acknowledgements
i would like to thank my tutors for guiding me through the year and this project. my parents, junaid and nashmia for their tremendous love and encouragement. my friends for their support, especially: aisha, anushka, hasan, saman, alizey and sarmad. and all my lcc magb&i classmates for pulling through together.
the  underdog project report zareen rathor magb&i
1
introduction
audience & scope of study
3
project outline & field of study
context
question research journey & methodology
2
5 6
4
7
research
8 9
testing of ideas & experimentation
output
10 11
critical reflection & conclusion
bibliography
in t r o d u c t io n
1 2
What do Cinderella, Barack Obama, Apple and Michael Jackson all have in common? Other than needing no introduction, they all have a key underlying similarity in their stories. That similarity is one of the most popular, inspirational, age-�old ideas, which we have all grown up hearing about and experiencing, personally and around us. That similarity intrigued me because it is a concept of emotions, aspirations, challenges and perceptions. It is a topic that is a journey within itself, which became the basis of my project journey as well. So, what do they all have in common? They all are or have been, in some way or form, the underdog. The concept of the underdog has been around for centuries; the story of David and Goliath is just one example of that. It chronicles the determination and struggle of a much weaker young boy called David, who takes on the giant Goliath and defeats him. It can even be argued that the idea dates back to the earliest of life forms, which can be perceived as underdogs as well. Science, politics, music, literature, history and cinema – these are just a few examples of areas, in which the notion applies. The nature of the concept is such that it can be relevant to any discipline, situation, person or context.
Direction Development & Aims Since the idea of the underdog is so flexible and connected to story telling and emotions, it linked in perfectly with brands and developed very naturally into the direction of my research and project. I became interested in studying underdogs in branding and at looking into the cycle and dynamics of such brands. I wanted to find out about people’s behaviors and reactions to the phases and variations of these brands. Through all of this, I hoped to reveal information about behaviors and buying intentions towards underdog brands, based on their outcomes. However, as I went through that entire research process, I realized that the idea became too complex and theoretical. More specifically, it was losing out on any visual translation I could experiment with and the only way forward with that kind of material was a Thesis. But I was more interested in challenging myself by using such a theoretical topic and developing a simple yet visually engaging way to get people to think about the topic. So I decided to step back, simplify and look at it from a fresh perspective. This re-‐evaluation led me to redefine my understanding of the basic essences behind the concept of the underdog, which are: imbalance, dichotomies and perceptions. It made me challenge the idea that an underdog is the smaller or lesser-‐known party in an equation, rather than, anyone or anything in a disadvantaged context. The underdog, then, is an evolving phenomenon of perceptions. It capitalizes on the value of perceptions and builds on the perception of values as well. The objective of my project is to create a visual translation of the duality, shifting balance and perceptions of brands as underdogs. The aim of the project is to encourage people to rethink, re-‐explore and redefine the boundaries of being underdogs in brands.
a u d ie n c
e & s c o
p e o f s t
udy
2 8
Audience The audience of this project is anyone interested in exploring: brands, visual translations of concepts, or the idea of the Underdog itself. Since the aim is to push people to consider a topic from a new perspective, it could be useful to students, professionals or anyone interested in the field of branding, design and marketing.
Scope of topic With the current economic recession, the topic of the underdog makes for an even more interesting study because it adds more dimensions to the performance of all kinds of brands and products. Also, since the concept of the underdog in brands is a very contemporary one, it has great relevance as a current research topic. The emotions and stories of underdogs share a particular harmony with brands. Additionally, since this idea can be applied and found in such a variety of areas, it can give valuable insight into a wide array of fields.
p r o je c t
o u t li n e &
f ie ld o f
s t u d y
3 12
define underdog
contexts
audience & question
research methodologies & research
testing ideas
output
conclusion & reflection
Structure & Outline of Report This report has been structured to parallel the way that my entire research and development journey has unfolded. It starts off by defining what the underdog is, in general and in brands. Then it examines the different contexts, in which the underdog can be found. Next, the report defines the question and the audience. It further goes on to talk about the research method-� ologies and chronicles the research. This includes, the use of the underdog as a strategic tactic, its life-�span as a positioning and the psychological impact it has (towards emotions and behaviors of such brands). Relevant cases are discussed in this section, as well as a survey that has been conducted on the topic. Next, the report will discuss the testing of ideas and materials, which will lead into the eventual develop-� ment of the final output. Finally, there will be concluding remarks and reflection on the entire project.
