Thesis
Master of Landscape Architecture Deyu Zhuang
Reconfiguring LA’s Freeway System To Improve Water Quality, Decrease Air Pollution And Add Green Space
School of Architecture Graduate Program in Landscape Architecture and Urbanism University of Southern California
Thesis
Master of Landscape Architecture
Deyu Zhuang PRINTED 2018 School of Architecture Department of Landscape and Urbanism
Reconfiguring LA’s Freeway System To Improve Water Quality,
University of Souther California
Decrease Air Pollution And Add Green Space
Watt Hall, Suite 204 Los Angeles, California 90089-0291
Thesis Advisors
Rebecca Hill
School of Architecture Graduate Program in Landscape Architecture and Urbanism University of Southern California
Thesis
Master of Landscape Architecture
CLASS OF 2018 Deyu Zhuang
Instructor: Rebecca Hill
School of Architecture Graduate Program in Landscape Architecture and Urbanism University of Southern California
1. Content
Thesis Introduction Thesis Abstract
Reconfiguring LA’s Freeway System To Improve Water Quality, Decrease Air Pollution And Add Green Space
Chapter One
How Los Angeles Currently Get Its Water
Chapter Two
Catastrophic Floods And Stromwater Management
Chapter Three
Stormwater Causes Greate Local Water Pollution
Chapter Four
Climate Change in Los Angeles
Chapter Five
How Freeway Can Be A Green Infreastructure Network?
Chapter Six
Case Studies
Chapter Seven
Site Analysis
Chapter Eight
Design Detail
Chapter Nine
Conclusion
Reference
Bibliography
Thesis Introduction
Rebecca Hill Thesis Introduction
Centralized, decentralized and distributed network models Source: Baran, Paul “On Distributed Communications” Memorandum RM-3764-PR, Prepared for the United States Air Force Project Rand. The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA. August 1964.)
Centralized, decentralized and distributed network models
Chain Reaction: Using Networks to Affect Change Driving through the city, drawing water from the tap, turning on the
Chain Reaction: Using Networks to Affect Change Source: Baran, Paul “On Distributed Communications” Memorandum RM-3764-PR, Prepared lights, catching friends onlights, Facebook, pumping blood through our Driving through the city, drawing water fromup the with tap, turning on the for the United States Air Force Project Rand. The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA. August catching up with friends on Facebook, pumping blood through our bodies— bodies— these actions all depend on networks, the interrelated connections these actions all depend on networks, the interrelated connections either “A designer is an emerging synthesis of artist, inventor, mechanic, objective either physical or digital, technological or biological, localized or global, physical or digital, technological or biological, localized or global, that, taken economist, and evolutionary strategist.” that, taken together, produce an effect that is greater than the disparate together, produce an effect that is greater than the disparate parts would suggest. -R. Buckminster Fuller Connections form the heart of any network and extend beyond a defined site orthe heart of any network and parts would suggest. Connections form “A designer is an emerging synthesis of artist, inventor, mechanic, obsource. Like an internet meme or a signal malfunction on the New York City extend beyond a defined site or source. Like an internet meme or a signal subway— sometimes even the slightest alteration to an existing systems can jective and evolutionary strategist.” “We areeconomist, continually faced with great opportunities which are brilliantly malfunction on the New York City subway— sometimes even the slightest cascade to create real change or real chaos. disguised as unsolvable problems.” -R. Buckminster Fuller alteration to an existing systems can cascade to create real change or real -Margaret Mead Landscape architects are trained in systems thinking; how systems work chaos. within themselves and integrate with others to perform necessary functions is a fundamental service we provide. The challenge for this year’s thesis students “We are continually faced with great opportunities which are brilliantly Landscape are trainedand, in more systems thinking; how systems work is to develop this skill— to understandarchitects how the pieces fit together, disguised as unsolvable problems.” importantly, develop strategies improving those connections withwith they don’t within for themselves and integrate others to perform necessary functions quite fit. Our site is Los Angeles and the networks that most acutely influence -Margaret Mead is a fundamental service we provide. The challenge for this year’s thesis the way Angelenos live and how the city functions: water, transportation, waste, students is to develop thisresearch skill—extended to understand how the pieces fit together, trade, etc. In many cases, however, the purview of student far beyond city or county boundaries. and, more importantly, develop strategies for improving those connections with they don’t quite fit. Our site is Los Angeles and the networks that most
Your charge in reading this thesis is to, of course, evaluate the resolution of acutely influence the way the design, but, more importantly, assess the validity of theAngelenos idea. Consider live how and how the city functions: water, the student has framed transportation, the problem, developed a strategy, and expressed it in cases, however, the purview of waste, trade, etc. In many physical form. student research extended far beyond city or county boundaries.
