corpse on the bottom left side to the head of the black man waving. In a similar vein, Rescue in the Dark Sea has a classical X composition, which serves the role of pursuing both a dynamic sense and stability of the work. Also, just like The Raft of the Medusa, it has a diagonal structure achieved by the intricate placement of men in the work, which emphasizes the liveliness of the scene. As such, one could argue that there are significant artistic elements hidden in chosunhwa that are often clouded by people’s preconceptions of them as being solely propagandistic. In addition to these elements that go against the generally perceived notion, the narrative behind this artwork is also unconventional. According to BG Muhn, at a conference for the Committee for Humans Rights in North Korea (HRNK), In-Seok Kim, a chosunhwa artist at DPRK’s national Mansudae Art Studio, told the story about this piece. Drawing from his words, Muhn states that it “depicts a difficult rescue scene at night: North Korean fishermen rescuing a South Korean boat, though of course it’s not known to many people in South Korea.” This contradicts the often generalized statement that North Koreans have animosity against South Koreans—if such a context represents reality, this artwork rather is conceived as an agent that could promote harmony between the citizens of the two nations, depicting a dramatic scene to save each other’s lives. However, due to the complicated political situation between DPRK and South Korea, Muhn admits that this narrative could be highly controversial and that it is up to the DPRK, not the viewers, to decide whether this is acceptable or not. Even without the proposed context, this piece still remains a groundbreaking chosunhwa. With its intricate aesthetic elements, it resembles the spirit of French Romanticism and shows many interesting connections to the piece “The Raft of the Medusa.” The possibility of North Korean art having a foreign influence suggests that it goes beyond a simply propagandistic purpose, and uses other references as

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) well for personal expression in an artistic way.

Fig. 9. Park, M. (n.d.). 祠媹檜. 悬嘐濈殘崅桰怜檜喼叐悩檹伨堌檀禴祼摠俬. http://www.mygoyang.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=64549 There are some other public paintings by North Korean artists that depict a theme related to nature rather than propagandistic notions. For example, the painting above is Tiger by Park Myeong-cheol (n.d.). This is a painting that was a part of the North Korean art exhibition held at the National Assembly under the theme of May the Spring of Unification Come. It was one of the hundred artworks that North Korea presented to the Korean Folk Painting Association in 2002; however, due to the strained interKorean relations, it has never been public until the exhibition. The painting lively depicts a fierce tiger as if it will pop out of the painting. A closer look at this piece reveals that it does not follow the common approach of animal paintings— this painting uses colorful stones and powder. In particular, the eye of the tiger is carved with jewels, not only creating a three-dimensional effect but also emphasizing the tiger’s glaring look. Long ago since the Goryeo and the Chosun Dynasty era, many Korean artists painted animals, along with landscapes. Animals have been considered companions of humans that live in nature, and people have linked their ecological characteristics and utility to their life wishes. Therefore, it was a common object that people used in artwork that reflected their wish of ‘Byeoksa’ and ‘Gilsang’, which stands for defeating evil and the state of being auspicious, respectively. Thus, this painting of a tiger is an example of how North Koreans marvel at nature and reflect that through an artistic medium utilizing various artistic techniques.

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Fig. 10 Sun, W. (n.d.). 彙坸揘濄注. 悩碄傕怜儱祼伨摈様椩殘摈祼 ‘彙坸揘濄注’2 欸摄槠昄峥张效倨棸侠峔嘌. http://mbiz.heraldcorp.com/view.php?ud=20171211000430 Another theme related to nature is presented in landscape paintings. In art, landscapes are reflections of the views and interpretations the artist has toward nature. For instance, artists could depict the landscape exactly as it is as if it is a picture, paint it more beautifully than what it is to emphasize their admiration, paint the progression of the moments of nature along with the movement of sunlight, or use different artistic techniques to abstractly embody nature. As such, landscape painting is a common medium used by artists to demonstrate their view and admiration for nature through art. This piece above is one of the most representative landscape paintings in North Korea called Heaven Lake of Paektu Mountain by Sun Woo-young. Sun Woo-young, born in Pyongyang, is considered one of North Korea’s most significant artists along with Jeong Chang-mo (1931-2010). He painted chosunhwas for the National Mansudae Art Studio since 1932. He was even designated as a “People’s Artist”, which is an honorary title given to only few artists by the nation along with a medal who has been recognized for their distinguished service in the arts such as art, photography, and musical composition. His works have been introduced occasionally in South Korea, but this piece is the first time that his artwork of Mt. Baekdu has been released to the public. It was exhibited in the 2017 Unification Theme Exhibition hosted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government and the Ministry of Unification. His work is particularly unique due to the painting techniques he uses. Using his background of learning jewelry crafting in university, he pioneered his unique painting method called ‘Jinchae Sehwa.’ This is a technique that combines delicate crafting techniques with chosunhwa art, creating a distinctive effect. Applying such technique, in his paintings, beautiful aspects of nature are emphasized strongly, while unnecessary and secondary elements are omitted. Therefore, the characteristics of central subjects of his paintings are highlighted, especially each of their unique characteristics and shapes. Moreover, he stresses the density of shapes and depicts color in great detail, adding a sophisticated touch to the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) painting. His works often utilize mountains and rocks to express his and North Korean citizens’ strong will. His artworks are regarded as national treasures that leave an incredible impression on their audience with sophisticated, descriptive techniques and the integrity of shapes. This particular painting demonstrates such strengths of Sun Woo-young’s artwork. From a distance, it is realistic like a picture of Mt. Baekdu. However, a closer look at this painting reveals that it takes an Oriental style with Hwaseonji, ink, and the use of colors. There is a delicate expression of even the smallest elements, such as rocks, water, and sandy beaches, depicting Paektu Mountain as if it is an abstract piece of art. This piece is not only significant for its artistic features but also because it gives an idea of Paektu Mountain and its Heaven Lake to an audience beyond North Korea. Paektu Mountain, also known as Baekdu Mountain, is the highest mountain of the Baekdudaegan and Changbai ranges, with an altitude of 2,744m. Its large crater lake called Heaven Lake is formed by the “Tinachi” eruption of 946, which is known to be one of the biggest eruptions in the last 5,000 years. Although Paektu Mountain has been a significant part of both South and North Korean culture, even mentioned in the lyrics of both of their national mountains, most South Koreans never had the opportunity of seeing Paektu Mountain. Due to the controlling and private nature of North Korea, tours have been limited. Thus, this picture provides an illustration of the wonders of Paektu Mountain and its Heaven Lake, also serving an informative purpose to those who have never seen it before. Therefore, landscape paintings, such as this one by Sun Woo-young, are significant chosunhwas. Not only do they go beyond a propagandistic notion by creatively expressing North Korean artists’ admiration for nature via an artistic medium, but they also inform an audience beyond North Korean citizens of what nature in the DPRK looks like through their own lenses.

3. Conclusion This paper argues that North Korean art serves a purpose beyond propaganda— that art in North Korea is a medium of self-expression for artists. Under the strict surveillance of freedom of expression, North Korea has limited space for individual expression. Despite this oppressive barrier, North Korean artists have inserted their hopes for unification in their paintings and subverted the regime’s strictures on artistic freedom through inspiration from Western artistic movements and advanced artistic techniques. It cannot be denied that most artworks produced under the surveillance of the North Korean state fulfill the criteria for propagandistic art. However, the art world must not dismiss North Korean artworks and the surge of prominent North Korean artists who subtly deviate from the constraints of their dictatorial regime through their artistry. This has been proven through extensive artistic analysis of three paintings - BongSan Mask Dance (2005), When The Rain Stopped Falling in Pyongyang on a Sunny Day (2006), and Rescue in the Dark Sea (1997)— examined in this paper, as well as insights from art collectors and historians such as Frans Broersen and BG Muhn. These artworks are not the only examples of the ingenuity of North Korean artists and how they contrive to generate critical portrayals of North Korea through artistic means. While the paintings discussed in this paper have achieved domestic fame - proving that their artistic value goes beyond a government scheme to attract foreign attention or delude third parties into believing artistic freedom exists in North Korea - countless other parallel examples continue to challenge the restrictions placed by North Korea’s supreme leaders and deviate from standard propagandistic material. These qualities of North Korean artworks that differentiate themselves from mere propaganda prove the importance of delving below the surface level of North Korean artworks to illuminate the underlying message. All in all, these paintings, regardless of whether or not they overtly criticize the dictatorial leadership of the Kim

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Dynasty or if they use a more subtle, even neutral approach, are a testament to how creativity penetrates the extreme boundaries set under North Korea’s totalitarian regime.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) http://news.ifac.or.kr/archives/24605?print=print Hecimovic, A. (2017, August 20). North Korea's bold wave of propaganda art - in pictures. The Guardian. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2017/aug/20/north-koreas-propaganda-art-in-pictures Home. (n.d.). YouTube. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/33797630784/ Kim, H. (2017, December 22). INCCCCC. BBC. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/korean/resources/idt-sh/north_korean_art_korean Kim, S. (2007, 2 27). ⽟㌆䌞㿺. https://blog.daum.net/1735y/2975622 Kim, S. (2021, 7 23). ⽟㌆䌞㿺. ⿗䞲⹎㑶㏢Ṳ '㫆㍶䢪㦮 Ệ㧻衚-㧎㻲, 䘟䢪㦮 ₎㦚㡊┺' 㦮⹎. http://www.kyeongin.com/main/view.php?key=20210723010004440 Kim, W. (2005). February of Northern Part [Every February flower festivals take place across North Korea, displaying the Kimjongilia: a flower of the begonia family named after Kim Jong I]. AntiAmerican posters disappear in Pyongyang as positive artwork helps cement cult of Kim Jong-un. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/31/anti-american-posters-disappear-pyongyang-positiveartwork-helps/ Klamar, J. (n.d.). [Painting featuring Kim Jong-il and Kim Il-sung, surrounded by adoring children.]. North Korea's Kim dynasty: the making of a personality cult. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/16/north-korea-kim-jong-il-birthday Lafforgue, E. (n.d.). [North Korean founding leader Kim Il Sung depicted as the sun, a common theme carried over from imperial Japan, in a Pyongyang propaganda poster.]. The single most important fact for understanding North Korea. https://www.vox.com/2016/1/6/10724334/north-koreahistory Muhn, B. (2019). North Korean Art: The Enigmatic World of Chosonhwa. Seoul Selection. North Korea's Kim dynasty: the making of a personality cult. (2015, February 16). The Guardian. Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/16/north-korea-kimjong-il-birthday Park, G. (2013, July 1). ⹫ἚⰂ㦮㓺䅖䂮臦 | ₖ㎇䧂, Ṟ╖↙ 䦪✺Ⱂ㠦⿚┾㦮㌗㻮 ╊┺ 2013 ⎚ 7 㤪䢎. 䐋㧒䞲ῃ. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://unikorea21.com/?p=7794 Park, M. (2021, 7 14). 䢎⧧㧊. ⿚┾ 㻶㫆ⰳ 㞞⽊㧊⓪ ⋾⿗㧧Ṗ✺㦮䣢䢪㎎Ἒ. http://www.mygoyang.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=64549 Seo, J. (2010, March 10). [㍲㩫㤇 ⹎㑶䏶䋂] ☯㟧䢪 vs ㍲㟧䢪. 㞚䔎㫆㍶. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://art.chosun.com/m/article.html?contid=2010031001507

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Applying Wittkower’s Palladian Diagram to the Choson Dynasty: A Comparative Analysis of the Five Grand Palace Halls Author 1

Full Name

An, Eunje

Chadwick International

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The Choson dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of Korea that lasted for a period of over five centuries: an era that produced various royal architecture, all of which are still located in the present-day capital of South Korea, Seoul. While these palaces mainly served to provide space for the king to look over the country’s affairs and his families to live, they also illustrate the artistic limits of the period, with the incorporation of the best designers, techniques, and materials of the time. Existing research on these palaces in South Korea has the tendency to focus on the entire palace – their overall form, transformation, and arrangements – but only a few focus on the characteristics of specific buildings or halls within these places. Inspired by Wittkower’s attempt to simplify Palladio’s villas by identifying a pattern, this paper seeks to simplify the floorplan of the main halls of five grand palaces of South Korea and derive a common diagram for architectural comparison. The common plan will then be analyzed from a historical stance as well, where the diagram will be put into dialectical play with the context behind which it was built. This research is important since it can help historians learn how history is reflected in the architecture and it can also contribute to the field of architecture by providing a basis for future studies that want to compare the five palaces by using the same methodology used in this paper.

Keywords: Choson dynasty, Grand palace halls, Wittkower, Palladian diagram

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction The Choson dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of Korea that lasted for a period of over five centuries: it was founded by Yi Seong-gye in 1392 and ended with Japanese occupation in 1910 (Britannica). Out of various royal architecture, there were a total of five ‘grand palaces’, all of which are still located in the present-day capital of Korea, Seoul (Korea National Heritage Online). These palaces mainly served to provide space for the king to look over the country’s affairs and his families to live in. However, these palaces were not simply a place of residence, but illustrated the artistic limits of the period, with the incorporation of the best designers, techniques, and materials of the time (Cultural Heritage Administration). Hence, a lot of historical and architectural interest prevail for these palaces. The fact that all of the five structures still survive after the tumultuous centuries, made possible with meticulous preservation efforts by the past generations, makes it an even more fascinating subject of study. However, existing research on these palaces of South Korea have the tendency to focus on the entire palace – their overall form, transformation, and arrangements – but only few focus on the characteristics of specific buildings or halls within these places. Also, prior research rarely performed comparative analysis across multiple palaces, and almost no prior research delves into Korean palace structures’ floor plans, which is the most fundamental part of a building. Therefore, this study aims to address such gaps in research by comparatively analyzing Chosen’s five grand palaces. It will apply the method used by the British art historian, Rudolf Wittkower, in his own study of an Italian Renaissance architect, Andrea Palladio, and his villas (Wittkower 108-112). Inspired by Wittkower’s attempt to simplify Palladio’s villas through identifying a pattern, this paper seeks to simplify the floorplan of the main halls in each palace and derive a common diagram for architectural comparison. The common plan will then be analyzed from a historical stance as well, where the diagram will be put into dialectical play with the context behind which it was built. This research is important since it can help historians learn how history is reflected in architecture and it can also contribute to the field of architecture by providing a basis for future studies that want to compare the five palaces by using the same methodology used in this paper.

Literature Review A look into current scholarship on Chosen palaces reveals that scholars in Korea have the tendency to focus on the overall palace structure. For example, Dong-uk Kim analyzes the many different architectural components of the palace, like the walls and gates, and the functions these elements serve for the Gyeongbokgung palace (Kim 26-36). Focusing more on the cultural functions of the palace, Jaehyeok Chang and Dong-soo Han discuss the spatial organization of Gyeongbokgung palace and its relation with royal ceremonies (Chang and Han 186-190). Ji-soung Baik, Min-seon Kim, and Tae-dong Cho aim to comment on the configuration of the Gyeonghuigung palace through the studies of its royal gardens (Baik et al. 1674). Acknowledging this prevalence of research on overall palace structures, scholars such as Jung-hyun Hwang and Jin-kyoon Kim attempted to focus their studies on a specific building inside the palace, explaining the internal spatial organization and the function of Geunjeongjeon, the main hall of the Gyeongbokgung Palace (Hwang and Kim 459-463). Similarly, Nana Jeon’s research centers on the main hall of Deoksugung Palace, Junghwajeon (Jeon 189-190). Other works address structures outside of the main halls of the palace. Take this research by Jong-seo Lee for example, which directs its focus on Changdeokgung Palace’s Seongjeonggak, a small structure built for the king’s study, and research by Hyung-Keun Ohn and Choong-Sik Kim on Changdeokgung’s Seonjeongjeon, a structure for the king to discuss work with his servants (Lee 46-51; Ohn and Kim 137139).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) However, regardless of what structure they focus on, these studies have a common limitation that they are not comparative: they fail to look beyond the structure that they are studying and whether such structures have parallels that are maintained or altered across the five grand palaces (Lee 46-51; Hwang and Kim 459-463; Jeon 189-190; Ohn and Kim 137-139). The exception to this is In-hwa Choi’s research, in which she decided to compare the construction methods of five grand palaces of the Choson dynasty, but this focused more on the methods than the structure themselves (Choi 126-133). Therefore, this study aims to address this topical gap by observing a specific structure within each palace, the ‘main halls’, while comparing and juxtaposing the main halls of all five palaces with each other. This research will adopt Rudolf Wittkower’s mode of architectural analysis to fulfill its aim of comparing and juxtaposing. Wittkower was a British art historian of the 20th century, who conducted a famous study called the "Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism," which was a study that analyzed every villa that the Italian architect Andrea Palladio has ever built during the Italian Renaissance (Hays, “Lecture 1.2” 00:00:12 - 00:00:25). What Wittkower realized was that the villas had a common geometrical and structural pattern that could be uncovered through drawing and measuring (00:00:36 - 00:00:57). All villas had different functions and were made of different materials, but Wittkower disregarded all these factors and was only concerned with the structural pattern, which effectively represented the geometrical essence of the Palladian villas (00:00:57: - 00:01:32). Thus far, Wittkower’s method has rarely been applied to Korean architecture. Even a comparative study conducted by Korean scholars Min-hye Hwang and Seok-jae Yim that created simplified patterns for L.B.Alberti’s and Leonardo da Vinci’s architecture by comparing their floorplans was not about Korean architecture (Hwang and Yim 250-251). However, this study did further Wittkower’s method of analysis by considering why the differences between Alberti and da Vinci’s architecture arose with regards to the context in which the buildings were planned, a factor left out in Wittkower’s study that tried to free architecture from its social function and context(251-255). Believing that Wittkower’s particular method of analyzing floor plans will be both appropriate and useful for the analysis of Korean palaces, this paper wishes to apply his method to address the gap in current literature on Korean Palaces: the lack of comparison across the five grand palaces, and their specific structures. Wittkower’s palladian diagrams will provide a guideline for how the main halls of five Chosen palaces can be simplified, and ultimately compared. Furthermore, this paper will seek to supplement Wittkower’s analysis by also considering the historical context behind the construction of five palaces, as Min-hye Hwang and Seokjae Yim have done, to discuss why the common pattern looks as it is (251-255).

Methodology This study is going to look into each main hall of the five grand palaces of the Chosen Dynasty. The aim is to simplify their floorplans and create a single diagram that shows the common features of the main halls. The source of inspiration behind this methodology is Wittkower’s study called "Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism" which created a common structural pattern that effectively represented the geometrical essence of the Palladian villas (Wittkower 110). Of all architectural modes of analysis, Wittkower’s methodology was incorporated because typology, or the logic of types, is one of the most fundamental concepts in architectural design (Hays, “Lecture 1.3” 00:00:09 - 00:00:18). Here, according to French architectural theorist Quatremére de Quincy, 'type' “does not represent so much the image of something that must be copied or imitated perfectly as the idea of an element that must itself serve as a rule for the model" (00:00:38 - 00:00:59). However, research into such a fundamental concept is rarely seen with Korean architecture. Therefore, this paper aims to derive a new ‘type’ for the main halls of the grand palaces of Korea: like Wittkower’s single

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) geometrical rule from which different variations on the villa could be extrapolated. The floor plans used in this paper are taken from the National Cultural Heritage Portal, which is operated by the Government agency in charge of preserving and promoting Korean cultural heritage. The floorplans’ consistencies are assured from the measurements that are included in them, which indicate the lengths for each specific component of the plan. Circles will be used for where the columns, which have the functional purpose of weight-lifting the structure, meet the ground, and rectangles and straight lines will be used for outlining the bottom face of the throne, walls of the palaces, and the layer of the stone floor that is in level with the base of the structure. This usage of simple geometrical shapes allows the floorplans to become more abstract, hence appropriate for creating a common diagram. Then, all the larger features, like the width and length of the structure, of the throne, and of the stone floor on level with the structure, will all be averaged, using the measurements provided by the floorplans. Then the smaller features, like the lengths between the columns, radius of the columns, the distance of the throne from the north wall, and the distance of the hall from the edges of the same-level stone floor will also be averaged; all these averaged values will be used to create a common geometric floorplan that effectively serves as a model that can produce variations of the five main halls. To draw these plans, this study will utilize Sketchup, a 3D modeling computer program, that accurately draws and organizes geometrical shapes with precise measurements. The program will also allow the creation of the shapes I needed, rectangles and circles, with more cleanness than hand-drawn work. Hence, with the simplified common diagram, this study will point out the elements commonly manifested in all 5 main halls and the minor differences present among the floorplans of the 5 main halls. After such architectural analysis that purely looks into the structural facet of the diagram, this paper will also discuss the context behind these halls to allow the readers to grasp a more holistic understanding of the common diagram by explaining why these similarities and differences have arisen based on historical reasons.

Findings Before finding the common pattern, this study first created a simplified diagram for each of the floorplans of the five main halls. This was done by looking at the measurements on the original floorplans provided by the National Cultural Heritage Portal (hereafter NCHP). The original floorplans are attached in the Appendix. The following steps were taken to simplify each floorplans into a diagram (Figure 1 and 2).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Create a rectangular stone floor of 34517 cm to 25338 cm (dimensions provided by the NCHP)

Step 1

Create the rectangular walls of the main hall that have the dimension of 30212 cm to 21043 cm, with distance of 2145 cm from the left and 2150 cm from the bottom of the stone floor’s edges.

Step 2

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Create another rectangle to represent the base of the throne with dimensions 5408 cm to 4772 cm. Place the rectangular throne at the horizontal center, and 2092 cm away from the top inner wall. The stairs of the throne are not represented to further simplify the floorplan.

Step 3

Place the columns according to the positions written on the floorplans in the shape of a

Step 4

circle.

Figure 1. (Geunjeongjeon)

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Create a rectangular stone floor of 23631 cm to 16691 cm

Step 1

Create the rectangular walls of the main hall that have the dimension of 18091 cm to 9623 cm and place the walls 2937 cm from the left and 2645 cm from the bottom of the stone floor’s edges.

Step 2

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Create another rectangle to represent the base of the throne with dimensions 4400 cm to 2856 cm. Place the rectangular throne 442 cm away from the top wall and at the horizontal center. The stairs of the throne are not represented to further simplify the floorplan.

Step 3

Place the columns according to the positions written on the floorplans in the shape of a circle.

Step 4

Figure 2. Myeongjeongjeon Following the steps shown in Figure 1 and 2, the rest of the floorplans for Injeongjeon, Junghwajeon, and Sungjeongjeon were all simplified respectively.

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Figure 3. Injeongjeon

Figure 4. Junghwajeon

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Figure 5. Sungjeongjeon The floorplan for Sungjeongjen was not provided by the NCHP, and thus was based off of the Seoul Metropolitan Library, in which the exact dimensions of the throne were unidentified. In order to accurately create the simplified diagram, the throne was drawn proportionately based on the dimensions of the walls. After creating the simplified floor plans that solely consist of rectangles and circles, this study looked out for commonalities that are represented in all five simplified floorplans. Basic components like the stone floor, walls of the main hall, and the throne existed in every one of the main halls. Therefore, to create an abstract diagram that represents all of them together, this study averaged the width and length of all these rectangular components. Firstly, the dimensions of the five structures’ stone floors were averaged to create a common stone floor of 27561.8 cm length and 21033.8 cm width. Then, for the walls of the main halls, the values for each of the five structures were averaged to formulate a common wall with dimensions of 22858.6 cm length and 15856.8 cm width. The throne’s dimensions were averaged to construct a common throne of 4851.5 cm length to 3989.0 cm width again; however, information on the dimensions for Sungjeongjeon’s throne could not be found, thus excluded from calculating the average. The throne was placed 1336 cm away from the top wall of the main hall at the horizontal center. Moving on to the columns, the five simplified floorplans had the common feature that they had six columns on the top and bottom palace walls. However, the distance between the six columns were uneven and therefore averaged as well. The distance between the first and second column from the left was 4033.8 cm, the second and third column was 4675.8 cm, the third and fourth column was 5431.4 cm, the fourth and fifth was 4678.4 cm, and the fifth and last was 4039.2 cm. Another repeated pattern for the columns was how there were always six horizontally placed columns above the bottom wall (see Figure 6). The distance between these columns were equal to the other six columns on the top and bottom walls. Their distance away from the bottom wall was again averaged from the five palaces’ simplified floorplans to the value of 4012.4 cm (see Figure 6).

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Figure 6 Lastly, a notable commonality was that the main hall was placed above four levels of stone floors. The simplified diagrams above were only representing the measurements for the stone floor at the highest level (see Figure 7).

Figure 7. An, Eunje. Frontal view of Geunjeongjeon. 10 Oct. 2020. Author’s Personal Collection When creating the final common diagram for this paper, the lower layers were represented as larger rectangles surrounding the initial simplified stone floor diagram, without specific measurements, to indicate that there were layers.

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Figure 8. This study then put this common diagram for all five palaces (Figure 8) into dialectical play with history. To return to history is to bring life to the historical architecture and to reconstruct the world in which the contemporaries lived in (Hays, “3 Hegel and Architectural History” 00:00:35 - 00:00:47). The Chosen dynasty, during which these palaces were built and used, was the pinnacle of Confucianism in Korean history (Guo 54). Therefore, the fact that the five main halls of the Chosen imperial palaces resembled one another, with only minor variations in details and proportion, indicate to us the possibility that there may be a historical explanation behind their architectural principles. It seems likely that the palaces also embodied the political ideology of the time, Neo-Confucianism (an ideology that focused on ordering human society by developing social, political, and philosophical systems pointing toward individuals’ obligations to self-transform and become a moral, social, and political paragon), which was favored by Chosen rulers in order to strengthen central government institutions (Guo 54; Oxford Bibliographies). Indeed, looking at the main roles of these halls during the period may reveal why the common diagram looks as it is. Firstly, because the main hall was traditionally one of the most potent ‘visual’ symbols of imperial rule, the main hall must have been equipped with dignity and consistency: any digression from it may have implied disruption in the ruler’s legitimacy (Guo 66). Therefore, the method of surrounding colonnades on a structure has been used in all five main halls to express centralism, as these columns are placed symmetrically, which provide a sense of harmony and balance, thus imbuing the buildings with order and strength (Hwang and Kim 2). This method has also been used in places like the Parthenon in Greece and Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C to create an aesthetic of importance and grandness for important buildings (Hwang and Kim 457). What adds to the centralism here is the layering of multiple stone floors. As shown in the diagram above, all five palaces were placed on four layers of stone floors- the base level and three elevated stone floors above the ground. This consistent usage of four floor levels shapes the structure like a tower, which symbolizes wealth, success, strength and power due to its verticality and monumentality (Huriot). These elements symbolized by a tower shape are all necessary to highlight the concentration of authority, or the centralism, of a dynasty (Hwang and Kim 460). It is also inferable that the difference in height from the ground to the throne highlights the prestigiousness of the king, as elevation is commonly associated with superiority and one has to go up

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the stairs to meet the monarch. Secondly, the main hall was the center of the political domain, where people other than the king's family, like foreign envoys were allowed to enter (Hwang and Kim 458). Based on the Neo-Confucian ideology that was introduced from China, there were specific orders for the servants and the envoys to stand relative to the position of the king (Hwang and Kim 463). Therefore, it explains why for all five palaces, the king’s throne was placed on the center and back of the main halls. The position of the throne allowed all participants in political ceremonies to be placed in front of the king, facing the throne, spread out across the hall according to their classes and status. It was a visual confirmation of the king’s authority, and the hierarchical social structure of the period. In addition, because the main hall was the center of many political events and ceremonies, it was crucial that the space was versatile and flexible to meet the different needs of each occasion (Hwang and Kim 463). This may partly justify the open space of the halls, and the usage of columns across all five palaces. By placing colonnades that play a structural role of weight-lifting the roof of the hall, the walls were allowed a degree of flexibility to dismantle the boundaries between the inside and the outside. For example, Figure 9 is a drawing of the royal palace’s celebration and we can see that the main hall flexibly transforms the structure’s organization according to its needs: a temporary structure like a tent is installed to create a roofed space, and the Geunjeongjeon space is expanded to the outside by opening up the walls.

Figure 9. “‫ݦה‬ऑ॰Ѧ.” National Museum of Korea, https://www.museum.go.kr/site/main/relic/search/view?relicId=188648.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Despite these commonalities amongst the five main halls, there are also slight variations and minor differences that occur, for example, the dimensions of the walls, stone floor, throne, the number of columns on the left and right walls of the main hall. The reasons behind these differences could have arised from the topography of the site and the status of the palace, which would have affected the buildings’ layout and size. However, this paper attempted to bridge over such minor differences by focusing on major shared features across the five palaces.

Conclusion Existing research on the five grand palaces of the Choson Dynasty had several gaps that needed to be filled. One is that previous research was highly focused on the entire palace structure, while only few focused on the characteristics of specific structures (such as the main hall) within these places. Also, analysis that compares the five palaces was rare, and almost no prior research delves into the palace structures’ floor plans, which can be seen as perhaps the most fundamental part of a building. Therefore, this study addressed these gaps by comparatively analyzing Chosen’s five grand palaces, applying the method used by Rudolf Wittkower in his study of Andrea Palladio and his villas. This paper simplified the floorplan of the main halls in each palace using simple lines and shapes and to derive a common diagram. Architectural features of each hall were compared based on the common diagram. Then, a contextual analysis followed. The two main functions of the main halls and the political ideology of the time, Neo-Confucianism, were closely linked to the common features of the main halls. Firstly, being an important ‘visual’ symbol of imperial rule, the main hall was equipped with grandeur and formality, which explained the colonnades and stone floors. Secondly, the main hall was the center of the political domain, which explained the rectangular shape of the hall, the position of the throne, and the open space of the hall. Yet, limitations for this very study exist as well. Although it is true that the floorplan is a greatly important part of a structure, there are more parts to the building. Therefore, for further research, a front view analysis of the main halls, for example, could be performed to create another set of common diagrams. This will enable architects and historians to observe features like the roof, which was one of the most elaborate parts of the palaces. Moreover, future studies do not have to be limited to the main halls and can focus on other structures within the palaces. This paper is important as it can contribute to the field of history by showing historians how history leaves its mark on architecture and contribute to the architectural field by providing a new approach to the way in which we understand the architecture of the Choson dynasty.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Spatial Organization of Gyeongbok Palace and The Six Ministries A venue in the Early Joseon Dynasty - The Ceremony at the Main Gate and its Meaning -].” Journal of Architectural History, vol. 17, no. 4, 2008, pp. 25-42. DBpia, https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE10094783. Accessed 22 Dec. 2021. Lee, Jong-seo. “ॷщ˼ ‫ࢽ۽‬ɽࢂ ʢ঵ ‫ ̛ࠪݤ‬ʢ঵ ˱࣏ [The Construction Period and the Structure of Seongjeonggak Hall, in Changdeokgung Palace].” Journal of Architectural History, vol. 28, no. 2, 2019, pp. 41-52. DBpia, https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE10094679. Accessed 28 Dec. 2021. Ohn, Hyung-Keun, and Choong-Sik Kim. “ॷщ˼ ۴ࢽࢷ ࠪՓ֐(䚒価㴪)ࢂ୚ܹ ‫ח‬୘ࢢԻ۰ ‫ח‬୘ਏ੪ৌࢶ ɼ৔ [A Value Inquiry of Cultural Relics of Waryongmae and a Restitution of Cultural Heritage].” Korean Journal of Cultural Heritage Studies, vol. 54, no. 2, 2021, pp. 136153. DBpia, https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE10651647. Accessed 22 Dec. 2021. 7KH (GLWRUV RI (QF\FORSDHGLD &KRVǂQ G\QDVW\ (ncyclopedia Britannica, 25 Sep. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Choson-dynasty. Accessed 4 March 2022. Wittkower, Rudolf. “Principles of Palladio's Architecture.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 7, 1944, pp. 102-122. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/750384. Accessed 31 Dec. 2021. “˼́ࢂ ࠇ‫[ ی‬History of Palaces].” Korea National Heritage Online, http://www.heritage.go.kr/heri/html/HtmlPage.do?pg=%2Fpalaces%2FpalacesHistory.jsp&amp;page No=2_6_1_1. “ঐࠪо߾۰ փ΢ ˈ˼ࢂ ଯ̛ [The scent of ancient palaces in the Blue House].” Cultural Heritage Administration, 4 May 2007, https://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=5468&amp;bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008. “ˁஜ˼ ݁ࢽࢷ ૡִѦ.” Seoul Metropolitan Library, https://lib.seoul.go.kr:9091/ezpdfweb/ezpdf/customLayout.jsp?target=Y&encdata=7A43D0C4E655F 7E00FF27627F2A562220FF27627F2A56222E806B9514FF26ACA4D10A9CFF9A1994D54A54452 DD5B98F0D7E8E18328A361B3AC5741A27BDCCEF553F7EC38D90E8F1427B83F308888D8791 642724EDECECE7F2BC4B82511B67F379070C76514B941DBE7DA414900D1DF39CF7E69D5CE 1D0DB0BD3F095182F210DB5B00F5FD41B0997C#. “‫ݦה‬ऑ॰Ѧ.” National Museum of Korea, https://www.museum.go.kr/site/main/relic/search/view?relicId=188648.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix A. Measurements *All measurements are in centimeters Walls (length, width) Geunjeongjeon - 30212, 21043 Myeongjeongjeon - 18091, 9623 Injeongjeon - 24440, 18338 Junghwajeon - 22830, 17280 Sungjeongjeon - 18720, 13000 Avg - 22858.6, 15856.8 Stone Floor (length, width) Geunjeongjeon - 34517, 25338 Myeongjeongjeon - 23631, 16691 Injeongjeon - 29391, 23890 Junghwajeon - 27830, 22530 Sungjeongjeon - 22440, 16720 Avg - 27561.8, 21033.8 Distance between first and second columns, second and third columns… fifth and sixth columns Geunjeongjeon - 5277, 6375, 6862, 6404, 5294 Myeongjeongjeon - 2820, 4038, 4351, 4040, 2842 Injeongjeon - 4602, 4606, 6104, 4588, 4540 Junghwajeon - 4310, 4310, 5540, 4310, 4360 Sungjeongjeon - 3160, 4050, 4300, 4050, 3160 Avg - 4033.8, 4675.8, 5431.4, 4678.4, 4039.2 Distance of six horizontally placed columns above the bottom wall from the bottom wall Geunjeongjeon - 5257 Myeongjeongjeon - 2799 Injeongjeon - 4576 Junghwajeon - 4330 Sungjeongjeon - 3100 Avg - 4012.4 Distance of hall’s left wall from left edge of the stone floor Geunjeongjeon - 2145 Myeongjeongjeon - 2937 Injeongjeon - 2121 Junghwajeon - 2460 Sungjeongjeon - 1800 Avg - 2292.6 Distance of hall’s bottom wall from bottom edge of the stone floor Geunjeongjeon - 2150

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Myeongjeongjeon - 2645 Injeongjeon - 2467 Junghwajeon - 2460 Sungjeongjeon - 1920 Avg - 2328.4 Throne (length, width) *Missing Sungjeongjeon Geunjeongjeon - 5408, 4772 Myeongjeongjeon - 4400, 2856 Injeongjeon - 5090, 4130 Junghwajeon - 4508, 4198 Avg - 4851.5, 3989 Distance of throne from the top wall (length, width) *Missing Junghwajeon & Sungjeongjeon Geunjeongjeon - 2092 Myeongjeongjeon - 442 Injeongjeon - 1474 Avg - 1336

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix B. Original Floorplans Geunjeongjeon

Myeongjeongjeon

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Injeongjeon

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Junghwajeon

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Sungjeongjeon

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Harnessing Hospitality and Tourism Development to Conserve Indigenous Population: The Case of Haenyeo Divers in Jeju Island Author 1

Full Name

Chang, Chaewon

Korea International School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The Haenyeo divers – the indigenous population of Jeju Island – are important cultural heritage not only to Korea but to humanity according to UNESCO (2017). However, the Haenyeos now face the risk of extinction as the current population is aging and the younger population is not entering the industry. In contrast to the diminishing Haenyeo industry, the tourism industry in Jeju Island is growing. This current qualitative study uses thematic analysis of qualitative data to explore the extent of current collaboration of the two groups. The research identifies factors that account for the apparent low level of the current collaboration between the Haenyeo population and the modern hospitality/tourism industry in Jeju island towards finding a solution that will mobilize partnership between the two. The study effectively closes the gap in the existing literature as well as introduces a mutually advantageous way of connecting the high demand for tourism to the preservation of Haenyeo culture and life to potentially revive the diminishing Haenyeo population.

Keywords: Hospitality, Tourism, Urban Planning, Indigenous Population, Haenyeo

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction: About 455 kilometers from the bustling city of Seoul lies a precious island, Jeju. Despite having a total population of just 634,161 people (Fisher, David M. et al.), its culture has deep roots in the history of Korea. There are various aspects of Jeju island that are representative of the region’s rich culture; for instance, hallabong oranges, immense green tea fields, and Hallasan or Mount Hallah. Among all the unique aspects of the island’s culture, the “Haenyeo(s)” are a noteworthy feature. For a living, Haenyeo often dive 10 meters under the sea, without the help of oxygen masks, to harvest shellfish, such as abalone or sea urchins. Also known as the “Mermaids of Jeju'' or the “Warriors against the Sea,” these women have been designated by the provincial government to represent the island’s character and people’s spirit with their iron will, independent spirit, and determination. The Haenyo’ role in the community extends far beyond being divers (You, Won-Hee, et al.). The culture of Haenyos contributed not only to the advancement of women’s status in the community as they induced semi-matriarchal family structure of Jeju, but also advanced the marine economy through their harvest, once accounting for up to 60% of Jeju fisheries’ revenue in the 1960s. They have promoted environmental sustainability through their eco- friendly methods and community involvement in control of fishing practices. . These values led to Haenyo being listed as part of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. However, since the 1960s, Jeju's sea-diving industry saw a sharp decline due to industrialization. At that time, the Korean government mandated that Jeju become an exporter of mandarin oranges as part of its grand scheme to jumpstart Korea’s economy. Many rural workers joined the new industry, as farming mandarin oranges was easier than the strenuous labor and grueling conditions of diving. Furthermore, as tourism in Jeju became more popular, many attractive positions and opportunities deterred the younger generation from pursuing the job of a Haenyo. With the advent of new methods to pursue their livelihood, the Haenyo population has diminished. Being an integral part of the culture of Jeju and of deep cultural value to Korea, it should be preserved. However, the dwindling population needs drastic intervention to curb the decline. This study investigates the current relationship and feasibility of the partnership between Jeju Haenyeo and the hospitality industry.

History It is useful to understand the past attempts and policies formulated to preserve the Haenyeo population. The World Conservation Congress, during its session in Jeju, urged all members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as well as partners and organizations of the conservation community at large, to acknowledge and investigate the history, scientific importance, present condition and unique cultural value of Jeju Haenyeo, in order to assist in the development of extensive plans for their preservation. Jeju tourism and hospitality are inseparable and an integral topic in the context of Jeju. Jeju was not always a tourist destination. It was only from the mid-2010s when it actually began to grow. Although Jeju has been a tourist attraction for a long time, it is only during the past few decades that the tourism industry in South Korea has become a significant segment of the national economy. In only a 10-year period, tourism expenditure more than doubled, accounting for a significant role in

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Korea’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as projected by the 2008 World Travel and Tourism Council (Seo et al.). Currently, with the tourism industry taking over almost half of the workforce in Jeju, the Haenyeo population has not only decreased, but is also facing the risk of extinction as the existing Haenyeo population is aging and younger generations are not entering the industry. In fact, a seminal 1970s study by Ester Boserup proves that export industries in Asia (such as Haenyeo) created the cheapest labor force, which led to stalling of improved conditions of rural women (Boserup, Ester, et al.). A low wage structure does not inspire the younger generation to enter the Haenyeo market and forces them to look for more lucrative options in agriculture and the hospitality industry, for example. Thus, it is evident from the existing research that intervention is required to sustain the Haenyeo population.

Literature Review Collaboration, in the context of tourism and development, represents the process of two or more entities or organizations working together to achieve a common goal of mutual benefit. For one, contrary to the general belief introduction of hotels and tourism to an area almost always results in environmental damage, Braman and Sharman explored various interpretations of what sustainable development is and what it means in the context of tourism. They specifically looked into the case of Hope Valley and found that tourism offers a significant contribution to the economic growth of a region and to the labor market. It creates new jobs through the supply of goods and services necessary for tourist activities. It also attracts increased investment in the area that may improve facilities and access, enable development, and encourage conservation of features (e.g., buildings, wildlife, and countryside). The development of tourism in a particular region also contributes toward meeting the expenses for the upkeep and preservation of the facilities. There seems to be an overwhelming consensus that tourism intervention in an area, urban or rural, almost always seems to be beneficial to the region and the region’s surrounding communities economically. Although the variables are different, these studies suggest that there may be value to be gained from the collaboration between the tourism industry and the Haenyeo population. Beyond the economic value, studies also found both new and continuing social and cultural value in the collaboration between tourism and host communities. For example, local communities can mix with people from diverse backgrounds with different lifestyles through the “demonstration effect” — “effects on the behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions of others and their consequences” as described by Alpha C. Chiang in her book, The "Demonstration Effect" in a Dual Economy. This may lead to the development of improved lifestyles and practices from the example of the tourists. Additionally, an improvement in local life through better local facilities and infrastructure (developed to sustain tourism), could lead to better education, healthcare, employment opportunities and income. Furthermore, urban areas which may be behind in terms of accessibility and overall evelopment, can be revived. Finally, the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas for employment may be reversed as employment opportunities will be available in the tourism industry. Contrary to the research that explored the positive impact of collaboration, previous studies have explored the impact of tourism on Jeju host communities and barriers that reduce the feasibility of the collaboration. Through qualitative methods, a study found that the needs of tourists and the host community overlap when considering several barriers to preserving the sustainability of Jeju. On the tourism side, they outlined a lack of coordination within the highly fragmented tourism industry, lack

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) of transparency, positive attitude of professionals, trained human resources, and mutual understanding among stakeholders as reasons why hotels and tourism companies may not work with the host communities (Li, Xiubai, Kim, et al.). On the community side, they identified limited capacity of poor people, lack of pride or confidence in their cultural identity, apathy, and low level of awareness in the local community as some barriers to cooperation to build a robust tourism industry. Although collaboration between the two parties is worth pursuing, there are many barriers to be overcome in order to institutionalize the collaboration. These barriers preclude the potential for collaboration. Previous research by Seline and Chavez had built systematic models and identified factors that inhibit and facilitate collaborative solutions, which is the foundation of partnership of community and tourism. Characteristics of successful partnerships are broken into four categories of factors: personal, interpersonal, organizational, and operational (Selin and Chavez, 1995). Collaboration precedes problem-setting, direction-setting, and structuring phase. Results from the study suggest a number of managerial actions required to foster successful partnerships: developing more flexible personnel and financial accounting systems, ensuring staff continuity over life of a partnership, and implementing partnership incentive programs for agency staff and potential external partners.

Need for Research Although there are various success stories of other countries where the tourism industry was able to positively impact a certain culture/area, only one source actually delved into seeking what kind of collaboration would be feasible between the two groups in the context of Jeju Island. The goal of the research is to find factors that account for the apparent low level of current collaboration between the Haenyeo population and the modern hospitality industry in Jeju and to find a solution that will mobilize partnership between the two. Moreover, the findings of this study aim to effectively close the gap in the existing literature as well as help shed light on the continuation of the Haenyeo population and introduce a mutually advantageous way of connecting the high demand of tourism to the preservation of Haenyeo culture and life.

Methodology 1. Research Design Considering the objectives of the study, a thematic analysis was employed. Interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data as it was first imperative to understand the feasibility, potential for collaboration, and the current and traditional status of the collaboration from a real-time hospitality perspective. 2. Sampling For this study, the inclusion criteria were: (a) individuals of the hospitality industry but representing a different location/community on the island, (b) hotels over medium-sized, i.e., having over 100 hotel rooms (this was to strengthen the validity of the study by excluding participants who did not have the potential to collaborate due to financial and structural constraints), and (c) those working in hotels currently located in Jeju. The participants were collected based on the qualitative research principle of data saturation, which outlines that when there occurs redundant information in the participant pool, the collection can be

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) stopped (Moser & Korstjens, 2018). In this research, after the 8th interview, the data sapling was stopped because it was determined that saturation had been achieved. Our final sample included 7 hotel staffs. After company selection, the participants were contacted through email and phone, where I provided them with an overall explanation of the study and rights as a participant (company confidentiality, removal of the recording and transcript, and option to withdraw). The consent form made sure they had no personal connections with the Haenyeo population to minimize potential bias. We informed the participants that their interview transcripts will be deleted after the interview. Following the survey, they were asked if they would be willing to participate in an in-depth interview, scheduled at a later time. For more detailed qualitative responses, 10 interview questions were created in order to eliminate potential bias of the interviewer having personal connection with the Haenyeo community in the consent form. Upon completing sampling method and collection, each question was constructed in order to focus on the perception, general industry standard procedures or method, and conditions of working with the Haenyeo population to understand the factors that motivate the current state of collaboration between the two communities and investigate the lack thereof. 3. In-depth interview In-depth interviews were conducted through a phone call to understand the current state of and influencing factors of collaboration between the Haenyeo population and the modern hospitality industry in Jeju. Furthermore, the standards and traditions that influence the collaboration were also considered. The interview was separated into three categories to help interviewers focus. The first set of questions were about the current status of the collaboration. The next set of questions regarded the participants’ understanding of their own organizations’ and industry’s standard way of creating a collaboration. The last set of questions pertained to how the participants view the potential of the collaboration. We utilized Selin and Chavez’s (1998) model to formulate our questions. Their study used questions about participants’ views about the current status of collaboration, industry’s method of collaboration, past collaboration experiences, willingness to collaborate, feasibility, the value of powerful partnership, and the values that may influence the potential partnership. Interview Questions • Do you currently have any programs involving the hanyeo population? • If not, why? • What do you think is the current state of collaboration with the Jeju haenyeo population industry-wise? • What is the industry standard way of curating programs in your organization? • Have you tried collaborating with the Jeju haenyeo population in the past? • If yes, how did it go? Or If not, why did it not work? • What is the major factor you consider in adapting a particular program to your curation? • How often do you update your tourism programs? • What determines the continuity of partnership programs? • Do you think it is feasible for you to consider collaboration with the Jeju haenyeo population? • How valuable do you think it is to adapt the Jeju haenyeo population to your

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Data Analysis Procedure/Justification Data analysis was performed by thematically analyzing the data transcription. Each transcript was read multiple times to gain familiarity and accuracy with the data. The reread transcript was used to identify themes that emerged. To thematically analyze, keywords and key phrases that embodied a certain theme were identified. The themes apparent in the transcripts were categorized according to the table below. After arranging the identified themes into a chart, I then identified and analyzed sub themes. For the qualitative data analysis section, after transcribing the answers to interview questions, the data were read through and categorized into crisis, broker, mandate, common vision, and incentives using the tourism partnership model of Selin and Chavez (1995) that I modified since the majority of previous studies investigating collaboration in tourism relied on this specific model as a foundation.

The model is organized into categories of antecedents, problem-setting, direction- setting, structuring, and outcomes categories. Antecedents are events that drive partnerships, such as crises, including serious marine biodiversity loss in a dive tourism destination and initiate tourism partnerships. In addition to a crisis, a broker or convener may initiate the process. From this antecedent context, partnerships evolve. Thus, the current research will look into these antecedents to make future collaboration possible, and if there is a limitation, this categorization will show the factors that influence it. The codes will be analyzed as in the following example table:

Content

Crisis

Description

Example Interview Quote

Quote contains mention about any “After the pandemic, we had to be careful about natural, biological, social crisis that working with those outside of our hotel.” may induce collaboration

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) “It is often difficult to collaborate with the local community - it needs a lot of resources from the hotel. Often this type of collaboration is initiated by a broker.”

Broker

Quote mentions the existence or lack of brokers that may mediate the process of collaboration formation

Mandate

Quote mentions the existence or lack “The government bans us from getting involved of any law or policy about in a and b.” collaboration

Common vision

Quote mentions the existence or lack of common vision between the local community and hotel industry personnel.

Incentive

Quote mentions the need for or “I think collaboration would be possible if there existence of incentive to the hotels to is incentive for the hotels to do so…” work with the local community.

“It is really difficult to share the same type of goals with the local community.”

In order to conduct coding, the participants’ interview will be searched for keywords that relate to each theme.

General Result The transcriptions of the analysis of the interviews reveal that there is no established collaboration between the Haenyeo population and the hotel industry. Further, the results do not show a clear potential for collaboration between the Haenyo industry and the hospitality industry in Jeju Island due to the current industry and hotel-specific trend of establishing partnerships. Feasibility, value, and potential that the hospital industry affiliates showed negative values even though most of the hotel affiliates understood cultural values in collaborating with the Haenyeo population. One of the hotel affiliate participants disclosed that the hotel tried to establish a partnership with the Haenyeo population, but it did not work due to factors that will be discussed later in the analysis. The hotel revealed that as an alternative to a direct partnership between the two communities, it instituted other programs similar to the Haenyeo community trip, such as a diving adventure program in which the participants may encounter Haenyeo while diving, or a trip to the Haenyeo museum. The factors that we investigated were “crisis,” “broker,” “mandate,” “common vision,” and “incentive” as per Selin and Chavez’s 1995 model. An analysis of the transcripts showed that their perceptions were mostly affected by “common vision” and “incentive.”

Data Analysis & Findings Result for theme ‘Feasibility’: The themes under this section pertained to participants’ perspectives of feasibility of the collaboration between the Haenyo population and hotel industry. With reference to their perspectives on “feasibility” and the factors that seem to influence their thoughts, participants’ narratives yielded one

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) major theme: “distance.” Analysis: “We tried to create an activity in relation to the Haenyo, but after six months, due to the great distance, we had to stop the partnership.” “Since we are located in the middle of Jeju, access to the beach requires constant efficient transportation.” The above quotation shows the theme “distance” as the main reason that prevents the hotel industry from establishing partnership with the Haenyo population. One of the participants, Company D, mentioned “transportation” as one of the reasons, which is required only when there is “distance” from the hotel to the Haenyo site. Company C confirmed the “distance” theme. The representative of Company C revealed that two years ago it tried to form a partnership with the Haenyo population. Their goal was also to increase awareness of the declining Haenyo and to provide an engaging physical activity for the tourists. They had set up a schedule every weekend to go to the beach nearby where Haenyo are located and to a museum dedicated to them. However, the partnership did not endure due to inefficient transportation. Result for theme ‘Current Status’: Perhaps the most important factor that distinguishes further/future partnerships between the Haenyeo population and hotel industry showed in the analysis of the current status. Overall, this theme revealed that the current lack of collaboration between the Haenyeo population and hotels is deeply rooted in the recent demands and company’s positioning. Taking the responses as a whole, seven companies agreed that there was a nearly nonexistent collaboration between the company and the Haenyeo population. Analysis: It was found that the current way of marketing also explains the lack of partnership. All seven companies answered that their way of marketing today is based on a customer- based, “keyword” marketing strategy, where they analyze trends and search for future collaborations based on search words related to Jeju. However, they expressed that currently there are no search words related to Haenyeo. Thus, the lack of partnership could be due to the target customers’ lack of interest. Since Jeju is becoming increasingly known as a tourist destination, it is important to realize the demographic distribution of visitors. According to Company G, 97% of its visitors/customers are Korean and only 3% are from a foreign country. This distribution allows companies to infer that the visits are less “culture-focused” than “luxury/rest- focused.” The companies’ transcript revealed that most of the hotel visitors were focused on “escaping from their daily lifestyle” as they created the term, “Hocance,” which is a combination of ‘hotel’ + ‘vacance.’ While five years ago, hotels were more of a connection and a cord for the tourists to further connect with the host country, today hotels are more in demand for leisure and rest.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Company E, who for over 10 years had provided a “tangerine harvesting experience” (tangerines are Jeju’s signature fruit) actually decided to remove every physical activity, including the “tangerine harvesting” due to the diminishing interest of the tourists, which shows how essential trends are to the hospitality industry. Result for theme ‘Industry-Specific’ As the research questions mention, industry standards and traditions also proved to have a high influence on the collaboration with the Haenyo population. The themes under this section were all similar as they pertained to the standard way of establishing and building collaboration between the Haenyo population and the hotel industry. With reference to multiple aspects in this area, the factors that seemed to influence them the most were: “flexibility for collaboration," “finance,” “safety,” “customer review,” and “acknowledgment of potential threat to loss of history/culture”. Analysis: “Though there are many important aspects to the industry-specific operations, one factor that often gets overlooked is the flexibility of the partner. However, for us, the actual workers who make experiences possible seek and look for partners that are willing to cater to the companies’ wants and needs.” (Company A) In addition to the above quote that clearly indicated “flexibility” as a potent factor, Company D also made a similar point, expressing that a the hotel business constantly faces “unexpected challenges, situations, and changes depending on various factors such as the cancellation of visitors, weather, and more,” which naturally creates a demand in flexibility for the partners. This requirement for flexibility could not operate systematically for the Haenyeo population. As per the companies, this was so because Haenyeos did not operate on a schedule-based or a reservation system. In the context of the hotel industry, perhaps the most realistic and essential considerations are related to finance. Hotel companies seek economically stable partners where their partnership would not incur potential loss or problems. One company pointed out how small the already dwindling Haenyeo population was when discussing the preliminary stage of building connections because it believed the dwindling population might result in a potential problem in the partnership. “Our company handbook also puts emphasis on the potential harm we can cause. In this case, disrupting the historically rich culture of the Haenyeos.” Surprisingly, four out of eight participants brought out another important industry- standard consideration that potentially limited the partnership. Common precedents of cultural tourism have been that excessive focus on the economic gain of the hotel resulted in the exploitation and disruption of cultural resources and environmental degradation (Robinson and Picard). The transcripts revealed that they fear the intrusion of visitors may disturb the local culture and order of Haenyeos. Another point that all eight companies emphasized was the theme of ‘safety’. Company G said “It is going to be a headache if any safety issues arise during the trip to the Haenyeo site or in a diving kind of activity.”

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) As the cases of COVID are only increasing day by day, there are stricter regulations and more focus on safety. When implementing an activity in collaboration with the Haenyeo population, it may well encounter safety issues in the actual diving experience, a tour to the Haenyeo museum, or simply a lesson about the population, which calls for a more careful evaluation before the collaboration. Finally, all eight companies agreed that the industry-specific ways and traditions and customer evaluation and rating of the implementation of a Haenyeo-related program would finally determine the hotel’s decision to implement and keep the program. “We are just hesitant, we are not sure how collaboration will work out or how [the] visitors will react.” (Company B) “There is no way to evaluate the popularity of the program as there is no past partnership to base it on ” (Company F) The above quote “how [the] visitors will react” and “popularity” indicates the hotel’s sensitivity to customer responses. There seems to be potential in that when the hotels find Haenyeo-related programs to be popular among their customers, they will sustain the program; however, as there has been no previous collaboration or tourist exposure to the Haenyeo, there are no preliminary ratings or feedback from the visitors, which makes it challenging to drive the initial effort to collaborate. Using the modified factors chart, the factors that may influence the hotels’ decision to participate in the partnership: Content

1.1 Crisis

1.2 Broker

1.3 Mandate

Interview Quote

Description Quote contains mention about any natural, biological, social crisis that may induce collaboration Quote mentions the existence or lack of broker that may mediate the process of collaboration formation Quote mentions the existence or lack of any law or policy about collaboration

“None”

“None” “It’s really difficult to share the same type of goals with the local community.” (Company G)

Quote mentions the existence “We’re just hesitant, we aren't sure how or lack of common vision 1.4 collaboration will work out or how [the] visitors Commonvision between the local community will react.” (Company B) and hotel industry personnels. “We need mutual goals…” (Company A)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) “I wonder what the Haenyo population would get out of this. We should have the same goals.” (Company C) “Unless there’s significant incentive - such as customer demand and profit - incentives provided/pushed, it would be hard for us to willingly reach out for collaboration.” (Company E)

1.5 Incentive

Quote mentions the need for “I think collaboration would be possible if there’s or existence of incentive on incentive for the hotels to do so…” (Company G) the hotel side to work with the “As of now, it will definitely be a plus for the local community. Haenyeo population, but not quite for us.” (Company B) “It does seem worthy of consideration but there is no way for us to establish an ongoing partnership.” (Company F)

1.1. Crisis According to Selin and Chavez’s (1995) tourism value model, a partnership between the host community and the hospital industry may be activated by the crisis. However, in our experiment, none of the participants mentioned “Crisis” as a factor as Jeju Island does not encounter many natural or regional crises. 1.2. Broker According to Selin and Chavez (1995), a partnership between the host community and the hospital industry may be activated by a “broker”. However, in our experiment, none of the participants mentioned “broker” as a factor as brokers are brought to act on behalf of a community, and neither group (Haenyeo and the hotel) has plans of consulting an agent for the partnership. 1.3. Mandate According to Selin and Chavez’s (1995) tourism value model, partnership between the host community and hospital industry may be activated by “Mandate” which is a command and legal regulation provided by the higher government. However, in our experiment, none of the participants mentioned “Mandate” as a factor as there is no current mandate outlined by the federal government. 1.4. Common Vision Common Vision was a meaningful factor in the partnership between the two communities. Common vision of mutual “economic benefit” and “cultural benefit” seems to be a driving force of the partnership between the two communities as revealed by companies’ transcripts. 1.5. Incentive The incentive is another important factor in mobilizing a partnership between the two communities. As evinced by the quote “I think a collaboration would be possible if there’s an incentive for the hotels

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) to do so…” establishing an incentive to jumpstart the partnership seems vital and represents how companies prioritize incentives as a means to establishing a partnership. In addition, company E states, “Unless there’s a significant incentive - such as customer demand and profit - it would be hard for us to willingly reach out for collaboration.” As shown by this evidence, “incentive” is a recurring factor in the hotels’ factor of consideration, and the establishment of clear incentives will help motivate the partnership between the two communities.

Implications The results and analysis implies that although the potential for collaboration does not seem too affirmative currently, this study has value in that it reveals the factors that may influence the current perception of the hotel participants. Any interested parties—government, non-profit, agency, hotel affiliates—who seek to sustain and enhance the Haenyeo culture and population can use the results from the study to direct their further actions. For example, because “common vision” and “incentive” have turned out to be the most influential factors, they can focus their resources and launch their actions in alignment with establishing a common vision and incentive system. Moreover, the research is an extension of the model that was proposed in 1995 by Seline & Chavez as I was able to refine the factors that were introduced decades ago and apply it in a modern-day setting. This is a meaningful step in the whole hospitality and indigenous host community research area and will foster further research in this area.

Limitations Although the study serves its purpose for the scope of the research, it has a few limitations. First, because I used hotel representatives to investigate into current culture and perception of hotel companies, there was possibility of posing a risk of breaching company confidentiality protocols and the companies’ focus on scarcity of business; therefore, I had to erase the audio file of the recording and transcript (with exceptions to few quotes) right after I finished obtaining the result and analysis. This limited the level of depth of the responses, which may have caused me to overanalyze/estimate. Secondly, a definite external limitation would be the global pandemic—COVID 19. With the presence and restrictions implemented from the virus, the feasibility of establishing a partnership may have significantly decreased as the concern for safety became greater. This would have impacted the hotel representatives' responses. Finally, though my company selection was effective as it was randomized with consideration to the size and location of the hotel, it is important to note that a small group of individuals - in this case, 7 companies - could not possibly characterize and represent the whole situation.

Conclusion To summarize, although there are no current partnerships in between the hotels and the Haenyeo industry, and the potential for collaboration is low at this point, to reverse this situation, there needs to be a strong common vision and incentives set in place.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) This study is important as it sheds light on how the Haenyeo population, which is an important cultural artifact can be sustained through partnership with the hospitality industry. The results reveal the current low enthusiasm of the hotels to form partnerships; however, it also shows how an interested party can change to activate the partnership. The study is significant as it bridges the English-speaking scholarship about the Haenyeo population in general and the potential for hotel communities to intervene to sustain the population. Moreover, the study indicates how companies may adopt alternative methods to integrate Haenyeo culture. The companies revealed that they had previously planned or carried out programs including diving programs with Haenyeo or conducted trips to the Haenyeo museum to enrich their cultural programs. These are tangible programs that an interested hospitality party may adopt in the future. Another significant point of the research is that it sheds light on and explores the possibility of hotel industry expansion providing scope to empower indigenous communities of any region. Although this research was focused on the Jeju Haenyeo population, the concept or findings can very well be used in other regions to encourage creative ways to help their indigenous communities. Future research can clarify how there can be clear incentives, or a common vision set in place to motivate the hospitality community and the Haenyeo population. For the scope of this research, we found that these two factors are meaningfully impactful; however, more research on the process of implementing these factors may be a significant direction of research.

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Nathaniel Preston. “Lost Mermaids: The Social and Economic Impacts of Development for Haenyeo Culture and Jeju Island.” CORE, https://core.ac.uk/display/160173280. Park, Sunwoo, Namho Chung, and Won Seok Lee. “Preserving the Culture of Jeju Haenyeo (Women Divers) as a Sustainable Tourism Resource.” Sustainability 12.24 (2020): 10564. Crossref. Web. Postma, Albert. “When the Tourists Flew In. Critical Encounters in the Development of Tourism.” ResearchGate, unknown, 30 May 2013,www.researchgate.net/publication/ 283071777_When_the_tourists_flew_in_Critical_encounters_in_the_develop ment_of_tourism. Accessed 21 Nov. 2021. Robinson, Mike, and David Picard. Tourism, Culture and Sustainable Development. UNESCO, 2006. Selin, Steve & Chevez, Deborah. (1995). Developing a Collaborative Model for Environmental Planning and Management. Environmental Management. 19. 189-195. 10.1007/BF02471990. Seo, Joo Hwan, et al. “The Analysis of the Relationships of Korean Outbound Tourism Demand: Jeju Island and Three International Destinations.” Tourism Management, vol. 30, no. 4, Aug. 2009, pp. 530–543, 10.1016/j.tourman.2008.10.013. Accessed 9 Nov. 2021. Smith, and Livadeas. Monitoring Overtourism: Destination Management Systems http://bjpa.bpatc.org.bd/bjpa/index.p hp/bjpa/article/download/211/136. Taylor, George. “The Community Approach: Does It Really Work?” Tourism Management, vol. 16, no. 7, Nov. 1995, pp. 487–489, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0261517795000783, 10.1016/0261-5177(9 )00078-3. Accessed 9 Nov. 2021. “The Implementation of the Korean Green Growth Strategy in Urban Areas.” OECD Regional Development Working Papers, 1 July 2011, www.oecd.org/cfe/regionalpolicy/49330153.pdf, 10.1787/5kg8bf4l4lvg-en. UNESCO World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Online Toolkit ... https:// www.unesco.or.kr/assets/data/report/ K5vx4RT2Vg0l1CrzqFQCbySunmA4dP_1608617353_2.pdf. You, Won-Hee, et al. “A Study of JejuHaenyeo’s (Women Diver) Awareness on Self, Community and UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (ICH) Designation.” Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture, vol. 36, no. 1, 뼑霢놹 뭪눥陲뼎쁁, Mar. 2018, pp. 89–96, doi:10.14700/KITLA.2018.36.1.089.

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Zaei, Mansour, and Mahin Zaei. “THE IMPACTS of TOURISM INDUSTRY on HOST COMMUNITY.” European Journal of Tourism Hospitality and Research, vol. 1, no. 2, 2013, pp. 12–21,www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/THE-IMPACTS-OF-TOURISM- INDUSTRYON-HOST-COMMUNITY.pdf.

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Coco Chanel, the Designer Who Imbued Genderneutrality into Outfits of Chanel: The Change of Psychological Concepts of Gender Neutrality in Latest Chanel Apparels Author 1

Full Name

Cho, Kristen Yoonseo

Seoul Foreign School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Gender neutral fashion is undefined. In the past decade, many fashion brands have started to adapt into the new wave of having no specification of gender in clothing which allowed a wide range of people to explore more kinds of clothings. Researchers in social science and fashion have focused on the concept of gender neutral and unisex. Previous studies revealed that gender neutrality in fashion have strong relationships to the brand’s image and value. The present study aims to investigate how different psychological perceptions are in the current and past Chanel gender neutral apparels. In Study 1, recently launched clothing lines were utilized in order to measure the level of gender neutrality and the representativeness of Chanel in order to find out the relationship. As a result, positive correlation between the gender neutrality and the represantiveness was found, suggesting that current Chanel overall is a highly gender neutral brand just as the initial stages of Chanel. In Study 2, high and low gender neutral clothes were provided to students who are majoring in fashion in order to understand the structure of psychological components: practical, aesthetical, and authoritative. High gender neutral outfits showed tendancies of being perceived more as a physically comfortable, apt to office environment, and overall looking professional. On the other hand, low gender neutral outfits were selected to be more apt to parties and to be more affluent. Compared to the initial stages of the gender neutrality in Chanel, current Chanel proves that by showing a large portion of gender neutrality in fashoin, they remain to adapt in many other components in fashion specified contexts.

Keywords: Gender Neutrality, Fashion brand, Luxurious Brand, Marketing

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction "Fashion has two purposes: comfort and love. Beauty comes when fashion succeeds." - Coco Chanel (1883- 1971) Coco Chanel is the founder of one of the most luxurious high-end brands in the world -- CHANEL. Chanel was not simply a fashion designer or a business woman but almost one of the first revolutionists that included gender neutrality as a crucial part of her brand identity. The concept of gender neutrality in fashion can be found in clothing that are designed without gender specifications of feminine or masculine. Chanel traditionally incorporated gender neutrality into her designs in various manners such as focusing on the functional aspects of clothing, choosing neutral and mute colors, and pursuing simplicity over ostentation (Willette, 2019). Recently, genderless clothing is designed to fit into any body type or style (Bardey et al., 2020; Britt, 2019; Reis et al., 2018; Vasan et al., 2017). Major fashion brands have increasingly been designing gender neutral outfits over the past few decades (Claire & Alderson, 2013; Luna & Barros, 2019; Marcangeli, 2015). According to an interview with Rob Smith, the founder of the “gender-free” fashion brand, 56 percent of Gen Z customers during 2019 purchased clothing that were “outside their gendered area” which indicates gender neutral clothing. Chanel’s influence in the gender neutral movement is worthy of attention, as it is easily recognized as one of the most popular high-end fashion brands in the industry. The worldwide brand value of Chanel continues to show a positive trend, recording the biggest growth from 5.9 billion to almost 11.5 billion dollars from 2017 to 2020, and also being ranked 5th in the category of Fashion and Beauty 2022 (inc. Comparably, a marketing research company). Chanel was different from the start. Coco Chanel sought gender-neutral style of clothes instead of focusing on feminine styled clothes such as corsets and long dresses (Marcangeli, 2015; Riot 2013). The images below are solid representations of how women were portrayed in the brand value of Chanel (see Figure 1). This value of gender neutrality in the fashion industry continues its impact throughout history, as it is deeply connected to diversity, minority, and women’s rights. Thus, this investigation will mainly focus on the psychological concepts, traits, and components of gender neutrality within Chanel.

Figure 1. Examples of Apparel Designed by Coco Chanel

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The research question of this study asks how different the psychological perception of gender neutrality in the current Chanel’s image compares to Coco Chanel’s original vision of gender neutrality. Specifically, I investigated psychological images of the latest Chanel apparels using questionnaires. In order to understand Coco Chanel’s insights and perceptions related to gender neutrality, I analyzed her biography and historical information about her society (Spirito, 2010). Based on this understanding of gender neutrality in Coco Chanel’s designs, I conducted two studies in order to understand the psychological traits shown in Chanel’s current gender neutrality. In Study 1, I estimated the levels of gender neutrality in Chanel and observed the relationship between certain outfits’ representativeness of Chanel and their gender neutrality. In Study 2, I examined the psychological traits of gender neutrality in Chanel in terms of the pragmatic, aesthetic, and authoritative factors.

Background Recent studies show that consumers and designers have specified the psychological processes behind unisex apparels as gender neutral fashion (Bardey et al., 2020; Vasan et al., 2017). In the study of Bardey et al., a holistic approach of gender neutral fashion was adapted using qualitative and quantitative methods in order to understand both consumers and designers’ insights into unisex clothings. Specifically, as a qualitative research, focus group interviews were conducted on 11 designers and the results highlighted the three most essential needs for the stakeholders of a unisex dress: the need for incorporating masculine properties in the design, the need to market trendy clothes and maximize the number of customers, and the need for being socially accepted in public. In addition, to examine consumers’ perception and willingness of buying and wearing unisex clothing, they conducted a survey that asked participants to judge the gender characteristics and intention to buy and wear a certain outfit using ten self-drawn fashion illustrations with or without ‘unisex’ labels. As a result, consumers showed different levels of willingness to buy and wear specific unisex clothings in terms of color and style, depending on the existence of unisex labels. Interestingly, the survey showed that the main reasons for their judgement were not the unisex labels but the outfit style and their body type. This study demonstrates the underlying psychological understanding of designers and consumers for gender neutral outfits using the integrated approach (Bardey et al., 2020). However, this study is limited in that the researchers applied self-designed outfit illustrations, not actual gender neutral outfits, to investigate the consumers’ psychological needs. Another line of research addressed this limitation by actually focusing on consumers’ attitudes towards gender-neutral brand extensions (Bhanja & Mehta, 2022). The general goal of brand extensions was to potentially reduce the risk of failing new unisex product lines and the overall marketing costs. To do so, they would have to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the promotion process and accelerate trial numbers compared to other brands. The development of this would lead the customers to understand the importance of gender congruity. The study essentially focused on the effect of the symbolic value of products on customers’ attitude toward gender-neutral brand extensions. Specifically, they assumed that the female consumers’ attitude toward the brand extensions would be more positive than that of male consumers, particularly for products with higher social symbolic standing, such as watches, because such products are more associated with the male gender (who are often perceived as the authoritative and hierarchical majority). Indeed, women compared to men preferred the brand extension that represented high symbol products (Bhanja & Mehta, 2022). This study overall shows that gender neutrality is significantly involved in social and authoritative values.

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Figure 2. Black and white Chanel tweed jackets and set ups In order to understand the gender neutrality of outfits that were designed by Coco Chanel, I adapted biographical data and historical backgrounds to specify three components of analysis: practical, aesthetic, and authoritative values. First of all, Chanel emphasizes the practical side of clothes (Marcangeli, 2015; Riot, 2013; Spirito, 2010). For instance, clothes designed by Chanel had unique features such as simple and comfortable jackets and skirts, tweed fabric, and black color (Figure 2). Moreover, people often infer that these unique traits of the time were derived from her body shape, personality, or even social impacts. Since she was young, Chanel did not enjoy wearing uncomfortable and slender shapes of clothes. Instead, she enjoyed wearing a minimalistic and restrained style of clothes that was inspired by the austere Romanesque culture from the orphanage she grew up in. As she enjoyed active physical activities herself, she well understood the lifestyle of the customers who spent time playing polo and horseback riding. As a result, she designed clothes that were suitable to these types of people who prefer comfortable and light activewear over inordinately decorative and flashy garments (Riot, 2013). Thus, as one of Chanel’s main focuses was the practicality of her outfits, the following study will focus on the practical value as one of the components of gender neutral clothing. While pursuing gender neutral designs, Coco Chanel did not neglect the aesthetic aspects of her clothes. Chanel’s clothing line did seek comfortable and practical features, but also prioritized the aesthetic value of the clothes, which resulted in a new fashion trend gaining popularity in the upper middle class. Her clothes were especially popular in vacation spots for being multi-functional yet aesthetic clothes. The unique style of the brand, regarding design, fabric, and color coordination,were continuously pursued by Chanel, as she aimed to adhere to the image of being a luxurious and stylish yet comfortable brand. Chanel was also inspired heavily by history and traditions ranging from detailed patterns of Baroque pendants to ancient African carvings, which altogether elevated the aesthetic level of her designs. As it was a significant point of consideration for Chanel, the aesthetic aspect of her brand will also be incorporated in the following study as a key component of gender neutrality. As mentioned in the previous study by Bhanja and Mehta, gender neutrality is closely associated with authoritative values, which provides insight into Chanel’s focus on authoritative aspects as well. When Chanel started to show her presence in the fashion industry, there was a growing tendency in women's participation in society. It was during the beginning of WW1, when the majority of men served in the military, and when women filled the vacancies of these men in social and authoritative positions. Moreover, women at that time were directly and indirectly issuing suffrages which was an apt timing for Chanel to suggest and emphasize the need to bring comfortable and chic outfits, and at the same time get rid of corsets and unnecessarily decorative dresses. Thus, the following study will focus on the authoritative aspect as another one of the three important factors of gender neutrality in Chanel apparel.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Study 1: Estimation of Gender Neutrality in Chanel The goals of Study 1 were to estimate the participants’ perception about the level of gender neutrality in the current Chanel apparels and to measure their representativeness of the brand. Through a survey, participants’ thoughts on the gender neutral levels of Chanel’s outfits and their opinions on how each outfit represented Chanel were measured. The detailed hypotheses and method of the study are provided below. Hypothesis 1. The outfits from Chanel would show different levels of gender neutrality, even though all outfits were launched by Chanel in the same period. 2. The higher the score in gender neutrality participants would rate one apparel, the higher the score in the representativeness for Chanel the apparel would be rated. Method Participants I adapted a purposive sampling procedure to recruit fashion-major students to judge Chanel outfits. The participants’ participation and data correction consent was obtained before the survey. Accordingly, eighteen participants (Mean age = 17.3, All female) were recruited for Study 1. All of the participants, who are majoring in fashion-related areas, reported high interest in luxury brands when filling out the survey. Materials and Procedure From the Chanel official website (https://www.chanel.com/us), 18 image stimuli were randomly selected from the 2022 Spring-Summer pre-collection. To prevent biased characteristics of the stimuli, I made a balanced selection based on color (e.g., black, white, red, blue, etc), texture (e.g., rough, smooth, crisp, etc), length (e.g., long, mid, short, etc), and shape (e.g., skirt, pants, jacket, shirt, blouse, etc). All stimuli are included in the supplementary data. SurveyMonkey (https://ko.surveymonkey.com), a well-known internet-based survey program (Waclawski), was applied to design and conduct the survey questionnaire (Table 1). Before asking the participants the actual experimental questions, several demographic questions (e.g., age, gender, etc) were provided. After the demographic questions, one random image was presented at the center of display among the stimuli pool of 18 Chanel apparel images. Then the first experimental question -“On a scale of 1-7, how gender-neutral is this outfit?”-- was asked to score how gender-neutral each outfit is in order to estimate the average gender neutrality in the images that were presented: The second question -- “On a scale of 1- 7, how well does the outfit above represent Coco Chanel as a brand?” -asked how well the outfits represented the brand. Both questions included a continuous bar scale which allowed participants to move their score along the scale of 1 to 7. After all the questions were answered, the participants were given a sign of appreciation on their screens and also further provided with a short debriefing about the study.

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Figure 3. Survey 1 and 2 Display Result and Discussion After incomplete answers were eliminated, eighteen participants' data were adapted. The survey data was analyzed using correlation analysis to observe the relationship between gender neutrality and representativeness. The mean of gender neutrality level was 4.334, and the standard deviation was 1.422. The reported score of gender neutrality ranged from min. 2.250 to max. 6.19. The mean of representativeness was 4.630 and its standard deviation was .714. The reported score of representativeness ranged from min. 3.310 to max. 5.690. There was a significant positive correlation between the level of representativeness and degree of gender neutrality in Chanel apparels, r(16) = .552, p = .018 (Figure 4). This implies that the higher the level of gender neutrality an outfit is perceived as, the more representative of Chanel it is. Despite how the images were selected randomly without considering the style, color, and type, the participants generally chose gender neutral outfits as being more representative of Chanel's brand image. This result conveys that Chanel’s gender neutral brand image is closely associated with relatively recent outfits, which means that the original gender neutral vision from the early days of Chanel still influence recent fashion apparels. Based on these results, study 2 focused on a more systematic analysis of relatively high and low gender neutral outfits

Figure 4. The correlation between GN and RP

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Study 2: Analyzing Psychological Traits In Gender Neutrality Study 1 concluded that clothes with higher representativeness tend to have a higher rate of gender neutrality. The goal of study 2 is to find out which psychological sub-factors mainly constitute Chanel's gender neutrality. For a more accurate and interrelated analysis of the concept of gender neutrality, I divided the questionnaires into three different components: practical, aesthetic, and authoritative. These components are found in Coco Chanel’s designs and arguably well-connected to the overall purpose of gender neutral designs. From this perspective, I selected two sets of stimuli, one high gender neutral and one low gender neutral items, from rated stimuli in Study 1. For each component, I tried to analyze the psychological structure of Chanel’s image of gender neutrality. Study 2 was conducted under the hypotheses and the method explained below. Hypotheses 1. High Gender Neutral Clothes would receive a higher score in the practical perspective. 2. High Gender Neutral Clothes would receive a higher score in the aesthetic perspective. 3. High Gender Neutral Clothes would receive a higher score in the authoritative perspective. Method Participants The method for Study 2 was initiated similarly to Study 1 in that the participants were studying at a fashion-related major and that they received consent forms prior to the survey. They were also provided with an incentive in order to make sure that they were fully focused on the task. Twelve female participants with a mean age of 19.7 were recruited for Study 2. Materials and procedure Two sets of outfits were applied as the subjects of the survey based on the rated outfits stimuli in Study 1. High gender neutral clothes were ranked 1st to 3rd within the top fifty percent of representativeness from survey 1 and low gender neutral clothes were ranked 1st to 3rd within the top fifty percent from survey 1 (Figure 5). Each image was provided in a random order and participants were required to answer 9 different questions under one outfit.

Figure 5. Images of three high gender neutral apparel and three low gender neutral apparel

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The questionnaire for Study 2 was constructed based on three components of gender neutrality. Each component was specified into three questions related to the specific context or situation in fashion (Table 1). The procedure was identical to Study 1 except for the longer time limitation.

Table 1. the structured question list for Study 2

Result and Discussion Once again, incomplete responses were eliminated to prevent biased opinions, resulting in a total of thirteen participants' data that were applied to the statistical analyses. The mean and the standard deviation for each answered scale are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2. Means and standard deviations for sub-components. * for a significant difference Overall, there was a significantly greater score for high gender neutral apparels than low gender neutral apparels when asked to choose the option that seemed to be more physically comfortable, t(12) = 3.179, p = .008, d = .882. High gender neutral outfits were rated significantly more suitable to office workers than low gender neutral outfits, t(12) = 3.068, p = .010, d = .851. In addition, low gender neutral apparels were rated higher than high gender neutral ones for more fit with office context, t(12) = 2.968, p = .012, d = .823. There were no significant differences between the two types of gender neutral outfits for the three questions in the aesthetic component. From the authoritative aspect, high gender neutral outfits showed a significantly higher rate of preference than low gender neutral outfits under the factor of professionality, t(12) = 2.527, p = .027, d = .701. On the other hand, under the factor of how affluent a person looks like wearing a certain outfit, low gender neutral outfits resulted in a higher rate than high gender neutral outfits, t(12) = 2.348, p = .037, d = .651.

Figure 6. Mean score for sub-components of the gender neutrality These results demonstrate the psychological concepts underlying gender neutral outfits, which is further analyzed as follows. Coco Chanel preferred physically comfortable clothing, which is reflected in the image of current Channel attire. The results convey that clothes with higher gender neutral scores lead to a greater expectation for comfort and practicality..There was also a difference in the detailed analysis, as gender neutral clothes were rated to be more apt for office wear rather than party wear. This result connects back to Coco Chanel’s marketing tactic of targeting women at a time when women actively participated in social activities.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) From an aesthetic perspective, the results of the experiment proved that there is no significant relationship between aesthetics and gender neutrality. It was concluded that there was no relationship between the concept of gender neutrality and putting lots of effort into wearing clothes and/or being aesthetically trendy. This can be inferred using the “Ceiling Effect,” meaning that the overall aesthetic value is high regardless of the level of gender neutrality. In terms of the authoritative value, high gender neutral fashion was frequently selected as looking more professional than low gender neutral fashion. On the other hand, low gender neutral clothes scored higher on looking more affluent and wealthy.

Conclusion The overall goal of this experiment was to examine the difference and change between the psychological level of gender neutrality shown in Chanel apparels from the past and the present. In Study 1, the levels of gender neutrality and representativeness of Chanel apparel were rated by participants who are professionals in the area of fashion. Examining a wide range of clothing styles led to a wide range of gender neutrality and representativeness, and the results suggest a significant positive correlation between the two. In Study 2, high and low gender neutral outfits were compared based on three different components: practical value, aesthetic value, and authoritative value. As a result, high gender neutrality outfits were voted as more appropriate for office workers and looking more comfortable. They were also selected to appear more professional. On the other hand, low gender neutral outfits were more apt for parties and were selected to appear more affluent. Chanel’s psychological brand image as a whole is closely related to the concept of gender neutrality. This concept of gender neutrality is constantly maintained in the status quo of modern fashion. Chanel’s gender neutral image can be further understood when compared to Dior. Since their early stages, Chanel and Dior, one of the two most influential luxury brands on the market, competed in the fashion industry. While Chanel continuously designed comfortable and trendy clothes, Dior maintained their showing off of femininity and romance. As such, when compared to Dior’s feminine image, Chanel’s gender neutral brand image remains constant and stable over the years. The main reason behind this phenomenon is that Chanel pursues to design and create clothes that are comfortable to any type of female body. During the early stages, Chanel got rid of uncomfortable and suffocating corsets and instead designed classy yet comfortable clothes which are still popular in the status quo. Interestingly, these high gender neutral clothes are considered unsuitable for fancy social meetings.