oxford dictionary 1 : noun /ˬ˝nd˅dˁg/
Õ$ FRPSHWLWRU WKRXJKW WR KDYH OLWWOH FKDQFH RI ZLQQLQJ D ILJKW RU FRQWHVW Õ$ SHUVRQ ZKR KDV OLWWOH VWDWXV LQ VRFLHW\
cambridge dictionary 2 :
noun /ˬ˝ n.d˅.dˁg//-dˆ.dˀ:g/ Õ$ FRPSHWLWRU WKRXJKW WR KDYH OLWWOH FKDQFH RI ZLQQLQJ D ILJKW RU FRQWHVW Õ$ SHUVRQ ZKR KDV OLWWOH VWDWXV LQ VRFLHW\
branding definition of the underdog : an underdog brand is one that has both of the following characteristics 1. a disadvantaged position in the marketplace versus a ‘top dog’* * a well endowed competitor with superior resources or market dominance
2. a tremendous passion and determination to succeed despite the odds
Field of Study The word underdog originated in the 19th century from dogfights, in which literally, two dogs fought against each other. The losing dog was referred to as the underdog, while the winning one was called the topdog. 3 In the majority of branding and marketing related studies and articles I have come across, the underdog definition most unanimously referred to is from the following article:
The Underdog Effect: The Marketing of Disadvantage and Determination through Brand Biography by Neeru Paharia, Anat Keinan, Jill Avery and Juliet B. Schor of the Harvard Business School.
Diagram 1 (from article)
In general, the take from all these definitions is that an underdog is someone or something that suffers from not only a disadvantage, but from the state of being in a lesser position of external status. However, as it will be seen through the development of my report and project, my stance is: that the lesser position is relative and not necessarily hierarchic. This suggests that someone or something of a higher status may also be perceived as an underdog.
context
4 20
Underdogs can be found everywhere around us. In fact we are all underdogs in some way or the other, at some point in time. This is why the theme is so prevalent in practically every area of life. From the time we are children, we start to witness stories and fairytales based on the idea. Then as we grow up, we witness it in sports, politics, entertainment and so many other fields as well. Although there are so many contexts in which the topic can be explored, I examined the ones that I considered to have the highest and most relatable instances.
Sports It is the Wimbledon Final of the year 2001. There is much anticipation for the match that is about to take place between Goran Ivanisevic and Patrick Rafter. Goran has come into the Tournament as a wild card entrant, ranked #125 in the world, because of his injuries. Though he has previously been a Wimbledon 3 finalist three times before, he has lost each time. This time, he is nowhere near that form but still, he enters the court with all his courage. That courage and heart led him to his victory and won him the title. He became the only wild card entrant ever to win Wimbledon. In sports, since the dynamics of a match include a challenge between two parties, the idea of the underdog fits in very naturally into the situation. This is why there are countless tales of underdog teams and players who put up a brave fight and win against the odds. A few examples of victorious underdogs in sports are: Goran Ivanisevic in the 2001 Wimbledon, the Pakistan cricket team in the 1992 Cricket World Cup, the US Olympic ice hockey team in 1980, the French soccer team in the 1998 World Cup.
Cinema Cinema is all about entertainment. The audience loves a feel good movie and one that takes them through emotional ups and downs. The belief that they can overcome unbelievable challenges and achieve great feats leaves people feeling empowered and inspired. This is the precise reason that so many filmmakers have used the formula of the 3underdog theme. Despite the fact that there are countless existing films based on this storyline, there are constantly new movies coming out with the same basic plot. Erin Brokovich is one such example. It was the story of a woman who had no legal background, but went above and beyond her limitations to beat out a large, well-�established power company. Many films made on this theme are based on true stories. Cinderella Man, The Blind Side, Miracle are all such examples. However, there are also many fictional movies with underdog characters and plots, for audiences of all ages. Harry Potter, Slumdog Millionaire, Matilda, Dodgeball, Pretty Woman, Forrest Gump and Braveheart are a few well-�known examples of this.
" Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability... His phrasing, if
it can be called that, consists of the stereotyped variations that go with a beginner's aria in a bathtub... His one specialty is an accented movement of the body... primarily identified with the repertoire of the blond bombshells of the burlesque runway.
