Case Study Case #1 Case #2

Case Study

Case studies of progressing projects and perspectives from other waterstressed regions (Chennai. India and Beijing, China) do duty for inspiration in tracking future forward-looking pathways for Singapore with a similar water problem. The following case studies are the same cityscale as Singapore, which have reference value. These two case studies are intended to facilitate identifying influential factors, stakeholders, also helping to form specific scenarios for Singapore’s case.

Figure 1. Annual Average Rainfall Precipitation in Three Cities

Figure 2. Population Density of Three Cities

Case Study 1:

Insufficient water supply and difficulty of water accessibility - Chennai, India

Map 1. Location of Chennai in India

Chennai is located in the southern part of India (Map 1) within a flat coastal plain, in a tropical area with abundant precipitation. Annual rainfall reaches an average of 1541mm (fig.1). Logically, Chennai should not beset with a water crisis; however, the contextual factors result in the current drought.

Chennai and Singapore are both restricted to conserve water because of their spatial disadvantages and uncontrolled climate. Vedachalam (2012) indicated that Chennnai’s rainfall collection is restricted by extremely plain terrain “with average slopes of less than 0.7 m/km”. The flat typology restrict the rainfall collection; climate exacerbates water supply’s stabilization. Chennai establishes four reservoirs in peri-urban regions, which are all rainwater fed. However, rainfall scarcity will paralyze the city when monsoons fail (Ge, 2020), leading to reservoir drain. Thus, the climate becomes the most prominently uncertain element while receiving water; this multifaced problem does not happen overnight; minimizing indeterminacy is the effort direction.

The inadequate and intermittent water supply cannot catch this fourth-largest city (VEDACHALAM, 2012). The exponential population density (fig. 2) excesses the water supply capacity in Chennai. Therefore, Water Supply Department has explored desalination (CMWSSB, 2021), as Singapore PUB does also, to meet incremental water demand. Desalination, an innovative high-technical method, definitely relieves the water stress, enhancing the cost and difficulty of water access. Chennai’s follow-up policies are not active; expensive water price catalyzes illegal groundwater extraction and private sale (Sethuram, 2014).

The influential factors causing water stress are similar in Chennai and Singapore. Chennai’s strategies are comprehensive, but it does not advance follow-up policies as Singapore does. Therefore, more cost-effective and locally compatible approaches are needed to innovate. Also, decreasing the level of uncertainty of driving forces is essential in both plannings.

Case Study 2:

Drought on a drought-prone land – Beijing, China

Map 2: Areas Experiencing Water Stress, 2015

Beijing’s key factors leading to water scarcity are different from Singapore’s case. Beijing is situated in a northern drought-prone area (map 2) without sufficient precipitation (see fig. 1). This prerequired condition forces Beijing to heavily depend on groundwater which constitutes 68% of the total water resources (Deng & Zhao, 2015). Water poverty and inordinate groundwater extraction are worsened by population and land patterns.

Beijing, the capital of China, attracts an influx of immigration. The surge in the ratio of the residential population undoubtedly maximizes groundwater depletion. Expanding urbanization inevitably equilibrates water availability threshold and human-based activity (Li et al., 2015). Both water scarcity in Beijing and Singapore is inseparable from the rapid demographic explosion and following land use allocation. In order to stabilize groundwater level, Beijing chose to transfer water from other humid regions, similarly, Singapore needs to import water from Malaysia. The national project of south-to-north diversion minimizes aquatic-ecosystem jeopardy (Long et al., 2020). Compared with Singapore, Beijing’s transferring water project is more stable and regular without worries of political conflicts.

In this case, Beijing recognizes contextual factors and political advantage to propose a water-transferring project. By comparison, Singapore’s water importing project may be interrupted by international relations which is the largest indeterminacy of stable water supply; despite it is the most enormous energy to achieve self-sufficiency.