Figure 7. Dior VS Chanel

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The level of aesthetics was high for both categories of clothes. This shows that gender neutrality does not decide the level of aestheticism. Coco Chanel never gave up on aesthetic value when making comfortable and professional clothes. Similar to this, Chanel’s current clothes also show that there is no relationship between the level of gender neutrality and aesthetics. In addition, there was no significant difference between the level of popularity, but high gender neutral clothes were selected to be more professional and suitable for workers. Interestingly, low gender neutral outfits were selected as to be more affluent than high gender neutral clothing. These results can be interpreted as an outcome of Chanel’s luxury ‘binary’ marketing strategy (Luna & Barros, 2019). For instance, Chanel’s most representative global ambassador Jennie Kim (see Figure 8) frequently wore a white dress with a highly feminine and soft connotation. These kinds of celebrity marketing tactics show Chanel’s tendency of providing relatively feminine outfits with the connotation of being wealthy.

Figure 8. Jennie Kim, current ambassador of CHANEL In contrast to Chanel’s brand image of being gender neutral, the images shown by the most famous and influential ambassadors of the brand are more diverse, and this diversity can be further studied and revealed through systematic and scientific approaches. Despite some limitations in the hypotheses, this study demonstrated how the concept of gender neutrality conveyed through the psychological interpretation of Chanel’s brand image stayed constant over the years. All in all, Coco Chanel’s values regarding gender neutrality remain influential to this day, significantly impacting the present fashion industry.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Reference Bardey, A., Achumba-Wöllenstein, J., & Chiu, P. (2020). Exploring the third gender in fashion: From consumers’ behavior to designers’ approach towards unisex clothing. Fashion Practice, 12(3), 421-439. Britt, M. (2019). Defining Gender Neutral Fashion. Bhanja, N., & Mehta, R. (2022). It is better with a shade of blue! Consumer evaluation of unisex extension of brands. International Journal of Consumer Studies. Claire, C. A., & Alderson, K. G. (2013). Living outside the gender binary: A phenomenological exploration into the lived experience of female masculinity. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 47(1). Luna, C. P., & Barros, D. F. (2019). Genderless fashion: A (still) binary market. Latin American Business Review, 20(3), 269-294. Marcangeli, S. (2015). Undressing the power of fashion: The semiotic evolution of Gender Identity by Coco Chanel and Alexander McQueen. Nancy, R. K. (2017). Sex and Unisex: Fashion, Feminism, and the Sexual Revolution. The Journal of American Culture, 40(1), 104. Reis, B. M., Miguel, R., Jerónimo, N. A., Pereira, M., & Azevedo, S. (2018). Analysis of attributes in unisex and genderless clothing. In Reverse Design (pp. 87-93). CRC Press. Riot, E. (2013). Woman in love, artist or entrepreneur? The edifying, mystifying life of Coco Chanel. Society and Business Review. Spirito, S. (2010). With lovers as her muse: How men influenced the designs of Coco Chanel. Vasan, S., Pujar, S. R., & Gopalakrishnan, S. (2017). Awareness on Unisex Clothing among fashion designers: a study. International Journal in Management & Social Science, 5(2), 14- 23. Willette, Jeanne. (2019) “Chanel Arrives, Part One | Art History Unstuffed.” Arthistoryunstuffed.com, arthistoryunstuffed.com/chanel-arrives-part-one/.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Appendix Figure 1 Examples of Apparel Designed by Coco Chanel - Cliqueinc.com, 2022, cdn.cliqueinc.com/posts/227919/coco-chanel-designs-2279191498506954686-image.900x0c.jpg?interlace=true&quality=70. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Cliqueinc.com, 2022, cdn.cliqueinc.com/posts/227919/coco-chanel-designs-2279191498506952927-image.900x0c.jpg?interlace=true&quality=70. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. Figure 2 Black and White Chanel Tweed Jackets and Set Ups - Weebly.com, 2022, cocochanelnhd.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/1/8/10188609/3591919_orig.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. Figure 5 Images of three high gender neutral apparel and three low gender neutral apparel - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-64-8843904286750.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-56-8843907727390.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-7-8843904778270.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-57-8843908972574.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-62-8843907891230.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. - Chanel.com, 2022, www.chanel.com/images/t_one/q_auto:good,f_auto,fl_lossy,dpr_1.2/w_1024/springsummer-2022-pre-collection-39-8843905925150.jpg. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. Figure 7 Dior VS Chanel - Icon-Icon.com, 2022, www.icon-icon.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/image5964def15cec5.gif. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022. Figure 8 Jennie Kim, current ambassador of CHANEL - Pstatic.net, 2022, vfanphinf.pstatic.net/20190306_132/1551863303998YASkc_JPEG/5b664c099a1cda377d9e6b0576569d91305696ec952f3_-_Copy.jpg?type=e1920. Accessed 24 Aug. 2022.

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How Can Crimes be Prevented Through Environmental Design and Art? Author 1

Full Name

Choi, Heeseon

Seoul International School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Every morning, I am overwhelmed with news articles involving violence occuring around the world. Whenever I see these, I wonder if there is any way to prevent violence among innocent people. Specifically, a city in South Korea, Ansan, is known to be the most dangerous city in South Korea and I want to further investigate the correlation between design and color on the crime rates. Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a modern approach focusing on environmental design and crime rates; if we are able to fiind a positive correlation between these two, not only can we provide a safer environment but prevent murder cases. Eversince the CPTED theory was released, countries including South Korea and the United states initiated adding artworks with vibrant colors where there were high crime rates. In Korea, it has only been practiced in major cities such as Seoul. They have added more street lights and close circuit television around the “violent” areas and have seen a significant decrease in crime rates. Nevertheless, by conducting more experiments using various colors, we would be able to generalize the effectiveness of CPTED to the whole society. To begin with, I would be researching in depth on how European countries, where the theory of CPTED has been widely accepted, uses CPTED. Using statistics from various regions, I would be able to find a trend on which color was most effective in developing the safest community. To apply this, I would visit cities in Korea that are known to be safe to see whether their prevention program is similar to the ones in the western countries. This process would include first hand interviews with officers from cities in Korea, such as Bundang. Not only would interviews be credible, but it would also be more reliable than any others. As an aspiring artist, I would want to seek a possible correlation between art and design with crime rates to provide effective solutions to the high crime rates within the nation. Starting from my community, I would like to come up with a possible solution to create a safer community.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction: In the 21st century, we are experiencing unprecedented changes. However, ironically, while these changes are driven to improve the quality of life, the world is becoming more and more dangerous. In particular, the continued rise in crime rates is a disturbing phenomenon. As the world goes through various economic prosperity and pandemics, crime rates have been increasing, causing innocent individuals to die from the physical or emotional harm that the offender strikes. More specifically, according to the U.S crime rates trend suggested by the macro trends, the crime rates in the U.S had a 27.64% increase in 2022 compared to the 2019 data. Furthermore, the occurrences in South Korea have reached their peak economic crimes by 2022, stated the Korean national police agency. Against this reality, many governments have implemented harsh and aggressive policies against crime. These punitive-based deterrence programs, however, have not achieved the anticipated outcome, requiring a new perspective and approach to this problem. While many scholars have proposed new ideas, this research will propose a novel method to transform our current punitive approach to preventive schemes. By acknowledging the power of space, this paper will examine how art and architectural designs could positively impact society by decreasing the crime rates around neighborhoods. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, also known as the CPTED is becoming a dominant resource to secure safety among citizens.

Art as a Crime Prevention Mechanism? For utilizing art as a means to prevent crime by creating a favorable environment, the very first question we must ask ourselves is, “What is art?” Despite the long history of art, the exact definition of art is unclear due to its broad and abstract nature. It has often been proposed that art can be understood as any human activity that creates visual, auditory, or performing artifacts. Related to this definition is the idea of conventional art, which includes painting, music, architecture, and more. However, art expands beyond this conventional definition to include any form of media that conveys expression or influence, such as culture, language, or even a conversation between people. Great philosophers such as Kant define art as “a kind of representation that is purposive in itself and, though without an end, nevertheless promotes the cultivation of the mental powers for sociable communication (Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, Guyer translation, section 44, 46.).” On the other hand, art critics like Arthur Danto might define art as something that has a subject about which it projects some attitude or point of view utilizing rhetorical ellipsis. This ellipsis engages audience participation in filling in what is missing, and where the work in question and the interpretations thereof require an art historical context (Danto, Carroll).” While the range of what could be considered an art, as seen above, can be debatable, the purpose of art is considerably more straightforward. The main goal of art is, through the expression of the artist's imaginative, conceptual ideas, or exhibition of technical skills, to arouse feelings or thoughts in the audience. Art encourages the audience to think and feel what they have never been introduced to before and eventually lets him or her receive new experiences from it. With such influence of arts in the lives of the audience, people continue to search for beneficial, helpful, and good art.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) What is CPTED? Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a modern approach to reducing motivation for crime; it is currently known as the “most resilient crime prevention theory of the modern generation” (CPTED, 2022) and aims to reduce innocent victims experiencing crime situations. Unlike CPT-UD, Crime Prevention Through Urban Development, CPTED questions the context, design, and management of a particular place that contributes to crime occurrences. It promotes “natural” prevention and is also a cost-effective way to secure the community with a safer environment. It was first introduced by the journalist Hane Jacobs when she wrote her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities in 1961. She directly mentions the “unconscious network of informal social controls'' that design work can provide for the citizens. Though it is not physically stopping the criminals from committing a crime, it can unconsciously control those people which shows the power of CPTED. After her book was published, there were two generations of CPTED that caught both environmentalists’ and artists’ attention. The first generation of CPTED by Newman was developed in 1972, and it focuses on 4 main points: territoriality, natural surveillance, image and milieu, and access control. To begin, territoriality, also called territorial control, is a goal to make the public spaces more family-friendly, assuming it is their own space; this would allow the criminals to take better care of those areas and put a positive influence on them. Secondly, natural surveillance is when we would use various lighting, design, and landscaping to make the environment more visible and clearer. Not only would this reduce the fear, but it would also enhance the mood of the area with extra light and attention. Also, there is a goal of image and milieu where it would alter people’s perception of their surroundings. For example, we would help to improve the relationship between each household and formulate a strong bonding. Especially because of the isolation we have experienced over the years, we must create such bonding within our environment to guarantee some kind of security. Or we could even change the “image” of the surroundings by removing excess graffiti, picking up litter, and beautifying it with bright colors. Lastly, we would have to strengthen the access control: limiting access to certain properties, creating road barriers, and accessing mini neighborhoods. Years later, Newman proposed the 2nd generation of CPTED however, this time, focusing on the collective efficacy and political connectedness. The first element was called social cohesion: going in groups within the neighborhood to create an action plan together to tackle problems, especially safety issues. This would be done in small groups to ensure that everyone's opinion is listened to. Secondly, he emphasized community culture. This is where the community creates a common purpose and operates cultural events (art exhibitions and music festivals) for them to get familiar with each other. Similarly, connectivity is where we would create an exclusionary program that would include everyone in an innovative process: for example, collectively they would obtain government funding grants to create new programs to save their society. Lastly, threshold capacity is a method to guard against land uses that detract from safety. As we walk across our town, some advertisements or materials that might motivate criminals to commit abusive actions. We would have to, as a community, secure those materials from being present in our surroundings, and implement new ways to subdue the offenders from doing anything dangerous.

What Impact does Art have on Humans? In the process of one’s development and growth, art is an essential and dominant part of one’s life since it is a tool that inspires people and makes people feel and think something new. Any good art, or any

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) art, that has been made through an artist’s expression, can make the audience a better person because having new thoughts or emotions allows the audience to go through new experiences. The audiences might find each approach an art differently with different thoughts and emotions but they can eventually interpret it according to their virtues and morals and become a better person. Like Confucius’ story about three men walking, every art, whether that art gives you opposing or accepting thoughts and feelings, can bring benefits. In art that conveys positive thoughts and feelings, the audience can identify which is good and follow it, while in art that conveys negative thoughts and feelings, the audience can identify which is bad and avoid it. Such a mindset tells us that in any art, we can feel and think in a way that benefits us, whether through positive or negative influence. All art gives people the opportunity for a change to occur and the capability of becoming a better person.

What does a Certain Color Reveal? When it comes to the colors surrounding us, we can notice how specific colors cause different emotions. Some colors may signify love and happiness and some colors may signify hatred and death. Nevertheless, we cannot conclude the primary emotions that a color signifies because based on the experiences we encountered in life and the bias that follows, certain colors can mean a different way. But psychologically speaking, colors have been mainly defined to arise certain feelings. Beginning with red, it is associated with fire and heat or, on the other hand, love and passion; hence, it raises our blood pressure, respiration rates, and metabolism. Especially red can be controversial worldwide as it interconnects with both religious and cultural practices. In China, red is used for luck, happiness, and prosperity while in Africa, it is used for mourning or communism. The stronger emotion it could portray, it can have an overwhelming effect on the wide public. Orange, a color that reminds us of Halloween on an autumn day, signifies health and strength, making us feel energized. Yellow is the most positive color of all as associated with a bright sunny day. It gives hope and cheerfulness to the people, especially the children. Moving on to the cool colors, green gives a great sense of earthly and natural. It is a color we can see out in nature, portraying a fresh start and new beginnings; it calms us down with its mix of yellow, which is meant to make the viewers happy and refreshing. Blue is an oceanic color that signifies peace and connections. Being the most favorite color, it is responsible to provide a sense of security and trust. This may be the reason why our most used apps, such as Facebook and Twitter, have blue as their theme color. Plus, purple is a mix of red and blue illustrating wealth and extravagance. It can also give off romantic aspects, especially in flowers and room color. Contrastingly, black color may not be as dreamy as purple can be. Black is greatly associated with death, evil, and even darkness. This is a color we would want to prevent using when trying to evoke a happy and lively image.

Crime Rates in Korea Based on the statistics provided by the macro trend titled South Korea Crime Rate & Statistics 19902022, Korea has been experiencing ups and downs when it comes to the total crime rate nationally. To pinpoint some of the most severe years of crime rates, 1993, 1998, and 2009 stands out the most as it has over 20% increased crime rates than the previous year. This was when at least one person among the 100,000 people was either hurt or murdered by the murderers. Compared to years when there was a 27.85% decrease in crime rates, those years stand out among other years. To know more about the recent data released, we can see a 3.62% increase in the crime rate in 2020. There may have been many different causes of this increase, especially when covid pandemic affected the world globally on an enormous scale.

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[Fig 1.] South Korea Crime Rate & Statistic 1990-2022 (macrotrends.net)

What is Korea Currently Doing to Prevent Crime Rates from Stagnating? As proved by the data, we can see how Korea is at risk of decreasing its crime rates again like in previous years when covid was not present. Hence, the National Korean Ministry of Justice has provided four goals throughout the year to minimize the crime rates among their innocent citizens. To begin with, their main theme is to “striv[ing] to build a crime-free society” to “reduce reoffending and assist in offenders’ rehabilitation through probation, electronic monitoring, youth delinquency prevention education, legal education, and law compliance campaign and lead the way towards safe and sound society.” (Seoul Solution, 2016) They have divided their department into six different divisions to better organize the country and achieve their ultimate goal. x The Crime Prevention Planning Division is responsible for planning the whole process of what is going to be acted on and how those are going to be achieved; they plan based on the previous data and statistics to create a sustainable goal collectively. x The Protection Policy Division creates various campaigns and education opportunities to educate the citizens, especially young adults, on the safety guides in different situations including cyber crimes that are becoming more dominant these past years. x The Protection Legislation Division seeks out laws related to probation and custody; some are even involved to hold workshops for public officers in protection services. x The job goes into play starting from the Probation and Parole Division where they are relied on for probation and parole and even look if community services are in order. Plus, they even look after the released prisoners, protecting them and the surrounding people around them for greater peace and security. x The Juvenile Division implements juvenile protection policies and creates institutions for long-lasting effects.

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Lastly, the Electronic Supervision Division is a recently developed division where that seek to monitor online/electronic usage and prevent sex offender from benefiting in any way.

Beyond these classifications, there are four major functions. To begin with, they mention how they attempt to realize a “fair” society by establishing law and order. This is done by campaigning and educating legal programs for different age groups and social classes. Some take place online through their website and they aim to create a society where the citizens would respect law and orders. Additionally, they are safeguarding the public from sexual violence or other violent crimes by further creating rehabilitation centers and supervising violent offenders. The police department frequently uses electronic technology called the Running Electronic Anklet to supervise violent offenders; it has a GPS device that allows the police to locate where they are with a click. Thirdly, they aimed to give hope to teenagers who are at risk; it is mainly focused on young adults to prevent potential wrongdoings and support them with customized education. This education and individual treatment are for those who are in teenage reformatory centers so that it would prevent them from committing greater crimes in the future.

How Effective is CPTED in Korea? After the Gangnam station incident in 2012, Korea officially set up its CPTED policy to rescue more people’s live, even without the presence of a guard looking after them 24/7. It mainly started with installing various CCTVs that would record all the human activities, also scaring off the criminals. Especially within a country where technology is highly developed, the use of highly improved CCTV has been the main resource in their execution process. Some of the achievements made by the police team have been the well-known “Yeomni-dong” case where the original alley was changed into a fitness circuit (a community space) for the citizens; it was a mini-park that was created for the public to come and exercise outdoors. It replaced the “SaltWay” that led along a 1/7 km uphill alley that had fewer sidewalks. It was substituted with equally spaced exercise equipment that attracted more public citizens outside. Additionally, they added an information board that showed the community map of the apartments, stores, facility services, and police officers with numbers indicating each house with LED lights. Based on their reasoning, the police stated how there were reasons behind everything written on the information board. 1. The number list of the houses and facility centers made the criminals aware that many eyes were looking after them. 2. The numbers also make the police have an easier time locating where things are and in which location they are. 3. It provides emergency contact details in case anything happens. Finally, they formed “safe houses” along the salt way that were equipped with high-quality OP cameras and an emergency bell. The instructions on how to use these were educated to the residents living nearby and it was meant to create a community image that the area is safe and well organized. Nevertheless, some aspects of this CPTED plan failed: these safe houses were later described as failing because their intended purpose such as the emergency bells and CCTVs were not visible enough and were not able to provide that sense of “security” that the residents had sought for. The emergency bell was fairly complex, making it ineffective in case of an emergency. Despite some flaws, based on the crime

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) statistics in Yeomni-dong, the city saw a drop in the number of crime crashes after CPTED was adopted. The fear of the children who were hesitant to walk alone has dropped by 13.6% and women surveyed said that they now felt much safer with these new developments along the dark roads. Soon, other cities also mirrored these techniques in their society. Namely, Hangwoon-dong known for a high rate of sexual crime has adopted this method and saw a significant decrease in crime rates compared to before. Specifically, I have visited one of the major cities in Seoul, Apgujeong-dong, to see how CPTED is implemented throughout. Throughout the community, I encountered several emergency helps poles that were present mostly near the school zones, apartment complexes, and sidewalks that most people pass by frequently. It had a vibrant yellow coloring, with neon effects which eventually allows the users to see it well even at nighttime. It caught my attention from far behind and especially the “EMERGENCY BELL” button that has a night light within gives emphasis and contrast from the background.

[Picture 1] CPTED Emergency Ring in Apgujeong Station (Heeseon Choi, 2022) [Picture 2] CPTED Emergency Ring in Apgujeong Station (Heeseon Choi, 2022) If we see the design itself, we can notice how simple it is, with a minimum amount of words. It has a sign that the CCTV is recording the surrounding and there is one circular button that eventually raises the attention of the police nearby. However, one thing I believe needs to change is the scale of the emergency bell. Compared to the pole itself, the bell is taking up very little space, which might be an issue when a real emergency occurs. For example, someone is running away from a criminal and she sees this pole and runs towards it. A small button is going to make it harder for the person to push it into this small hole. My suggestion is to make the size at least three times bigger so that those people in danger would be able to grasp it and tap it with their palms. However, it shouldn’t be so big that some people passing by would accidentally push it with their bags unconsciously when they are not in danger. This may ring a false alarm and eventually shock the police department and the bypasser.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Nevertheless, I would like to acknowledge the big signs that are surrounding this bell regarding the presence of CCTV. The big sign would alert the people that they have an “eye” watching them for every action they are doing; this will certainly prevent people from doing certain actions that may be harmful to the people or the environment. It even mentions how this area is under police patrol, giving extra security for the people that are passing by at night. Lastly, the white pipe that is facing down is a projector that screens at night. Like a spotlight, it welcomes anyone who is in danger.

[Picture 3] CPTED Emergency Ring in Apgujeong Station (Heeseon Choi, 2022) [Picture 4] CPTED Emergency Ring in Apgujeong Station (Heeseon Choi, 2022)

How is it Different from Other Countries using CPTED? Ever since CPTED was reviewed and acknowledged by many authors and researchers in the late 20th century, many adjustments made in the western world regarding environment prevention design. International CPTED Association, also known as ICA, was founded in 1996 and it even led other countries such as the UK to form their organization called DOC, Design Out Crime Association. Their main goal was to create “a useful, effective, very concrete and feasible strategy” to secure their country better.

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[Picture 5] Map of Providence, Rhode Island (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban development) At Olneyville, Rhode Island, we can see what role CPTED has played throughout society. The city originally had a local park known to be a “hot spot” for drug dealing, prostitution, and other violent activists. Hence, the county police, architects, designers, city staff, and most importantly citizens, came together to discuss specific issues and physical improvements necessary to change its original image into a new safe park. Within that 9-acre site, the group has decided to change the whole arrangements of the area and bring in new amenities that would clean out the unnecessary boundaries and walls. Police officers have decided to remove the walls inside the park that separated the 9 acres into different parts; they claimed that seeing the full nine-acre park, without any disturbance, would significantly lessen the motive of the criminals to perform illegal activities. The police have decided to construct new homes around the park for the houses to surround the park and add more lighting to make the surroundings bright even at night. As we analyze these actions made by the police and the architect from Olnevyville, we can notice how they first removed any unnecessary corners and spaces that were hidden and segregated from the area, creating a perfect spot for drug dealers to sell their illegal items. This is one of the most important steps because walls create additional shadows and darkness in their surroundings. Based on the color aspect I have discussed previously, black represents horror, mystery, and power. Hence, the extra darkness that the walls produce could have affected the crime rates within the park. Now, talking about the extra housing that was constructed, the police officers have argued how more people surrounding the area could prevent crimes. This is a way to trick the criminals that the people living in houses surrounding the park are looking at them– eyes are looking out for them. With our basic knowledge, we all know how crime usually occurs at night in low populated areas; these are where criminals feel safe enough to murder or hurt others, believing they will not get caught. Hence, the way the police officers from Olynevyville got rid of every aspect of dangers that may lead criminals to “feel safe” was a reasonable solution.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Another example is how the US government has implemented CPTED within public and private schools to ensure the safety of students. They have mentioned how crimes are no exception within schools and that the rise of technology contributes to extra physical abuse and cyberbullying among young adults. The US Department of Health and Human Services targets to mainly reduce gun violence, youth homicide, disorderly conduct, and violent crime. x Firstly, they requested the schools to improve on basic physical features that can

improve visibility. One example could be providing big windows within classrooms that allow the students to look out onto the school entrance: for students to see inside the school and, in return, show how they may be looked after from within. x Secondly, they were required to put more effort into managing access to certain areas. Within the school, there are areas where it is either empty or dark. If so, the school should provide signs and well-marked entrances and exits to reduce unsupervised locations within the school where dangerous activities may occur. x Thirdly, the school should provide a welcoming environment using motivational quotes, and colorful art to provide extra warmth and pride. Next, the school should manage its utilities and repair items that need to be fixed. Not only would this ensure safety but it would also make the students feel more comfortable and convenient around the school; this could include erasing graffiti and replacing malfunctioning light bulbs. Conclusively, providing a clean and bright environment for the citizens would play a significant role in people’s lives.

Comparing Two Specific Countries: South Korea and the United States Comparing these two major countries, the United States and the Republic of Korea, we can see how their main goals are similar while the equipment they use and the people involved in this issue varies. The size of the country, total population, community size, and community interest eventually creates their procedural difference. Common to both, they attempted to make the spaces more visible and open to the people so that it is not an area where it is covered or hidden. To that, more street lights were added to brighten the mood of the area and more houses were built to create the “eyes of the people.” Nevertheless, the technology, architectural procedure, and citizens’ involvement caused their CPTED plan to vary. The general CPTED procedures in the United States usually work together with the whole community, including architects, police officers, city planners, and even the citizens. A collective effort by a broad number of people creates a common agreement on the plan. Now, on to the procedures, the US frequently devises a plan that would be both costs effective and safe in general. With their vast land, they would have limited resources and money to provide exercise equipment for every unsafe area; instead, they get rid of excess boundaries and dividers that criminals seek as they are committing a crime or performing illegal activities. However, this can be more effective especially because they are eliminating any possible dangers behind a wall. On the other hand, the CPTED procedures in Korea, being a small country, add elements such as playgrounds, exercise machines, and LED boards. These provide a sense of a children-based society, making criminals think they are inside the kid's zone. It is a trick method to make the offenders think

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) that it is unethical and unreasonable to do such things inside this area. Also, such technological usage of LED boards gives extra safety guidelines for dangers, including emergency contact numbers.

Is CPTED really Effective? Generally speaking, CPTED serves as an effective prevention method as data suggests. However, it has limits. This means that CPTED does serve as an important tool to give assurance to the people: less likely to prevent major crime cases by the offenders. Though we cannot wish that CPTED would get rid of all crime rates, we at least aim to lessen the major violence that either hurts someone severely or kills them. However, this has some major drawbacks. The CPTED efforts that are intended to save one community negatively impact the surrounding city or neighborhood. For instance, let's say a city called Oakland in California is trying to decrease crime rates that have been improving in recent days. Hence the California attorney planned to implement the CPTED system by adding more street lights and removing the graffiti near the populated area. Eventually, the crime has been occurring less frequently than before. Nevertheless, the surrounding cities such as Berkeley and Emeryville have seen an improvement in crime rates. This is because the criminals who were trying to perform violence have moved to different areas to commit a crime. Oakland may now be safe, however, the crimes in nearby cities are making up for the crime rates that have been lessening. This is why some argue the uselessness of CPTED because the national crime rates are still going to be the same. However, Yeongwook Jeong teaching Architecture at Sejong University in South Korea argues that it is still effective in the sense that it provides mental assurance to the citizens as it comes to security. (Jeong, 2021) They tend to feel more safe and secure while walking alone and feel like the community is more regulated by the police. Another thing we would have to take into account is the natural darkness at night that somehow makes it inevitable to eliminate crime rates. Compared to the daytime, nighttime is when the majority of the people go home to get some rest and prepare for the next day. Hence, though streetlights may provide brightness in some areas, there is a limit to the extent of how bright it can be to guarantee a safer community.

Is the Creation of a Safe Environment even Possible? A safe environment refers to an environment with the absence of crimes. For such to be possible, there must be complete prevention of crimes. However, complete prevention of events seems impossible due to the unpredictable nature of how people think and act. Throughout history, crime continued to exist among us and most likely will continue to do so. Even in extreme environments individuals or even the government overly monitors surveillance and security, the unpredictable nature of human beings has shown us that complete safety seems unreachable. Modern approaches like CPTED are definitely ways to prevent crime yet it can hardly be seen to reach the level of a totally safe environment because the mechanism used is certainly limited. Then, knowing that a realistically safe environment is not possible, does that mean people can’t have the feeling of being safe? When we examine the current society in South Korea, we know through the graph previously discussed that the crime rates in the nation are in fact increasing. However, when we

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ask Koreans currently living in Korea about their safety, most respond without major fear or anxiety about the environment they are in. People will even say that they believe Korea currently has one of the safest environments out of many nations around the world. The reason why such responses are spoken despite the fact that the actual safety of the environment in Korea is reduced is because of their feeling of security and trust towards the safety measures in the society. The security measures such as the CPTED in South Korea are known to be especially effective. CPTEDs such as surveillance cameras and street lights that cover the streets of Korea not only reduce the occurrence of crime but also increase the feeling of security. Most people walk the streets of Korea feeling relieved that criminals will be caught and that there will be minimal damage from them due to fast responses from the enforcement officials that are all existing in the people of Korea. These examples provide evidence that while an absolutely safe environment may not be possible, people can still feel protected and see the environment as a safe environment. With those in mind, an environment that installs the idea of security in people up to the point that the people feel safe through preventative/enforcing systems such as CPTED is the “safe environment” that seems most realistic.

Bibliography Cho, Young-Jin, and Tae-Hwan Hyeon. (2021) “A Study on the Effectiveness of Crime Reduction in the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Project.” Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, vol. 37, no. 4, Apr. 2021, pp. 83–92, doi:10.5659/JAIK.2021.37.4.83.Accessed 16 Aug. 2022 City of Baltimore City: SafeGrowth, “Creating Safety & Sustainability through Community Building and Urban Design.” https://mayor.baltimorecity.gov/sites/default/files/ MayorScott-ComprehensiveViolencePreventionPlan-1.pdf. Accessed 16 Aug. 2022 Heagerty, M. F. (2010). Crime and the Environment—Expanding the Boundaries of Environmental Justice. Tulane Environmental Law Journal, 23(2), 517–535. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43294093 JONGEJAN, ARMANDO, and TOBIAS WOLDENDORP. (2013) “A Successful CPTED Approach: The Dutch ‘Police Label Secure Housing.’” Built Environment (1978-), vol. 39, no. 1, 2013, pp. 31–48. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43296831. Accessed 17 Aug. 2022. Minnery, John R., and Bill Lim. (2005) “MEASURING CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN.” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, vol. 22, no. 4, 2005, pp. 330–41. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43030751. Accessed 17 Aug. 2022. Schneider, Richard H. (2005) “INTRODUCTION: CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED): THEMES, THEORIES, PRACTICE, AND CONFLICT.” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, vol. 22, no. 4, 2005, pp. 271–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43030746. Accessed 18 July 2022. The International CPTED Association (ICA) - Primer in CPTED - What Is CPTED?, “Cpted in Brief.” https://www.cpted.net/Primer-in-CPTED. Accessed 3 Aug. 2022

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) U.S Department of Health & Human Services: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention“Using Environmental Design to Prevent School Violence |Violence Prevention|injury Center|CDC.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/cpted.html. , Accessed 14 Apr. 2022 Yongwook Jeong, Yonngil Kang & Myungsik Lee (2017) Effectiveness of a Project Applying Crime Prevention through Environmental Design in an Urban Area in South Korea, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 16:3, 543-549, DOI: 10.3130/jaabe.16.543 Accessed 5 Aug. 2022 Zahm, Diane. (2005) “LEARNING, TRANSLATING, AND IMPLEMENTING CPTED.” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, vol. 22, no. 4, 2005, pp. 284–93. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43030747. Accessed 16 Aug. 2022. Ministry of Justice in the Republic of Korea, “Criminal Prevention Policy Bureau.” https://www.moj.go.kr/moj_eng/1777/subview.do. Accessed 3 Aug. 2022 Seoul Metropolitan Government Seoul Solution. (2015). Crime Prevention through Environmental Design Project. [online] Available at: <https://www.seoulsolution.kr/en/content/crime-preventionthrough-environmental-design-project> [Accessed 17 August 2022].

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Natural Language Processing in Gothic Literature: What types of language are used in most famous Gothic novels? Author 1

Full Name

Choi, Jiin

Stanford Online High School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Literature, particularly novels, relies heavily on specific word choices in order to set a tone and draw you into the world of the story. Different types of genres will generally utilize different techniques to best support the type of story being told. Gothic literature, a genre developed during the Romantic period in Britain, relies on romance, horror, and mystery. These genres require a personal connection to the characters and a grounding point that allows for the reader to experience the unusual and supernatural with the characters. This paper examines what types of language are used in some of the most famous novels of this genre. The research analyzes word frequency using Natural Language Processing in the first chapter of some famous Gothic literature to see larger trends in a genre of literature. Using R to create graphs of word frequency in the first chapter of various novels, larger patterns were detected across the books that point to larger hallmarks of the genre. For example, a first person perspective was heavily used throughout the novels, as well as a focus on grounding the novel in some level of realism to later set the narrative up for supernatural twists.

Keywords: Gothic literature, natural language processing, word frequency, literary style

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. INTRODUCTION Literature, particularly novels, relies heavily on specific word choices in order to set a tone and draw you into the world of the story. Different types of genres will generally utilize different techniques to best support the type of story being told. For example, romance might rely more heavily on a first person perspective to make you feel and become emotionally connected to the central relationship as you experience it with the characters. I decided to try and look at larger trends in gothic literature, by first considering the types of tropes that might make sense for a genre that relies on romance, horror, and mystery. These genres require a personal connection to the characters and a grounding point that allows for the reader to experience the unusual and supernatural with the characters. So, I was interested to see what types of language would be used in some of the most famous novels of this genre. To find out, I chose to employ natural language processing using a program called R to examine the word distributions and frequency of the first chapters of seven Gothic novels. Specifically, this paper uses a Kaggle dataset of Gothic literature txt files to feed into the NLP code I built to analyze these word choices and frequencies. In seeing which words are used most frequently in the first chapters of these novels, I tried to answer the question of how much the genre and tone of the text would influence the language an author chose to use in opening and setting up a story, and observe larger trends in Gothic literature.

2. DATASET The texts used and analyzed are .txt files of the first chapters of Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Dracula by Bram Stoker, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte, The Phantom of the Opera by Gaston Leroux, The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde and The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole. These texts were taken from a Kaggle data set titled Gothic Literature, which contains the full versions of all these listed novels (1).

3. METHODS Using R’s ability for Natural Language Processing, the texts for the first chapter of each book was moved to a new .txt file. Then, the full word frequency was made into a table. However, most of the texts had ‘I’ as the most common word by a wide margin. So, modified figures were created omitting the word ‘I’ to further analyze literary patterns.

4. RESULTS AND EXPERIMENTS 4.1 The Castle of Otranto The Castle of Otranto is considered the first Gothic novel to be published in the English Language (2). It is a gothic romance with elements of supernatural fantasy and horror, and broad themes of family, deception, and bloodlines. The first chapter was analyzed to see if there was anything tying the word distribution to the novel’s themes at large. Figure 1 shows the full word distribution for Chapter 1 of the Castle of Ortranto without any data edited or removed. By a large margin, the most commonly used word in the first chapter is ‘I’. This makes sense because many genres that rely on heavy romance or suspense tend to use first person narration.

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(Figure 1) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of the Castle of Ortranto So, adjusting the figure to remove any instances of the word ‘I’ and then re-arranging it so the words would be displayed from least to most frequent gave a clearer idea of this specific book’s word distribution. This is seen in Figure 2. Now, the most common word is ‘manfred’, followed by ‘isabella’ and then ‘young’.

(Figure 2) Modified Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of the Castle of Ortranto

Manfred is the main villain of the story, while Isabella is the young princess engaged to Manfred’s son. Because this novel begins its story grounded in realism, it makes sense that the most commonly used words include the names of the main villain and the main damsel in distress.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4.2 Frankenstein Frankenstein was a gothic novel written by Mary Shelley that set the groundwork for the sci-fi genre. It had elements of supernatural horror as it followed the story of a man and his creation as they tried to destroy each other. Rather than analyzing ‘Chapter’ 1, this is an analysis of Letter 1- the novel opens with a series of four letters sent by an explorer to his sister, and sets up the narrative to follow Viktor Frankenstein’s story (3). Figure 3 shows the full word distribution for Letter 1 of Frankenstein without any data edited or removed. By a large margin, the most commonly used word in the first chapter is ‘I’. Considering that this text excerpt is a personal letter, this makes sense.

(Figure 3) Word Distribution for Letter 1 of Frankenstein So, adjusting the figure to remove any instances of the word ‘I’ changed the word distribution, as seen in Figure 4. Now, the most common words are tied between ‘these’ and ‘dear’. The frequent usage of the term ‘dear’ may contribute to the intimate tone felt in these letters, with a strong emphasis on the close relationship the explorer has with his sister. At this point in the story, the supernatural and horror elements have yet to be introduced, so this word distribution makes sense.

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(Figure 4) Modified Word Distribution for Letter 1 of Frankenstein 4.3 Dracula Dracula is an epistolary gothic horror novel written by Bram Stoker exploring the darkness of the human condition through the supernatural element of vampires. This novel became the basis for an entire genre of media and literature about vampires (4). Figure 5 shows the full word distribution for Chapter 1, where the most commonly used word is ‘I’ by a very wide margin. This choice makes sense, especially when considering that it is an epistolary novel, and would therefore rely even more on a first person perspective.

(Figure 5) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of Dracula

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) When removing this anomaly, as seen in Figure 6, the most common words become ‘the’, ‘driver’ and ‘horses’. In context, this is a diary entry written as the narrator makes a journey from England to Eastern Europe (5). So, it works to help create a level of realism in detailing the mundane mode of travel used to arrive at a destination where the narrator will encounter supernatural beings.

(Figure 6) Modified Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of Dracula

4.4 The Phantom of the Opera The Phantom of the Opera is a French novel set at a Parisian Opera house. It follows the story of a young ingenue who is tormented by the mysterious Phantom living in the depths of the opera house. Figure 7 shows the full word distribution for Chapter 1 of The Phantom of the Opera.

(Figure 7) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of The Phantom of the Opera

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) However, unlike the other novels so far, the most commonly used word is not ‘I’. Instead, it is ‘ghost’. So, when rearranging the word frequency from least to most commonly used words, as seen in Figure 8, the most commonly used words become clearer to see.

(Figure 8) Rearranged Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of The Phantom of the Opera The most commonly used word is, by a large margin, ‘ghost’, followed by ‘and’, and ‘the’. This could be because of the novel’s strong initial focus on setting up the mystery of the Phantom of the Opera, creating a supernatural air around his hauntings, thereby using words like ‘ghost’ to describe his eerie presence. 4.5 The Picture of Dorian Gray The Picture of Dorian Gray was a novel written by Oscar Wilde about the corruption of a young man’s soul after he makes a deal with the devil. As seen in Figure 9, the most commonly used word in the first chapter of this novel is ‘I’. This follows in the observed trend so far of heavy first person perspective in gothic literature.

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(Figure 9) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of The Picture of Dorian Gray So, adjusting the figure to remove any instances of the word ‘I’ and then re-arranging it so the words would be displayed from least to most frequent led to the word distribution seen in Figure 10. Now, the most commonly used word is ‘the’, followed by ‘you and ‘Gray’. Because the elusive figure at the center of the novel is Dorian Gray, the novel commonly using his last name in the first chapter would add to the heightened sense of mystery and importance around the character.

(Figure 10) Modified Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of The Picture of Dorian Gray

4.6 Jane Eyre Jane Eyre is a gothic romance novel written by Charlotte Bronte following the coming of age story of a governess named Jane Eyre. The opening of the novel details the character’s difficult childhood and experiences at boarding school she has before she becomes a governess (6).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Figure 11 shows the full unedited word distribution for Chapter 1 of Jane Eyre. Once again, the most commonly used word is ‘I’.

(Figure 11) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of Jane Eyre Adjusting for this anomaly and redistributing the data so the words would be displayed from least to most frequent leads to the word distribution seen in Figure 12. The most frequently used words are now ‘reed’, ‘john’, and ‘mama’. Reed is the name of Jane’s cruel aunt who raises her after her parents die (7). John is the first name of Aunt Reed’s son, who is also cruel to Jane during their childhood. Because Jane Eyre is a coming of age novel that begins with her childhood, her family being heavily mentioned in the first chapter would make sense, especially when establishing the ‘known’ world of the novel.

(Figure 12) Modified Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of Jane Eyre

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4.7 Wuthering Heights Wuthering Heights is a dark gothic tragedy written by Emily Bronte that focuses on two families living on the West Yorkshire moors. When Heathcliff’s soulmate Cathy marries another man, he goes on a twisted quest for revenge. The novel is named after Heathcliff’s residence, Wuthering Heights (8). Figure 13 shows the full word distribution for Chapter 1 of Wuthering Heights. As expected, the most commonly used word is ‘I’. The first chapter takes place as a diary entry, so the strong first person perspective also makes sense.

(Figure 13) Word Distribution for Chapter 1 of Wuthering Heights When removing this anomaly, as seen in Figure 14, the most common words become ‘mr’, ‘heathcliff’ and ‘the’. Heathcliff is arguably the main character of Wuthering Heights.

5. CONCLUSIONS There are several overarching trends noticed after analyzing this dataset. First, with the exception of The Phantom of the Opera, all the datasets have ‘I’ as the most commonly used word in the first chapter. Gothic literature is a genre that relies heavily on building suspense and dramatic tension, and using a first person perspective is a sensible way to ground a narration to one point of view and raise tension and mystery. In the case of The Phantom of the Opera, the most commonly used word is ‘ghost’, referring to the Phantom himself. In other novels, the second or third most common word tends to be the name of the central mysterious figure. There is a strong tendency to set up the main character of the novel by mentioning their name many times in the opening chapter, as is the case with Wuthering Heights and The Picture of Dorian Gray. The genre seems to prize a sense of established realism that still maintains mystery. This gives way to

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) more supernatural or less realistic elements that may arise later on in the narrative. Setting up a level of realism in the opening chapter allows the reader to experience the curiosities with the characters, instead of becoming desensitized to the supernatural elements of these stories.

References (3) SparkNotes, SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/lit/frankenstein/. (7) SparkNotes, SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/lit/janeeyre/characters/. (8) SparkNotes, SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/lit/wuthering/section1/. (5) SparkNotes, SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/lit/dracula/section1/. (1) Averill, Charles. “Gothic Literature.” Kaggle, 6 Dec. 2019, www.kaggle.com/datasets/charlesaverill/gothic-literature. (2) “The Castle of Otranto.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/The-Castle-of-Otranto. (4) “Dracula.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/Dracula-novel. (6) “Jane Eyre.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/Jane-Eyre-novel-by-Bronte.

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Security Council Resolutions, Sanctions and their Effectiveness on North Korea Author 1

Full Name

Choi, Minsuh

Hankuk Academy of Foreign Studies

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Look no further than the 2022 conflict in Ukraine, when Russia invaded, unprovoked and without justification, a sovereign country for its own political goals whilst putting a stranglehold on food, fuel, and supply for the broader globe, which demonstrates that, despite all other problems, the threat to world peace and security from wayward actors and states continues to trump all other short-term threats. Thus, the world should have a way to contend with it. The paper presents that, rather than war, sanctions are the best way to contend with such states, and analyze the international sanctions against a now-nuclear North Korea as a case study of how this can be done.

Keywords: International peace, global security, armistice, international sanctions

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Look no further than the 2022 conflict in Ukraine, when Russia invaded, unprovoked and without justification, a sovereign country for its own political goals whilst putting a stranglehold on food, fuel, and supply for the broader globe, which demonstrates that, despite all other problems, the threat to world peace and security from wayward actors and states continues to trump all other short-term threats. Thus, the world should have a way to contend with it. I argue in this paper that, rather than war, sanctions are the best way to contend with such states, and analyze the international sanctions against a now-nuclear North Korea as a case study of how this can be done.

II. Sanctions on North Korea: An Overview Sanctions have become the default “line in the sand” option for the international community, represented by the United Nations Security Council, due to the low costs of implementation and relative lack of controversy or disagreement amongst nations. Sanctions arguably have brought about changes in state behavior in certain cases, such as South Africa and its apartheid era1 and sanctions continue to provide a way through which states and the UN are able to exert at least some pressure upon “rogue” states.2 Sanctions against North Korea targeting both the general economy at large (e.g. ban on coal exports) and the regime in Pyeongyang (e.g. ban on luxury goods) have been in place since the first North Korean nuclear weapons test in 2006. Sanctions have been enacted both multilaterally, such as those placed by the United Nations or the European Union, and unilaterally, such as those placed by Japan, the U.S or South Korea. With each successive nuclear weapons test in North Korea, sanctions have increased in severity in the hopes that the international community at large can force the North Korean government to give up its nuclear arsenal through a mix of various strategies such as coercion, a “stickand-carrot” approach, and the U.S Obama administration’s “strategic patience.”3

1. Analysis of Selected Resolutions In this part, I will analyze the similarities and differences in four resolutions passed by the Security Council on North Korea: S/RES/2270 (2016); S/RES/2321 (2016); S/RES/2356 (2017); S/RES/2371 (2017), with emphasis on Resolution 2270 and 2371 as they mark the beginning and progress of the more recent round of resolutions, thus providing a benchmark through which we can assess the increase of intensity.4 The resolutions all limit- and later ban- key North Korean industries and exports, particularly mineral

1 Klotz, Audie. "Norms reconstituting interests: global racial equality and US sanctions against South Africa." International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-478. 2

Barclay, Pat, and Toko Kiyonari. "Why sanction? Functional causes of punishment and reward." Reward and punishment in social dilemmas (2014): 182-196.

3 Ratnam, Gopal. February 6, 2015. "White House Unveils Call for 'Strategic Patience'." Foreign Policy. Available at:

http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/02/05/white-house-to-unveil-call-for-strategic-patience-russia-ukraine-syria-iraq-china-asia/. 4 Resolution 2379, passed December 22, 2017, is not discussed in this section.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) resources such as gold, titanium, coal, silver, nickel, etc., and actively attempt to deny North Korean access to financial assets held in offshore accounts or under the control of individuals as well as preventing new venues through which North Korea could circumvent UN sanctions. Under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the Security Council authorized sanctions such as a wide-ranging arms embargo (including any financial or technical assistance in regards to their construction), the ability for member states to expel any DPRK diplomats or government representatives are acting in a capacity related to smuggling or illicit activity, the ability to seize and search DPRK cargo or aiding in their transport, and banning the export of DPRK-mined iron, iron ore or coal except those exclusively for “livelihood purposes”. The key term here is “livelihood purposes”, especially as this provision is arguably done away with in Resolution 2371 (2017). In the resolution, there are four mentions of “livelihood exemptions” (Paragraph 8(b), 19, 20, 29 (b)) but no proper delineation of what exactly constitutes such an exemption. The reason this is such an important distinction is because the UN Security Council’s exemption provides a clear and glaring loophole to be exploited by both North Korea and countries it may trade with. It is possible that these sanctions may have been affected by the perceived widespread harm resulting from the harsh sanctions imposed on Iraq in 1991 when the UN called for a strict ban of any “activities … that would promote the export of products originating in Iraq or Kuwait, as well as the transfer of funds to either country for the purposes of such activities” to deprive Iraq from financing not only its military but much of its civilian infrastructure. Also important was the “dual use” provision, which prevented the sale or export to Iraq any goods that could conceivably be used for military purposes, from the probable (computers) to the indistinguishable (clothing, for example). Though it hampered the Iraqi military, the cost paid by civilians was high, with one UN official stating his refusal to take part in “genocide” due to the draconian cost to civilians. 5 Resolution 2371, in the words of the UN, “includes the strongest sanctions ever imposed in response to a ballistic missile test.”6 Though it should be noted that Resolution 2371 still includes exceptions to prevent “imped[ing] foreign diplomatic activities in North Korea or legitimate humanitarian assistance”, it still blankets a large area hitherto undefined in previous resolutions. As mentioned previously, the resolution implements a total ban on principal DPRK exports which “North Korea uses to fund its nuclear and ballistic missile programs.” 7 According to the UN, these “full sectoral bans” would result in DPRK revenue loss in the range of $1 billion and consequently dent the ability of the DPRK to continue building its nuclear weapons. Another measure implemented by the UNSC geared towards the limitation of the DPRK to earn foreign currency assets is the ban on DPRK workers and nationals from being employed in other UN member states. Again, it is imperative to understand the motives behind the bans and restrictions placed upon North Korea and its nationals: the UNSC is, in effect, attempting to financially strangle the DPRK into surrendering its nuclear ambition or at the very least into coming to the negotiating table.

John Pilger. October 4, 2004. “John Pilger on why we ignored Iraq in the 1990s” New Statesman.

United Nations. 2017. “FACT SHEET: Resolution 2371 Strengthening Sanctions on North Korea.” New York.

Ibid.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) III. Effectiveness of Sanctions How should the effectiveness of sanctions be measured? The simplest method of determining effectiveness would be North Korean nuclear tests and their frequency, but despite the tough sanctions passed, North Korea could well have stockpiled a large amount of financial and military assets allotted towards its nuclear program and sanctions would take a much longer time to whittle down the DPRK’s foreign reserves, especially considering that all UNSC resolutions provide exemptions for humanitarian or diplomatic purposes (which are tricky to monitor, at best). Some note that sanctions that targeted specific financial institutions which may provide valuable financials services such as money-laundering to the DPRK (e.g. Bush administration’s sanctions against a Macao-based bank, Banco Delta Asia) have hurt the ability of the North Korean regime to easily move financial assets or to acquire resources embargoed by the United Nations (e.g. oil) due to a reluctance on the part of bankers to be associated with the regime and possibly be targeted by sanctions as well.8 Others have cited the importance of China’s cooperation in ensuring the sanctions stick. On China’s role, Jun (2017) argues “the fact that China needs to secure influence over North Korea and maintain the North Korean regime in a stable state even after its fifth nuclear test indicates that its sanctions against North Korea will be implemented within a boundary of not causing the regime collapse or chaos.” 9 Lee and Kim (2017) state, somewhat more optimistically, that “cooperation with international sanctions was made possible with China's changing perception of the nuclear regime… However, the same factors may also work to hinder future Chinese cooperation.”10 Although relations between China and the DPRK have been strained of late, it is clear from prior research that China remains the key factor in potentially bringing about meaningful change. Considering the evertightening sanctions on North Korean industries, exports and manufacturing capabilities it is possible that there may come a time when the regime is forced to accede to international demands because it can no longer afford the costs related to circumventing them. Yet it is very difficult to put a specific end-game condition considering that as of now, it appears that China holds the ace in the hole. I argue that rather than trying to assess the sanctions via their actual effectiveness in regards to the goal of disarming North Korea of its nuclear weapons considering the rather moot nature of the discussion (they have not worked yet), the increasing harshness of the Security Council resolutions-which were certainly hampered in their severity in previous years due in no small part to Chinese influence- points towards two important normative trends. First, China, amongst all the P5 members on the Security Council, has the most to lose if the DPRK should collapse. The fact that China, a staunch ally of North Korea despite recent flare- ups, is willing to push sanctions to possibly self-defeating levels (e.g, the financial collapse of North Korea would force China to assist it heavily) shows that the international community is taking the threat to international peace and security posed by the DPRK seriously. It is heartening, therefore, that China seeks, even if as “window-dressing”, to cooperate with the West in disarming North Korea. Although China is likely to veto or negotiate any resolution that would result in regime instability11, the fact that China is working with the U.S at all shows some progress.

Noland, Marcus (2010); Wertz (2013)

Jun, %\RXQJဨ.RQ "China's Sanctions on North Korea After Its Fourth Nuclear Test." Pacific Focus 32, no. 2 (2017): 208- 231.

Lee, Kihyun, and Jangho Kim. "Cooperation and Limitations of China's Sanctions on North Korea: Perception, Interest and Institutional Environment." North Korean Review 13, no. 1 (2017): 28.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Second, the increasing reliance on sanctions, and the increased intensity of those sanctions, points toward a general trend of the “great powers” to act within the boundaries of international law and the UN Security Council. Although some member states have adopted unilateral sanctions (e.g, US, Japan, ROK), they have done so in recognition of the UNSC position of diplomacy and economic coercion coming before any military action. It may not seem like much, but considering the volatility of the politics between the DPRK and its principal adversaries, it certainly belies the unspoken agreement amongst those states that violent enforcement or coercion is a last resort, and that their interests are best met through the auspices of the UN and the international laws it represents. Although it is difficult to comprehensively ascertain the actual end-goals of the sanctions (negotiations vs. outright disarmament), the fact that sanctions are increasingly relied upon to coerce a “rogue” regime also lends credence to neoliberal ideas on international cooperation and the role international institutions.

V. Conclusion Critics of sanctions point to sanctions’ failure to prevent the DPRK’s nuclear procurement and escalation. However, such criticism neglects the variables that influence and ultimately decide North Korean behavior which sanctions cannot predict or control. Should North Korea continue its provocations, which is quite likely, the UNSC should continue to affirm its stance as the highest legitimate body through which concerned states can act. Despite the harshness of the sanctions against North Korea, there is room for greater pressure to be placed upon the regime; not by more sanctions by the UNSC, but rather the UNSC should act in its capacity and its ability provided by the UN Charter to require stringent compliance by other nations to ensure stronger enforcement of those sanctions already in place.

Jun, %\RXQJဨ.RQ "China's Sanctions on North Korea After Its Fourth Nuclear Test." Pacific Focus 32, no. 2 (2017):

208-231.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) VI. References Ahtisaari, Marti. “The Ahtisaari Report.” 20 March 1991. Barclay, Pat, and Toko Kiyonari. "Why sanction? Functional causes of punishment and reward." Reward and punishment in social dilemmas (2014): 182-196. Choi, Jina, Hyo Shin Kim, and Jin Hwan Oh. "Effectiveness of Economic Sanctions against North Korea and Role of China: Empirical Approach." Global Business and Finance Review 22 (2017): 8-15. John Pilger, “John Pilger on why we ignored Iraq in the 1990s on why we ignored Iraq in the 1990s” New Statesman, 4 October 2004 Jun, Byoung-Kon. "China's Sanctions on North Korea After Its Fourth Nuclear Test." Pacific Focus 32, no. 2 (2017): 208-231. Jung, SeungHo. "Effects of Economic Sanctions on North Korea-China Trade: A Dynamic Panel Analysis." (2016). Klotz, Audie. "Norms reconstituting interests: global racial equality and US sanctions against South Africa." International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 451-478. Lee, Kihyun, and Jangho Kim. "Cooperation and Limitations of China's Sanctions on North Korea: Perception, Interest and Institutional Environment." North Korean Review 13, no. 1 (2017): 28. Liz Sly, Report Debunks Iraqs Claim That Early-2000s Sanctions Killed 500,000 Children, THE WASHINGTON POST, August 7, 2017, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P41926410267.html?refid=easy_hf Noland, Marcus. "Why Sanctions Can Hurt North Korea." Council on Foreign Relations. August 4, 2010. https://www.cfr.org/interview/why-sanctions-can-hurt-north-korea. Ratnam, Gopal. "White House Unveils Call for 'Strategic Patience'." Foreign Policy. February 6, 2015. http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/02/05/white-house-to-unveil-call-for-strategic- patience-russiaukraine-syria-iraq-china-asia/. S.C. Res. 2270, (Mar 2, 2016) S.C. Res. 2321, (Nov 30, 2016) S.C. Res. 2356, (Jun 2, 2017) S.C. Res. 2371, (Aug 5, 2017) S.C. Res. 2379, (Dec 22, 2017). S.C. Res. 661, (Aug, 6, 1990)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Silberstein, Benjamin Katzeff. "December 2017 Sanctions on North Korea: Business as Usual?" The Diplomat. December 27, 2017. Available at : https://thediplomat.com/2017/12/december-2017sanctions-on-north-korea-business-as- usual/. United Nations. FACT SHEET: Resolution 2371 (2017) Strengthening Sanctions on North Korea, U.S. United States Department of State, https://usun.state.gov/remarks/7924 Wertz, Daniel. "The evolution of financial sanctions on North Korea." North Korean Review 9, no. 2 (2013): 69. Yonhap News Agency. “Reopening of Kaesong complex requires U.N. sanctions-related review.” May 11, 2017. http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2017/05/11/80/0401000000AEN20170511 006 000315F.html (last visited Nov 16, 2017).

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The Commodification of Modern Society Author 1

Full Name

Han, Brandon Jungwoo

Chadwick International School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The vast majority of today’s world lives under a market economy, a laissez-faire system of capitalism where goods and services are exchanged and sold between people and organizations. These goods and services are referred to as commodities, economic goods that are produced to be traded and sold for other products of similar value in a market. In his book Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Karl Marx wrote, “A commodity appears at first sight an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties.” Indeed, commodities are one of the most complex and influential forces driving our modern economy. Everything in our society is a commodity, from tangible objects to human labor and political power. However, as the boundaries of commodities are ever-expanding, we have crossed the line between a market economy and a market society, as our economy is starting to infringe upon our rights and values. Instead of trading physical objects or basic services, we are starting to exchange our morality, emotional well-being, physical health, and essential natural resources instead. This can cause a myriad of problems, including the loss of human dignity and the exacerbation of social issues. Therefore, we must establish a clear distinction between commodities and non-commercial goods and prevent our market society from causing further damage to our social institutions, freedoms, and rights.

Keywords: Commodification, Market Society, Market Economy, Capitalism

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The vast majority of today’s world lives under a market economy, a laissez-faire system of capitalism where goods and services are exchanged and sold between people and organizations. These goods and services are referred to as commodities, economic goods that are produced to be traded and sold for other products of similar value in a market. In his book Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Karl Marx wrote, “A commodity appears at first sight an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties.” Indeed, commodities are one of the most complex and influential forces driving our modern economy. Everything in our society is a commodity, from tangible objects to human labor and political power. However, as the boundaries of commodities are ever-expanding, we have crossed the line between a market economy and a market society, as our economy is starting to infringe upon our rights and values. Therefore, we must establish a clear distinction between commodities and non-commercial goods and prevent our market society from causing further damage to our social institutions, freedoms, and rights.

The Commodification of People It is a natural phenomenon for parts of humans to be treated as commodities in a market economy. For instance, a mathematician sells his extensive knowledge of mathematics in exchange for money, while a construction worker sells his muscles and physical labor. These transactions are crucial for the survival of a capitalist economy: they give workers access to a stable source of income and allow them to survive in society. These transactions also enable companies and organizations to operate, as most institutions depend on human labor to carry out their functions, including manufacturing, innovation, and management. Furthermore, there is nothing inherently wrong with selling some parts of humans, such as their knowledge and physical labor; physical labor is the foundation of today’s industrial society, while skilled labor allows for the division of labor to happen, significantly improving productivity and efficiency. However, in today’s economy, more and more components of people are being treated as commodities, so much so that it is no longer the commodification of parts of people but rather the commodification of humans as a whole. This phenomenon can potentially lead to a myriad of consequences, including the exacerbation of social issues and the loss of human dignity. First, our physical bodies are becoming exchangeable commodities, as people are selling their bodies for money. Here, it is crucial to establish the difference between one’s physical labor and physical body. The sale of one’s physical labor refers to selling a service, which in this case is whatever physical activity is required for one’s job. On the other hand, the sale of one’s body refers to selling the physical characteristics of one’s body. For instance, surrogate mothers sell their ability to procreate, while models sell their physical attractiveness. This commercialization is highly unethical for several reasons, primarily because this puts the health of the workers in danger. The human body is designed to maximize our ability to survive and to continue the human race. However, when another incompatible purpose is imposed onto the body, the person will inevitably experience severe health defects. For instance, a model’s job is essentially to meet society’s beauty standards as best as possible, which is incompatible with our body’s original purpose to keep us healthy and alive. This incompatibility inevitably leads to several health defects such as eating disorders, stress, and overall bad physical health. As much as 40% of models suffer from an eating disorder such as anorexia or bulimia, while 94% of models have an unhealthy BMI(body mass index) below 18.5. These conditions can lead to several other health effects, including a weaker immune system, fragile bones, and fatigue. Second, workers are also selling their emotional well-being for money, as many jobs require workers to suppress and regulate their emotions during work. Most jobs in the service and childcare industries

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) require some sort of emotional labor. For instance, preschool teachers are required to suppress their negative emotions in front of children, as they may become a negative influence on the children’s behavior. Instead, they must show patience and build camaraderie with their students. Similarly, waitstaff must always be polite and respectful toward their customers and conceal their emotions while working. Research shows that emotional labor can have an adverse effect on workers’ emotional wellbeing, as it is associated with emotional exhaustion, burnout, and low job satisfaction. In return for their hardships, however, workers who do emotional labor are given monetary incentives to continue working. In other words, workers are selling their emotional well-being for money in today’s job market. Finally, people are selling their morality in return for money. Our moral principles guide our everyday actions; however, as our lives become increasingly intertwined with money, our instrumental and ethical reason will inevitably clash. Unfortunately, instrumental reason almost always triumphs in this dispute, as for most people, the thought of money completely wipes their conscience. The Haifa daycare experiment perfectly illustrates this phenomenon. In 1998, economists Gneezy and Rustichini ran an experiment on ten daycare centers in Haifa, Isreal. At the time, Haifa’s daycare centers faced a severe problem: 25% of parents were tardy and did not pick up their children at the agreed time. Because of this, daycare centers were forced to close an hour or two late every day as they could not simply abandon the children and close. Frustrated and overworked, many daycare centers imposed a fine, where parents had to pay an additional $3 every time they were late. The idea is quite obvious; if there is a penalty for being late, everybody will come on time as they do not want to waste their money. However, the imposition of a fine had the opposite effect, as the number of tardy parents doubled in the following weeks. This study demonstrates how money heavily outweighs morals in peoples’ minds. When offered the option to pay a fine, the action of being tardy became a commodity, something that could be bought and sold. This removed peoples’ conscience, causing them to forget that by picking their children up late, they were forcing the employees to work extra hours every day. In conclusion, our instrumental reason is causing us to forget our morals, essentially causing us to sell our morality for money. In return, this causes others to suffer, such as how in the Haifa daycare centers, the employees were forced to work extra hours as a result of the parents’ lack of ethical reason. However, the worst consequence of the commodification of humans is the loss of human dignity. As all of our core components(our morals, body, and emotions) become commercialized, we as humans essentially become commodities in our economy; we become products whose sole purpose is to be productive members of society. This transformation violates workers’ human dignity, as seeing them as mere commodities strips them of their inherent value as humans. The loss of human dignity can, in turn, cause our market economy to infringe upon our rights and freedoms, as phenomena such as racism and human trafficking are all results of the loss of human dignity.

The Commodification of Nature In addition to humans, nature and natural resources are also being commercialized, as resources such as land and trees are exchanged for money in today’s economy. Similar to how money erases our conscience and moral values, money makes us forget the intrinsic value of nature, as nature is seen merely as a method of earning money rather than something that we must protect and conserve. Take coal companies, for example. Coal companies are well aware of the impact of their business practices; coal emissions are responsible for 72% of all toxic water pollution and kill approximately 7.9 million

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) birds annually. However, these companies also earn massive amounts of money from coal, as the coal mining industry in the United States alone was valued at 18.26 billion dollars in 2021. This monetary incentive makes companies forget the intrinsic value of nature, causing them to continue mining coal and harming the environment. Although the destruction of nature is enough reason to stop the commodification of nature, this phenomenon is exacerbated by the fact that nature affects everybody on Earth. From the perspective of coal companies, coal mining may seem like a fair trade; they earn massive amounts of money in return for harming the environment. However, for everyone else, coal companies are destroying nature, a shared resource for which everyone in society is responsible. In conclusion, the commodification of nature is causing institutions to essentially steal money from the general public, as nature is shared by all of society. It also causes us to forget the intrinsic value of nature, causing us to destroy entire ecosystems and bring countless species to extinction.

The Satanic Mills Why are more and more of society becoming commodified? What is the underlying cause behind these phenomena? The answer lies within the nature of capitalism. The ultimate purpose of capitalism is to gain as much profit as possible. Therefore, it is reasonable for people to search for a new ‘New World’, something new to make a profit out of. This self- expanding nature of capitalism, called ‘the satanic mills’ in Karl Polanyi’s The Great Transformation, is why the influence of our market economy continues to expand, approaching the boundary between economy and society. Hence, to solve this issue, we must clearly establish the limits of what a commodity can and cannot be. There is another underlying reason why the market economy, the infrastructure of our civilization, is trespassing into the superstructure of today’s society. People are well aware of the consequences of the widespread commodification of humans and nature. However, they continue to expand our market economy despite this as(as mentioned before) the monetary factor wipes their conscience, making them lose their empathy and causing them to disregard the suffering of those affected by the satanic mills. This lack of morality is also one of the main consequences of the satanic mills; as illustrated in the Haifa daycare experiment, the satanic mills cause us to lose our empathy and morals. This lack of morality and the pure instrumental reason allows phenomena such as human trafficking and illegal drug production to exist, as peoples’ desire for money blinds them to the moral consequences of their actions.

Conclusion In conclusion, we must establish a clear distinction between commodities and rights before our market economy intrudes further into the superstructure of our society. One way to do so is through government intervention; many market economies have an almost laissez- faire economy, where there is little to no government intervention and institutions are given excessive amounts of freedom. By restricting specific industries or business practices, the government can help protect some aspects from being commercialized. Furthermore, we as a society must learn to prioritize reflective reasoning over instrumental reasoning. As previously explained, the satanic mills continue to operate due to our disregard for morals and our prioritization of money. Therefore, we must transition from instrumental to reflective reasoning, whether through even more government intervention or cultural means.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Works Cited Brotheridge, Celeste M, and Alicia A Grandey. ScienceDirect, 2000, Emotional Labor and Burnout: Comparing Two Perspectives of “People Work,” https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815. Accessed 1 July 2022. Edwards, Lisa Nyree. 2022 Informa UK, 2015, Taylor & Francis Online, https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2015.1112256. Accessed 1 July 2022. IBISWorld. "Market Value of Coal Mining in The United States from 2010 to 2021, with a Forecast for 2022 (in Million U.S. Dollars) ." Statista, Statista Inc., 29 Jul 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1137311/market-size-of-coal-mining-in-the-us/ Krugman, Paul. “Learn about Market Economy: Definition, Advantages, and Disadvantages of a Market Economy - 2022.” MasterClass, MasterClass, 29 Sept. 2021, https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-market-economy#what-is-a-market-eco nomy. Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1, Benediction Classics, Oxford, 2019. Nordqvist, Christian. “Eating Disorders among Fashion Models Rising.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 8 July 2007, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/ 76241#1. Osann, Ed, and Becky Hayat. “Protecting Our Waters from Toxic Power Plant Discharges and Reducing Water Use in the Process.” Natural Resources Defense Council, Natural Resources Defense Council, Apr. 2014, https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/power-plant-coolingFS.pdf. Polanyi, Karl. Origins of Our Time: The Great Transformation. V. Gollancz, 1945. Riley, Stephen, and Gerhard Bos. “Human Dignity.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://iep.utm.edu/human-dignity/. Schlossberg, Mallory. “These Statistics Reveal a Terrifying Reality about the Modeling Industry.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 9 June 2016, https://www.businessinsider.com/most-models-areunderweight-2016-6#:~:text=A%20re cent%20study%20from%20Dream,index%20of%20less%20than%2018.5. Shroff, Jeet H., and Aditi Singh. “India Inc.'s Day Care Experiment.” Foreign Policy, The Slate Group, 3 Aug. 2015, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/03/india-inc-s-day-care-experiment/. Small, Laura. “How Harmful Is Renewable Energy to Birds?” Environmental and Energy Study Institute, Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI), 3 Sept. 2014, https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/how-harmful-is-renewable-energy-to-birds#:~:text=Ac cording%20to%20the%20data%2C%20while,7.9%20million%20birds%20a%20year!

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) ęSurrogate Pregnancy.” National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/surrogate-pregnancy. ęUnderweight Adults.” NHS(National Health Service), Crown, 21 Apr. 2020, https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-weight/managing-your-weight/advice-for-underwei ghtadults/#:~:text=Weighing%20too%20little%20can%20contribute,weight%20may%2 0be%20too%20low. Volo, Lorraine. ResearchGate, 2003, Service and Surveillance: Infrapolitics at Work among Casino Cocktail Waitresses, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/31208030_Service_and_Surveillance_Infrapolit ics_at_Work_among_Casino_Cocktail_Waitresses. Accessed 1 July 2022.

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Post-pandemic Transnational Humanitarianism and Humanitarian Empire Lite Author 1

Full Name

Jeong, Helen

Kristin School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Pandemic shifted the structure and socioeconomic status of the modern world. The humanitarian sector was indeed affected as the COVID-19 deteriorated other humanitarian crises and caused a complex dimension of needs. This paper analyzes the post-pandemic trends and instruments of transnational humanitarianism, as well as a shift in humanitarian empire lite strategies from superpower nations: the United States and China. To deduce a sound conclusion to a research question, the research paper incorporated diverse studies from international organizations, humanitarian organizations, and governmental institutions, providing an executive summary of post-pandemic humanitarianism. The research discusses a range of newly introduced elements of transnational humanitarianism and a twenty-first century geopolitical arena using humanitarian aid as a morally appropriate diplomatic tool. In regards of further implications behind a new direction of transnational humanitarian trends, the paper includes a consideration of potential risk from modern changes in diplomacy on the humanitarian sector.

Keywords: transnational humanitarianism, humanitarian empire lite, the coronavirus pandemic, transatlantic diplomacy, emerging economies, superpower nations, post-pandemic geopolitics

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Humanitarianism has been an underlying belief and a purpose for an international aid: recognizing the value of human life and providing an active assistance to preserve the value. In the modern era, a distinction between humanitarian relief and developmental aid is blurred as lack of development disabled a country to increase its self-sufficiency, leading to a constant need of humanitarian aid. This enlarged a boundary of humanitarian aid from urgent life- sustaining practices to building political stability. As a result, two concepts using a widened aspects of humanitarianism emerged: transnational humanitarianism and humanitarian empire lite (Ignatieff, 2003). 1.1. Transnational humanitarianism The world is increasingly globalizing with higher mobility of human capital and open economy: communities of diaspora are widely accepted, and economic integration among countries is serving as a collaborative effort to benefit from consistent augmentation of the global economy. International communication is perceived as a mandatory medium to advise a policy or an action with a greater acknowledgement of global institutions in various fields, such as the United Nations (UN) and World Trade Organization (WTO). Growing interconnectedness among countries and the rise of new generation along the trend of globalization brought an internationalist ideal of prosperity enjoyed universally. Internationalist ideal underlines an international responsibility on humanitarian crises in different countries: human rights abuse and emergencies within a country are no longer discussed locally but viewed as a threat to a collective objective of the internationalists. Transnational humanitarianism was thereby introduced to international relief organizations and global institutions to take an action across the border. From unselfconscious aid from individuals through private remittances to collective actions through direct or indirect pathway, transnational humanitarian relief takes place in various forms. It is common for the projects to be initiated by associations or organizations rather than private donors: organizations create framework to identify locations of interest, often specific, and address issues classified as humanitarian crises. Furthermore, transnational humanitarianism not only involve internationalist humanitarian actions but also actions taken by diaspora groups. As a human linkage between distant countries, races, or cultures, diaspora groups act as a catalyst to bring international attentions to a local humanitarian crisis from the linked countries (DEMAC, 2016). Transnational humanitarianism expanded the influence of humanitarian sector, enabling higher mobility in delivering international aid to multiple locations. However, greater coverage of world regions in need hinted on external influences on the sector including political, diplomatic, and ideological factors. 1.2. Humanitarian empire lite Transnational humanitarianism evoked the idea of using humanitarian aid as a diplomatic instrument. Michael Ignatieff named the idea as humanitarian empire lite: indirect form of imperialism, where countries in power and wealth exert influence through humanitarian aid on other countries without having to rule or govern. The United States is a country with a greatest share in public funds to the humanitarian sector, and this allows projects from numerous humanitarian organizations to partially revolve around the donor interest—potentially from political or diplomatic interest of America. European participation in humanitarian projects on reconstruction, such as nation-building and peacekeeping process, also has indirect impacts on political structure and ideology of nations receiving the aid. Projects adjusted to account donors’ interest, majorly that of foreign governments, and

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) governmental participation in international aid construct a humanitarian empire lite. Despite the positive intention of transnational humanitarianism, humanitarian empire lite from foreign government funds or participation in international aid can bring several drawbacks. People empathize easily with the other group whose members resemble them (in terms of race, culture, and confession) and live within their reach. Combined with the limitation in human empathy, government bodies prioritize the fate of their citizens and neighboring countries in diplomatic interest. This reduces the range of transnational humanitarian projects not based on urgency but based on the external factors from donor countries, which may possibly lead to neglection of ones in severe suffering (Rieff, 2003). Nevertheless, as Michael Ignatieff emphasized in his work, “Empire Lite: Nation-Building in Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan,” there are number of issues around the world that imperial solutions are the only seemingly possible approaches to the resolution. Though both Israelis and Palestinians may not want an externally imposed peace, the resolution set by a diplomatic intervention from the American humanitarian empire lite helped both countries to elude from the spiral of terror and violence. Though empire lite-like approaches to transnational humanitarian projects have fundamental issues regarding its prioritization of private rationale in international aid provision, it is indisputable that such actions nonetheless set peace and deliver life-sustaining relief to the people in urgent need. 1.3. Aim and Research Question The aim of this research is to investigate new trends in transnational humanitarianism and potential variation in scale of influence from humanitarian empire lite in countries receiving international aid after the COVID-19 pandemic. Through the evaluation of statistics from secondary sources and case studies on humanitarian crises after the year of 2021, the research paper poses a following research question: how has the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic affect the ways transnational humanitarianism and humanitarian empire lite strategies are manifested in the modern world? 2. Background Information 2.1. Post-pandemic humanitarian crises The COVID-19 pandemic affected a wide range of the global communities, resulting in the total of approximately 590 million cases of infection and about 6.44 millions of deaths from the virus by August 2022 (Our World in Data, 2022). The pandemic reaches its influence on people not only with the healthrelated issues but also economic, social, political, and interdisciplinary factors; the COVID-19 pandemic itself was a humanitarian crisis and a catalyst to worsen other pre-existing humanitarian crises. During the pre-pandemic period, reports argued that occupational health of the public workers were neglected compared to occupational security. In response, high number of international staffs returned to the headquarter of their organizations. This delayed organizations to take an immediate action after the onset of the pandemic due to the insufficient capacities to mobilise resources via on-site staffs as planned. As the delivery of international aid was hindered, local humanitarian workers and national government had to deal with a greater burden. Governments imposed elimination or suppression strategies to manage the pandemic, aiming to rapidly reduce the number of cases by border closures and nation-wide lockdowns. This further muted international aids as humanitarian workers struggled to enter the countries assigned. Delay in insurance of visas and managed quarantine requirements significantly decreased the availability of on-site

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) humanitarian workers temporarily. International staff who successfully entered within the country to deliver aid also faced difficulties from restrictions in interstate travel, as well as curfews. Humanitarian workers had to quarantine for two weeks and additional two weeks for every location they visit in South Sudan, for example. The local governments also limited the scales of humanitarian actions to deliver aid only on aspects that are considered critical to life: urgent health issues, temporary shelter, water supply, sanitation, and food provision. Other humanitarian activities to protect the population in need, including those exposed in sexual violence or malnutrition for instance, could not be provided as such actions were considered non-essential. Hindrance in the transnational humanitarian aid deteriorated the impact of time-lag in response against the pandemic and severity of pre- existing humanitarian crises (Brubaker et al, 2021). Refugee relocation, natural disaster management, programmes on famine issues, peacekeeping efforts, and building political stability are the major humanitarian actions struggling from the changes in pathways to deliver aid due to the pandemic. Therefore, humanitarian organizations restructured action plans to fit the new dynamics of post-pandemic state of the world, proposing newly designed framework for humanitarian crises. 2.2. Humanitarian framework 2022 The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) projected an overview of new strategic plan to deliver international aid efficiently through 2022 to 2025: transnational humanitarian relief continues but in a different shape that corresponds to post-pandemic societal structure. The framework initially emphasizes a need to support socially marginalized populations, mainly due to the recent pandemic. Refugees, residents with income below the poverty line, women under the risk of gender-based violation, and undernourished children are highlighted as the population with greatest urgency. Adding on, organizations began to focus further on improving the speed of responses and efficiency of resource use. Foreign funds are largely used to improve the supply chain management of international aid and pre-positioning of humanitarian actions. Multiple organizations’ framework began to integrate regional and country offices in the programme while making a collective relief effort within the humanitarian sector. During the pandemic, local organizations and public workers played a significant role in delivering aids to the population in need due to the restricted access of international staff to the location of interest. Recruitment process increased in speed to involve greater number of local public workers. The headquarters projected to develop updated data systems to monitor the action status of ongoing programs and account for the affected populations with increased accuracy (UNFPA, 2022). In a nutshell, the framework proposed by organizations in humanitarian sector from 2022 onwards involved an integration of local and global humanitarian work, as well as technological support, to focus on humanitarian crises exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. 3. Research Analysis on Post-pandemic Transnational Humanitarianism 3.1. Transnational donations through cryptocurrency New trends are rising in donations for humanitarian sector. As the pandemic impacted the way humanitarian aids are delivered, donor interest and behaviour also shifted along with new technologies and social changes.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Cryptocurrency was one of the post-pandemic changes that people paid a greatest attention to. This digital payment instrument’s value is highly elastic to the level of demand within the market, while new cryptocurrencies are constantly created to grasp the rising demand of customers. As online commerce industry enlarged drastically through the pandemic due to the restrictions in people’s movement, a demand for convenient digital payment currency also rose; cryptocurrency, after few years of developing stage, began to be used for donation purpose as well. Research stated that cryptocurrency contributions doubled, if not more, to donor-advised funds of Fidelity Charitable Trust from $13 million (2019) to $28 million (2020), while The Giving Block pointed out in 2021 that total cryptocurrency donations, in monetary value, exceeded $300 million annually (Couturier, 2022). Cryptocurrency has a direct relationship with transnational humanitarianism — as cryptocurrency is not bound by a border, it can be used to ease the process of large-scale transnational donation. Based on the tax terms of the United States, donors funding a charity or a humanitarian project through cryptocurrency do not owe capital gain taxes, which may increase the volume of donation. Also, international donation through a blockchain technology can be tracked easily on its use. This increases a transparency in funds used for humanitarian projects, bringing greater trust to non-profit organizations. Cryptocurrency donor-advised funds allow donors to keep their identities anonymous while presenting a thorough tracking of their crypto contributions: such combination of anonymous donation and transparent record of donation use are attracting the new post-pandemic generation of donors. Cryptocurrency further introduced a new form of transactional aid: direct investment-like donations to countries in need. Non-profit organizations can determine the use of cryptocurrency as such digital payment assets can be sold immediately, held temporarily based on the market demand, or both. The organizations are using this unique feature of cryptocurrency to provide transnational donations without international restrictions or invasion of sovereignty for receiving nations (as the countries can determine to use of received cryptocurrency.) CryptoFund, launched by UNICEF in 2019, delivered aid in cryptocurrency to eight countries through a form of twelve investments (Lomozzo, 2020). By delivering an investment-like cryptocurrency aid without exchanging, UNICEF, receiving countries, and donors could all access transparent record of how delivered cryptocurrency is used: whilst sovereignty in action is preserved for receiving countries, donors and organizations can still ensure that the funds are used for humanitarian purpose. Continuing the positive cycle, such transparent use of cryptocurrency donations increases a demand for both donation and the currency, appreciating the value of such digital payment asset. However, this new trend possesses several challenges. As cryptocurrency donations can be made anonymously, humanitarian organizations cannot create a connection with the donors for prolonged donation or support. Additionally, anonymity of the donation source may evoke a question in legality. Utilising a cryptocurrency in transnational donations involve a risk of damage in reputation or dignity of the sector if the source of donation is associated with undesirable cause, such as money laundering (Moody & Pratt, 2020). 3.2. Emerging trend in integrated “glocal” humanitarian actions

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Glocalization is a combined concept of globalisation and localisation: the terminology refers to a transnational corporation that has been adjusting its goods or services based on the local demand or culture. Humanitarian relief can be “glocalized” as well by delivering international aid to resolve a global surplus of needs but localizing at the same time to make the process of aid distribution increasingly efficient. Multiple international humanitarian organizations attempted to adjust their relief framework based on the culture and socioeconomic status of the region of interest — however, the recent pandemic demonstrated a humanitarian glocalization in times of emergency. In 2016, World Humanitarian Summit (WHS) outlined reinforcement of national and local systems as one of the crucial transformations required in the operation of humanitarian sector. As the influence of local humanitarian workers greatly increased during the pandemic, studies from Integrated Risk Management Associates (IRMA) suggest that the most ideal agenda for international humanitarian organizations is to connect with local organizations through partnership: share inputs and ideas on humanitarian project design, including locally led management of a humanitarian crisis. Following the recommendations from the studies, the European Union funded a two-year program, “Accelerating Localisation through Partnerships,” providing a humanitarian common ground between local organizations and international non- governmental organizations (INGOs), such as Christian Aid, CARE, Action Aid, CAFOD, Tearfund, and Oxfam. Through this project, INGOs fund and support locally led responses from national NGOs and local humanitarian workers in Myanmar, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Nepal (Harrison, 2019). Despite the positive outcomes from integration of local humanitarian organisations with INGOs, humanitarian glocalization inevitably faces dilemma in ways to deliver international aids. The spread of AIDS is one of the commonly discussed humanitarian crises. Multiple INGOs identified that empowering women is a pivotal solution to strengthen women’s power and social status to an extent where they can protect themselves from potential infections. However, to collaborate with local humanitarian workers and projects, it is important to understand the cultural practices and beliefs of the local community; in terms of AIDS infection, both rural and elite Malawians blame women to infect men and seduce them to gain material success, and INGOs had to approach the objective of empowering women without causing a conflict in local belief. Hence, deep-rooted beliefs of the local community may lead to an inadequate, inappropriate responses against the spread of AIDS. Instead of empowering women’s social stance, humanitarian organizations focused on developing a preventative method against the disease centrally on female with contraceptives for females and education on women. In other words, humanitarian organizations are risking the current objective of gender equality in developing countries to have an immediate effect of aid provision (through collaboration with local communities) for HIV/AIDS epidemic (Swidler & Watkins, 2017). For sustainable practice of humanitarian glocalization, the balance between universal humanitarian belief and collaboration with locals with actions adjusted based on the common belief of the local community should be managed appropriately. 3.3. Post-pandemic international and racial tension: anti-Asian hate crime and human right The COVID-19 pandemic brought positive changes in transnational humanitarianism by suggesting new medium of funds and integration between local and global communities — nevertheless, it also brought a separation between different racial groups, including a hate crime directed specifically towards Asian individuals. Hate crime is a criminal act committed with an individual’s nationality, gender, race, disability, ethnicity, religion, or other characteristics as a reason. Post-pandemic anti-Asian