"
4
Music Needless to say, this is not the kind of feedback that one would expect to hear about Elvis Presley, the King of Rock and Roll. Yet, it is proof that even some of the greatest singers in the history of music, have not been spared from being underdogs at some point. Whether it is because of their music, their radical personas in a particular time period, their circum-‐ stances or because of their personal stories, many famous and struggling musicians have gone through the experience of being underdogs. A few of the most famous examples are: Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, Britney Spears and Beethoven.
" In politics, if persons are more likely to vote for a candidate
when they expect him to win than when they expect him to lose, we have a ‘bandwagon’ effect;; if the opposite holds, we have an ‘underdog’ effect.
"
5
Politics The underdog effect is one of the most widely used political tactics to get people to sympathize with a particular candidate. The most contemporary and famous example of this is the Obama campaign of the 2008 US presidential elections. Being a political underdog makes a candidate more relatable and easier to reach in the minds of the people. They feel that the person understands their needs and problems better because he/she has gone through the same struggle and has experienced similar challenges, which connects them. It signifies the possibility of their problems being resolved and at the same time, it gives people the hope that they too can rise. Barack Obama is one of the most historic and contemporary political underdog stories. He became the first Black American president to be elected, despite the odds. The entire language of his campaign was built to attract sympathetic support towards him, with the words ‘hope’ and ‘change,’ being key to the process. It can also be argued that some of the most famous politicians in the world have fluctuated as, been perceived as or ended up as underdogs. A few of the biggest examples of this are Hosni Mubarak, Tony Blair, Che Guevara and Imran Khan.
Literature From fairytales to classic novels, the underdog character is one of the most established archetypes in all forms of literature. The potential to relate to such characters makes them popular to read about. As children, we grow up reading stories like Cinder-� ella, The Hare & the Tortoise and the Ugly Duckling. These stories carry the underlying message: that eventually even disadvantaged characters can succeed. As adults, we sympathize with individuals like Jane Eyre, Dorian Gray, Scheherazade or Raskolnikov, because we can relate to the dilemmas and the complexities of the internal and external shortcomings that make they face. The emotional connect to underdog characters and stories, is the reason that this theme continues to prevail across such a variety of literature in so many cultures.
Brands Most important and relevant to this project, is the concept of the underdog in brands. Although the theme has been around (in this context) for decades, it still remains a very contemporary topic. Few brands, if any, have been successfully able to 3 position themselves as the underdog and benefit from that image. However, that is exactly what Avis did in 1960 when they introduced their new campaign claiming they were number two so they had to try harder. That line and idea lasted for decades and is still driving their brand, even though they have had immense success since then. There are also brands, which are underdogs because of their circumstances rather than strategic campaigning. Many of the existing renowned brands today are such examples. Apple, Google, Ben & Jerry’s and Innocent are all brands that took on the challenge and shook the status quo. In fact by definition, it could be argued that any new entrant brand with passion and determination is an underdog brand. However, this is where the basis of my argument starts to form and that leads into my project question.
ques
tion
5 32
research question
Q
is the underdog just a strategic positioning in branding?
By definition of the dictionaries and the branding article that have been earlier quoted in this report, it is a given that the underdog must be the entity with less hierarchical status or dominance in the equation. However, as I went through my phases of research and analysis of that information, I realized that this might not necessarily be the case. This idea became the basis of my further investigation and it helped me reconsider the question that seemed to have a straightforward answer earlier on.
rese &  m ea r c h  j o thod urne olog y y
6 36
Project map I made to write a thesis
My research started from a general overview of my topic: the underdog. I looked into the basic definition of the concept and then focused on the branding one (by searching through journals and articles). This laid the foundation for the next stage of investigation, which was about studying the idea in different fields and contexts. Since emotions play a key role in the concept, whether in branding or any other field, I researched that link in the next phase. For this, I consulted many psychology and marketing journals. I then examined underdogs in brands in a number of ways. I studied the underdog as a strategy in brands, I looked at underdog brand case studies, I researched the cycle/nature and possibilities of such brands and then I investigated behaviors towards underdog brands. At this point, I was still considering writing a thesis on the topic because all the research I had was very theoretical. I became interested in behaviors towards underdog outcomes. However, I was a bit wary that 3 the project was heading too much into the marketing direction. After some discussions at this stage, I took a step back to simplify my research and clarify what I wanted to say. Given my background knowledge, information and concerns, I conducted a survey to get some insight. This helped me to decide how I would re-�direct my question. I now had my final question, which became about investigating the perception of the underdog in brands. So, I started researching underdog case studies and perceptions of brands as underdogs. I also looked into the visual look, feel, tone, and language of the underdog. Finally, I looked for ways to visually translate my idea into a project and examined the possibilities of how to do that.