Your charge in reading this thesis is to, of course, evaluate the resolution of the design, but, more importantly, assess the validity of the idea. Consider how the student has framed the problem, developed a strategy, and expressed it in physical form.
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1. Abstract
Reconfiguring LA’s Freeway System To Improve Water Quality, Decrease Air Pollution And Add Green Space Deyu Zhuang
Traditionally, stormwater management viewed urban runoff as a flood problem in which
04/20/2018
stormwater needed to be conveyed as quickly as possible from urban areas to waterways in order
School of Architecture
to protect public safety. However, this system does not have the function of cleaning the heavy
University of Southern California
polluted water. The disruption of the water cycle chain and water pollution has brought about
Los Angeles, CA
serious economic and ecological problems.
Advisor: Rebecca Hills
Climate change, mainly caused by air pollution, will bring an increase in extreme rainfall and temperature which presents new challenges for Los Angeles. Dying ecology and climate change warrant a rethinking of the role of freeway network in Los Angeles County. All these problems are mainly caused by the increasing urbanization and decreasing green areas. The scarce available space in urban area limits green space to be created. In Los Angeles, 42 to 45 percent of urban land is devoted to the storage and movement of automobiles, which causes the urban space to be separated, encompassed by vast open areas without social purpose. In addition, the automobile and modern movement are the biggest reasons for these lost spaces. It has resulted in an urban environment in which highways and parking lots are the predominant types of open space. The highway would have destroyed an established community and some urban green open spaces. It also created an impenetrable barrier through the city. Los Angeles has experienced major disruption caused by interstate freeway systems. However, the construction of freeway also left a lot of huge unused space along the freeway. Because Los Angeles needs more green spaces and parks to improve the ecological problems and to meet the recreation and public health needs of its local residents, especially children, freeway area appropriate place to solve these problems in the future, instead of the root of all problems . Therefore, I decided to use freeway space to collect and clean the heavy polluted water from freeway way runoff and use these water to create a sustainable urban forest network in Los Angeles.
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1. Chapter One - How Los Angeles Currently Get Its Water
Urbanization Creates Heavy Water Pressure 1. William J. Cosgrove, Daniel P. Loucks,
Now, the management of water resources, especially drinking water resources, is emerging as one
Water Management: Current and Future
of our most significant challenges. With the development of urbanization, worldwide population
Challenges and Research Directions, Water
growth, economic development, and expansion of irrigated agriculture led to dramatic increases
Resources Research, AGU Publications,
in water use during the 20th century, and the populations of most countries will continue to grow
June, 2015.
in coming decades. Between 2000 and 2050, the US population is projected to increase from 275 million to 403 million, while the global population is expected to increase from 6 billion to almost
2. Water Resource Challenges and
9 billion.1 This population growth has serious implications for food and energy production and
Opportunities for Water Technology
urban expansion, all of which will place increasing pressure on available fresh water supplies.2
Innovation, The White House, Wshington, December, 2015.
In 1900, Los Angeles obtained all of its water from the Los Angeles River. But population growth, much of it as in-migration from other parts of the country, caused the city’s needs to exceed this
3. Thomas W. Fitzhugh, Brian D. Richter,
local water supply early in the 20th century. The import of water from other river basins enabled
Quenching Urban Thirst: Growing
the Los Angeles area to grow at a phenomenal rate throughout much of the 20th century.3
Cities and Their Impacts on Freshwater Ecosystems, BioScience, August, 2004.