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) hate crime took place outstandingly in the United States, possibly due to an anti-Asian rhetoric regarding the spread of COVID-19 within the country. California Department of Justice reported that anti-Asian hate crime increased from 43 incidents (2019) to 89 incidents (2020), which is a 107% increase. Anti-asian hate crime occurrence in California was the highest during March to April of 2020, when the state government of California publicly accepted COVID-19 pandemic as an emergency to prevent the spread of the virus. Anti-Asian property hate also increased by 55% within the state (California Department of Justice, 2021). Despite the nation-wide 6% decrease in total hate crimes, anti-Asian hate crimes in the United States increased by 145%, demonstrating the heightened racial tension against Asians after the onset of COVID-19 (California State University, San Bernardino, 2021). Anti-Asian hate crime is against the belief of transnational humanitarianism: value as a human comes before the borders. Increasing anti-Asian hate crime incidents indicate a significant obstacle in ensuring human rights of individuals who identify as Asian. Furthermore, such sense of disconnection between racial groups within a country can bring a potential reduction in transnational humanitarianism. One of the key strategies of increasing funds for transnational humanitarian relief is to build a connection between the people in need and donors; this process of creating a linkage across different groups can be hindered by lessened interactions between racial groups, especially in the major donor countries like the United States. Diaspora humanitarian relief from Asian-based associations may also decrease if less funds are made from Asian diaspora groups due to reduction in sense of belonging to a global society. 4. Research Analysis on Post-pandemic Humanitarian Empire Lite 4.1. American Empire Lite American leadership in the modern world is powerful: the country is the biggest donor of humanitarian sector, and its influence in diplomatic decisions and political conflicts around the globe is sufficiently large to be called an American empire lite (Ignatieff, 2003). From peacekeeping in the Korean War to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, American involvement was significant to set a resolution. Despite its power being manifested over the continents, America is partially burdened to continue its humanitarian empire lite or gain of diplomatic influence through international aid — though it changes significantly depending on the regime in power, the United States spend around 1% of its federal budget on foreign humanitarian support. Modern humanitarian objectives and funding trends of the United States were largely derived from geopolitical strategies used in times of the Cold War: Marshall Plan. The main purpose of the American aid in rebuilding of Europe was to minimize the influence of Communist ideology across Europe. Thus, provision of international humanitarian aid has been an instrument for the United States to ensure its national security through diplomatic power. Dependence of aid-receiving countries, creation of allies, promotion of democracy, and policy-enforcement of counterterrorism acts are intended, and actualized, political outcomes of American support towards humanitarianism in return of the country’s burden. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is the most prominent organization in charge of international relief efforts. Expenditure of humanitarian projects are divided into four main segments: developmental aid (42%), security aid (33%), short-term humanitarian aid (14%), and political aid (11%). All four segments possess reasonable linkage to American humanitarian empire lite (McBride, 2018). Long-term developmental aid includes funds and support in nation-building process

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) of developing countries, including economic prosperity and improvement in health system. This consequently brings reliance of aid- receiving countries in American support, and ally-like diplomatic relationship in favor of the United States. Security aid also enhances the reliance on American support, but it also highlights the American presence in countries by demonstration of military power. Political aid segment ensures the political objectives of aid provision as the American influence permeates through the aid-receiving country’s peace talk, implementation of treaty, and economic policy-making process. Short-term humanitarian aid empowers the effects of other three segments via increasing dependence of countries on American support in occurrence of humanitarian crisis. Regardless of the purpose or political intention behind the international aid provision, the aid’s influence over worldwide humanitarian development should not be undermined. 4.1.1. Post-pandemic trend of American humanitarian empire lite The COVID-19 pandemic, along with changes in transnational humanitarianism, shifted the geopolitical stance of the world. The pandemic pressured multiple countries around the world, putting greater burden to the dominance of the United States in its establishment of humanitarian empire lite. The American humanitarian relief effort entered its period of transition as diverse problems arising after the recent pandemic disrupts international order and connectedness among the United States and its official (and non-official) allies. America’s partner in humanitarian relief effort, Europe, is politically unstable due to the incoming Chinese influence, Russia’s dysfunctional state from the Ukraine-Russia War (also known as 2022 Ukrainian summer counteroffensive), and less orderly status of the United States. Worsened transatlantic alliance and international order is deteriorated by instability of American influence as the pandemic intensifies conflicts in the Middle East. Taliban offensive of Afghanistan, proxy wars prevailing in Yemen and Libya, stagnation in development of Syria, and Israel’s growing attempt to increase its influence and sovereignty are gradually threatening the temporary resolutions and relief provided by the United States before the onset of the pandemic. As developed countries struggle to negotiate their position of influence in the world, persisting humanitarian crises and affected population are becoming increasingly vulnerable with continuous surplus of needs. Africa, one of the major recipients of American and European development aid, is posed with challenges in its inability to manage the current humanitarian demand self-sufficiently. Intense global competition between powerful countries, including the conflict in ideology, is hindering the provision of aid from the United States, leading to a lessened American humanitarian empire lite. Decrease in American humanitarian empire lite meant greater disorder to the aid-receiving countries as such countries are not yet prepared to combat against the greater burden from humanitarian crises without International relief effort — increased sovereignty of developing countries with less humanitarian empire lite-like support may paradoxically bring less sustainability and heightened severity of crises, especially in the recent era where post-pandemic geopolitical transition is in continuum (Burns, 2020). Despite the decreased volume of humanitarian empire lite due to perplex consequences of the coronavirus pandemic from national issues to international rivalry, the United States is continuously providing international aid to alleviate the transatlantic order in humanitarian partnership and restore its position as the major humanitarian empire lite country. To offset Russia’s threat on international humanitarian order with invasive actions towards Ukraine, the Biden Administration provided about $5.3 billion as a security support to Ukraine. The Department of Defence publicly released an authorisation from Presidential Drawdown in security assistance to satisfy current needs of Ukraine

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) against the military attack of Russia. The United States is further identifying collective approaches with its allies and humanitarian partners to provide practical support for Ukrainian self-defence (US Department of Defence, 2022). Ongoing humanitarian empire lite-like relief efforts of the United States are relatively cautious and less assertive, specifically for humanitarian crises related with its potential rivals in global position: Russia and China. Without causing a direct encounter or conflict with its international rivals, the American humanitarian empire lite strategies are navigated to implicitly pressure the emerging powers with continuous financial support and subsequent increase in reliance of aid-recipient countries. 4.2. Emerging Chinese pre-pandemic and post-pandemic humanitarian empire lite From pre-pandemic era to ongoing post-pandemic era, Chinese humanitarian empire lite began to demonstrate its presence in the world, mainly in Asia. China, from the late 1970s, continuously put effort in reformation of its economic structure and human development. As a result, China successfully resolved over 700 million people out of absolute poverty and assuaged its national humanitarian crises, drastically decreasing the number of affected populations. China’s relief effort was then directed towards an establishment of Chinese humanitarian empire lite by extension of the country’s foreign aid policy. China’s humanitarian empire lite-like foreign aid policy, developed over the time of the coronavirus pandemic as its global stance augmented with economic prosperity, differs largely from that of the United States and of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The approach is designed to efficiently deliver foreign aids to recipient countries while satisfying the interest of China to expand its diplomatic power not only in Asia but also across the continents. Bilateral humanitarian empire lite approaches of the United States and China is an insightful topic of the humanitarian sector to discuss further and navigate the effect of it in a positive direction for worldwide human development, rather than a mere instrument to amplify geopolitical tensions between two superpower nations. In April 2018, Beijing established the China International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDCA) to lead the country’s foreign aid provision and humanitarian project planning. The major recipient of Chinese foreign developmental aid was the African continent as China made its political move to pressure Taiwan with greater diplomatic power from late 1990s. This effort continued to current postpandemic era, in which China became one of the largest donors of the African continent. China provides its foreign aid majorly in three forms: grant aid, concessional loans, and investments (Cheng, 2019). A concept of Chinese foreign aid provision that diverges the most with American humanitarian relief is China’s continuous use of concessional loans with interest subsidy (interest for this type of foreign aid loans differ from the base interest rate set by the central bank of China.) China’s aid directed towards the African continent, though not revealed in size or duration of provision, dominantly adopts a form of concessional loans, excluding investments made for natural resources in Africa. Chinese concessional loans are mostly made in infrastructure for resource extraction, mobility of resources, and volume of telecommunication. Chinese government implements a Chinese construction company to operate construction for such infrastructure approved by the recipient countries. In return of aid in construction of infrastructure, recipient countries often grant the Chinese companies a right to extract natural resources (either through a license for production or the recipient country’s oil company) and operate in the field with resources. A publicly released terms of operation in Chinese foreign concessional loans are 2% average interest rate with 10-to-15-year maturity, absence of grace

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) period, and debt currency set as the renminbi (Goldstein et al, 2006). Even though unstable debt management is a significant development issue (and potential accelerator of African humanitarian crises), studies assert that Chinese investment and loans contributed to a rapid economic growth of the African continent, specifically in trade. Chinese foreign aid is delivered prominently to the states or governments of the recipient countries. To ensure that the Chinese foreign investment results in mutual benefit, China channels its investment in economic development of the recipient country; this rivals with a focus of American humanitarian empire lite on nation-building process and human development goals (so-called neoliberal economic development agenda.) The main collaborator of Chinese humanitarian empire lite is the state while that of American humanitarian empire lite is INGOs, local NGOs, and civil society organizations. As the coronavirus pandemic affected global economy significantly, pushing several nations to economic depression, Chinese strategic approach of aid concentration in economic development proved its effect: China delivered COVID-19 containment aids to 12 countries, majorly in Asia, to strengthen its presence in the recipient countries where Chinese influence was nonetheless powerful even before the pandemic (Regilme, Jr & Hodzi, 2021). Chinese humanitarian empire lite in Southeast Asia and the African continent therefore gained an overall strength throughout the recent pandemic as economic reliance of recipient countries increased while infrastructure built in pre-pandemic era by Chinese investment began to present its positive impact offsetting economic downfalls in the recipient countries due to the pandemic. As the focused aspects of the American and Chinese humanitarian empire lite differ in regions of interest (excluding the African continent) and humanitarian objective (collective advancement of human and economic development versus sole focus on self-sufficiency of the economy), the balance should be obtained within this bilateral humanitarian relief efforts. Further objective of the world’s leading humanitarian organizations and international peace institutions is to make the current rivalry of two countries in building humanitarian empire lite end up with a specialization in humanitarian aid provision and mutual development, but not with a new example of the modern proxy war. 5. Conclusion and Evaluation It is indisputable that the pandemic led the world to face a multidimensional change: countries are in the phase of transition in developmental status and geopolitical status as the new breeze of postpandemic society enters diverse nations. Such transition also happened in the humanitarian sector: new trends began to emerge in transnational humanitarianism, and post- pandemic rivalry in humanitarian empire lite establishment manifested itself in the process of relieving impacts of the COVID-19 on humanitarian crises. Even though the pandemic itself was a humanitarian crisis, the occurrence of pandemic deteriorated preceding humanitarian crises to an extent where transnational humanitarian relief was mandatory but in a new form that is appropriate to pandemic management policies of the recipient countries. Transnational humanitarianism adopted twenty-first century instruments such as cryptocurrency donations, and integrated local and global humanitarian projects through glocalization. Despite the positive navigation of transnational humanitarianism through newly emerged approaches, the pandemic caused international tension between racial groups, leading to anti-Asian hate crimes and human rights abuse in the United States. As division in racial groups has a direct linkage to diaspora humanitarian relief and effect of transnational humanitarian aid, offsetting the emerging post-pandemic segregation is another milestone for the humanitarian sector.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) As the pandemic affected nearly all nations across the world, humanitarian empire lite shifted drastically with post-pandemic measures of American humanitarian empire lite and emerging influence of Chinese humanitarian empire. Diverse geopolitical incidents occurred during the pandemic pressured European partnership in peacekeeping actions while burdening the United States with intensified global rivalry and financial flow in foreign aid provision. As a result, the United States continued its foreign aid in consideration of ways to avoid direct confrontation with the diplomatic rivals. While the American pressure to emerging superpower nations persists, Chinese humanitarian empire lite strengthened China’s international position in Southeast Asia and the African continent through the investment in economic development and social infrastructure. Post-pandemic humanitarian empire lite trends outline a new objective for the humanitarian sector to maintain a balance between donor interest in projects and values of humanitarian aid provision to prevent international aids being treated as a medium of the diplomatic or political conflict. It should be noted that this research paper is an overall review of diverse post-pandemic studies on changing humanitarian trends. The paper may contain minor confounding variables from the studies used to deduce an executive answer to the research question. Furthermore, the coronavirus pandemic is an ongoing incident, and countries are in progress of structural change. Hence, analysed shifts in the humanitarian sector do not account for the future changes occurring as impacts of the recent pandemic declines over time. 6. Further Insight The coronavirus pandemic hints on the potential changes in geopolitical trends and needs of population throughout the twenty-first century. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) will bring a substantial change in technology, global economies, and emerging societal trends subjected to a technological advancement. The modern humanitarian sector must incorporate technologies and ideas of the new generation to diversify approaches to accomplish the global eradication of humanitarian crises. Needs will transform as humanitarian relief efforts improve the state of recipient countries. As developing countries become stable in terms of political structure and economic growth, development of self-sufficiency is needed to bring a universal human development; like how China transformed from an aid-recipient country to a major provider of foreign investment, other developing countries have a potential to develop continuously until they are capable enough to provide a helping hand to a wider community. Based on the changing needs, developmental status, and geopolitical trends, new types of humanitarianism will be created periodically. Studies should focus on analysing newly introduced branches of humanitarianism to make a specialisation in humanitarian framework diversify and thus flourish.

7. References Brubaker, R., Day, A., & Huvé, S. (n.d.). COVID-19 and Humanitarian Access How the Pandemic Should Provoke Systemic Change in the Global Humanitarian System. Retrieved August 11, 2022, from http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:8033/UNU_COVIDandHumanitarianAccess_FINA L.pdf Burns, W. J., & Burns, W. J. (2021). A New U.S. Foreign Policy for the Post-Pandemic Landscape The Day After. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/09/09/new-u.s.-foreign-policy-for-post-pandemic- landscapepub-82498 California Department of Justice. (2020). Anti-Asian Hate Crime Events During the COVID- 19 Pandemic. California Department of Justice. https://oag.ca.gov/system/files/media/antiasian-hcreport.pdf Cheng, C. (2019, May 21). The Logic Behind China’s Foreign Aid Agency. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/05/21/logic- behind-china-s-foreign-aidagency-pub-79154 Couturier, J. (2022). Cryptocurrency and Philanthropy: New Donors and New Questions for Nonprofits. Dorothy A. Johnson Center for Philanthropy. Dorothy A. Johnson Center for Philanthropy at Grand Valley State University. https://johnsoncenter.org/wp- content/uploads/2022/01/11-Trendsfor-2022.pdf?utm_source=Johnson+Center+e- Newsletters&utm_campaign=1b924a7824-FieldNotesJan2022&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_e86623ff86-1b924a7824398964973&mc_cid=1b924a7824&mc_eid=2e32aeaf08 CSUSB. (2021). FACT SHEET: Anti-Asian Prejudice. In Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism. https://www.csusb.edu/sites/default/files/FACT%20SHEET-%20AntiAsian%20Hate%202020%20rev%203.21.21.pdf DEMAC. (2016). Diaspora Humanitarianism: Transnational ways of working. Save the Children’s Resource Centre. https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/diaspora-humanitarianismtransnational-ways-of-working/ Goldstein et al. (2006). The Rise of China and India: What’s In It for Africa? OECD Development Centre, Paris. Harrison, L. (2019, May 26). Localisation through genuine partnerships: what does it look like? ReliefWeb. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/localisation-through-genuine- partnerships-what-does-itlook Ignatieff, M. (2006). Empire lite: nation-building in Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan. Penguin Canada. McBride, J. (2018, October 1). How Does the U.S. Spend Its Foreign Aid? Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/how-does-us-spend-its-foreign-aid Moody, M., & Pratt, M. (2020, December 22). Tainted money and tainted donors: A growing crisis? 11 Trends in Philanthropy for 2020. Dorothy A. Johnson Center for Philanthropy. https://johnsoncenter.org/blog/taintedmoney-and-tainted-donors-a-growing-crisis/ Rieff, D. (2003). A bed for the night: humanitarianism in crisis. Simon & Schuster. Salvador Santino F. Regilme, Jr & Obert Hodzi (2021) Comparing US and Chinese Foreign

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Aid in the Era of Rising Powers. The International Spectator, 56:2, 114- 131, DOI: 10.1080/03932729.2020.1855904 Swidler, A., & Susan Cotts Watkins. (2017). A fraught embrace: the romance & reality of AIDS altruism in Africa. Princeton University Press. (Original work published 2022) The Giving Block. (2021). Cryptocurrency fundraising: Nonprofit guide to accepting crypto donations. https://thegivingblock.com/resources/ cryptocurrency-fundraising-nonprofit- guide-toaccepting-cryptodonations/ UNFPA. (2022). HUMANITARIAN ACTION. UNFPA. https://www.unfpa.org/modules/custom/unfpa_global_hao/assets/pdf/Humanitarian_Actio n_2022_Overview_UNFPA.pdf US Department of Defense. (2022, June 1). Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance to Ukraine. U.S. Department of Defense. https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3049483/fact-sheeton-us- security-assistance-to-ukraine/

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The Development of Robot Automation in the Post Pandemic Era and Potential Destruction of the Manual Labor Industry Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Conor

Korea International School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The 4th Industrial Revolution has always raised concerns regarding systematic unemployment of unskilled manual laborers. Robot automation and its rapid developments are expected to continue through the progression of the 4th Industrial Revolution. This paper covers the current state of the U.S economy and its impact on the manual labor industry, especially through an examination of U.S’s retail giant Amazon and their manual labor usage. The paper relates Daron Acemoglu’s study of the canonical model, to deduce a possible replacement of unskilled manual laborers by efficient automated technologies in the changing manual labor trend. The paper concludes by outlining the limitations of the research, while supporting the possibility of systematic unemployment and an inevitable change to the manual labor market.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) I. Introduction With the ascendancy of technology in the United States business sectors, many view the 4th Industrial Revolution’s emergence in the world to be a matter of time. Although it may feel like the technologies we use today have been here forever, they are relatively recent developments in society. The emergence of the U.S’s tech giants has also led to changes other than technological developments, especially in the workplace of employees. As the developments of the 4th Industrial Revolution, most prominently the automation of work, have elevated work productivity to a whole new level, unskilled laborers are losing their place in workplaces. On the other hand, skilled laborers and their ability to perform high-level assignments have been valued. The change is currently still in progress, with the industry expected to go through a metamorphosis in the upcoming years. With all this in mind, it is important to understand the root of the trend of favoring skilled laborers with a higher degree of education. The biggest cause has been considered to be ‘automation’, or the process of manual labor being done by an autonomous robot. This is also called robot automation, and investments in the industry have been gradually expanding with the development of such technologies. One example that shows the massive scale of expansion of automation is the warehouse industry. Warehouses are locations where manual labor is performed on the biggest scale, as the locations facilitate retail businesses such as Walmart and Amazon in the U.S. The current scale of this industry is considered to be around $18 billion globally and is expected to reach around $64 billion by 2030 (Acumen Research and Consulting). The Compound and Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) will be 14.8% from 2022 to 2030, with market giants such as Amazon dominating the consumer shares (Acumen Research and Consulting). This expansion trade has made many economists worry, as the manual labor industry has a direct impact from this expansion. Systematic Unemployment or the process of workers (preferably manual workers) losing their jobs is expected to occur once again with the continuing 4th Industrial Revolution. The process will be inevitable, considering past examples of Industrial Revolutions and how they have changed workplaces and systems permanently. The progression of the 4th industrial revolution, especially the development of automation labor technology, has caused a gradual shift in manual labor forces for big-tech companies in the post-COVID era; Amazon’s gradual shift is the paradigm of this development and will cause a spillover effect to other companies.

II. Context: U.S Economy and The Manual Labor Market Before examining the prospective unemployment trends of big-tech companies, it’s important to understand the context of the dramatic progression of the automation industry. Automation and its presence in the manual labor industry have been growing since the pandemic of 2020, which led to further challenges in the U.S for the following 2021 year. To manage the U.S economy during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the Trump administration and Congress passed a plan of Quantitative Easing (QE) that has been continuing from 2020 (Liesman). The plan incorporated a decision to lower the interest rates to near 0%, as well as to implement a $700 billion financial support package to recover from the economic deficits caused by the pandemic (Liesman). In early 2021 after Biden’s inauguration in January, he passed a $1.9 trillion package called the ‘American Rescue Plan’, in addition to a $2 trillion package in March 2021 (Haagensen). The U.S Federal Reserve’s portfolio also grew during this period by 2 times, with plans to revive the economy (FRED). The Federal Reserve worked with the government to release great amounts of money into the flow of the American economy. The overall economic rescue plan was only comparable to the New Deal by FDR back in the Great Depression of the 1920s when Keynesian economics based on deficit spending was at its peak, eventually being considered the all-time greatest scale of public financial support.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Although many economists expected the inflation rates to only rise at naturally acceptable rates, unexpected situations such as the Ukraine War in early 2022 sabotaged supply chains, leading to limited supplies while demands were at their greatest due to the vast financial support. Due to a lack of supply chains for consumer energy and food sources, as well as the high demands created by the QE performed in 2021, the U.S is faced with all- time high Consumer Index Prices (CPI) of 9.1% at the end of June 2022 (Cox). Gasoline prices have risen by 11% in a month, while grocery prices have risen by 12.2% over the same period (Shatara). The Federal Reserve responded to these inflation rates by taking a ‘Big Step’, which is the process of raising interest rates greatly to limit the rise of consumer product prices (Smialek). The Federal Reserve chair, Jerome H. Powell announced the decision of raising interest rates by 0.75% back in June, becoming the biggest raise of interest rates since 1994 (Smialek). Economists expect there will be further ‘Giant Step’ decisions if the inflation rates are not contained (Muir). The Federal Reserve will also perform Quantitative Tightening (QT), to bring in 95 billion a month in efforts to restrict inflation rates (Muir). The difference between the current economic crisis and the 2008 economic crisis is that the Great Recession in 2008 was created by a bundle of flawed mortgage-backed securities and deficit spending, whereas the current crisis was created by unexpected worldwide events such as the pandemic and Ukraine war (Putnam). During the 2008 Great Recession, 3 consecutive QE policies were performed throughout a nearly 10-year period by the Obama administration. This was successful due to the gradual process of the policies and the money being sent to financially bankrupt institutions and companies. On the other hand, the QE performed during the 2020 pandemic and economic crisis was done at a historical pace (Putnam). Due to the chaotic economic situation in the U.S, many companies have been having a hard time finding cheap manual laborers in the market. During the 2008 Great Recession, many big-tech companies focused in the Silicon Valley were able to find cheap manual labor from the Chinese manual labor market, and its pious laborers looking for employment (Hilsenrath). This allowed big-tech companies to be able to sustain their industries and recover their companies' values even after a historical market crash in 2008. On the other hand, the icy relationship between the U.S and China has restricted the Chinese manual labor market to be exclusive to the Chinese regime. This has allowed Chinese companies to reach new heights, with a tightly structured manual labor market system allowing an economic boom in the 2010s (Hilsenrath). Contrastingly, the U.S’s attrition rates have been showing a trend of a rapid spike in the charts. The attrition rate of the U.S in 2021 was 67%, which was the highest value in the past decade (De Smet). Previous attrition rates were around 55% but with various aspects including the COVID-19 pandemic reaching the U.S in 2020, an era of the ‘Great Attrition’ has arrived in the U.S (De Smet). The most concerning aspect of this trend was that healthcare and technology industry attrition has been on the rise. Healthcare and technology industries have risen by 3.6% and 4.5% from the previous year, respectively (De Smet). While demand for these two industries has been the highest due to the pandemic’s effect in the past 2 years, their workforces have lacked the most out of many industries. In addition, these trends in healthcare and technology industries were related most closely to workers who received significantly fewer salaries (up to $40,000 less), including women (De Smet). This also includes manual laborers who have even been resentful for the low wages in the past few years during the pandemic. Manual laborers will continue to lack, and big- tech companies will have a limited pool of choices to solve this problem. The current recession in the U.S may not have a direct impact on the manual labor industry in the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) short term, as unemployment rates are low nationally in the U.S. However, this is a peripheral phenomenon, as the lack of manual laborers in the labor industry after the attrition of workers in workplaces has caused companies to have no choice other than to employ a mass of workers. This occurred intensively during the COVID-19 pandemic, with many workers quitting their jobs to seek better contracts in the highly inflated consumer market from the America Rescue Plan performed in early 2021. Although inflation has temporarily allowed the unemployment rates to keep in the low ranges, it has only been able to buy a short time until the manual labor market goes through a revolutionary change with automation technology replacing most workers in the upcoming years.

III. Amazon and Automated Manual Labor The lack of human resources is an immediate problem the big-tech companies are faced with, as well as the post-COVID era of high inflation and recession causing less marginal profit and industry growth. Taking these factors into the picture, big-tech companies may transition fully to automated manual labor systems. Amazon, as a retail giant and growing big-tech company, may be the first one to transition into automated manual labor. The big picture of Amazon seems to have started when the company first purchased ‘Kiva Systems’, a robotics company closely tied with automation, back in 2012 (Bishop). Amazon’s determination for a hybrid warehouse system has progressed since this purchase, as they have achieved considerable success in robotic automation development. Currently, Amazon has revealed two of its main robotics technologies that could be implemented in warehouses, where the company’s manual labor is the biggest. To start, Amazon released ‘Cardinal’, a fully autonomous robot Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a replacement for warehouse workers who scan and transfer packages (Quach). Cardinal consists of the Amazon Robotics Identification Tool with 120 frames/second camera, which allows the robot to scan packages up to 50 pounds and place them in carts or onto shelves (Quach). The AI and algorithm-based technology will allow robots to be fully autonomous in work, as they constantly learn from experience. Another technology that will work in a synchronized way is the ‘Proteus’, which is a robot that lifts and transports GoCarts, which is Amazon’s wheeled trolley that transfers packages in Amazon’s main business model, warehouses (Quach). Warehouses' work structures in an automated system will be operated through the Containerized Storage System, which is a system based on the two autonomous robots being in correlation to perform manual labor by replacing humans (Quach). The two technologies are expected to bring a substantial rise to the productivity of Amazon’s warehouse work, as these technologies can perform these tasks with thousands of packages spontaneously. The benefits of an automated warehouse will also be related to efficiency and safety. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)’s research reported by the Washington Post suggests that for every 200,000 hours of work, which is equivalent to a workload of 100 workers in warehouses, warehouses have 5.9 serious incidents on average when operated manually (Greene). The report also presents how automation of warehouses will allow robots to repetitively perform the same tasks more productively than humans. Although a fully automated warehouse structure may seem unusual and unrealistic, the automation industry and Amazon’s scale of development prove how a movement toward automation is at full speed. Amazon has already acquired 520,000 robot drive units, employing millions of people worldwide to perform a hybrid automation system (Bishop). With the following developments being in order, it is safe to say that an inevitable conversion from manual labor to an automated labor system is inevitable with the presence of the 4th industrial revolution. As Amazon is one of the leading companies in the technology industry since their innovative efforts of creating a hybrid retail system from the foundation, there is no reason to expect that Amazon will

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) strictly pursue manual labor-based warehouses. If productivity is ensured, and the attrition of workers from inflation continues, Amazon may be one of the world's first companies to fully automate their working environment. This change may be generational, possibly leading to an exponential expansion of automation technology, as well as a nationwide trend of automation. At the end of the day, Amazon is a company that desires a high marginal product of labor (MPL) (Young). This is also related to the ‘Theory of the firm’. The Theory of the firm suggests a microeconomic view of a firm’s pursuits when conducting business. One of the main aspects of the idea is ‘Profit maximizing theories’, which states that a business firm’s main objective is to maximize profit (Rekhi). This includes methods such as adequate price settings as well as output decisions that will maximize the firm’s financial gain from the business. Thus, the MPL value will come from the relatively more productive workforce, which is automated robots instead of humans. As experts have expected for the past years, big-tech companies like Amazon and their transition to a fully automated manual labor system may lead to a trend of systematic unemployment that may overtake the scene. Systematic unemployment–the unemployment of workers due to the difference in skills workers possess and what employers require–will make unemployment the next biggest issue in the U.S. In a situation where inflation has caused the U.S economy to oscillate and be on edge, unemployment will bring even bigger chaos to the country. The U.S's automation dominance has caused labor productivity to rise. Comparing productivity and employment rates with the U.K, during the period 2003 to 2015, U.K’s productivity and worker wages have not grown dramatically but rather steadily, while employment rates have exceeded all expectations and are much higher than anticipated (Fortune Business Insights). A possible reason is the commonality of automation, and how there is much difference between the U.S and the U.K. The U.S has a rate of 93 robot units per 100,000 employees, while the U.K only has 33 robot units for automation for the same number of employees (Fortune Business Insights). The U.S has been the precursor of automation in workplaces, and trends of unemployment have shown the effects the transition has placed on the U.S. past data has proven the dangers of a mass scale systematic unemployment following the transition to automation, and Amazon’s transition may be a symbolic start of automation in the technology industry. An economist who studied a similar phenomenon based on the correlation between productivity and unemployment is, Daron Acemoglu, who created a canonical model to study the skill-biased worker system in modern society. The study examines two different models, assumed to have different skill sets of ‘high’ and ‘low’ (Acemoglu). Acemoglu uses the example of the difference in relative wages for college graduate workers to high school graduates, which the difference has seemed to be increasing over the last few decades even with the larger supply of workers coming to college graduates, according to his canonical model (Acemoglu). He then assumes that the increase in the supply of skills has increased the demand for skills, then connects to how technology is linked to skill bias (Acemoglu). The research believes that the advancements in technologies naturally increase the demand for higher skilled workers who are adapted to the technology, rather than unskilled laborers (Acemoglu). Then, by conducting an experiment on the low and high-skilled workers as well as intermediate-skilled workers performing tasks of their skillset, the research concludes how technology will be able to replace workers of the low and intermediate-range, including blue-collar workers and other manual workers (Acemoglu). As this research argues, a difference in skill set has caused wage inequality due to the lower demand for unskilled laborers who are replaceable with technology. This is the reason unskilled workers, especially in the case of Amazon, have been receiving five-figure salaries, while

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) office workers were raised their salaries by 100% in 2021 (Bishop). The advancements in technology are unstoppable and are inevitable changes to the manual labor market. Unskilled laborers will lose their jobs through systematic unemployment and lower demand for unskilled laborers who are replaceable with automated technology. Thus, this makes it possible to comprehend the increase in salaries for office workers, and high skilled workers such as engineers, data analysts, and coding specialists, who contain eminent skill sets. Skill-biased employment will exist no matter the efforts of Amazon or any other big-tech company, therefore making it important for big-tech companies to minimize systematic unemployment as trans-national corporations. A gradual transition to automated warehouses will be a malevolent choice in minimizing systematic unemployment, especially in an economic crisis of post-COVID-19 inflation in the U.S.

IV. Conclusion With technological innovations encroaching the U.S’s businesses, big-tech companies have been dominating the industry. Advanced technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution, such as robot based automation technologies have been receiving attention as a replacement for expensive manual laborers in the post COVID-19 market. My research examines Amazon through a case study of a big-tech company’s automation of manual labor. The research focuses on Amazon’s current status as a company transitioning their main business model of consumer retail and its manual labor into automated manual labor systems. Through analyzing the current state of the U.S’s economy with hyperinflation and a staggering economy after the pandemic, it was possible to notice the close connection of manual labor markets and the U.S’s economy. Most representative of Amazon’s case, many companies have lacked workers through attrition after the pandemic, with manual laborers wanting better treatments in the inflated economy. Without the Chinese labor market’s support, companies have turned to using the innovative technology of robot based automated manual labor systems. As Daron Acemoglu’s research has shown, unskilled laborers gradually lose their jobs in a process called ‘systematic unemployment’ during a phase of a industrial transition. This is due to the favoring of skilled laborers in a more technologically advanced society, with profits and marginal revenue being valued the most. Unskilled laborers and their expensive wages has overlapped with the movement toward automated manual labor, possibly expected to transition the world economy and the labor market as a whole. In an even more expansive view of this issue, manual laborers will lose their jobs in the short term, being replaced by efficient automated technology, while also expected to cause the emergence of new occupations and job sectors from the industrialized manual labor economy. The 4th Industrial Revolution will possibly bring the end to human manual labor, instead allowing the creation of new occupations that require higher skill sets in a skill favoring society. The following research has limitations to its findings, considering the fact that it focuses more on an individual company rather than the manual labor market as a whole. It also incorporates the theoretical canonical model of Acemoglu, and examines a possibility. However, through the analysis of the U.S’s economy and global automation industry as a whole, the research is able to find close links between the 4th Industrial Revolution in the post-COVID era and the changes of the manual labor market. Thus, the paper is able to devise a plausible outcome of the current changes of the U.S economy and automation industry.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Citation Aaron De Smet Delivers growth, et al. “The Great Attrition: Facing the Labor Shortage Conundrum.” McKinsey & Company, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/people-and-organizational-performance/ ourinsights/the-organization-blog/the-great-attrition-facing-the-labor-shortage-conundr um. Acumen Research and Consulting. “Warehouse Automation Market Size to Reach USD 64,639 by 2030 Says Acumen Research & Consulting.” GlobeNewswire News Room, Acumen Research and Consulting, 19 June 2022, https://www.globenewswire.com/newsrelease/2022/06/19/2465012/0/en/Warehouse-A utomation-Market-Size-to-Reach-USD-64- 639-by2030-Says-Acumen-Research-Consu lting.html. “Assets: Total Assets: Total Assets (Less Eliminations from Consolidation): Wednesday Level.” FRED, 8 Sept. 2022, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/WALCL. Bishop, Todd. “Amazon More than Doubles Max Base Pay to $350K for Corporate and Tech Workers, Citing Labor Market.” GeekWire, 8 Feb. 2022, https://www.geekwire.com/2022/amazonmore-than-doubles-max-base-pay-to-350k-for-corporate-and-tech-workers-citing-labor-market/. Bishop, Todd. “With New Warehouse Robots, Amazon Looks to Invent Its Way out of Its Safety Problems.” GeekWire, 22 June 2022, https://www.geekwire.com/2022/with-new-warehouse-robots-amazon-looks-to-invent-i ts- way-outof-its-safety-problems/. Bishop, Todd. “With New Warehouse Robots, Amazon Looks to Invent Its Way out of Its Safety Problems.” GeekWire, 22 June 2022, https://www.geekwire.com/2022/with-new-warehouse-robots-amazon-looks-to-invent-i ts- way-outof-its-safety-problems/. Greene, Jay, and Chris Alcantara. “Amazon Warehouse Workers Suffer Serious Injuries at Higher Rates than Other Firms.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 1 June 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/06/01/amazon-osha-injury-rate/. Haagensen, Erik. “American Rescue Plan.” Investopedia, Investopedia, 6 Sept. 2022, https://www.investopedia.com/american-rescue-plan-definition-5095694. “Industrial Automation Market Size, Share: Growth Report [2029].” Industrial Automation Market Size, Share | Growth Report [2029], https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industryreports/industrial-automation-market-101589. JeffCoxCNBCcom. “Inflation Rose 9.1% in June, Even More than Expected, as Consumer Pressures Intensify.” CNBC, CNBC, 13 July 2022, https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/13/inflation-rose9point1percent-in-june-even-more-tha n- expected-as-price-pressures-intensify.html. “Lessons from 2008 and 2020.” CME Group, https://www.cmegroup.com/education/featuredreports/lessons-from-2008-and-2020.ht ml.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Muir, Kevin. “Federal Reserve Quantitative Tightening Fallout Should Be Limited.” Bloomberg.com, Bloomberg, 31 Aug. 2022, https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-08-31/federal-reserve-quantitative-ti ghteningfallout-should-be-limited. Press, Anthony Camerano/Associated. “Echoes of the Wage-Price Spiral of the 1970s.” The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Company, 12 Feb. 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/echoes-of-thewage-price-spiral-of-the-1970s-116445754 02. Quach, Katyanna. “Amazon Shows off Latest Warehouse Robot Prototypes.” The Register® - Biting the Hand That Feeds IT, The Register, 22 June 2022, https://www.theregister.com/2022/06/22/amazon_robot_warehouse/. Shatara, Mitri. “America's Problem with Inflation in 2022.” Alexander Shunnarah, 18 July 2022, https://shunnarah.com/inflation-in-2022/. Skills, Tasks and Technologies: Implications for Employment and ... - NBER. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w16082/w16082.pdf. Smialek, Jeanna. “Federal Reserve Takes Swing at Inflation with Largest Rate Increase since 1994.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 15 June 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/15/business/economy/fed-interest-rates.html. Steveliesman. “Federal Reserve Cuts Rates to Zero and Launches Massive $700 Billion Quantitative Easing Program.” CNBC, CNBC, 16 Mar. 2020, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/15/federal-reservecuts-rates-to-zero-and-launches-mas sive- 700-billion-quantitative-easing-program.html. “Top 3 Theories of Firm (with Diagram).” Economics Discussion, 16 May 2016, https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/firm/top-3-theories-of-firm-with-diagram/19519. Young, Julie. “Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity Explains the Decay of Cost Advantages.” Investopedia, Investopedia, 8 Feb. 2022, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/law-diminishingmarginal-productivity.asp.

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How Food Consumption is Breaking Boundaries: The Long-Term Economic Effects of Working from Home Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Heeseo

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) As Stephen Hawking once said, “Intelligence is the ability to adapt to change,” and throughout time, humans have demonstrated this remarkable feature of adapting to changing environments. In the winter of 2019, the world faced a significant change that would continue its influence even until this day: COVID-19. The contagious nature of the virus forced the world to adapt to a new lifestyle of social distancing, and physical contact between people declined, even at the workplace. Furthermore, CEOs of large companies, such as Jack Dorsey of Twitter, have already stated that their employees will be given the option to work remotely even after COVID-19 has been subdued1. Consequently, this new era of remote work is bound to continue and will have long term impacts on all aspects of our lives, penetrating even the very core element of food consumption, impacting diverse economical fields such as the digital economy and real estate. With more people working from home and, as a result, less people needing to eat out, many businesses in the food & beverage (F&B) industry have been faced with devastating short-term effects. In the US, many local restaurants have shut down their stores with restaurant sales plummeting by 66%2, and just in 2020, almost 30,000 restaurant employees faced job losses in the UK3. Furthermore, even many successful chains, such as McDonalds, have significantly decreased the number of eat-in restaurants. In contrast, grocery sales have skyrocketed as much as 77%, as more people could afford the time and took an interest to cook for themselves4. About 54% of Americans have taken up cooking for themselves post-pandemic5. In the long-run, F&B businesses will need to change their strategies and invest more on online platforms and contact-less solutions in an effort to combat the significant decrease in offline customers. This remote aspect of work from home, as well as the trend in home cooking, would lead to a rise in delivery of not only prepared food but also meal-prep kits and groceries, leading to the continuous expansion of the digital economy through increased use of online markets and platforms in the long-run. The utilization of online delivery services would be critical in expanding restaurants’ influence, allowing them to attract even more customers. Grocery stores have also attempted to transition some of their stores online, the success pre-demonstrated with the Instacart app’s downloads having grown by more than 200 percent between February 14 and March 15 of 20206. This rapid transition added to the acceleration of the digital economy, with delivery through online market reaching $45 billion in 2020, 3 years earlier than projected7. As the F&B industry is vital to human survival, the rapid increase in the digitalization of the food and beverage industry will continue to contribute to the rapid growth of the digital economy. The absence of the need to live within close range of their companies would also urge many employees to move away from cities into more remote areas away from the city that may offer cheaper real estate as well as the benefit of a more relaxed lifestyle. According to Eddie Yoon of Harvard Business Review, most employees working from home are in the top 25% of household incomes, and as they relocate outwards from the city, more wealth will be distributed to those areas. As food is one of the most vital components of human survival, there will be an increased demand for F&B businesses in those areas, which would reduce the need for food and beverage industries to locate their stores within business districts, where real estate is expensive and competition is high. The shift of F&B businesses to these areas will be reflective of the overall real estate economy. As more people settle in these remote areas, other businesses will be attracted as well, leading to increased developments and standards of living. With more companies offering the option to work from home, there will be major shifts within the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) economy in the long-run. The increased need to socially distance will mean that people will prefer contactless interactions, aided by online connectivity. Also, as people are capable of moving away from the cities due to reduced distance constraints, there will be increased developments in rural areas beyond the suburbs. The work from home policies will leave long-term impacts on the economy, most wellreflected in the F&B industry, with the integration of technology online platforms at an increasing rate and as businesses participate in the development of remote areas.

1. Yoon, Eddie. “3 Behavioral Trends That Will Reshape Our Post-Covid World.” Harvard Business Review, 26 Mar. 2020, hbr.org/amp/2020/05/3-behavioral-trends-that-will-resh ape-our-postcovid-world. 2. Gasparro, Annie, et al. “Two Months That Tore Apart the Food Chain.” The Wall Street Journal, 29 Apr. 2020, www.wsj.com/articles/two-months-that-tore-apart-the-food-chain-11588174236. 3. Saker-Clark, Henry. “Almost 30,000 Jobs Lost in Restaurant and Dining Sector in 2020 Carnage.” The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 4 Jan. 2021, www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/covid-job-losses-hospitality-restaurants-b1 781655.html. 4. PA Media. “Covid Pandemic Drives 163% Rise in Restaurant Job Losses in UK in 2020.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 4 Jan. 2021, www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jan/04/covid-pandemic-drives-163-rise-in-restaura nt-joblosses-in-uk-in-2020. 5. Hunter. “Hunter: Food Study Special Report, America Gets Cooking.” SlideShare, 9 Apr. 2020, www.slideshare.net/HUNTERNY/hunter-food-study-special-report-america-gets- cooking231713331. 6. Sedacca, Matthew. “'There's Nothing I Wouldn't Do at This Point'.” Eater, Eater, 31 Mar. 2020, www.eater.com/2020/3/31/21201187/restaurant-workers-find-new-jobs-during- coronaviruspandemic. 7. “COVID-19 Era Serves Up Big Changes for U.S. Restaurants.” Morgan Stanley, www.morganstanley.com/ideas/coronavirus-restaurant-trends.

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Korean Wave loved by multinational fashion and beauty companies Author 1

Author 2

Full Name

Kim, Jiwon

School Name

Hanyoung Foreign language High School

Full Name

Sung, Minjae

Saint Anthony’s High School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

Currently, the Korean Wave is a vast cultural phenomenon with 160 million global fandoms after 20 years, starting with "sonata" in the winter of 2002, and the increase in soft power has changed Korea enormously in Korea. It has become one of the world's top three beauty export countries, a country that wants to go sightseeing, and a country that wants to produce Hallyu stars in its own country. This phenomenon led to the selection of Hallyu stars as the global Ambassador and Muse of world luxury brands, and the effect of increasing the sales of the brand after the selection was made. If the number of Hallyu fans is likely to increase every year and increases, this year's luxury brand autumn and winter brand fashion show in Korea will have continuity, not one-time, and the luxury brand's love and use of Hallyu will continue.

Keywords: 20 years, soft power, ambassador, luxury brand, love and use Hallyu

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) პ ,QWURGXFWLRQ 1. Just before covid19 of a luxury fashion brand that sold for nearly 100 years. The three major luxury brands, Chanel, Hermes, and Louis Vuitton, as well as brands such as Gucci and Dior, made strategic sales through individual stores on the first floor of the top-tier department store. It has also been selling through fashion shows such as Paris Fashion Week, London Fashion Week, and New York Fashion Week [1] through Hollywood stars and European top models, as well as Global ambassadors [2], which is worn on various film festivals and red carpets. According to Samjeong KPMG [3], and Statista [4], the scale until March 2022 is 349.1 billion, and the Compound annual growth rate 6.7% by 2025 (Issue Monitor 147 New Luxury Business Trends Leading the Luxury Market, no 147, May 2022, page1-7eg.).

Figure1. Global Luxury Fashion and Beauty Brand's Key National Revenue Map Data source: Statista, graphic by origine

Figure2. Revenue of the luxury fashion market worldwide from 2012 to 2021 (Unit: million US dollars) Data source: Statista, graphic by origine

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Changes in sales strategy due to the emergence of the purchasing class of the MZ generation [5]. This policy change began to give a change in global ambassadors and design due to the spread of the Korean Wave and the expansion of OTT companies [6].

Figure3. Trend analysis of increasing Hallyu fans, data source: Korea Ofiicial for International Cultural Exchange (KOFICE), Hallyu white paper graphic by origin, kofice.or.kr/b20industry/b20_industry_00_view.asp?seq=1244&page=1&find=&search= From 2012 to 2021, the number of Hallyu fans increased 17 times from 2012 (9.26 million) to more than 150 million, and thanks to the popularity of Korean Wave dramas by OTT companies, the number of Hallyu fans increased 29% from 2020. With the increase of Hallyu fans, luxury brands have begun to hire Hallyu stars, not Hollywood stars.

ჟ 0HWKRG DQG ([SHULPHQW 1. K-food, Beauty, Fashion, Luxury brand sale increase and analysis of coefficient, First of all, let's examine the correlation between the increase of Hallyu fans and the market size of luxury brands and determine whether there is a correlation or not. Analysis of Pearson coefficient [7] Mathematical formula

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) K-IRRG H[SRUW DPRXQW PLɸlions) K-food export amount(100mi ɻ lions)

1.000000

Increasing Hallyu fans ,QFUHDVLQJ +DOO\X IDQV

0.981231

K-food export amount(100mi ɻ lions)

0.981231

Increasing Hallyu fans by 1.000000 K-&RVPH H[SRUW DPRXQW PLɸlions) K-Cosme export amount(100mi ɻ lions)

1.000000

Increasing Hallyu fans ,QFUHDVLQJ +DOO\X IDQV

0.957068

K-Cosme export amount(100mi ɻ lions)

0.957068

Increasing Hallyu fans /X[XU\ EUDQG VDOHV VFDOH PLOOLRQV Luxury brand sales scale(millions) Increasing Hallyu fans ,QFUHDVLQJ +DOO\X IDQV Luxury brand sales scale (millions) Increasing Hallyu fans

by 1.000000 1.000000 0.739954 0.739954 by 1.000000

As a result of the coefficient analysis above, it can be seen that linearity is clear, and the increase in Hallyu fans affects food, beauty, and luxury brands. ,,, Further Study The reason for using Hallyu stars is not just to expand Hallyu fandom, but to prove its relevance. We will find out through a graph through classification analysis [8]. If South Korea images were 16.8 % of the associated images with 'K- pop ', 'IT products (6.9 %), 'Hallyu star' (6.6 %),' K-food' (regulated at 12.0 %), 'K-Drama' (6.4 %), and image have been in the top five. What is unique is that the Korean image contains the development of the IT industry, and it can be said that the image of software and hardware exists.

Figure3. The image that comes to mind when you think of Korea, Datasource: Global Hallyu trends2021 graphic by Kim Ji-won

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Figure4. Korean Wave content that I want to try even if I pay for it, Data source: Global Hallyu trends2021 graphic by Kim Ji-won Of the types of cultural content consumed by overseas Hallyu consumers, Korean “Dramas” was the most commonly consumed at 29.6%, followed by “Beauty” (27.5%), “Entertainment programs” (26.9%), and “Fashion” (24.8%).

,9 Result 1) Among them, food is showing more continuous growth than in the past. As an example, CJ Bibigo Mandu in the U.S. topped the total Mandu sales[9], while Nongshim Shin Ramen Black was selected as the world's most luxurious ramen in 2020, and Nongshim has grown into the world's fifth-largest ramen company due to its sales growth.

Figure5 CJ Bibigo Mandu 2015~2019 Sales, as of 2018, Korean sales were ahead of overseas sales. Data source: Cj

Figure6. Nongshim and its flagship brand, Shin Ramen, have grown into one of the world's top five ramen brands under the influence of the Korean Wave Data Source: https://sso.nongshim.com/nongshim/main

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2) It can be seen from the correlation coefficient analysis that exports have been increasing, such as the increase in the number of Hallyu fans in the beauty industry in Korea, which has become one of the world's top three exporters of beauty products.

Figure7 Amore Pacific's brand Sulwhasoo and Lg's brand, are continuously exported due to the Korean Wave lxData source: Amore Pacific and LG Household & Health Care's 3) Global Ambassador and Muse, Hallyu stars of luxury brands Type Definition

Brand name

Classic Luxury (18-19 century)

High-end products

Chaumet (France, 1780), Hermès (France, 1837), Cartier (France, 1847), ChateauMouton (France,1853), Louis Vuitton (France,1854), Rothschild (France, 1855), Bvlgari (Italy, 1884)

Modern Luxury (Early 20th century)

Pioneer designer

Chanel (France, 1910), Prada (Italy, 1913), Gucci (Italy, 1922), Balenciaga (France, 1924), Rochas (France, 1925), Ferragamo (Italy, 1935), Dior (France, 1947), Valentino (France, 1959), Saint Lourent (France, 1962)

Contemporary luxury (Late 20th century)

Mass media communication

Jean-Paul Gaultier (France, 1983), Vivienne Westwood (England,1973), Armani (Italy, 1974), Escada (Germany, 1974), Versace (Italy, 1979), Dolce & Gabbana (Italy, 1981)

Table 1. Types of luxury brands Data source: The Role of Fashion House Museums - Focused on European Luxury Fashion Brands - Fashion & Text. Res. J. Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.146(2018)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Among the luxury brands above, all BTS members of Louis Vuitton were selected as global ambassadors, and Louis Vuitton clothes worn by BTS at the time were sold out.[11]

Figure8. BTS members named as Global Ambassador called House Ambassador of Louis Vuitton Datasource: Louis Vuitton Among the luxury brands above, all BTS members of Louis Vuitton were selected as global ambassadors, and Louis Vuitton clothes worn by BTS at the time were sold out.[11] In the case of BLACKPINK, each member is acting as an independent Ambassador for luxury brands. Jenny plays Chanel, Jisoo Dior, Lisa Celine, and finally, Rosé plays an ambassador for Saint Laurent.

Figure9 Jenny plays Chanel, Jisoo Dior, Lisa Celine, and finally, Rosé plays an ambassador for Saint Laurent Datasource: YG entertainment Dior's sales of the MZ generation increased by more than 400% in 2021 after selecting the index as the Ambassador. In addition, Bulgari, which selected Black Pink Lisa as a Global Ambassador in 2020, saw its sales in Korea increase by 119% in 2020. Saint Laurent's 2020 sales in Korea, which used Rose as a muse 2020, grew 114 percent compared to 2019.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 9 Conclusion and Discussion Hallyu fans and platform increased in the industry, and the increase in company OTT with fan base will have increased by COVID19 after the visit to Korea. The luxury brand is increasing in the Korean Wave fan base. CAGR (compound annual growth rate) [12]

7KH JURZLQJ WUHQG RI +DOO\X IDQV E\ HYHU\ \HDU Hallyu star expected an increase in raw and preferences further increases. The soft power of the Korean Wave will not be limited to cultural content alone, but will gradually expand to various fields such as medical care, tourism, construction, etc.

Reference [1] There are four major fashion weeks in the world, and it refers to New York, Paris, Milan, and London. Tokyo Fashion Week has attracted the most attention in Asia, and Seoul Fashion Week has recently attracted attention and grown in Asia due to the Korean Wave. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_week [2] Lee Seung Yeon, Loved by luxury brands...What's "Ambusherder"? Maekyung Economy newspaper 2021.10.07 15:33:15 https://www.mk.co.kr/economy/view.php?sc=50000001&year=2021&no=952666 [3] KPMG is a multinational company that provides audit, tax, financial advice, and consulting services in conjunction with the KPMG Global Network of 236,000 people in 144 countries https://home.kpmg/kr/ko/home/about/overview.html [4] A database platform that helps companies, schools, and government organizations make "databased decisions" with a vast database of numbers, data, and accurate statistics as a business data platform www.Statista.com[5] It is commonly referred to as the m and z generation of millennials, who are good at digital use and are sensitive to product purchases and trends. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MZgeneration [6] Over-the-top media service https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-top_media_service

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [7] It is a quantification of the correlation between the two variables. The Pearson correlation coefficient has a value between +1 and -1 by the Kosh-Schwarz inequality, +1 is a perfect positive linear correlation, 0 is not a linear correlation, and -1 is a perfect inverse linear correlation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient [8] https://www.indicative.com/resource/classification-analysis/ [9] CJ NOW Bibigo has topped the U.S. Dumpling Market https://www.cj.net/cj_now/ [10] Park ja yeon, Sulwhasoo vs. Hoo, the sales battle between spills and spills...Who's the winner this year? Economic review https://www.econovill.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=414303 [11] JING ZHANG Louis Vuitton Taps K-Pop Stars BTS as Ambassadors, prestige 27 APR 2021 [12]JASON FERNANDO,Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) Formula and Calculation, July 19, 2022 www.nvestopedia.com/terms/c/cagr.asp

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Ultra-fine dust in Korea from China Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Taeeun

%UDQNVRPH +DOO $VLD

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: This paper makes use of a comprehensive literature review to first examine what exactly the ultra-fine dust which has become ubiquitous in South Korea is, its impact on health and safety, and what can be done about it from a public health and political—both domestic and international—perspective.

Keywords: Ultra-fine dust, international law, international affairs, environmental pollution

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Even before the COVID-19 pandemic swept through the country, South Koreans often habitually wore masks to protect against other particulates circulating in the air which could harm respiratory systems: ultra-fine dust, blowing in for the most part from China. There are many public campaigns aimed at raising awareness about the dangers of ultra-fine dust, emergency alerts regarding dust levels, and popular apps aimed at measuring and sharing the severity of ultra-fine dust reach millions of downloads as citizens scramble to stay informed. Picking up on the public’s outrage and anxiety over the issue of fine dust, which many Koreans claim is their number one fear over even a nuclear North Korea, politicians across the spectrum have attempted to institute changes domestically and apply pressure abroad, particularly in China but also in other areas where yellow dust and fine dust originate. The purpose of this research note is to ascertain, through a review of the literature, what is the reason ultra-fine dust, as one Korea Herald article exclaimed, is “blanketing” most of the country, where does ultra-fine dust come from, what are the potential harms, and what can be done about it.

Literature Review First, what is ultra-fine dust? Kang and Kim (2014) state that the “scientific nomenclature of fine dust consists of fine particulate matter (PM). Fine PM is smaller than 10 μm in diameter (PM10), and ultrafine PM is smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5).” Before continuing, a distinction between “yellow dust” and “fine” or “ultra-fine” dust should be made. While the former is primarily natural in its components such as sand or other earth materials mixed with man-made pollutants, ultra-fine dust is primarily the result of human activity, especially the usage of fossil fuels and means of combustion. (Kang and Kim 2014) In fact, while yellow dust is a relatively natural phenomenon recorded in Korean historical annals of the Three Kingdoms period centuries before industrialization (Jeong 2008), ultrafine dust is anything but natural. In a meta-analysis of research on ultra-fine dust, Moreno-Ríos, TejedaBenítez & Bustillo-Lecompte (2022) find that ultra-fine dust composition can differ based on the type of emission. For example, burning coal creates ultra-fine particles with more industrial or toxic components than burning biomass like wood, pollution from vehicles creates fine dust particles with the most amount of components, and heavy industries are one of the largest contributors to trace metals in the atmosphere. According to environmental officials, a recent increase in fine dust concentrations is due to atmospheric standstill, which promotes the accumulation of airborne pollutants brought in from China on westbound winds. China's industry utilization rate has nearly recovered to 100% following the COVID-19 issue, and the overall number of pollutants flowing from China has surged again as people turn on their heaters. China's air quality is believed to have improved slightly this year, with fine dust levels falling by an average of 11.8 percent across the country until September. The fine dust threshold is reached when PM 10 concentrations exceed 150 micrograms per cubic meter for two hours. Due to South Korea’s economy and need for energy, the country is significantly reliant on fossil fuels, with oil accounting for 38% of main energy supply, coal for 29%, and gas for 15%. Pollution is caused by traffic, manufacturing, and power plants, though China’s industry and pollution, along with the more natural yellow dust from its drier northern regions, is responsible for up to 80% of South Korea's fine dust particles. Considering where ultra-fine dust comes from and what it is composed of, it should be no surprise that these particulates can be extremely dangerous. Kang and Kim (2014) state that “PMs can cause various health effects, including lung cancer, bronchial asthma, cardiocerebral vascular diseases, pulmonary

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) mortality, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, birth defects, and premature death,” and MorenoRíos, Tejeda-Benítez & Bustillo-Lecompte (2022) find widespread evidence within the scientific and medical literature of the toxicity of ultra-fine dust particles, even potentially altering DNA: they write, “ultra-fine particles (UFPs) lead to higher levels of DNA methyltransferase expression related to global changes in DNA methylation.” Shukla et al. (2019), more worryingly, find evidence that these DNA changes could carry over into the next generation as well. In a similar issue, Altindag, Baek, & Mocan (2017) find “exposure to air pollution during pregnancy has a significant negative impact on birth weight, the gestation weeks of the baby, and the propensity of the baby being born low weight.” The damage of ultra-fine dust is not just medical: Jeong (2008) finds that the estimated socio-economic cost of yellow dust was estimated to be between 3.9 billion dollars and 7.3 billion dollars, or roughly 117 dollars per Korean resident divided amongst decreases in amenity, increases in diseases, damagemitigation purchases (like masks), or other more mundane tasks like cleaning. As such, it is important that action is taken to mitigate the source and origin of the ultra-fine dust as well as national and local public health measures aimed at lowering the public’s exposure to the harmful effects of ultra-fine dust. First and foremost, and perhaps the most effective, is informing the public. Ultra-fine dust levels are consistently monitored by both government agencies and non-governmental organizations and shared with the general public through a variety of means from public emergency alerts to large signs near busier streets to the apps on smartphones. While simple, in the effects on pregancy study, Altindag, Baek, & Mocan (2017) find that “public notifications about air quality mitigate the negative effect of air pollution on fetal health” as citizens elect to make use of that information to either avoid leaving the home or taking more protective measures like wearing masks. There are many public campaign ads advocating citizens mask up and wash their hands during the ultrafine dust season, and, according to the Korea Hearld, public officials have the authority to enact air quality control measures on days when fine dust is particularly bad. The Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA) works intimately with local governance by setting guidelines and best practices. For example, according to the KMA website, warnings are issued “when the hourly averaged dust(PM10) concentration is expected to exceed 800 ห/ี for over 2 hours,” and they strongly advise that: “The old, the young, and those with respiratory diseases are prohibited from going outside; kindergarten and elementary school students are prohibited from outdoor activities and their class should be dismissed; everybody is prohibited from outdoor activities; outdoor sports event should be rescheduled.” (Korea Meteorological Administration, n.d.)

Research methods The research, through a secondary data analysis utilizing both primary and secondary sources, underscores the domestic policies and implications of ultra-fine dust and the complex nature of the problem given the international affairs of South Korea. Based on the findings, the research proposes potential steps that the South Korean government can take both domestically and internationally.

Results Information is all the more critical considering the important mitigating potential of face masks: in studies of Shanghai, with some of the worst air quality in the world, Langrish et al. (2007) find that mask wearing “appears to abrogate the adverse effects of air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate variability”, and Langrish et al. (2012) find evidence that this effect holds even for more risky patients

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) like cardiovascular patients. Shi (2017) supports these findings, finding that “short-term wearing of particulate-filtering respirators may produce cardiovascular benefits by improving autonomic nervous function and reducing blood pressure.” Such effectiveness is particularly important considering the rising numbers of cardiovascular patients in South Korea and as the population ages, thus becoming more vulnerable to environmental health effects. If anything, the COVID-19 pandemic may have demonstrated how public information and close-knit government intervention can be effective in mitigating airborne dangers, and there could be a case for optimism surrounding better measures on public health and ultra-fine dust. What policies or actions are being undertaken to attack the root source of the problem? Ultra-fine dust and yellow dust have become political issues in the past two decades, and successive presidents have attempted to put their mark on mitigation measures. Former president Roh Moo-Hyun held summit meetings with relevant parties like the leaders of China and Mongolia, and in the latter talked about cooperating on a “green belt” to mitigate the loose dust which becomes yellow dust once airborne. (Choi 2006) That administration also promised to make air quality that of a developed country and passed laws intended to reduce fine dust created domestically and around the capital Seoul Metropolitan Area. (Seok 2019) The succeeding administrations of Lee Myung-Bak and Park Geun-Hye, responding to increasing public anxiety and anger over the WHO’s designation of ultra-fine dust as carcinogenic, also attempted mitigation measures, though tensions with China prevented closer cooperation and both continued to focus primarily on updating public information systems and domestic producers. The Moon Jae-in administration appeared to be taking some basic actions when the issue of fine dust from China became an important national task after the country experienced the highest fine dust concentrations in the spring of 2021. Since then, though, there has been little development. Once or twice a year, the environment ministers of South Korea and China meet and hold working-level talks, but the results are limited to information sharing and academic research, with stronger policies often taken off the table due to geopolitical consequences or the limitations of the Korean government’s ability to pressure China. There is an amount of confusion as to what exactly Korea requires China or other involved parties to do, which further complicates matters. As mentioned in this paper, there is a distinction between “yellow dust” and “ultra-fine dust,” each of which have their own creation process and composition of elements, thus their own mitigation measures. For example, attempting to curb the yellow dust which has fallen on the Korean peninsula for at least a thousand years (Korean Meteorological Administration, n.d.) requires action aimed at reversing the damage done to nature. Jeong (2008) notes that yellow dust became “a serious problem due to industrial pollutants and intensified desertification in China, but also in the last few decades when the Aral region of Kazakhstan dried up due to a failed Soviet agricultural scheme.” Fighting off yellow dust, then, would require involved countries to make a demonstrated effort to reverse desertification and industrial pollutants, neither of which are cheap, easy or simple. However, there is some cause for hope: according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), satellite imagery shows a decline in the amount of dust circulating during dust season (Voiland, 2019) declining at 1.5 percent per year. Researchers attribute this potentially to climate change’s impact on seasonal winds and the environment, efforts to prevent overgrazing and reforestation, and changes in rain. There is a case for optimism, provided that relevant nations and communities continue their efforts to replant trees and replace soil cover. Ultra-fine dust poses a different set of problems, however. Due to its primarily man-made origins, it

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) will have to be man-made solutions which solve it. Although the vast majority of seasonal dust and ultra-fine particles come from outside Korea’s borders, it is important to not underestimate the contributions made by Korea’s domestic industry, consumer usage and energy usage. Here, more conventional and traditional methods of air pollution mitigation will have use, such as encouraging citizens to use mass transit and drive less, or improving industrial standards to lower air pollution during production and manufacturing. In 2017, Prime Minister Lee Nak-yon reiterated the Moon administration’s pledge to “cut fine dust emissions by over 30 percent within its five-year term and beef up environmental cooperation with China” (Yonhap, 2017) by attempting to shift to more renewables and shutting down more coal-fired plants, a leading contributor to ultra-fine dust as well as adhering to the Paris Climate Accords signed in 2015. Domestic changes can only do so much, however, and there needs to be a better framework for relevant countries like China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia and Russia to name a few to work together. The problem remains that unless China's industrial and environmental regulations change drastically, there will be no way to fundamentally prohibit fine particles from entering the country, and the only way forward is to aim for not just mitigation but the elimination of man-made ultra-fine dust. The amount of fine dust currently reaching Korea will be drastically decreased if China dramatically enhances pollutant emissions standards for factories on China's east coast and makes major investments in decreasing total emissions. The Paris Climate Accords could be one: all relevant parties are signatories, and some progress is to be seen in Korea, Japan and China in air pollution mitigation as all three countries explore more options and develop more renewable clean energy. China, for example, has shut down coal plants domestically and vowed to stop building new plants abroad, though China remains the largest emitter of greenhouse gases. (Sengupta and Gladstone 2021) As China struggles with its own health issues due to smog and ultra-fine dust in its own cities, there may be hope that as a significant side benefit of Chinese self-interest, South Korea and other affected countries may see a decrease in their own ultrafine dust levels.

Discussion There remain significant issues with taking a strategy of gently prodding China to act, particularly since the urgency is on the side of those making the request. The fact of the matter is that ultra-fine dust affecting the populations of other nations is a lower priority than a whole host of domestic matters. There is not much leverage to be had by the South Korean government as it tries to nudge China to take greater action. International actions like the Paris Accords are a step in the right direction, but there must be caution mixed with optimism as the scourge of ultra-fine dust is attacked. Without changing the way industry, development and economies fundamentally run, there is reason to be cautious of small, incremental change. Because the fine dust situation is a matter of life and death for Koreans, the South Korean government should renounce its passive approach and press China to provide a comprehensive solution to eliminate fine dust pollution.

References “Ultra-Fine Dust from China Blankets S. Korea Again.” Donga 2020, www.donga.com/en/article/all/20201117/2243623/1. Accessed 15 Mar. 2022. Altindag, D. T., Baek, D., & Mocan, N. (2017). Chinese yellow dust and Korean infant health. Social Science & Medicine, 186, 78-86.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Bicker, Laura. “South Korea Pollution: Is China the Cause of ‘Fine Dust’?” BBC News, BBC News, 5 June 2019, www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48346344. Accessed 15 Mar. 2022. Choi, J. “Green Belt to Stop Yellow Dust.” The JoongAng. (5 May 2006). https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/2287037#home [Korean] Kang, D., & Kim, J. E. (2014). Fine, ultrafine, and yellow dust: Emerging health problems in Korea. Journal of Korean medical science, 29(5), 621-622. KH ҡए੡ 2. “70% of Korea’s Fine Dust Particles Come from China: Study - the Korea Herald.” The Korea Herald, The Korea Herald, 3 Jan. 2017, www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20170103000745. Accessed 15 Mar. 2022. Langrish, J. P., Li, X., Wang, S., Lee, M. M., Barnes, G. D., Miller, M. R., ... & Jiang, L. (2012). Reducing personal exposure to particulate air pollution improves cardiovascular health in patients with coronary heart disease. Environmental health perspectives, 120(3), 367-372. Langrish, J. P., Mills, N. L., Chan, J. K., Leseman, D. L., Aitken, R. J., Fokkens, P. H., ... & Jiang, L. (2009). Beneficial cardiovascular effects of reducing exposure to particulate air pollution with a simple facemask. Particle and fibre toxicology, 6(1), 1-9. Moreno-Ríos, A. L., Tejeda-Benítez, L. P., & Bustillo-Lecompte, C. F. (2022). Sources, characteristics, toxicity, and control of ultrafine particles: An overview. Geoscience Frontiers, 13(1), 101147. Sengupta, S., and Gladstone, R. “China Pledges to Stop Building Coal-Burning Power Plants Abroad.” The New York Times (21 Sept 2021) https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/21/climate/chinapower-plantscoal.html#:~:text=In%20a%20move%20designed%20to,the%20world's%20dirtiest%20fossil%20fuel . Seok, H. “Ultra-Fine Dust: Promises to Reduce by Half in 10 Years Returns as Disaster.” KBS News (4 April 2019). https://news.kbs.co.kr/news/view.do?ncd=4173397 [Korean] Shi, J., Lin, Z., Chen, R., Wang, C., Yang, C., Cai, J., ... & Kan, H. (2017). Cardiovascular benefits of wearing particulate-filtering respirators: a randomized crossover trial. Environmental health perspectives, 125(2), 175-180. Shukla, A., Bunkar, N., Kumar, R., Bhargava, A., Tiwari, R., Chaudhury, K., ... & Mishra, P. K. (2019). Air pollution associated epigenetic modifications: transgenerational inheritance and underlying molecular mechanisms. Science of the Total Environment, 656, 760-777. Voiland, A. “Decline in Asian Dust.” NASA Earth Observatory. (22 March 2019) https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146175/a-decline-in-asian-dust

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Yonhap News Agency. “Ultrafine dust blankets most parts of S. Korea.” The Korea Herald, 12 Feb. 2022, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20220212000053. Accessed 20 Feb. 2022 Joffre, L. (2021, August 5). The social enterprise that takes on ‘Big Air’ with data. Pioneers Post. Retrieved January 9, 2022, from https://immersives.pioneerspost.com/social_enterprise_affordable_clean_air/index.html Krane, K., & Mao, Z. (2015). Costs of Selected Policies to Address Air Pollution in China. RAND.NPR Cookie Consent and Choices. (2018, December 18). NPR. Retrieved January 9, 2022, from https://choice.npr.org/index.html?origin=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/12/18/6697 57478/the-good-news-and-not-so-good-news-about-chinas-smoggy-air Stanway, D. (2013, November 6). China cuts gas supply to industry as shortages hit. U.S. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-sinopec-naturalgas-idUSBRE9A506Y20131106 What is Particle Pollution? (2021, May 27). US EPA. Retrieved January 9, 2022, from https://www.epa.gov/pmcourse/what-particle-pollution Zhao, B., Zheng, H., Wang, S., Smith, K. R., Lu, X., Aunan, K., Gu, Y., Wang, Y., Ding, D., Xing, J., Fu, X., Yang, X., Liou, K. N., & Hao, J. (2018). Change in household fuels dominates the decrease in PM 2.5 exposure and premature mortality in China in 2005–2015. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(49), 12401–12406. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812955115

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Research on Netflix's Development Strategies in the Time of Rapid Growth of the OTT Industry Author 1

Full Name

Kim, Taehee

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

As people were faced with ever more free time in their own houses, with the emergence of Covid-19, many spent their time with their electronic devices, one being streaming services. This led to the accelerated growth of the OTT industry itself, with the precursor Netflix having raised 222 million last year. However, this news harms some conglomerate OTT companies, mainly Netflix, as they must compete with numerous streaming services. Having experienced other OTT services, Netflix's users quickly found the lack in the services and were more dissatisfied with its system: mainly its high price. This paper aims to tackle the detrimental factors that led to the stagnation or downfall of Netflix with probable solutions that can also ensure consumer satisfaction. To achieve this aim, the study further analyzed the principal, distinctive elements that led to Netflix's success and revisited previous studies, comparing Netflix's features with other players in the industry and suggesting a better model that Netflix can adopt. It is crucial that Netflix thrive in the business because OTT services are proven ways to reduce carbon footprints and Netflix is a leading environmentally responsible corporation.

Keywords: OTT platform; Streaming services; Netflix; Hulu; HBO max; Disney+; Advertisements; public image; sustainability; Market saturation; Carbon Footprints

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) About Netflix (its success and downfall) With Reed Hastings and Marc Randolph as founders, Netflix started in 1997 as a rental company where customers could use DVDs for a specific time period after their payment. While being an "online" rental system provided them with a significant advantage of reaching out to many customers with an easy order system, Netflix faced drawbacks being an online rental platform: customers had to wait a considerate time for their delivery, and Netflix had to store numerous returned DVDs. Tackling the problem, Reed and Marc created a system where customers can keep the rented DVD and exchange it for other DVDs when they want - essentially a subscription model. Providing free trials and recommending personalized movies for customers, Netflix faced burgeoning growth. Furthermore, thanks to the growth of the internet, in 2006, Netflix ended its DVD business but instead converted to downloadable content like movies and shows, further decreasing the cost of its input. However, sadly, the success of Netflix attracted people's attention, and soon there was a boom in streaming services. This boom detrimentally affected Netflix, losing some of its content to competitors. During the awful situation, Netflix quickly maintained its place as the leading figure by creating its specialized content: a notable, innovative distinction. The history of Netflix briefly explained above reveals key, unique ways of how the company dealt with dangers or challenging situations. In line with the technological and societal advancements, Netflix made decisive, revolutionary changes that might have resulted in the company's failure. It would no longer exist if the company remained stagnant with its local DVD selling business. Moreover, from its birth, it has prioritized optimization for each customer, assisting customers to decrease wasting time. In fact, this method is well utilized and aligned with Netflix's main advantage, numerous selection of content, suggesting users likable content that it might have overlooked or had not known before. Unlike when Netflix introduced its specialized content, with the continuous prosperity of other streaming services over the years, it has and is experiencing a drop in its users, currently without an innovative solution to stop its ongoing downfall. With fewer potential subscribers but a need for growth, Netflix may have faced a major crisis in its history. How it solves the crisis may determine if the company will maintain itself as a forerunner of streaming services or stumble, leaving an unfortunate example for a case study. This paper will peruse the factors that are leading to the company’s potential failure and then move on to suggest viable and effective solutions that could save the company from the downfall.

Problems 1.1. Public image Admittedly, for a company like Netflix, whose profits heavily rely on the number of customers, public image is the main factor that determines a company's success. Nonetheless, in recent years, Netflix has been notorious for its high subscription price and inconsiderate egotism in Asian countries. When Netflix, the leading streaming service company, requires its subscribers to pay varying prices from $9.99 to $19.99 per month, a runner-up streaming service company, Disney Plus, only requires a monthly subscription price of $7.99. Even though Netflix's high price is a controversial issue, its way of releasing an increased price and the reason put forward was insufficient for the whole time. For instance, when Netflix increased its basic subscription pay to $9.99 (from $8.99) and its standard subscription pay to $15.49 (from $13.99), there was no official justification announced by the company.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) According to the spokesperson, Netflix is "updating [its] prices so that [Netflix] can continue to offer a wide variety of quality entertainment options. As always, [Netflix] offers a range of plans so members can pick a price that works for [its] budget". Even though its justification is reasonable to some extent, the fact that the company has already increased its subscription price several times for the same reason causes doubts in many people. Not only its high cost but its service to some Asian countries were also a cause for customer drop. For instance, "A Suitable Boy," one of Netflix's well-known contents, has been widely disputed between people or even at the country level: even the Vietnamese government requested Netflix to remove the show as it violates Vietnamese sovereignty law. Netflix's failure to take account of countries' cultures before the release of some shows disappointed its customers. Moreover, since November 2019, Netflix has been in a lawsuit with SK broadband. Different from other countries, South Korea requests different charging systems from broadcasting companies. While other countries' networks do not differentiate the cost for "accessing" the network and "delivering" the contents to the users, South Korean networks charge each cost. Since Netflix uses SK broadband's leased line, SK broadband requested Netflix to pay for its use. However, Netflix rejected it and instead filed a lawsuit against SK broadband. Not familiar with the network policy in Korea, Netflix finds it unfair that it has to pay as its server is not located in Korea. The company further claims that Korea's network charging system goes against "net neutrality," as it makes the CPs pay double. Meanwhile, SK Broadband finds Netflix's reluctance to pay the fee absurd because it is the rule that applies to all in Korea. As Netflix is the only one averting the policy, the public image of the company deteriorates. Netflix has earned the nickname of "unscrupulous free rider," as the Koreatimes puts it, as other foreign OTT companies like Disney plus and Apple TV, whose servers are also not located in Korea, have agreed to pay the fee. This conflict shows how Netflix lacks cultural understanding and sensitivity. As a company that relies highly on the number of users, taking care of the public image and likability is crucial, and it seems like Netflix is failing in this subject. 1.2. Target Audience Netflix is undoubtedly one of the most popular and well-known OTT services. It has numerous branches all over the world. Even though positives exist as being a huge company having much content from many countries, it has difficulties when it has to compete with the local OTT services, which are more focusing on local shows and movies. In the case of South Korea, in January 2021, when the number of Netflix Korean users dropped from 8.95 million to 8.24 million in just three months, local OTT platforms such as Tving and Wavve experienced massive increases: Tving from 2.79 million to 3.27 million and Wavve to 3.68 million. From this, it is evident that local OTT services and global OTT services are creating a competitive rivalry. However, this competition between Netflix and local OTT services seems unequal. Netflix's contents are alluring to the younger subscribers who like "long-running series or American drama series, not the older subscribers who like "light and short content." In the status quo, where the number of older OTT users is flourishing, comparably local OTT services are performing better. As apparent in the table, although the number of OTT users in South Korea generally increased, the older generation significantly grew: every year groups (the 40s, 50s, 60s) increased by more than 17 percent, with the 50s generation having a 27.3 percent increase.

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Younger

Older

Year group 10s 20s 40s 50s 60s

2019 (# in mil) 84.8 83.6 55.3 35.8 21.3

2020 (# in mil) 88.6 91.6 74.1 63.1 38.3

Change in % + 3.8 % + 8% + 18.8 % + 27.3 % + 17 %

1.3. Debts due to excess expenditure on contents Netflix is well-known for its extensive resource bank. Netflix has focused on maintaining and extending its content. For example, trying to implant a "blockbuster franchise" to attract more customers, Netflix spent 200 million dollars on one film, "The Gray Man." Even though this amount might seem a lot, Netflix's enormous spending has been routine. It has spent significantly more money trying to bring famous Japanese animations from Studio Ghibli: even though Netflix did not officially announce the amount spent on acquiring the rights of Studio Ghibli's contents, according to Huff post, it is estimated that Netflix has spent "200 billion yen" which equals to about 1.5 billion dollars. Through this colossal deal, Netflix acquired the right to publish 23 Studio Ghibli's animations on Netflix outside North America and Japan. Targeting the boom of animation series, Netflix attempted to lure the vast fan base with the contents. According to a JP Morgan & Chase analyst, it was estimated that Netflix spent "around $18 billion" solely on content in 2021, similar to the amount the company spent on 2020. However, its efforts resulted in a collection of debts that might be hard to resolve even in the long term.

The graph shows that Netflix has increased its debts exponentially, especially since 2014. It only spent about 240 million dollars in 2009 but now spends more than 14600 million. So even though Netflix's debts decreased slightly between 2020 and 2022 compared to its total debts, it does not erase much of

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the strain it experiences with its debts. Another problematic aspect of these debts is the rising interest rate. Accompanied by factors like inflation, the interest rate has steadily risen. This means that the interest that Netflix must pay also increases. Netflix paid about 190 million dollars in the first quarter of 2022, meaning its expenditure solely on interest is about 760 million dollars. Despite this Netflix's struggle to increase its content, many customers have left the service, signaling a need to change Netflix's focus on spending. 1.4. Sustainability of OTT services (after pandemic) As the pandemic made numerous people stay inside their homes, people started to find and do more things in their houses. So naturally, one of their focusing points was OTT services. As OTT services allowed people to watch many movies, TV shows, and sporting events, almost all OTT services saw significant growth. According to Research dive, the 16% increased annual growth before the lockdown period changed to 19% during the lockdown time. Although this Covid-time helped companies of OTT services, as covid restriction loosened, people's need for OTT services decreased simultaneously. Instead, the popularity of movie theaters increased as people now preferred outdoor activities. Not only Netflix but all OTT services would face brutal competition with movie theaters when publishing a new movie or show. 1.5. Sustainability of OTT services (generally) Especially for OTT services, it is easy to gain fame and be successful in the short term. However, soon they encounter problems regarding the method to attract customers and which customers they will target. This problem is primarily a vast topic for Netflix as a forerunner of OTT services. To develop and attract more customers, Netflix has too many options. The first is to keep its targeting customers as it is but increase the percentage of the targeting customers to subscribe to its system. The second is to choose extra targeting customers and increase the number of possible customers. The first option is quite challenging to achieve as there are thousands of OTT services out in the society that Netflix has to encounter. The second method is also difficult because there is a limited amount of extra targeting customers worldwide, only like India. Netflix has tried to capture Indian customers by producing movies in India and its surrounding countries. If Netflix successfully handles this problem of limited customers, as a forerunner of the OTT services, it will maintain its stance and pace.