res
ea rch
7 40
balance self projection
justice
empathy
support for  the underdog
inspiration american dream
anti-Âtopdog
more exciting
The underdog appeal After the background research into definitions and contexts, I looked into the one factor that stood out and tied in the underdog to branding: emotions. What is it that draws people to underdogs and brings out support for them? To answer this question, I studied a variety of journals and articles that offered valuable insights. In The Appeal of the Underdog it says: “people are often motivated to make favorable character judgments about disadvantaged groups as a way of rectifying (or at least rationalizing) inequalities by suggesting that the world is a fair place where there is some balance in outcomes.” 6 Fairness and justice are recurring reasons for supporting the underdog in not only the articles that I have studied, but also in the results of my survey. Another reason that stands out, for the support of the underdog, is that people identify with such characters and situations. They see the success of the underdog as hope and the possibility to overcome their own plights in similar instances. “For the majority of the informants, supporting the underdog created an emotional high, a feeling that they too, could rise to the challenge.” 7 Although most reasons for supporting the underdog are sympathy, self-‐identification and justice, many people support such characters out of anti-‐topdog sentiments. “…High achievers often elicit envy and resentment from others, particularly when the achievement is seen as undeserved, and people often experience pleasure in seeing the mighty fall.” 8 The emotional sentiments that people have towards underdogs and topdogs apply in the context of brands as well. This brings us to the research into the study of the underdog in branding.
" Today, to stay
number one you have to think like number two. "
Diagram 2
The underdog as a brand strategy The underdog positioning is a very popular and successful model for new entrants and established brands alike. As discussed, people sympathize with the underdog, whether it is to promote fairness or because they identify with their plight. Their interaction with underdog brands has a deeper emotional connect. When it comes to new entrants this a plus, because it provides a gap for those brands to build a relationship with people. However, the strategy can also be applied to large, established brands. In fact, a number of well-‐known names have either maintained or introduced the underdog backgrounds into their brand stories. This is a tactic used to soften people’s perspective towards them as powerful giants. “Research found that underdog biographies can be strategically applied to help companies avoid the ‘curse of success…’ Bigness itself has come under attack in consumer culture, as movements explicitly favoring small, local business have thrived.” 9 One such example of this is Starbucks, which sparked negative sentiments for driving small mom and pop local coffee houses out of business. Starbucks has since then been highlighting its history of starting off at Pike Place Market, by introducing a coffee blend of that name and highlight-‐ ing it on their website. Another major example is Apple. Even though they have gone from the small challenging brand that took on PC, to a global phenomenon, they still maintain their underdog background. They consistently promote their ‘garage startup’ story and project themselves as putting up an uphill fight against PC – despite overtaking them on and off statistically at some point. As stated in Eating the Big Fish: “…the key requirement for a challenger, namely, to never be seen to win… Today, to stay Number One you have to think like a Number Two… If we are the Number One brand, the Big Fish that threatens to eat us is ourselves – our own success.” 10
sales growth
intro
saturation
maturity
decline
product life cycle Diagram 3 (reproduced)
Lifecycle of underdog brands The underdog brand has a limited life span because of the temporary nature of the concept. The success of an underdog brand is in its transformation into the topdog. If it remains an underdog, then people will lose interest. If it does not overcome the obstacles or succeed, then people will stop supporting it. Therefore, the underdog brand cannot exist unless it evolves. This transition is a very tricky phenomenon and one of the reasons I evaluated: that being an underdog could actually be a matter of perception.