Solutions 2.1. Bundle plan & Collaboration Since November 2019, Hulu, one of the major competitors of Netflix, has introduced a bundle plan (with a decreased cost) combining Disney plus and ESPN plus. Famous for content like Difficult people and Mrs.America, which requires the viewers to be either over 19 or over 15, Hulu mainly targets audiences aged 18 to 49; on the other hand, Disney plus targets children or families with young children; ESPN targets "young, affluent, male sports fans." With each of the services having different target audiences, the cheap bundle plan is an indisputably tempting option for many: comparing the bundle price with the combination of individual services prices, the data reveals that the users are benefiting approximately eight dollars for both ad and no ad plans.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) With adds

Without adds

Hulu

$6.99

$12.99

Disney plus

$7.99

ESPN plus

$6.99

Total

$22.0

$28.0

Bundle price

$13.99

$19.99

Benefit

$8.01

Although companies might initially be doubtful if a bundle plan is beneficial as it lowers the cost of their subscription, this method attracts a wide range of customers who were not the company's primary target audience. For instance, many Disney plus customers can purchase the bundle plan and be a customer of both ESPN Plus and Hulu. Even though the price the customers paid might be less than customers purchasing one company's subscription, the large number of customers gained still benefits the company. Therefore, creating a bundle plan with other streaming services with different targeting users would be a beneficial option for Netflix. Additionally, like the case of Tving, Netflix can cooperate with other companies not limited to video streaming services: Tving has collaborated with Naver, where people with Naver Plus membership can watch Tving without paying its subscription fee. This collaboration is from the "exchange of shares worth 600 billion won" in October 2020. The kind of transaction between two businesses from different fields will be able to enlarge the pool and the type of customers that both companies can get. By further thinking out of the box, Netflix may also be able to extend the services that they can provide to customers. For instance, Tving created a music show called "Webtoon OST Audition Project" with Naver, increasing the company's ability from a streaming service importing shows made by others to a company that can create their products like Netflix. 2.2. Advertisement With each and every price increase that Netflix undertook, there had been a continuous request for an ad-supported plan that could alleviate the customer's burden on the price. Possibly having recognized this request of consumers, Netflix recently made a contract with Microsoft, planning to launch an adsupported plan next year; the fact that Netflix, which had remained firm when it came to adding add supported plans, changed its stance reveals that Netflix is willing to discard features that it has maintained since its beginning. Through this change, Netflix may gain more customers who were initially ambivalent about purchasing a plan due to its high price. This assumption is based on solid evidence from Hulu. With about 70 percent of the users using add-supported plans on Hulu, according to variety.com, most consumers find price as a primer factor. So, despite the inconvenience of having to watch advertisements, people will purchase Netflix's plan more and more. On the other hand, despite the positive step, aligning with Netflix's ability to adjust to the ever-changing situation, the steep drop in with-ad version prices with other companies shows that Netflix might

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) experience difficulty matching this trend. For example, matching the difference between the adsupported version and adding a discarded version, approximately a 40 percent drop would be required. That would make Netflix's basic and standard plan less than $10 and its premium plan just over $10. With ads

Without ads

Drop ( %)

Hulu

$6.99

$12.99

46.19%

HBO Max

$10

$15

33.33%

Netflix (basic)

$5.99

$9.99

Netflix (standard)

$9.29

$15.49

Netflix (premium)

$11.99

$19.99

Hulu

Disney plus

Funimation

Monthly * 12

$6.99 * 12 = 83.88

$7.99 * 12 = 95.88

$5.99 * 12 = 71.88

yearly

$69.99

$79.99

$59.99

Benefit

$13.89

$15.89

$11.89

~ 40 %

2.3. Yearly plans

Despite Netflix's personalization method, Netflix has not been keen to benefit its loyal customers like other companies, which give them decreased prices for long-term plans. This tempting method is beneficial for the customers' long term but harmful for companies; however, in this process, consumers get the sense that they are respected for their long-term commitment to the service. Also, customers are less likely to cancel subscriptions in the middle of the yearly plan because of the discount that comes with the plan. This would ensure that they repurchase the yearly subscription, benefiting the streaming services with a guaranteed loyal customer base. If Netflix gains this customer loyalty, it would be less likely to stumble or face significant difficulties as the company has recently experienced. 2.4. Free trials & Coupons Until December of 2019, Netflix has offered a one-month free trial to allure people to start using its platform. This has successfully enticed customers unsure about committing to a subscription plan. Considering that most OTT services and other subscription deals, including music services and mealbox services, provide customers with free trial periods, it is one of the proven ways to attract a more extensive customer base. Frankly, many people started using Netflix officially, unable to stop watching some ongoing TV shows that the service provides. However, it is reported that the abuse of free trials that Netflix faced led them to terminate the free trial service. However, such a decision will eventually make the company suffer a significant loss in pursuing a small profit. Admittedly, these disadvantages of the free trial are clear, but that does not mean that Netflix must end the free trial. For example, HBO and Hulu offer a 7-day free trial, and Disney plus offers a 7-day free trial. These companies are also facing the risk of the abuse of free trials, but as free trial service is what guarantees the constant flow of new subscribers, they still stick to the method. By giving time for customers to experience ample

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) resources and attractions that the program has, it is almost certain that people will liken the system, or even keeping the subscription will become something customary for the users, making them not want to quit. Therefore, even though Netflix might struggle to give an entire month trial as it did before, it can give about one week trial like Youtube premium does, still giving a chance to its potential customers. Moreover, other OTT companies like HBO and Hulu lure back previous customers. They have canceled their subscription by giving tempting coupons that would discount their subscription for a certain amount of time. Since many customers have canceled their subscriptions after the price increase and other times, bringing them back will also be a huge potential gain for the companies. 2.5. User interaction platform

೟ [image1]

೟ [image 2]

As image 1 and 2 above suggests, Netflix is structured in such a user-friendly way that the system divides TV series or movies according to its type. After typing a few keywords that one wants to see, Netflix provides an extensive list. However, if you see in the photo specifically how the division is done, it is based on the general trend of the people. The only part personalized for the user is "Top Picks for [User Name]," for instance, in the top part of the right picture. It will take a considerable effort for a huge conglomerate company to precisely and accurately give more detailed suggestions to each user. Nonetheless, this also means that if Netflix starts to be more interactive with users by giving personalized suggestions, the subscribers will be more fascinated with Netflix's system, accompanied by its incomparable size of resource bank.

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೟ [image 3] An exemplar OTT company that effectively uses an interactive user platform is Watcha. Watcha is a Korean OTT platform that operates similar to Netflix by purchasing certain movies or TV series licenses. On the other hand, compared to Netflix, which generally recommends shows based on what the users have watched, Watcha recommends specific shows based on what the subscribers have rated other movies . This method is far more accurate than that of Netflix because it considers instances where someone watched the whole movie but has disliked it. Furthermore, in Watcha, people can each make a playlist of movies or TV series and share it with others on other platforms like Youtube and Spotify. Then, as Watcha shows the playlist of others with similar tastes in shows, users can find some shows that the Watcha system failed to take into account. Also, when thinking from the perspective of people who made the playlist, one would feel an extra sense of belonging to the Watcha community since many people come, like, and even comment on one's playlist. As you can see in image 3, like other platforms, people can create the name of the playlist on their own to show which kind of movies they have piled up. Another unique and essential feature of Watcha is that it has another linked site called "Watcha Pedia.” Well matching the trend of generation Z and Y, who want to know what kind of shows and actors they are interested in, the system categorically analyzes what type of person one is. As one can see in image 4, 5, and 6, the system even analyzes how one generally rates movies and which countries' programs one prefers. Another great feature is that people can rate shows and books that are not on the Watcha site but other streaming platforms. This shows Watcha's effort to focus on giving more accurate recommendations, acknowledging that users can sometimes not only use Watcha but other competitive OTT platforms.

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\ \

೚[image 4]

೚[image 5]

೚[image 6]

2.6. Promoting companies strength: environmentally awake These days, many people are interested in climate change and global warming. However, most people, including myself, do not know that using the internet causes carbon dioxide release. In fact, according to the paper from Laura Marks, streaming which utilizes a "massive infrastructure of data centers, networks, and devices, including computers, phones, and TVs," is "responsible for 3-4% of the global carbon footprint". More seriously, despite the system's efficiency, the amount of carbon released is "rising fast." Unlike other streaming services, Netflix has been actively trying to save the environment as much as possible. By 2022, Netflix plans to achieve "net zero greenhouse gas emissions." However, its efforts do not end here. First, the company specified its emissions and listed ways to decrease each emission. For instance, Netflix stated that 50 percent of its 1 million metric ton emission in 2020 is from "physical production" of content. Then, the company stated that it would reduce its "internal emission on 1.5 Celsius pathway" and make partnerships to decrease emissions. Furthermore, Netflix continuously puts its efforts into publishing environmental documentaries like "Our Planet" and "My Octopus Teacher" to raise awareness. In fact, "My Octopus Teacher" won the Oscar award for the documentary section, reaching more audiences who might not have known the series. Last but not least, the company has a full team of advisors dedicated to improving Netflix's sustainability. From youth activists to scientists, the professionals all discuss together to decide on the best possible way for Netflix to be a model OTT service to others. Therefore, in a world where ESG companies and environmentally friendly companies are highly rated and praised, Netflix must concentrate on promoting its goals and raising the company's image. This may lead many customers who care for the environment to change from other OTT platforms to Netflix.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Also, showing that the company is politically awake as the streaming service's forerunner will be an exemplar for other successors to follow. 2.7. Subtitles One of the advantages of Netflix over other platforms is its subtitles that enable the contents to reach out to people who do not speak the original languages the contents are created with. The multiple subtitles that Netflix provided to people outside Korea facilitated the boom of Korean drama (K-drama). According to Insight (SNS-focused news media), many TV shows and Korean movies like Train to Busan and Stranger gained popularity with many global fans who are Netflix subscribers who watched and loved its content. Consequently, Netflix gained many subscribers by having great K-drama content in its resource bank. As this model example showed, Netflix may acquire more subscribers if it effectively focuses on subtitles: introducing local content to foreigners who might find interest in those content. When this method becomes successful among people, Netflix can gain multiple benefits: gain more customers and acknowledgment from the government or the country for helping one's sector to thrive. In addition, realistically, unlike other risky, costly methods for an increase in customers, Netflix's subtitle method may be the most productive choice; the fact that not many companies have equal or more subtitles as Netflix does makes the competition feasible for the company. Then, how should Netflix start this extensive journey? The company would firstly need a team of professional translators to keep the level of subtitles high; the more language the professionals can translate, the more successful the solution will be. The team would first evaluate and solve the problems of Netflix's subtitles as of now. For instance, some of its subtitles incorrectly translate some idioms of a particular language, and some of the contents do not have subtitles. Then, with the company's guarantee that every content will have several subtitles options, the professionals must try to convey the message accurately and catch the nuances and subtleties of the target language. If struggling, "Rakuten Viki" would be the best example of a company that translates the subtitles: it offers high-quality translations and up-to-date Asian content. Following its motto of providing the best quality translations of the latest shows but doing it with more variety of content not limited to those of Asian, people will choose Netflix over VIKI. 2.8. Target audience One way that Netflix can win over other local OTT services is by having a large spectrum of content. For instance, in Korea, OTT platforms called WAVVE and Watcha are arguably the two most popular OTT platforms, each having more than thousands of shows. Therefore, Netflix cannot purchase all those contents and win over them. However, if we carefully analyze what content is served by WAVVE, we can see that most content is from SK, KBS, MBC, and SBS. This is because SK's Ott service "Oksusu" and KBS, MBC, and SBS's content "Pooq" have been combined to make''WAVVE." Similar, Tving is made from CJ E&M and has combined with "SEEZN" previously owned by KT. As you might already recognize, specific platforms show and have shows from their company, not having much of the contents of other companies. Such

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) limitations do not bridle Netflix because the platform contains content from Netflix Originals to the ones created by local broadcasting companies. Recognizing the limitations of each system's contents, Netflix can purchase the license of a few popular TV series or movies from different channels, targeting the audience who want to watch both companies' favored products but do not want to subscribe to both platforms. This requires continuous and strenuous conversations with local channels that could benefit from the vast subscriber pool that Netflix holds.

Implications and Recommendations OTT is a promising sector in the 21st century where broadband internet connection is becoming a basic necessity, not a privilege: its market value is expected to reach 139 Billion by 2028. Furthermore, it is suspected that the development of the 6G internet, which allows users to download "more than 140 hours of movies" in a minute, will spark a further rise in streaming and OTT services. To better match the advancements, the OTT market must follow the best path possible, with the forerunner Netflix leading the lead for other startups or new OTT companies. Consequently, this study aimed to evaluate the significant problems that Netflix was facing and provided various feasible solutions. To tackle the main issue of pricing that customers are most sensitive about, the study provided three main solutions: providing bundle plans and collaborating with other companies, including advertisements options, and creating yearly plans. Further, to raise the company's image, the study proposed that Netflix actively advertise its ESG protocols and provide free trials and coupons for previous users who have ended their subscriptions. Lastly, to improve the efficiency of the capital, the study guided Netflix to focus on comparably subtle but influential parts such as subtitles which would expand the scope of its targeting audiences, purchasing content mainly to win over other local OTTs, and creating an user interactive interface that would ensure a more enjoyable experience using Netflix. However, this study doesn’t cover the whole step that the company can follow. The market situation is rapidly changing: for instance, Netflix just signed a contract with Microsoft to create an ad-supported version of the subscription which the company has opposed for decades. Hence, constant follow up studies are needed. These will together act as a guide for how the company can make its way through the difficult time and eventually lead to a much greater expansion of OTT services as general.

Citation 1. Zhao, S. (2022, June 27). Netflix's (NFLX) plan to fix its subscription crisis starts in Asia. Bloomberg.com. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-27/netflix-s-plan-to-fix-its-subscription-cr isisstarts-in-asia 2. Scott, S. (2020, January 20). Netflix acquires rights for Studio Ghibli films outside North America and Japan. Forbes. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/sheenascott/2020/01/20/netflix-acquires-rights-for-studio-ghiblifilms-outside-north-america-and-japan/?sh=3f2c42ce3d2d. 3. McFadden, C. (2020, July 4). The fascinating history of Netflix. Interesting Engineering. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://interestingengineering.com/culture/the-fascinatinghistory-of-netflix 4. Person, & Lee, J. (2021, October 13). S.Korea broadband firm sues Netflix after traffic surge from 'squid game'. Reuters. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/skorea-broadband-firm-sues-netflix-after-tra fficsurge-squid-game-2021-10-01/ 5. Plans and pricing. Help Center. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://help.netflix.com/en/node/24926/us 6. Kastrenakes, J. (2022, January 14). Netflix raises prices on all plans in US. The Verge. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.theverge.com/2022/1/14/22884263/netflix-price-increases-2021-us-canada-all-pl anshd-4k 7. Unscrupulous free rider. koreatimes. (2021, November 7). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/opinion/2021/11/137_318333.html.%C2%A0%E2%80%A 8 8. ⼧㰚 ṫ. (2020, March 12). ⎍䝢Ⰳ㓺Ṗ 㰖ぢⰂ㢖 Ἒ㟓䞮Ⳇ 㝊 ☞㦖㠊ⓦ 㩫☚㧒₢? 䠞䝚䙂㓺䔎䆪Ⰲ㞚. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://www.huffingtonpost.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=94681 9. Netflix long term debt 2010-2022: NFLX. Macrotrends. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/NFLX/netflix/long-term-debt 10. Huston, C. (2022, April 28). Despite Netflix's stumble, Hollywood's streaming content spend may increase in near-term. The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/despite-netflixs-stumble-hollywoods-stre aming-content-spend-may-increase-in-near-term-1235135637/ 11. The ESPN brand with Transparent Marketing. The ESPN Brand with Transparent Marketing | Dont Think Pink: What Really Makes Women Buy -- and How to Increase Your Share of This Crucial Market. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://flylib.com/books/en/1.390.1.19/1/ 12. Chmielewski, D. C. (2019, January 8). Hulu says it now has 25 million subscribers, up 48% from a year ago. Deadline. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://deadline.com/2019/01/hulu-25million-subscribers-up-48-percent-1202531129/ 13. Spangler, T. (2019, May 30). Hulu says 70% of its 82 million viewers are on ad-supported plan. Variety. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://variety.com/2019/digital/news/hulu-ad-supported-subscribers-70-percent-1203227954/ 14. Marks, L. U., Clark, J., Livingston, J., Oleksijczuk, D., & Hilderbrand, L. (2020, October 15). Streaming Media's Environmental Impact: Published in media+environment. Media+Environment. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://mediaenviron.org/article/17242streaming-media-s-environmental-impact 15. Sustainability. About Netflix. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://about.netflix.com/en/sustainability 16. Watroba, Nicolas. “Hulu Help.” Hulu Help, 21 July 2022, https://help.hulu.com/s/article/howmuch-does-hulu-cost. 17. Webb, K. (2022, August 5). HBO Max is merging with Discovery Plus in 2023 - here's a breakdown of what the service offers now and what you can expect. Business Insider. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.businessinsider.com/guides/tech/hbo-max-streaming-service#:~:text=Max%20pr oviders%20here.-,How%20much%20is%20HBO%20Max%3F,plan%20is%20%24100%20a %20year 18. Jonathan, E. (2021, October 4). Netflix sued by SK Broadband over data usage following squid game surge. Digital TV Europe. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.digitaltveurope.com/2021/10/04/netflix-sued-by-sk-broadband-over-data-usage-f ollowing-squid-game-surge/

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 19. Opinion. (2021, November 7). Unscrupulous free rider. koreatimes. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/opinion/2021/11/137_318333.html 20. ☯㤆㧻. (2022, July 14). Tving, SEEZN to merge to become S. Korea's biggest streaming platform. Yonhap News Agency. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20220714008100320 21. JAE-LIM , L. E. E. (2020, September 28). For Korean ott platform Wavve, content is key. Korea joongAng Daily. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2020/09/28/entertainment/television/Wavve/202009281 85600424.html 22. ⹒㡗㾲. (2021, January 8). 2㤪⿖䎆 ⍺㧊⻚䝢⩂㓺Ⲻ⻚㕃㦒⪲ '䕆ク'☚ ⽎┺. 䞲Ỿ⩞. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/economy/it/977928.html 23. Chan, T. (2022, January 12). Want to sign up for HBO Max? here's how to get the streaming service for free. Rolling Stone. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.rollingstone.com/product-recommendations/lifestyle/best-hbo-max-deal-offer-11 14384/ 24. Stream Disney, Marvel, Pixar, Star Wars, National Geographic: Disney+. Stream Disney, Marvel, Pixar, Star Wars, National Geographic | Disney+. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.disneyplus.com/ 25. 㧎㌂㧊䔎. (2018, December 24). '⎍䝢Ⰳ㓺' ▫⿚㠦䟊㣎㍲㽞╖⹫ 䎆㰚䞲ῃ ✲⧒Ⱎ·㡗䢪 5䘎. '⎍䝢Ⰳ㓺' ▫⿚㠦䟊㣎㍲㽞╖⹫ 䎆㰚䞲ῃ ✲⧒Ⱎ·㡗䢪 5䘎 : ⍺㧊⻚䙂㓺䔎. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://post.naver.com/viewer/postView.naver?volumeNo=17416221&memberNo=29949587 &vType=VERTICAL 26. SOO-KI, L. E. E. (2021, May 3). Local Ott services become more popular as Netflix stalls. Korea joongAng Daily. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2021/05/03/business/industry/ott-netflix-tving/2021050 3145800402.html 27. BBC. (2022, January 20). Netflix faces Rocky Road after pandemic wins. BBC News. Retrieved August 17, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-60077485 28. Castro, C., & Contributor, 6G. W. (2021, August 23). Guest editorial: The future of a 6G-enabled world. 6GWorld. Retrieved August 18, 2022, from https://www.6gworld.com/exclusives/guest-editorial-the-future-of-a-6g-enabled-world/#:~:tex t=Already%20the%20industry%20is%20talking,movies%20in%20that%20same%20minute. 29. Achieving Sustainable Development Goals: The role of ott platforms. Access Partnership. (2022, March 24). Retrieved August 18, 2022, from https://www.accesspartnership.com/achievingsustainable-development-goals-the-role-of-ott- platforms/

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Friends Share Good Things? The Relationship Between Music and Substance Use Through Integrated Research Approaches. Author 1

Full Name

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Lee, Kris Jung Woo (Lee, Kris)

Dulwich College Seoul

Abstract: Previously, there have been a lot of studies regarding the relationship between music preferences and adolescent substance use. However, recently e-cigarette (vape) usage among adolescents has become increasingly prevalent, even when adolescent usage is firmly illegal. The present study combines both a qualitative and quantitative research method to further understand social and personal mechanisms behind the relationship between music preferences and adolescent e-cigarette use. In Study 1 of this research paper, a qualitative focus group interview was conducted to understand the personal beliefs of vaping and non-vaping adolescents. They were asked questions shaped to reveal information about their music preferences, openness towards sharing habits, and personal experiences with vaping and vape users. Specifically, the vaping focus group was asked about their reasons for initiation, reasons for maintaining this habit, and opinions on cessation. In Study 2, a quantitative survey questionnaire was used to find the social and personal information of vapers and non-vapers on a larger scale, by reaching out to more targeted adolescents. They were asked to listen to a series of songs from the soft, hard, and urban genres. Then, they were asked to provide insights on their familiarity and likability of the songs. This integrated study using the two research methods revealed the psychological relationship between music preferences and e-cigarette usage in the perspectives of social influence and personal behavior. Adolescent ecigarette users showed social sharing in both music and substance usage, and a personal tendency to seek novel sensations. The present study shed light on the solid relationship between music preference and adolescent substance misuse through the aforementioned integrated research approaches.

Keywords: Substance misuse, e-cigarette, music preferences, adolescent

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Adolescence is a very important transitional period where teenagers are most vulnerable to social influences that may affect their early adulthood. During this period, adolescents are emotionally and physically unstable due to the boundless social pressures and the changes in their bodies. Teenagers before adulthood are not yet fully established in where they stand and therefore open themselves up to a plethora of different paths they may take. This includes their perceptions on substance use (Ren & Lotfipour, 2019). Smoking combustible cigarettes is a method of inhaling substances that has been around since the 19th century. Although the risks of smoking are now widely recognized, adolescents continue to seek combustible cigarettes. In the United States, it is reported that around 90% of adult smokers begin smoking before the age of 18 (Office of the Surgeon General, 2017). In 2021, the Public Health and Tobacco Policy Center in the United States reported that each day, 2100 additional adolescents became daily smokers and more than 3000 adolescents attempt their first cigarette. In 2016, the male adolescent smoking rate in Korea was 9.6% and the female adolescent smoking rate was 2.7%. In 2018, the mean age when adolescents tried their first cigarette was 12.7. Smokers who start smoking in adolescent years continue to smoke for approximately 16 to 20 years, and up to 50% of them become heavy smokers. However, smoking combustible cigarettes has now become a relatively outdated form of inhaling substances, especially among the younger population (Ball et al., 2021). A more modern alternative to smoking cigarettes is using e-cigarettes which is now commonly known as “vaping”. A vape or electronic cigarette is a device that heats up “e- juice” including nicotine to create vapor that you inhale. While many recognize this method of substance intake as a healthier alternative to smoking (Baeza-Loya et al., 2015), it has its own negative side effects too. Nicotine vaping among adolescents has rapidly increased in the past 3 years. Specifically, in 2019, past 30-day youth vaping among Americans was reported by 25% of 12th graders and 20% of 10th graders which goes to show just how large of a proportion adolescents contribute to the vaping population. In Korea, the vaping rate among adolescents between the ages of 13-18 is 3.2% which is much lower than that of the United States, but Korea recently being a western-culture-influenced country may have a negative effect on the smoking/vaping numbers. In New Zealand, vaping was found to be 2-3 times more prevalent than smoking. It was revealed that 10% of students vaped on a monthly basis and 6% of students vaped on a weekly basis or more often. The percentages of students smoking combustible cigarettes were 4% and 2%, respectively. More than 49% of regular vapers (n=718) had never tried a combustible cigarette before they first vaped, and approximately 80% of students who had attempted vaping (n=2732) reported they had not smoked before their first time vaping (Ball et al., 2021). The Youth Risk Behavior Survey revealed a decrease in the number of adolescents attempting combustible cigarettes from 70% in 1991 down to 58.4% in 2003. This percentage further decreased down to 28.9% in 2017 (Jones & Salzman, 2021). Although the initial decrease in the number of adolescents trying cigarettes may have resulted from an increase in the knowledge of smoking side effects, the later decrease may have happened due to the rise of e-cigarettes. Jones and Salzman (2020) found that 78% of middle and high school students had come into contact with at least one advertisement for vaping. These advertisements describe vape pods as “fun and flavorful” and attract younger audiences by promoting their flavors that range from simple ones like spearmint all the way to exotic ones like gummy bear and frosted sugar cookie. Previous studies have shown that flavor is one of the most significant reasons why adolescents first try e-cigarettes. Additionally, their slick design designed to look like futuristic USBs or pens make them even more appealing to the younger generation (Tobore,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2019). Interestingly, some previous studies have shown that music preference is an important element in explaining adolescent smoking (Mulder et al., 2009, 2010; Wright et al., 2020 ;Dingle et al., 2015). A study revealed that liking loud types of music such as rock characterized as “hard” music in this study co-occurred with increased levels of adolescent substance use (Mulder et al., 2010). In contrast, more gentle music such as jazz characterized as “soft” music in this study had an inverse relationship with adolescent substance use . In terms of an adolescent’s psychological perspective, it is commonly assumed that their music preference resonates with their own behaviors (Miranda & Claes, 2004). Similarly, adolescents may prefer to stay around friends that fit into their lifestyle, and these chosen friends may determine whether or not they decide to take part in substance use. Using this information, music preference can be used as a predicting factor of friendship formation (Knobloch et al., 2000; Selfhout et al., 2009), which implies that music is an unidentified significant element of peer substance use and self-substance use. As an attempt to extend from this previous study, this study takes into account another genre of music described as “urban” music which includes sub-genres like modern hip-hop and R&B which became the most popular music genre in the US since 2017 (Serjeant, 2018) and investigates the relationship between music preferences and e-cigarette use rather than substance use as a whole. The reasons behind this relation between music preferences and substance use is still up for discussion. For instance, it is suggested that the behaviors and lyrics of idolized artists may have an influential effect on their respective audiences (Brown & Witherspoon, 2002). Similarly, Robalino and Macy (2018) examined whether the effect of popular teens on smoking behavior is more influential. Their findings showed that the social status of a peer determined the level of influence that they were open to. An adolescent was more likely to become introduced to smoking if the peer of influence was “popular” compared to when the peer of influence was “unpopular”. An alternative approach focuses on the idea that one’s personality is the main factor that underpins both music preference and substance use (Carpentier et al., 2003; McCown et al., 1997; Miller et al., 2016; Miranda et al., 2012; Wright et al., 2020). Specifically, if an adolescent was more open to unfamiliar music genres, they could likely be more open to unfamiliar substance uses which can be summarized as the sensation seeking tendency. This study is aimed at examining the psychological relationship between music preferences and ecigarette use with the perspectives of social influence (peer effect) and influence, and the personality influence (sensation seeking tendency). More specifically, this study utilized integrated research approaches adapting both quantitative and qualitative methods to strengthen the overall examination of hypotheses. In Study 1, as a qualitative research method, a focus group interview technique was applied to understand the psychological traits related to music preference and substance use. In Study 2, as a quantitative research method, a survey was created to interpret the importance of music to vapers and non-vapers, their music preferences, opinions on the likability and familiarity of specific sample songs from each of the aforementioned genres, and their experiences with vaping. Study 1 In Study 1, in order to collect appropriate information, there were two groups: a vaping group and a non-vaping group. These participants were asked questions about their personal opinions on music and vaping. These responses were obtained to analyze the effect peer use has on one’s choice to vape. The interview guideline was produced in a way that would work around the idea of sensation seeking

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) tendency to obtain information about self- behavior towards vaping. Their verbal responses and nonlinguistic behaviors were monitored and written down on a separate document for further analysis. In Study 1, it was expected to yield results that showed a correlation between participants’ social openness and their vaping status. If participants were more open to sharing music, they are more likely to open up to new experiences such as vaping which is expected to be one of the main reasons vapers start vaping. Another hypothesis is that participants are surrounded by people similar to them. The interview expects vapers to say they hang around with other vapers and non-vapers hang around with non-vapers. This is because the peer environment of an adolescent is a significant factor to self behavior.

Method Design and Population Focus group interviews can be defined as a method of data collection where data is produced and collected via the group interaction around a subject that the researcher is investigating. The main researcher conducting the interview plays the role of a facilitator that encourages active discussion in an interactive environment unlike a traditional interview where the interviewer asks one-sided questions. Focus group interviews in qualitative research are particularly appropriate to shed light on the social significance of a phenomenon - in this case vaping - and a group’s mutual understanding of the phenomenon. This investigation has used two focus groups composed of a pre-existing network of teenagers which included classmates and/or peers that identified themselves as friends. A purposive sample of vapers and non vapers meant that the high school groups were stratified by gender and vaping status. As part of a screening questionnaire, the participants were asked questions along the lines of, “Do you currently vape? If so, how often do you use your device?”. For the focus group interviews, current vape users were defined as adolescents who have used them once or more during the past 30 days. The first focus group identified as the “vapers” consisted of three 17 year old female students who attended international schools in Korea. At this particular age and from this particular background, a large proportion of teenagers have some experience with vaping, but only a minority reports having experiences with combustible cigarettes. The second group identified as the “non-vapers” consisted of three 17 year old students (one female and two males) and only one male from this group had prior experience with vaping. The participants were informed about the confidentiality and the voluntary nature of the focus groups prior to their participation. Participants were remunerated with gift cards worth 25000 won (equivalent to approximately 19 USD) for their participation in the focus groups. Table 1. Focus Group Semi-Structured Interview Guide Question Domain Vaping group

Music preference

Non-vaping group

How important and influential is music in your life? (many Music importance hours a day do you listen to music/ In what context do you listen to music? Preferred genre or What type of music genre do you listen to most often? What artists artist do you listen to the most?

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Music as a social tool

Music sharing Similarity

How often do you share your music with your friends? How similar (genre/artist/specific song) is your music taste to your friends’? Does music affect your mood?

Mood Music as an Emotional response What emotions do you feel when listening to your favorite songs? emotional tool Negative emotions Do you listen to sad/moody music? How/When did you start Have you tried vaping? What was Initiation vaping? it like? Experience Was it out of self-curiosity or with vaping Reason of initiation through a friend’s Why did you start vaping? encouragement? Before you started vaping, Prior contact were your friends already vaping? Social context When vaping, do you prefer to Vaping context vape alone or together? How strong are your cravings Cravings Do you want to try vaping? Why? for vaping? Emotions context How relaxed do you feel What do you think vaping will do Relaxation during/after vaping? to your emotional state? Do you have plans on Quitting quitting? If so, when? Or have you attempted to quit Cessation Attempts to quit vaping? Why? Why not? Would you quit vaping if all Peer cessation your best friends did? Perceived level of Sensation How harmful do you think vaping is to your body? seeking and harm risk Rank these from most harmful to least harmful. Cigarettes, Vapes, Comparison perception Weed, Alcohol Number of vaping Rank your top 5 closest friends, how many of them vape? peers Peer effect Intensity of peer use How similar are their vaping intensities compared to yours? Do you listen to any music Music context while vaping? Do you have a memory of listening to music while Memory Perceived vaping? relationship between Do any of the songs you listen music and Music connotations to evoke connotations vaping of vaping? Do the lyrics/genre/features Music feature effect (e.g., beats) of the songs you listen to relate to vaping?

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Procedures Data collection and analysis was conducted in accordance with the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) guidelines, which was included in the appendix. The two interviews were held in a meeting room near the students’ school. A quiet and private meeting room was chosen so that the voices of the participants could be clearly heard and so that the students could maintain their anonymity. Both interview sessions lasted 1.5 hours; on both occasions there was one moderator (male) and an assistant moderator (male). Standardized, semi-structured interview guides were developed based on interview guides used in previous research. The focus groups began with a simple survey used in study that each participant had to fill out. The moderator played a series of six songs and the participants had to share their familiarity with the songs, the feelings induced from the songs, and the likability of the songs. The survey was used as an opening discussion session which allowed the participants to prepare for the main interview session. The main interview was split into two main sections with a 15 minute break session in between the two. The first section was about music for both focus groups. More specifically, they were asked questions about music preference, music in a social context, and music in an emotional context. The second section was about vaping. Both groups were asked about their experience with vaping, openness, risk perception, and peer use. On top of this, the vaping focus group were asked about their vaping intensities in a social context, vaping intensities in an emotional context, cessation, and the relation between music and vaping. The assistant moderator took detailed field notes during the interview and the entire session was audio- taped which was later used to complete an interview transcript. At the conclusion of each focus group, we debriefed the participants about the risks of vaping and nicotine exposure.

Result and Discussion Theme: Stronger importance of music for vaping group Both groups revealed that music was important in their daily lives. The participants in the non-vaping focus group listened to music somewhere between 2-4 hours and said music was “pretty important (Line 229)”. Similarly, the vaping focus group said that music was important in their daily lives. Importantly, however, it was clearly found that the vaping group views music more impactful in their daily lives than the other focus group. Interviewee ES said that music was “really important” (Line 17)” in her life, stating that she listens to music almost all day, even in her sleep. From the interviews, it was evident that the importance of music was different between the two focus groups that were split according to vape use. Theme: Effectiveness of Social influence on the initiation and maintenance of vaping Two of the three participants first started vaping due to strong peer encouragement. While their already-vaping friends were vaping as a group, some would offer the participants to vape (Lines 8284). The already-vaping friends would lend their devices to the participants for a couple minutes for them to use in order to get them involved with the activity too. After numerous offers, the participants eventually gave in and bought their own devices too. In addition, when the vaping participants were asked about the number of peers that were already vaping before them, they all replied along the lines of “all of my friends were already vaping, so I felt that I had to start vaping to fit in with the group” (Lines 81-82).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Compared to the non-vaping group, it seemed as though the vaping participants had a much lower reluctance level towards their friends’ offers to try vaping for the first time. After vaping for a few months, the participants revealed that they became numb to the initial purpose of vaping which was to feel a lightheaded sensation (Lines 142-145). The reason they are maintaining this bad habit is purely due to addiction and muscle memory. One participant even said that they wouldn’t find it hard to quit if a vape wasn’t around them as often (Lines 118-119). They only vaped because it was easily accessible and because the motion of holding it in their hand and putting it in their mouth was so routine. This shows that although vaping is similar to smoking in the sense that social influence has a significant effect on initiation, the difficulty to quit vaping for teenagers is relatively harder because of how accessible and convenient a vaping device is. Theme: Evident tendency to seek novelty for unfamiliar music and novel substance Generally, as teenagers tend to seek music and songs that are up for the trend, most of the songs the participants enjoyed listening to were considered under the urban category, including specific genres like hip-hop and R&B. When the vaping focus interview group were given samples from songs of the three aforementioned categories (soft, hard, urban), the overall feedback of the songs were positive. The soft and hard genres were unfamiliar for most of the focus group participants, but the vaping group had a much more positive reaction towards those unfamiliar songs than the non-vaping group. For example, when they listened to the “hard” songs, even if it sounded unfamiliar, they sang along with the chorus. This insinuated that they had higher tendencies to seek novelty which can be reflected in their choices to start vaping. Similarly, in the interview session the vaping group had ranked weed use lower on the harm identification scale which showed that they were more open to newer substances they hadn’t experienced yet. In contrast to the vaping group, the non-vaping group had a much more negative reaction towards unfamiliar songs from the soft and hard genres. One non-vaping participant even said that one of the “soft” songs that are widely recognized as gentle, soothing songs, made them uncomfortable. This portrays how non-vapers are not open to new experiences such as vaping and how they can simply reject offers to new experiences such as vaping. Theme: Similar attitude for sharing and seeking behavior Attitudes towards shared experiences can imply the significance of peer effect. Through the focus group interview, it was revealed that the non-vaping group rarely shared their favorite songs among friends (Line 253). They only shared music via social media to a wider audience as a means of showing that they listen to “cool” music which may raise their perceived social status. In contrast to this discovery, the vaping participants were more likely to share music among themselves, by listening to songs together on apps like discord (Line 251). By being more open to sharing music, this shows how vapers are more willing to share components of their vaping habit e.g. vape juice, device. Study 2 In Study 2, I adapted a quantitative research methodology, a survey method for two independent groups; a vaping group and a non-vaping group. The main purpose of this questionnaire was to analyze the direct responses towards different music genres and how the results of the two sample groups differed from each other. Through this quantitative data retrieval method, the results received from the smaller samples in Study 1 were generalized to a larger sample number, allowing study 2 to

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) strengthen the results of study 1. The research hypothesis was verified by comparing the quantitative responses to the similar songs and questions asked in study 1. Both the vaping and non-vaping surveyees were asked to listen to the same six representative songs, which included two songs from each genre. They were then asked to give their opinions on the familiarity and likability of the songs and whether they had/have any experiences with vaping. Furthermore, they were asked about their peers’ vape usage too. One possible hypothesis is that adolescents that vape are more open to unfamiliar songs in less “popular” genres like jazz or rock. In addition, some minor differences among the vaping group’s music preferences and the non-vaping group’s music preferences were anticipated. Additionally, it was expected that adolescents who vape would have more close friends that also share the same habits.

Materials and Methods Participants Supportive sampling was used to recruit participants for the survey study. The sample was divided into two main categories: a vaping group and a non-vaping group. For the vaping group, people who revealed that they were still actively vaping were included and the others were included in the nonvaping group. The survey had twenty-two total respondents. The research sample consisted of forty five percent male and fifty five percent female. The respondents were aged between 14 and 20 years old. Age in the research sample was distributed as follows: 14 years old: 4%, 15 years old: 9%, 16 years old: 23%, 17 years old: 55%, 19 years old: 4%, 20 years old: 5%. The average age of the participants was 16.682 years old and the standard deviation of their ages was 1.249. Materials As an internet-based survey program (Waclawski, 2012), SurveyMonkey (https://ko.surveymonkey.com) was adapted to design and conduct the survey. An original, selfadministered survey questionnaire was used to collect data. Once the participants consented to filling out the survey questionnaire, they were each sent an online link via social media. The survey consisted of 28 questions on 4 pages based on the results of an interview conducted in Study 1 (eighteen closedend questions, eight multiple choice questions, and two open-ended questions). The first set of questions were included to determine the respondents’ basic information such as age and gender. The second set of questions were asked to find out how influential music was to the respondents and what their top 5 favorite songs were. The third set of questions directed respondents to 6 different songs which they had to provide their opinions on (familiarity, likability, and emotions induced from the songs). A link was provided for each song which directed the participants to a new tab which played the song. They were asked to listen to the song from the first minute up to the second minute of the song. The final set of questions were included to reveal the vaping background of the respondents. After the participants sent proof showing that they had completed the survey, they were each sent a $5 gift card voucher as a reward for helping the investigation.

Result and Discussion Data Analysis The data submitted from two of the participants was removed as they were incomplete submissions that did not include any opinions about the sample songs. Once all the data was received and filtered, a descriptive analysis, t-test analysis and repeated measure ANOVA analysis was performed to compare the mean scores of each question.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The number of peer use The mean number of friends that vaped among the participants’ top 5 closest friends was 3.67. Importantly, the number of peers that used vapes were significantly higher for the vaping group (M = 4.667, SD = 0.707) compared to the non-vaping group (M = 0.889, SD = 1.537), t(16) = -6.700, p < .001, d = -3.159.

Figure 1. The mean of the number of peers who are vaping Three-interaction between group, music genre, and question type A significant three-way interaction between group, music genre, and question type, F(2, 32)= 3.465, p = .042. When asked about their familiarity with the urban songs, the vaping group reported a lower mean response (M=4.06) compared to the non-vaping group’s mean response (M=5.22). However, when both groups were asked about how likable each urban song was, there was no significant differentiation (Vaping group mean = 5.56, non-vaping group mean = 5.33) which indicated that the vaping group was more open to unfamiliar, novel experiences than the non-vaping group. F(1, 16) = 6.494, p = .021. Through the results of each sample group, it was also found that participants who were identified as “vapers” had a significantly higher number of close friends among their top 5 closest friends that vaped. This phenomenon is in parallel with the aforementioned research paper regarding the relationship between self substance use and peer use (mulder et al., 2010).

Figure 2. The mean of score of familiarity for three music genres in both groups

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Figure 3. The mean of score of likability for three music genres in both groups

Conclusion The goal of this study was to examine the psychological relationship between music preferences and e-cigarette use with the perspectives of social influence (peer effect) and personality influence (sensation seeking tendency). This study made use of both a qualitative method and a quantitative method to collect data which allowed subjective, personal information to be revealed in study 1 and those ideas to be examined objectively in study 2. Furthermore, as a key feature of this study, since vaping is a new addition to the substance industry, this study extends beyond the existing studies to deliver the differences between vapes and other substances in the terms of the relation between music preference and substance use. Study 1 was qualitative research to obtain data as to the difference between psychological traits of adolescents who are vaping or not related to music preference and substance use. It was a series of focus group interviews which was separated by participants that were “vapers” and those that were “non-vapers”. It was evident that adolescents who vaped had initiated and ended up maintaining their habits due to the peer influence around them. This showed that sharing music among vaping adolescents was a reflective factor of their social behavior regarding vape usage. As evidence of personality influence on music preference and substance use, it was revealed that vapers were more open to unfamiliar music which seems to influence their sensation seeking tendency related to the openness towards substances than non-vapers (McCown et al., 1997; Miller et al., 2016; Miranda et al., 2012; Wright et al., 2020). Study 2 was a quantitative method to obtain data about the relationship between opinions on specific songs and the vaping experiences of the participants. Survey questionnaires were sent to a wider range of participants. These participants were asked about their personal backgrounds, music preferences, opinions on sample songs, their experiences with vaping, and peers’ use of vape. Among the participants, the vaping adolescents reported a higher number of close friends that vaped too. This serves as evidence that peer use is a significant contributing factor to self vape use. Taken together, in both studies, one type of psychological relationship between music preferences and e-cigarette use was found in the perspectives of social influence. Vaping adolescents had a higher willingness to share their song preferences which represented their high level of openness. This exposed openness is highly likely to relate to their habits of sharing substances with other users. This

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) investigation arguably disentangled and supported the idea that the link between adolescent e-cigarette use and music preferences can be explained by co-occurring peer use, which was consistent with previous findings with adolescent smoking behaviors (Mulder et al., 2010; Wright et al,. 2020). In addition, another psychological relationship between music preferences and e-cigarette use was based on personality influence. Indeed, both sources of two studies also supported the repeated theme of sensation seeking tendencies since vaping candidates were more likely to enjoy unfamiliar songs than the non-vaping candidates. This report in the interview was confirmed constantly even in survey methods, in that the sample songs had similar likability among the vaping and non-vaping respondents, even when the familiarity of songs was lower for the vaping respondents. These two proven social and personal factors can support the thesis that vaping adolescents are more likely to be influenced by social enticement related to music genre and substance use and personal tendency to seek novel sensation. When compared to other researches around this field of study regarding substance use and music preferences, this investigation reported a much worse reaction towards hard music (Dingle et al, 2015; Wright et al., 2020). Previous studies have reported urban and hard music to be competitive in terms of popularity, but this study saw a majority of people enjoying urban music and a significantly lower number of people enjoying hard music (Mulder et al., 2010). This result arises from two main sources. Firstly, the sample size of study 2 might have been too small to be able to obtain a wide variety of information regarding music preferences. Secondly, the research was conducted in South Korea where urban music might be the most undisputedly popular music genre. There is a possibility that the songs that were chosen as the sample songs of each genre are not clearly representative of the whole genre. The sample songs may only represent a minute proportion of the entire genre. Essentially, the three genres were generalized by just two songs of the genre, therefore future studies could collect data from a larger audience by sampling many more songs than two per genre. Vaping is a ‘trendier’ and more accessible way to inhale substances which is why it is so prevalent among adolescents. This research supports the movement that analysis on adolescent music preferences can be used as an indicator to discover the social and personal traits of ‘newfangled’ substance users. This study highlights that music preferences used to hint one’s behavior reveals their novelty seeking tendencies, susceptibility towards peer pressure, and the interactive effect of these two factors.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Reference Baeza-Loya, S., Viswanath, H., Carter, A., Molfese, D. L., Velasquez, K. M., Baldwin, P. R., Thompson-Lake, D. G., Sharp, C., Fowler, J. C., De La Garza, R., 2nd, & Salas, R. (2014). Perceptions about e-cigarette safety may lead to e-smoking during pregnancy. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 78(3), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2014.78.3.243 Brown, J. D., & Witherspoon, E. M. (2002). The mass media and American adolescents’ health. Journal of adolescent health, 31(6), 153-170. Camenga, D. R., Cavallo, D. A., Kong, G., Morean, M. E., Connell, C. M., Simon, P., ... & KrishnanSarin, S. (2015). Adolescents’ and young adults’ perceptions of electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation: a focus group study. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 17(10), 1235-1241. Carpentier, F. D., Knobloch, S., & Zillmann, D. (2003). Rock, rap, and rebellion: Comparisons of traits predicting selective exposure to defiant music. Personality and individual differences, 35(7), 1643-1655. Dingle, G. A., Kelly, P. J., Flynn, L. M., & Baker, F. A. (2015). The influence of music on emotions and cravings in clients in addiction treatment: A study of two clinical samples. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 45, 18-25. Jones, K., & Salzman, G. A. (2020). The vaping epidemic in adolescents. Missouri Medicine, 117(1), 56. Knobloch, S., Vorderer, P., & Zillmann, D. (2000). The impact of music preferences on the perception of potential friends in adolescence. Zeitschrift Fur Sozialpsychologie, 31(1), 18- 30. McCown, W., Keiser, R., Mulhearn, S., & Williamson, D. (1997). The role of personality and gender in preference for exaggerated bass in music. Personality and individual differences, 23(4), 543-547. Miech, R., Leventhal, A., Johnston, L., O’Malley, P. M., Patrick, M. E., & Barrington- Trimis, J. (2021). Trends in use and perceptions of nicotine vaping among US youth from 2017 to 2020. JAMA pediatrics, 175(2), 185-190. Miller, E. M., Kelley, B. M., Midgett, C., & Parent, C. (2016). Substance use references in college students’ diverse personal music libraries predicts substance use behavior. Cogent Psychology, 3(1), 1220446. Miranda, D., Gaudreau, P., Morizot, J., & Fallu, J. S. (2012). Can fantasizing while listening to music play a protective role against the influences of sensation seeking and peers on adolescents’ substance use?. Substance Use & Misuse, 47(2), 166-179. Motyka, M. A., & Al-Imam, A. (2019). Musical preference and drug use among youth: An empirical study. Res. Adv. Psychiatr, 6, 50-57.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Mulder, J., Ter Bogt, T. F., Raaijmakers, Q. A., Gabhainn, S. N., Monshouwer, K., & Vollebergh, W. A. (2009). The soundtrack of substance use: music preference and adolescent smoking and drinking. Substance Use & Misuse, 44(4), 514-531. Mulder, J., Ter Bogt, T. F., Raaijmakers, Q. A., Gabhainn, S. N., Monshouwer, K., & Vollebergh, W. A. (2010). Is it the music? Peer substance use as a mediator of the link between music preferences and adolescent substance use. Journal of adolescence, 33(3), 387- 394. Office of the Surgeon General. (2017, June 6). ‘Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youths, Surgeon General fact sheet’. Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports-andpublications/tobacco/preventing-youth- tobacco-use-factsheet/index.html Ren, M., & Lotfipour, S. (2019). Nicotine gateway effects on adolescent substance use. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 20(5), 696. Robalino, J. D., & Macy, M. (2018). Peer effects on adolescent smoking: Are popular teens more influential?. PloS one, 13(7), e0189360. Selfhout, M. H. W., Branje, S. J. T., ter Bogt, T. F. M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). The role of music preferences in early adolescents' friendship formation and stability. Journal of Adolescence, 32(1), 95– 107. Serjeant, J. (2018, January 5). ‘Hip hop and R&B surpass rock as biggest U.S. music genre’. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-music-2017-idUSKBN1ET258 Silverman, M. J., Bourdaghs, S., Abbazio, J., & Riegelman, A. (2021). A systematic review of musicinduced substance craving. Musicae Scientiae, 10298649211030314. Tobore, T. O. (2019). On the potential harmful effects of E-Cigarettes (EC) on the developing brain: The relationship between vaping-induced oxidative stress and adolescent/young adults social maladjustment. Journal of adolescence, 76, 202-209. Wright, C. L., Ball, T., Kambour, K., Machado, L., Defrancesco, T., Hamilton, C., ... & Dauk, J. (2020). Music and substance use: A meta-analytic review. Journal of ethnicity in substance abuse, 19(2), 208-237.

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Education Market Opportunities for Addressing Issues of Poverty in Rural China Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Soojung

Seoul Scholars International

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: This paper looks at previous scholarship which discusses the impact of education, development and poverty in rural China, finding that there are many challenges which are steeper in rural areas compared to urban areas such as gender inequality or income inequality. The paper briefly discusses what kinds of market opportunities there are for enterprising private sector educational solutions to poverty.

Keywords: Education, socioeconomic development, inequality, poverty, rural China

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction This research aims to identify what poverty looks like in China and what kind of market opportunities exist for social entrepreneurship to provide goods and services that both alleviate effects of poverty and create sustainable profit. Poverty is widespread in China and exists in many different forms. While much of China has been lifted from absolute poverty, 40 percent of Chinese people still earn the equivalent of $150 a month, placing China low in poverty metrics for countries with mid to high income. Furthermore, when discussing problems of poverty in China, it is important to not lump different demographics living below the poverty line into a single monolith. Each variation of poverty, in both form and location, requires a different targeted approach to address and combat it, though much research has been focused on poverty and poverty alleviation in urban settings. Poverty in urban areas is a significant problem that leads to lack of living space, health care, and other basic necessities, many of these problems could be directly tackled by increasing social welfare programs within developed cities. This is especially truer in terms of education, in that children in urban areas largely have access to state education despite their poverty status. An area less covered by the research is the subject of poverty in more rural areas which constitutes a significant proportion of China’s land mass. This research proposal will focus on poverty in rural areas. China suffers from a crippling urban-rural divide, with different studies measuring the urban average income to be around 3 times that of rural average income. For a social enterprise, there is much more work to be done in rural areas compared to urban areas, where the problem is more a result of income inequality than systemic and infrastructural inequality. Populations living below the poverty line in rural China also fundamentally lack access to essential services that their urban counterparts could access if provided with financial aid. These are mostly infrastructural goods and services such as clean water, transportation, and healthcare. One such factor that contributes much to the exacerbation of the rural urban gap is education; most highly-funded schools from K to 12 are located in China’s cities, and the majority of colleges are also located in or near more urban areas, making access to higher education difficult for rural students with less means of not only attending university but also the associated living or housing expenses. This research will analyze different metrics in which Chinese rural populations significantly lack access to necessities. It will also place a strong emphasis on education, which will be the service that a future proposed social enterprise will seek to provide. Previous literature has focused on important metrics for assessing average educational competency in rural China. Most notably, literacy rates for children have been identified to be far lower in rural areas. Much research has been conducted to identify the cause and solutions for low literacy rates. Most notably, Hong Kong University researchers Jigying Wang, Hui Li, and Dan Wang (2017) conducted a comprehensive study in that measured literary rates of children in different grades against their family backgrounds. This research will draw upon studies like the aforementioned and attempt to identify key points to tackle in terms of creating a program that can alleviate rural poverty. At the heart of this paper lies inquiry into a general survey of poverty in rural China aimed at creating a comprehensive background for designing educational opportunities which will fill a necessary gap. In order to create more targeted and tailored solutions or government policies aimed at alleviating the type of poverty common in rural China, it is important to find answers to questions such as what poverty looks like in rural China and compare it to urban poverty, what the kinds of essential goods and services that are unavailable to rural Chinese nationals who live below the poverty line are, whether there are market opportunities for social enterprises to provide such goods and services, the influence and

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) necessity of cooperation from the local & central governments in providing aid, and the restraints and benefits for a foreign social enterprise to operate in rural China. This paper utilizes literature review conducted mainly on census data provided by the Chinese government, but considering that recent state conducted demographic studies are often incomplete or unavailable, the literature review will fill in the missing gaps with data from the World Bank. This preliminary research will identify rural regions that are both accessible and could benefit from small scale social entrepreneurship. Secondarily, analysis into how central& different local governments respond to social enterprises will be conducted. This research will be largely qualitive, and will draw from previous successes and failures of different ventures that have been conducted in these areas.

Literature Review There has been a plethora of studies on the impact of poverty in rural China and measures to alleviate it. Fan, Zhang and Zhang (2004) find evidence that increased government investment into rural regions has been a driving force for alleviating poverty, writing that “during the period 1985–2000, public investment became the largest source of production growth and poverty reduction.” They find that, particularly in the west of China where poorer populations are more concentrated, “the poverty reduction effect of spending in education, agricultural R&D, and infrastructure is especially high in the region.” While type of investment or funding had varied results, in terms of education they found striking statistical results, stating that “our results show that rural education investment has the largest poverty reduction effect per unit of spending.” In other words, larger educational investments and public funding for education lifted people out of poverty and drove down measures of poverty considerably. This is not overly surprising, since urban areas also see benefits from educational funding and poverty reduction programs. However, there are other factors that require consideration when comparing the outcomes of rural and urban areas. One of the ways in which similar educational gaps or socio-economic trends can affect rural populations differently than urban populations is in differences of gender. Brown and Park (2002) analyzed household survey data from poverty-stricken counties within six different provinces in China to determine the effects of credit limits and women’s empowerment on educational practices and outcomes. They find that, perhaps unsurprisingly, rural Chinese women often face a paradoxical relationship where if credit limits go up, education and learning also increases, while increased women’s empowerment (i.e. the ability to get a job or sustain oneself) is correlated with lower levels of education; the researchers argue that this is evidence of gender bias in rural communities less seen in their urban counterparts as women who are able to earn a living often drop out of school in order to economically support their families or themselves. Also, they state that they find no evidence of a link between school funding and school quality at the primary school level. Converse results about the link between gender, poverty and education are found in Hannum, Kong and Zhang (2009), who argue that traditional assumptions that boys are educated more than girls and are preferred for education do not hold up as much as previously thought; their study finds that in rural areas, boys only had about a trimester’s worth of additional schooling compared to girls, which may reflect changing attitudes. Based on this literature review, evidence that government investment and public funding for schools in rural China- often the largest and most consequential source of investment- can lift people out of poverty is found. One area much less covered, though, is the impact of private investments and market opportunities, which will be covered in the next section.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Research methods This paper utilizes a comprehensive literature review as qualitative research. At the center of inquiry is understanding what scholars have found about education and poverty in rural China, and the lessons which may be applicable to those looking to take part in the expanding educational market in rural China. Examining scholarly publications from a time period of 2002-2021, there are real policy implications and strategic insights to be gleaned.

Results First, it is important to understand that even with increased income or progress, much of rural China still faces particular issues which Gustafsson and Li (2004) find that although household expenditures increased in poorer regions in China, healthcare and educational costs took up a much larger share than before, effectively stymying the impact of increased disposable income. Wang et al. (2020) find similar results nearly two decades later, finding that although there were increases in general household funds, the rising cost of education, healthcare and informal economics not well measured by traditional statistics like the custom of cash-giving meant that the increases were smaller than they might seem. In addition, Glauben et al. (2012) find that “the number of nonworking family members, education, and several village characteristics seem to be the most important covariates” in explaining why some poor households cannot lift themselves out of poverty. Glauben et al. (2012) also note disparities among regions occur as well, stating that more developed provinces, while still poor, may have different developmental strategies, stating that “Richer provinces such as Zhejiang might rely more on risk management institutions enabling households to continue to participate in economic growth.” Analyzing survey data, Qyan and Smyth (2011) find that household education expenditure is divided into two factors, one which focuses on domestic education and one which focuses on overseas education. It is unsurprising that the more resources a household has, the more likely it is to send children abroad for higher education, or that the same effects hold for more highly educated parents. However, what this data also implies is a fundamental lack of similar opportunities for children in more rural regions stemming from a lack of funds. Considering that higher education leads to higher education for successive generations, it should be a priority to increase access to higher education for students in poorer, more rural areas beyond technical institutions or agricultural colleges. An encouraging finding from Yuan and Zhang (2015) finds that when public spending is increased and schools are well funded, less parents spend money on private educational ventures- this means that with more funds, students in rural areas are more likely to close the gap with their richer, urban peers.

Discussion Based on these results, it seems apparent that there could be a market which responds to the particular needs and difficulties that rural, poorer Chinese citizens face through the private sector. Another insight from the literature review is that there is a keen need to differentiate between different potential factors explaining rural poverty and poverty alleviation, as well as the differences in educational gaps. Theoretically, there is good reason to believe that private education which is aimed at delivering a lowercost and flexible addition, not substitution, to public schooling can be successful... Qian and Smyth (2008) find that educational expenditures are quite consistent, writing that “the study finds that the income elasticity of education expenditure is relatively low and that expenditure on education is less sensitive to changes in income than expenditure on either food or clothing.” In other words, parents and students may skimp on other necessities, but not education, even during harder times. So again, we see

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) the opportunity for a “comes to you” style approach for private schooling, provided it is low cost and readily available. For example, traditional study by mail courses may be an attractive option for areas where IT infrastructure is lacking or power is unstable, which rules out more common online schools. Or, creating in-person classes scheduled around times of high economic activity in the area, such as late at night or early in the morning, could also be quite helpful in closing some of the gaps in opportunities between the urban rich and the rural poor. Herein lies another difficulty that rural China tends to face more than urban centers, according to the literature: a lack of access to steady Internet, communications or power. Therefore, any private sector initiatives to assist in reducing poverty in rural China via educational opportunities must keep in mind that solutions which may be more sound in more developed areas with stable infrastructure will not always be fruitful or feasible in rural China. This calls for a creative take on what form such a project could take, whether it is, as suggested above, a mail-in correspondence program once popular with populations with similar struggles of access or in-person taught courses traditionally taught very early or late at night to accommodate farmers and industrial workers, there must be flexibility in the way such projects go about attempting to carve out a niche. The literature also revealed important distinctions and a need for different approaches depending on grade level, with primary school being important due to rates of middle school and high school dropouts; ensuring students have access to quality education throughout at least nine years of education has been shown to increase economic outcomes, quality of life and even health. Therefore, any enterprising initiative to bring the private market common in urban China or developed nations must keep in mind the unique difficulties faced by the rural poor, the differences in variables, and – most importantly- the critical importance of ensuring that the rural poor have access to quality education, no matter what.

References Qian, X., & Smyth, R. (2008). Private returns to investment in education: an empirical study of urban China. Post-Communist Economies, 20(4), 483-501. Qian, J. X., & Smyth, R. (2011). Educational expenditure in urban China: income effects, family characteristics and the demand for domestic and overseas education. Applied Economics, 43(24), 3379-3394. Zhang, T., & Minxia, Z. (2006). Universalizing nine-year compulsory education for poverty reduction in rural China. International review of education, 52(3), 261-286. Fan, S., Zhang, L., & Zhang, X. (2004). Reforms, investment, and poverty in rural China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 52(2), 395-421. Brown, P. H., & Park, A. (2002). Education and poverty in rural China. Economics of education review, 21(6), 523-541. Glauben, T., Herzfeld, T., Rozelle, S., & Wang, X. (2012). Persistent poverty in rural China: Where, why, and how to escape?. World Development, 40(4), 784-795. Wang, H., Zhao, Q., Bai, Y., Zhang, L., & Yu, X. (2020). Poverty and subjective poverty in rural China. Social Indicators Research, 150(1), 219-242. Gustafsson, B., & Shi, L. (2004). Expenditures on education and health care and poverty in rural China. China Economic Review, 15(3), 292-301. 517

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Colony Collapse Disorder: Now Arrived in South Korea? What Can We Do? Author 1

Full Name

Lee, Steven Sung Min

Libertas Scholars College Prep

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: In early 2022, the disappearance of honeybees was a social issue in Korea. Beehives were found empty when opening them to wake bees after winter hibernation. The economic value of Korean agricultural products by pollinators is about 6 billion dollars, of which honeybees handle about 70% of the pollen-carrying function. Therefore, honeybees' colony collapse disorder (CCD) can be a significant social issue. Has CCD spread to Korea? Bees are disappearing worldwide with no apparent cause. During the winter of 2006-2007, some beekeepers reported unusually high losses of their hives. Half of all affected colonies demonstrated symptoms inconsistent with any known causes of honeybee death. Starting with a sudden loss of the colony’s worker bee population, a combination of events leading to colony demise is now known as CCD. While a worrisome phenomenon, it occurs at different magnitudes year after year. Rather than mere honey production, the actual social concern of pollinator levels is the impact on agricultural production. In the United States, the population of honeybees is artificially maintained. Studies confirm that agrarian yields are manageable but costly through commercial pollination. The disappearance of honeybees is a worrying natural phenomenon, but humans can mitigate its social impact. Given a lack of comprehensive resources in Korea, the impact of CCD was analyzed from data collected by the U.S. honeybee industry, especially useful after having experienced a recent surge of colony collapses. Through the stressor data, the relationship between CCD and stressors was investigated.

Keywords: Agriculture, Colony Collapse Disorder, Farming, Honey, Honeybee, Korea, Pollination

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) INTRODUCTION Earth Watch reported in 2008, that “honeybees were the first to surpass plankton, bats, fungi, and primates on an environmental group's list of five organisms that should never perish from Earth.” Human food will be lost without honeybees and should be regarded as an irreplaceable species. However, pollinators are not required for all plants. Self-pollinating crops include beans, broccoli, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, corn, kohlrabi, onions, and peppers. Insect pollination contributes to the fruiting of one-third of all crops, with honeybees accounting for 80% of pollinator species. Bees are necessary for 71% of the world's top 100 crops that provide 90% of the world’s food (UN News, 2011). Highly affected crops include apples, peaches, pumpkins, carrots, almonds, cucumbers, tomatoes, and eggplant. Honey may not be the only commodity that vanishes if honeybees disappear. Among the typical pollinator bees, the honeybee is not the only species. Other types of bees, such as bumble bees and carpenter bees, also pollinate. The longer tongue and wing vibrating abilities of bumble bees make them especially efficient pollinators. Bumble bees are better foragers in cool, inclement weather than other bees. Earlier in the spring, earlier in the day, and even during gloomy weather can they forage for nectar and pollen. Due to the difficulty and expense of supporting mature colonies yearround, commercial bumble bee colonies are expensive to manufacture. Another issue in commercial bumble bee production is supplying colonies of consistent quality that create good pollination units. Queens are forced to overwinter by being exposed to carbon dioxide. Bumble bees are now produced indefinitely using this technology. Although commercially manufactured bumble bee colonies are in high demand for usage in greenhouses, they are rarely used in open-grown field crops (Hood). Honeybees have started disappearing in Korea at time of writing in 2022. According to a survey conducted by Korea's Rural Development Administration in January and February 2022, more than 7.7 billion honeybees disappeared in the country. Over 389,000 beehives were damaged across 4,200 farms. Cases are spreading north according to reports. The situation is drawing comparisons to the U.S. bee famine that began in 2007 and progressively moved to South America and Europe. In the U.S. at that time, 30 billion individuals, or one-third of all hives went missing in a single year. A new term, colony collapse disorder (CCD), denotes the phenomenon of disappearing beehives. Is the mass death of honeybees a global phenomenon or is it a temporary natural phenomenon? CCD can directly affect the annual production of honey. Every year, 1.85 million tons of honey are produced around the world. China is the world's greatest honey producer with 457,000 tons of honey produced each year. Turkey is second with 114,000 tons, and Argentina is third largest with 79,500 tons. All of the biggest honey-producing countries have faced similar problems. An estimated 80% of China's native honeybee population has been lost since the introduction of European honeybees in the 19th century (Li, 2019). Furthermore, a report about CCD symptoms in Turkey stated that between 2003 and 2007, an average of 30% of bees perished (Giray et al, 2009). Also, similar to Turkey, roughly 30% of honeybee colonies were lost in Argentina from 2012 to 2016 (Requier et al, 2018). Bees are disappearing across the world with no apparent cause. Commercial beekeepers in the United States lost 31% of honeybee colonies in the winter of 2022. This mystery has also afflicted Europe. Eleven countries had death rates higher than the usual 10%. Moreover, bees in northern countries including the U.K., Denmark, and Belgium are disappearing at alarmingly high rates (Plumer, 2014).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) During the winter of 2006-2007, some U.S. beekeepers began to report unusually high losses of 30-90% of their hives. As many as 50% of all affected colonies demonstrated symptoms inconsistent with any known causes of honeybee death. First, there was a sudden loss of the colony’s worker bee population with very few dead bees found near the colony. Second, the queen and younger brood remained, and the colonies had relatively abundant honey and pollen reserves. As hives cannot sustain without worker bees the hive would eventually succumb. This combination of events describes CCD. Though agricultural records from over one century ago note occasional bee disappearances and dwindling colonies in some years, it is uncertain whether the colonies had the same combination of factors associated with CCD. While colony loss from CCD has declined, colony loss is still a concern (EPA, 2021). Through extensive data collected in the U.S. covering many years, this study examined and compared whether CCD, a current issue in Korea, is a temporary natural phenomenon or a periodic phenomenon.

RELATED WORKS For the beekeeping industry, large-scale colony losses are not new. There have been at least 18 episodes worldwide since 1869 before the massive CCD outbreak that occurred in the United States in 2007 (vanEngelsdorp et al, 2009). Various studies conducted to determine the cause of CCD hypothesize honeybee diseases and parasites, a range of stressors, pesticides, and climate change, but the exact cause has not yet been determined (vanEngelsdorp et al, 2009) (Dainat et al, 2012) (vanEngelsdorp et al, 2017) (Lu et al, 2020). In recent years, a study determined that wireless transmission, which is increasing with the development of information and communications technology (ICT), affects honeybees (Kumar, 2018). Some studies blame varroa mites as the most important factor. However, the parasite is not the only cause, and the prevailing view is that a lack of plant diversity, such as the cultivation of a single crop, is responsible for the poor nutrition of honeybees, among other factors such as pesticides and climate change (Save The Bees Concert, 2020). In the case of the U.S., statistics are accumulated more thoroughly than in other countries and reveals the winter loss rate is more than 30% every year for more than 17 years since the survey began, much higher than the allowable figure of 20%. The issue was finally recognized as a phenomenon over time, but interest in cause research is accelerating after a record loss rate of 40.7% was reported from April 2018 to April 2019.

Exploratory Data Analysis Dataset Long-term data on honeybees can be obtained on the USDA public site through two different datasets provided by reports from the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). One such dataset is the Honey report that has scaled up considerably since its inception in 1976, containing the annual report of the number of colonies producing honey, yield per colony, honey production, average price, price by color class and value, and honey stocks by state and overall domestically (USDA Honey, 2022). The report also notes trends and changes in the honey-producing sector, such as percent change in honey prices or quantity of production. Another provided dataset is the Honey Bee Colonies report which has published quarterly since 2015

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) (USDA Honey Bee Colonies, 2022). This data provides information on 3,300 honeybee operations, providing number of colonies, maximum, lost, percent lost, added, renovated, and percent renovated. The publication tracks the percentage of larger operations, defined as enterprises managing over 4 colonies, that lost a colony due to CCD symptoms. The data examines further by identifying the colony health stressors for afflicted operations. Looking at the correlation between Honey report data and the number of colonies from 1990, overall honey production is on the decline, as shown in Figure 1, however the number of colonies increased since 2010. This indicates that the decrease in honey production is not simply due to the decrease in the number of colonies.

Figure 1. Honey production over the years Exploratory Data Analysis Because the production decline since 2010 does not directly correlate with a decrease in the number of colonies, the number of colonies and yield per colony was compared over 10- year periods. Figure 2 depicts how the number of colonies increased in the 2010s compared to the 2000s, but the yield per colony continued to decrease. This explains the decrease in honey productivity per colony.

FIGURE 2. Number of colonies vs yield over 30 years

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) On a shorter, annual scale in Figure 3, the number of colonies has stayed relatively at the same level since 2000. Yield per colony has cycled between increase and decrease, but overall has trended downward.

FIGURE 3. Number of colonies vs yield over 30 years, annually Looking at the production of ND, SD, CA, MT, FL, and MN, the top 6 of honey producers, in Figure 4, all of the states except ND are on the decline. Therefore, the phenomenon is not limited to some states and should be seen as an epidemic in the U.S. However, the decline in CA and FL, which pollinates mainly by bringing loaner honeybees from neighboring states, requires separate analysis. For honey yield per colony, the decline is visible in all of the top 6 states, as shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 4. Honey production of the top six states over the years

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FIGURE 5. Yield per colony of the top six states over the years Figure 6 compares the number of colonies and lost colonies from 2015 to 2021 according to the Honey Bee Colonies report. The maximum value of lost colonies occurs most during the winter season. Here, the exact lost percent ratio can be determined only when the number of lost colonies is compared with the total colonies. The colony loss phenomenon occurs more clearly in the winter season, as in Figure 7. The contents of the 2019 2nd quarter survey were omitted from the graph as data was expected to be skewed by COVID-19.

FIGURE 6. Number of colonies vs lost colonies

FIGURE 7. Number of colonies vs lost percent

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The Honey Bee Colonies data also contains numbers for added and regenerated colonies, under the term "renovated" colonies, and is defined as any surviving colony that was requested or regained by packaged bees. As shown in Figure 8, a cycle that makes up for the colony lost in the 4th quarter winter and 2nd quarter spring seasons.

FIGURE 8. Number of colonies, lost, added, renovated The six highest honey-producing states, ND, SD, CA, MT, FL, and MN, show a correlation between the number of colonies and the lost percent as shown in Figure 9. ND, SD, MT, and MN are four states located within the central United States, and data shows that a large amount of honey flows in 2nd quarter every year. The same pattern is not observed in CA and FL.

(A) State = ND

(B) State = SD

(D) State = FL

(E) State = MT

(F) State = MN

FIGURE 9. Number of colonies vs. lost percent in top six states

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) In the case of North Dakota, the top honey producer in the United States, after the summer honey harvest, bees are moved to various regions in the country to help with pollination. Therefore, looking at the ND data in Figure 9, the number of colonies decreases rapidly in the 4th quarter and increases quickly in the 2nd quarter every year. This pattern is observed in the three adjacent states and major honey producers, SD, MT, and MN. On the other hand, in CA and FL, increases and decreases in honey are observed at different times. In the United States, as wild bees decrease, a system has been developed to solve the pollination problem by moving honeybees across states. What is the leading cause of lost colonies? The analysis is conducted through statistical figures for stressors by a quarter in the USDA data. Figure 10 shows that since the 1st quarter of 2015, the number of colonies has maintained a constant value, while the loss percent has maintained a high value. In Figure 10, the bar chart visualizes the lost percent corresponding to the plot of Figure 7, showing a high value exceeding 10% on average. Looking at the distribution curve in Figure 10, varroa mites are the first significant cause of lost colony, followed by other pests and factors. The recent decrease in honeybees due to abuse of pesticides can also be observed through data. However, looking at the stress distribution at the times when the loss percent of colonies was high, pesticides were not the leading cause of honeybee reduction. From this perspective, the leading cause of the decrease in honeybees has not yet been identified.

FIGURE 10. Lost percent of colonies affected by stressors Although the total number of honeybee colonies in the U.S. has remained relatively stable over the last 20 years, around 2.6 million colonies, according to the USDA NASS Honey reports, loss rates remain high, indicating that beekeepers are under substantial pressure to offset losses. New colonies can be obtained by splitting strong colonies into two or more units, purchasing packaged bees or nucleus colonies, or catching swarms. Each of these practices is commonly employed to compensate for colony losses.

CONCLUSION The recent decline in honeybees has become a social issue in Korean society. Since early 2022, the disappearance of honeybees has been frequently reported on the news. While decreases in honeybee numbers have previously occurred in the nation, they were never on a scale similar to the CCD phenomena experienced by other countries. Has CCD, in fact, spread to Korea?

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Because no long-term investigation of honeybees has been conducted in Korea, the impact of the honeybee decrease was analyzed through statistical data on American honeybees. The record loss rate of 40.7% was reported from April 2018 to April 2019 in the U.S., but the number of honeybees has remained steady over the past 30 years and even increased in 2010, from the 2000s. The consistency of the number of honeybees is that lost colonies were artificially replenished. According to data since 2015, when statistics on the reduction of honeybees and the stressors of honeybees began, it is difficult to blame the phenomenon on any one main factor. In recent years, the reduction is now being attributed to complex factors, like climate change, adding to the list of existing stressors, but the exact cause has still yet to be identified. The reason why honeybee populations are taken seriously is that they are the main insects that pollinate. Humans can pollinate on behalf of honeybees but compared to a bee pollinating more than 1,000 flowers a day; even a skilled laborer can only pollinate a single apple tree in 30 minutes. The economic cost of a human system is high for farmers, and in the case of crops that are not pollinated on time, economic losses would occur. If the root cause of the decrease in honeybees is not found and solved immediately, the Korean honeybee industry must accumulate statistical data through systematic surveys every year as in the U.S. In addition, beekeepers should look to the United States on how bee populations can be managed. If commercial pollination by bees is introduced, as in the U.S., it may provide practical help to farmers. Albert Einstein warned, “if bees go extinct, humans will disappear within four years." To avoid this scenario, bee populations were shown in this study to be systematically managed by humans. However, the decrease in the number of human-raised honeybees is a warning that pollinators maintaining ecosystems in nature, such as wild bees and butterflies, are also decreasing and require attention to climate change and the use of pesticides.

REFERENCES Dainat, B., vanEngelsdorp, D., & Neumann, P. (2012). Colony collapse disorder in Europe. Environmental Microbiology Reports, 4(1), 123-125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17582229.2011.00312.x EPA. (2021, November 4). Colony Collapse Disorder. https://www.epa.gov/pollinatorprotection/colony-collapse-disorder Giray, T., Kence, M., Oskay, D., Doke, M. A., & Kence, A. (2009). Scientific note: Colony losses survey in Turkey and causes of bee deaths. Apidologie, 41, 451–453. https://www.apidologie.org/articles/apido/full_html/2010/04/m09091/m09091.html Hood, W. M. (n.d.). Bumble bees as pollinators. Clemson. https://www.clemson.edu/extension/beekeepers/fact-sheets-publications/bumble-beepollinator.html Kumar, S. S. (2018). “Colony collapse disorder (CCD) in honey bees caused by EMF radiation. Bioinformation, 14(9), 521-524. https://doi.org/10.6026/97320630014521

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Li, C. (2019, February 20). Chinese honey bees face endangerment, Planet Bee Foundation. https://www.planetbee.org/planet-bee-blog//the-chinese-honey-bee Lu, C., Chang, C. H., Lemos, B., Zhang, Q., & MacIntosh, D. (2020). Mitochondrial dysfunction: A plausible pathway for honeybee colony collapse disorder (CCD). Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 7(4), 254-258. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00070 Plumer, B. (2014, April 8). Europe's honeybees are vanishing — and we still don't know why. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2014/4/8/5593482/the-beepocalypse-hits-europe Requier, F., Antúnez, K., Morales, C. L., Sánchez, P. A., Castilhos, D., Garrido, P. M., Giacobino, A., Reynaldi, F. J., Londoño, J. M. R., Santos, E., & Garibaldi, L. A. (2018). Trends in beekeeping and honey bee colony losses in Latin America, Journal of Apicultural Research, 57(5), 657-662. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1494919 Save The Bees Concert. (2020, November 4). U.S. beekeepers lost over 40 percent of colonies last year, highest winter losses ever recorded. Results point to a need for increased research, extension, and best management practices. https://savethebeesconcert.com/2020/11/04/u-sbeekeepers-lost-over-40-percent-of- colonies-last-year-highest-winter-losses-ever-recordedresults-point-to-a-need-for- increased-research-extension-and-best-management-practices/ UN News. (2011, March 10). Humans must change behavior to save bees, vital for food production – UN report. https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/03/368622-humans-must- change-behaviour-savebees-vital-food-production-un-report USDA. (2022). Honey. https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/hd76s004z?locale=en USDA. (2022). Honey Bee Colonies. https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/rn301137d vanEngelsdorp, D., Evans, J. D., Saegerman, C., Mullin, C., Haubruge, E., Nguyen, B. K., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Cox-Foster, D., Chen, Y., Underwood, R., Tarpy, D. R., & Pettis, J. S. (2009). Colony collapse disorder: A descriptive study. PLoS ONE, 4(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006481 vanEngelsdorp, D., Traynor, K. S., Andree, M., Lictenberg, E. M., Chen, Y., Saegerman, C., & CoxFoster, D. L. (2017). Colony collapse disorder (CCD) and bee age impact honey bee pathophysiology. PLoS ONE, 12(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179535

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How is South Korean Green New Deal Progressing So Far: Discourse and the Evaluation of Korean Green New Deal Author 1

Full Name

Na, Jeongheum

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: Korean Green New Deal(GND) is a policy suggested by former president Moon to promote sustainability and boost economy for post-COVID era. The policy slogan that the Korean government came up with was reviving economy, preserving environment, and reducing inequality. The GND is divided into three focus areas—green transition of infrastructure, low-carbon and decentralized energy, and innovation in the green industry—and there are eight projects under those focus areas. The policy has been progressing since July 2020, and it is expected to finish in 2025. However, in the middle of the execution of the policy, there are voices of concerns from scholars, civic organizations, and publics regarding the achievability and effectiveness of the policy. Hence, this paper aims to serve as an interim check of the policy’s progress so far, and will look at the progress of each project areas, current outcomes, and achievements of the policy’s core principle. The research paper will help the central and local government to identify any weaknesses or limitations in their project areas, focus areas, or Korean GND in general by assessing the current progress of the Korean GND and evaluating it upon the three core principle of the policy.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction The outbreak of the COVID pandemic daunted the global economy and future outlook, exacerbated the quality of life of people, and devastated the global supply chain. This led to an increase in the unemployment rate and a decrease in consumer confidence and spending worldwide, leaving a formidable impact not only on the world economy but also in the sociopolitical realm. Although the COVID 19 has been a huge fuss for the global community in recent years, climate change is also a pending issue humanity faces. Highlighted by the recent COP 26 meeting in Glasgow, Scotland, and the unprecedented heat wave in the UK, people now recognize that global warming is an urgent matter that can potentially jeopardize our daily lives and future generations. Such global crises reinforced the significance of effective public policy responses from the government to resolve the pending issue in society. Recognizing the urgency, the Korean government came up with the remedy that could potentially resolve the two biggest global challenges—global warming and devastated domestic economy—at once: the Korean Green New Deal (GND). The Korean GND policy can be divided into Digital New Deal and Green New Deal, and it was introduced as an antidote to recover from COVID 19. Initially introduced by the former Democratic party on 15th April 2020, the Korean GND was assigned an initial budget of 160 trillion KRW(142.62 billion USD) until 2025(Lee & Woo, 2020,p. 1). Like any other Green New Deal policies around the world, the Korean GND also had a motto of recovering the economy devastated by the pandemic, creating new green industry-related jobs, and promoting social equality. The policy had an ambitious plan of creating 340,000 jobs within two years to induce production of 49 trillion KRW and to reduce social costs by 40 trillion KRW(Lee & Woo, 2020,p. 1). Specifically for the Korean GND, the government divided the plan into three sections: green transition of infrastructure, low-carbon and decentralized energy supply, and innovation in the green industry. However, there are voices of concern arising from various people amid the execution of the policy, namely the policy’s inherent monetary flaws, ineffective budget usage, and lack of details. This research paper aims to investigate whether the Korean GND policy was effective in achieving its initial motto—recovering the economy, preserving environment, and promoting social equality—by looking at various specific details of the plan, budget allocation, and achievability of the plan considering the progress so far. Besides the initial objective’s achievements, there will be further investigation into whether the policy had left any unintended consequences. In order to present my argument, I will first investigate the core principles of the policy, summarize the expected plan and current progress of the Korean GND in a chart, and evaluate the effectiveness of 8 projects of Korean GND by assessing its goal’s achievability and progress. This paper will serve as an interim evaluation on how the policy is progressing so far and to check the prospect of a national-scale policy. The discourse and analysis in the paper will serve as an implication on what parts of the policy to repair and develop.