“Brands have life cycles. Popular brands today are not necessarily the winners of tomorrow.” 11
Underdog brand cases Avis, Apple, Virgin, Ben & Jerry’s, Innocent: there are countless brands that have been or are underdogs. In this phase of my research, I looked at brand case studies that defined different backgrounds, which can lead to being an underdog in the market. Out of all underdog brands Avis most blatantly adopted the positioning in their slogan. In the 1960’s, Avis came up with the line: We are number 2. We try harder. This captures the entire essence of an underdog brand. Even though they went on to become market leader, they maintained this tagline and image because people related to their dedication. Richard Branson’s Virgin airlines took on British Airways and went on to expand into an empire of brands. Despite becoming a large network, Virgin has maintained its underdog nature by constantly taking on new challenges. As stated by Adam Morgan, “…the key requirement for a challenger, namely, to never be seen to win. As a challenger succeeds in achieving one goal, or overcoming (really or appar-‐ ently) one struggle, it evolves its narrative, and publics ambition, and moves to the next.”12 Kodak is an example of a leading global brand that was not able to keep up with the pace and advance-‐ ments of the digital era and fell apart. It is an example
of a large brand that transformed into an underdog because it became stagnant. Reebok is a brand that could not outgrow its position as underdog because it was not able to establish its own identity or pose a challenge for competition. As a result, it could not match the success of Nike and remained a half-‐baked brand. I also investigated cases such as Ben & Jerry’s and Nantucket Nectars. In these instances, the brands evolved into successful underdogs but then they were taken over by large companies. As a result, suddenly, these brands did not fit into the brand equation. This posed the question: what happens to underdog brands when large companies take over? Since they are no longer at a disadvantage, do they lose out on the sympathy? Through my research, I found that in such instances, these brands can maintain their image as long as they do not become arrogant and continue to refer to their origins. An example of this is Nantucket Nectars. “Beverage brand Nantucket Nectars was purchased by Cadbury Schweppes in 2002, but still highlights its humble beginnings using precious packaging space to declare ‘We started Nantucket Nectars with only a blender and a dream.’” 13 This helps counter some of the rub-‐off of being bought over by a large corporation, by highlighting the aspiration aspect of the brand.
Market and environment Underdog brands are more successful in devel-‐ oped country markets and individualist cultures. In a country like the US, where the theme of the “American Dream” is so prevalent, people can relate to the aspirations of an underdog more strongly than someone from South Asia. In a study conducted by Harvard Business School, the results showed that participants from the US sympathized with underdog brands significantly more than those from Singapore (even though both were sympa-‐ thetic). During recessions, people also relate more to underdogs because they feel they are going through the same struggle themselves. Therefore, they are more likely to identify with and support such brands over large, leading ones. The boom in social media also plays an important role in promoting underdogs in today’s era. With extensive networking and sharing across websites such as Twitter, Facebook and Youtube, under-‐ dogs have a platform where they can get instant attention and support. Barack Obama used social media extensively to rally support among the younger generation. instances the concept cannot be applied Although the underdog is a concept relevant to many fields and contexts, there are some instances in branding, in which the positioning would not be successful. For example, the idea could not work for a hospital or police force promotion because it would put people in doubt about the credibility of the brand. There needs to be careful consideration when applying this strategy, so that it is does not work against the brand.
Behaviors towards outcomes A successful outcome of the underdog brand is the final goal. However, it is also a double-�edged sword, because success can mean that people may lose support for the brand. In many of the articles from my research, people claimed they would stop supporting underdogs if and when the brand became arrogant or static. “When the authors probed some informants about when they would cease supporting or identifying with the underdog, a common response was when the entity achieved some sort of success and respect or when the underdog stopped trying.�14 The majority of the participants from my survey responded that they would continue to support the underdog brand, even if it becomes successful. However, this applies only if: the brand does not become egotistical, it does not stop making the effort and it does not compromise on quality or price.
Q yes
Would you feel less supportive or sympathetic towards an underdog brand if it became a leading brand or topdog?
no
maybe (from my survey)
In my journey through the outcome phase, I tried to look for colors, styles and techniques that gave visuals an ‘underdog’ feel. I explored communications and types and tried to formulate a small list of my own, based on them. I looked into the kind of textures and techniques that could help me create a visual translation of the underdog side of brands. Then I looked at different ways to translate and execute the idea of the duality of one entity. I started off with a double-‐sided book that could be read both ways, but that seemed like it was missing the third element. I searched through references and experimented with dummies to see how I could structure my concept. Based on all the exploring, research and experimenting, I designed a double-‐sided book that could be read in three ways. The underdog and topdog books can be treated as two separate sides of one thing, yet both of them can also be read together as one. I feel this visual translation really captures the idea of looking at underdog brands from different perceptions. In my book, I used fonts that were rough and less clean. I tried to incorporate fonts according to the feel of the images. I used a lot of grey and black tones and textures that were grunge, scratched. I experimented with halftones and colors according to the concept of each visual. My paper corresponded to the look and feel of each direction. For the topdog I used a fine, glossy paper and for the underdog I used rough, uncoated color plan. The binding and covers also reflect the varying nature of the underdog.