Background details of Korean New Deal Why was the Korean GND proposed? Being one of the four tigers of Asia, South Korea has achieved remarkable economic growth over the last few decades, and the country is now widely considered a developed nation. However, as South Korea prospered, the country faced a declining economic growth rate and widening polarization between rich and poor. The annual GDP growth rate of South Korea was about 6.9% in the 1990s but declined to 4.4% and 2.9% in the 2000s and the 2010s, respectively(Data Commons, 2020) The income

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) quintile share ratio rose from 3.86 in the 1990s to 4.52 and 4.57 in the 2000s and 2010s, respectively(Statistics Korea, 2017, p. 3)In light of the COVID pandemic, the South Korean economy is bombarded with even more challenges. The unforeseen and unprecedented shock resulted in a disastrous economic downturn worldwide. Border closures, travel restrictions, and declining global demand affected numerous industries and job markets worldwide. Since the country’s self-sufficiency level is low and it heavily relies on trade, damage induced by COVID was especially painful for South Korea. Also, COVID forced the world to go through a series of structural reformations to the digital economy and green economy—the surging popularity of delivery platforms and ESG management are prominent examples of such social reformation. In addition, according to the report published by International Monetary Fund (IMF), “the current crisis will unevenly affect certain groups that are socially or economically more vulnerable.”(IMF, 2020) That means, that failing to address the crisis appropriately and an opportune moment may lead to hysteresis in the labor market, shrinking investments, and ultimately, may induce a longer-lasting stagnation in our economy. This also has the potential to divide social groups within the society, which may erode the government’s legitimacy and lead to social or class division. Hence, it was apparent that without the relevant government efforts to protect the job market and boost domestic demand, the pandemic could result in a vicious cycle of income loss, demand contradiction, and surging unemployment, and it may have further consequences such as decreasing political power of the government or social division. Thus, former president Moon introduced the Korean New Deal as a national developmental policy to support the country’s recovery from COVID and to lead the international community with the aforementioned structural changes. As stated in the government’s official statement, the Korean New Deal, in general, aims to minimize the economic shock by job creation limited to not only governmentsupported low-skilled work but also jobs that are quintessential to the transition towards a digital and transition economy. Besides, the government planned to construct infrastructures that will enhance investments and support job creation to leap toward the digital and green economy. By taking action at opportune timing, the government hopes to make Korea a leader and innovator in the global community. Brief overview of the Korean Green New Deal More specifically, the Korean Green New Deal exclusively aims to achieve a well-balanced society, where nature, people, and the economy can mutually thrive. The government plans to achieve net-zero carbon emission and accelerate the transition toward a low-carbon industry through the green transition plan. This action will perfectly abide by the recent pledge agreed in COP 26, whereby all countries must opt out of coal by 2050. Hence, the government envisions promoting energy saving and increased consumption of renewable energy via building green energy infrastructures. Thus, they are not hesitant to invest huge amounts of money in ‘future-oriented job training systems’ to equip people with relevant human capital for the transforming economy and to subsidize generously green energy-related firms and educational institutions. The Green New Deal as a whole will be invested with 73.4 trillion won, and it aims to create 659,000 jobs. The investment distribution will be as follows: green infrastructures, 12.1 trillion won from the treasury; renewable energy, 24.3 trillion won from the treasury; fostering green industry, 6.3 trillion won from the treasury(Ministry of Economy and Finance(hereafter referred to as MOEF), 2020, p. 15)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Details about Korean GND

Fig 1. Table showing the amount of investment directed to particular projects until 2022 and 2025, and expected total number of jobs to be created. (Figure from MOEF, 2020, p. 13) As shown by the graph, each focus area of the Korean GND can be divided into three: Green Transition of Infrastructures can be divided into 1. turning public facilities into zero-energy buildings, 2. restoring the terrestrial, marine, and urban ecosystems, 3. building a management system for clean and safe water; Low-carbon and Decentralized Energy can be divided into 1. building a smart grid for more efficient energy management, 2. promoting renewable energy use and supporting a fair transition, 3. expanding the supply of electric and hydrogen vehicles; Innovation in the Green Industry can be divided into 1. promoting prospective businesses to lead the green industry and establishing low-carbon and green industrial complexes, 2. laying the foundation for green innovation via the research and development(R&D) and financial sectors. The amount of investment until 2022 and 2025 and the expected job creation are illustrated in the diagram. The green transition of infrastructure aims to create an eco-friendly environment for our future generations whereby humans and nature can mutually coexist. The government invested 30.1 trillion won in order to create 387,000 jobs by 2025 (MOEF, 2020, p. 26). Low-carbon and decentralized energy supply is planned to prepare for a paradigm shift towards renewable energy in spite of various environmental forums and pledges such as COP meetings. The government planned to direct its investment heavily in research and development facilities for the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) country’s long-term sustainability and usage of renewable energy. An investment of 35.8 trillion KRW was assigned to create 209,000 jobs by 2025 (MOEF, 2020, p. 28). The innovation plan in the green industry aims to find areas that can address climate change issues and environmental risks and to build infrastructure to tackle such issues. 7.6 trillion KRW was invested in creating 63,000 jobs by 2025(MOEF, 2020, p. 30). In total, the plan is assumed to take about 73.4 trillion won until 2025. Further details of the plan will be explained in detail right after. The details will be presented by each projects in focus areas.

Green Transition of Infrastructure The first project for the green infrastructure transition was to turn public facilities into zero-energy buildings. In order to make public buildings eco-friendly and energy-efficient, the government plans to adopt renewable energy equipment and high-performance insulation on public infrastructures. They aim to turn 225,000 public rental housing, 440 public daycare centers, and 1,148 cultural facilities into more energy-efficient infrastructure(MOEF, 2020, p. 26). They also envision that at least 2,890 old elementary, middle, and high school buildings will be more energy efficient with installing solar panels and eco-friendly insulation systems(MOEF, 2020, p. 26). The project is funded by both government and public partnerships. The private sector aspect of the plan is decided to be fulfilled with a new Social Overhead Capital (SOC) for the public. Besides, the plan to provide W-Fi in 380,000 classrooms by 2024 will be completed by 2022 to integrate digital components into public learning environments(MOEF, 2020, p. 26). The second project was to restore the terrestrial, marine, and urban ecosystems. The government plans to introduce region-customized solutions to 25 regions by 2022 after conducting research on each city’s climate and environmental challenges with environmental technology and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). In order to create a barrier against fine dust, urban green space is planned to be created: 630-hectare of the forest, 216 forest sites close to local communities, and 370 green sites near school zones are planned to be installed. The ecosystem is planned to be recovered by restoring 16 national parks, 25 damaged spaces, and 45 km2 of tidelands(MOEF, 2020, p. 26). The third project was building a clean and safe water management system. The water supply system will be technologically advanced by adopting ICT and Artificial Intelligence(AI) to 48 inter-regional and 161 local water supply systems (MOEF, 2020, p. 27) Such technologies will be implemented in 15 sewage treatment plants by 2022. The technology to control urban flooding and wastewater odor will be adopted at 10 locations until 2024 as part of the plan. To prevent the leakage hazard and to enhance the water quality, old water supply pipes will be remodeled by 2024 (MOEF, 2020, p. 27). Low-carbon and Decentralized Energy Supply The first project for low-carbon and decentralized energy supply was to build a smart grid for more efficient energy management. Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), a smart energy metering system thaet enables two-way communication between consumers and suppliers, will be available for 5 million apartments to be more energy efficient. The government aims to establish eco-friendly generation system in 42 island regions to reduce the greenhouse gas emitted from diesel-power stations. The government aims to install renewable energy facilities in 34 island regions, air-quality enhancement machine in three regions, and newly developed hybrid generator in 5 regions (MOEF, 2020, p. 28). Also, the government aims to invest 2 trillion won by 2025 to replace overhead electrical and telecommunication cables to underground cables in school zones.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The second project for low-carbon and decentralized energy supply is to promote renewable energy usage and to support a fair transition. There will be a wind and land feasibility studies on 13 different regions to find sites for wind farm constructions, helping the government to decide whether to build floating or fixed-bottom wind farms. The government plans to hold a information session about the benefits that community can cherish by installing renewable energy plant. They also plan to provide renewable energy loan support for households who are willing to change their energy source from nonrenewable sources to newly installed renewable energy sources. The support will also encompass not only households but also to change the energy source of commercial and residential buildings, which are estimated to be about 200,000 in 42 islands. The changes will not be radical; it will first allow people to use both renewable and traditional energy sources, then aims to gradually turn energy sources into renewable energy (MOEF, 2020, p. 28) The third project is to expand the supply of electric and hydrogen vehicles. Installation of 15,000 electric car fast charger and 30,000 normal charger will support the provision of 1.13 million electronic vehicles. Also, 450 hydrogen vehicle charging stations, fuel cell plants, and other infrastructure for the distribution of hydrogen will help the provision of hydrogen vehicles. The government will aid help the transition of old diesel cars to the liquified petroleum gas(LPG) or electric vehicles. They aim to discard 1,160,000 diesel cars and construction equipment, and 32,000 farming machinery, and look forward to help the transition of 135,000 freight and 88,000 school buses to LPG vehicles (MOEF, 2020, p. 29). Innovation in the green industry The first project of the innovation in the green industry is to promote prospective businesses to lead the green industry and to establish low carbon and green industrial complexes. The development of business items for 123 small and medium sized companies in environmental and energy occupation will be supported. The government is also planning to setup various workshops to promote green business in South Korea. A green startup town—a concentrated complex of startups that help improve environmental, transportation, and residential infrastructures—will be set up by 2021. A greenintergrated cluster is expected to be a technological development, testing, manufacturing, and marketing hub in the five leading areas—clean air, biomaterial, hydrothermal energy, future waste resources, and recycling of resources. 10 smart energy platforms that uses a micro-power grid will be installed to enable the real time monitoring and control of energy generation and consumption, which allow for the collection of data based on ICT, the operation of an integrated control center for electricity, and visualization of energy flow. Facilities that support the fine dust prevention will be provided to 9,000 start-up businesses and 100 smart ecological plants and 1,750 clean factories that reduce pollution will be established . (MOEF, 2020, p. 30) The second project is to lay the foundation for green innovation by the R&D and financial sectors. This project aims to set a foundation to test and support the commercialization of carbon capture utilization and storage technologies(CCUS) by 2023, and to develop the technology to extract useful chemicals from CO2. The government also plans to introduce a measures against fine dust through the development of technology, regional cooperation in Northeast Asia, and to manage the blind spot(e.g. Military vehicles, agricultural machinery, construction equipment, etc) of the sources of find dusts. Financial support will be provided to develop remanufacturing technology to promote resource cycling. To prevent the environmental pollution of businesses, a loan of 1.9 trillion won will be used, and a joint fund of 215 billion won made up by the public and private sectors will be used to foster green businesses in South Korea (MOEF, 2020, p. 31)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Analysis of the current progress in three focus areas The following paragraphs will analyze the current progress of the Korean GND and compare it to the expected plan. The summary of each project will be illustrated at the end of the analysis section Analysis of the green transition of infrastructure Until August 2022, the first project in the green transition of infrastructure, which was to turn public facilities to Zero-Energy Building(ZEB), illustrates an ambivalent result. Building Retrofit Project(BRP) is a project to enhance the energy efficiency of the building (Jelle&Kalnæs, 2017). BRP in public infrastructure while BRP for the commercial and residential buildings shows little progress. The remodeling plan of state-owned buildings, senior citizen halls, and daycare centers is progressing as planned (Korea Association of Regional Research Institutes(hereafter, KARRI), 2021, p. 52). In 2021, the government removed the interest rate for the loans used for BRP in order to increase the public and private investment in the project. For the public infrastructure BRP, one state-owned building and nine senior citizen center buildings in Seoul into the ZEB by 2021, which was precisely the original plan (KARRI, 2021, p. 58). Also, they conducted green remodeling for 122 daycare centers and 4 healthcare centers in Seoul, abiding by the original plan. However, more progress must be shown in commercial and residential building BRP. Despite the favorable financial terms, such as a zero-interest rate loan for BRP, only 3.3 billion won was loaned and invested, which was way lower than the expected budget to transit commercial and residential buildings into energy-efficient buildings. The lack of investment resulted in the failure of the original plan since only 118 commercial and residential buildings received subsidies to install energy-efficient technologies out of 800 buildings (KARRI, 2021, p. 58). Overall, the first project of the green transition of the building is a partial success. Although public infrastructure BRP ran smoothly and met all the original plans, commercial and residential BRP couldn’t achieve its original plan due to lack of investment despite the government’s effort to promote public and private investment by removing interest rate. The second project of the green transition of infrastructure which was to restore the terrestrial, marine, and urban ecosystems is showing a great progress. An urban forest project conducted in Sejong Metropolitan Autonomous City is a commendable success of this project. The main goal of this project was to reduce the city’s find dust level and to mitigate the temperature increase by global warming. 9.6 billion won was invested in this project, with 6.8 billion won funded by the central government and 2.8 billion won raised by the city. The business outline of this project is as following (KARRI, 2021, p. 202). They installed a fine dust-deterring forest in northwestern region around the living area, installed gardens inside the metropolitan area, and set up a garden between the road and pavement in children protection zone. The project aims to install 20 green areas—four fine dust-deterring forest, eight gardens in metropolitan area, and eight gardens children protection zone—by 2025. From 2022 to 2025, one fine dust-deterring forest and two gardens in metropolitan area and children protection area will be installed per year(KARRI, 2021, p. 202). Since the project has only started, no garden or forest is yet installed. But the clear goals of the project and clear budget sources from city and the central government illustrates a positive prospect of the project. Not only is Sejong Metropolitian Autonomous City, but also Chungnam region and Gyungbuk region is trying to install green areas in their metropolitan area, which shows that this part of the project is being successfully achieved in many areas of the country (Kim, 2022). Hence, considering the successful planning and promising progress of the project, with various cities being inspired to install green areas in their region, the second project of the green transition of the infrastructure can be considered successful.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) The third project of the green transition of infrastructure, which was to build a clean and safe water management system, is facing a huge monetary obstacle despite the carefully crafted planning. The plan per se is running smoothly; for instance, Incheon planned to transition metropolitan landfill area into self-sufficient eco-friendly landfill area, naming the transitioned landfill area as “Incheon Ecoland.” (KARRI, 2021, p. 127) The feasibility and establishment studies were confirmed to be conducted in 14 Feburary 2022, and the researchers are carefully looking at the adequacy of the planned size of the area, spillover effect to surrounding area, evaluate the optimal location, and will review the optimal construction method. (Cho, 2022) In order to finish the studies and construction, estimated cost of 770 billion won is needed. With the investment from Korean Land and Housing corporation(LH), Incheon Housing and City Development Corporation(iH), and other private businesses, about 277.2 billion won is estimated to be raised. Hence, remaining 492.8 billion won must be fulfilled by the city-directed investment. However, Incheon City Sewage Special Account, which is a budget allocated for sewage treatment usage, currently has a 30.2 billion deficit, and its assigned annual budget is only 253.3 billion won. Thus, although the plan is still being executed, lack of funding may postponed the project; that means, the failure of its initial aim to transit their landfill area into eco-friendly and self-sufficient landfill area until 2025 will potentially loom large.(Cho, 2022) Overall, although the planning and execution of the third project in green transition of infrastructure is running smoothly so far, it may face obstacles in the future due to budget constraints. Low-carbon and Decentralized Energy Supply The first project of the low-carbon and decentralized energy supply was to build a smart grid for more efficient energy management. Gyungsangbuk-do province is taking this project in a big scale, where they invested 244.4 billion won in total to construct a smart energy grid, aiming to create 10,205 jobs in total. The project is divided into three main categories: creating energy harvesting regulatory-free zone, smart grid expansioning plan, and a project to neutralize electric wires. The investment details have been settled; for energy harvesting regulatory free zone construction, the government is funding 26 billion won, the province is raising 13 billion won, and private sectors are investing 6 billion won. In total, 45 billion won will be raised for this project. For smart grid expansion project, the government is funding 22.2 billion won, the province is raising 8.9 billion won, and private sectors are investing 18.3 billion won. In total, 49.4 billion won will be raised for this project. For electric wire neutralization project, the government is funding 30 billion won, the province is raising 45 billion won, and private sectors are investing 75 billion won. In total, 150 billion won will be raised for this project. As shown in the details, the distribution of the investment is healthy, where no stakeholder is taking the vast majority of the investment. This shows that the project was considerate—or not consulted in top-down order—because if it was, presumably investments from the private sectors will be significantly less than that of the governments’ or the province’s as they would not have any incentive to invest. Thus, we can assume that there was no inequality issue in the consultation process. Hence, for the first project of lowcarbon and decentralized energy supply focus area, the investment detail is settled healthily, and hopefully will bring boost in Gyungsangbuk-do province’s economy and help preserve the environment. The second project of the low carbon and decentralized energy supply, which was to promote renewable energy use and to support a fair transition, is showing a great progress. Daegu City, for example, is expanding the installation of renewable energy generators in public infrastructures. Daegu seize Korean GND as a catalyst for the renovation of industrial and space structure of the city, which started in 2016 but has stopped due to pandemic. By installing renewable energy generators in public infrastructure, the city can maximize the usage of available land areas to install generators, and can directly supply

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) generated areas to buildings. The city hall has passed the motion to mandatorily install the renewable energy generators in any public infrastructures, and publicized the short and long term incentives that the city will gain to increase the private and public funding. Also, they finished the research on the most effective places to install the renewable energy generators that can distribute the generated energy to most buildings. In Shincheon-gu, Dong-gu, Dalseochun-gu, and Seo-gu, solar energy panel installation is already completed and is running effectively. This success led the city to expand this installation to eight more districts. Despite the impressive progress and results, one must acknowledge that there is a critical problem in Daegu’s project. The plan was executed in top-down—from the government to city hall, then to private sectors—in the planning process of the project, voices from the private sectors are not well included. Also, the mandates from city hall to install renewable energy generator was coercive; if the plan was conducted in bottom-up process, where the voices from the private sector is the starting point, the results could have turned out differently. Nevertheless, the project itself was successful, effectively installing energy generators into optimal places in big districts, and carrying on this successes into other provinces. The third project of the low-carbon and decentralized energy supply was to expand the supply of electric and hydrogen vehicles. The project is progressing well so far, but there are some obvious problems. Expansion of electric and hydrogen vehicle supplies is the second-biggest project in Jeju island, with 1.35 trillion won invested. The plan was to create an environment for electric vehicles, setting up electric vehicles charging stations, providing subsidies for electric vehicles’ purchase and charging, and aiding the development of related businesses. The government is funding 687.4 billion won and the city is investing 664.9 billion won, and the estimated job creation for the project is 8,453. The main target of the project is to build a ‘Green Way’ between Jeju international airport and Jeju city, create a green area in the metropolitan area, and creating more bicycle roads. As a result, 25,381 electric vehicles are supplied to the public by November 2021, and about 6.3% of the vehicles in Jeju island are electric vehicles. This result is impressive considering the nation’s average number of electric vehicle cars used, which is 0.9%. But, there is an unforeseen problem that the city needs to act upon. Due to the expansion of electric vehicles consumption, the number of waste batteries has substantially increased, and as a result, the city is now constructing a waste battery management system. Overall, the increased supply of electric vehicles and its potential to create about 8,500 jobs is commendable. But, the main task now is to effectively create a waste battery management system to tackle a problem that arose due to increased electric vehicle consumption. Innovation in the green industry The first project of the third focus area, innovation in the green industry, which was to promote prospective businesses to lead the green industry and establishing low-carbon and green industrial complexes, is progressing well with high hopes. In Gyungsangbuk-do province, they are trying to effectively manage energy by adopting energy harvesting technology when building the energy industry convergence complexes in Yeongduk-gun and Pohang (KARRI, 2021, p. 325). Energy harvesting technologies are devices that can harvest the energy present in their ambient environment in real time and use it immediately, hence they only ever need to be stored temporarily (Science Direct, 2018). The plan requires an investment of 242.7 billion won, and they look forward for this complex to become the green industrial cluster and key green technology-related manpower cultivation place in the nation. The budget for this plan is well settled; villages and cities inside the province has successfully raised a collective budget for this project, and has a high hope for their province to be a leader of energy management (KARRI, 2021, p. 321). In Gyungsangbuk-do province, about 32,000 jobs are expected to

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) be created by this plan (KARRI, 2021, p. 320). This is especially important for them since the province is facing heavy brain-drain for the past decade, and is now facing an aging population issue. As energy management-related jobs have positive future outlook and require high human capital, the province hopes that this project will mitigate the aging population and brain-drain issue. All in all, the project is working well, considering that the energy complex is being built in a region who doesn’t have their own energy supply system. The construction will decentralize the energy supply and give the province more autonomy in controlling their energy supply. Also, it has a potential to resolve other urban inequality issues, such as brain-drain and aging population, by attracting young and well-educated people with 32,000 jobs that have positive future prospects. The second project of the third focus area is the innovation in the green industry, which was to lay the foundation for green innovation via the R&D and financial sectors. Despite its importance and the government’s support, the project is not operating as expected. Gyunggi-do province has invested 112.3 billion won to boost the startup businesses related to green industry and a lot of private sectors were involved in this investment. (213) Solidifying the foundation of the green industry is esepcially important for the province since it will be the new economical growth power for the province and has a lot of employment prospects. However, despite the importance, the project is facing two obstacles. First, in order to start a green businesses, a lot of infrastructure is needed; green energy and mobility innovation, and green remodeling is a relatively new technology, so such require huge costs and human capital. Although the government has provided financial subsidies to those firms, but the amount is no way near enough. Hence, small businesses are not well-suited for this industry, as they need time to achieve economies of scale for high budget and human capital. Moreover, pre-existing policies that are designed to support firms does not fully understand the different characteristics of the green industry. Unlike typical businesses, green industry can not make huge revenue in the short term; rather, it is a businesses that aims for sustainability and development of vital technologies for future. Obviously, as it is a newly developing technology, it requires a lot of money and time. However, as Gyunggi-do province have a lot of startup businesses, they help such businesses to start their own company, but it lacks policies to help them sustain their businesses. Thus, green industry businesses have hard time surviving in the market due to lack of understanding of the characteristics of green industry. Hence, although the plan had an ambitious plan to lay foundation for future green businesses and technologies, due to the lack of budget and time of small businesses and ineffective government business-supporting policies, the project is not operating as expected. Focus Area

Project

Current progress

Expected progress

Green Transition of Infrastructure

Turning public facilities to Zero-Energy Building)

Partially successful. Commercial and residential BRP could not achieve its original plan due to lack of investment despite the government’s effort to promote public and private investment

All state-owned and private-owned infrastructure BRP

Restoring the terrestrial,

Successful. Successful

Urban forest project in

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Low-carbon and Decentralized Energy Supply

Innovation in the green industry

marine, and urban ecosystems

planning and promising progress of the project, with various cities being inspired to install green areas in their region

Sejong Metropolitan Autonomous City, Chungnam region and Gyungbuk region’s trial to install green areas in their metropolitan area

To build a clean and safe water management system

Failure. It faces obstacles due to budget constraints (lack of funding may postpone the project).

Incheon landfill area transition into ‘Incheon Ecoland’

-To build a smart grid for more efficient energy management

Successful. The investment issue is settled healthily, and it will bring a boost in the province’s economy and help preserve the environment.

Gyungsangbuk-do province’s project to construct a smart energy grid

To promote renewable energy use and to support a fair transition

Successful. Efficient installation and operation of energy generators into optimal places in big districts

Daegu City’s installation of renewable energy generators in public infrastructures

Third project (To expand the supply of electric and hydrogen vehicles)

Impressive; about 6.3% of the vehicles in Jeju island are electric vehicles. But the main task now is to create a waste battery management system.

Expansion of electric and hydrogen vehicle supplies in Jeju Island

To promote prospective businesses to lead the green industry and establishing low-carbon and green industrial complexes

Impressive. The construction will decentralize the energy supply and give the province more autonomy in controlling their energy supply.

Gyungsangbuk-do province’s adoption of energy harvesting technology

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) To lay the foundation for green innovation via the R&D and financial sectors

Fail. Due to the lack of budget and time and ineffective government business-supporting policies, the project is not operating as expected.

Gyunggi-do province’s investment to boost the startup businesses related to green industry

Table 2. Table summarizing the analysis section; divided into focus area, project, expected progress, and current progress.

Evaluation of the Korean GND The evaluation section will discuss some successes, failures, and limitations of the Korean GND. The main focus of the Evaluation section will be economy, environment, and inequality as those three are main aims to achieve by the policy. Before delving into three sections, the paper will evaluate whether Korean GND’s main criticism of being an Korean Green ‘Old’ Deal. Moreover, as the original New Deal’s fundamental aim is to create quality jobs and revive economy by government-led projects, the economy section will look whether the policy was effective in reviving economy and creating jobs. Although analysis section illustrated streams of successes in terms of environment, the evaluation section of the environment will discuss about the global environmental standards and achievability of it considering the details and current progress of the Korean GND. Inequality section will discuss whether Korean GND has resolved any societal inequality, and will look at its equality in the consultation process. First and foremost, one needs to acknowledge that Korean GND is not a substantially different policy from Green Growth National Strategy proposed by former president Myung-bak Lee’s regime. Thus, it is hard to say that it is an innovative policy that will “set the foundation for Korea’s next 100 years”(MOEF, 2020) Korean GND has a lot of similarity in terms of the plan with Green Growth National Strategy, which was proposed in 2008. Plans and details in “Green transition of infrastructures”, “Low-carbon and decentralized energy”, and “Innovation in green industry” are almost the same(Kim, 2020) The main difference between two policy is that Green Growth National Strategy mainly focused on constructing green infrastructure while Korean GND focused more on the renewal and remodeling of old public infrastructure to be more environmental-friendly. For instance, Green Growth National Strategy aimed to build dams to create a sustainable water supply in case of drought or severe temperature increase, while Korean GND aimed to adopt ICT and IAto 48 inter-regional and 161 water supply systems to control urban flooding and wastewater odor(Presidential committee of green growth, 2009) Hence, some critics say that the GND is more of an extension of the Green Growth National Strategy rather than an innovative project, while other argue that the time differences and changes in details made Korean GND more applicable to the status quo. However, one should acknowledge that Green Growth Plan is a failed government policy, as the greenhouse gas emission increased after the plan, reaching 650 million tons in 2010, despite a huge investment of 4.42 trillion won. It is hard to say whether the Korean GND will follow the same pathway with Green Growth National Strategy. But, the following discourses will argue that Korean GND is likely to fail. Economy At first glance, the government’s proposal to revive the economy, preserve environment, and achieve social equality by following the global trend(pro-digital and environmental-friendly strategies) may

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) seem promising. However, it should be noted that there are some criticism arising from various stakeholders: civic organizations, critics, activists, and intelligentsia. One of the biggest criticism that Korean GND is recieving is the cost involved in the project, and the source of the government budget. Korean New Deal aims to spend 160 trillion won by 2025 to revive and transform economy, and the Korean GND requires 73.4 trillion won by 2025, which is about 45.8% of the whole budget(MOEF, 2020, p. 25). Considering that annual government budget for Korea is 558 trillion won, the money involved in this new deal is huge(Jung, 2020). Prior to the implementation of the policy, the Korean government was criticized for its lax management, such as spending about 100 trillion dollars in creating public sector jobs, which later proved to be ineffective due to demoralization issue. Due to such management, Korea’s national debt reached its highest, about 1076 trillion won, which had the thirdfastest debt increase in the whole world(MOEF, 2022). In this situation, 73.4 trillion won budget for Korean GND is assumed to be afforded by either increasing the taxes or issuing the government bond. The details of spending plan are mysterious since the government did not uploaded the ways to afford budget neither in their official report nor in press conferences. Experts like Sang-chun Han, a prominent editorial writer in Korea Economic Daily, argues that the biggest source of the budget will be fulfilled by increasing the public tax, and this may arise a backfire to Korean economy(Han, 2020).The taxes in South Korea has been gradually increasing after former president Moon was in power, and it decreased consumer spending and private investment. Higher increase in tax may even more discourage the staggering consumer spending and investment, and people may tend to save money rather than to spend it, and thus the revenue collected by indirect taxes may significantly decrease. This not only decreases the revenue of the government, but also will harm the circulation of money in the economy, which is far from what the government is aiming for: reviving the economy.

Environment Furthermore, environmental preservation, which was one of the main goal of the policy, seems unachievable. As constantly reiterated in many environmental pledges and meetings, such as in Paris Climate Agreement or in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), “Global net humancaused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching ‘net zero’ around 2050”, along with “rapid and far-reaching” transitions in land, energy, industry, buildings, transport, and cities to limit global warming to 1.5°C”(Park, 2021) That means, in order to stop or to postponed the global warming, the global community need to opt-out from using coals and need to envision reducing CO2 close to zero by 2050. While other Green New Deal around the world such as EU GND has clear and achievable plans to meet the global expectation, such as EU hydrogen strategy, circular economy action plan, and EU biodiversity strategy(Norton Rose Fulbright, 2021), South Korean target does not specify how much greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced until which year in their official government repor(MOEF, 2020), casting a great doubt on whether they can meet the global community’s expectations. Although it is true that former president Moon proclaimed in 28 October 2020 in government press conference that South Korea would achieve zero carbon emissions by 2050 and the UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres praised his ambition, environmentalists soon disclosed the critical problem that South Korea need to address(Park, 2021) Currently, due to surging fuel price caused by Ukranian war and other factors, fuel subsidy index system has been activated. Fuel subsidy index system is a system where the government aid 50% of the fuel price if it goes above a standard price, which is 1750 won in 2022(MOEF, 2022). Also, the government decided to provide more subsidies to cargo trucks and taxi drivers who are suffering from a hike in diesel price(Kim, 2022). Although such policies a temporary measure to relieve the financial burden of citizens, one should acknowledge that such policies are implemented because diesels and fuels became

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) a necessity in our life. This is also supported by the fact that 69% of South Korea’s electricity generation is reliant upon non-renewable energy source(US Energy Information Administration, 2020). Hence, it will be a challenging task for the government to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels by half in about 8 years.

Inequality For inequality aspects, the policy has the potential to resolve regional inequality; however, some aspects of the consultation process of the Korean GND seem to have unequal power balance in decision making. Regional inequality has been a huge issue for South Korea since the late 20th century. There is a tendency in South Korea where people believe that better opportunities and education are available in Seoul, and as a result, an immense population has migrated from rural areas to Seoul. This resulted in overpopulation and staggering high housing prices in Seoul while leaving an aging population issue, infrastructure inadequacy, and a lack of working population problems in rural areas. Likewise, the Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) of Gangnam, a city in Seoul, is 71.85 trillion won (Donga, 2022) while Seogwipo-si, a city in Jeju Island, is 5937 billion won (Koh, 2022). Also, Seoul’s population density is extremely high—even higher than that of Tokyo—where the population density is 15,699 (on average, 15,699 people live in 1km2). (Statistics Korea, 2022) Korean GND promotes the growth of new and prospective industries like green energy management in less developed areas like Yeongdukgun. This promotion will incentivize people with high human capital to move to underdeveloped areas. As infrastructure like green power plants requires immense land, it will be less costly for the government to build such infrastructure around the area with low land value. As people with high human capital come to currently underdeveloped regions, other infrastructures such as educational infrastructure or other leisure facilities will also be established as there will be high demand for them. These prospective businesses not only help Korea to be more eco-friendly and to develop green technology but also resolve regional inequality issues. Hence, the Korean GND can be a great remedy to resolve the regional inequality issue in South Korea. But, despite this positive potential, one needs to acknowledge the consultation process of the Korean GND. Often referred to as a top-down management style, the planning of the policy was conducted in the following order: central government to the regional government to the private sectors.(Korea Development Institute(hereafter, KDI), 2022) The government first decides the general planning and aims of the plan, then the regional government decides the detail of the planning considering the geography, economy, and sociopolitical aspects of the region. Then, the private sectors can make a decision on whether to invest in certain green businesses or not. This resulted in problems such as unequal distribution of budget, where some green businesses lacked public funding or private investments as they lacked incentives. That means, the progress of the projects are delayed—or can be potentially canceled—due to a lack of budget. It would have been rather better for the consultation process to involve more private sectors and public, as although it may take more time, the resulting remedies will incorporate what is more needed and desired by the public.

Conclusion The research paper was conducted as an interim checkup for the national scale reformation policy(started in 2020, finishing at 2025, and the research paper was conducted in August, 2022). As shown in the analysis section, progress in some project areas are in line with the expected progress. For instance, the progress to restoring the terrestrial, marine, and urban ecosystems and the plan to promote prospective businesses to lead the green industry and establishing low-carbon and green industrial

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) complexes are showing amazing progress so far, going above and beyond the expected plan. However, it should be noted that not all projects have met the expected progress so far, due to lack of funding, the government budget constraints, or ineffective government supporting policies. Also, besides the progress, as pointed out in the evaluation section, the fact that Korean GND is not substantially different from the Green Growth National Strategy—a failed policy under Lee’s regime—casts a doubt in the efficacy of the Korean GND as it involves immense time, money, and human resources. Moreover, as the source of the money are mainly from tax revenue and government bonding, it can undermine the principle of the Korean GND of reviving the economy as increased tax revenue and national debt decreases the public spending and investment. Principle in the environmental asepct—which was to meet the global standard until 2025—seems unrealistic considering the lack of funding and details in the planning compared to other Green New Deal. In terms of inequality, although it has a potential to mitigate the regional inequality, one should acknowledge that the top-down consultation process per se does not incorporate the private sector’s voices, and hence having a power imbalance when deciding a plan for Korean GND. Based on the analyses, evaluations, and discourses throughout the research paper, the topic of the research paper, “Was South Korean Green New Deal successful?,” can be concluded that the Korean GND was partially successful considering the current progress in some project areas, but the core principles of the policy are often undermined. The paper has a meaningful implication to mainly three actors: central government, local government, and the private sector. The key takeaway for the central government is that they can realize what core principles of the policy are undermined in each section: economy, environment, and inequality. Since the policy is a national-scale reformation, it is important to notice any problems identified in the middle of the policy’s implementation process, and to fix it afterwards. For the local government, the analysis section will give an indication of what part of the project is successfully operating, and to indicate specific projects that needs adjustment or better planning. It also indicates what additional problem has occurred within the project, and gives the local government a specific target to resolve the spillover problems. For the private sector, the research paper indicates what part of the project lacks investments coherently in the analysis section. Hence, the private sector can readily look at what projects are conducted, and if they find a project that coincides with their wants, they can invest on such projects. The research paper has some limitations; since the operation of the policy has not yet finished, it is quite early to determine whether the policy is a success or failure. However, one should notice that the research paper primarily serve as an interim checkup of the Korean GND, and thus the purpose per se is not to determine whether the policy was successful; rather, it focuses more on the successes, failures, and limitations of the current progress of the Korean GND. Also, the paper overall lacks empirical evidences to support the claim. But, as the research was conducted in August 2022, the data availability for 2021 and 2022 are very limited, and the research paper incorporated any available and relevant empirical evidences to support and form the argument.

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Assessing The Effectiveness of The Container Deposit System (COS) in Republic of Korea (ROK) Author 1

Full Name

Oh, Jeongin

Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: This research assesses the effectiveness of the container deposit system (COS) in Republic of Korea (ROK) conducted by the Container Deposit System Management Organization (COSMO). Even with a sharp rise in people’s interest towards zero waste life and sustainable development as emphasized by the United Nations (UN), people are still unsure of practical ways that they can actually take roles in. One of the most recognized systems – with the objective to achieve sustainability – operated around the world is the COS. With the success that Pfand system brought to Germany, many countries have started promoting the COS in their own senses, which includes ROK. Thus, in this paper, the effectiveness of the Korean COS will first be examined through analysing the distribution of bottle return locations throughout the country. Moreover, the current usage status of general society, and their knowledge towards this system will also be looked at. However, the challenge of this paper was that the survey could not be sufficiently conducted, as there were a limited number of samples that could participate. Thus, an outside resource will be used to refer to specific data. Besides, the current issue with the COS is that it is not yet well-advertised to general society. Thus, this research paper will propose some potential strategies of promoting COS in ROK with reference to other successful advertisement models. Through investigating how other countries conduct the COS under various economic circumstances, this research paper will be able to suggest how the Korean government can improve their own COS. The main goal of this paper is to encourage more people to participate in the COS, and let the Korean COS become the successful model of following countries as more countries will also try to adapt the COS system.

Keywords: ROK, container deposit system, sustainability, advertisement, COSMO

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Environmental activist Greta Thunberg emphasized in her 2019 UN Climate Action Summit Speech, the effect of human act on the environment saying that “[a] change is coming, whether [we] like it or not” (NPR). Pollution, such as land, water, e-waste, or air, is threatening the Earth, challenging sustainability. By sustainability, it refers to the ability of the current society to satisfy its needs and wants without affecting future generations. Pollution, according to The World Bank, is “the largest environmental cause of disease and premature death”. In other words, pollution is not only affecting the Earth itself, but also affecting human beings who live on it. Having acknowledged the severity of the environmental crisis, different stakeholders of the market, households, firms and governments, have taken actions in their own terms to retain sustainability of the Earth. Households, especially MZ-generations have started pursuing what is called “zero-waste life” where they actively transfer from disposable goods to reusable goods. Firms have started searching for eco-friendly packaging and products. Some examples include paper straws, bioplastic spoons, soy ink for printings and corn-based buffer materials as an alternative for plastic bubble wrappers. Governments around the world, for instance, are focusing on more effective waste management technologies’ research and development (R&D) along with advertisements that directly involve its citizens. One of the best known and common advertisement methods around the world for proper waste management currently, is the container deposit system (COS). COS is concerned with increasing recycling rate of glass bottles through proper disposal. It might not seem obvious why the governments around the world are so focused on adapting COS when glass is not the major threat to the Earth’s environment. Yet, glass bottles are what can fully be recycled with technology currently available, while other waste materials still require further R&D. Hence, while R&D continues, governments and non-profit organizations (NPOs) are strengthening ‘what is already possible’, which is the glass recycling process, through adapting COS. Such a sequence of strategies for retaining sustainability can be represented as Figure 1.

Figure 1. Sequence of Strategies for Retaining Sustainability – Governments focus on strengthening first, then operating R&D along with strengthening process to retain sustainability

2. Container Deposit System (COS) and Its Benefits 2.1. COS and Its Environmental Benefits Adapting COS helps glass to truly become fully recyclable. For the most part, proper glass waste management helps generate cullets which are “granular [materials] made through crushing bottles and jars collected from recycling programs” (Jacoby, 2019). Cullets help glass wastes to be repurposed (i.e. decorations, bricks) or be reused (i.e. bottles, jars). Adapting cullets in the production cycle helps prevent floodings, erosions and marine life threats which are all consequences of excessive sand

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) removal to satisfy human wants. Besides preventions, cullets can help firms to reduce their need for scarce raw materials, save energy costs and improve quality of glass products while reducing greenhouse gas emissions at the same time. What is restricting active generation of cullets is improper end-of-life glass management. Problem with glass waste management without adapting COS, is concerned with the quality of glass being disposed of. US single-stream recycling bins or even Korean households’ improper glass management causes glass bottles to break or be contaminated. Glass bottles which are contaminated, cannot be crushed down into cullets to be repurposed or to be reused for consumers’ safety. Small contaminants may be removed during cleaning and disinfection processes, but it is still highly recommended that bottles’ original conditions are maintained. For instance, some firms directly reuse collected bottles from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), so broken glasses cannot also be recycled. Adapting COS makes it inevitable for households to pay attention to how they dispose of glass bottles as those which do not satisfy criteria outlined by governments or NPOs cannot receive deposits. 2.2. COS and Its Societal Benefits According to the Korean Container Deposit System Management Organization (COSMO), the meaning of COS is highlighted as a method to encourage returning and reusing end-of-life glass bottles. While consumers receive deposits through participating in COS, firms who are responsible for reusing or repurposing glass bottle wastes receive handling fees; COSMO is directly using economical or rather financial methods in order to retain sustainability. While this economical approach itself also poses great impact on society, COS’s trait of directly involving households is what makes it more appealing to governments and NPOs around the world. Unlike how private firms pursue sustainability without consumers realizing, COS requires households’ attention as it requires several steps that must be taken.

Figure 2. Comparison Between NPOs’/ governments’ and Firms’ Action in Terms of Retaining Sustainability – Venn diagram outlines how NPOs’/ governments’ COS and firms’ promotion of ecofriendly products are different.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Referring to Figure 2, both the NPOs/ governments and firms share a common goal of retaining sustainability. Looking at the left side of the diagram first, they directly engage consumers through actually having them to clean used bottles and find automated centers or convenient stores where they can receive deposits. At the same time end-of-life management facilities who reuse or repurpose collected bottles also benefit. Moreover, financial benefits earned through participating in COS encourage participation of households, and through word of mouth, NPOs/ governments can expect further advertising efficacy. On the other hand, while firms’ actions in trying to achieve sustainability are admirable, most of their actions are done to an extent where their brand’s image is not harmed for marketing purposes. Sometimes, firms are often accused of greenwashing no matter what their true purpose was, creating hostility among consumers. Hence, it is more effective and efficient for governments and NPOs around the world to promote COS rather than subsidizing firms to adapt sustainable products for their marketing.

3. Domestic Status The Republic of Korea (ROK) first adopted COS in 1985. The current COS operates based on a law which was modified in 2015 January. 3.1. COS Management COS in ROK is managed by a NPO known as Container Deposit System Management Organization (COSMO). There are NPOs other than COSMO who engage in operating COS such as the Ministry of Environment (governmental), Korean Environment Corporation (KECO) and Korea Resource Circulation Service Agency (KORA), but COSMO is considered as the major sector in charge of continuing COS. Since their establishment in 2021 June 10th, they have been focusing on searching ways in which the Korean economy can shift from linear to circular structure, trying to retain sustainability. Here, by linear economy, it refers to a social structure where products are used and then simply thrown away, while circular economy is where used products are reused and recycled; in other words, they bring back end-of-life products into the economy in order to pursue sustainability. The table below (Table 1.) displays the amount of deposit received by household and the handling fee received by the end-of-life management facility. More information on which companies in ROK participate in COS can be viewed from Appendix 1. Table 1. Amount of Deposit and Handling Fee

This table is based on data provided by COSMO on the amount of deposit and handling fee. While the amount of deposit only differs by the size of the bottle, the handling fee differs on whether the bottle was collected from a wholesale or retail shop, not only the bottle’s size.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3.1.1. Laws and Regulations Current laws and regulations can be accessed through The Korean Law Information Center’s webpage by anyone. These sets of laws share a purpose to guide different stakeholders involved in COS. Firms are responsible for properly indicating COS bottles so that consumers can easily identify them. Some requirements that firms responsible for producing COS bottles should follow are outlined as follows: Firms must indicate that a certain bottle is subjected to COS by printing, carving or placing labels on either the front or the side of the COS bottle Firms must not make COS indications easily removable COS indications must be easily identifiable by consumers which can be done through employing colors that differentiate from the color of the bottle. It is also outlined how firms should react to unpredictable changes in the amount of deposits that households receive. The government also restricts ways that barcodes can be placed on a bottle so that automated COS machines can properly operate. On the other hand, for firms who are in charge of recollecting COS bottles, such as convenience stores, they are not allowed to reject bottles that consumers are trying to return unless these bottles are broken or contaminated. Looking at these laws, it can be noticed that Korean COS is very ordered, reducing any confusions that might rise among firms. Images on labels of the bar code or other indications of COS can be seen on Appendix 2. Roles of city mayors or governmental members from each district also follow a set of rules set by the Legislative branch. It states that governmental figures of cities and districts should annually check how firms are operating COS; i.e., check whether indications of COS bottles are correct and effective towards consumers. Regularly checking on how COS is operating in each territory is highly remarkable as it shows that the government is not only interested in showing their dedication towards taking responsibility in retaining sustainability, but it tells that the Korean government is actually involved in a process essential for retaining sustainability. This particular law shows the governments’ responsibility towards operating COS successfully. Yet, only looking at this law, it is hard to tell if firms are also involved when changes are made to the COS, or whether it is the Minister of Environment’s sole decision to do so. Whilst it might be difficult to listen to sayings of every stakeholder involved in COS time-wise or due to possibility of lobbying, it seems that the government must also consider conducting a hearing as without private firms and consumers greatly involved, advertising efficacy of COS will decrease. There are no specific laws specified on consumers according to The Korean Law Information Center’s webpage. Yet, consumers are required to maintain COS bottles’ original forms so that these bottles can either be reused or be recycled. As bottles which are contaminated or broken are not accepted due to safety and health issues, this ‘regulation’ requires consumers’ great attention, naturally involving them into COS. 3.1.2. Distribution of COS Centers and Automated Machines In order to assess whether COS centers and automated machines are evenly distributed across ROK, each place was plotted on Google My Maps. Here, it must be noted that COS centers are not convenient

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) stores or markets that recollect COS bottles, but are centers operated by KORA. It differs from convenient stores as there are no restrictions on how many bottles can be returned per day. The reason why COS centers are operating in some cities have not been clearly stated by KORA, but it seems like an effort to reduce conflicts that may occur among convenience stores who may not have enough space to keep recollected COS bottles. Locations of automated COS machines and COS centers were found on COSMO’s website (Appendix 3). The following is a map indicating distributions of automated COS machines and COS centers.

Figure 3. Automated COS Machines Distribution – This figure shows the distribution of automated COS machines across ROK. It is noticeable that their distribution is not even.

Figure 4. COS Center Distribution – This figure outlines the distribution of COS centers across ROK. There are not yet many centers operating as this business is in its early steps.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) To first talk about Figure 3. which outlines how automated COS machines are distributed in ROK, it is noticeable that they are not evenly distributed across ROK. Rather, the greatest number of these machines are concentrated around (22) or in (24) Seoul, the capital city of ROK. This data tells that more automated COS machines should be placed in territories distanced from Seoul. Whilst most of the Korean population lives in or near Seoul due to urbanization, efforts on equally distributing COS machines in other areas should also be considered, as difficulties in finding places to return COS bottles are one of the reasons why people find COS inefficient. If the Korean government, by law, sets a number of automated COS machines that must be placed in each territory according to population density, COS would be able to expect more active participation of households. One might say as convenience stores also recollect COS bottles, that it is not worth a government spending to place more automated COS machines. Yet, as convenient stores have a limited amount of space and misconceptions of the owners of these convenient stores on COS may arise another issue, it is highly recommended that automated COS machines are distributed equally across the country. Moreover, if the government decides to place more COS machines, we can expect further competition among firms who produce these scanning machines, re-boosting the economy. Furthermore, as more countries continue to adopt COS, we can expect exports of these machines to other countries which will generate benefits to our society. Looking at Figure 4, there are lesser COS centers than automated COS machines. It might seem questionable why the government is operating COS center and automated COS machines at the same time. Yet, looking at the map (Figure 4.) it is noticeable that greatest numbers of COS centers are in Jeju (8). As urbanization started, younger generations have left Jeju leaving behind older generations in; it is even expected that 60 thousand younger generations will leave Jeju in the next 30 years. Just as how it is often highlighted in various mass media platforms, older generations often find it difficult to adapt to automated machines or kiosks. Hence, COS centers can be seen as an effort in trying to also involve older generations into the action of retaining sustainability. Whilst COS centers are only placed in southern parts of Jeju, their such choice is indeed remarkable as these centers are placed near famous tourist locations. Likewise, government should consider various factors such as foot traffic or proportion of older generations compared to younger generations. 3.2. Perceptions There was no survey recently conducted on how consumers perceive COS and their opinions on automated COS machines. Yet, having found the relative data provided in 2017, after the modification was made, consumers' perception on COS will be analyzed using this data. This data was provided by The Ministry of Environment. According to research conducted by Research Bank © from 2017 February 24th to March 3rd on 2000 consumers over 20 years old living in ROK, people's perception on COS had been increasing since 2015. Accordingly, the proportion of the population who have participated in COS have also increased. The government viewed this increase to be a result of increasing the deposit of COS bottles. Referring to the law which states that the Minister of Environment is responsible for considering changing the amount of deposit every three years, we can expect further increase in people’s participation when deposit increases according to the inflation rate or consumer confidence of the country. Another noticeable result from this research was that people tended to return bottles to where they bought the COS bottle (60.5%). While not mentioned in detail, considering that people usually buy products near their housing, it can be said that this is due to the convenience of access to such locations. Still, while 95.4% of the participants answered that they know about COS, it was only shown that 47.1% of them

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) have actually returned the bottle back to receive a deposit. There was another study conducted from 2017 May 11th until 22nd on 400 people to analyze to what extent people are satisfied with automated COS machines. It was shown that an average of 24 people used an automated COS machine per day. Among 400 samples, 48% said that they return bottles once or twice every month. 83.3% were satisfied with their experience with automated COS machines and found it convenient to use (93%). Yet, some proportion of the sample expressed inconvenience in how deposits are collected while some stated that the location of the automated COS machine was not easily accessible. However, there is a limitation with this data provided by CBP © as it is not specifically mentioned how old participants were or their genders. Thus, looking at these data, it seems inevitable that the government should once again conduct surveys on various genders and age ranges to further improve COS in following years. 3.3. Relative Data Along with how people perceive COS, the most important data is the actual recollection rate of COS bottles and their recycling or reusing rate, along with how many COS bottles were produced annually. This data is provided by COSMO, and citizens are all allowed to access this data. In fact, people these days show high obsession towards data as they are factual and precise. Hence, COSMO's way of showing recycling/ reusing rate and recollection rate of COS bottles could actually work as an effective marketing method to engage consumers. Table 1. Data from COSMO on COS Operation Status

This table displays factual information relative to COS operated in ROK. Information displayed are the number of bottles produced and recollected in millions, followed by country-side recollection rate and household bottle return rate. Because relative analysis on data is not provided, only assumptions can possibly be made on this data set. Main points noticeable from this table is that the amount of bottles produced shows a positive relationship with the number of bottles recollected; when bottle production increased, the amount recollected also increased. Yet, starting from 2020, there has been a slight decrease in the number of bottles produced and recollected. Recollection rate, which is the proportion of COS bottles returned against bottles produced, also decreased correspondingly. This could be due to higher unemployment rate in the Korean economy as a result of COVID-19 pandemic, or could simply be a result of diminishing marginal benefit. However, it seems rather hasty to conclude that such slight decrease in

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) recollection rate is due to diminishing marginal benefit of the amount of deposit received as household bottle return rate had been increasing ever since 2016. This in other words means that firms who serve beverages stored in COS bottles are not fully returning COS bottles. Hence, it seems inevitable that there must be further modifications on regulations or increase in advertising directed toward these firms to once again heighten the recollection rate in ROK.

4. Global Status In an effort to suggest possible improvements that can be made by the Korean government, Pfand system in Germany and Bottle Return Scheme in New Zealand were observed. On the other hand, to identify difficulties with involving firms into participating in COS, plastic pollution lobby case in Austria was also part of the observation. 4.1. Germany – Pfand Pfand, which means deposit in German, is a bottle return deposit system in Germany. When one buys beverages in bottles or even in cans, he/ she pays an extra deposit (Pfand) in addition to the product’s price. Once the empty bottle is returned, one can receive Pfand that they previously paid, while bottles and cans get either repurposed or reused. There are two types of Pfand containers in Germany, and those are multi-use bottles called Mehrweg, and single-use bottles and cans called Einweg. Glass Mehrwegs “can be refilled up to 50 times without losing quality (Ruiz et al., 2021)”, while plastic Mehrwegs are usually refilled around 25 times. Consumers can identify Mehrwegs by logos below (Figure 5.), or “words such as ‘Pfand-Glas’, ‘Mehrwegflasche’ or ‘Mehrweg-Pfandflasche’” (Yvonne, 2022) which are printed on the bottle’s label itself, or on shelvesĜ price tags.

Figure 5. Multi-Use Pfand Bottles’ Logos – These logos can be identified on bottles which are reused after disposal. Unlike how COS system in ROK has a set deposit value by the government which can be modified every 3 years, it is firms’ choice to set the amount of Pfand for Mehrwegs in Germany, ranging between €0.08 ~ €0.25. Another difference between the German Pfand system and Korean COS is that Mehrweg includes thick plastic bottles also, while Korean COS is only interested in reusing or repurposing glass bottles. On the other hand, Einwegs are only used once and “[are] shredded and turned into pellets [which can] be made into new plastic bottles, textiles or other plastic objects, such as detergent containers (Ruiz et al., 2021)”. Unlike Mehrwegs, Einwegs have a fixed value of deposit which is €0.25, and this value had been set by the German government. Einwegs include less stable plastic bottles and cans, and their outlook differs from Mehrwegs through employing another logo of their own (Figure 6.), or by “words

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) such as ‘Einweg’ or ‘Einwegflasche’ (Yvonne, 2022)”.

Figure 6. Single-Use Pfand Containers’ Logos – These logos can be identified on containers which are repurposed after disposal. Similar to Korean COS, people can return bottles to beverage stores, kiosks or supermarkets through using a bottle return machine. Shops are only directed to accept bottle returns of their sales. In fact, there exists an underground system of deposit collectors called Pfandsammler who “traverse through highly populated outdoor areas and collect [Pfand] bottles” (Yvonne, 2022). This underground system can be seen as both a positive or negative effect of operating Pfand in Germany. From a positive perspective, it can generate money for those who are low-income earners or those who have to earn money but are not working age. However, there could be a side-effect in which conflict occurs among Pfandsammlers, as more bottles collected corresponds to more deposits received. Considering that the return rate of Pfand bottles these days is around 98% in Germany, it can be concluded that the German Pfand system is highly successful. This could be due to higher average amount of deposit that people receive compared to consumers in Korea, the result of successful advertisement, successful R&D completion in reusing or repurposing Pfand bottles or it could also be a result of letting underground systems of Pfandsammler to bloom. 4.2. New Zealand – Bottle Return Scheme Having perceived the availability of a container deposit return system in pursuing sustainability, other countries around the world are starting to take their first steps in adapting this system according to their circumstances. As stated by the German state environment agency UBA “there is no silver bullet for all countries and [each] context has to be closely evaluated to decide what works best” (Ruiz, 2021). In an effort to follow the successful footsteps of the German Pfand system, New Zealand have also recently released further information on their own container return scheme proposal. The information is open to the public on New Zealand’s Ministry for the Environment’s official webpage, and most of the information outline answers to questions which were asked in webinars held in 2022 March and April. Unlike most other countries, New Zealand’s government is not only considering handing deposits to consumers by cash. They are considering handing out supermarket vouchers instead, or electronic funds transfer which can be received through consumers’ personal accounts or mobile applications. In addition, New Zealand’s government is also considering opening an opportunity for consumers to donate these deposits to charities; while not outlined in depth yet, these charities are likely to be those taking an action to retain sustainability. The reason why New Zealand’s government recently became interested in the container return deposit system is due to their low beverage container recovery rate compared to other countries around the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) world. In recent years, about “1.7 billion beverage containers were either stockpiled, littered or sent to landfills in New Zealand” (Ministry for the Environment, 2022). The most troubling fact is that these end-of-life beverage containers are ruining tourist sites from coastlines to even public spaces. Through launching a bottle return system, New Zealand’s government cannot only expect to bring “New Zealand’s resource recovery systems up to global standards” (MfE, 2022) but also on providing beautiful landscapes for its tourists. Unlike ROK’s COS which only collects glass bottles or Germany’s Pfand system that collects glass, plastic, and canned containers, New Zealand’s government has included single-use liquid paperboard beverage containers too. This is a very remarkable decision as there have also been voices in Germany who said that paperboard beverage containers should also be included as Pfand containers. Looking at beverage containers which are excluded, such as fresh milk in all packaging types due to its characteristic of not being consumed outside of housing, it can be concluded that the New Zealand’s government have definitely pursued efficiency and efficacy of the system. Moreover, by stating that they “encourage [key stakeholders who use fresh milks such as cafés or restaurants] to have [their] say” (MfE, 2022) on ways for increasing commercial recovery rates of fresh milk containers, they are showing high engagement and interest in achieving sustainable life. Some other exclusions and inclusions for New Zealand’s bottle return scheme are outlined as below (Figure 7.).

Figure 7. Containers Included and Excluded in New Zealand’s Bottle Return Scheme – Displayed here, are containers which are to be recollected and which are not to be recollected when Bottle Return Scheme launches. The New Zealand’s government is trying to employ reverse vending machines and an over the counter method while at the same time opening a manual or automated depot where large volumes can also be returned easily. They have promised that these businesses will be distributed evenly around the country no matter whether the area is distanced from main cities. It is expected that this scheme would “be operational in New Zealand by 2025 at the earliest” (MfE, 2022).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 4.3. Austria – Plastic Pollution Lobby Some countries are yet far from operating a container return deposit system regardless of its benefits. As of 2020, besides supports from majority of Austrians and scientific organizations, there was ‘plastic pollution lobby’ lead mainly by Altstoff Recycling Austria (ARA), “Austria’s largest collection and recycling system for packaging” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020), major beverage companies, Austrian Chamber of Commerce (WKÖ) and recycling companies. 4.3.1. Altstoff Recycling Austria (ARA) ARA supports “companies in fulfilling their obligations under the Packaging Law in order to manage their waste responsibility” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). They annually receive around €147.22 million from license fees. They were indeed the main stakeholders in charge of recycling plastic bottles for companies. However, with the introduction of the deposit return system (DRS), they feared their great loss in licensing fees. ARA previously “intended to influence the development of the government-commissioned study that examined four options for implementing the 90% collection target” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020) but was rejected due to DRS which was shown that it could achieve at least 95% collection rate compared to ARA’s 80% collection rate. Moreover, their failure in trying to outline how they are going to increase their collection rate made DRS a more appealing choice for the Austrian government. Its major lobbying was caught in 2019, when they “launched a campaign against DRS to influence the development of the government programme” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). In letters sent in December, were signatories of major retailers and few misleading points in trying to emphasize the effectiveness of ARA against DRS. Some of their false claims are displayed as follows: ARA claimed that DRS would be ineffective in controlling littering as “only 13% are packaging, 4% PET and 3% cans” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020). However, it was found that these numbers were based on weight of wastes collected, and that packaging does in fact take up most part of littering by 53 ~ 76%. ARA claimed that “the population would be confused about rules to return bottles to shops and other plastic packaging to recycling centers” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020). Yet, according to a poll conducted in February 2020, citizens of Austria are highly supportive towards operating DRS. 4.3.2. Major Beverage Companies Major beverage companies have been accused of plastic lobbying even outside of Austria. The main reason why was because their “marketing strategy builds on complementary initiatives” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020) such as an anti-littering campaign of their own where they can shift responsibility to consumers. Some even claim that single use bottles are as good as reusable bottles when it is explicitly shown that “reuse PET bottles generate only 5% of the waste generated by the production of 20 single-use bottles” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020). Yet, some companies, such as Coca-Cola, a world-wide famous beverage brand, are shifting towards supporting systems similar to DRS in Austria. They have been long against DRS saying that “[their] packaging is not only valuable, but also essential for [their] business and vital for people to be able to enjoy [Coca-Cola’s] drinks” (Matthews, 2017), and that “any changes to policy around it are therefore important to [them]” (Matthews, 2017). However, recently realizing that more and more countries are starting to operate DRS on their own terms, they have changed their tune. Yet, there are still a lot of

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) major beverage companies who are strongly against the idea of DRS. 4.3.3. Austrian Chamber of Commerce (WKÖ) WKÖ is strongly against DRS, and they have even voiced their disagreement towards DRS. Their major business is promoting “the sustainable use of plastic bottles” (Changing Market Foundation, 2020), and carrying on an anti-littering campaign, which is as mentioned above, one of the key marketing strategies of most companies. However, such an organization is only interested in what littering can result in, but not its major cause, such as the lack of a deposit system. Moreover, it was noticeable that this organization provided “a convenient smokescreen for [industries], allowing [them] to blame consumers for not knowing how to dispose of waste correctly” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). In simpler words, WKÖ was responsible for not concentrating on what the actual cause of littering is, but only concentrating on supporting industries to promote “voluntary commitment” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). 4.3.4. Recycling Companies While not the ‘major’ opponent of DRS, they have also shown concerns on “reduction in the volume of waste they contracted to separate for ARA” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). Still, implementation of DRS does not mean that recycling companies will no longer be involved. It had been reported that “even without PET bottles, around 80% of the 250,000t of remaining plastic packaging waste will [need to be] collected separately to achieve the 50% recycling target” (Changing Markets Foundation, 2020). Looking at this plastic pollution lobby in Austria, countries who have already started container deposit return systems such as ROK must pay close attention to beverage firms along with recycling companies. On the other hand, countries who are yet in its earliest steps should also obtain a wide perspective in handling this issue, as retaining sustainability is not only about the environment but also about human beings who live alongside it.

5. Solutions After having gone through case studies on how countries other than ROK is operating container return deposit systems, some improvements that can be made by COSMO in enhancing the effectiveness of COS could be identified. 5.1. Location of Automated COS Machines and COS Centers As could have been seen from Figure 3. and Figure 4., automated COS machines are highly populated in regions near or in Seoul. While it is true that most people live or work in Seoul, there are still famous tourist sites outside of Seoul where many foreigners and even domestic residents visit. Just as how COS centers have been established in tourist sites in the southern part of Jeju, similar work should be done throughout the mainland. It is highly recommended that the government considers setting a number of automated COS machines that must be placed according to population density of the region, or according to the number of people visiting such places daily. One concern that might arise about placing more automated COS machines is that it requires a lot of electricity, while saving energy and using clean energy is one of the main sustainable development goals (SDGs) presented by the United Nations (UN). Hence, for automated COS machines placed in tourist sites near oceans they should try to employ tidal energies or wind energies for operation. This would be a reasonable solution to tackle massive energy usage of these machines as ROK is a peninsula,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) a land surrounded by three bodies of water. Moreover, ROK is famous for its landscape with high mountains in the eastern part of the country while there lies low plains in the western side of the country. In other words, this means that automated COS machines placed near famous mountains can be generated using wind power. Placing automated COS machines near mountains will be very effective as visitors often bring drinks with them. On the other hand, in the western side of the country, solar power can be employed as an energy source. There have been active developments on solar energy which are convenient, light and efficient, so employing solar energy will be an effective choice. One might say that these automated COS machines might ruin the landscape of famous tourist sites. However, this can be overcome through using different designs for each place. In fact, people these days are interested in taking unique photos and uploading them on their personal social media accounts. It is also easy to see that some people are using the concept of “zero-waste life” as a way of showing their interest toward the environment. Using such psychology where people want to express a sense of superiority over others, the government can promote SNS events where people take photos of differently designed automated COS machines and receive small prizes which are eco-friendly such as tumblers. In the case of COS centers, these should be placed in areas where the average age of residents is quite high. There have been few reports on difficulties that elders experience when they use automated kiosks these days. Hence, there should be a movement made by the government that also considers participation of elders in COS. 5.2. Variety of Containers Accepted One of the complaints made about the Pfand system in Germany was that liquid paperboard beverage containers cannot be collected while they are one of those containers which are used a lot by major beverage companies. It is the same for Korea. Bottled containers are usually used for alcoholic drinks or rarely soft drinks, and drinks other than those are mostly contained in plastic bottles or liquid paperboards commonly known as cartons. Cartons and plastic bottles may not be able to be reused, but they can be repurposed. Cartons, which are “made from 70~90% paper board [with] lining made from plastic and aluminum (Recycle Now, n.d.)” can surely be recycled. By removing lining materials, cardboards can be mixed with water and be pulped to be turned into a fibrous solution. These solutions can then be repurposed into new products such as boxes, while linings removed can be “made into products line garden furniture, play mats and building materials” (Recycle Now, n.d.). In the case of plastic bottles, there is research going on to seek ways to turn plastic wastes back into oils that can be used for generating electricity. Hence, the government should consider collecting plastic bottles on top of glass containers after this technology gets fully developed. Moreover, as plastic vinyl sheets can also be converted into oils, we may also expect the government to recollect plastic packaging too along with bottles. As plastics are light in weight compared to glass containers, we can expect reduced price for transportation of these materials to end-of-life management facilities. 5.3. Prevention of Lobbying: Annual Hearing One of the biggest problems that arise with COS is that some firms might lobby the government in order to maintain their business or marketing strategy. While not as severe as lobbying, when the government announced that they will be returning deposits for paper cups as well which have shown recollection

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) rate of merely 5%, owners of cafés have expressed opposing opinions on such governmental programs. Their complaints were based on the point that this policy requires high responsibility of the owners and is very time consuming to put on labels to every cup by hand, when inflation rates are soaring and parttime workers require higher income. Currently, the government has withdrawn this policy saying that they will come up with solutions for the paper cup return system that was recently presented, but this definitely showed that these kinds of complaints may also arise about COS too. Therefore, it would be reasonable to listen to voices of different members of stakeholders by conducting a hearing to further enhance the efficacy of COS, and involve firms to suggest possible solutions to tackling environmental crises caused by disposable goods just as how New Zealand is actively listening to their residents’ opinions.

6. Conclusion The overall return rate of glass bottles which was 97.6% in 2021 might imply a feeling that the Korean COS is operating properly and effectively. Yet, considering that the return rate of households was only 63.5% in 2021, COS still requires further developments. Based on a case study of Germany and New Zealand, along with an observation on potential conflict that the COS might arise, three major changes can be considered by the Korean government which are: 1. Placing more automated COS machines and COS centers in rural areas outside of Seoul, especially near tourist sites, 2. Increasing the variety of disposable packaging which consumers can receive deposits from and 3. Conducting an annual hearing to prevent lobbying by major industries involved. While the availability of the COS as a method to tackle environmental crises has been acknowledged, the Korean government should continue on pursuing sustainability and follow SDGs as outlined by the UN. By subsidizing sun-rise companies in these industries or opening government hosted forums for different firms to freely participate in, it is likely that the rate of development will increase exponentially in the short-run even. For current major firms, they should actively adapt environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) to not only directly tackle environmental crises such as carbon emissions during production, but also sustain equality and freedom of different people. In the long-run, households must also actively participate in pursuing sustainability through NGO or government-based environmental activities; yet, the most important would be the role of the government to advertise correct information on current social issues with people’s attention heading towards unexpected climate crisis nowadays (e.g. droughts, floods, repeated heat waves). Still, it must be noted that Korea, and other countries’ efforts in trying to involve different stakeholders into action to retain sustainability is highly respectable.

7. References (www.dw.com), D. W. (2021, November 17). How does Germany's Bottle Deposit Scheme Work?: DW: 17.11.2021. DW.COM. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.dw.com/en/how-does-germanysbottle-deposit-scheme-work/a-50923039 Further information on the container return scheme proposal. Ministry for the Environment. (2022, June 20). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from environment.govt.nz/what-government-is-doing/areas-ofwork/waste/container-return-scheme-reducing-waste-landfill/further-information-on-the-containerreturn-scheme/ How are cartons recycled? How are cartons recycled? | Recycle Now. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2022, from www.recyclenow.com/how-to-recycle/how-are-cartons-recycled Matthews, J. (2017, January 26). Document reveals Coca-Cola opposes Bottle Return Scheme. Sky News. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from news.sky.com/story/document-reveals-coca-cola-opposesbottle-return-scheme-10742502 Mitch, J. (2019, February 11). Why Glass Recycling in The US Is Broken. Cen.acs.org. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from cen.acs.org/materials/inorganic-chemistry/glass-recycling-US-broken/97/i6 Plastic pollution lobby plastic pollution lobby - changing markets. Changing Markets Foundation. (2020, May). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from changingmarkets.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/05/CM_PLASTIC-POLLUTION-LOBBY_FinalEN.pdf Pollution. World Bank. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.worldbank.org/en/topic/pollution Staff, N. P. R. (2019, September 23). Transcript: Greta Thunberg's speech at the U.N. Climate Action Summit. NPR. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from www.npr.org/2019/09/23/763452863/transcriptgreta-thunbergs-speech-at-the-u-n-climate-action-summit Yvonne. (2022, January 24). How does Pfand in Germany work? [A detailed guide]. Simple Germany. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.simplegermany.com/pfand-germany/ Sohn, B. (2017, August 3). ㏢゚㧦ゞ⼧ ⹮䢮㥾㯳…⽊㯳⁞ 㩲☚ ㎇Ὃ㩗㩫㹿 (Recollection Rate of Empty COS Containers Increase Significantly... Successful Adaptation of COS). Ministry of Environment. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.me.go.kr/home/web/board/read.do?boardMasterId=1&boardId=807510&menuId=286 㧦㤦㑲䢮⽊㯳⁞ 䢮⿞ⶎῂ ⹥ 㨂㌂㣿䚲㔲㠦 ὖ䞲 ἶ㔲 (Official Announcement For Indicating Container Deposit System). The Korean Law Information Center. (2022, June 21). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.law.go.kr/䟟㩫′䂯/㧦㤦㑲䢮⽊㯳⁞䢮⿞ⶎῂ⹥㨂㌂㣿䚲㔲㠦ὖ䞲ἶ㔲/(2022116,20220621) www.headlinejeju.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=404316 㧦㤦㑲䢮⽊㯳⁞ὖⰂ㎒䎆 (Container Deposit Return Management Organization). (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.cosmo.or.kr/home/main.do 䞲ῃ㑲䢮㧦㤦㥶䐋㰖㤦㎒䎆. (n.d.). 䞲ῃ㑲䢮㧦㤦㥶䐋㰖㤦㎒䎆 (Korean Resource Circulation Service Agency). kora.or.kr. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.kora.or.kr/eng/coreBusiness/recyclingIntro.do Hong, C. (2019, December 18). ⋮㧊 ✲⓪ 㩲㭒☚...30 ⎚⛺ 㼃⎚㧎ῂ 6 Ⱒⳛ Ṧ㏢ (Aging Jeju ... 60,000 Youth Population Estimated To Decrease in The Following 30 Years). 䠺✲⧒㧎㩲㭒 (Headline Jeju). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from www.headlinejeju.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=404316

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 8. Appendix Appendix 1. List of Major Beverage Companies Participating in COS

Appendix 2. Barcodes and Labels of COS Bottles *Labels are only required when the amount of deposit received changes.

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Appendix 3. COSMO Webpage and Where to Find Lists of Automated COS Machines and COS Centers

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Korea's Strategic Choice Between the United States and China in the New Cold War Era Author 1

Author 2

Full Name

Park, Bohyun

School Name

Penn Foster Highschool

Full Name

Park, Yoonki

Seoul Scholars International

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name Abstract:

It is now surrounded by a complex international situation with pro-American, pro-Russian, and Chinese countries entering the new Cold War era. In particular, The Russian invasion of Ukraine led to increased arms in the neighboring countries of Ukraine. Also, Western countries and other Chinese stances over China's invasion of Taiwan are raising international tensions. In this situation, what position should Korea take is practical. In conclusion, Korea's hostile relationship with China will deepen. Throughout history, Korea and China have not had an aggressive relationship. In addition, given the economic case and the recent Northeast Asian process, Korea should abandon its excessive dependence on exchanges with China. Korea will continue to have a more cooperative relationship with the United States from a complementary and economic perspective on its allies in the field of military arms exports. However, from an economic and political standpoint with China, it will continue from a conflict perspective. These cases were accurately identified as a result of analyzing a recent series of events.

Keywords: New cold war, pro-America, historical Korea relation to China, complementary and economic perspective, economic and political standpoint

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 1. Introduction Research motivation and purpose From the current international perspective, we will find out the relationship between Korea's political and economic perspective and the position that Korea will take on the changes in the international situation, and think about the possibility of another war that Korea can take from a geopolitical point of view. And it is one of the key purposes to see that organizing Korea's position in response to the recent series of events with China can respond to China's intransigent announcement of internal affairs. Finally, I would like to grasp and analyze the relationship between China and Korea to find out Korea's position as China and Korea's policy direction on the US sanctions against China.

2. Method and Research 2.1. The Fiction of Korea's Dependence on China's Economy As of 2021, Korea's dependence on exports to China was 25.3%, the highest among major countries, and the 10 major export items accounted for 39.1% of exports to China, meaning that China has a high proportion of imports of products needed, and Taiwan replaces semiconductors. Korea's dependence on exports to China has decreased somewhat due to slowing exports to China after peaking (26.8%) in 2018, but its dependence on a single item of memory semiconductors is severe at 20.5%. In particular, China is replacing imported items when a country that can replace Korea comes out. And one of Korea's strengths, the export of culture and game industries, is blocking nearly zero%.

Figure1. Changes in China's High-7HFK 0DUNHW 6KDUH LQ 0DMRU &RXQWULHV ĺ OECD High-Tech Product Classification Criteria Based on SITC rev.3[1] Data source: The Korea International Trade Association 2.2. Korea and China are not economically complementary, but competitive South Korea is now like China is 25.3 % dependent on many rivals, in other countries are highest. Until recently, South Korea's shipbuilding, construction and its export, and export industries, from now on the front in industries in, will be rivalry with the defense industry. Korea's No. 1 industry is making developing countries into IMF-borrowed countries with ODA[2] because China's low-cost bid to beat South Korean construction companies is not able to win orders just

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) by low-cost orders. In addition, the shipbuilding industry has been reorganized mainly by large shipbuilders due to competition with Korea and is supported by orders for military ships in its own country.

Figure2. Korea's three shipbuilders are recovering due to increased orders for eco-friendly ships due to the IMO's regulations on ship emissions, From left are Hyundai heavy industry, Samsung Heavy Industry, DSME Data source: Hyundai heavy industry, Samsung Heavy Industry, DSME

Figure3. Graph of Changes in Export Competition Index[3] Korea with China when Exporting Overseas Datasource: The Korea International Trade Association In the classification of OECD industries as well as individual industries [4], it can be seen that the industrial competition relationship between Korea and China is intensifying in 2021 than in 2011. 2.3. The historical and ideological confrontation between Korea and China and the history of China's aggression against Korea and the process of Northeast China[5] In Korea's 5,000-year history, relations with China have been a repeat of the history of aggression and China's participation in the most recent Korean War is a decisive factor in establishing Korea as a

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) divided nation. In addition, geographically, various military and economic disputes have occurred as Korea, the closest country to the United States, China, and the United States and Russia, which are the causes of the Cold War, including fishing disputes with China and the invasion of KADIZ[6]. In addition, I think it is difficult to establish a normal relationship with China by describing the THAAD[7] deployment in Sangju, North Gyeongsang Province, and the traditional Korean clothes of the Beijing Olympics, Hanbok, as a costume of Chinese ethnic Koreans.

Figure 4. An Expression of Conflict Zone and Air Defense Identification Zone between China and Korea Datasource: python folium graphic by origine 2.4. The advancement from military and economic cooperation with the United States to a comprehensive alliance The U.S. recently passed an inflation-reducing bill to establish a comprehensive alliance between President Biden and President Yoon Seok-yeol with the United States and to ensure a smooth supply of semiconductors with Korea. He also decided to attend the preliminary agreement of the Chip4 Alliance[8] and announced the strengthening of THAAD on neighboring countries, especially China. This strengthening of the alliance is an inevitable option for South Korea.

Figure5. President Biden's visit to Seoul to resume South Korea-U.S. drills and comprehensive alliance Datasource: Yonhap newspaper

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 3. Conclusion and Discussion So far, Korea's strategic choice will have to be concluded with the U.S. due to the Korea-U.S. The country that will replace China economically is India, where disputes with China are growing. In terms of economic and military partnerships can be formed. This fact is that India recently banned the sale of low-priced Chinese smartphones, Korea's No. 1 smartphone sales in India, and relations with India are expanding, including exports of domestic K-9 self-artillery

Figure6. Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Plant in India Data source: Hyundai automobile group International relations say eternal friends and enemies do not exist. However, persistent attacks and hostile actions against neighboring countries feel threatened by neighboring countries, and neighboring countries unite to defend and sever relations. Even if Korea can't cut ties with China, it would be better to reduce its dealings with China by looking for economic alternatives in India and Africa. In addition, Korea has entered the world's fifth-largest arms exports, which are important in international relations, and many exporters include hostile countries to China. It is expected to expand further in the future.

Figure 6. Sales of all defense companies in Korea from 2001 to 2019 and cumulative changes in arms exports from 2001 to 2005 and 2016 to 2020 Data source e-country indicators, The current status of defense export Ȅ TIV (Trend Indicator Values): Indicate the volume of the conventional arms trade in each country in 1990 with the price of weapons

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References [1] ISIC REV. 3 TECHNOLOGY INTENSITY DEFINITION Classification of manufacturing industries into categories based on R&D intensities, OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry Economic Analysis and Statistics Division 7 July 2011 https://www.oecd.org/sti/ind/ [2] The OECD/Development Assistance Commission refers to the concept of public development assistance, including central and local governments, as well as the flow of funds provided to developing countries and international organizations by public or enforcement agencies https://www.oda.go.kr/opo/odin/mainInfoPage.do?P_SCRIN_ID=OPOA601000S01 [3] Measuring Export Competitiveness https://mec.worldbank.org/ [4] https://unstats.un.org/unsd/classifications/Econ/Download/In%20Text/CPCpro [5] ChineseWiki

www.uos.ac.kr

[6] Analyses and Implications of Policy Making Process Involved in Expanding Korea Air Defense Identification Zone (KADIZ). From the perspective of the Policy Stream Model by JW Kingdon, 2015, vol.21, no.1, pp. 39-78 (40 pages) [7] Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD), formerly Theater High Altitude Area Defense, is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_High_Altitude_Area_Defense [8] The US is wooing Asian tech economies to join a mega semiconductor supply chain, which excludes China https://www.trtworld.com/business/what-is-the-chip-4-alliance-59586

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Examining the Causal Relationship Between School Shootings and Public Interest for Gun Control Author 1

Full Name

Sim, Youngsung

Gyeonggi Suwon International School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: In light of recent historic events surrounding the areas of gun violence and gun reform, ever since the Uvalde shootings there seems to be a chain reaction of gun-related incidents across the world and even bipartisan gun support. Considering that the issues of gun control have been a polarizing subject within the U.S., seeing bills pass with bipartisan support begs an important series of questions surrounding what the direct relationship was between school shootings and public interest in gun control, whether positive or negative. In order to tackle this prominent question that political scientists have examined specific aspects of in a fresh light, this paper uses Google search engine data: a form of big-data which is widely underutilized in the social sciences. Results suggest that the American public’s interest in gun control doesn’t directly stem from interest in school shootings, but rather is heavily influenced by the advocacy of movements and legislation by political elites and media corporations. Interesting areas that future studies may delve into would be the specifics of how the political affiliation of certain elite-backed pushes for passing legislation affects the interest in the opposing partisan voterbase, and if these patterns hold true across the political spectrum and amongst centrists as well.

Keywords: School shootings, Gun Control, Bipartisanship, Public Interest, Search Engine Data

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction The issue of gun violence, while consistently a prominent issue, has seemed to explode into relevance within recent political spheres; Although recent events, both trials and events, have brought various debates surrounding gun violence into question —such as the viability and extents of gun control, the right to self defense and increases within background checks— the number of shootings that have appeared internationally in recent memory seems unprecedented within the news that I’ve personally seen. Whilst that may be a false equivalency in terms of correlation (for whether there are truly more gun incidents within the world happening or if they’re simply being selectively reported on more since the wake of Uvalde), there are an increasing number of studies conducted about the relation between public interest and gun violence — which come to varying degrees of contradictory implications. Whilst the studies are focused on differing specific areas, there seem to be disparities in the conclusions drawn from some of these studies, specifically regarding the conditions that cause the public to take action. For instance, a 2019 study found that both Democrats and Republicans are sensitive to tragic occurrences, such as mass shootings, and that residents in the vicinities of attacks are likelier to support gun-control, mainly because advocacy groups campaign towards victim-prone residents (Barney & Schaffner, 2019). This would imply that significant public interest within gun control would increase in the aftermath of shooting incidents. However, focused on the political notion that “major events restructure public opinion”, a 2018 study found that there was no evidence that Americans across the supported gun control as a result of the Sandy Hook Shootings, or that the citizens of Sandy Hook were more politically polarized (Rogowski & Tucker, 2018). Then, if the prospect of gun violence within school shootings isn’t enough by itself to warrant a significant public response to action, what factors are required in addition to these incidents to see notable changes in public interest? Even though past studies suggest factors such as the # of victims, types of news coverage, the use of certain weapons (Semenza & Bernau, 2020), and vicinity to the incident (Barney & Schaffner, 2019) contribute to public interest in the gun control debate, these findings don’t seem to be indicators of public interest consistent across most of the mass shootings. The mass inaction of political shifting in the wake of Sandy Hook as mentioned before is an example of that. Awareness of public interest towards gun control has increased in recent times though, with the U.S. Congress passing a historic bipartisan federal bill tightening the control on guns, in direct response to the Uvalde School Shooting (Cochrane & Kanno-youngs, 2022), and indirectly resulting from a paranoid climate of increased gun violence. It’s significant to note the recent increase in gun violence amongst the headlines —not just domestically, but internationally as well— such as the Soweto shootings (Press, 2022), Copenhagen mall shootings (Editors, 2022), and the assasination of Shinzo Abe (Treisman, 2022). Considering these social conditions brings a new factor into question: The frequency of gun violence. With this in mind, this study explores to what extent the increase of gun violence reports are indicative of an increase within public response for gun control; Would the significant increase in gun attacks result in an increased rally within public interest, or would higher recurrences of gun incidents lessen the public interest by inadvertently ‘normalizing’ such violence? This study tries to examine how significant this factor of exposure frequency compares to other proposed factors of public interest, such as the vicinity of shootings and political relations. Although, the initial expectation would be that these aforementioned factors have a significant impact on how interested the public is in the area of gun

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) control, comparing the data to past research reveals that there is merit to consider how political figures and corporations that push for activism/action surrounding these events, whether for or against gun control, significantly impact the interest of the public. It is estimated that since the 1999 Columbine school shootings, approximately 311,000 students have experienced school gun violence (Cox). This number has seen a continuous rise within recent years, and although the general past consensus has suggested shootings lead to bipartisan policy action, it doesn’t seem to be evident due to the rate of shooting increasing over time. In order to evaluate that, I’ll need to specifically look at the public response, of which school shootings will likely leave the most vocal outcry, and thus make the best representation of public response to gun incidents in general. Although it may seem that any school shootings are directly correlated with an interest in bipartisan gun reform, contrary to popular belief, school shootings have little to no causal relationship with interest within gun control because of the effects of elite polarization, political leanings within state legislatures, and a general lack of interest for shootings committed within local areas. Even though past research has tried analyzing trends for public interest through public opinion polling and controlled survey data, the internet age provides a new valuable source of solid big data pertaining to public interestthat has been underutilized in much of the past research: Google Search Trend Data (Jun et al., 2017). Search engine results have become more synonymous with the expressions of the general populace as it is estimated that about 93% of all U.S. residents utilize the internet (Perrin & Atske, 2021). Considering that the Google search engine accounts for approximately 90% of desktop searches and 95% of mobile searches over the past decade (Statista, 2022), it is reasonable to say that Google trends data can reasonable be assumed to be indicative of the general populace’s interest. Due to Google trends data being proportionately based, as well as breaking down relative search interest over time down to specific subregions of the country, it will be a valid tool that I will derive my data from in my methodology.

Effects of Elite Polarization A previously established study found that polarization among the political elites and news media are more responsible for public interest in gun control than school shootings. Although both Democrat and Republican leaning people have been found to be highly responsive to shootings (Barney & Schaffner, 2019), the shootings themselves don’t levy a focused enough cause for public support towards gun control until they are explicitly picked up by media agendas. In a study conducted on the support for gun control after the event of a school shooting, political scientists Jon C. Rogowski and Patrick D. Tucker found that there was no significant evidence that Americans granted more support for gun control following the Sandy Hook shootings, or evidence of the local area surrounding Sandy Hook becoming more polarized (Rogowski & Tucker, 2018). This is significant because a popular assumption held by the general American populace of modern culture is that political polarization has caused a stalemate of progress due to the political polarization causing the general populace to be too radicalized to compromise, and this study goes against that assertion. Whilst Americans not showing support for gun control was expected and likely explained off as polarization from the local populace, the study directly refutes that by discovering that within finding’s across “a range of political and demographic groups” there’s “no evidence of attitude polarization as a result of Sandy Hook” (Rogowski & Tucker, 2018).

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) If the Sandy Hook shooting didn’t directly lead to support specifically for gun control, how about a shooting’s impact on the public interest surrounding the control? Whilst the specific demographics of the impact of gun violence has been studied in a variety of areas across the academic field, there have been many proponents for the direct effects of such incidents, with the three most supported reasons for interest increasing as a result being correlations between the location, # of victims, and political affiliation (Semenza & Bernau, 2020). However, a factor that was less emphasized in most of the studies surrounding this area of interest in gun policy is the impact of political elites on swaying interest in specific gun shootings, whether prominent politicians pushing for legislation or news media choosing to cover specific stories. It is through these lenses this study seeks to interpret the Google search trend data in: What, if any, disparities are there between public interest in school shootings and gun control? And do location, general political affiliations and/or political elite selectivism account for any disparities that may exist?

Methods and Data: Google Search Data: Google trends data utilizes all the searches on the Google search engine to display data on a scale of relative interest ranging from 1-100 over a select period of time. When using Google’s comparative data with 2 or more search terms, a 100 represents the most popularity a search term has received in the engine, whilst a 50 represents when it’s been half as popular, and a 1 or <1 represents the least interest (Jun et al., 2017). Searches over time:

Fig. 1: Searches for “gun control”, “school shootings”, and “gun rights” in the United States from 2004-2022. Depicted above is an overview graph of the Google search data trends for the terms “gun control”, “school shootings”, and “gun rights” with each dot representing the average of its’ respective month. These terms were selected for specific reasons; The terms “Gun control” and “Gun rights” were both selected in conjunction with school shootings in order to account for all the potential public interest in gun legislation, especially with gun control being more of a favorable talking point amongst Democrats

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) and gun rights being the favorable terminology amongst Republicans. Both terms are flip sides of the same coin of gun legislation and the trends prove that, with the same peaks in gun control being shown scaled down in gun rights searches as well. However, due to the similarity in trends and the negligible results, I will be disregarding the term gun rights for the remainder of this investigation and primarily focusing on the relation between gun control and school shootings, as it can be reasoned that search interest for the term gun control would include both interest in support and against the term & what it entails. Straight from the beginning, the overall trend reveals an interesting point of correlation. At first glance, the initial assumption would be that the interest in gun control would be heavily correlative towards the interest in school shootings. However, other than the specific spikes in interest due to certain crises, gun control has mass search interest inconsistent with the prospects of school shootings, which is consistent with the assertion that interest in gun control is comes from political activism independent of interest in school shootings. In fact, with the exceptions of the Amish school shooting in October 2006, the Parkland shooting in February 2018, and the Uvalde shooting in May 2022, interest in gun control was always significantly higher than interest in school shootings. Even during December 2012 of the Sandy Hook massacre, pique interest in gun control reached 66 whilst interest in school shootings only reached 26. In fact, the only instance where there was a significantly higher interest in school shootings than gun control was in the Parkland shooting. This indicates through data how gun control is a political narrative independent of the general narrative of gun violence and shooting incidents, a political narrative which is significantly influenced by the political world of media and political elite. This is further evident if we take a closer look at the extreme peaks that gun control has in the data; Specifically the peaks in Dec 2012-Jan 2013, June 2016, and February 2018. Search Peaks:

Fig. 2: Searches for “gun control”, and “school shootings” in the United States from December 2012 to January 2013.

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Fig. 3: Searches for “gun control”, and “school shootings” in the United States in June 2016.

Fig. 4: Searches for “gun control”, and “school shootings” in the United States in February 2018. The graph in Figure 2 shows the highest peak for gun control ever in the history of the U.S. and the specific data for each day. December 14th, the highest day for interest in school shootings, was the day of the Sandy Hook Elementary School Shooting. However, it’s interesting to note that the highest ever peak in public interest for gun control occured not immediately after the shooting, but on January 16th, 2013, specifically the day when President Obama announced that he was enacting legislation proposals and 23 executive orders for gun control measures such as universal background checks, penalties for

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) criminal reselling of guns, and bans on military-grade weapons (Curtis, 2013). Within Figure 3, the relative peak for school shootings happened on June 12th, 2016, the day of the Orlando nightclub shooting which, although wasn’t directly a school shooting, did lead to the 25 hour gun control House sit-in which happened on the peak for gun control on June 23rd (Demirjian et al., 2016). Looking into Figure 4, the highest ever relative interest for the term school shootings happened on February 15th, 2018, which was the day the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Shootings in Parkland Florida occurred. Although no federal legislation was being seriously considered at the time, 5 states did pass emergency gun confiscation “red flag laws” which allowed guns to be seized from people who are deemed to be legally threats to themselves and others by February 16th. The important takeaways from these results are the heavy correlation between the public interest in gun control and the decisions of lawmakers/media news corporations to promote particular advocacy movements, whether in support of a bill or order. This can be seen with the highest peak being the day the most drastic measures of gun control were taken, specifically by the president, in 23 immediate executive orders and more. The days where House Democrats planned and ended a sit-in in protest of the Republicans unwilling to compromise over gun reform were relatively high peaks in the attention of the public eye. The final figure with the highest peak for school shootings can be seen to have a significantly lower interest in gun control relative to the other peaks, which is logically consistent with our reasoning of political elitism being the factor which motivates public interest due to the fact that a few states expressed interest in state mandates and legislation, but weren’t reported about much in the news, or discussed on a federal level.

Conclusion/Final Thoughts: In conclusion, the data points towards the takeaway that the direction of public intrigue towards gun reform related inquiries was significantly driven by the political elite and by extension, political media corporations. These conclusions are consistent with past research findings that support similar conclusions surrounding public support for gun control in other specific areas. A paper found that when it comes towards political activism for guns, retelling the story of a shooting with calls for action placed in the narrative were significantly more effective in mustering support (McGinty et al., 2013). This finding that intertwining political activism with news coverage creates stronger public responses is evident in many of the practices of news medias today. Even despite frequent calls for both sides of the political spectrum to stop politicizing such incidents, advocacy groups and organizations still invest great resources in advocating to audiences that are victim-prone (Barney & Schaffner, 2019). The prospect of tragic incidents, such as the Uvalde shooting, directly bringing the American’s public attention onto gun reform isn’t fully accurate to much of the political buzz surrounding gun control. However, these gun shootings do serve as powerful tools that politicians and media corporations use to sway the public’s attention towards what they advocate for, whether it’s increased gun restrictions or gun rights. The political polarizaiton often perceived in the politics of American residents, especially as it relates to guns, is less of a depiction of how polarized society is over specific hot-button issues, but moreso a reflection of the polarization of the political elite and how the influence they have leads to increased interest on both sides, yet less critical thinking and discussion due to the inherent activistic nature of reporting on events in the current U.S. climate (Rogowski & Tucker, 2018). It’s also interesting to note that these findings will likely be consistent, regardless of the political affiliations of certain subregions and states. In preliminary testing for data, I sampled 5 of the most republican and democratic

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) states measured through the Cook Partisan Voting Index and in all of these states, there were no significant differences in the data searches from these specific areas in comparison to the overall United States.

Works Cited Editors, N. P. R. (Ed.). (2022, July 4). Danish police say the Deadly Mall shooting was apparently a random attack. NPR. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/2022/07/04/1109669965/danish-police-say-the-deadly-ma ll-shooting-wasapparently-a-random-attack Barney, D. J., & Schaffner, B. F. (2019, February 8). Reexamining the effect of mass shootings on public support for gun control: British Journal of Political Science. Cambridge Core. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-political-science/ar ticle/abs/reexamining-the-effect-of-mass-shootings-on-public-support-for-guncontrol/C76D2FAC726664EBA7F0B7DD5A79117D Cochrane, E., & Kanno-youngs, Z. (2022, June 25). Biden signs gun bill into law, ending years of stalemate. The New York Times. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/25/us/politics/gun-control-bill-biden.html Curtis, C. (2013, January 16). President Obama announces new measures to prevent gun violence. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2013/01/16/president-obama-anno unces-new-measuresprevent-gun-violence Demirjian, K., Snell, K., & O'Keefe, E. (2016, June 23). Democrats end sit-in on House floor while promising to continue to press for gun votes. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2016/06/22/democrats-s tage-protest-on-housefloor-to-force-gun-control-votes/ Jun, S.-P., Yoo, H. S., & Choi, S. (2017, November 24). Ten Years of research change using google trends: From the perspective of Big Data Utilizations and applications. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162517315536 McGinty, E. E., Webster, D. W., &amp; Barry, C. L. (2013, May 1). Effects of news media messages about mass shootings on attitudes toward persons with serious mental illness and public support for gun control policies. American Journal of Psychiatry. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13010014 Perrin, A., & Atske, S. (2021, April 3). 7% of Americans don't use the internet. who are they? Pew Research Center. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2021/04/02/7-of-americans-dont-use-th e-internet-who-are-they/

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Press, T. A. (2022, July 10). A group of people opened fire at a bar in South Africa, killing 15. NPR. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/2022/07/10/1110719202/south-africa-sowetoshooting-15-dead Rogowski, J. C., & Tucker, P. D. (2018, May 23). Critical events and attitude change: Support for gun control after mass shootings: Political Science Research and Methods. Cambridge Core. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-science-research-and-metho ds/article/abs/critical-events-and-attitude-change-support-for-gun-control-after-massshootings/846A3EDA0C4AB624C6634D1EDF1BFF77 Semenza, D. C., & Bernau, J. A. (2020, October 16). Information-seeking in the Wake of Tragedy: An Examination of Public Response to Mass Shootings Using Google Search Data. Sage Journals. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0731121420964785 Statista Research Department (Ed.). (2022, July 27). Global Search Engine Market Share 2022. Statista. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/216573/worldwidemarket-share-of-search- engines/ Treisman, R. (2022, July 8). Abe's assassination shocks Japan, where gun control is strict and shootings are rare. NPR. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/2022/07/08/1110493901/abe-assassination-gun-laws-viole nce-japan

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Which Time of Day is the Air Most Polluted in Jeju: Measuring Six Air Pollutants Author 1

Full Name

Wang, Yeeum (Hanna)

North London Collegiate School Jeju

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) has revealed that 91 percent of the world's population lives where air pollution exceeds the safety limits. [1]. Air pollution negatively impacts daily lives, such as emotional and physical health, and long-term economic growth, such as labour productivity and tourism. [2,3] However, because air pollutants are not always visible, the public may be unaware of the seriousness of air pollution. There are important reasons why the relationship between time of the day and the level of air pollution should be examined. The underestimation of the seriousness of air pollution can negatively affect residents' health by raising the possibility of exposure to air pollutants in the long run. [4] For instance, according to research made in 2019 [5], only about half (55%) of Americans are able to name even one such health impact caused by air pollution. Even those they named were the most general, such as respiratory problems. Whether residents are aware of the seriousness of air pollution with the correct knowledge of air quality has become a critical question. Increasing public awareness of air pollution can contribute to political and social eagerness for environmental protection behaviour and policy implementation.The more the public is aware of the seriousness of air pollution, the more likely the government will be responsive to worsening air quality. The fundamental reason would be to warn the public which time of the day they need to be concerned about the air quality. Jeju Island is famous for its well-preserved nature and its beauty. Therefore, there are many people who go out for outdoor activities, and a massive influx of tourists who visit Jeju to enjoy its nature. In other words, people in Jeju are exposed to air pollution many times without knowing it. It is necessary to find out which time Jeju air pollution is particularly serious and notify people when to avoid going outdoors. This study aims to examine whether and to what extent time of the day is correlated with air quality in Jeju Island, South Korea. Although air pollution was not considered as a serious issue in Jeju in previous days, Jeju is no longer an exclusion. Compared to Seoul, the capital of Korea, the level of PM10 in Jeju was higher than Seoul’s for ten days out of 25 days. For the PM2.5 level, the concentration in Jeju was higher than in Seoul for nearly half of the 25 days. Based on PM2.5 and PM10 levels alone, Jeju's air quality cannot be said that it is as polluted as Seoul’s and other major cities. Seoul has a highly developed and modern infrastructure as well as a relatively buoyant economy, whereas Jeju’s natural environment has been preserved as fully as possible. Considering these terms, Jeju's air quality has reached a serious level, as there isn’t a huge difference in PM level between Jeju and Seoul. The aim is to inform the public to start small actions to prevent worsening air pollution and protect ourselves from polluted air by knowing when to avoid it. Therefore, our project focuses not on the accuracy of air measurement results but on developing an understanding of the environment of the area in which we live. In this study, actual air quality was measured by two testers in the research project using the air quality monitor that could measure the concentration of six common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, groundlevel ozone, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), and sulphur dioxide. These pollutants are also known as criteria air pollutants. Using the air quality monitors, the two testers measured the concentration of each pollutant at a specific time of the day in 1-hour intervals and found out which time of the day showed the worst air quality. Concentration of each pollutant was measured in two different locations. By measuring air in two different sites, the researchers could also identify the effect of population and the number of vehicles on air quality. After measuring all six pollutants, the

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) measurements of criteria pollutants were converted to CAI (Comprehensive air-quality index) for easier understanding and more precise standards, so the public could judge whether air quality was good or bad. [6] Details in the definition and calculation of CAI will be covered in the Method section. There has been previous research in 2017 on finding the time of day with the lowest air pollution in cities of china.[7] The researcher has tested in five cities in China: Beijing, Shenyang, Chengdu, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. PM2.5 was monitored for 24 hours, and each city's average level of PM2.5 was presented in an hourly trend graph. In Beijing, PM2.5 levels were lowest in the afternoon, right around rush hour, between 12:00 and 18:00. Shenyang's daily PM2.5 patterns were very similar to Beijing's, though the nighttime level of PM2.5 was not as high. Chengdu followed a similar pattern. PM2.5 levels were lowest in the afternoon, between 14:00 and 19:00, and highest in the morning. PM2.5 levels in Shanghai and Guangzhou are lowest in the afternoon, between 13:00 and 17:00, but there is also a drop in the very early morning, between 02:00 and 05:00. However, the fundamental correlation analysis of PM2.5 levels and time is insufficient to determine the relation between air quality and time of the day. Also, particulate matter is not the only component that defines air quality. The Comprehensive air-quality index (CAI) is used to assess air quality. The CAI displays changes in the amount of pollution in the air ranging from 0 to 500. The higher the CAI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern. To better understand the relationship, the following two research questions are proposed. (1) Which time of the day is the level of CAI the highest? (2) How can this information be used to reduce public exposure to polluted air? Air quality would be worse between 07:00 and 09:00. This is the time of morning rush hour. Rush hour is usually considered between 06:00 and 10:00. Low wind movement causes pollution levels to be the highest during the day because the particles would be trapped in the air. Trucks passing through the city through the night and street cleaning activities early in the morning worsen matters. This is supported by the research that compared the Air Quality Population Exposure (AQPE) of different pollutants in Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) and the 31 surrounding cities in 2018. [8] The trend graph of hourly concentration in different pollutants(PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2 and O3) in BTH and surrounding cities showed the following trends. The PM2.5 and PM10 levels increased from 0:00 to 7:00, then decreased until 16:00, when they began to rise again. The peak of PM2.5 and PM10 levels were observed between 7:00 and 9:00, which could be attributed to mobile source emissions. Driving heavy-duty diesel vehicles at night, in particular, is likely to cause more PM2.5 and PM10 pollution, while traffic congestion in the morning and evening peaks causes increases in PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 concentrations. In comparison to PM2.5 and PM10, the hourly SO2 trend was relatively flat, with peak SO2 pollution occurring between 10:00 and 12:00 in individual cities.

Method 1. Study Area The study was conducted in Jeju Island, South Korea (695,519 inhabitants in 2020). Jeju Island has an area of 1,833 km2, and it is situated on the southwestern coast of South Korea. Jeju has a humid subtropical climate influenced by moist, maritime airflow from the western side of subtropical anticyclonic cells over low-latitude ocean waters. Jeju has four distinct seasons: winters are cool with moderate rainfall, and summers are hot and humid with heavy rain. The daily mean temperature in summer is around 17.4 °C, and in winter, it is about 5.9 °C [9]

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2. Monitoring sites: City Hall of Jeju City and Jeju World Cup Stadium. The Air Quality metres were installed in 2 spots in Jeju. Fig. 1 shows the location of the air quality metres (Fig. 1, red circles). The data were collected continuously from 18th to 31st July 2022. The metres were held outdoors at around í P This research was intended as a study for PM-2.5, PM-10, O3, NO2, CO, and SO2 measurements at the following two sites: 1) City Hall of Jeju City 2) Jeju World Cup Stadium

Fig. 1. Location of Air Quality measured using the Air Quality Metres (red circles) The following study sites were chosen to compare the air quality difference between the city and the province. City Hall of Jeju City is located in Jeju City, with a population of 634,161(2020). On the other hand, in Seogwipo-si, where the World Cup Stadium is, only approximately 182,169 (2020) people live. This contrasting environment will help to find out the leading cause of air pollution and highlight environmental issues. 3. Air quality monitoring using Air Quality Metre The Series 500 Portable Air Quality Monitor was used to monitor the air quality in Jeju. The Series 500 Portable Air Quality Monitor can measure multiple gaseous components: carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5). Sensors are housed in a replaceable cartridge that attaches to the monitor base. The cartridge can be easily removed and replaced, allowing people to monitor as many gases as they choose. Data can be stored on the Series 500 with a maximum of 8,188 records and later be downloaded to a computer using the USB port and bundled software. In this study, we focus on calculating the Comprehensive air-quality index (CAI) and analysing which time shows the worst air quality. The Air Quality Metre provided air quality information at a temporal resolution of 1 h. As for the research on monitoring air quality in kindergartens during January 2016, AQMesh v3.5 was used.[10] It could also measure four gaseous components (CO, NO, NO2 and O3), particle number, temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric pressure. However, because this monitor is not portable, leaving the monitor out of sight could mean a

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) lack of reliability. Therefore, our research chose a portable air quality monitor that could measure all six pollutants. For the first week, Tester A will be on Site 1 to measure six components determining the air quality, while Tester B will be on Site 2 for one week to measure the air quality. Each tester will be on each site and measure the air quality using the Series 500 Portable Air Quality Monitor. The measurement will take 14 hours every day, starting at 07:00 until 21:00 in a one-hour interval. Same for the second week, but each tester will be measuring the air quality on the other side the tester has not measured. 4. Variables Considered The independent variable of the research is the time to measure the air quality. It is essential to determine the air quality concentration as time flows. After a total of 14 hours have passed, we’ll be able to identify when the air quality is most polluted. This information can not only raise awareness among people about the worsening air pollution, but it can also remind the public about the time, which makes them think more about the environment. The dependent variables are the six criteria for air pollutants that are measured. This dependent variable is unique compared to many other types of research. For example, in a study done in October 2020, PM2.5 air quality sensors (Purple Air-II-SD) were used to measure the air quality of thirteen locations in seven countries in SSA. [11] In this case, the dependent variable was the PM2.5 level. PM level does not necessarily mean air quality; it is one of the components that determine it. As previously mentioned, Seoul and Jeju are quite similarly polluted in terms of PM levels, but it is not that Jeju's air is equally polluted as Seoul's. By measuring all six air pollutants, it can be easily converted into a Comprehensive air-quality index (CAI), which clearly shows how clean or unhealthy the air is and what health effects might be a concern. Two control variables were kept the same throughout the study, First is the 1-hour interval when measuring the pollutants. This interval must be kept the same for the same reason when drawing graphs, as, within an axis, each interval represents the same value. If the interval were different every time measuring the air quality, then the worst air quality timezone would have been impossible. It is vital to keep the interval the same, especially in research relating to time. Otherwise, some data would be missing, leading to unreliable conclusions. The second control variable is the location measuring the air quality. This is necessary because air quality is affected by the number of transportation and population. In a limited time, choosing two places and spending enough time in each place to collect data was a better way to lead to reliable results. 5. Calculating Comprehensive Air-quality Index The concentration of the four gaseous components and particulate matter will be the primary focus.CAI is an air pollution level expression process developed considering human risk and air environment standards.This is useful because it allows the public to easily understand air quality levels and protect their health from air pollution. The Comprehensive air-quality index (CAI) score for each of the six air pollutants (PM-2.5, PM-10, O3, NO2, CO, and SO2) will be calculated; the highest score will be used as the total index value. If the integrated index value contains more than two substances with a rating of 'Bad' or higher, an additional score will be assigned. The CAI ranges from 0 to 500 and is divided into four categories: Good, Moderate, Unhealthy, and Very Unhealthy. A low CAI value indicates a low degree of air pollution, and a high CAI value implies a high degree of air pollution. [6] CAI values can be calculated using the following formula.

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• • • • • •

Ip = The air quality index for each target pollutant Cp = The rounded concentration of each target pollutant BPHI = The breakpoint that is greater than or equal to Cp BPLO = The breakpoint that is less than or equal to Cp IHI = The index value corresponding to BPHI ILO = The index value corresponding to BPLO

Table1 shows the potential health implications against each of these classes of CAI. CAI values are calculated for each of the six air pollutants for which the air quality index has been set, and the highest value is used as the CAI value.[12] If two pollutants have subindexes both higher than 100, the higher sub index value is considered the responsible pollutant, and its value plus 50 is adopted as the CAI; if three pollutants have subindexes higher than 100, the highest sub-index value is considered the responsible pollutant and its value plus 75 are adopted as the CAI.[13] Table 1: Classes of CAI values and their health implications CAI level

Numeric value

Health Effects

Good

0~50

level that would not affect patient suffering from diseases related to air pollution

Moderate

51~100

Level that may have messenger effect on patients in case of chronic exposure

101~250

Levels that may be harmful to patients and members of vulnerable groups (children, the elderly, or the physically weak), as well as cause unpleasant feelings in the general public

251~350

Level that, in the event of acute exposure, can have a severe impact on patients and members of vulnerable groups, and that even the general public can be weakly affected

351~500

Level, which may require emergency measures for patients and members of vulnerable groups, with adverse impacts on the general public

Unhealthy

Very unhealthy

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Results The measurements were taken right in front of the entrances of each site. The goal was, while measuring different pollutants, to choose a place where environmental factors would not directly distort the testing outcomes: thus, areas close to driveways were avoided. To calculate the air quality, measuring the six independent variables representing air quality is necessary. Table 2 reports the average CAI at the two sites in Jeju. It shows the calculated CAI at different times of the day. Generally, the Comprehensive air-quality index (CAI) and the Air Quality Index (AQI) is calculated by using averages of monthly, or even yearly datasets taken for a long period of time. Since AQI is more of a subprocess for evaluating different topics, hourly data are likely to be avoided to ignore outliers. However, hourly measurements are meaningful in situations when the datasets, including fluctuations, are to be compared to find specific differences and reasons behind their patterns in an isolated environment. The main challenge is that the devices used to collect data might not be calibrated well enough. Table 2: Results on Hourly Average CAI level in Jeju World Cup Stadium and City Hall of Jeju City Standard Deviation City Hall of Jeju Standard Deviation of of Jeju World Cup City (CAI) City Hall of Jeju data data

Time

Jeju World Cup Stadium (CAI)

48.79

8.26

54.00

11.02

52.29

9.64

55.50

12.58

57.71

11.63

56.93

11.26

60.71

11.18

59.64

11.85

63.93

10.35

60.71

12.14

65.14

9.86

60.36

66.29

9.1

59.50

12.53

65.71

8.36

58.86

12.81

65.71

8.72

57.86

13.06

66.79

9.69

58.07

12.31

67.21

9.57

57.71

11.84

66.93

10.66

57.50

10.11

65.64

9.6

57.43

11.14

64.07

9.15

58.07

12.28

59.71

9.06

57.36

10.9

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Analysis At Jeju World Cup Stadium, from 16:00 to 18:00, the CAI is at its peak with a value of 67.2(SD=9.57)[Figure 1] Starting from 7:00, the CAI value showed a rapid upward trend until 13:00, which decreased between 13:00 and 15:00. The world cup stadium had the worst air quality at 17:00 during the evening. At 12:00 and 08:00, the PM2.5 and PM10 are at their peak with levels of ȝJ P 6' DQG ȝJ P 6' FRQVHFXWLYHO\ >)LJXUH @ ,Q WKH &LW\ +DOO RI -HMX City, CAI is at its peak between 10:00 to 12:00 with a CAI value of 60.7(SD=12.14)[Figure 1] From 7:00 to 11:00, CAI had a short upward trend, which decreased until 19:00, at which time they rose again. City Hall of Jeju City had the worst air quality at 11:00 in the morning. For PM2.5, the level is at its SHDN DW DQG ZLWK D OHYHO RI ȝJ P 6' >)LJXUH @ DV IRU 30 WKH SHDN ZDV DW ZLWK D OHYHO RI ȝJ P 6' >)LJXUH @ :KHQ FRPSDULQJ WKH WUHQG OLQH RI &$, EHWZHHQ two locations, the City Hall of Jeju City showed a higher CAI level than the World Cup Stadium approximately between 7:00 and 9:00. After 9:00, the CAI level of the World Cup Stadium was higher than the City Hall continuously until 21:00. Compared with CAI, PM2.5 and PM10 hourly trends were relatively flat. When comparing the trend line of PM levels between the two locations, the City Hall of Jeju City constantly showed higher PM levels than the World Cup Stadium level. At 07:00, the NO2 was at its peak with a level of 0.0045ppm(SD=0) in Jeju World Cup Stadium.[Figure 5] Starting from 7:00, the NO2 level hourly trend was relatively flat throughout the whole day. In the City Hall of Jeju City, NO2 is at its peak between 18:00 to 19:00 with a NO2 level of 0.016ppm(SD=0.01).[Figure 5] After the short rapid increase in NO2 level at 09:00, the level decreased by 14.0% at 11:00. After 11:00, the NO2 level continuously had an upward trend until 18:00 reached its peak, which decreased after 19:00. When comparing the trend line of NO2 level between two locations, City Hall of Jeju City constantly showed higher NO2 level than the World Cup Stadium level. In Jeju World Cup Stadium, from 07:00 to 09:00, the level of CO is at its peak with a level of 0.407ppm (SD=0.05).[Figure 6] Starting from 7:00, the CO level hourly trend was relatively flat throughout the whole day. As for the SO2 level, it was at its peak from 09:00 to 10:00 with a level of 0.00107ppm(SD=0).[Figure 7] From 13:00, SO2 had an overall increase of 32.5%, after its short increase between 07:00 to 10:00. In the City Hall of Jeju City, CO is at its peak between 18:00 to 19:00 with a CO level of 0.521ppm.(SD=0.05)[Figure 6] SO2 is at its peak between 18:00 to 19:00 with an SO2 level of 0.00169ppm.(SD=0)[Figure 7] From 13:00, SO2 had an overall increase of 32.5%, after its short increase between 07:00 to 10:00. When comparing the trend line of CO levels between two

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) locations, the City Hall of Jeju City constantly showed higher CO and SO2 levels than the World Cup Stadium. As for the O3 level, it is at its peak from 17:00 to 18:00, with a level of 0.0506ppm(SD=0.01) in the Jeju World Cup Stadium.[Figure 4] Starting from 7:00, the O3 level showed a rapid upward trend until 13:00, which increased by 39.1%. After 13:00, the O3 level was relatively constant until 18:00, when it started to decrease. In the City Hall of Jeju City, O3 is at its peak at 14:00 with an O3 level of 0.0396ppm.(SD=0.01)[Figure 4] After it reached its peak, the O3 level continuously followed its decreasing trend. When comparing the trend line of O3 between two locations, the City Hall of Jeju City showed a higher O3 level than the World Cup Stadium approximately between 07:00 and 07:30. After 07:00, the O3 level of the World Cup Stadium was higher than the City Hall until 21:00.

Discussion / Conclusion This study investigated the time of day at which the actual CAI level was the highest at Jeju, using a monitor capable of measuring six pollutants. The study found that the air was most polluted from 10:00 to 12:00, and from 16:00 to 18:00, which in fact is the morning and evening rush hours. In the World Cup Stadium, the PM level was at its peak during the morning between 08:00 and 12:00. NO2, CO and SO2 levels were highest between 07:00 and 10:00. As for City Hall in Jeju City, the PM level was at its peak at 09:00 and 20:00. NO2, CO and SO2 levels were highest between 18:00 and 9:00. This trend indicates that the World Cup Stadium, which is in a rural area, was more polluted during the daytime. This suggests that the influx of tourists significantly impacted it. On the other hand, the City Hall of Jeju City, a more urbanised area, was more polluted during the evening. The findings also suggested that raising awareness of air pollution will motivate individuals or governments to take steps to improve air quality. By using these time-specific datasets, they could help find the exact reasons behind air pollution. Each pollutant has different sources where they are created, and the time when the pollutant levels are high can also indicate what kind of local activity influences the air quality. In effect, these measurements are helpful locally. The measurement of air quality on two sites is compared with each other. While air quality in both locations was similar overall, showing a similar increase in air pollution in the morning, some data were different. First, air quality was not worse during rush hours as expected by the hypothesis. Instead, it was usually between 10:00~12:00 and 16:00~18:00, where it was the worst. This suggests that normal explanations of rush hours may not necessarily be adapted in unique environments like Jeju. Comparing the air quality between Jeju City Hall and Jeju World Cup Stadium shows that Jeju World Cup Stadium, which is located in a much more rural area compared to Jeju City Hall, appears more polluted than the urban location in some time periods. While air quality is surprisingly similar at other times, there is a considerable discrepancy in air pollution between 16:00 and 18:00. The most likely explanation for this outlier is that many non-residential people are affecting the traffic. Jeju Island is well known for its tourism. People coming to Jeju are more likely to visit Seogwipo city since it is more rural, being entirely suitable as a vacation spot. According to the local news media “Headline Jeju,” a survey of thousands of tourists entering Jeju Island has shown that tourists have travelled to Jeju for mostly nature-related activities. Appreciation of natural scenery (73.1%), eating (62.6%) ranked first and second, followed by mountain WUHNNLQJ EHDFK DFWLYLWLHV DQG YLVLWV WR PXVHXPV WKHPHG SDUNV > @ ,Q

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) addition to tourists' liking rural vacation spots, their preferred transportation methods also suggest the discrepancy in air pollution shown. Increased use of public transportation can help reduce air pollution and bring health benefits. Because public transportation emits much fewer quantities of air pollutants, such as CO, CO2, and NOx and per passenger mile. However, rental cars (86.5%) were the most common means of transportation. It was followed by buses (6.5 %), taxis (5.3 %), and chartered buses (1.1 %). This can be because of the preference for an individual movement that minimises face-to-face contact due to the recent abruptly increasing influence of COVID-19 in Korea.[15] As mentioned above, local area-specific datasets can be used to discover specific reasons behind air pollution. When evaluating the findings of this study, two main limitations should be acknowledged. First, this paper focuses on two places due to a lack of workforce and equipment. Many of the other research included, but our experiments lacked the diversity of places. For example, research done on monitoring outdoor air quality at Kindergartens in Norway[10], was carried out in 17 kindergartens in Oslo. As such, 2 locations of data in air quality are not enough to represent the air quality in Jeju. This means that the information about the most polluted time of the day will not be equally applied to the residents living in other parts of Jeju. If the air quality monitor could be installed all around Jeju, this could be used as meteorological data to further understand the relationship between the time of the day and the quality of air. If more devices are deployed and more local data are considered, such as traffic volume, feasible regional-specific solutions can be brought out as well. Second, the duration of the research experiment conducted was insufficient. The research done on measuring air quality for advocacy in Africa in 2020 [11], was conducted for 31day non-stop. Apart from this research, many of the researchers continuously collect their data even for years. However, the data collected in this research was only worth 2 weeks. Lengthening the experimental period can enable the researcher to identify the long-term trends in air pollution patterns, contributing to efficiency in follow-ups. Furthermore, this data was taken in July, which is Summer. According to the research done on analysing characteristics of air quality in cities of China in 2019[8], air pollution is generally worse in the Winter generally. Cold air is denser and moves more slowly than warm air. Because of this density, cold air traps pollution but does not carry it away. Although the main aim of this research paper was to analyse the relationship between the time of the day and the air quality, without considering the seasonal change in air quality, the data of this research paper can not be said to be reliable enough to be used for policy decisions. In order for information about the time of the worst air quality to have credibility, this experimental research must be carried out for more than a year at least. If these limitations are met, the information about the time could be especially helpful to Elderly Welfare Facilities, kindergartens, and hospitals, where there are many people who need to take special care in health and protection from the hazardous environment. The information about the time could guide the public on when to avoid outdoor activities. Also, these data can be used when cross-checking interpretations in datasets and this will be an additional method of approaching the reasons behind environmental issues.

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) References [1] Lynch, K. M., & Mirabelli, M. C. (2021). Air Quality Awareness and Behaviors of U.S. Adolescents With and Without Asthma. American journal of preventive medicine, 61(5), 724–728. KWWSV GRL RUJ M DPHSUH [2] Kelly, F. J., & Fussell, J. C. (2015). Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and improved understanding of risk. Environmental geochemistry and health, 37(4), 631–649. KWWSV GRL RUJ V -015-9720-1 [3] Zheng, S., Wang, J., Sun, C., Zhang, X., & Kahn, M. E. (2019). Air pollution lowers Chinese urbanites' expressed happiness on social media. Nature human behaviour, 3(3), 237–243. KWWSV GRL RUJ V -018-0521-2 [4] Dong, D., Xu, X., Xu, W., & Xie, J. (2019). The Relationship Between the Actual Level of Air Pollution and Residents' Concern about Air Pollution: Evidence from Shanghai, China. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(23), 4784. KWWSV GRL RUJ LMHUSK [5] Kotcher, J. E., Adebayo, A., Nelson, A., Borth, A., Maibach, E., Rosenthal, S., Leiserowitz, A. (2019). Do Americans understand how air pollution from fossil fuels harms health? Yale University and George Mason University. New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication. [6] Thach, T. Q., Tsang, H., Cao, P., & Ho, L. M. (2018). A novel method to construct an air quality index based on air pollution profiles. International journal of hygiene and environmental health, 221(1), 17– KWWSV GRL RUJ M LMKHK [7] Xiao, C., Chang, M., Guo, P., Gu, M., & Li, Y. (2020). Analysis of air quality characteristics of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and its surrounding air pollution transport channel cities in China. Journal of environmental sciences (China), 87, 213– KWWSV GRL RUJ M MHV [8] Nobles, C. J., Schisterman, E. F., Ha, S., Buck Louis, G. M., Sherman, S., & Mendola, P. (2018). Time-varying cycle average and daily variation in ambient air pollution and fecundability. Human reproduction (Oxford, England), 33(1), 166– KWWSV GRL RUJ KXPUHS GH[ [9] Daeyeong, G., Youngsook, O., Hyejung, P., Dongjin, K., Kyungyong, L., &amp; Jinho, Y. (Eds.). (2010, November). Jeju Island's Special Post-Seasonal Collection. Retrieved August 7, 2022, from KWWS NPD JR NU NPD [10] Castell, N., Schneider, P., Grossberndt, S., Fredriksen, M. F., Sousa-Santos, G., Vogt, M., & Bartonova, A. (2018). Localized real-time information on outdoor air quality at kindergartens in Oslo, Norway using low-cost sensor nodes. Environmental research, 165, 410–419. KWWSV GRL RUJ M HQYUHV [11] Awokola, B. I., Okello, G., Mortimer, K. J., Jewell, C. P., Erhart, A., & Semple, S. (2020). Measuring Air Quality for Advocacy in Africa (MA3): Feasibility and Practicality of Longitudinal Ambient PM2.5 Measurement Using Low-Cost Sensors. International journal of environmental UHVHDUFK DQG SXEOLF KHDOWK KWWSV GRL RUJ LMHUSK

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) [12] Islam, M. S., & Chowdhury, T. A. (2021). Effect of COVID-19 pandemic-induced lockdown (general holiday) on air quality of Dhaka City. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 193(6), KWWSV GRL RUJ V -021-09120-z [13] Fino, A.; Vichi, F.; Leonardi, C.; Mukhopadhyay, K. An Overview of Experiences Made and Tools Used to Inform the Public on Ambient Air Quality. Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1524. KWWSV GRL RUJ DWPRV [14] Seo, J. H., Park, S. Y., & Yu, L. (2009). The analysis of the relationships of Korean outbound tourism demand: Jeju Island and three international destinations. Tourism management, 30(4), 530– KWWSV GRL RUJ M WRXUPDQ [15] Chaix, B., Kestens, Y., Duncan, S., Merrien, C., Thierry, B., Pannier, B., Brondeel, R., Lewin, A., Karusisi, N., Perchoux, C., Thomas, F., & Méline, J. (2014). Active transportation and public transportation use to achieve physical activity recommendations? A combined GPS, accelerometer, and mobility survey study. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 11, KWWSV GRL RUJ V -014-0124-x

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The Influence of Blockchain on the Art Industry: How NFT Reduces Uncertainty and Information Asymmetry in the Visual Art Market Author 1

Full Name

Yoon, Youngseo

Penn Foster High School

(Last Name, First Name)

School Name

Abstract: The paper aims to answer the research question: “How does the Non-fungible token (NFT) technology reduce uncertainty and information asymmetry in the visual art market?” To avoid including forms such as music or literature in the term ‘art’ as a broad spectrum, I define art in this paper specifically as visual art, which includes painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts, and architecture. I propose that the uncertainty and information asymmetry in the art market can be reduced by some of the distinctive features of NFT technology. First, its role as a decentralized platform allows all participants of the NFT art market to view transaction history in a secure digital space, reducing the information gap between the creators and the consumers. Automated records enable direct and trustworthy transactions between the creators and consumers without intervention from the 3rd agent, which reduces the uncertainty in the art market. Secondly, the chronological transaction history of the NFTs of the artworks being automatically recorded with distinguishable ID’s linked with the content itself in a secure digital space ensures the authenticity of the artworks. Lastly, flexible storage and management requirements make NFT artworks to be dealt with enhanced practicality. The evidence I have gathered in this paper is intended to help people understand the potential of NFT in shaping the art market into a better environment for the artists. NFT technology can reduce the uncertainty in the art industry due to some of its distinct features and has further potential to drive in more creators to advertise their artworks in a broader digital spectrum and enhance accessibility to their artworks by blurring the line between the digital and physical space. I believe that understanding the potential of NFT in art and how younger generations interact with this new and upcoming trend would be an invaluable experience.

Keywords: Non-Fungible Token, Blockchain, market uncertainty, information asymmetry, visual art

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Introduction Compared to the number of artists who participate in the visual art field, the number of those who have their works recognized by the public is small. According to Artfinder’s report, 75 percent of US artists earn less than $10,000 a year from their art practice (Kinsella, 2017). Such reality of the art market became a motivation to further investigate the structural and socioeconomic aspects that caused such issues. As well, several relevant articles mentioning the positive influence of modern technology on the art market sparked my interest to study the relationship between the new-founded non-fungible token (NFT) technology and the art industry. Research revealed enough evidence to conclude that the factors to such issues in the art industry are each profoundly related to two economic concepts: market uncertainty and information asymmetry. Market uncertainty is the attribute of the market that exists when investors have difficulty assessing the current and future market conditions, while information asymmetry is the imbalance in knowledge between two negotiating parties, such as buyers and sellers, of their common interest. If the imbalance in knowledge between the two parties continuously exists, it influences the market negatively. George Akerlof explains the issue on information asymmetry through an illustration of a typical used-car market: in the used-car market, there is a fundamental information gap between the buyer and the seller, since the buyer has less knowledge about the product. While the buyer considers the price of an average car as the standard, the seller would try to sell a used car of average quality at a price higher than average, and a flawed car (a lemon) at an average price- a higher price than it is supposed to be. If this continues, the used car market would eventually become a lemon market where only flawed cars are sold (Akerlof, 1970). In the art market, such asymmetry exists due to the unique nature of artistic goods. The value of an artwork is different from that of other consumer goods as it is socially constructed rather than objectively determined. Precisely, it “originates in an intersubjective process of assessment and conferring of reputation by experts in the art field, such as gallery owners, curators, critics, art dealers, journalists, and collectors, who help establish the artistic reputation of a work or an artist” (Beckert & Rossel, 2013). Artworks mostly being evaluated by professionals means that the data needed for evaluation are mostly shared among a selected group of people, making it hard for the general public to access information about various artworks and artists, and thus deepening the information gap between the two groups- the experts and the public. This nature of the art market where a lot of artists are unknown to the public also makes it fundamentally hard to predict future consumptions of artworks. Like Verges said, the nature of the art market is both qualitative; art is not something that can be objectively standardized or measured, and quantitative; the amount of consumption in art is never predictable (Verges, 2015). Both of these properties indicate that uncertainty is inevitable in the art market. If the uncertainties regarding artworks reduce and the information gap between the artists and the public could be narrowed, more artists would earn opportunities to be recognized. One of the possible keys to this can be found in the new-founded blockchain technology. This paper examines the current influence of blockchain-based NFT technology on the visual art industry; specifically, the positive potentials that such technology has in improving the environment of the existing art market. Blockchains don’t have a central gatekeeper, such as a bank, to verify transactions; instead, they rely on a consensus mechanism to maintain an automated chronological ledger of transaction processes (Oyinloye, 2021), which provides a decentralized platform for NFT buyers and sellers. NFT artworks can also solve the issue of authenticity to some extent; numerous artworks in the real-world art market are still in the controversy of authenticity as they can be easily reproduced by imitating the artist's style, but NFT can mitigate such issues by giving each artwork its own authorized

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) certificate. Another advantage is that NFT storage provides a safe and everlasting platform that does not require space to keep and manage the artworks. Focused on reducing the market uncertainty and information asymmetry, the paper analyzes two cases to interpret how NFT art market helps artists to efficiently monetize their works by minimizing the barriers they face. It is further expected that if NFT continues to develop and be utilized properly, it would help make a better environment for artists and improve the art industry in general.

Body NFT technology helps reduce the information asymmetry between the creators and the consumers by lowering the market uncertainty regarding the art market. In the basic economy, market uncertainty is prominent in situations where the investors, or economic agents, are unable to predict what will happen in the future, regarding the price changes of products sold in the market. Unlike economic risk, which is defined by a situation of expected winning or losing, uncertainty does not make information about the decision outcomes and their probabilities of occurrences available to the decision-maker (Park & Shapira, 2017), making its potential impact more critical. Though these topics are frequently discussed in the financial market because uncertainty of future changes in stock prices usually entail impactful issues such as critical financial loss, uncertainty is not just an issue in the stock market- it is a considerable barrier to consumers in all kinds of markets, including the art market. The art market is fundamentally uncertain in its nature. Some of the major issues of the art market include its occlusive aspects due to unlawful deals and non-disclosure of market information, the irrationality of the pricing of the pieces, the unclarity regarding the authentication of the works, etc (Kim, 2014). These distinct factors cause the art market to be risky and uncertain, building a barrier to artists in their processes of monetizing their works and spreading their reputations. NFT technology helps reduce these uncertainties by its three functions: playing a role as a decentralized transaction platform, ensuring the authenticity of the artworks with reinforced trust, and lessening requirements in terms of secure long-term storage and management of the data. Based on blockchain technology, the NFT art market provides a decentralized platform without a gatekeeper, where every step of the sale process is clearly exhibited to all the participants. NFTs are digital codes that are built upon the same blockchain infrastructure as types of cryptocurrency such as Ethereum (Gingerich, 2021). Blockchain is a secure system used for storing transaction history on the internet space, making it available for all participating users to observe and therefore reducing the information asymmetry between the producers and consumers and reinforcing the trust in all transaction processes. Such system’s favorable functions are prominent in two aspects: seamless evidence and process automation. Just as bill debt displays, blockchain plays the role of enabling the owner, or the creditor, to verify the trade process. By having the entire sequence of transactions recorded and saved in a secure space, it serves as an objective evidence that the product of exchange was justly owned. The other aspect, as mentioned, is that the said process is automated. Massive amounts of existing data and the constant production of new ones make it challenging for the participants to check on every single information of the transaction process, but with blockchain technology applied, it could be easier to manage and control transaction data, with the automation saving lots of time and money (Berger, 2017). Especially in the NFT art marketplace where billions of art pieces are stored as digitized data, the automated process of recording and clearing information has a potential to be very effective. Transaction processes being shown directly to the producers and the consumers themselves also eliminates the need for intermediary forces such as a bank, broker, dealer, etc to intervene in the process (Subramanian,

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) 2018, p. 78-84), increasing both the clarity and general efficiency of the process. Blockchain technology is capable of enabling transactions of numerous artworks to be managed with a high degree of trust without the mediation of a gatekeeper or a middleman, providing an improved marketplace where every process is transparent and is done directly between the buyer and the seller. The NFT market using the blockchain technology helps ensure the artworks’ authenticity. The visual art market has struggled with authenticity issues for many years, as art styles could be easily imitated and there usually wasn't enough information exposed for the consumers to identify the integrity of the work. This problem could be solved in the NFT market since NFTs provide artworks each with unique, distinguishable IDs linked to the content that can not be copied or shared (Das, 2021). Another factor to the authenticity problem is the general lack of reliability of existing certificates that are used to prove the work’s authenticity. In the past, the most typical way of verifying artworks was requiring a slip of paper that could both serve as a historical record of previous sales and link the work to its creator at the same time. Those paper certificates, providing proof of proper artistic attribution, have been the primary source for proving provenance for decades. However, these days, their reliability is becoming questionable. In fact, several foundations ceased issuing certificates of authenticity around year 2012, especially after there was a series of lawsuits filed by art collectors suspecting their works inauthentic, as confirmed by Sharon Chrust, the vice president of the Appraisers Association of America. Robert Read, the head of fine art and private client at insurance underwriter Hiscox, explains that they “don’t insist on certificates of authenticity” anymore, and that they are “looking more at who we’re insuring and who has valued the items or who has authenticated the items rather than actually having a certificate”. Since certificates of authenticity can as well be forged just as the work itself, Read adds that in order for those to be of value, they “need to be able to link the certificate to the artwork over time”. A paper certificate cannot resolve this issue unless it also includes the data of whose hands the work was in, for the last 200 years, for instance. “For a certificate to be effective, it has to be linked in a way that can’t be tampered with to the work of art”they “have to have a way of recording the history” (Tenz, 2021). The key to this issue can be provided by NFT and blockchain technology. With the blockchain digitally recording data through time from the creation of the art to the most recent sales, the entire trade history of the artwork would be archived seamlessly in an accessible place- added with distinct IDs of each artwork, those records can now fill the role of paper certificates as an improved form of authentication. Lastly, in terms of storage and management, NFTs are easier, cheaper, and safer than physical artworks. Since physical artworks, in general, tend to require special facilities for storage such as lighting and temperature conditions, it is common for museums and art galleries to spend millions of dollars on their storage of valuable artworks. Even if they do so, it’s still not enough to prevent some pieces from changing their looks as art objects degrade naturally. NFTs are able to eliminate such issues as they digitize physical art objects while preserving their original values. Keeping the artworks in so-called virtual museums in an online space instead of in physical museums, NFT lets the value of the artwork itself be preserved safely even without having its physical form (Team.P, 2022). Though these virtual preservations could not be perfectly immune to hackings or technological problems, consistent technological advancements continue more and more to help minimize the system’s vulnerability. With platforms and technologies such as Filecoin and CID (Content ID), anyone can make sure their collections stay securely on decentralized networks for eternity. Filecoin uses permanence layers with cryptographic proofs to ensure the NFT’s persistence and durability, and CID, a form of IPFS hash

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) which works as a distinguishable identity of the content, helps ensure that the long-term data storage would not be changed or disappear due to unexpected online problems. Since CIDs work as distinguishable fingerprints of each NFT that are generated directly from the content itself, using CIDs prevent potential problems such as fragile links or “rugpull” where the token can suddenly collapse as soon as liquidity disappears (Filecoin, 2021). Both platforms like Filecoin and technologies like CID help the artworks stay unchanged in a decentralized, secure online space. Other than these three aspects, NFT art has many advantages over traditional forms of visual art, such as accessibility and low barriers in creation. It is clearly much easier to access NFT art content than traditional art content in that with traditional art, one needs to physically be at the exhibition center or the auction to buy or enjoy the artworks, whereas with NFT art, one can easily view, buy, and sell any kind of works anywhere they are as long as one is connected to the internet. While the entry barrier is high with traditional forms of art, which naturally limits active circulation of the works, there is no such barrier with NFT art in that everyone can become a creator of the tokens of their own works in a decentralized space. Also, while traditional form of art heavily relies on exterior factors such as insider connection, artist popularity, and the auction house, NFT artwork values are mostly based on the rarity, or originality of the content itself (NFT Keshi, 2022). The NFT art market truly provides a more convenient, effective, and supportive environment for artists to monetize their works compared to the old system, with existing structural problems in the art market reduced to minimum.

Figure 1. The Bored Ape Yacht Club NFTs (Boom, 2022) While it is possible for existing creative artworks, such as pictures and paintings that physically have been created, to be digitized as tokens and be uploaded as NFTs- which are called non-generative artworks, it is also possible to make digital art of one’s own by using a specific algorithm that automatically creates original images that can be used as NFTs- which are called generative artworks (Team. P, 2022). The Bored Ape Yacht Club is a sensational example of generative NFT art that let the consumers recognize the market power NFT has for the first time. Built on the ethereum blockchain system and developed by a start-up blockchain business company in the U.S. named Yuga Labs, The Bored Ape Yacht club is a series of automatically generated art featuring more than a million varied

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) images of an original cartoon ape character. With a concept of a bored, rich ape who had earned a fortune through cryptocurrency but is feeling boredom in its affluent life, Yuga Labs created an original piece of digital graffiti artwork featuring an ape character, and proceeded to make more than a million simple variations of the image via automated algorithm before publishing the series as exchangeable NFTs. The detailed variants like accessories, eye shapes, background colors, etc make each ape character distinguishable and unique, thus making each token rare and original and, most importantly, profitable. Since its launch in April, 2022, at $200 (about 0.08 ether) each, the price of the ape images has remarkably risen, with the cheapest Bored Ape NFT on OpenSea costing $420,000 (about 145 ether). Such a phenomenon led to the ape images being frequently used as online status symbols, first in the NFT space and then among celebrities too (Cnet, 2022). As a number of famous celebrities began using these images as their profile pictures on social network services, the bored ape profile picture soon became a worldwide trend, its price constantly rising. This case roundly shows how effective the NFT system can be to content creators when advertising and monetizing their works. One of the key reasons why this case was a success also lies in Yuga Labs’ distinct membership policy. Yuga Labs let their consumers participate in a decentralized commercial community centered around The Bored Ape Yacht Club- they let the buyers of the NFT hold the right to freely utilize the intellectual property (IP) of the artworks, allowing them to use their tokens for any commercial purposes. Such an idea that the buyer of a token can also earn profit from it is what engaged the interest of many consumers worldwide. The Bored Ape Yacht Club solely shows how a decentralized, all-participating marketplace can function as an effective environment to maximize the commercial values of an artwork. Not only do the original creators themselves earn profit from many people buying their art, but the consumers also get to earn profit as they participate in this activity, engaging more participants and ultimately causing the works’ reputations to be spread farther and farther on the internet. Utilizing this NFT market system would help activate the art industry in the future as it becomes more and more stabilized and applied to different genres of art.

Figure 2. Everydays: The First 5000 days (Kim, 2022)

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Another example of a commercially successful NFT art piece is a digital mosaic piece called Everydays: The First 5000 days by American artist Mike Winkelmann, which was sold for 6,930 million dollars at Christie’s- the third highest price an artwork was ever sold for at an auction. The record-breaking piece was made using images of Winkelmann’s 5000 pieces of work through 13 years of his career, with recurring themes and corresponding color schemes stitched together into an aesthetic whole (Christie’s, 2021). The fact is that Mike Winkelmann was a young digital artist who was known mostly among the internet community for collaborating with popular fashion brands and musicians but had little or no reputation at all in the traditional auction market. Having no exhibition records, no galleries assigned to, and not even a single record of previous auction sales, Winkelmann was a nobody to professional collectors in the traditional art market- naturally, his piece first started off as merely 100 dollars or so, which ended up being sold at about 70 times its initial price. What made him make such a hit with his debut piece at auction was the rareness and authenticity the NFT provided to the piece. On top of its artistic uniqueness, digitizing it into a NFT added worth to Everydays: the first 5000 days by guaranteeing its originality and ownership, identifying the copyright owner of the digital property and preventing unauthorized copying via blockchain technology. This case was a starting point where the consumers of the art market started realizing how impactful the concept of rarity and digital authenticity of an artwork is and will continue to be in the future society. As digitization permeates numerous aspects of modern culture, it is becoming more convincing that the physical form of the content itself will continue to weigh less as its core quality, while the digitized, non-fungible form of the content and the authenticity it represents will become the superior core value of a product (Popescu, 2021). As NFT assets become gradually universalized as a way of monetizing content and the online marketplace becomes more decentralized, more artists would benefit from the system.

Conclusion Enabling various artworks to be spread and circulated among the public has always been an ongoing challenge in the art industry, where artworks' values depend on external, unclear aspects like the evaluation of a selected group of people rather than the content itself. The paper identifies market uncertainty and information asymmetry as two driving factors that hinder the circulation of various artworks and the commercial success of many artists. In order to resolve this issue, the NFT technology is suggested as an ideal solution that helps reducing the information gap between the creators and the consumers and the uncertainty regarding the art market. This is according to the distinct nature of the NFT market which provides the characteristic of a decentralized transaction platform, a guaranteed system on the authenticity of the artworks, and flexible requirements in terms of storage and management of the artworks. The paper further suggests that NFT art market has various advantages over the traditional art marketplace in terms of the consumers' improved accessibility to the artworks, lower entry barrier for artists, and its content-focused nature. By allowing artists to advertise their works in a broader digital space and minimizing credibility issues, the NFT technology is expected to be a hopeful method for the next generation of the art industry, presenting spotlight to a number of undiscovered creativities and thus fostering a better environment for more artists to participate in the field. Still, it is notable that limitation in NFT technology exists in that information asymmetry can not be completely eliminated in the digital space. To conclude with a claim by Klamer (2014), “Without

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) uncertainty, there is no art market” (Bstech, 2021, p. 275). At least this natural aspect will not dramatically change or improve (Bsteh, 2021). However, with future developed science and a more mature technology regarding the application of the NFT and blockchain structure, there is a prospect for a bettered environment in the art industry.

References Akerlof, G. A. (1970). The Market for “Lemons”: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 84(3), 488–500. https://doi.org/10.2307/1879431 Beckert, Jens & Rössel, Jörg. (2013). The Price of Art. Uncertainty and Reputation in the Art Field. European Societies. 15. 178-195. 10.1080/14616696.2013.767923. Berger, R. (2017). Enabling decentralized, digital and trusted transactions: Why blockchain will transform the financial services industry. Roland Berger. Boom, D. V. (2022, August 11). Bored Ape Yacht Club NFTs Explained. CNET. https://www.cnet.com/culture/internet/bored-ape-yacht-club-nfts-explained/ Bsteh, S. (2021, May). From painting to pixel: Understanding NFT artworks. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sheila-Bsteh/publication/351346278_From_Pai nting_to_Pixel_Understanding_NFT_artworks/links/609280ec92851c490fb7470e/Fro m-Pai nting-toPixel-Understanding-NFT-artworks.pdf Christie’s. (2021, March). Beeple (b. 1981). Christies.Com. https://onlineonly.christies.com/s/beeplefirst-5000-days/beeple-b-1981-1/112924 Clark, M. (2022, June 6). NFTs, explained: what they are and why they’re suddenly worth millions. The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/22310188/nft-explainer-what-is-blockchain-crypto-art-faq Das, D. (2021, November 17). Understanding Security Issues in the NFT Ecosystem. arXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.08893 Filecoin. (2021, April 29). Introducing NFT.Storage: Free Decentralized Storage for NFTs. Filecoin. https://filecoin.io/blog/posts/introducing-nft.storage-free-decentralized-storage-for-nft s/ Gingerich, M. (2021). Are NFTs only on Ethereum? The Difference Between Ethereum and NFTs. Mikegingerich.Com. https://www.mikegingerich.com/blog/are-nfts-only-on-ethereum-the-difference-betwe enethereumand-nfts/ Kim, Y. (2014, February). A study on Information Asymmetry and Collector's Purchase Intention in the Korean Art Market. SNU Open Repository and Archive. https://sspace.snu.ac.kr/handle/10371/128807

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) Kim, Y. (2022, May 12). My Expression Rather than Money, Why Artists Pay Attention to NFT. Woori Culture Newspaper. https://www.koya-culture.com/mobile/article.html?no=135299 Kinsella, E. (2017, November 29). A New Study Shows That Most Artists Make Very Little Money, With Women Faring the Worst. Artnet. https://news.artnet.com/market/artists-make-less-10k-year1162295 Klamer, A. (2014). Without uncertainty, there is no art market. In A. Dempster (Ed.), Risk and uncertainty in the art world. (pp. 275-286). Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Non-fungible token. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/non-fungible%20token Mukhopadhyay, M. (2021, October 8). Market Microstructure of Non Fungible Tokens. arXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.03172 NFTKeshi. (2022, May 31). NFT Art vs Traditional Art: 14 fundamental differences. NFT Keshi. https://nftkeshi.com/nft-art-vs-traditional-art/ Oyinloye, D. P. (2021, July 27). Blockchain Consensus: An Overview of Alternative Protocols. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/13/8/1363/htm Popescu, A. (2021). Non-Fungible Tokens (NFT) - Innovation beyond the craze. Proceedings of Engineering & Technology Journal, 26–30. https://www.academia.edu/50920483/Non_Fungible_Tokens_NFT_Innovation_beyon d_the_craze Subramanian, H. (2018). Communications of the ACM Volume 61, Number 1. dl.acm.org. https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3158333 Team, P. (2022, April 13). A Complete Guide on NFT Crypto Art. PixelPlex. https://pixelplex.io/blog/nft-in-art/ Tenz, C. (2021, February 22). Certificates of Authenticity, Explained. Artsy. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-collectors-certificates-authenticity Vasan, K. (2022, February). Quantifying NFT-driven networks in crypto art. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-05146-6 White, B. (2022, August). Characterizing the OpenSea NFT Marketplace. dl.acm.org. https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3158333

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.H\ZRUGV traumatic stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, the function of the amygdala, the function of the prefrontal cortex, physiotherapy, treatment for trauma

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KNOWLEDGE TO LEAD (ISSN: 2765-0626) $EVWUDFW Trauma is the reaction to a profoundly upsetting incident that overwhelms a person's capacity for coping, results in feelings of helplessness, erodes self-awareness, and limits their capacity to feel a wide range of emotions and experiences. Unlike the popular belief that only the hippocampus section of our brain is affected, many other parts of our brain, which include parts responsible for emotion and cognition, are affected. If one experiences a traumatic situation, one’s amygdala, which is the part of the brain that controls emotion, will be more highly affected than any other section. Thus, when a stimulus is somehow related to the traumatic event a person experienced, the amygdala can frequently become overactive.

/LWHUDWXUH 5HYLHZ Trauma is easily seen in the media as characters suffer from past experiences or traumatic situations in movies and in TV Series. However, it is very hard to see a person in real life who suffers from PTSD. This is not because people do not experience traumatic incidents, but rather because people do not reveal that they have a dark secret that haunts them every single day. Some visit psychologists to figure things out and some participate in meditation to control themselves and hide their emotions.

Figure 1. MAPS Public Benefit Corporation. “Mental Health Resources: PTSD MAPS PBC - Learn More About PTSD.” MAPS Public Benefit Corporation, 12 July 2019, mapspublicbenefit.com/our-research/mental-health-resources/ptsd.

Researching the effects on the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex when a person goes through a traumatic experience has revealed that an extensive number of people experience PTSD in their lives and that prevents them from living a normal life. 7 out of 100 people in the United States suffer from PTSD; 17% of veterans will experience PTSD and have a hard time due to it at least once in their lives (see fig. 1). There have been several treatments possible for trauma victims, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), which are proven to be helpful to the patients. Knowing specifically which part of the brain is affected, and in what way, will allow people with trauma to overcome their fear and anxiety. Research conducted by J. Douglas Bremner from the Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Radiology, and the Emory Center for Positron Emission Tomography in 2006 mostly claims that the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex are three regions of the 605

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ brain that are connected to the stress response. Long-lasting alterations in these brain regions have been linked to traumatic stress. Increased cortisol and norepinephrine reactions to future stressors are linked to traumatic stress. Stress-relieving effects of antidepressants are seen in the hippocampus. Patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been shown to exhibit reduced hippocampus and anterior cingulate sizes, higher amygdala function, and decreased medial prefrontal/anterior cingulate function based on findings from animal research. The cortisol and norepinephrine responses to stress are also heightened in PTSD sufferers (see fig. 2). In animal trials, effective PTSD treatments have been shown to improve memory, enhance hippocampal volume, and promote neurogenesis. (Bremner)

Figure 2. J. Douglas Bremner. “Lasting Effects of Trauma on the Brain, Showing Long-term Dysregulation of Norepinephrine and Cortisol Systems, and Vulnerable Areas of Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Medial Prefrontal Cortex That Are Affected by Trauma. GC, Glucocorticoid; CRF, Corticotropin-releasing Factor; ACTH, Adrenocorticotropin Hormone; NE, Norepinephrine; HR, Heart Rate; BP, Blood Pressure; DA, Dopamine; BZ, Benzodiazapine; GC, Glucocorticoid.” National Library of Medicine, 8 Dec. 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181836.

Its key finding is that traumatic stress can have a variety of negative consequences on memory-related neuropsychological processes as well as on brain structure and function. Such stress can cause high-risk or self-harming behavior, disordered eating, obsessive actions like overworking or gambling, as well as the repression or denial of feelings. The research uses quantitative and experimental data in order to get results about the parts of the brain affected by trauma. The previously mentioned research is related to this study because its results correspond to this project’s results. Thus, by using Bremmer’s research, the project’s accuracy can be increased and supported by the ideas from his research. A more recent article Correlation Between Structures of the Brain Function and PTSD written by Erin Maynard, the President of PTSD Survivors of America, and medically reviewed by Carly Snyder, a psychiatrist and the Director of Women’s Health for Family Health Associates in NYC, indicates that the amygdala is indeed responsible for “the assessment of threat-related stimuli, the formation, and storage of emotional memories, and fear conditioning.” The amygdala initially responds to a threat and the prefrontal cortex finds the source of the threat and decides whether to stay alert or calm down. Since traumatic memories are stored to have a continuous impact, people with PTSD have “symptoms such as recurrent memories regarding the event; traumatic nightmares; dissociative flashbacks; hypervigilance; engaging in risk-taking behavior; and an exaggerated startle 606

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃƑ response.” These facts result in the conclusion that controlling the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex can play a huge role in treating PTSD patients. (“Correlation Between Structures of the Brain Function and PTSD”) The research and the article successfully explained the functions of the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. However, while one failed to provide conclusions derived from scientific experiments, the other provides limited information, focusing more on the hippocampus rather than the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. Moreover, the suggested treatment from the research is pharmacotherapy, which is using medication to cure disorders. Even though the experiment showed a more than half reduced result in PTSD symptoms, the research requires results related to physiotherapy. The different types of treatments used in physiotherapy include “manual therapy, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation therapy, magnetic therapy, dry needling and acupuncture, joint mobilization, and Range of Motion exercises” (Sahi). Though physiotherapy is only known to solve physical traumas, it can indeed help mental health, too. Physiotherapy in particular can assist in reducing stress levels by utilizing one's exercise regimen to alleviate and resolve any pain or health issues that may be contributing to how one feels. (Physiotherapists Can Help With Stress Management Techniques | Motion Works Physiotherapy, Orleans)

5HVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV When physical trauma (such as severe injuries due to an accident) occurs, how does our brain function differently: How are the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex implicated in the stress response? Regarding the different functions of each brain part, what should the focus be on when receiving treatment to cure trauma, especially using physiotherapy? The research findings will indicate the brain sections that are affected when one goes through trauma. The project’s research will especially focus on the amygdala of the brain. The aim is to prove the hypotheses right by using as many details about the effects on some brain sections when someone goes through trauma. By giving several examples of how our emotions are highly affected when we go through a trauma, this paper will attempt to prove that the amygdala is most highly affected, not the hippocampus. The anticipated result of the research findings will be that instead of the hippocampus, the amygdala is most affected when someone has a trauma. This result will demonstrate that controlling one’s emotions is one of the most important factors after going through a trauma and thus can be cured by physiotherapy.

0HWKRGV DQG ZRUN SODQ In order to answer these inquiries, two main methodologies will be utilized: collecting the information from past research and conducting interviews with current patients with PTSD. The first step of the research should be information gathering, especially in scientific experiments regarding the functions of the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex and how these brain parts react to traumatic memories and experiences. PTSD and other psychological phenomena that will be analyzed in this research need a clear definition before the research starts as they could be interpreted in more than one way. Thus, gathering accurate information and definitions from past research should be the first main step. Then, gathering the information by interviewing the actual patients who are suffering from PTSD and have experienced various diagnoses for their mental illness. These interviews should provide first-hand information from the patients who actually experienced the mental disorder and put their effort to overcome it. The interviews will be the primary source for this research. As physiotherapy aims to relieve not only physical pain but also emotional pain and stress, by interviewing PTSD patients who have experienced physiotherapy, the results will prove the effectiveness of physiotherapy in treating PTSD. Therefore, through these two 607

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ main steps during the research, accurate and reliable information should be gathered to figure out the most effective method of curing PTSD, which would be various kinds of physiotherapy.

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5HIHUHQFHV Bremner, J. Douglas. “Traumatic Stress: Effects on the Brain.” National Library of Medicine, 8 Dec. 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181836. “Correlation Between Structures of the Brain Function and PTSD.” Verywell Mind, 13 Feb. 2020, www.verywellmind.com/what-exactly-does-ptsd-do-to-the-brain-2797210. Physiotherapists Can Help With Stress Management Techniques | Motion Works Physiotherapy, Orleans. 1 Mar. 2019, www.mwphysioorleans.com/site/blog/2019/03/01/understandingstress-and-how-to-manage-it. Sahi,

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Full Name (Last Name, First Name) School Name

Choi, David

Saint Paul Preparatory Seoul

.H\ZRUGV: airbag, inflator, car accident, vehicle safety.

609

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW In the current industrialized world, cars are widely used. Whether it be to go on a long road trip or a short trip to the supermarket, driving cars is one of the most efficient ways to travel. With this comfortable way of travel, came the risks. Crashing at high speeds can cause major damage to the human body, or even death (Putzer, 2022). As a result, multiple safety measures such as seatbelts and airbags were invented for safer travel. Even so, around 20 to 50 million people suffer from injuries, many of them causing disabilities, from vehicle accidents every year (World, 2022). Car crashes are the leading cause of spinal cord injuries according to the WHO. Furthermore, 1.3 million people die from vehicle accidents every year; 80% of them die while not wearing their seatbelt. However, the reason why this number is not higher is due to airbags. According to the NHTSA, airbags can reduce frontal crash death rates by almost 61% (Willens, 2013). In many cases, airbags can prevent permanent damage that are caused by crashes (Larson, 2021). Although airbags can reduce the death rate by an astounding rate, the airbags themselves are also a safety hazard in a way. Many airbags are also defective and in some cases, they do not deploy during crashes. Furthermore, the reason why airbags can cause major injuries is due to the fact that airbags inflate at a rate of almost 200 miles per hour. Of course, this is necessary during high speed crashes as the airbags must deploy as fast as possible, but when the crash is nothing major, airbags can hurt the passenger or driver more than the crash itself. The reason why airbags deploy so fast is due to a chemical reaction created when sodium azide (NaN3) is ignited. The sheer speed of the airbag being inflated can cause injuries to the jaw, nose, eyes, ribs, spines, and many more. Furthermore, sodium azide is an irritant to people which can cause irritation in the human eyes and skin (Right, n.d.). Despite the drop in the market of airbags due to COVID-19 as seen in )LJXUH , it is expected that this market will keep growing until at least 2026, meaning the estimated revenue generated from the airbag industry will continue to rise. This shows that the already huge market of airbags will keep growing, meaning the need for better airbags will also rise (Kiran Pulidindi & Prakash, 2020). 2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV This paper aims to propose an airbag that would be effective in being the most safe considering three factors; the material of the airbag, what is used to inflate the airbag, and the impact conditions. The material of the airbag should be rigid and also flexible so that it can endure the extremely rapid expansion in a few milliseconds. The safer alternative chemical for the inflator would decrease any hazard due to the toxic inflator these days. Also, the position of the person or the crash should be also considered to design an airbag that effectively absorbs any physical impact from the car accident. This proposal would thoroughly review three factors and conclude the best combination for the better airbag, providing a guide for the actual experiments in the future. %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH Materials

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Nylon 6 (C6H10O2), polyester (C10H8O2), nylon 6,6 (C12H22N2O2), aramid (C14H14N2O4), and polyurethane Rubber (C3H8N2O) are the five candidate materials that were chosen for this proposal (WAKEMAN, 2000). The chemical structures can be seen in )LJXUH . Nylon 6 is created by polymerising hexanedioic acid and 1,6 diaminohexane, polyester is created by melting plastic pellets into threads, nylon 6,6 is created by polycondensing adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine, aramid is synthesized by creating solid fiber from a liquid chemical blend, and polyurethane is created by reacting polyol with diisocyanate or polymeric isocyanate. The reason why these materials were chosen was because of their relatively high value of the Young's Modulus. According to Designer Data, they have a value of 2.4 GPa, 0.92 GPa, 1.85 GPa, 91.5 GPa, 0.653 GPa respectively. Although nylon 6,6 was chosen because it is the material that is currently being used in airbags, the other materials were chosen due to their relatively high value of the Young's Modulus and their uses in the real world. nylon 6 is used for parachutes while skydiving, polyester is used in seat This is especially important as without a high Young's Modulus value, an object becomes stiffer and thus becomes more ineffective in absorbing impact. Inflators The most commonly used inflator nowadays is sodium azide as previously mentioned. The rapid inflation of gas is initiated by the decomposition of sodium azide (NaN3), potassium nitrate (KNO3) and silica (SiO2). The following chemical reaction generates nitrogen gas and fills the air bag. 2 NaN3 → 2 Na + 3 N2 (gas) This chemical can usually over pressurize during airbag deployment and may cause explosions of the gas canister so the metal fragments go flying into the passenger's compartment. When the airbag is overpressurized, there is risk of the airbag rupturing. As a result, instead of the airbag protecting the passenger, toxic fumes (hydrazoic acid, HN3) are released throughout the car causing skin irritation. Furthermore, the rupturing of the airbag leaves the chest area vulnerable in the crash, often breaking ribs, damaging skin, or even causing death. The two alternative inflators that will be discussed are cold gas and liquid carbon dioxide. Cold gas is a system where highly pressurized gas tanks full of non-toxic gas such as helium or nitrogen are released into airbags. This gas inflation system is extremely quick and the inflation speed can be adjusted through the tank pressure. However, the gas tank is flammable. Liquid carbon dioxide is a gas system where liquid carbon dioxide, mixed with some other organic liquids (to make sure it does not evaporate on its own) is evaporated and the gas produced is used to inflate airbags. 611

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Impact Conditions

Lastly, the situations inside and outside the car are examined that pertain to the impact conditions. Three impact conditions are considered: the type of crash, the position of a person upon impact, and the total momentum of the system. Type of crash refers to where the impact occurs. When a car crashes from the front or the back, there is something called the "crumple zone" ()LJXUH ). The front and back of the car were intentionally made so that it would easily "crumple", which would allow it to absorb a great amount of the impact rather than transferring it to the car itself. However, the sides of the car lack a "crumple zone", thus making it extremely dangerous if a car were to impact another car from its side. As a result, external airbags are proposed. The position of the passenger is also critical to the person's safety. If a passenger is in a vulnerable position when an airbag deploys, a passenger may suffer serious injuries, so it is essential to determine where the airbag will deploy from. The position of the passengers can be evaluated through the distances and angles between the parts of the passenger’s body and the vehicle ()LJXUH ). Finally, the total momentum of the system is also very important. When an airbag deploys while a car gets into a crash while it is going slowly, the airbag may cause more damage to the person than the crash itself. Consequently, there must be a certain momentum limit to determine when a car deploys its airbag. All in all, although airbags can prevent death, airbags can cause major injuries to the human body. This research proposal will attempt to find an airbag design that is safest in order to reduce injuries, and the factors that will be discussed are the materials of the air bag, which are nylon 6, polyester, nylon 6,6, aramid, and polyurethane rubber, considering the Young's Modulus, chemicals that inflate the airbag, and the conditions inside and outside of the car. 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRG Material The approach to finding the best possible material for the airbag is how well a material could soften a blow, which was Young's Modulus. Furthermore, in order to find out what material could withstand the most pressure in case an airbag popped during inflation, there needed to be a measurement that could calculate how much pressure a material could withstand without ripping, which was tensile strength. Young's Modulus is a measure of elasticity by finding the ratio of stress acting on a substance to stress produced with numbers. In order to do this, a wire of a certain material is used. Weights are attached to the wire and the length the material stretches is measured. Higher elasticity is ideal in conditions such as reducing impact as more shock can be absorbed by the material. Tensile strength is how much tension a material can take before breaking. In order to find tensile strength, the maximum amount of tension the object can take must be divided by the cross sectional area of the object (Michigan Technological University, 2021). In an experiment, a material is stretched until a fracture occurs. The pulling force is graphed against how much the object stretches. Then, the maximum of the graph is the tensile strength of the object. The higher the Young's Modulus value, the more elastic the material is and the higher its tensile strength, the better the material is at resisting breaking. 612

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ During the experiments, the amount of change of length, strain, to a 1 meter by 1 meter fabric piece of a material when stress is applied, would be measured. The Young's Modulus test should be conducted at all kinds of situations such as different temperatures and humidities. The properties of these materials should be affected minimally no matter the situation. Types of Inflator The standard for finding the best inflating method is based on how safe it is for people. In other words, non-toxic alternatives for sodium azide were examined to prevent the irritating effect that sodium azide has. As a result, two alternatives, cold gas and liquid carbon dioxide will be considered. These two inflators were chosen because they are already prominent candidates for a safer alternative for sodium azide. For the actual experiments, the time consumed until the volume of the inflator expands to 60.0L, which is the typical volume of the current airbags, would be measured. The inflation test should be conducted in various environmental conditions considering the natural climates. The inflator should be fully expanded even at below 0 ℃ and should not explode at higher temperatures. Deployment of the Airbags while considering the Impact Condition The situations of outside and inside the car will be considered when deploying the airbags. The variables that will be considered in this section are where a crash could be detected, where the airbag will deploy based on how the person is sitting, and the total momentum required for the airbag to deploy. These conditions were considered as modern airbags fail to examine a multitude of factors including the ones that will be discussed. In addition, it is essential that momentum is used since it can take multiple conditions into account such as when a car crashes into a wall, or when a car crashes into another car. The momentum was calculated by multiplying the weight of an average car with the average speed in which a car needs to travel in order for a person to get seriously injured. For the physical experiments, a dummy should be put into different positions during the crash regarding the parameters shown in )LJXUH . When the crash occurs, the damage upon the dummy should be assessed. This experiment should also be conducted with the airbags in place and without the airbags so that the effectiveness of the airbag can be compared. $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ

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3000 MPa

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0.653 GPa

62 MPa

7DEOH Young’s Modulus and tensile strength of airbag materials. As seen in )LJXUH and )LJXUH , aramid has the highest values of the young's modulus and tensile strength while nylon 6 has the 2nd highest values of each. nylon 6,6 is third in young's modulus and tensile strength while Polyurethane and polyester are either fourth or fifth in both categories. For the cold gas system, as seen in )LJXUH , a pressure of 1400 psi inflates about as quickly as a real inflator or an inflator that uses sodium azide. The liquid carbon dioxide took around 3 times longer than a normal sodium azide inflator. By using aramid as the external airbag, the airbag would be able to withstand a crash of 100 km/hr. Also, by determining a person's position through a motion camera or sensor, the car could determine whether to deploy from the front or the top. If a person is obstructing the airbag, it could cause unnecessary damage. By detecting which airbag the passenger is detecting, the car could inflate the airbag from different locations of the car. Furthermore, the car's speed must be taken into account. A car crash at a slow speed would not require an airbag as the risk of a serious injury would be extremely low and the airbag itself would do more harm than good. Airbags should be deployed when the total momentum of a crash amounts to around 12900 Ns. Out of all the materials, the obvious choice for the material would be aramid. It has a young's modulus value that is 38 times greater than nylon 6, the material with the second highest 614

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ young's modulus value. Furthermore, its tensile strength is 45 times higher than the second highest value on the graph. For the inflator, cold gas should be the preferred inflator in the future. The main problem with liquid carbon dioxide is that it is not developed enough as there has not been too much research on it. As a result, the inflation time is way too slow to be used in the real world. Currently, many car owners are switching to electrical cars. In fact, around 8.3% of the cars bought in 2021 are electric cars. Since electric cars do not run on combustion, cold gas will be usable. Furthermore, the amount of cold gas released can be controlled, meaning it can either inflate slower or quicker than the conventional airbag based on the impact condition. The gas used in the cold gas inflation system includes nitrogen. This gas is extremely easy to obtain as according to NASA, 78% of the air people breathe is nitrogen. The total momentum before an airbag deploys should be 12900 Ns because that is equal to the momentum a car has when it goes 25 km/hr (Keating, 2021; Airbags, 2015). If a car were to crash at this speed, a person could potentially suffer from major injuries. The main limitation of this experiment is the lack of technology. Aramid is extremely difficult to mass produce because one of the components of aramid, p-phenylenediamine, is difficult to create (Aramid Fibers, 2022). Also, aramid has not made its way to the common world applicants so it will be difficult to obtain. Aramid is also fairly expensive to produce. Also, for the impact condition, computer simulation technology has not developed enough to accurately predict what would happen during a crash with certain conditions. However, there are modern applications to this research. The research will be able to create a safer driving environment for all people. Furthermore, it will be able to bring more exposure to the usage of aramid. Due to its high elasticity and tension strength, aramid could be used for many current world applications such as for parachutes. Collectively, aramid is the material that can provide the most safety as it is tens of times more elastic and resistant to ripping than other materials. However, this is only if safety is prioritized. Aramid may not be the best material to use when considering costs. Nylon 6, polyester, nylon 6,6, aramid, and Polyurethane Rubber cost $1.7 per kilogram, $1.75 per kilogram, $2.4 per kilogram, $5 per kilogram, and $0.84 per kilogram respectively (Zande, 2015). Aramid is almost two times more expensive than nylon 6,6, the second most expensive material. Nylon 6, however, is the second cheapest material, as well as the second highest in the young's modulus value and tensile strength. For future experiments, instead of finding the safest airbag system, there should be research on a safe and cost-efficient airbag. Also, since cold gas is flammable, there should be experiments with creating new gas canisters to be able to take as much damage as possible or designing cars so that the gas tank is nearly unreachable from a crash. The flammability of cold gas however, will not have a huge impact in the future as the world is slowly turning towards electric cars. In fact, 4.6% of the current overall market of vehicles have to do with electric cars (Blanco, 2022). Furthermore, there are many more environmental and internal conditions that need to be considered such as the size of the person or what the car crashes into. If possible, simulations must be done, each simulation representing different conditions. With the implementation of the proposed airbags, death rates are bound to drop. However, more experiments could be conducted in the future to further develop this topic. As mentioned previously, there could be research on a cost-effective and safe airbag. Of course, the aim of this paper is not to create a replacement for seat belts. Rather, by creating a safer airbag, people will be able to drive without the fear of dying in a car accident. 5HIHUHQFH Airbags. (2015). IIHS-HLDI Crash Testing and Highway Safety. Aramid Fibers. (2022). Uwec.edu. https://www.chem.uwec.edu/chem405_s01/malenirf/project.html Blanco, S. (2022, May 14). Electric Cars’ Turning Point May Be Happening as U.S. Sales Numbers

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃƑ Start Climb. Car and Driver; Car and Driver. https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a39998609/ev-sales-turning-point/#:~:text=The%20sharp %20increase%20in%20electric,hit%20a%20historic%204.6%20percent. How Do Airbags Work? [INFOGRAPHIC] - Direct Connect. (2019). Direct Connect. https://blog.directauto.com/driving/how-do-airbags-work/ How do airbags work? (1999, October 25). Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-air-bags-work/#:~:text=The%20chemical %20at%20the%20heart,sodium%20azide%2C%20or%20NaN3.&text=CRASHES%20trip%2 0sensors%20in%20cars,inflates%20the%20car%27s%20air%20bags Keating, B. (2021, December 6). At What Speed does a Car Crash Become Fatal? Keating Firm Ltd. https://www.keatingfirmlaw.com/post/what-speed-crash-becomes-fatal Kiran Pulidindi, & Prakash, A. (2020, July). Automotive Airbags Market Size By Position (Frontal, Side, Side Curtain, Knee), By Fabric (Coated, Non-coated), By Vehicle (Passenger Vehicles, Commercial Vehicles), By Distribution Channel (OEM, Aftermarket), Industry Analysis Report, Regional Outlook, Growth Potential, Price Trends, Competitive Market Share & Forecast, 2020 – 2026. Global Market Insights Inc.; Global Market Insights Inc. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/automotive-airbags-market Larson. (2021). External Airbags and Their Potential Benefits | Larson Law Group LLC. Larson.law. https://www.larson.law/blog-index/external-airbags-and-their-potential-benefits/#:~:text=In% 20particular%2C%20external%20airbags%20can,the%20impact%20of%20a%20crash. Mark Putzer. (2022, February 24). What Speed Does It Take to Die in a Car Crash? MotorBiscuit; MotorBiscuit. https://www.motorbiscuit.com/speed-die-car-crash/ Michigan Technological University. (2021, October 13). Tensile Test Experiment. Michigan Technological University; Michigan Technological University. https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experiments/tensile/#:~:text=A%20material%20is%20gri pped%20at,converted%20to%20a%20strain%20value. Physics Young’s modulus. (2022). University of Birmingham. https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/teachers/study-resources/stem/Physics/youngsmodulus.aspx# :~:text=Where%20stress%20is%20the%20amount,9.81%20metres%20per% 20second%20squ ared). Right to Know Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet. (n.d.). https://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1674.pdf Slaats, P. M., Pitonyak, A. J., Wipasuramonton, P., Hunter, T., Rains, M., Wang, D., Williams, C., & Miller, C. (2008). Alternative Airbag Evaluation Methodology through Cold Gas Inflation System. SAE Technical Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.4271/2008-01-035 WAKEMAN, M. D., & RUDD, C. D. (2000). Compression Molding of Thermoplastic Composites. Comprehensive Composite Materials, 915–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-042993-9/00173-x Willens, M. (2013, March 26). Willens Injury Law Offices. Chicago Personal Injury Lawyers at Willens Injury Law Offices. https://www.willenslaw.com/the-effects-of-speed-in-a-car-accident/#:~:text=If%20the%20car ’s%20speed%20changes,also%20increases%20with%20speed%20changes. World. (2022, June 20). Road traffic injuries. Who.int; World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries#:~:text=Every%20year %20the%20lives%20of,a%20result%20of%20their%20injur Young’s Modulus: Tensile Elasticity Units, Factors & Material Table. (2012). Specialchem.com. https://omnexus.specialchem.com/polymer-properties/properties/young-modulus

Zande, S. (2015). How much does Kevlar® (aramid) cost? Servicethread.com. https://www.servicethread.com/blog/how-much-does-kevlar-aramid-cost

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Chung, Yehwan (Kyle)

Chadwick International School

.H\ZRUGV artificial blood vessel, artificial organ, organ transplantation, organ rejection, biomedical engineering.