feel
type
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
underdog
textures
techniques
references
dummies
outcome  samples
r e f le c t io n s &
c o n c lu s io n
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My project has been an interesting and insightful journey for me. I wanted to study a concept in branding that would challenge me and give me a new subject,which I could look at from a new perspective. Studying the underdog has done exactly that. It was a big challlenge for me to take such a theoretical topic and visualize it in a way that could give other people new insight into the subject. However, I feel, that after this rollercoaster journey, I have been able to achieve that. Initially, I had started out wanting to inform people on the topic of the underdog, because there is not a lot of research on it (despite being a significant subject). But I feel, that I was able to push myself beyond that and come up with a new way to make people look at such a seemingly straightforward concept. In my mind, this project has helped me step back and rethink about existing ideas in branding and otherwise. It has encouraged me to be more analytical and to consider less obvious possibilities. This underdog has so much to offer as a subject of investigation. I feel that my project contributed to the study of the topic by providing a new spin on the subject, which is otherwise not discussed at all. I hope to have the opportunity to continue following up on the subject and coming up with new ways to investigate it further.
c it a t io n s & b ib
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Cita t i o n s 1 "Underdog." Oxford Dictionary. Oxford UP, 2011. Oxford Dictionaries. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. <http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/underdog>. 2 "Underdog." Cambridge Dictionary. Cambridge UP, 2011. Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. <http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/underdog?q=underdog>. 3 Paharia, Neeru, Anat Keinan, Jill Avery, and Juliet B. Schor. “The Underdog Effect: The Marketing of Disadvantage and Determination through Brand Biography.” Journal of Consumer Research (2009). Print. 4 Gould, Jack. "TV: New Phenomenon—Elvis Presley Rises to Fame as Vocalist Who Is Virtuoso of Hootchy-‐Kootchy". The New York Times. June 6, 1956 [cited October 31, 2011]. 5 Simon, Herbert A. "Bandwagon and Underdog Effects and the Possibility of Election Predic-‐ tions." Public Opinion Quarterly 18.3 (1954): 245-‐53. Print. 6 Vandello, Joseph, Nadav Goldschmied, and David Richards. "The Appeal of the Underdog." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33.12 (2007): 1603-‐1616. Print. 7 Mcginnis, Lee, and James Gentry. "Underdog Consumption: An Exploration into Meanings and Motives." Journal of Business Research 62.2 (2009): 191-‐99. Print. 8 Vandello, Joseph, Nadav Goldschmied, and David Richards. "The Appeal of the Underdog." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33.12 (2007): 1603-‐1616. Print. 9 Paharia, Neeru, Anat Keinan, and Jill Avery. "Underdog Branding: Why Underdogs Win in Recessions." European Business Review (2011). Web. 20 Aug. 2011. <http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=3989>. 10 Morgan, Adam. Eating the Big Fish: How Challenger Brands Can Compete against Brand Leaders. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009. 295. Print.
11 Gobe, Marc. Emotional Branding. New York: Allworth, 2009. 309. Print. 12 Morgan, Adam. Eating the Big Fish: How Challenger Brands Can Compete against Brand Leaders. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009. 238. Print. 13 Paharia, Neeru, Anat Keinan, and Jill Avery. "Underdog Branding: Why Underdogs Win in Recessions." European Business Review (2011). Web. 20 Aug. 2011. <http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=3989>. 14 Mcginnis, Lee, and James Gentry. "Underdog Consumption: An Exploration into Meanings and Motives." Journal of Business Research 62.2 (2009): 191-‐99. Print. 15 Morey, David, and Scott Miller. The Underdog Advantage: Using the Power of Insurgent Strategy to Put Your Business on Top. New York: McGraw-‐Hill, 2004. Print.
Diagram Citations Diagram 1 Keinan, Anat, Jill Avery, and Neeru Paharia. "Capitalizing on the Underdog Effect." Harvard Business Review (2010). Harvard Business Reivew. Harvard Business School Publishing. Web. <http://hbr.org/2010/11/capitalizing-‐on-‐the-‐underdog-‐effect/ar/1>. Diagram 2 Tweney, Dylan. "Apple Passes Microsoft as World’s Largest Tech Company." Wired 26 May 2010. Wired. Condé Nast Digital. Web. 28 Aug. 2011. <http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/05/apple-‐passes-‐microsoft/>. Diagram 3 [reproduced from the following book] Statt, David A. Understanding the Consumer: a Psychological Approach. Basingstoke, Hampshire [u.a.: Macmillan, 2001. Print.