617

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW Fabricating artificial blood vessels is an important step to take before transplanting artificial organs to patients. The flow of blood formed in the body after transplantation determines the chance of vessel-related diseases such as necrosis and ischemia. Thus, artificial blood vessels should fit the diameter, velocity, elastic modulus, and pressure of the vessels present in the patient’s body. Current methods for creating artificial blood vessels are ePTFE, electrospinning, 3D printing, gas foaming, and 3D culture in hydrogel. Each method is unique in the diameter of the vessel they can produce and the material they can use. Therefore, they can mimic varying vessels (artery, capillary, and vein) of diverse organs. Using the methods and vessels of different organs - eyeball, fingers, heart, and kidney - this research proposal will predict the possible match for each vessel. We predict that the vessels in the eyeball, central retinal artery, and internal carotid artery, would require 3D printing or electrospinning; the finger vessels, common digital arteries, and human finger cuticle capillaries require 3D printing or gas foaming respectively. For the vessels in the heart - aorta, inferior vena cava, and pulmonary artery - electrospinning (for aorta and pulmonary artery) and 3D printing (inferior vena cava) would be the best fit, and for the renal arteries and the abdominal aorta (vessels of the kidney) would also use electrospinning. The predictions of this proposal can be used for fabricating transplantable models of artificial organs and decreasing the rejection rate of artificial organs. This method can be further examined by testing fluid flows under the same conditions as the actual blood vessels to ensure the level of completion before organ transplantation.

618

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃƑ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW The waitlist for organ transplantation is devastatingly long for a patient with life-threatening diseases with over 100,000 people on the list. With only a few organ donors, it takes 3-5 years for a patient to receive an organ and less than 40,000 organ transplants are done to treat patients annually (The Waiting List, 2017; Steep Decline in Organ Transplants amid COVID-19 Outbreak - Penn Medicine, 2020). In addition to the lack of organs, one-third of the transplanted organs are rejected by the patient’s body (Rejection of Transplanted Organs: Long-Awaited Structure Offers New Insights, 2019). Thus, to solve the shortage of transplanted organs and reduce the chance of rejection, scientists are currently working to develop new artificial organs that can be used for transplantation. Until the present day, some artificial organ models were created. However, modern artificial organs lack the ability to mimic complete organs; current artificial organs lack the ability to reduce the chance of rejections, causing vessel-related diseases such as necrosis and ischemia. There are various fluids in the human body including blood, interstitial fluids, saliva, and tears that have different roles in properly operating the human body and these fluids are the key factor to avoiding immune rejection of the patients (Gill, 2014). Thus, the movement of fluid is more important in determining the feasibility of organ transplants. Among these fluids, blood possesses a few of the most significant functions: oxygenation and immunization (The Immune System and Immunisation, 2016; Hematology Glossary, 2021). Blood is transported around the body through blood vessels which are organs that have a thin layer of endothelial cells on the inner side of the tube (Classification & Structure of Blood Vessels | SEER Training, 2022). 6LJQLILFDQFH DQG 2EMHFWLYH When artificial organs are transplanted into the patient’s body, the organ’s adaptation to the patient body’s surrounding environment plays a crucial role in its connectedness to the vessels of the patient. If the connected artificial vessels do not perform like the patient’s vessels, blood will lack time to provide oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues and exchange them for carbon dioxide and waste (Physiology of Circulation | SEER Training, 2022). This shift in circulation can be caused by the difference in diameter with the actual vessel, since it can increase or decrease the pressure, velocity, and amount of blood delivered to a site per minute between the artificial vessel and the patient’s vessel. Thus, the objective of this proposal is to inquire about different methods to fabricate artificial blood vessels that fit the surrounding blood vessels of the organ to form an environment where organs can readily thrive. %DFNJURXQG There are three types of blood vessels that facilitate the flow of blood. The first type of blood vessel is the artery. The artery functions to carry blood away from the heart to other organs of the body at high pressure. Arteries are prominent near the heart where the flow of blood is the strongest; thus, they are thick, elastic, and muscular. The second type is the capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen and nutrients absorbed by the body are exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste. Since nutrients and oxygen have to easily diffuse from the blood into the tissues, the walls of the capillaries are only a single cell thick. The third type of blood vessel is the veins. Veins are the vessels that flow the deoxygenated blood back to the heart at low pressure. Due to the low pressure, the walls of the veins are relatively thin compared to the arteries (Blood Vessels: Types, Anatomy, Function & Conditions, 2021). Since the three vessels have different purposes, organs use different types of vessels to gain oxygen and nutrients. The four organs - eyeball, finger, heart, and kidney will demonstrate the use of different blood vessels that differ in velocity, diameter, and pressure they can endure. Organs have multiple surrounding vessels that supply various parts of the organ with oxygen and take away deoxygenated blood. First, the oculus uterque (eyeball) has two main vessels - the central retinal artery and the internal carotid artery - that serve different functions in the eye (Garrity, 2022). The central retinal artery provides essential nutrients to the retina while the internal 619

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ carotid artery supplies blood to the overall oculus structure (The, 2015); (Charlick & Das, 2021). The pressure in these vessels is relatively low since they are located far away from the heart. Secondly, the phalanges (fingers) have two vessel structures - common digital arteries and finger cuticle capillaries - that oxygenate different parts of the fingers since finger cuticle capillaries only supply blood to the cuticles (Body Anatomy: Upper Extremity Vessels | the Hand Society, 2022; Baran et al., 2013). These vessels have low pressure since fingers are located at one end of the human body. Another organ is the heart. The heart is surrounded by 3 main blood vessels: the aorta, inferior vena cava, and pulmonary artery (Blood Vessels: Types, Anatomy, Function & Conditions, 2021). They need to endure high pressure since the heart pumps blood with a high force. Finally, the kidney has two vessels - renal arteries and abdominal aorta - that carry blood from the aorta to the kidneys to filter the blood of toxins and transform the waste into urine (Renal Artery: Location, Anatomy and Function, 2021). They also need to endure high pressure since they receive blood directly from the heart at high velocities. 2FXOXV 8WHUTXH (\HEDOO 9HVVHO

Central Retinal Artery

Internal Carotid Artery

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0.4 – 0.9 mm

4.66 ± 0.78 mm (women), 5.11 ± 0.87 mm (men)

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12.56 cm/sec (peak systolic velocity), 4.77 cm/sec (end-diastolic velocity)

30 - 40 cm/sec

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45.6 (3.8) μL/min

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Common Digital Arteries

Human Finger Cuticle Capillaries

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1.6 ± 0.2 mm

0.01 - 0.035 mm

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5 - 10 cm/sec

0.3 - 1 mm/s

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82.2 - 99.0 μL/min

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Inferior Vena Cava

Pulmonary Artery

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39.8 - 46.4 mm

4.6 - 22.6 mm

19.8 - 29.5 mm

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66 cm/sec (peak blood velocity), 11 cm/sec (mean blood velocity)

30 - 45 cm/sec

57 cm/sec (peak blood velocity), 10 cm/sec (mean blood velocity)

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4900 mL/minute

7DEOH . Heart vessels 620

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5 - 6 mm

14 - 30 mm

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110 cm/sec

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7DEOH . Kidney vessels By referring to the tables above, vessels surrounding different organs have different characteristics: diameter, velocity, and volume. Thus, to fabricate artificial organs that can readily attach to the patient’s body, it is important to consider the biophysical aspects of blood vessels and create an artificial blood vessel that is unique to the organ being transplanted. In today’s field of science, there are multiple ways to fabricate artificial blood vessels. These methods can be divided into two groups: the use of physical technology and the use of biological technology. Physical technology includes paste extrusion and the expansion of ePTFE, electrospinning, and 3D printing. On the other hand, biological methods use gas foaming and hydrogel to form in vitro blood vessels. The outputs of these methods vary with the size of the diameter, material (elastic modulus), and velocity. ePTFE graft

The first physical method of creating an artificial vessel is pasting extrusion and expansion through ePTFE (expanded polytetrafluoroethylene), a biostable polymer used for vascular grafts. It is fabricated through the process of mixing, extrusion, heating, and expanded stretching, creating a microporous tube-like structure (Kirkton et al., 2018) ()LJXUH D.). Since it is made by extrusion of PTFE resin mixed with a lubricant, the tube is microporous and air-permeable. ePTFE tube is more smooth, soft, and flexible than other materials like polyethylene terephthalate, which makes it a feasible material for an artificial blood vessel ()LJXUH E). Artificial blood vessels fabricated through ePTFE have an elastic modulus (the ratio of the force exerted upon a substance or body to the resultant deformation) of 51.5 MPa and a minimum diameter of 6mm (Zhu et al., 2015).

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Electrospinning polymers including cellulose, polyurethanes, collagen, and hyaluronic acid are commonly used for electrospinning. For this method, the electrospun blend of material extrudes liquid that uses surface tension to produce droplets of pendants (Xue et al., 2019) ()LJXUH ). By using electric forces to draw charged polymer solutions, electrospinning can construct small-diameter blood vessels of 3 mm diameter with 0.5 – 2 μm fiber diameter and 0.5 – 150 μm pore size. Since four different polymers are used for electrospinning, the elastic modulus of each material differs. The elastic modulus of microcrystalline cellulose was estimated to be 25000 ± 4000 MPa, 2.1 MPa of elastic modulus for polyurethanes, 35.2 ± 27.0 MPa for collagen fibrils for normal skin, while the elastic modulus for expanded skin is 46.5 ± 19.4 MPa, and the average elastic modulus of the hyaluronic acid is 0.022 ± 0.0025 MPa (Eichhorn & Young, 2001; Karpiesiuk, 2020; Manssor et al., 2016; Heris et al., 2011). 3D Printing 3D printing uses polymers including collagen, gelatin, alginate, hyaluronic acid, polyurethanes, and synthetic polymers, such as PVA and polyethylene glycol as structural materials. (collagen and hyaluronic polymers resemble the elastic modulus mentioned in electrospinning). The precision and resolution depend on the type of printing method ()LJXUH ) and materials. The smallest nozzle for 3D printing is 100 μm and creates vessels with a minimum diameter of 300 μm (Melchiorri & Fisher, 2015; Organ Bioprinting Gets a Breath of Fresh Air, 2020). The elastic modulus of the materials is 0.038 and 0.025 MPa for alginate, 48.4 MPa for PVA, 2000 MPa for PEG 400, and 600 MPa for PEG 2000 (Ceccaldi et al., 2012; Jain et al., 2017; MOLECULAR, 2022). Gas Foaming Gas foaming is a biological method that uses a chamber of carbon dioxide to fabricate polymeric solids. The gaseous environment of the chamber mimics the 3D environment of the human body which enhances the structural integrity of the polymeric structure. However, using this device, the diameter varies randomly from a given diameter of 15 μm to 150 μm. In addition, the elastic modulus of the structure can vary by the polymer used in the chamber (Bambole & Yakhmi, 2016). 3D Culture: Hydrogel Another biological method for artificial blood vessels is 3D culturing within a biocompatible hydrogel. Depending on the cell types and culturing environment, various kinds of hydrogels are used, including collagen, gelatin, hyaluronic acid, pullulan, poly(lactic acid), poly(ethylene oxide), and poly(ethylene glycol) (Naahidi et al., 2017). Similar to gas foaming, hydrogel creates a 3D environment that resembles the human body. This method can produce artificial vessels in the range of 20 μm and 100 μm randomly (Wang et al., 2022). Also, the vessels produced within the hydrogels have an elastic modulus of 35.2 ± 27.0 MPa (collagen type 1) (Manssor et al., 2016).

622

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃƑ 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRG To find out the best fabrication method for each blood vessel, the mechanical property and the feasibility of the candidate methods will be considered. The mechanical property that will be measured is the elastic modulus and the feasibility of the method to produce a vessel of a certain diameter. The diameter and the elastic modulus of each method will be compared with the characteristics – diameter, elastic modulus, velocity, and pressure – of each vessel. The first consideration is the size of each vessel and the feasibility of the method to form such a diameter will be determined. The diameter of each vessel and the artificial vessel is an important factor since the diameter has a large influence on the velocity and pressure of the vessel. For example, if the diameter is larger than the actual vessel, the velocity and pressure will decrease since the volume of the vessel increases while the volume of blood flow maintains homeostasis and vice versa for the smaller vessel diameter. Another consideration is the elastic modulus of the materials. The elastic modulus measures the elasticity of each material by the stress to strain ratio of the material. Stress is the force applied per unit area by an external force, and strain is the quantity of deformation under stress. The elastic modulus is important in figuring out the material for artificial vessels since the use of artificial vessels is a type of repairing process. When repairing a body part or even other macrostructures like concrete walls, matching the elastic modulus is important since a significant difference in elastic modulus can cause corrosion or deterioration of surrounding parts. The elastic modulus of the material should be similar (± 0.05 MPa) to the elastic modulus of each vessel since the artificial blood vessels need to adjust to the shift in diameter due to the pressure from pumping blood. If the materials used for the artificial vessel cannot adjust to the shift in diameter, the exchange rate of oxygen and the flow rate will also change and cause problems in circulation. The correlation of the elastic modulus and the pressure of blood flow required in the specific part of the body should be also considered. Even though the exact value of pressure varies by person with different minimum and maximum values of blood pressure, some organs require higher pressure compared to others. Thus, organs with high blood flow need materials with higher elastic modulus to endure the high pressure given off as a byproduct of high blood flow. For example, the heart requires materials with high elastic modulus since blood flow originates and ends in the heart; requiring the heart to pump the blood continuously for circulation. $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQV %ORRG 9HVVHO

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0.11~3.50 ± 0.05MPa

Capillary

0.068 ± 0.05 MPa

Vein

0.08 ± 0.05 MPa

7DEOH Elastic Modulus of Artery, Capillary, and Vein Oculus Uterque (Eyeball) The oculus uterque has two blood vessels: the central retinal artery and the internal carotid artery ()LJXUH , dotted box). Artificial vessels can be used for the eyeball for artificial eyeball transplantations for repairing ruptures or diabetic retinopathy. From the information collected, for mimicking the central retinal artery, 3D printing will fabricate the vessel with the highest connectivity to the vessels present in the patient’s body. This is because the central retinal artery has a diameter of 0.4 - 0.9 mm (7DEOH ) which is a feasible diameter to produce with the 3D printer that can print vessels with a minimum size of 0.3 mm (300 μm). A possible material that can be used for 3D printing is polyurethanes with an elastic modulus of 2.1 MPa, which has the closest elastic modulus among the 3D printing materials with the artery vessel. For the fabrication of the 623

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ internal carotid artery, electrospinning or 3D printing can be used since polyurethanes are the only material that can present the elastic modulus within the range of the artery’s elastic modulus. In addition, the internal carotid artery has a diameter in the range of 3.88 ~ 5.98 mm that can be produced through electrospinning ( >3 mm ). However, the elastic modulus of both methods will be needed to decrease even if it meets the standards of arteries. This is because the blood pressure in the eyes is 12-22 mmHg, which is about 1/10 of the pressure of blood in the heart (Tsai, 2017).

Phalanges (Fingers) There are two prominent blood vessels in the fingers: common digital arteries and human finger cuticle capillaries. The two cases where artificial vessels can be used for the finger are necrosis due to frostbite and a detached nail. For common digital arteries, 3D printing is suggested since it can produce artificial vessels that resemble the diameter - 1.6 ± 0.2 mm - and the elastic modulus of common digital arteries. For the human finger cuticle capillaries, gas foaming would provide the most precise method to form artificial blood vessels. Gas foaming produces vessels with a diameter of 15~150 μm while the cuticle capillaries have a diameter of 0.01 ~ 0.035 mm (10 ~ 35 μm). Also, the elastic modulus of gas foamed vessels can vary by the polymers used. Since the elastic modulus of capillaries is 0.068 MPa, polymers with an elastic modulus of 0.058 ~ 0.078 MPa can be used for gas foaming. An alternative method for gas foaming is the 3D culture in hydrogel as it creates vessels with a diameter of 20 ~100 μm. However, it would not be the ideal method to use since the material used for hydrogel 3D culture is limited and the materials have an elastic modulus of 35.2 ± 27.0 MPa. Heart The aorta, inferior vena cava, and pulmonary artery are the three important vessels that facilitate the heart. Artificial vessels can be used during heart transplantation for weakening heart or coronary artery disease. The aorta and the pulmonary artery are arteries with similar characteristics. They are one of the largest arteries in the human body with a diameter of 39.8 - 46.4 mm and 19.8 29.5 mm, and with a velocity of 66 cm/sec (peak blood velocity), 11 cm/sec (mean blood velocity) for aorta and 57 cm/sec (peak blood velocity), 10 cm/sec (mean blood velocity) respectively. Thus, to form both arteries, electrospinning will be required. Electrospinning is specialized to form larger vessels (< 6 mm) and is one of the two that can use polyurethanes that can mimic the elastic modulus of arteries with a value of 2.1 MPa. However, there is a disadvantage to this method because the heart has the highest blood pressure of all organs. It requires materials with the highest possible elastic modulus within the range of the artery (3.50 MPa), which is not possible with the materials of current artificial blood vessel fabrication methods. The inferior vena cava will have better connectivity through 3D printing. This is due to the fact that the elastic modulus of veins (0.08 ± 0.05 MPa) can be modeled only by alginate which has an elastic modulus of 0.038 - 0.025 MPa. 624

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃƑ Kidney Artificial blood vessels can be used for kidney transplantations due to loss of kidney function by renal cell carcinoma or diabetes. The renal arteries and the abdominal aorta supply blood to the kidney; they each have a diameter of 5-6 mm and 14-30 mm. The renal arteries and abdominal aorta are similar to the vessels of the heart since they have a diameter of over 3 mm and require a material that can mimic the elastic modulus of the artery. Thus, these vessels in the kidney would require electrospinning with polyurethanes (2.1 MPa). 'LVFXVVLRQ DQG &RQFOXVLRQ Artificial organs are one of the most invested fields in the biomedical field. In 2019, the value of the artificial organ market was 18 billion USD and is estimated to grow by over 8.9% from 2020 to 2026, reaching a value of 19.5 billion USD (Sumant Ugalmugle & Swain, 2020). Thus, more research is being conducted on artificial organs and how to make them more feasible to transplant to patients, creating models of transplantable artificial organs. When artificial organs are publicized, many people who are waiting for their transplants will get artificial organs since the number of artificial organs does not correlate with the number of organ donors, shortening the time needed to get a transplant. This will lead to an enlargement of the artificial organ market, causing more people to rely on artificial organs. To make this possible, reliable models of artificial organs with a low chance of rejection are needed. Therefore, to solve the problem of the high rejection rate of transplanted organs that affects the circulation of blood in the body, this research has provided possible methods of artificial organ fabrication that mimic pressure, velocity, and diameter. In addition, this research will offer a way to determine which method and material can be used for the artificial vessel. The information collected from this research can be a source of consideration when fabricating artificial blood vessels for artificial organ transplantation, but it cannot be fully credited due to the limitations of this research. The limitation of this proposal is that there was no experiment or model to prove the findings of the research. Thus, the result is not gathered from actual data from a lab, but data collected through the suggested method of the proposal - being an anticipated result. Artificial blood vessel fabrication method differs by diameter and the elastic modulus of the vessel they are mimicking. From the information collected in this proposal, it can be concluded that 3D printing and electrospinning are frequently used for the fabrication of arteries, gas foaming for capillaries, and 3D printing for veins. This research also found some limitations in some methods. The two methods are ePTFE and 3D culture in hydrogel since one diameter or the elastic modulus of the material does not fit with any vessel suggested. For further experiments on the fabrication of blood vessels, in vitro experiments are suggested. After each artificial blood vessel is fabricated through each method, the artificial vessels should be tested under the same conditions of the actual vessel including velocity, pressure, and volume of the fluid. This experiment will provide information about the feasibility and the level of completion of the method used for the artificial blood vessel when transplanted into the human body. 5HIHUHQFHV Anatomy 101: Arteries of the Hand | The Hand Society. (2017). Assh.org. https://www.assh.org/handcare/blog/anatomy-101-arteries-of-the-hand Bambole, V., & Yakhmi, J. V. (2016). Tissue engineering. Nanobiomaterials in Soft Tissue Engineering, 387–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-42865-1.00014-3 Baran, U., Shi, L., & Wang, R. K. (2013). Capillary blood flow imaging within human finger cuticle using optical microangiography. Journal of Biophotonics, 8(1-2), 46–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.201300154 Blood Vessels: Types, Anatomy, Function & Conditions. (2021). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21640-blood-vessels 625

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B. (2012). Alginate Scaffolds for Mesenchymal Stem Cell Cardiac Therapy: Influence of Alginate Composition. Cell Transplantation, 21(9), 1969–1984. https://doi.org/10.3727/096368912x647252 Charlick, M., & Das, J. M. (2021, July 26). Anatomy, Head and Neck, Internal Carotid Arteries. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556061/ Classification & Structure of Blood Vessels | SEER Training. (2022). Cancer.gov. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cardiovascular/blood/classification.html Eichhorn, S. J., & Young, R. J. (2001). Cellulose, 8(3), 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1013181804540 Garrity, J. (2022, March 9). Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Vessels of the Eyes. MSD Manual Consumer Version; MSD Manuals. https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/eye-disorders/biology-of-the-eyes/muscles-nerves-and-bl ood-vessels-of-the-eyes Gill, P. (2014). A Deep Analysis of the Basic Causes of Interpretation Errors. Misleading DNA Evidence, 21–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-417214-2.00002-4 Hematology Glossary. (2021). Hematology.org. https://www.hematology.org/education/patients/blood-basics Heris, H. K., Rahmat, M., & Mongeau, L. (2011). Characterization of a Hierarchical Network of Hyaluronic Acid/Gelatin Composite for use as a Smart Injectable Biomaterial. Macromolecular Bioscience, 12(2), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201100335 Jain, N., Singh, V. K., & Chauhan, S. (2017). A review on mechanical and water absorption properties of polyvinyl alcohol based composites/films. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 26(5-6), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2017-0027 Junkar, I., Kulkarni, M., Humpolíček, P., Capáková, Z., Burja, B., Mazare, A., Schmuki, P., Mrak-Poljšak, K., Flašker, A., Žigon, P., Čučnik, S., Mozetič, M., Tomšič, M., Iglič, A., & Sodin-Semrl, S. (2017). Could Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes Represent a Viable Support System for Appropriate Cells in Vascular Implants? Advances in Biomembranes and Lipid Self-Assembly, 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.abl.2016.12.001 Karpiesiuk, J. (2020). Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio of Polyurethane Adhesive in Lightweight Floor System. Modern Approaches on Material Science, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.32474/mams.2020.02.000139 Kirkton, R. D., Prichard, H. L., Santiago-Maysonet, M., Niklason, L. E., Lawson, J. H., & Dahl, S. L. M. (2018). Susceptibility of ePTFE vascular grafts and bioengineered human acellular vessels to infection. Journal of Surgical Research, 221, 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2017.08.035 Manssor, N. A. S., Radzi, Z., Yahya, N. A., Mohamad Yusof, L., Hariri, F., Khairuddin, N. H., Abu Kasim, N. H., & Czernuszka, J. T. (2016). Characteristics and Young’s Modulus of Collagen Fibrils from Expanded Skin Using Anisotropic Controlled Rate Self-Inflating Tissue Expander. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 29(2), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1159/000431328 Melchiorri, A. J., & Fisher, J. P. (2015). Bioprinting of Blood Vessels. Essentials of 3D Biofabrication and Translation, 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-800972-7.00020-7 MOLECULAR WEIGHT EFFECTS OF THE SOFT SEGMENT ON THE ULTIMATE PROPERTIES OF LIGNIN-DERIVED POLYURETHANES. (2022). International Journal of Polymeric Materials. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00914030490267627?scroll=top&needAccess= true 626

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Naahidi, S., Jafari, M., Logan, M., Wang, Y., Yuan, Y., Bae, H., Dixon, B., & Chen, P. (2017). Biocompatibility of hydrogel-based scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Biotechnology Advances, 35(5), 530–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.05.006 Organ bioprinting gets a breath of fresh air. (2020). Rice News | News and Media Relations | Rice University. https://news.rice.edu/news/2019/organ-bioprinting-gets-breath-fresh-air Physiology of Circulation | SEER Training. (2022). Cancer.gov. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cardiovascular/blood/physiology.html Rejection of transplanted organs: Long-awaited structure offers new insights. (2019). ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190314101312.htm Renal Artery: Location, Anatomy and Function. (2021). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21748-renal-artery Steep Decline in Organ Transplants Amid COVID-19 Outbreak - Penn Medicine. (2020). Pennmedicine.org. https://www.pennmedicine.org/news/news-releases/2020/may/steep-decline-in-organ-transpla nts-amid-covid19-outbreak Sumant Ugalmugle, & Swain, R. (2020, October 30). Artificial Organs Market Size By Organ Type (Artificial Kidney, Artificial Liver, Artificial Lungs, Artificial Pancreas, Artificial Heart), By Material Type (Silicon, Plastic, Steel), Industry Analysis Report, Regional Outlook, Application Potential, Price Trends, Competitive Market Share & Forecast, 2020 – 2026. Global Market Insights Inc.; Global Market Insights Inc. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/artificial-organs-market The immune system and immunisation. (2016, July 25). Immunisation Advisory Centre. https://www.immune.org.nz/immunisation/immune-system-vaccination The Waiting List. (2017, November 27). Gift of Life Donor Program - Saving Lives through Organ Donation |. https://www.donors1.org/patients/resources-for-transplant-patients/the-waiting-list/ The. (2015, January 28). Central retinal artery. Healthline; Healthline Media. https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/central-retinal-artery Tsai, J. C. (2017, September). High Eye Pressure and Glaucoma | glaucoma.org. Glaucoma.org. https://glaucoma.org/high-eye-pressure-and-glaucoma/ Vanaei, S., Parizi, M. S., Vanaei, S., Salemizadehparizi, F., & Vanaei, H. R. (2021). An Overview on Materials and Techniques in 3D Bioprinting Toward Biomedical Application. Engineered Regeneration, 2, 1–18. Wang, D., Xu, Y., Li, Q., & Turng, L.-S. (2020). Artificial small-diameter blood vessels: materials, fabrication, surface modification, mechanical properties, and bioactive functionalities. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 8(9), 1801–1822. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9tb01849bhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.engreg.2020.12.001 Wang, Y., Kankala, R. K., Ou, C., Chen, A., & Yang, Z. (2022). Advances in hydrogel-based vascularized tissues for tissue repair and drug screening. Bioactive Materials, 9, 198–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.07.005 Xue, J., Wu, T., Dai, Y., & Xia, Y. (2019). Electrospinning and Electrospun Nanofibers: Methods, Materials, and Applications. Chemical Reviews, 119(8), 5298–5415. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00593 Zhu, G., Yuan, Q., Hock Yeo, J., & Nakao, M. (2015). Thermal treatment of expanded polytetraflu-oroethylene (ePTFE) membranes for reconstruction of a valved conduit1. Bio-Medical Materials and Engineering, 26(s1), S55–S62. https://doi.org/10.3233/bme-151289

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Jang, Hajun

Chadwick International School

.H\ZRUGV MST312 telomerase inhibitor, synthetic small molecule inhibitor, brain tumor, glioblastoma

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW Glioblastoma (GBM) is a malignant brain tumor with extremely high fatality rate. However, currently available therapies and surgical methods that are used to mitigate the adverse effects of GBM are not quite effective in increasing the average life expectancy of patients. It has been reported that telomerase activity is up-regulated in cancer cells of diverse origins. Therefore, telomerase inhibition is a promising target for anti-tumor drug candidates. However, recent trials of telomerase inhibitors against GBM have not been successful. A telomerase inhibitor small molecule MST312 can be expected to yield promising therapeutic effects, as MST312 has a robust inhibition potential against telomerase activity. MST312 also has shown short-term effects in a number of in vitro assays inhibition, as previous tests of MST312 on breast cancer cell lines and myeloma cell lines have shown promising data. To analyze the potency of MST312 as an anti-tumor drug against GBM, a GBM cell line in vitro cell viability assay will be conducted.

3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Glioblastoma (GBM) is a major type of malignant solid brain tumor with extremely high mortality. Currently, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical methods are utilized to medicate GBM. However, present methods to treat GBM were not successful in increasing the life span of the patients, with average life expectancy still less than 15 months upon diagnosis (Rajaratnam et al, 2020) Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein, and it is well-known for its maintenance of telomere in stem cells or cancer cells. The protein part of telomerase is encoded by the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene, and because telomerase activity is necessary for continuous cell division, regulation of TERT expression and inhibition of telomerase activity has been considered a major target for a potential anti-cancer drug (Aquilanti et al, 2021). Telomerase inhibitors as applicable drugs for GBM are still under investigation. Synthetic small molecule drugs are the most expected candidates thanks to their low production cost, diverse structure, and safety (Chen et al, 2020). Currently, BIBR1532 is the leading small molecule as an effective noncompetitive inhibitor of telomerase, supported by promising in vitro results. Nonetheless, BIBR1532 exhibited undesirable properties including poor cell membrane permeability (Aquilanti et al, 2021), thus the possibility of blood-brain barrier penetration is expected to be low. Therefore, the excavation of a novel candidate for GBM telomerase inhibition is in desperate need.

2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV MST312 (N,N’-bis(2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl)-1,2-phenylenediamine) was first identified for its ability in telomere shortening and growth inhibition effects on human monoblastoid leukemia U937 cells ()LJXUH ). The data further supported the potency of MST312 as a small molecule telomerase inhibitor, with an IC50 value of 0.67μM (Seimiya et al, 2002). Because there is no previous research that explored the efficacy of MST312 on GBM cell lines, it would be a project of interest to measure the cell viability of SF126 and U-87 MG human GBM cell lines upon treatment of MST312. It is expected that the potential of MST312 as a GBM telomerase inhibitor could be quantified and compared with the other drug candidates by conducting this experiment. 629

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH Glioblastoma Glioblastoma (GBM) is a malignant brain tumor and is known as one of the most challenging obstacles in modern oncology due to its incomparable fatality. Several statistical research already analyzed the proportion of GBM among brain tumors and the low survival rate of GBM patients. More specifically, clinical data from the Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States reported that GBM was the most common type of malignant brain tumor accounting for 48.3% of all brain and central nervous system-related malignant tumors from 2012 to 2016. Furthermore, it is revealed that the chance for GBM patients to survive after 5 years upon diagnosis is only 6.8% (Ostrom et al, 2019). To elucidate the etiology of GBM, numerous studies were conducted. A genome-level investigation suggested that polymorphism of telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), a regulator of telomere elongation helicase 1, epidermal growth factor receptor, and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2B could develop GBM (Wen et al, 2020). However, the heterogeneity of GBM obscures the mechanism of GBM generation and the determinants of GBM are not understood completely.

Telomerase As previously mentioned, telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein. A distinct characteristic of telomerase is that reverse transcriptional template RNA is necessary for enzyme function. However, the protein portion of telomerase encoded by the TERT gene is considered to be a rate-determining subunit, with increased expression in cancer cells (Chen et al, 2020). It is reported that the promoter region of the TERT gene exhibits frequent mutations in most cancer types, especially GBM showing an extraordinary mutation percentage rate of 83% (Killela et al, 2013). Accordingly, diagnosis of GBM with TERT promoter mutation and usage of a telomerase inhibitor for anti-cancer effects are actively under research. The advantages of telomerase targeting for GBM treatment are summarized in )LJXUH . However, complications still remain, blocking the development of telomerase inhibitors to antitumor medicines. One of the problems is that the cell division rate of GBM is inconsistent among patients (Stensjøen et al, 2015). Alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT), accounting for about 11% of cancer cases, poses another threat to telomerase therapy (Aquilanti et al, 2021). Exposure of cancer cells to anti-telomerase would result in the adaptation of cancer cells to develop the ALT pathway (Hu et al, 2012), thereby limiting the utility of telomerase inhibitors. Lastly, damage to telomerase-positive stem cells is unavoidable when a telomerase inhibitor is administered to GBM patients.

MST312 As a potent small molecule telomerase inhibitor, MST312 is regarded as one of the most promising anti-cancer drug candidates. In terms of molecular structure, MST312 is a derivative of epigallocatechin gallate (Ameri et al, 2019), and a number of studies already reported the efficacy 630

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ of MST312 as a potential anti-cancer drug. For example, treatment of MST312 induced apoptosis in the U-266 myeloma cell line, thereby decreasing cell viability (Ameri et al, 2019). Another research clarified that MST312 has an apparent short-term growth inhibition on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line within 72 hours upon treatment (Morais et al, 2019). Considering that one of the major shortcomings of telomerase inhibitors as an anti-cancer drug is that it is hard to achieve short-term effects because the process of cancer cell division to shorten telomere is needed, the rapid anti-cancer response by MST312 is a clear advantage compared to other antitumor telomerase inhibitors.

5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRGV SF126 is a human GBM cell line derived from GBM patients and is utilized in several studies of oncology to model the potential anti-cancer cell effect of drug candidates (Basu et al, 1990 & Li et al, 2022). According to previous research, the SF126 cell line could be cultured in the culture medium for human GBM SF126 cells, was a MEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Guerram et al, 2015). In par with SF126, the U-87 MG cell line is the most extensively tested cell line, and a major advantage of U-87 MG is that the cell line exhibits cancer stem cell-like characteristics in appropriate environmental conditions. U-87 MG cell line could be cultured in 500 μl DMEM, supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/ml penicillin G, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin medium (Yu et al, 2008). The optimal environment for the mammalian cell line of 5% CO2, 95% humidified air, and temperature 37℃ is recommended for both cell line cultures. As previously mentioned, MST126 displayed vigorous telomerase inhibition performance with an IC50 value of 0.67μM in human monoblastoid leukemia U937 cells grown in RPMI. In terms of cytotoxicity, a concentration of 2.0μM was non-cytotoxic and was used to observe long-term growth inhibition of MST312 on U937 (Seimiya et al, 2002) Therefore, to test cell viability, it is advisable to administer a 1-10μM range of MST312 to quantize LD50 value. Procedures for cell viability assay are already well established. The most widely used protocols include the usage of tetrazolium compound, MTT, which is reduced by the mitochondrial activity of living cells. Reduction of MTT would generate a formazan product ()LJXUH ), and it is possible to deduce a number of viable cells in the sample with colorimetric measurement. MTT is believed to be cytotoxic, therefore cell viability assay using MTT should be the final step for the experiment (“Cell Viability Assays”, 2016).

$QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ It is expected that the result of MST312 exposure to SF126 and U-87 MG cell line would be similar to previous research that testified the apoptotic effect of MST312 on the myeloma cell line, U-266. To be specific, in vitro data of the myeloma cell line in )LJXUH demonstrate that there was a clear decline in cell viability and a decrease in metabolic rate supported this observation (Ameri et al, 2019). MDA-MB-231 cell line data mentioned (Morais et al, 2019) also clarified the short-term effects of MST312 in 72 hours, consistent with the report about U-266. Therefore, it is anticipated that SF126 and U-87 MG cell lines would exhibit decreased cell viability upon treatment of MST312. In an optimistic scenario, cell viability of GBM cell lines would be less than 50% upon exposure to 4μM concentration. 631

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ One of the major concerns regarding telomerase inhibitors as an anti-cancer agent is that the inhibitor may require long-term administration because the shortening of telomeres is crucial for cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Considering the short life expectancy of GBM patients, a robust short-term response is required for a potential anti-GBM drug. Hopefully, in vitro experiments of MST312 displayed a clear short-term effect on myeloma and breast cancer cell lines. In conclusion, to examine MST312 as a game-changer for GBM treatment, in vitro data of MST312 on GBM cell lines are at times necessary.

5HIHUHQFHV Ameri, Z., Ghiasi, S., Farsinejad, A., Hassanshahi, G., Ehsan, M., & Fatemi, A. (2019). Telomerase inhibitor MST-312 induces apoptosis of multiple myeloma cells and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic, proliferative and inflammatory genes. Life sciences, 228, 66-71. Aquilanti, E., Kageler, L., Wen, P. Y., & Meyerson, M. (2021). Telomerase as a therapeutic target in glioblastoma. Neuro-oncology, 23(12), 2004-2013. Basu, H. S., Pellarin, M., Feuerstein, B. G., Deen, D. F., Bergeron, R. J., & Marton, L. J. (1990). Effect of N 1, N 14-bis (ethyl) homospermine on the growth of U-87 MG and SF-126 human brain tumor cells. Cancer research, 50(11), 3137-3140. Chen, X., Tang, W. J., Shi, J. B., Liu, M. M., & Liu, X. H. (2020). Therapeutic strategies for targeting telomerase in cancer. Medicinal research reviews, 40(2), 532-585. Guerram, M., Jiang, Z.-Z., Sun, L., Zhu, X., & Zhang, L.-Y. (2015). Antineoplastic effects of deoxypodophyllotoxin, a potent cytotoxic agent of plant origin, on glioblastoma U-87 MG and SF126 cells. Pharmacological Reports, 67(2), 245-252. Hu, J., Hwang, S. S., Liesa, M., Gan, B., Sahin, E., Jaskelioff, M., Ding, Z., Ying, H., Boutin, A. T., & Zhang, H. (2012). Antitelomerase therapy provokes ALT and mitochondrial adaptive mechanisms in cancer. Cell, 148(4), 651-663. Killela, P. J., Reitman, Z. J., Jiao, Y., Bettegowda, C., Agrawal, N., Diaz Jr, L. A., Friedman, A. H., Friedman, H., Gallia, G. L., & Giovanella, B. C. (2013). TERT promoter mutations occur frequently in gliomas and a subset of tumors derived from cells with low rates of self-renewal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(15), 6021-6026. Li, Y.-H., Yang, S.-Q., Li, X.-M., Li, X., Wang, B.-G., & Li, H.-L. (2022). Cyclopiumolides a and B, First Representatives of Unusual 13-Membered Macrolides from the Deep Sea-Sourced Fungal Strain Penicillium Cyclopium SD-413 with Potent Antiproliferative Activities Against SF126, TE-1, and FaDu Cells. First Representatives of Unusual. Morais, K. d. S., Arcanjo, D. d. S., de Faria Lopes, G. P., da Silva, G. G., da Mota, T. H. A., Gabriel, T. R., Rabello Ramos, D. d. A., Silva, F. P., & de Oliveira, D. M. (2019). Long‐term in vitro treatment with telomerase inhibitor MST‐312 induces resistance by selecting long telomeres cells. Cell Biochemistry and Function, 37(4), 273-280. Ostrom, Q. T., Cioffi, G., Gittleman, H., Patil, N., Waite, K., Kruchko, C., & Barnholtz-Sloan, J. S. (2019). CBTRUS Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2012–2016. Neuro-oncology, 21(Supplement_5), v1-v100. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noz150 Rajaratnam, V., Islam, M. M., Yang, M., Slaby, R., Ramirez, H. M., & Mirza, S. P. (2020). Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments. Cancers, 12(4), 937. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/12/4/937 Riss, T. L., Moravec, R. A., Niles, A. L., Duellman, S., Benink, H. A., Worzella, T. J., & Minor, L. (2016). Cell viability assays. Assay Guidance Manual [Internet]. 632

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Seimiya, H., Oh-hara, T., Suzuki, T., Naasani, I., Shimazaki, T., Tsuchiya, K., & Tsuruo, T. (2002). Telomere shortening and growth inhibition of human cancer cells by novel synthetic telomerase inhibitors MST-312, MST-295, and MST-199. Molecular cancer therapeutics, 1(9), 657-665. Stensjøen, A. L., Solheim, O., Kvistad, K. A., Håberg, A. K., Salvesen, Ø., & Berntsen, E. M. (2015). Growth dynamics of untreated glioblastomas in vivo. Neuro-oncology, 17(10), 1402-1411. Wen, P. Y., Weller, M., Lee, E. Q., Alexander, B. M., Barnholtz-Sloan, J. S., Barthel, F. P., Batchelor, T. T., Bindra, R. S., Chang, S. M., Chiocca, E. A., Cloughesy, T. F., DeGroot, J. F., Galanis, E., Gilbert, M. R., Hegi, M. E., Horbinski, C., Huang, R. Y., Lassman, A. B., Le Rhun, E., Lim, M., Mehta, M. P., Mellinghoff, I. K., Minniti, G., Nathanson, D., Platten, M., Preusser, M., Roth, P., Sanson, M., Schiff, D., Short, S. C., Taphoorn, M. J. B., Tonn, J.-C., Tsang, J., Verhaak, R. G. W., von Deimling, A., Wick, W., Zadeh, G., Reardon, D. A., Aldape, K. D., & van den Bent, M. J. (2020). Glioblastoma in adults: a Society for Neuro-Oncology (SNO) and European Society of Neuro-Oncology (EANO) consensus review on current management and future directions. Neuro-oncology, 22(8), 1073-1113. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noaa106 Yu, S.-c., Ping, Y.-f., Yi, L., Zhou, Z.-h., Chen, J.-h., Yao, X.-h., Gao, L., Wang, J. M., & Bian, X.-w. (2008). Isolation and characterization of cancer stem cells from a human glioblastoma cell line U87. Cancer letters, 265(1), 124-134.

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Jung, Michelle

School Name

HPrep Academy

.H\ZRUGV radiation therapy, stratified radiation therapy, therapy responses monitoring, cancer, solid tumor, liquid tumor.

634

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW Current methods to monitor responses to radiation therapy include blood tests, CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans. However, limitations exist that inhibit the efficiency of the methods monitoring the progression of radiation therapy. Some limitations in these current methods include misleading data, risk factors, and high sensitivity. In order to create an effective formula, two main types of tumor types were considered: solid and liquid tumors. Various parameters like the volume of the tumor, speed of metastasis, and the duration of the treatment were some parameters considered to assess how the patient’s response could be monitored and measured. Ultimately, this formula aims to be used in real clinical settings where patient data can be derived, and, furthermore, be used in the field of stratified medicine.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Each patient’s cancer has its own distinct genetic combination. As cancer progresses, more changes will occur, altering the genetic combination. This genetic combination may even differ within the same tumor as different genetic changes occur for each cell (“What Is Cancer?”, 2021). As these genetic changes occur, it allows the cancerous tumors to “grow and spread into the surrounding normal tissue, or to other parts of the body via the bloodstream and lymphatic systems, and can affect the digestive, nervous and circulatory systems or release hormones[,]” which may impair the body’s functions, if left untreated (“What is Cancer?”, n.d.). The most popular and common treatment to cure cancers is typically radiation therapy. Radiation therapy will emit “particles or waves moving at a high frequency[,]” which will be able to damage the DNA of the cancerous cells (Smith, 2021). Thus, this will ultimately kill or inhibit further growth of the cancerous cells. Based on the situation or location of the cancer cells, the cells can be difficult to treat. For instance, adenocarcinoma and tumors in hypoxic states are generally less sensitive to radiation, which means it is harder to treat with radiation as “the primary mechanism [of radiotherapy] is the creation of reactive oxygen species” (Graham, 2018). However, during this process of treating cancer, side effects can occur. Some common side effects are hair loss and fatigue, but side effects can differ for different types of cancer. For example, when the brain area is being treated, some side effects are “fatigue[,] hair loss[,] memory or concentration problems[,] nausea and vomiting[,] skin changes[,] headache[, and] blurry vision” (“Radiation”, 2022). The main issue with radiation therapy is that it may not be effective for some types of cancer. For instance, if cancer recurs in the same area that was previously treated, the radiation may or may not be effective in the same area. The body ‘remembers’ where it was exposed to radiation, and there is a limit to what the normal organs surrounding cancerous cells or tumors can tolerate. Moreover, the side effects that result affect the body severely. Therefore, a quantification method is needed to analyze the efficiency of radiation therapy. 2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV This research aims to propose a new method to monitor radiation therapy responses considering various parameters. Based on limitations in current monitoring methods, this paper suggests a new formula to aggregate biological, molecular, pathophysiological, and biophysical aspects of radiation therapy. For wider utilization, both solid and liquid tumors will be reviewed. The new formula would be utilized to develop a method, which will allow the treatment to be used like stratified medicine. Measuring the efficiency of radiation therapy individually would help doctors provide the optimal treatment for the patients and, if possible, lessen the side effects. It can be argued that using treatment volumes that are closer to the target volume will result in better treatment outcomes, such as higher rates of tumor control and a decrease in the severity and frequency of radiation-induced morbidity. Such benefits will result from irradiating non-target tissues in smaller volumes by giving a higher dose to the target. By monitoring and stratifying radiation therapy for patients, “improving survival outcomes and quality of life as well as reducing treatment-related morbidity and National Health Service costs” will become possible (Aristei, 2021). For instance, stratified radiation therapy can be used on patients so that their treatment can be effective. A 54-year-old patient with “p16-positive cT4N1M0 squamous cell carcinoma of the left tonsil” received adaptive radiation therapy, also known as stratified radiation therapy, as “secondary to 636

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ significant tumor response and weight loss during treatment [was] noted on review of daily CBCTs” (Morgan, 2020). Based on )LJXUH , it can be seen that the tumor decreased significantly after stratified radiation therapy. However, during the process, the healthy tissue was damaged, so this method still needs to be adjusted. %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH Radiation Therapy High doses of radiation are used in radiation therapy, also known as radiotherapy, as a cancer treatment to eradicate cancer cells and reduce tumor size. X-rays, like those taken of teeth or shattered bones, use radiation at low levels to provide a view inside the body. Radiation therapy damages cancer cells' DNA, which either kills them or inhibits their growth at high dosage levels. Cancer cells that have DNA damage that cannot be repaired either cease to proliferate or die. The body breaks down and removes the damaged cells once the cells perish. Radiation therapy does not instantly destroy cancer cells. Before cancer cells experience enough DNA damage that causes them to die, treatment for a certain period is required. After radiation therapy is completed, cancer cells continue to perish for a number of weeks or months. The type of radiation therapy that the patient may receive is determined by a variety of variables, among which are the type of cancer, the size and location of the tumor in the body, how close the tumor is to radiation-sensitive normal tissues, the patient's general health and medical history, or whether the patient will be receiving other types of cancer treatment, as well as his or her age and comorbidities. Radiation therapy often targets a localized area of the body, as opposed to other cancer treatments like chemotherapy that target the entire body. This indicates that it can often affect the body negatively where the cancer is present. It is possible that the treatment will damage some healthy tissue adjacent to the cancer cells, but it usually heals after the treatment process.

Two main types of radiation therapy are external beam radiation therapy and internal radiation therapy ()LJXUH ). External-beam radiation therapy is the most commonly used radiation therapy method. Radiation is delivered from a device outside the body. If necessary, it can be applied to treat tumors that cover large areas of the body. The radiation beam used in x-ray or photon radiation therapy is created by a device known as a linear accelerator or linac. The beam's size and shape are modified by specialized computer software. This makes it easier to remove the tumor while avoiding surrounding healthy tissues and cells. For several weeks, most radiation therapy treatments are administered almost every day. For radiation therapy to the head, neck, or brain, form-fitting braces or a plastic mesh mask are used to keep patients still to ensure that the beam targets the same area in each session. External-beam radiation therapy comes in a variety of forms, including three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT), intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), proton beam therapy, image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT), stereotactic radiation therapy (SRT). 637

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ “External beam radiation therapy comes from a machine that aims radiation at your cancer. It is a local treatment, which means it treats a specific part of your body. For example, if you have cancer in your lungs, you will have radiation only to your chest, not to your whole body” (“External Beam Radiation Therapy”, 2018). There are three main types: involved site radiation therapy (ISRT), involved field radiation therapy (IFRT), and extended field radiation. ISRT is usually focused on the initial site of cancer in the lymph nodes and the “nearby areas the cancer extended into” (“Radiation Therapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma”, 2018). IFRT is being replaced by ISRT, nowadays, and a larger area is treated than ISRT. However, this treatment method “can increase the risk of radiation reaching nearby organs” (“Radiation Therapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma”, 2018). Extended field radiation is “given to the major lymph node areas that contain lymphoma, as well as the surrounding normal lymph node areas” (“Radiation Therapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma”, 2018). Internal radiation therapy ()LJXUH ), also called brachytherapy, is a type of radiation therapy used when radioactive material is placed into cancer or surrounding tissue. This “allows a higher dose of radiation [to be given to the patient] in a smaller area than might be possible with external radiation treatment. It uses a radiation source that’s usually sealed in a small holder called an implant” that can either be permanent or temporary(“Getting Internal Radiation Therapy”, 2019). This “radioactive implant is put inside the body in or near the tumor” (“Getting Internal Radiation Therapy”, 2019). Through either of these methods, “radiation therapy [not only] kills cancer cells that are dividing, but it also affects dividing cells of normal tissues” (“Radiation Therapy”, n.d.). Permanent brachytherapy, or seed implantation, puts radioactive seeds near the tumor permanently. Unlike beam radiation, permanent brachytherapy allows shorter and simpler therapy processes. The seeds lose their radioactivity after several months. Two Types of Tumors Solid and liquid tumors are considered as these tumors have different characteristics. For example, solid tumors are usually masses of abnormal tissues. Liquid tumors, on the other hand, “occur in the blood, bone marrow or lymph nodes” (“Types of Cancer”, 2022). This paper focuses on pancreatic adenocarcinoma as a representative of solid tumors. Adenocarcinomas initiate “in the ducts of the pancreas[,]” or sometimes they develop from “cells that make the pancreatic enzymes” called acinar cell carcinomas (“What Is Pancreatic Cancer?”, 2019). Moreover, “[p]ancreatic adenocarcinoma has a very poor prognosis, typically after diagnosis, only 24% of people survive 1 year, and 9% live for 5 years” (Rawla, 2019). Symptoms include jaundice, itchy skin, darker urine, pale feces, loss of appetite or losing weight, fatigue, indigestion, pain in the upper stomach or back and worsening when eating and lying, and feeling better when leaning forward (“Symptoms”, 2020). Pancreatic adenocarcinomas can be diagnosed by methods: CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans ()LJXUH ). Biological aspects of pancreatic adenocarcinomas are CA(cancer antigen) 19-9 marker (over 37 U/mL), IRE (immunoreactive elastase) level elevated, and CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) level elevated, ApoA1, CA125, CA19-9, CEA, ApoA2, and TTR. External beam radiation is used most often to treat pancreatic adenocarcinomas. One type of liquid tumor is lymphoma, which occurs in the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system plays a crucial role in the body’s immune system. One type of lymphoma is Hodgkin Lymphoma (HL). HL can further lead to weak immune systems and secondary cancers (“Overview”, 2021). In spite of these, HL is the most curable with an 88 percent survival rate based on the numbers of patients diagnosed with HL between 2011 and 2017 (“Survival Rates”, 2022). 638

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Symptoms include painless swelling in the lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin, persistent fatigue, fever, night sweats, shortness of breath, unexplained weight loss, and itchy skin. Diagnosis methods include physical exams, lymph node biopsies, blood tests, removal of a sample of bone marrow for testing, and PET scans or other imaging tests. Biomarkers of lymphoma include “an infiltration of many different types of cells of the immune system into the lymphoma tissue, including T cells, B cells, plasma cells, neutrophils, eosinophils and mast cells, such that the HRS cells themselves usually represent only about 1% of cells in the tumor” (Küppers, 2008). Common treatments for HL “are chemotherapy alone, or chemotherapy followed by radiotherapy. Occasionally, chemotherapy may be combined with steroid medicine” (“Treatment”, 2021). External beam radiation is also used most commonly for lymphomas. Current Methods to Monitor Radiation Therapy Methods to optimize and monitor responses to radiation therapy have continued. One of the ways to monitor radiation therapy is through blood tests. The main advantage is that this test can be frequently done and is less expensive. Also, this can be done quickly with low risks, if any, associated. Nevertheless, there are limitations. Limitations include the potential for false positives in tests; therefore, blood tests are not always definitive. In addition, “not all cancers show up on blood tests[,]” and the blood tests are inconvenient and painful to do (Radhakrishnan, 2021). Instead, these indefinite results may present confusing or insignificant results. Another way to monitor radiation therapy is through contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT). This is widely available for use and can be used to portray the target volume of the tumor following radiation therapy. However, this is expensive and uses a high dose of radiation, which can exceed the level that may increase the possibility of causing cancer. Moreover, the amount of radiation that is emitted does not diminish even in helical, fluoroscopic, and multi-slice methods. On the other hand, unlike CT scans, MRI scans do not expose the patient to radiation, but it makes it harder to visualize the tumor. Compared to CT scans, PET (positron emission tomography) imaging scans use slightly less radiation when scanning. Therefore, PET scans are a bit safer than CT scans. PET scans allow one to study the body’s function through biochemical processes as the scans can detect cancers before the symptoms appear such as when they are in their early stages ()LJXUH ). PET scans are also effective for diagnosing the early stages of certain neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, and other mental disorders. It can also be used as an alternative to biopsies and surgeries to determine the progression of cancerous tumors, differentiate between benign and malignant tumors, and can be used for people who are scared of getting infected by other medical procedures. Therefore, this method is more effective and precise, and it can minimize unnecessary surgeries from misleading data. On the contrary, this process cannot be done multiple times in a short period of time as the radioactive rays from the scanning system are harmful to the body, especially to pregnant patients. It is more expensive, however, because it is a more recent technique that has been implemented, and a machine to generate radioisotopes is required for imaging. Also, the sensitivity of this process is high. For example, if the patient suffers from chemical imbalances, or ate something just before the process, the scan has a high probability of presenting false results. PET/CT scans can assess treatment responses in patients. An experiment done by Charalampous and his team examined “early treatment response in patients with newly diagnosed multiple myeloma” (Charalampous et al., 2022). However, this process has some limitations like variability in the outcomes after the fixed 6-month mark in the experiment. Also, these patients may be chosen with bias. For example, if the patients are in severe conditions, the results will not show significant changes. The contrast used for PET-CTs is an iodinated contrast. Contrast media (CM) have long been regarded as a potential risk for nephropathy. Multiple risk factors, including diabetes, sepsis, anemia, hypotension, circulatory insufficiency, and nephrotoxic agents, might increase the risk of contrast-associated injury to organs. Overall, various types of research to monitor therapeutic responses have been found. Recent 639

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ studies have shown that quantifying through computed image scans is also possible for early monitoring of radiation therapy ()LJXUH ) The research team obtained repetitive 18F-FLT PET/CT scans and identified subvolumes with high proliferative activity to monitor the activity of tumor tissue. Though their abilities have many benefits, limitations still exist, and these are crucial to identifying a better method. In current existing methods, limitations included false positives, dangers to further cancer, difficulties in detecting the tumor, and high costs. Therefore, this paper will propose a formula that considers the overall benefits and limitations as well as other factors that will be used as parameters, which will aid in monitoring radiation therapy responses for the patients. 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRG Considerations To generate a new formula to monitor a patient's response to radiation therapy, patients' body status before and after therapy needs to be measured so that their progress can be observed. Parameters were determined considering the traits of the tumors. For solid tumors, the tumor volume is considered. Tumor volume is measured through various formulas. One formula to measure the volume is ᶢ/6 × (Length × Width × Height). This formula assumes that the tumor "has an ellipsoid shape" (Leffler et al., 2018). The volume and speed the tumor travels through the lymph nodes are considered for liquid tumors. Other parameters that are shared in common are blood test results, progression of the treatment, and wavelength of the radiation. These factors will be quantified by size, number, or percentage. For instance, the volume will be measured in cm3, wavelength in nm, and the progression by days. Moreover, a monitoring method that can be applied universally for both solid and liquid tumors should be considered as patients respond differently to radiation therapy. Hence, a formula can be made to quantify and measure radiation therapy responses per patient. Parameters To measure the cancer tumor, parameters should include volume and speed of metastasis. These can be detected from scans like CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans. The radiation dosage the patient will receive will be determined by how much the patient is exposed to radiation, which will be measured in gray (Gy): the unit for the total amount of radiation exposure per patient. “Adjuvant therapy doses typically range from 45 to 60 Gy for the treatment of breast, head, and neck cancers” (Smith, 2021). Radiation dosage will be measured through a new method that monitors patients’ responses undergoing radiation therapy. They used a gel-based nanosensor—a device that “detect[s] complex topographical dose patterns” by colorimetric changes due to the conversion of gold ions to gold nanoparticles (Pushpavanam et al., 2019). This is applied on the skin and is also relatively inexpensive. During testing processes, researchers tested this process on canines with cancer that were receiving radiation therapy. They further plan to extend this to an app where the system will predict the dose of radiation by taking a picture of the gel. The duration of the treatment will be measured, but to do this, the patient must be scanned multiple spans in a short period of time. Radiation intensity will be measured by wavelength and its frequency, and changes in blood markers that were detected from blood tests. The changes in blood markers will be 640

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ calculated by subtracting the preceding percentage from the current percentage, which will show how they increased or decreased. Collectively, these variables will be set as below,

, whereas ΣV = Total volume of the tumor (cm3), Mv = Metastasis speed (mm/day), ΔBM = Change in blood markers concentration (%), D = Radiation dosage (Gy), T = Duration of the treatment (hours). k is constant for a specific type of cancer. k = 0.1 for adenocarcinoma and k = 10 for lymphoma. $VSHFW

)DFWRU

8QLW

Cancer status

Volume, Metastasis speed

cm3; mm/day

Impact on Patient

Radiation dosage, Treatment duration

Gy; hour

Blood test

Changes in blood marker concentration

Radiation intensity (as constant)

Wavelength, Frequency

nm, Hz

If the radiation therapy were successful, the volume, speed of metastasis, dosage, and duration would decrease. On the other hand, the percentage of change in the blood tests will need to increase. Therefore, overall, the left side of the equation should decrease in its value. $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ As obtaining real patient data is difficult, a hypothetical situation is presented. Suppose there are two patients: one being a pancreatic adenocarcinoma patient, and the other being a neutropenic lymphoma patient. These patients’ imaginary data of their radiation therapy response are presented below: Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Patient Total volume (cm3) Before treatment 19.8

Distance of tumor Biomarker from concentration original place (mm) (19-9 marker) (U/mL)

Duration Time (hour)

85 641

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 1 week after

17.4

2 weeks after

14.9

3 weeks after

10.5

Distance of tumor from original place (mm)

Biomarker concentration (Neutrophil level) (/mL)

Duration Time (hour)

Before treatment 12.7

107

1 week after

11.4

2 × 107

2 weeks after

9.9

8 × 107

3 weeks after

8.7

2.5

108

Neutropenic Lymphoma Patient Total volume (cm3)

By using the data presented above, the formula can be applied to both solid and liquid tumors. The data presented above is based on hypothetical situations. Based on the initial (before the treatment) and the first week of the treatment, the data provided will be used to determine the factors in the formula. C1 and (DT)1 value of adenocarcinoma patient is as follows:

Also, C1 and (DT)1 value of neutropenic lymphoma patient is as follows:

and C2, C3 values can be obtained further using the formula. On top of this idea, this field can be applied in the field of stratified medicine or treatment. For the adenocarcinoma patient, the radiation dosage would be upregulated from 45 Gy to 56 Gy and 45 Gy to 51.3 Gy for the neutropenic lymphoma patient. By stratifying treatment methods, this formula can be used to monitor the progression of each patient. As the volume, metastasis speed, concentration of blood markers, and treatment duration can differ for each patient, the patient’s response can be monitored through the formula generated above. As the conditions of each patient differ, how the patient responds to the therapy will also differ. Although this formula tries to present the most ideal formula to monitor radiation therapy responses, limitations exist. Such limitations may include inconsistent data and results, the usage of current scanning methods and their constraints, and radiation-induced secondary cancer that can be 642

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ caused through current treatment methodologies. When creating the formula, there was not enough data and background knowledge to construct a perfect formula. Also, the lack of real clinical data to confirm the validity of the formula limited in creating the formula as well as determining the constant k, the constant needed for each cancer, were other limitations. Some aspects that can be improved are the parameters, clinical datasets, and the formula. There need to be more parameters and more clinical datasets, and the formula needs to be revised and improved for increased accuracy and reliability. For the parameters, more factors can be adjusted or added. Some more factors that can be considered are the quality of life of the patient, the frequency of measuring the patient’s responses, and the response of the patient. For example, some factors to consider to measure the patient’s quality of life could be the standards of the patient in how they perceive certain aspects like treatment and pain, and how they will emotionally react to these measures. The frequency of measuring responses could vary as different types of tumor cells and the stage of cancer could affect the efficacy of therapy, which in turn could affect the various durations for the tumor to respond to radiation therapy. The patient’s response should be considered by evaluating how the patient reacts to radiation therapy by examining the severity of their side effects in comparison to the effectiveness of the treatment, for instance. In the future, this formula can potentially contribute to personally optimized therapy for the patient, which can lessen the physical burden for the patient, and increase the efficiency of the treatment. For example, because the tumor volume and how the body reacts will differ, stratifying the treatment method will allow the patient to receive adjusted therapy that will fit the patient’s condition. All in all, this paper aims to present a formula that effectively monitors the patient’s response to the radiation therapy they are receiving. Firstly, different radiation therapy methods like external beam radiation and internal beam radiation, current methods to monitor patients’ responses to radiation therapy, and the aspects of solid and liquid tumors were analyzed and compared. As a result, to design the formula, different parameters such as volume of the tumor, duration, and dosage were considered. Some anticipated outcomes are usages for monitoring treatment responses for both solid and liquid tumors and using this formula to personalize radiation therapy methods.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFH American Cancer Society. (2018, May 1). Radiation Therapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma. American Cancer Society. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/radiation.html American Cancer Society. (2019, December 27). Getting Internal Radiation Therapy (Brachytherapy). American Cancer Society. https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/treatment-types/radiation/inter nal-radiation-therapy-brachytherapy.html American Cancer Society. (2019, February 11). What is Pancreatic Cancer? American Cancer Society. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/pancreatic-cancer/about/what-is-pancreatic-cancer.html American Cancer Society. (2022, March 2). Survival Rates for Hodgkin Lymphoma. American Cancer Society. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/detection-diagnosis-staging/survival-rate s.html Charalampous, C., Goel, U., Broski, S. M., Dingli, D., Kapoor, P., Gertz, M. A., Lacy, M. Q., Dispenzieri, A., Hayman, S. R., Buadi, F., Hwa, L., Leung, N., Lin, Y., Gonsalves, W. I., Kourelis, T. V., Warsame, R., Fonder, A., Hobbs, M., Binder, M., & Kyle, R. A. (2022). Utility of PET/CT in assessing early treatment response in patients with newly diagnosed multiple myeloma. Blood Advances, 6(9), 2763–2772. https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2022007052 Government of South Australia. (2022, April 2). Types of Cancers. SA Health. https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditi ons/cancer/types+of+cancers/types+of+cancers Graham, K., & Unger, E. (2018). Overcoming tumor hypoxia as a barrier to radiotherapy, chemotherapy and immunotherapy in cancer treatment. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 13, 6049–6058. https://doi.org/10.2147/ijn.s140462 Keener, A. B. (2020). Making radiation oncology more personal. Nature, 585(7826), S10–S12. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02677-8 Küppers, R. (2009). The biology of Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Nature Reviews Cancer, 9(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2542 Leffler, A. J., Hostnik, E. T., Warry, E. E., Habing, G. G., Auld, D. M., Green, E. M., & Drost, W. T. (2018). Canine urinary bladder transitional cell carcinoma tumor volume is dependent on imaging modality and measurement technique. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 59(6), 767–776. https://doi.org/10.1111/vru.12652 National Cancer Institute. (2018, May 1). External Beam Radiation Therapy for Cancer. National Cancer Institute; National Institutes of Health. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/radiation-therapy/external-beam National Cancer Institute. (2018, May 1). Radiation Therapy Side Effects. National Cancer Institute; National Institutes of Health. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/radiation-therapy/side-effects National Cancer Institute. (2021, May 5). What Is Cancer? National Cancer Institute; National Institutes of Health. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer National Health Service. (2020, May 5). Symptoms - Pancreatic Cancer. National Health Service. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pancreatic-cancer/symptoms/ National Health Service. (2021, November 22). Overview - Hodgkin Lymphoma. National Health Service. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hodgkin-lymphoma/ National Health Service. (2021, November 22). Treatment - Hodgkin lymphoma. National Health Service. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hodgkin-lymphoma/treatment/ News Medical. (2021, March 23). Radiation Therapy Dosage. News Medical. https://www.news-medical.net/health/Radiation-Therapy-Dosage.aspx Pushpavanam, K., Inamdar, S., Dutta, S., Bista, T., Sokolowski, T., Boshoven, E., Sapareto, S., & Rege, K. (2019). Determination of topographical radiation dose profiles using gel nanosensors. Science Advances, 5(11). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw8704 644

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Radhakrishnan, R. (2021, May 4). Do All Cancers Show Up on Blood Tests? MedicineNet; MedicineNet. https://www.medicinenet.com/do_all_cancers_show_up_on_blood_tests/article.htm Rawla, P., Sunkara, T., &amp; Gaduputi, V. (2019, February 26). Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer: Global trends, etiology and risk factors. World Journal of Oncology. https://doi.org/10.14740%2Fwjon1166 Smith, Y. (2021, February 3). Radiation Therapy Mechanism. News Medical. https://www.news-medical.net/health/Radiation-Therapy-Mechanism.aspx Troost, E. G. C., Bussink, J., Hoffmann, A. L., Boerman, O. C., Oyen, W. J. G., & Kaanders, J. H. A. M. (2010). 18F-FLT PET/CT for Early Response Monitoring and Dose Escalation in Oropharyngeal Tumors. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 51(6), 866–874. https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.109.069310 Wartski, M., & Sauvanet, A. (2019). 18F-FDG PET/CT in pancreatic adenocarcinoma: A role at initial imaging staging? Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging, 100(12), 735–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diii.2019.07.006 World Cancer Day. (n.d.). What is Cancer? World Cancer Day. https://www.worldcancerday.org/what-cancer

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Full Name

Jung, Selice

School Name

HPrep Academy

.H\ZRUGV osteoporotic spinal fractures, vertebral compression fractures, LIPUS, ultrasound, 3D cast.

646

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW As people age, they lose bone mass, and eventually, some people are diagnosed with osteoporosis, in which their bones have large pores, making them susceptible to bone fractures. The most common fracture among osteoporotic patients is a spinal fracture, also known as a vertebral compression fracture. Current treatment of osteoporotic spinal fracture includes an enclosed plastic brace with bed rest, but the enclosed brace is often uncomfortable for patients due to poor air ventilation (Balkarli et al., 2015). Bed rest with no exercise can also lead to further progression of osteoporosis due to the loss of bone tissue. To treat osteoporotic spinal fractures with more efficiency, a method known as low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) would be applied to the fractured site. The LIPUS method has been explored for its noninvasive ability to stimulate molecules, cells, and tissues that promote bone healing. In addition to the LIPUS device, a 3D cast, or brace, would also be beneficial due to its comfort. By combining the two structures, a new model for the rapid and effective treatment of osteoporotic spinal fractures will be proposed in this paper. This proposal focuses on the LIPUS method to facilitate bone repair by encouraging callus ossification, the process by which a cartilaginous substance hardens into a bony substance, for a fast bone healing process.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Osteoporosis is a disease that causes the bones to become weak and brittle to the extent that mild stresses like bending over can cause a fracture (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Osteoporosis occurs in more than half of those 50 or older in the United States. Worldwide, more than 200 million people have osteoporosis; 1 in 3 women over 50 and 1 in 5 men over 50 experience osteoporotic fractures (Sözen et al., 2019). Timewise, an osteoporotic fracture happens about every three seconds. In particular, osteoporotic bone fractures occur most in the spine (Moore). Osteoporotic spine fractures are called vertebral compression fractures and cause severe back pain, trouble bending or twisting the body, loss of height, a curved, stooped shape to the spine, and a pain that gets worse when standing up or walking (Robinson). For some patients, simply coughing or bending their spine can lead to a fracture. Due to the frequent fracture of bones in osteoporotic patients, a rapid and effective method to heal fractured bones is necessary, but current methods are not very effective in treating the fractures both in speed and efficacy. Although osteoporotic bones take the same time to recover as unaffected people, osteoporotic patients are undoubtedly at a higher risk of bone fractures since their bones are much weaker. Furthermore, due to the old age group of those affected with osteoporosis, it takes longer for the bones to heal. Due to the limitations of current treatment and the age group of those affected, a new device that would treat osteoporotic spine fractures faster and more effectively would aid patients. 2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV This proposal aims to address the limitations of contemporary methods for osteoporotic bone healing. This paper suggests ultrasound treatment for the facilitation of bone healing and proposes a novel device for the rapid and effective treatment of vertebral compression fractures. To achieve these objectives, this proposal suggests the use of the LIPUS method embedded on a 3D cast for the spine. %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH Osteoporosis The causes of osteoporosis include poor nutrition, old age, bone mass attained when younger, and a lifelong supply of calcium (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Most people who develop osteoporosis are around the age of 50, as the process of making new bones decrease and bone mass is lost faster. Eventually, more old bone is reabsorbed than new bone is generated, leading to the inability of the body to absorb necessary minerals like calcium. For instance, women over the age of 50 are typically more susceptible to osteoporosis since estrogen, a hormone that protects bones, decreases sharply due to menopause (“General Facts, ” n.d.). There are multiple risk factors for osteoporosis like age, thin and light bones (female), ethnicity (white or Asian descent), genetics, excess thyroid hormones, lack of weight-lifting exercises, eating disorders, gastrointestinal surgery (limits the surface area of the stomach to absorb calcium), and diseases that decrease the ability of organs to absorb nutrients (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). It cannot be concluded that osteoporosis is caused by one specific factor; it is rather reasonable to assume that osteoporosis is caused by a combination of various risk factors and a lack of nutrition like calcium. Osteoporotic bones are typically fractured more often and easily as bone mass significantly drops and there are “wider holes” in the bones ()LJXUH ).

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Bone Fracture Healing Process General bone fracture healing involves four main steps: hematoma formation, callus formation, callus ossification, and bone remodeling. After the first week of immobilizing the bone, hematoma, a blood clot, forms. Then the formation of new blood vessels and callus are facilitated. The callus is the healing tissue in the bone that forms a connecting bridge across the bone fracture. Meanwhile, the phagocytic cells clear away the dead cells, and fibroblasts and osteoblasts repair broken bone ends. After callus formation, the callus starts to harden into a bony substance, a process known as callus ossification. Bone repair needs to facilitate callus ossification as it helps to harden the fibrocartilaginous callus into a sturdy bony callus (“Tissue Healing,” 2018). It takes about two months for the broken bone ends to be firmly joined together after the fracture. Finally, the bony callus is stabilized after a few months with excess materials within the fracture region being removed. A visualization of this process is shown in )LJXUH .

Current Treatment for Osteoporotic Fractures Current treatment for osteoporotic fractures is a four-step method with the first being fracture reduction by putting pieces of bones in closer proximity using casts, splints, or surgical procedures. Next is surgical or non-surgical immobilization to prevent the bone from moving for proper alignment and rehabilitative exercise to encourage movement in the fractured bone and build muscles. Last is anti-osteoporosis therapy, which involves anti-osteoporotic medications like bisphosphonates or oral tablets that often have side effects like joint pain and nausea (Qiu, 2009). Anti-osteoporotic medications like bisphosphonates help the bones from losing minerals that are essential to bone density like calcium and slow down the processes that dissolve bone tissue and allow bones to maintain their density (“Osteoporotic Medications,” n.d.). Bisphosphonates also limit the activity of osteoclasts, which are bone cells that cause the bones to weaken and break down (DePolo, 2022). When diagnosed, it is inevitable to receive fast and effective treatment, but the best would nevertheless be to prevent osteoporosis before the outset by consuming food or supplements that are rich in calcium and vitamin D and doing light exercise. Yet, to help the bone healing process for osteoporotic patients, a faster and more effective treatment that will heal mainly nonunion fractures (“failure of a fractured bone to heal within six to nine months” (“Four Factors,” n.d.)) and prevent future fractures will be proposed.

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As previously described, the essential aspect of bone healing is callus ossification, which involves the callus (bone tissue) hardening into a bony substance. If this process is facilitated, the process of bone healing would also become faster and more effective. A practical method to facilitate the bone healing process would be the immobilization of bones along with the use of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) ()LJXUH ). Ultrasound is “a source of mechanical energy delivered as acoustic pressure waves beyond the range of human hearing” (Xin et al., 2016). The LIPUS method has a frequency of 1.5 MHz and an intensity of fewer than 3 W/cm2, which is far less than the highest range for ultrasound used for therapeutic purposes: 1,000 W/cm2 (Xin et al., 2016). There have been multiple medical applications of ultrasound: diagnosis of certain diseases and relieving pain in the joints and muscles. Usually, low-intensity ultrasound serves a diagnostic purpose, but recent studies demonstrate that low-intensity ultrasound has yielded favorable effects to facilitate bone fracture healing. Having a lower intensity can be beneficial since it can both excite and suppress certain cells (bi-modal) and have “exquisite spatial specificity and depth penetration” (Baek et al., 2017). The LIPUS method can “affect the behavior of different cell types and the functions of different organs…and affect cytoskeletal molecules via coherent changes in their spatial organization and mechano-transduction signaling” (Lin et al., 2020) thereby moving the primary cilia of osteoblast cells and stimulating the osteogenic process. The mechanical cue stimulates the extracellular matrix of the bone tissue, inducing several gene expressions that facilitate osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, and migration ()LJXUH ). Several studies have proven that LIPUS increases osteoblast production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF). As the LIPUS signal is transmitted through the tissue to the bone, cells use integrin mechanoreceptors to translate the mechanical signal to a biochemical response and also enhance the production of an enzyme called the cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) that catalyzes the formation of prostaglandin and thromboxane, which are lipids that facilitate hematoma formation ()LJXUH D) (Palanisami et al., 2021). Warden et al. showed that applying LIPUS 20 min per day for 5 days per week to a rat femoral fracture model increased bone mineral density by 17% after 40 days of treatment. Not only does the LIPUS method enhance hematoma formation but it also enhances the process of callus ossification, the most important step in bone healing. The key to facilitating endochondral ossification is to increase the blood vessels in the fracture site, which is carried out as the LIPUS stimulates vascular endothelium growth factors and induces angiogenesis to form new blood vessels and speed up ossification (Murakami et al., 2021). Ultrasound is also a suitable method for fracture healing since it is “noninvasive, does not use ionizing radiation, and is delivered in real-time” (Nicholson et al., 2019). Current research on the efficacy of LIPUS is mainly focused on mice experiments, but this is not a major impediment to the reliability of the results as mice “exhibit an age-related increase in [bone] porosity” (Jilka, 2013) 650

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ like osteoporotic patients in humans. Furthermore, both are vertebrates and have similar numbers of different vertebrae ()LJXUH ). For instance, humans have 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumber, and 5 sacral vertebrae (Azar, 2021); mice have 7 cervical, 13 thoracic, 6 lumbar, and 4 sacral vertebrae (Harrison et al., 2012). Both have the same number of cervical vertebrae, and there is only one difference in number for the thoracic, lumber, and sacral vertebrae. The LIPUS method is a practical one for osteoporotic patients who are often 50 or older and cannot regenerate new bones fast: “the impact of age on the fracture process was diminished when mice subjects were treated with LIPUS” (Harrison et al., 2016). The mice were treated for only 20 minutes per day with the LIPUS, but it shortened the callus ossification process by ten days (21 days to 11 days) in older mice, but for the young mice, it only shortened the callus ossification process by three days (Harrison et al., 2016). Other advantages of the LIPUS method are convenience and comfortability. No professional hospital admission is required for LIPUS and it is commonly used for only 20 minutes a day, which means that patients do not have to spend a lot of time in the therapy. On the other hand, although some may argue that the LIPUS treatment is relatively expensive, according to an experiment with 1,158 patients involved, the cost for LIPUS-only treatment for non-union fractures was roughly $1 billion lower than that for surgery-only patients (Mehta et al., 2015). Also, many osteoporotic patients suffer from non-union fractures, which are bones that have failed to heal after a fracture, but the LIPUS method can heal nonunion fractures within five months, whereas they usually take nine months to naturally heal (Dijkman et al., 2009). Compared to infrared therapy or microwave therapy for bone healing, ultrasound is a more effective and convenient method. First, infrared light therapy exposes the body to low levels of red or near-infrared light to help exercise the cells and heal fractured bones. However, this process can take up to 4 months to see results, which is longer than the natural process of spine fracture healing (3 months) and can irritate the exposed part (Flanagan, 2021). But, the LIPUS method makes the fracture healing process much faster and shows results within a month before the natural healing process (2-3 months). Microwave therapy uses electromagnetic waves and currents to improve fracture repair. But, this method requires surgically implanted metal plates and causes damage to the tissues from intense heat (Ye et al., 2013). Instead, the LIPUS method does not require any surgical procedure nor does it use intensive stimuli to damage the tissues or cells. Along with the LIPUS method, which is the key to facilitating callus ossification and bone repair, a cast to immobilize the fractured bone would be needed as well. Instead of using the conventional plaster and fiberglass cast or plastic brace, a 3D cast would be preferable due to its high ventilation, water resistance, easy detachability, lightness, and odorlessness. 3D casts also merely cause irritability in the skin: “[m]inor skin irritation was noted in 42% of patients in the fiberglass cast group compared with only 1 patient in the 3D cast group” (Graham et al., 2018). The 3D cast would be made of polylactic acid (PLA) due to its ease of use, dimensional accuracy in 3D printing, and low cost (Gehrke & Frey, 2022). To make the 3D cast, the patient would have the fracture x-rayed and the injured spine 3D scanned. The cast would be denser near the fractured area to provide more support to the fracture and more porous and less dense patterns in the areas away from the fracture. For example, if several thoracic vertebrae in the vertebral column are fractured, the cast would have little holes where the bone is fractured (back), but on the sides, there would be more holes and the density of the cast would also be lower. The general structure would be similar to a Boston Brace, which is a plastic spinal brace that wraps under the arm and 651

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ around the rib cage, lower back, and hips (“Boston Brace Definition,” n.d.). There would be two casts: one half would be for the back and the other half for the front. To connect these two parts, a clipping mechanism would be used so that it can be clipped at once and is locked in that place unless forcefully detached. The clipping method is known as snap-fit, which is commonly used in pen caps and battery compartment lids. It would utilize a cantilever snap joint, which has a protrusion (bead or hook) on one end and a support feature on the other end. The protrusion locks the connection so that the cast stays on the patient instead of falling apart. Another benefit of using the cantilever snap-fit is that it is the most cost-effective way to connect components and is easy to design for assembly and disassembly (“How”, n.d.). Some may argue that the use of casts (braces) on spinal fractures may lead to complications as immobilization can be particularly harmful to osteoporotic patients who need regular exercise to make sure that their bones do not lose more bone mass (Balkarli et al., 2015). But, the LIPUS device allows for the stimulation of cellular molecules, cells, and tissues in the bones to make sure that while immobilizing the spine, microstructures in the bones are stimulated so that there are no serious implications. 3D casts are more suitable to allow some light exercise on patients as they are made of PLA, thus much lighter, and easily air ventilated due to the holes. To combine the 3D cast and LIPUS device, a practical method would be to use the Accellus mini LIPUS treatment ()LJXUH ). This is the world’s first wireless LIPUS device that requires no power and transducer cable. The device is even smaller than the size of an average adult’s palm, making it very convenient to use. It is very easy to charge as it uses a charging cradle that also checks whether ultrasound is being emitted or not since humans cannot sense ultrasound. Furthermore, the Accellus mini device automatically stops the treatment after 20 minutes as that time is the optimal and most common treatment time for LIPUS treatment. For better treatment, the patient is recommended to apply the ultrasound at least 5 days per week, and the device will send notifications at a designated time. The ultrasound frequency on the device is 1.5 MHz to gently stimulate cellular molecules, cells, and tissues and not give too much pressure on the fractured spine (“Ultrasound Bone Healing System,” 2016). Adding on to this device, there would be a protruded transducer with a surface as small as one of the holes in the cast near the fractured site, since the original model has a flat transducer that may not be suitable for the little holes on the fractured spine. Then, to embed the two structures together, a silicon strap and fastening band will be held onto the Accellus mini LIPUS device and the fastening band would be stuck on the ends of the back part of the 3D cast. The fastening band would only extend until half of the body where the two casts fit one another. A digital model of this is shown in )LJXUH , but the proposed cast would have larger holes than those shown in the figure. 652

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ However, a method to treat vertebral compression fractures already exists: re-expanding the vertebral body and augmenting its strength by injecting bone cement (kyphoplasty). This method, though, is invasive and is a surgical procedure, costing about $21,092 on average in the United States (“Kyphoplasty,” n.d.). On the other hand, the LIPUS device costs $1300 to $5000 (Poolman et al., 2017), and the cast about $200 to $500 (Pinney, 2016). Even after combining the maximum of the two costs, the total is about four times less than kyphoplasty. In addition, patients often feel anxious, nervous, and tense before surgery due to the fear of unexpected accidents during the surgery (LaRocca), but the 3D cast with the LIPUS device is noninvasive and does not involve intense movements in the patient. Therefore, although surgery is an existing alternative, it can create anxiety in patients due to potential accidents or complications. $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQV Based on past experiments with the LIPUS method and 3D casts, practical results will be predicted. First, it is anticipated that by proposing a model to heal osteoporotic bone fractures, more people may become aware of osteoporosis and take measures to prevent it. Through proposals like these, people may gain more awareness of the prevalence of certain diseases and research on treating the disease as well. Second, there may be a noteworthy reduction in treatment as proven by multiple experiments. One of them revealed that new bone fractures had a mean healing time of 46 ± 28 days (Romanò et al., 2022). In another, “LIPUS treatment resulted in a mean reduction in healing time of 39.8 days” (Rutten et al., 2016). Considering that vertebral compression fractures usually take three months to heal, using the LIPUS treatment, it would take less than two months for the fracture to heal. But, for some osteoporotic patients, their fractures are nonunion, so they are harder and take longer to heal. The LIPUS device is suited for nonunion fractures as well since it stimulates, at least forcefully, cellular molecules and angiogenesis to promote callus ossification. Last, the combined model would give more stability and mass to the fractured bone, apart from healing, because molecules, cells, and tissues that were not previously stimulated could become active as a result of the LIPUS device. 'LVFXVVLRQ The proposed device has three main limitations. First, there is insufficient physical data on the efficacy of the LIPUS device with the 3D cast. The paper mainly relied on past experiments conducted on the efficacy of the LIPUS device, instead of testing the efficacy of the proposed model or yielding significant data. In the future, extensive experiments can be performed on the efficacy of the LIPUS and the 3D cast device together. The second limitation is that the actual efficacy of the 3D cast itself has not been proven yet; there are no data supporting whether 3D casts themselves facilitate the healing process of bones. Furthermore, 3D casts around the entire upper body may be uncomfortable for the patients since it covers such a large part of the body. If the cast is uncomfortable for patients, it may lead to a decrease in patient compliance and they may refuse to wear the cast. Nevertheless, since 3D casts can be printed based on the body shape of the patient, they will feel more comfortable in their casts and patient compliance may be higher than commercially available spinal braces. Finally, to construct the 3D cast, the entire spine of the patient must be scanned. Unlike 3D casts for the limbs, those for the spine would be much larger, so there could be technical issues while scanning and designing the cast. Due to the technical issues, the cast may not optimally fit the patient, possibly leading to a feeling of discomfort with the cast. One limitation of the LIPUS method itself is that some studies have demonstrated insignificant results of the efficacy of the device. For instance, Emami et al. treated 15 patients with tibial shaft patients with LIPUS and gave a placebo to the other 15 patients for 75 days. However, there was “no significant difference in the time to radiographic healing (bridging of three of four cortices) between the two groups” (Shetty et al., 2009). Due to some studies demonstrating the inefficacy of the LIPUS method, more attention should be shifted to the ideal conditions in which the LIPUS method can maximize its efficacy. Thus, further research can be conducted on the conditions of optimizing the efficacy of the LIPUS method in healing bone fractures. 653

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ In short, the 3D cast with the LIPUS device would speed up the healing process of osteoporotic spinal fractures (vertebral compression fractures) and help osteoporotic bones to gain more stability after the use of the LIPUS device. The LIPUS device utilizes ultrasound to affect the behavior of cellular molecules by changing their spatial organization and moving the cilia of osteoblast cells that stimulate bone healing. The device would be a slight development of the Accellus mini device, which is wireless, light, and convenient to use. The main change on the Accellus mini device would be the transducer of the device being protruded and fitting in one of the holes of the 3D cast on the fractured site. A 3D cast would be used as the brace for the spine. By scanning the fracture with an x-ray scan and 3D scanning the injured spine, the general structure of the 3D cast would be formed, with dense holes near the fractured site. In addition to simply treating osteoporotic spinal fractures, this device could also be used for children or adolescents who have spinal fractures since growth is a crucial factor, but spinal fractures would inhibit their growth. This cast and device could further be used to facilitate spinal fractures in a variety of patients, most importantly, osteoporotic patients, but also children and adolescents. Finally, this model could also yield physical data in the future after physically testing it on patients with osteoporotic spinal fractures. As the LIPUS device is a noninvasive and safe method as proven by multiple experiments and the 3D cast does not necessarily lead to skin irritation or other discomforts (unless there are technical issues), the experiment would not lead to considerably harmful effects. Therefore, the proposed model with a 3D cast and the Accellus mini LIPUS device would be a feasible model for the rapid and effective healing of osteoporotic spinal fractures by stimulating cellular molecules, cells, and tissues in the bones.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFHV Ahmadi, F., McLoughlin, I. V., Chauhan, S., & Ter-Haar, G. (2012). Bio-effects and safety of low-intensity, low-frequency ultrasonic exposure. Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 108(3), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2012.01.004 Baek, H., Pahk, K. J., & Kim, H. (2017). A review of low-intensity focused ultrasound for neuromodulation. Biomedical Engineering Letters, 7(2), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13534-016-0007-y Balkarli, H., Demirtas, H., Kilic, M., & Ozturk, I. (2015, September 15). Treatment of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures with percutaneous vertebroplasty under local anesthesia: Clinical and radiological results. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine. Retrieved August 4, 2022BHOF. (2022, February 24). General Facts. Bone Health & Osteoporosis Foundation. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.bonehealthandosteoporosis.org/preventing-fractures/general-facts/what-women -need-to-know/ British Thyroid Foundation. (2008). Thyroid disorders and osteoporosis. British Thyroid Foundation. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.btf-thyroid.org/thyroid-disorders-and-osteoporosis#:~:text=What%20is%20the %20link%20between,the%20bone%20loss%20quickly%20enough Chinese Orthopaedic Association. (2009, October 28). Diagnosis and treatment of osteoporotic fractures. Orthopedic surgery. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1757-7861.2009.00047.x Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Bone Fractures. Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15241-bone-fractures#management-and-treat ment Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Vertebrae (spinal) fractures: Diagnosis & treatments. Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17498-spinal-fractures Compression Fracture. Cedars-Sinai. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/compression-fracture. html#:~:text=Compression%20fractures%20caused%20by%20osteoporosis,can%20cause% 20long%2Dterm%20problems Cortex. EVILL. (2013). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.evilldesign.com/cortex Department of Health. The Facts About Osteoporosis. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.health.ny.gov/publications/2047/#:~:text=How%20common%20is%20osteopor osis%3F,osteoporosis%20or%20low%20bone%20mass DePolo, J. (2022, August 26). Treating Osteoporosis and Osteopenia. Www.breastcancer.org. https://www.breastcancer.org/treatment-side-effects/osteoporosis/treatment DeYulis, M., & Hinson, J. W. (2022, May 8). Joint Immobilization. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557703/#:~:text=If%20a%20fracture%20or%20di slocation,significantly%20reduce%20the%20patient%27s%20pain Fahy, E. (2020, January 28). The Remarkable Process of Fracture Healing: Complete Anatomy. Complete Anatomy. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://3d4medical.com/blog/fracture-healing#:~:text=Bony%20callus%20formation,tissues %20and%20begins%20to%20calcify Fam, N. P., Verma, S., Kutryk, M., & Stewart, D. J. (2003, November 25). Clinician Guide to angiogenesis. Circulation. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000102939.04279.75 Four Factors for Fracture Healing: Treatment of Nonunion and Malunion. Penn Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.pennmedicine.org/departments-and-centers/orthopaedic-surgery/about-us/excell ence-in-motion-newsletter/archive/2019-newsletter/treatment-of-nonunion-and-malunion#:~ 655

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ :text=Nonunion%20and%20malunion%20fractures%20are,or%20rotation%20of%20the%2 0limb Gehrke, F., & Frey, S. (2022, July 15). The Best PLA filaments for 3D Printing in 2022. All3DP. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://all3dp.com/1/best-pla-filament/ Government of Alberta. (2021, July 1). Learning About Closed Reduction of a Fractured Bone. MyHealth.Alberta.ca. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/aftercareinformation/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=ud1702 #:~:text=The%20doctor%20will%20push%20or,bone%20is%20properly%20lined%20up Graham, J., Wang, M., Frizzell, K., Watkins, C., Beredjiklian, P., & Rivlin, M. (2018, August 27). Conventional vs 3-Dimensional Printed Cast Wear Comfort. SAGE Journals. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1177/1558944718795291 Gurdita, A. (2020, January 26). 3D Printed Cast: The Most Promising Projects. All3DP. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://all3dp.com/2/3d-printed-cast-the-most-promising-projects/ Harrison, A., Lin, S., Pounder, N., & Mikuni-Takagaki, Y. (2016, April 9). Mode & mechanism of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) in Fracture Repair. Elsevier. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultras.2016.03.016 Harrison, M., O'Brien, A., Adams, L., Cowin, G., Ruitenberg, M. J., Sengul, G., & Watson, C. (2012, December 12). Vertebral landmarks for the identification of spinal cord segments in the mouse. NeuroImage. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.048 How do you design snap-fit joints for 3D printing? Hubs. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.hubs.com/knowledge-base/how-design-snap-fit-joints-3d-printing/ Huang, L. (2021, December 7). Snap-fit design: Types of snap fits and best practices. Rapid Direct. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.rapiddirect.com/blog/snap-fit-design/ International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF). (n.d.). Epidemiology of Osteoporosis and Fragility Fractures. International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.osteoporosis.foundation/facts-statistics/epidemiology-of-osteoporosis-and-fragi lity-fractures Jilka, R. L. (2013, May 20). Relevance of mouse models for investigating age-related bone loss in humans. OUP Academic. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glt046 Kaur, H., & El-Bialy, T. (2020, May 1). Shortening of overall orthodontic treatment duration with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS). MDPI. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9051303 Kayalioglu, G. (2009). Vertebral column. ScienceDirect. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/vertebral-column Kruse, R. W., & Dubowy, S. M. (2018, May). Broken Bones. KidsHealth. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/b-bone.html Kruse, R. W., & Dubowy, S. M. (2018, May). How broken bones heal (for parents). Nemours kidshealth. KidsHealth. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/fractures-heal.html Lin, C. D., Radu, C. M., Vitiello, G., Romano, P., Polcari, A., Iliceto, S., Simioni, P., & Tona, F. (2020, December 25). Sounds stimulation on in vitro HL1 cells: A pilot study and a theoretical physical model. MDPI. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010156 Mackie, E., Ahmed, Y. A. G., Tatarczuch, L., Chen, K., & Mirams, M. (2007, June 29). Endochondral ossification: How cartilage is converted into bone in the developing skeleton. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2007.06.009 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2021, August 21). Osteoporosis. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/osteoporosis/symptoms-causes/syc-203519 656

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 68#:~:text=A%20lifelong%20lack%20of%20calcium,in%20both%20men%20and%20wom en McAfee, P. (2016, December 8). Types of scoliosis braces. Spine. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.spine-health.com/conditions/scoliosis/types-scoliosis-braces MDsave. (n.d.). Kyphoplasty. MDsave. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.mdsave.com/procedures/kyphoplasty/d482fcc8 Mehta, S., Long, K., DeKoven, M., Smith, E., & Steen, R. G. (2015, March 18). Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) can decrease the economic burden of fracture non-union. Journal of Medical Economics. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.3111/13696998.2015.1019887 Moore, W. (2021, July 29). Osteoporosis: Effects of bone fractures. WebMD. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/recover-osteo-fracture Mundi, R., Petis, S., Kaloty, R., Shetty, V., & Bhandari, M. (2009, April). Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound: Fracture healing. Https://Www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Pmc/Articles/PMC2762261/#CIT37; Indian Journal of Orthopaedics. https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5413.50847 Murakami, R., Sanada, T., Inagawa, M., Yoshitomi, H., Honda, E., Fukai, A., & Iwaso, H. (2021, August 23). Can low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) accelerate bone healing after intramedullary screw fixation for proximal fifth metatarsal stress fractures? A retrospective study - BMC musculoskeletal disorders. BioMed Central. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://bmcmusculoskeletdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12891-021-04611-z Nall, R. (2019, March 8). How Likely Is It That I Will Break a Bone If I Have Osteoporosis? Healthline. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.healthline.com/health/managing-osteoporosis/how-likely-is-it-that-i-will-breaka-bone-if-i-have-osteoporosis Nicholson, J. A., Tsang, S. T. J., MacGillivray, T. J., Perks, F., & Simpson, A. (2019, July 12). What is the role of ultrasound in fracture management? Bone & Joint Publishing. Bone & Joint Research. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1302/2046-3758.87.BJR-2018-0215.R2 O'Neal, B. (2016, September 17). UNYQ collaborates with studio Bitonti for 3D printed aligned scoliosis brace-attractive, lightweight & smart. 3DPrint.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://3dprint.com/149553/unyq-bitonti-studios-align/ Osteoporosis Medications (Bisphosphonates). (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Lupus Center; Johns Hopkins Lupus Center. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://www.hopkinslupus.org/lupus-treatment/common-medications-conditions/osteoporosi s-medications-bisphosphonates/#:~:text=In%20people%20with%20osteoporosis%2C%20th e Palanisamy, P., Alam, M., Li, S., Chow, S., & Zheng, Y.-P. (2021, May 5). Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound stimulation. Wiley Online Library. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1002/jum.15738 Pernick, N. (2022, January 19). Osteoporosis. Pathology Outlines. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/boneosteoporosis.html Pinney, A. (2021, May 26). Newest 3D-printing technology could help bones heal faster and more comfortably. The Daily Dot. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.dailydot.com/debug/3d-printed-casts-modern-expensive/ Pisani, P., Renna, M. D., Conversano, F., Casciaro, E., Paola, M. D., Quarta, E., Muratore, M., & Casciaro, S. (2016, March 18). Major osteoporotic fragility fractures: Risk factor updates and societal impact. World Journal of Orthopedics. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v7.i3.171 Poolman, R. W., Agoritsas, T., Siemieniuk, R., Harris, I. A., Schipper, I. B., Mollon, B., Smith, M., Albin, A., Nador, S., Sasges, W., Schandelmaier, S., Lytvyn, L., Kuijpers, T., van Beers, L. W. A. H., Verhofstad, M. H. J., & Vandvik, P. O. (2017, February 21). Low intensity pulsed 657

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ ultrasound (LIPUS) for Bone Healing: A clinical practice guideline. The BMJ. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j576 Robinson, J. (2020, October 27). Osteoporosis spine fractures: Risks, symptoms, treatments. WebMD. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/guide/osteoporosis-and-spine-fracture#:~:text=When %20osteoporosis%20has%20made%20your,%2C%20sit%2C%20or%20lift%20objects Romanò, C.L., Kirienko, A., Sandrone, C., Toro, G., Toro, A., Valente, E.P., Caporale, M., Imbimbo, M., Falzarano, G., Setti, S. et al. Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound in the Treatment of Nonunions and Fresh Fractures: A Case Series. Trauma Care. https://doi.org/10.3390/traumacare2020014 Rutten, S., van den Bekerom, M. P. J., Sierevelt, I. N., & Nolte, P. A. (2016, March 29). Enhancement of Bone-Healing by Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound: A Systematic Review. JB&JS Reviews. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.2106/jbjs.rvw.o.00027 Sigmax. (2016, August). Ultrasound Bone Healing System - Accellus mini. Sigmax. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.sigmax-med.jp/assets/uploads/2015/08/en_AccellusMini_catalog.pdf Sözen , T., Özışık , L., & Başaran, N. Ç. (2017, March). An overview and management of osteoporosis. European Journal of Rheumatology. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.048 Stinson, L. (2013, July 3). Is this 3-D printed cast the future of Healing Broken Bones? Wired. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.wired.com/2013/07/is-this-cast-the-future-of-healing-broken-bones/ The Johns Hopkins University. (2021, August 8). Compression fractures. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/compression-fractures U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). Osteoporosis. National Institute on Aging. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/osteoporosis#:~:text=Preventing%20Osteoporosis,stairs%2C %20tennis%2C%20and%20dancing Veritas Health. (n.d.). Boston Brace. Spine-Health. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.spine-health.com/glossary/boston-brace Veronick, J. (2017). Ultrasound as a Physical Force for Scaffold-Based Bone Repair. Doctoral Dissertations. https://opencommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/1487/ Vertebral Classification in Human and Mouse. LifeMap Discovery®. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://discovery.lifemapsc.com/library/images/vertebral-classification-in-human-and-mouse Victoria State Government. (2014, September 30). Bone fractures. Better Health Channel. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/bone-fractures Warden, S. J., Fuchs, R. K., Kessler, C. K., Avin, K. G., Cardinal, R. E., & Stewart, R. L. (2006). Ultrasound Produced by a Conventional Therapeutic Ultrasound Unit Accelerates Fracture Repair. Physical Therapy, 86(8), 1118–1127. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/86.8.1118 Xin, Z., Lin, G., Lei, H., Lue, T. F., & Guo, Y. (2016). Clinical applications of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound and its potential role in urology. Translational Andrology and Urology, 5(2), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.21037/tau.2016.02.04 Ye, D., Xu, Y., Zhang, H., Fu, T., Jiang, L., & Bai, Y. (2013, September 26). Effects of low-dose microwave on the healing of fractures with titanium alloy internal fixation: An experimental study in a rabbit model. PLOS ONE. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075756 Yoo, J.-H., Moon, S.-H., Ha, Y.-C., Lee, D. Y., Gong, H. S., Park, S. Y., & Yang, K. H. (2015, November 30). Osteoporotic fracture: 2015 position statement of the Korean Society for Bone and mineral research. Journal of Bone Metabolism. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.11005%2Fjbm.2015.22.4.175 658

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Thanks to the rise in awareness of mental well-being and therapy, greater attention has been given to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as a serious mental disorder. New ideas have emerged regarding the treatment of PTSD. Before PTSD gained acceptance as a serious mental disorder, traumatic memories were often overlooked and thought to happen only to people who are mentally unstable. As a result, many people have suffered mentally from traumatic memories but were rather neglected with less care and attention given to them. According to the National Library of Medicine, approximately 500,000 U.S. soldiers suffer from PTSD; while it is clear that the number of veterans suffering from PTSD must be reduced, deciding on the most effective treatments is an important task that is still left behind (Reisman, 2016). Until now, various therapeutic methods for war veterans have been used in combination with medical treatments to help soldiers with their trauma. Among them, two possible therapeutic interventions in treating PTSD patients other than medical treatments have come to the fore, Prolonged Exposure (PE) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) respectively. Nonetheless, these treatment methods must be further investigated in their effectiveness to examine which one of these possible therapeutic treatments for PTSD is more effective in treating severe PTSD patients such as war veterans.

2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV The objective of this research proposal is to examine which of the most widely-used psychotherapeutic and neurological treatment methods, Prolonged Exposure (PE) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), respectively, is more effective for PTSD. Most of all, this research focuses on the comparison of the efficacy of PE and EMDR when applied to war veterans who suffer from post-war trauma.

%DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH The term PTSD, a mental disorder that can occur in people who underwent traumatic events such as crime, child abuse, or natural disaster, was coined by the American Psychiatric Association in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1980. People who often suffer from PTSD might re-experience the traumatic event through flashbacks or nightmares and they may develop negative emotions associated with the experience when they recall them (“What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?,” n.d.). Based on numerous research on treatments for PTSD, there are currently 3 major approaches to cure PTSD by experts: psychotherapy, neurological therapy, and medication (Stanborough, 2021). Among the three, this research aims to examine the two psychological interventions that can be handled in the field of Psychology rather than Pharmacology: psychotherapy and neurological therapy (See Fig. 1).

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ While there are different treatments using psychotherapy and neurological therapy for PTSD, Prolonged Exposure (PE) is shown to be the most effective among psychotherapy focusing on cognition (See Fig. 2) (Schnurr et al., 2022), and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is proven to be the most effective among neurological therapy (See Fig. 3) (Sandbox Family Services, 2022). However, further study is needed to figure out which is more effective in treating PTSD patients.

While PE and EMDR both target traumatic experiences directly to treat the illness, their underlying mechanisms and the application of these treatments are different. Patients during PE treatments are continuously exposed to fearful stimuli resulting from their traumatic memories. However, in EMDR sessions, patients are distracted from memories causing stress by being distracted with eye movements and carrying out dual attention tasks. More specifically, PE, a type of cognitive therapy, exposes patients to traumatic memories, feelings, and situations to confront fears (“Prolonged Exposure (PE),” n.d.). During PE, through repetitive reminders of fearful memories that have been avoided, patients can have their symptoms of PTSD decreased by realizing that trauma-related memories are not harmful to them and do not need to be turned away. The two types of exposure are imaginal exposure and in vivo exposure. For imaginal exposure, the patient must try to recall the traumatic event that happened as vividly as possible and then describe it to the therapist (“What is exposure therapy?,” n.d.). For in vivo exposure, the patient directly faces the traumatic event that the patient wants to avoid. For example, if a patient has trauma associated with a car accident, the patient might be frequently exposed to the situation by riding a car(“In Vivo Exposures for Prolonged Exposure Therapy During a Pandemic,” 2020). During EMDR therapy, the therapist and the patient identify all the emotions linked to the traumatic memory (Riddle, 2022). Then, the patient is asked to focus on the therapist’s bilateral finger movements and follow them with both eyes (EMDR Institute, 2019). The sets of these bilateral eye movements are repeated until the memory does not disturb the patient anymore, and during this process, the negative thoughts associated with the traumatic events are replaced by 661

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ positive thoughts. This works by having the bilateral external stimuli interfere with the brain area where the traumatic memories are stored and processed and exposing the patient to a peaceful resolution. While both PE and EMDR are proven to be effective in treating PTSD (Van Minnen et al., 2020), there is not enough evidence to decide on which method to prioritize as the most effective treatment. While some countries provide welfare for veterans, many countries still do not have sufficient infrastructure to provide therapies for war veterans. Therefore, given the recent findings that veterans prefer in-person therapy for PTSD (Morland et al., 2019), it is important to further investigate the most effective therapeutic approach among many possible options in order to be more efficient in treating veterans.

5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRGV To investigate which of PE and EMDR is more effective in treating PTSD in war veterans, an experiment shall be conducted on war veterans who are diagnosed with PTSD due to their war experiences. Participants will be chosen by volunteer sampling, and they will be separated into 3 groups: one control group with no treatment (Control Group) and two experimental groups with each receiving PE treatment (PE Group) and EMDR treatment (EMDR Group) only. Both experimental groups (PE Group and EMDR Group) will be treated for an equal number and period of weekly therapeutic sessions over 12 weeks. In order to measure and compare the change caused by the PE and EMDR therapies, all the participants will be taking a periodic survey using the Treatment-Outcome Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale (TOP-8) at the beginning for baseline measurement and every four weeks until the end of the 12-week experiment (“What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),” n.d.). Finally, all the data gained from the experiment will be analyzed to draw a conclusion on which of the therapeutic methods, PE and EMDR, is more effective.

$QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ In conclusion, we believe this research will offer an important standard for deciding which treatment to offer PTSD patients first. While both PE and EMDR effectively reduce the symptoms in PTSD patients (Stanbury et al., 2020), EMDR is anticipated to show more effectiveness in quickly relieving the symptoms of severe PTSD . While both PE Group and EMDR Group would report significantly lower scores on the PTSD scale on the fourth measurement compared to Control Group, participants in EMDR Group would report a more significant drop in PTSD scores than those in PE Group would. This will show that both PE and EMDR are effective in relieving PTSD, but the effectiveness will be of greater magnitude when treating with EMDR. This prediction is based on the results of a meta-analysis where the patients treated with EMDR showed more decreased levels of PTSD symptoms such as intrusion and arousal severity than patients treated with PE (Chen et al., 2015). In addition, possible reasons for this result can be found in another research where the patients treated with EMDR showed more commitment toward the treatment with lower dropout rate when compared to the patients treated with PE (Ironson et al., 2002). In summary, EMDR is expected to result in clinically and statistically more significant improvements in PTSD participants than PE treatment, and this will contribute to providing veterans with the treatment in a more efficient way. Examining the effectiveness of PTSD treatment is also crucial in determining government policy for mental health services to veterans in a more costeffective way. Besides, as mankind is facing increased exposure to stressful events in modern society, relieving traumatic memories has become more important. By prioritizing the most effective treatment, the efforts of various experts in the psychology field will be further strengthened to bring out the best outcome in our society. 662

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFHV Chen, L., Zhang, G., Hu, M., & Liang, X. (2015, June). The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Abstract/2015/06000/Eye_Movement_ Desensitization_and_Reprocessing.8.aspx EMDR Institute. (2019). What Is EMDR?: Comparison of Two Treatments for Traumatic Stress https://www.emdr.com/what-is-emdr/ Integrative Psychology. (2018). What is Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing {EMDR}?. https://integrativepsych.co/modalities/emdr-therapy-new-york In Vivo Exposures for Prolonged Exposure Therapy During a Pandemic. United States Department of Veterans Affairs. (2020, June 22). https://www.ptsd.va.gov/covid/COVID_pe_invivo.asp# :~:text=During%20in%20vivo%20exposure%2C%20patients,in%20vivo%20exposure%20b

etween%20sessions Ironson, G., Freund, B., Strauss, J. and Williams, J. (2002), Comparison of two treatments for traumatic stress: A community-based study of EMDR and prolonged exposure. J. Clin. Psychol., 58: 113-128. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.1132 Miao, X. R., Chen, Q. B., Wei, K., Tao, K. M., & Lu, Z. J. (2018, September 28). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: From Diagnosis to Prevention. Military Medical Research, mmrjournal. biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-018-0179-0 Morland, L. A., Wells, S. Y., Glassman, L. H., Grubbs, K. M., Mackintosh, M.-A., Golshan, S., Sohn, M. J., Thorp, S. R., Savage, U. C., & Acierno, R. E. (2019, March 6). What do veterans want? understanding veterans' preferences for PTSD treatment delivery. OUP Academic. https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article/184/11-12/686/5370037 Prolonged exposure (PE). n.d. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ ptsd-guideline/treatments/prolonged-exposure Reisman, M. (2016, October). PTSD Treatment for Veterans: What’s Working, What’s New, and What’s Next. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5047000/#:~:text=In%20one%20major%20study%20of,as%2020%25%20to%2030%2 5.&text=As%20many%20as%20500%2C000%20U.S.,have%20been%20diagnosed%20wit h%20PTSD Riddle, J. (2022, April 28). EMDR Therapy for Anxiety, Panic, PTSD and Trauma. Psycom.net Mental Health. www.psycom.net/emdr-therapy-anxiety-panic-ptsd-trauma Sandbox Family Services. (2022). EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing). https://www.sandboxfamilyservices.com/emdr Schnurr, P. P., Chard, K. M., Ruzek, J. I., Chow, B. K., Resick, P. A., Foa, E. B., Marx, B. P., Friedman, M. J., Bovin, M. J., Caudle, K. L., Castillo, D., Curry, K. T., Hollifield, M., Huang, G. D., Chee, C. L., Astin, M. C., Dickstein, B., Renner, K., Clancy, C. P., Collie, C., … Shih, M. C. (2022). Comparison of Prolonged Exposure vs Cognitive Processing Therapy for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among US Veterans: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA network open, 5(1), e2136921. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jamanetworkopen.2021.36921 663

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Stanborough, R. J. (2021, July 7). PTSD treatment: What are the most effective therapy options? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/ptsd-treatment#self-help Stanbury, T. M. M. G., Drummond, P. D., Laugharne, J., Kullack, C., & Lee, C. W. (2020, February 1). Comparative efficiency of EMDR and prolonged exposure in treating posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized trial. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research. https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgremdr/14/1/2 Van Minnen, A., Voorendonk, E. M., Rozendaal, L., & De Jongh, A. (2020, August). Sequence Matters: Combining Prolonged Exposure and EMDR Therapy for PTSD. Psychiatry Research. eprints.worc.ac.uk/9445/7/de-Jongh-2020-Sequence-matters-CombiningProlonged-Exposure-and-EMDR-therapy-for-PTSD.pdf What is exposure therapy? (n.d.). American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/exposure-therapy What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? (n.d.). American Psychiatric Association. https://psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW During the Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler, numerous policies were implemented. These policies included Hitler's strategies to regulate Nazi Germany’s economy, politics, foreign affairs, force, and more. These also included social policies that targeted German women, a crucial factor during the Nazi regime. These domestic policies highly reflected the Nazi ideologies—including volksgemeinschaft—as well as Nazi ideals of traditional roles, aiming to achieve their national objectives and maintain power. It is interesting and essential to explore to what extent these policies had advantages for women, considering the financial aid and government recognition but also had disadvantages with sudden changes in policies that encouraged them to work in industries and businesses, just the opposite of what they have been told for the most of their lives, towards World War II in 1945.

/LWHUDWXUH UHYLHZ Under Hitler, one of the primary national objectives of Nazi Germany was volksgemeinschaft, where they implemented numerous policies to create a nation only consisting of pure Aryan Germans. To achieve this, women were encouraged to give birth to a healthy Aryan baby and serve their family as well as their husbands. These women's policies are studied in a journal article called Politics of Gender: Women in Nazi Germany, a secondary source written by Charu Gupta. Here, Gupta explores how closely related women's policies are to Nazi ideologies and their visions. For instance, the article presents how the Nazi’s obsession with motherhood is an example of “Nazis taking specific measures to increase Aryan birth rate” (Gupta). These are all evident from how the Nazis offered financial aid and loans to encourage “marriage and procreation” (Gupta). Different levels of medals were also given to mothers based on the number of children they had; the more birth women gave, the more they were recognized and respected by the government through

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ receiving higher levels of the Mother’s Cross. Therefore to these women, the Mother’s Cross implied recognition from the government as a way of expressing gratitude for their contribution to the country. On the other hand, measures were taken to not only encourage procreation and ultimately increase the population of healthy Aryan babies, but also to prevent births that were undesired. What Nazis desired were healthy babies with pure German blood. Any other births to unhealthy, disabled, or non-Aryan babies were considered undesirable; giving birth to these children was considered against the goals of nationalism. The article provides various laws that Hitler implemented to strengthen volksgemeinschaft and prevent unwanted births. One of them was the 'Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Off- spring', which legalized sterilization. Lastly, this source addresses the changes in Nazi policies towards the start of World War II. Previously, women were prohibited from working in the political, economic, and social services as well as being dismissed in civil and jury services throughout the 1930s. However, as men were conscripted for World War II, women were exhorted to fill in the workplaces of men. Furthermore, women’s jobs were expanded in fields where they were previously employed. This source successfully presents various women's policies, laws, organizations, and programs. It also demonstrates how these policies directly reflect the Nazi’s needs, evident from how policies reformed as Nazi Germany prepared for war. This source is highly significant for this research as it provides a deep explanation of Nazi’s women policies, which this research paper aims to explore.

The journal article, FROM ADVENTURE AND ADVANCEMENT TO DERAILMENT AND DEMOTION: EFFECTS OF NAZI GENDER POLICY ON WOMEN'S CAREERS AND LIVES, written by Michelle Mouton discusses Nazi organizations and programs for girls to those for women. Unlike the other sources, this journal article explores the policies not just for German

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ women but also for young girls. It introduces several programs including the League of German Girls, National Socialist Women’s Organization, and Reich Mother Service. To young girls, these programs aimed to inculcate them about women’s roles—to be prolific and dedicated to housework. Although this source discusses other aspects of women's policies, it is essential for this research as it provides information about how Nazis tried to implement motherhood to women from a young age. Nazi policies for girls are only presented in this resource, making it a valuable source.

The last source is called Life for women and the family in Nazi Germany from a website named µBBC Bitesize’. This thematically organizes what women’s lives were like during Nazi Germany. The source introduces how Nazis’ views on women are expanded on their policies. For instance, it summarizes that “the natural order” was the men’s responsibility to protect their families and the women’s duty to serve their families. With these ideals, Hitler wanted to increase the population of pure Aryans. He further emphasized that women’s roles should be centered around the three ‘Ks’, which refers to Kinder (children), Kuche, (Kitchen), and Kirche (church). This was established through several measures, including educating girls to be housewives and mothers, providing financial incentives to stay at home, preventing them from civil services, and more. Marriages and children for women are also discussed. The source provides how Hitler accomplished increasing Aryan marriages and birth rates through laws and incentives such as the ‘Law for the Encouragement of Marriage’, ‘Mother’s Cross’, and ‘Marriage Law of 1938’. Lastly, this source evaluates how successful the Nazi policies were. This source is significant because it provides what the life of a German woman living in Nazi Germany looks like. This is a crucial piece of information that is needed not only for writing the context of the research paper but also for my understanding of how each policy influenced various aspects of women’s lives. Unlike the other resources, this literature also gives a brief overview of men’s role in society, which allows a comparison between men's and women’s roles.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HVHDUFK 4XHVWLRQ V The research question is: To what extent were Hitler’s domestic policies during Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 beneficial to women? This topic is significant to study because this research not only reveals the influence of Nazi policies on women but also how their policies were reformed as it was adapted based on what Nazis most desired. For instance, despite the Nazi’s use of propaganda, policies, and awards to encourage most German women to become prolific mothers and housewives, this soon changed when the Nazis initiated war preparation; men were conscripted and women were required to replace what had been their husband and son’s job in industries and businesses. In the course of this research, I hope to discover how women experienced and negotiated Nazi policies toward them, and assess the advantages and disadvantages they were able to glean.

0HWKRGV To answer the inquiry, this investigation will first examine the events and affairs of Nazi Germany from 1933, when Hitler becomes the chancellor, to 1945, when World War II begins. This historical context is crucial to know because it determines what the Nazis want and ultimately how their policies are shaped. The background knowledge regarding Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 will be evaluated from primary and secondary sources, including Nazi policies such as the 25-point program. Each section of the 25-point program will be evaluated to review how each point relates to the Nazi’s goals. Moreover, the various ideologies of the Nazis will be examined as they are significant factors that Nazis aimed to achieve through their policies. Its role will further be explored by reviewing historiographies that evaluate the influence of Nazi ideologies on their policies. Lastly, specific policies and organizations for women will be explored as well as how they impact women’s societal roles. This includes the reinforcement of traditional values where women were confined to the home as well as social mobility for women that happened along the Nazis’ road to war. This will also cover how the policies throughout the years targeted Ayan and 669

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ non-Aryan women differently. These policies will be studied by referring to several journal articles that specifically analyze the lives of women, including Aryan and non-Ayran. A comparative analysis will be conducted to see how women are advantaged and disadvantaged based on how they are seen by the Nazis.

5HIHUHQFHV FROM ADVENTURE AND ADVANCEMENT TO DERAILMENT AND DEMOTION: EFFECTS OF NAZI GENDER POLICY ON WOMEN'S CAREERS AND LIVES on JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40802012#metadata_info_tab_contents. Accessed 31 Aug. 2022. “Life for Women and the Family in Nazi Germany - CCEA - GCSE History Revision CCEA - BBC Bitesize.” BBC Bitesize, www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxb8msg/revision/5. Accessed 31 Aug. 2022. Lynch, Michael. Access to History for the IB Diploma: Authoritarian States Second Edition. Hodder Education, 2015. Politics of Gender: Women in Nazi Germany on JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4397988?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents. Accessed 30 Aug. 2022.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW With the development of various types of social media, new ways of interaction and communication among people have resulted in unique human behaviors. Social media users tend to emphasize the positive aspects of their lives despite their actual situations. Analyzing this unusual behavior of people on social media platforms, experts point out that the behavior is heavily related to two psychological effects, selective amnesia and the MUM effect. Selective amnesia occurs when people lose the memory of only some portion of events, especially traumatic ones. This type of amnesia is established to forget the fear within individual experiences of stressful events. MUM effect is a behavior in which people have a hardship of telling bad news to ones who are receiving the message compared to positive news. These two psychological effects play a significant role in people’s actions on social media since they make people emphasize the positive side of events by avoiding negative features. As a measure to examine how these psychological effects result in people’s behaviors reflected on social media, an experiment is proposed to compare private records on a diary to public records on social media. This experiment will help to further investigate the tendency of the human brain to purge bad memories and emphasize the positive aspects of life by using social media.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ ,QWURGXFWLRQ Social media and the pros and cons of utilizing it have gained more attention in recent years with vital technological developments. Today, about 4 billion people around the world use different social media platforms daily (Chaffey, 2022). Despite the different backgrounds of social media users, they have similar reasons for constantly using the platforms. Many utilize social networks to share their pictures and updates, which shows that the majority of social media users want to share the most exciting moments of their lives (See Fig. 1).

)LJ Many social media users state that a reason for using social media is to share pictures and posts with others. From “Why people use social media,” by Charlesworth, A., 2019, AlanCharlesworth (2nd ed). People mainly focus on sharing their daily lives and special events with others through pictures on social media. Eventually, countless posts uploaded on those platforms mainly contain positive news about the individual, such as their marriage, birthday, and their successful career. Regardless of the exciting and happy-looking pictures on social media, approximately 60% of the users suffer from anxiety disorder and 50% of the users experience depression and dissatisfaction with their lives (OnlineTherapy, 2022). The ironic situation, where people who look successful and satisfied with their lives are suffering from critical mental health issues in reality, is not new to our generation. However, compared to the past, the number of people who experience this ironic situation has increased dramatically, and there have been efforts to understand this phenomenon. Earlier researches indicate that psychological issues established by this phenomenon are closely related to the tendency of the brain to purge excessively negative events. /LWHUDWXUH 5HYLHZ Selective amnesia and the MUM effect are psychological effects that significantly influence memory in different ways. According to research, events that seem to be meaningless or stressful to one could be easily removed from our memory due to selective amnesia (Anderson, 2018). The experiment utilized rodents, which are similar to humans, to study how selective amnesia happens and the changes in the brain while experiencing it. First, rats were placed in Maze A, and they had the time to explore and learn its structure. Then, those rats were separated into two groups, Group 1 673

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ and Group 2. These groups were placed into Maze B, which has a different structure from Maze A. Again, those rats explored and memorized the structure of Maze B. After this, Group 1 was placed in Maze A repeatedly to explore Maze A, while Group 2 stayed in their cage. When both groups were placed back into Maze B, Group 2 was able to complete the maze more quickly than Group 1. (Bekinschtein, Weisstaub, Gallo, et al., 2018) Group 1, which explored Maze A multiple times, forgot the structure of Maze B since their brain regarded that information as useless. Therefore, the result of this experiment illustrates the selective amnesia experienced by rats is caused when certain memories are considered meaningless. Because of the constant training with Maze A, rats considered the structure of Maze B as less important information to remember. The experiment results explain how people tend to forget the useless or harmful information and try to fill those with more practical or beneficial ones. Hence, it can be inferred that people often try to show the positive side of their lives on social media to forget the problems or negative aspects of their lives. Another psychological effect called the MUM effect also critically influences one’s behavior when they encounter negative news. The MUM effect happens when one should tell the negative news, such as the death of a family, to the recipient who is directly involved in the news (“MUM Effect,” 2016). During this situation, people tend to distort the information in the news while they assess alternative ways of telling the news (See Fig. 2). To be specific, when people are in the status that they should report the negative news, they initially show a personal response to the news. Then, they find alternative ways of reporting the news, which could be slightly different wordings or even distorting the whole information. During an experiment, the researchers told each subject positive, neutral, and negative news, then made the subject tell that news to the recipients (Rosen & Tesser, 1970). The result revealed that people tend to change the information or become reluctant to tell the negative news since the majority of subjects distorted the given information. This phenomenon explains that human brains have a tendency to change and alter the negative news and make them sound more positive. The nature of people revealed by this experiment reflects the behaviors of people on social media since they also tend to only share exciting news with their online friends.

)LJ Diagram that shows Steps of MUM Effect. From “A framework to manage reluctance to bad news reporting on software projects in state universities in Zimbabwe,” by Maseko, M., et al., 2020, ResearchGate. Therefore, these two different types of research on selective amnesia and the MUM effect showed that the brain distorts or forgets the negative information that could harm people. 5HVHDUFK 3ODQ DQG 2EMHFWLYHV This research mainly focuses on finding the significant connection between people’s behaviors on social media and the psychological effects on people’s memory and the information they have. The increased usage of social media has not only brought various benefits to human society, but has also dramatically increased the number of patients suffering from depression, anxiety disorder, and other mental illnesses. Recently, the percentage of people who experience 674

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ anxiety disorder and depression has gone up to 4% and 3.5% respectively (See Fig. 3), which are significantly higher percentages compared to the past (Williams, 2021). To prevent the further increase of the irony and find a solution, understanding the connection between social media users’ behaviors and the psychological effects is important.

)LJ The percentage of people who are suffering from different mental illnesses among the world population. From “Mental Health,” by Dattani, S., et al., 2021, Our World in Data (2nd ed.). The primary research method for this study should mainly focus on a literature review and an experiment on current social media users. First of all, gaining a thorough understanding of the concepts of selective amnesia and the MUM effect as well as their influence provides the foundation for the research. After clarifying those concepts, analyzing the changes and influences that social media have brought to modern society is the next step. Designing an experiment to understand the effects of social media in real life is the essential step for this research. During the experiment, participants will record the same daily events in two different ways; one is a diary, which is kept confidential, and the other is a social media post, which will share events with other users. Then, comparing how the same account is written differently and explaining the difference with the psychological effects should be the last step. This comparison will reveal how people are affected psychologically while using social media. Therefore, this research will mainly focus on finding the connection between the unique behavior of people on social media and the various psychological effects that influence one’s mind. This research will be the next step toward resolving increasing mental illness issues in today’s society.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFH 6 in 10 Americans say social media negatively affects their mental health. (2022, June 7). Online Therapy. https://www.onlinetherapy.com/6-in-10-americans-say-social-medianegatively-affects-their-mental-health/ Anderson, M. (2018, November 7). Selective amnesia: How rats and humans are able to actively forget distracting memories. University of Cambridge. Retrieved September 7, 2022, from https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/selective-amnesia-how-rats-and-humans-are-able-toactively-forget-distracting-memories Bekinschtein, P., Weisstaub, N. V., Gallo, F., Renner, M., & Anderson, M. C. (2018, November 7). A retrieval-specific mechanism of adaptive forgetting in the mammalian brain. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-07128-7 Chaffey, D. (2022, August 31). Global Social Media Statistics Research Summary 2022. Smart Insights. https://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-media -strategy/new-global-social-media-research/ Charlesworth, A. (2019). Why people use social media. AlanCharlesworth.com. https://www. alancharlesworth.com/Alans-musings/why-people-use-social-media Dattani, S., Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2021, August 20). Mental health. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/mental-health Maseko, M., Zhou, T., G., Tsokota, T. (2020, November). A framework to manage reluctance to bad news reporting on software projects in state universities in Zimbabwe. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mum-effect-model-Smith-Keil-2003_fig1_341780637 Mum effect. (2016, January 27). Psychology. http://psychology. iresearchnet.com/papers/mum-effect/ Rosen, S., & Tesser, A. (1970). On Reluctance to Communicate Undesirable Information: The MUM Effect. Sociometry, 33(3), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786156 Williams, D. N. (2021, December 1). Are mental health issues increasing? News. https://www. news-medical.net/health/Are-Mental-Health-Issues-Increasing.aspx

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW This research proposal aims to render a human-understandable and human-like learning process. There are a lot of theories that explain human learning, and the selected theories in this research proposal set the crucial human learning components to curiosity and context. For the implementation of curiosity, the proposal takes the neuron system and time parameters of SNNs (Spiking Neural Networks) and the structure of RNNs (Recurrent Neural Networks) for the derivation of context in learning. Training data sets will start from vocabularies with meanings, and after training, the network will likely print a timeline of data. Attaining the learning context of the machine will not only bring the accessibility of artificial intelligence to non-professional users but also enhance the application of biological structures like the human brain, which might lead to further comprehension of human cognition itself.

3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Artificial Intelligence always has been one of the most considered topics for a decade or more. Machines have developed their algorithms rapidly and markedly by mimicking how the human brain learns and memorizes: these algorithms are called neural networks or, officially, ANNs (Artificial Neural Networks.) ANNs are composed of each input, hidden, and output layers. ANNs that contain more than two hidden layers are called deep neural networks (DNNs), and it has demonstrated their effectiveness in many aspects. However, although these neural networks perform brilliantly in the machine itself, inputs beyond training data and complicated hidden layers often meet incomprehensible outputs.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV This proposal aims to implement the most natural human intellectual inquiry in the networking process of machine learning. Referring to recent studies about neural networks that started to focus on SNNs (Spiking Neural Networks), which are very similar to biological neurons, SNNs have been well implemented in modeling nervous systems and cognitive function simulations. The upcoming research will submerge the found human method into the mechanism based on SNNs.

[Figure 1]Algorithm of CBSNN and the Equations (Shi M, et al., 2020)

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH (1) Curiosity and Motivation Deep learning, the most known machine learning process, takes the reward system into its mechanism by setting weights. However, human cognition does not work with simple behaviorism. People wouldn’t have to go outer space if human beings only wonder about things that give any benefits to their living. Curiosity is the central figure that enhances human cognition more than any other. “Curiosity is the impulse towards better cognition (James 1899)” Curiosity is a disposition to inquire, investigate or seek after knowledge. It is simply the frame of mind in which you want to learn more about something. It also provides the source of internal motivation that comprises the foundation of education. (Binson, 2009) Curiosity also is known as an important stimulant of motivation in human activities. Curiosity has been described as a desire for earning and knowledge, especially what is unknown (Kang et al., 2009). However, according to the study by Kang, the graph between confidence, the belief that one will eventually know about something, and curiosity showed a U-shaped function which means that curiosity decreases when there is a lack of information or too much information about something.

(2) SNNs Recent studies about neural networks started to focus on SNNs, the Spiking Neural Networks. SNNs are very similar to biological neurons, so they have been well implemented in modeling nervous systems and cognitive function simulations. SNNs hold the concept of neurons and spikes by time parameters. To elaborate, the neuron’s initial state (mainly in the units of voltage) changes by temporal information and the spikes from other neurons. When the neuron’s potential meets the threshold, a spike occurs. As SNNs

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ with temporal information are beneficial because information processing is efficient, researchers are finding a way to replace machine learning with SNNs in various functions, such as recognizing objects and numbers. The most crucial part of SNNs is to open the possibility of the networks making different patterns of spikes under the same condition of time and inputs in order to conduct biologically accurate simulations. CPUs and GPUs were used in processing the traditional framework. However, these processors are unsuitable for SNNs because the information transformation between CPU and memory usually costs too much time and cannot fix the problem of overfitting. SNNs usually are processed in customized frameworks and adopt Leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) neuron model as the basic processing unit.

(3) Significance The significance of designing a new Curiosity & Context–Based neural network would be the attempts to implement a human-like learning process in neural networks. Also, it has a unique difference from the traditional neural networks as it would allow humans to understand the context of the data that the machine had trained and newly learned.

4. 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRGV This research will use Curiosity-Based SNNs for the implementation of the human-like learning method in machines. In the research, the threshold will be set in the standard of originality and the relativity of the trained data. Also, the process will take the structure of RNNs (Recurrent Neural Networks) to apply the human mechanism of ‘relating the new data to the existing data.’ Every data that came up with a spike would be the output with

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ the time parameter of that particular node and also one of the input data of the subsequent neurons. Training data sets will be composed of random vocabulary and a library with meanings of the vocabulary.

$QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ After training, CBSNNs will print timelines of related data that the machine has studied by generating spikes with data relative to the training data sets. By attaining access of the time-lined context of data, we could seek out the potential of understandable machine learning that are human-friendly and accessible to non-professional users.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFH CHENYU SUN et al. (2022). From Psychological Curiosity to Artificial Curiosity: CuriosityDriven Learning in Artificial Intelligence Tasks. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2201.08300 Twomey, K. E., & Westermann, G. (2018). Curiosity-based learning in infants: a neurocomputational approach. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12629. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12629 Shi M et al. (2020). A Curiosity-Based Learning Method for Spiking Neural Networks. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2020.00007 National Research Council. (2002). Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools (pp. 117-122). National Academies Press. Avargil, S., Kohen, Z., & Saar, L. (2018). Context-based learning and metacognitive prompts for enhancing scientific text comprehension. International Journal of Science Education, 40(10), 1198–1220. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2018.1470351 Lee, S. (2019). A Digital Neuron Architecture for Flexible Spiking Neural Network Simulations. https://hdl.handle.net/10371/150766

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW Social class identifies an individual’s socio-economic status (wealth, education, etc.). Generally, classes are established into three basic groups: upper, middle, and working classes. This significantly shapes how each of the groups perceives, interprets, and reacts to their environment. Social class also influences the behavior and actions of individuals and moral and ethical decision-making (Manstead, 270-271). A commonly held belief is that members of the upper social class have higher ethical standards compared to lower social classes (Piff et al., par.1). However, some research contradicts the stereotype of what most people believed in. According to the findings, those of higher social class are likely to behave more unethically, for example, cheating on other people for personal gain, breaking laws while driving, taking valuable goods from others, lying in a negotiation, and endorsing unethical behaviors at work. However, one aspect that was missing from the research was deeper concepts of morality and the relationship with social class. The aim of this proposal is to look into the findings of the research and define a more rigid and comprehensive framework to analyze the relationship between social class and ethics. /LWHUDWXUH 5HYLHZ According to research done by the Department of Psychology of the University of California, Berkeley in conjunction with the Rotman School of Management Toronto, upper-class individuals were more likely to act unethically. Test results showed that upper-class individuals were more inclined to exhibit unethical decision-making tendencies, take valuable goods from others, lie in a negotiation, cheat to increase their chances of winning a prize, and endorse unethical behavior at work than low-class individuals (Piff et al., par.5). Figure 1 shows that High Social Class individuals are more likely to act unethically than Lower Social Class individuals without prior conditioning while showing little deviation after conditioning took place. Lower Social Class respondents are much more affected by “greed is good” conditioning, while showing much more ethical behavior in an unprimed state. In each of the seven experiments run in the research, the results were similar to one another, implying that the upper-class individuals are less generous and more greedy compared to the lower-class respondents. Research done by Stéphane Côté at the University of Toronto showed that upper-class individuals were more likely to make calculations to moral judgment in dilemmas without emotions involved. The individuals of the upper class made moral decisions that were more likely to maximize the greatest good for the greatest number. Figure 2 illustrates how Upper-class respondents will make judgments based on utility, rather than empathy. This research shows that social class influences the perception of individuals with regard to what is right and wrong (Côté et al., 10-11). An example of this is shown in the footbridge dilemma experiment. In this experiment, a trolley is heading down the train track toward five construction workers. However, the respondent can save the lives of five construction workers by pushing a large stranger off the bridge. According to the results, the upper class tended to push the large stranger to 685

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 Ƃ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ save five construction workers because of the number of lives saved (Côté et al., 4). A University of Innsbruck study produced a completely different set of results compared to those found by the Department of Psychology of the University of California, Berkeley. During the experiment, a wheel of fortune game with real money rewards was played. Respondents had to guess which letter the wheel would show and report correct answers. The number of correct answers was related to cash earnings. Figure 3 indicates how all groups, conditioned and unconditioned, reported higher earnings than High social class respondents from playing the game. High social class respondents were the only group who did not report higher payments than the truth-telling benchmark. Thus, this data clearly rejects the claim that the high social class people are less ethical (Gsottbauer et al., 9). 5HVHDUFK 4XHVWLRQ Recently there has been an increased interest in the connection between social class and ethics. Curiosity is how factors such as environment, education, and wealth influence moral and ethical behavior. The focus of this research will be on establishing how the social class could affect one’s ethical behavior. It will look into how the previously mentioned factors impacted ethical decision-making. Specifically, this paper will focus on answering the question of whether the higher social class is linked to improved moral and ethical decision-making. 0HWKRG Initially, defining social class would be the first step. For this study, social class can be determined by the average income, which holds a strong relationship to other factors such as education and access to opportunities, and can establish which individuals fit specific social groups. According to World Population Review, the middle class can be divided into two different groups which are low-middle class and high-middle class (“Average Family Income by State 2022”). The starting range of personal income of the low-middle class is 38,582 while high-middle class ranges can end at 161,524 us dollars. “Working-class” can be defined as those earning under $38,582, while Upper-class can be defined as those earning over $161,524. The definitions of “moral” and “ethical” tend to focus on determining “good and bad” or “right and wrong”. In the context of this research paper, we have to ask questions that cover the full scope of what can be moral and ethical. Asking simple questions, for example, “would you cheat in a game?” would not be sufficient. More complex questions are needed to fully understand people’s perceptions of wrong or right. Looking at the work of Kant and Hume regarding morality helps us to understand the more complex ideas behind this matter. Kant views morality from an ‘a priori’ (pre-existing) perspective, with morals telling us how we should act. According to this, morality is based on a pre-existing and universal principle, or a universal rule such as ‘all forms of murder are wrong.’ Hume’s perspective focuses more on the idea that all humans share a set of ‘moral feelings’, these feelings relating to what is right or wrong. They are based on context and motivation of actions, with morality being open to question (Wilson et al., lines 3-7). For this research paper, utilizing Hume's moral theory as it is broader and more fitting to the purposes of our research will enable more context-based analysis. 686

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Developing a set of questions that will accurately determine respondents’ moral perspectives should be the next step. In order to receive the best quality of responses, we will be using a combination of moral dilemma and game-based questions. Questions will also be of a mixed nature, ranging from low to high-risk moral dilemmas, as well as low to high-stakes game-based questions. When comparing experiments, these types of questions gave the most insightful results. These questions should give the most applicable answers in trying to understand the moral views of respondents. Answers will then be matched to the social class of respondents, and conclusions can be drawn with regard to social class and level of ethical/moral decision-making by comparing the answers of different social classes.

5HIHUHQFHV Manstead, Antony S. R. “The Psychology of Social Class: How Socioeconomic Status Impacts Thought, Feelings, and Behaviour.” British Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 57, no. 2, Wiley, Feb. 2018, pp. 267–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12251. Piff, Paul K., et al. “Higher Social Class Predicts Increased Unethical Behavior.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 109, no. 11, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Feb. 2012, pp. 4086–91. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118373109. Côté, Stéphane, et al. “For Whom Do the Ends Justify the Means? Social Class and Utilitarian Moral Judgment.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Oct. 2012, pp. 1–14. www-2.rotman.utoronto.ca/facbios/file/social%20class%20utilitarian%20reasoning %20JPSP.pdf. Gsottbauer, Elisabeth, et al. “Social Class and (Un)Ethical Behavior: Causal Versus Correlational Evidence.” University of Innsbruck, Oct. 2020, pp. 1–24. www2.uibk.ac.at/downloads/ c4041030/wpaper/2020-10.pdf. “Average Family Income by State 2022.” World Population Review, 2022, worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/average-family-income. Accessed 13 Sept. 2022. Wilson, Eric Entrican and Lara Denis. “Kant and Hume on Morality.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 Edition), 26 Mar. 2008, stanford.library.sydney.edu.au/archives/ spr2012/entries/kant-hume-morality/#:~:text=Hume%27s%20method%20of%20moral%20p hilosophy,that%20is%20practical%20in%20itself.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $EVWUDFW Pulmonary fibrosis is a fatal, progressive lung disease in which the tissue of the alveoli thickens, inhibiting the normal breathing process. An idiopathic injury in the lining of the alveoli eventually induces the scarring of the alveolar interstitial layer. Unfortunately, present methods of pre-diagnosis frequently result in misdiagnosis or use invasive techniques. As an instrument to effectively identify its early stages, this paper proposes a non-invasive molecular imaging system subjected to mice with near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) microscopy. Using the emission of near-infrared light to detect the concentration of certain substances in the target organism’s tissues, NIRF imaging helps visualize the changes in the biological processes in the organism. The proposed imaging method will diagnose pulmonary fibrosis when it detects the inflammation of the interstitium and the accumulation of excess extracellular matrix (ECM). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are potential biomarkers of tissue inflammation and can be located by an ROS responsive group bound to a fluorophore. Similarly, excess collagen can be detected by the collagen-specific probe CNA35 labeled with the fluorophore Cy7. Applying these two principles, the proposed imaging method would examine a mouse specimen. To image the pathogenesis of IPF, the IVIS Spectrum in vivo imaging device would be used. When examined by this device, the mice affected by lung fibrosis would display the greatest ECM concentration in the lungs. Implementing the suggested method of detecting tissue inflammation and excess ECM in this imaging machine would provide great insight into the aspects of the early symptoms of IPF.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW Affecting nearly 3 million people worldwide, pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive, chronic condition in which the walls of the alveoli become thick and stiff ()LJXUH ). The scarring of lung tissue inhibits the transportation of oxygen into the bloodstream and the expansion of the lungs, requiring more energy for breathing. Symptoms include long-term shortness of breath, fatigue, dry coughs, aching muscles and joints, and finger clubbing. Most patients are expected to die within an average of three to five years after they are diagnosed with IPF. This lung disease is not only fatal, but also idiopathic because the exact cause is still unknown. There is currently no effective cure for pulmonary fibrosis. Pre-diagnosis is particularly essential for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) patients because of such symptoms, but the current methods of diagnosing IPF have several deficiencies. Misdiagnosis of IPF is common since the signs of IPF appear similar to other lung diseases such as COPD and sarcoidosis. Furthermore, lung fibrosis is not always detected on regular X-rays. High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) is currently utilized for diagnosing IPF, but the current imaging technique employed on lung tissue involves an invasive method. For a more precise diagnosis of pulmonary fibrosis, this research will propose a non-invasive molecular imaging technique that could effectively identify its early stages. Considering that IPF involves the formation of myofibroblasts, this paper would find a non-invasive technique that also identifies diseases caused by inhibitions in the TGF-᷎ pathway. 2EMHFWLYHV DQG $LPV The objective of this research is to choose appropriate biomarkers sensitive to the pathophysiological aspects of IPF. Accordingly, specific fluorophores used to label the biomarkers will be introduced. This research will propose an appropriate device as well as the process of experimentation with the chosen imaging technique. The ultimate goal is, through the analysis of the image of a specimen with IPF and a comparison to that of a control specimen, suggesting early physiological changes in an IPF patient. %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH Pathophysiology of Pulmonary Fibrosis IPF involves a repetitive and subclinical injury that leads to epithelial damage of the alveolar-capillary basement membrane. The surface of the alveoli is composed of alveolar type I (ATI, or type I pneumocyte) and type II (ATII, or type II pneumocyte) cells ()LJXUH ). ATI cells are responsible for maintaining a barrier between blood and the alveolar wall. ATII cells are responsible for the balance of fluid levels, signal transduction, immune responses, and epithelial repair. An injury in the alveolar epithelium causes the type 1 cells to release transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ᶔ). 690

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ This signaling molecule causes type 2 cells to stimulate fibroblasts to transform into myofibroblasts, a form of fibroblasts with properties of smooth muscle cells ()LJXUH ). Myofibroblasts secrete specific extracellular matrix (ECM), including collagen and elastic fibers, to increase the structural strength of the lungs. In a fibrotic condition, the ATII cells eventually over-proliferate, leading to an excess accumulation of myofibroblasts and too many fibers. The myofibroblasts normally do not undergo apoptosis and continue to secrete even more collagen. As the build-up of excess fibers thickens the interstitial layer between capillaries and the alveoli, the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen is inhibited. Also, TGF-ᶔ drives the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), a signaling molecule for normal biological processes, from the mitochondria of target cells. RONS stimulates fibrotic responses, such as epithelial apoptosis and fibroblast transformation. NIRF as the Most Appropriate Molecular Imaging Technique The most appropriate imaging technique for this research is near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging. A non-invasive technology of current interest, NIRF imaging uses fluorescence of light between 650 nm and 950 nm to detect the concentration of certain substances across the target organism’s body. This imaging technique helps monitor and visualize the biological processes, such as physiological changes induced by an infection or physical injury, happening in the target organism. The molecules that re-emit light when exposed to a light of a different wavelength are called fluorophores. They absorb a certain amount of energy and upon relaxation from the excited state, they emit fluorescent light. ()LJXUH ). The targeted organs or tissue are visualized by the photons emitted by fluorophores. For several reasons, NIRF imaging is not only convenient, but also the most appropriate optical imaging method for early detection of diseases. First, fluorescent contrast agents display high specificity: they detect and attach to their target cells with great precision. This property enables imaging of the selected organ with few to no errors. Fluorescent contrast agents are also highly responsive to changes in the biological processes in the target organ. Second, NIRF imaging can be performed without harmful radiation exposure: it utilizes non-ionizing radiation. Indeed, the performance of NIR fluorescence microscopy for early detection of diseases is remarkable compared to other optical imaging techniques. Computational tomography (CT) employs agents that are not efficient enough to diagnose early-stage tumors and exposes subjects to ionizing radiation; X-ray imaging is restricted to analyzing anatomical structures, but not chemical changes. 691

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ Nuclear imaging modalities such as Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) . Raman Spectroscopy, a technique that measures the vibrational energy of targeted molecules via scattered light, can readily differentiate chemical structures. However, each imaging procedure requires a long duration of time, making it an undesirable choice for frequent imaging processes. Most fluorophores are covalently bonded to macromolecules, so they are used as markers for antibodies, peptides, and nucleic acids. In addition, since fluorophores used in near-infrared fluorescence emit light of wavelengths higher than most fluorescent imaging, less energy is released, causing photons to travel further.

One commonly used near-infrared fluorophore is Cyanine7 ()LJXUH left). It absorbs light at a wavelength of around 743 nm and emits light at a wavelength of 767 nm. Reactive with NHS ester, Cyanine 7 is a biomarker for proteins, antibodies, peptides, and oligonucleotides. Another near-infrared fluorescent dye is Cyanine7.5 ()LJXUH , right), which is a fluorophore reactive to amine. It excites energy at a wavelength of 788 nm and emits energy at 808 nm. It is a biomarker for molecules that contain amine groups, such as proteins and peptides, so the dispersion of these molecules can be detected. Another fluorophore, fluorescein, is an organic molecule used as a fluorescent contrast agent. In water, the maximum wavelength of fluorescein for light absorption is 494 nm and 512 nm for light emission. This compound can be utilized as a label for specific biological proteins since biologically active molecules may be attached to fluorescein. Also, fluorescein can be conjugated with nucleotide triphosphates. Biomarkers that can be used to diagnose pulmonary fibrosis The proposed fluorescence imaging method would be designed so that lung fibrosis is diagnosed when it detects the major pathophysiological process of IPF: the inflammation of the interstitial layer in alveoli. A reactive oxygen species (ROS) would be an appropriate compound for detecting inflammation. ROS are reactive chemicals formed from oxygen that serve as signaling molecules for normal biological processes ()LJXUH D). TGF-ᶔ releases ROS, which in turn stimulates fibrosis. Therefore, ROS detection is a marker of tissue inflammation. A study from Cheng et al. has revealed that Cy-ROS responsive group conjugates can be a probe for ROS. Near-infrared probes for ROS detection are initially non-fluorescent because their reduced oxygen atoms are bound to the ROS-responsive group. According to Cheng’s research group ()LJXUH E), after a non-fluorescent compound reacts with ROS, the compound breaks down into a NIR dye and an oxidized ROS-responsive group. For example, the non-fluorescent compound CyTF itself does not emit light. Once CyTF reacts with a ROS peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻); however, its ROS-responsive trifluoromethyl ketone group is oxidized, and the free-fluorescent CyOH is formed. This mechanism of turning fluorescence on and off is often used to distinguish keloid scar cells from normal fibroblasts, where high oxidative stress is detected. In this proposal, two well-known ROS-responsive groups, thiazolidinone and aryl oxalate ester, will be used to detect ROS from pulmonary fibrosis conditions.

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However, if the imaging device confirms the presence of pulmonary fibrosis only by identifying inflammation, the precision of the device would be considerably low. It may falsely identify pneumonia, the swelling of the alveoli, as pulmonary fibrosis. These two respiratory conditions both involve inflammatory responses, but these are different in that pulmonary fibrosis is a common form of idiopathic interstitial pneumonia in which fibroblasts generate an excessive amount of ECM (Lee, 2021). Furthermore, inflammation itself is not a clear sign of fibrosis because it may occur even when the body is not affected by a respiratory infection. For such reasons, the proposed method will identify both the inflammation of the interstitial layer and the accumulation of excessive ECM.

Collagen is the most significant ECM in the progress of fibrosis. Specific forms of collagens in pulmonary fibrosis patients drive the formation of myofibroblasts. A collagen-specific probe CNA35 binds to scar collagen I and III. A study from Baues et al. employed hybrid CT-fluorescence molecular imaging and CNA35 labeled with succinimidyl ester dye Cy7 ()LJXUH D). After injecting one nanomole of the CNA35-Cy7 complex, Baues’s team found a significantly higher amount of accumulated CNA35 in fibrotic kidneys than in normal kidneys ()LJXUH E). This molecular imaging method of collagen allowed the non-invasive visualization of kidney fibrosis. With the same principle applied, the fluorescence imaging device may be able to successfully image pulmonary fibrosis by detecting excessive collagen III in fibrotic lungs as well. 693

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRG A mouse specimen diagnosed with fibrotic conditions will be used to examine the pathogenesis of the disease. Specific genetic deficiencies in mice can lead to the pathogenesis of pulmonary diseases, a fact that explains why mouse models are popular options for biomedical studies of the development of chronic illnesses. Although animal models may not be entirely accurate in mimicking the progression of the diseases in humans, they can offer an insight into the way of distinguishing humans with fibrosis from those without. The pleural line of the mouse lung is approximately 3 mm to 5 mm beneath the skin (Ma et al, 2012). Though tissue depth to which NIRF imaging can detect imaging probes depends on the brightness of the probes and the sensitivity of the device, the estimated penetration depth is 2 cm to 4 cm beneath the skin. Therefore, the NIR fluorescence equipment will sufficiently examine the internal structures of the lung, including alveoli. Using mice specimens would allow for easy detection and visualization of tissue inflammation and excessive ECM. Based on previous trials done by many scientists, the data collection process will take between 5 seconds and 5 minutes per optical image (Bhang et al., 2013). NIR fluorescence spectroscopy normally has a sensitivity between 10-10 to 10-11 mol/L and has no exposure to radiation. The most popular near-infrared fluorescence imaging device in the industry is the IVIS Spectrum, designed by PerkinElmer. With its optical 3D imaging technology, the system is able to visualize cell trafficking and disease progression in small animals in vivo. IVIS Spectrum uses epi-illumination, emitting beams from above the specimen, and trans-illumination, emitting beams from below the specimen. A CCD (charged-coupled device) camera with high-efficiency filters ranging from 430 nm to 850 nm and tomographic algorithms allow the visualization of most fluorescent probes in regions of near-infrared wavelengths.

The accuracy of the device can be tested in two ways. The first method is overlapping the results of computational tomography (CT) and NIRF spectroscopy. CT detects the location of a target organ, which is the lung in my experiment. NIRF imaging produces data on the fluorescence intensity of each part of the lung. Overlapping the results of both imaging methods will reveal the accuracy of the NIRF imaging technique in detecting the targeted organ. If the data from NIRF imaging is displayed in the exact target organ in CT, the fluorescence imaging is successful. The second method is a more direct one: extracting the lung from the mouse model. Only the lung undergoes fluorescence imaging, and the data on fluorescence intensity of the lungs are compared to the data of the entire specimen. That the two pieces of data match confirms the hypothesis that the targeted organ in the test on the mouse’s whole body is indeed the lung.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RVVLEOH &RQWULEXWLRQV The proposed method of NIRF imaging using mice will be successful: the system would detect the concentration of ROS and ECM in each tissue of the body. Most importantly, the region with the greatest signal of ROS and that with the most ECM must overlap. The device may display high fluorescence intensity in other organs as well because ROS is found in most inflamed tissue. However, an accurate imaging system would detect the highest intensity in the lung, showing that the lung has the highest inflammation level and ECM accumulation. A mouse with lung fibrosis will have the most ECM in its lungs. The accuracy of the system can be strengthened even more if the location with the greatest ROS and ECM concentration matches the lung detected by CT. The initial objective of this research was to image human patients and detect the early symptoms of pulmonary fibrosis, but this goal is not feasible considering several limitations in the imaging technology today. The current IVIS spectrum cannot image subjects larger than a mouse and cannot penetrate light deep enough to monitor the human lungs. In humans, the approximate depth of the pleural line from the skin is 10 to 20 mm, and the average lung thickness is between 1.3cm and 5.4 cm — located beyond than the maximum depth that the current technology can examine. Furthermore, even if a larger version of an in vivo fluorescence imaging device is developed to accommodate larger subjects, many would hesitate to take part in clinical trials with the fear of unprecedented consequences on their health. If such challenges are overcome in the future, non-invasive detection of pulmonary fibrosis would be feasible.

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4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 5HIHUHQFHV Genentech. (2022). Understanding Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. Genentech: Breakthrough Science. One Moment, One Day, One Person at a Time. https://www.gene.com/stories/understanding-idiopathic-pulmonary-fibrosis Haschek, W. M., Haschek, W. M., Rousseaux, C. G., Wallig, M. A., & Bolon, B. (2013). Haschek and rousseaux's handbook of toxicologic pathology. Academic Press. Herrera, J., Forster, C., Pengo, T., Montero, A., Swift, J., Schwartz, M. A., Henke, C. A., & Bitterman, P. B. (2019). Registration of the extracellular matrix components constituting the fibroblastic focus in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. JCI Insight, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.125185 Imaging explained. (2019). NPS MedicineWise. https://www.nps.org.au/consumers/imaging-explained Jung, K.-H., & Lee, K.-H. (2015). Molecular Imaging in the Era of Personalized Medicine. Journal of Pathology and Translational Medicine, 49(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.4132/jptm.2014.10.24 Ma, X., Sun, Y., Wang, S., Yang, Z., & Song, Y. (2012, September). Establishment of a malignant pleural effusion mouse model with Lewis lung carcinoma cell lines expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein. Translational lung cancer research. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367562/ Miles, T. (2020). The contribution of animal models to understanding the role of the immune system in human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Wiley Online Library. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cti2.1073 Near Infrared (NIR) Fluorescent Dyes. Near infrared (NIR) fluorescent dyes. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.lumiprobe.com/c/nir-infrared-dyes Optical Imaging. (2020). Www.nibib.nih.gov. https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/optical-imaging#:~:text=and%2 0medical%20care%3FOuskhiki, D., Kojima, H., Terai, T., &amp; Arita, M. (2010). Development and Application of a Near-Infrared Fluorescence Probe for Oxidative Stress Based on Differential Reactivity of Linked Cyanine Dyes. ACS Publications. Retrieved September 15, 2022, from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja910090v U.S. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Fluorescein. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Fluorescein Vaneev, A. N., Gorelkin, P. V., Garanina, A. S., Lopatukhina, H. V., Vodopyanov, S. S., Alova, A. V., Ryabaya, O. O., Akasov, R. A., Zhang, Y., Novak, P., Salikhov, S. V., Abakumov, M. A., Takahashi, Y., Edwards, C. R. W., Klyachko, N. L., Majouga, A. G., Korchev, Y. E., & Erofeev, A. S. (2020). In Vitro and In Vivo Electrochemical Measurement of Reactive Oxygen Species After Treatment with Anticancer Drugs. Analytical Chemistry, 92(12), 8010–8014. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01256 Xu, H.-X. (2009). Contrast-enhanced ultrasound: The evolving applications. World Journal of Radiology, 1(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.4329/wjr.v1.i1.15 Ye, Z., & Hu, Y. (2021). TGF‑β1: Gentlemanly orchestrator in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (Review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 48(1). https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4965 Zhu, B., & Sevick-Muraca, E. M. (2015, January). A review of performance of near-infrared fluorescence imaging devices used in clinical studies. The British journal of radiology. Retrieved August 4, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4277384/

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Full Name (Last Name, First Name) School Name

Yoo, Jae Woo

Dulwich College

.H\ZRUGV Artificial intelligence, discrimination, fairness, decision-making

697

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ 3UREOHP 6WDWHPHQW We are bombarded every day with news regarding various innovation in artificial intelligence (AI), and today, AI has advanced to level where it can be easily incorporated into various applications and provide state-of-the-art performance. The concerning issue with this situation is as follows. Very often without having a deep understanding of the technology and just for the sake of improving performance, AI software is being incorporated into the product or service without considering the long-term consequences. It is important to understand that the prediction/output AI makes has to be fair and non-discriminatory. Fairness cannot be sacrificed for performance. Gender equality and racial equality are just the few of the equality we need to consider. AI needs to be designed such that it makes fairness is decision while achieving high performance. AI fairness is a very broad area of research, and this research will examine two popular measures for fairness and study how the two measures can be used in designing a fair AI. A comparison of the two measures will be made through an example. 2EMHFWLYH DQG $LPV Having understood the general framework of AI of today, the research objective is to understand how AI can be made to understand fairness. The research objective will be to develop a mathematical criterion to instilled fairness in AI. The aim of the research is to make comparisons between two mathematical definitions for fairness and consider how the two mathematical definitions can be incorporated into AI in making it fair. Two AI applications- recidivism and university admission- where fairness can be an issue will be considered. We will also consider an example involving gender fairness issue and evaluate demographic parity and equalized odds. %DFNJURXQG DQG 6LJQLILFDQFH AI can be thought of as a function that takes an input and produces an output prediction which is the decision. The form of the function is defined ahead of time and training data which consists of input and ground truth output data pair are fed into the function so that by adjusting the parameters of the function, it produces the output prediction for its corresponding input which is desired. The parameters of the functions are learned by propagating the influence of error between the output prediction to ground truth. In order to propagate the error influence back to the parameters of the function, derivates are taken of the error. Based on this scenario, error needs to be defined such that it reflects fairness criterion. There are many fairness criteria that can be used for defining the error between prediction output and ground truth. There are many criteria for fairness and we will consider the two most popular fairness criteria and consider a simple example to understand the significance of each of the criterion. 5HVHDUFK 'HVLJQ DQG 0HWKRGV For this research, a literature survey on fairness related to the problem stated above will be initially conducted. The general framework of AI will be examined along with the learning process which it often goes through. This is a very daunting task but there are various YouTube videos that are available to obtain general understanding of the flow of the how AI is designed. There are many measures that define fairness, and for this research, the two most studied fairness measuresdemographic parity and equalized odd- will be considered. These two measures will be examined in depth and the two will compared based on a simple example. After having understood the measures, algorithm to incorporate these measures into an AI will be studied. Time-allowing, we will run a simple algorithm to have a better understanding of fairness. $QWLFLSDWHG 5HVXOWV DQG 3RWHQWLDO &RQWULEXWLRQ Humans are slowly relegating many of its important decisions to AI which is known for its accuracy, efficiency and consistency. However, high performance does not necessarily equate with fairness which is impossible to define as it depends on the application, time and complex situations. 698

4=Cj6 # Ƒ[CƑ6 ƑƂ)VV=ūƑńŉňŇƆłňńňƃ After having examined the two mathematical definitions of fairness, it will apparent that the two definitions are deficient in many ways, and it will motivate other to find better mathematical definition for fairness and raise the awareness fair AI- AI can potentially help us in many ways in improving health care and making scientific discovery but it is liable to make our lives miserable by making unjust decisions. AI fairness is a very broad on-going research area, and here a very narrow subsection of this research area is examined. However, high school students can learn to understand this issue. 5HIHUHQFH 1. Mattu, Julia Angwin,Jeff Larson,Lauren Kirchner,Surya. "Machine Bias". ProPublica. Retrieved 2022-04-16. 2. Rose, Adam (2010-01-22). "Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 2022-04-16. 3. "Google says sorry for racist auto-tag in photo app". the Guardian. 2015-07-01. Retrieved 2022-04-16. 4. "A beauty contest was judged by AI and the robots didn't like dark skin". the Guardian. 2016-09-08. Retrieved 2022-04-16. 5. Buolamwini, Joy; Gebru, Timnit (February 2018). Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification (PDF). Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency. New York, NY, USA. pp. 77–91. 6. Jump up to:a b c d Solon Barocas; Moritz Hardt; Arvind Narayanan, Fairness and Machine Learning. Retrieved 15 December 2019. 7. Mayes, Elizabeth (2001). Handbook of Credit Scoring. NY, NY, USA: Glenlake Publishing. p.282. ISBN 0-8144-0619-X. 8. Jump up to:a b c Verma, Sahil, and Julia Rubin. "Fairness definitions explained." In 2018 IEEE/ACM international workshop on software fairness (fairware), pp. 1-7. IEEE, 2018. 9. Chen, Violet (Xinying); Hooker, J. N. (2021). "Welfare-based Fairness through Optimization". arXiv:2102.00311 [cs.AI]. 10. Mullainathan, Sendhil (June 19, 2018). Algorithmic Fairness and the Social Welfare Function. Keynote at the 19th ACM Conference on Economics and Computation (EC'18). YouTube. 48 minutes in. In other words, if you have a social welfare function where what you care about is harm, and you care about harm to the African Americans, there you go: 12 percent less African Americans in jail overnight.... Before we get into the minutiae of relative harm, the welfare function is defined in absolute harm, so we should actually calculate the absolute harm first. 11. Castelnovo, Alessandro, Riccardo Crupi, Greta Greco, Daniele Regoli, Ilaria Giuseppina Penco, and Andrea Claudio Cosentini. "A clarification of the nuances in the fairness metrics landscape." Scientific Reports 12, no. 1 (2022): 1-21. 12. Mehrabi, Ninareh, Fred Morstatter, Nripsuta Saxena, Kristina Lerman, and Aram Galstyan. "A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning." ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR) 54, no. 6 (2021): 1-35. 13. Kusner, M. J., Loftus, J., Russell, C., & Silva, R. (2017). Counterfactual fairness. Advances in neural information processing systems, 30. 14. Jump up to:a b c Ziyuan Zhong, Tutorial on Fairness in Machine Learning. Retrieved 1 December 2019 15. Faisal Kamiran; Toon Calders, Data preprocessing techniques for classification without discrimination. Retrieved 17 December 2019 16. Muhammad Bilal Zafar; Isabel Valera; Manuel Gómez Rodríguez; Krishna P. Gummadi, Fairness Beyond Disparate Treatment & Disparate Impact: Learning Classification without Disparate Mistreatment. Retrieved 1 December 2019 17. Brian Hu Zhang; Blake Lemoine; Margaret Mitchell, Mitigating Unwanted Biases with Adversarial Learning. Retrieved 17 December 2019 18. Joyce Xu, Algorithmic Solutions to Algorithmic Bias: A Technical Guide. Retrieved 17 December 2019 19. Moritz Hardt; Eric Price; Nathan Srebro, Equality of Opportunity in Supervised Learning. Retrieved 1 December 2019 699