The city’s search for water led it first to the Owens Valley and then to the Mono Basin, each located a few hundred kilometers northeast of the city.4 An aqueduct from the Owens Valley to
4. Dana Bartholomew, 100 Years of Water:
the city was completed in 1913. This system was augmented in later years with a series of storage
Los Angeles Aqueduct, William Mulholland
reservoirs, an extension of the aqueduct northward to the Mono Basin in 1940, and an expansion
Helped Create Modern L.A., Los Angeles
of aqueduct capacity in 1970. During this same period, the southern California region also began
Daily News, August, 2017.
to import water through the Metropolitan Water District of California, whose main sources were the Colorado River and the rivers of the Central Valley.5 Water from these sources began to arrive
5. David Lewis Feldman, Cites and Water:
in 1941 and 1971, respectively.
Dilemmas of Collaboration in Los Angeles and New York City, Current Issues of Water Management, December, 2011.
14
15
Developed Density 6. Stephen, J. Smith, These Cool GIFs
High
0
150000’
300000’
Show How 8 U.S. Cities Have Sprawled, The Works, Next City, 2014. https://
Low
nextcity.org/daily/entry/city-gifs-uscity-sprawled-city-growth
16
Figure 1 Los Angeles Urban Growth.6
17
- Historic View of Water Pressure and Population Gowth: 702,000 acre-feet
7. Padma Nagappan, How Water Use
With the development of urbanization and population growth, Los Angeles is facing great water
Has Declined With Population Growth,
pressure. Los Angeles once was regarded, especially by residents of Northern California, as
News Depply Water Deeply, November
profigate water users, hosing down driveways and splashing in pools. There may have been
2016.
truth to that, but times are changing.
3.7 million
3.5 million
As figure two shows that, since 1980, water use started to go up steadily with increasing local population, necessitating investments in infrastructure and boosts to capacity. But since then, there has been a dramatic decoupling across the United States, with water use declining even as
599,000 acre-feet
595,000 acre-feet
the population and the economy continued to grow. 7
3.2 million
530,000 2.83 million gallons 514,000 acre-feet
1970
1980
1987 1990
2000
2010
2015
Water Use Population
18
19
LA AQUEDUCT 52,000 mGal
COLORADO RIVER AQUEDUCT 4,500 mGal
CALIFORNIA 86,800 mGal
Urbanization Creates Heavy Water Pressure 7. Amy Schellenbaum, How Does Los
Los Angeles exapanded its water supply network in order to get more drinking water. However,
Angeles Get Its Water? Technology,
the impact of it is very serious and widesperead, especially in terms of ecology. In the 1950s,
Popular Science, March, 2017.
people strated to channelized the rivershed to make it become concrete. The natural waterways
88%
Sustainability, UCLA, November, 2015.
water supply infrastructure.8 The great decline in native fish populations that has occurred in the
LOCAL WATER
GOUND WATER 21,536 mGal
lower Colorado River is due in part to the altered flow conditions created by dams and reservoirs.9 9. Sarah Zielinski, The Colorado River Runs
Reduced freshwater inflows have seriously degraded the wetlands and once-productive fisheries
Dry, Dams, Iriigation and Now Climate
in the Colorado River delta and estuary. 10
11%
Once-mighty River, Is it a Sign of things to
The severe impacts of Los Angeles’s transbasin water diversions on freshwater ecosystems in
Come? Smithsonian Magazine, October,
the Owens Valley and Mono Basin are also well documented. The natural systems in both of
2010.
these areas were subjected to some impacts before the arrival of Los Angeles’s water supply
IRRIGATION 81,000 mGal UPSTREAM RUNNOFF 55,000 mGal
Mono Basin were generally intact and similar to natural conditions before the impact of Los
BioScience, September, 2000.
Angeles. The city’s water-supply system greatly exacerbated any existing ecological problems, to
T UEN Gal EFF,L100 m 89
despite these impacts, aquatic habitat and riparian vegetation throughout the Owens River and
Tronical- Temnerate Comparisons,
OUTDOOR USE 42,840 mGal
N
Owens River, where irrigation diversions reduced and altered the seasonal patterns of flow. But
Riverine Macrobiota in The New World:
A OCE TO Gal PIP,E000 m 93
during droughts. Before 1913, the impacts of dewatering were probably most severe in the lower
Effects of Hydrologic Alterations on
TREATED WASTEWATER
119,000 mGal
SE
N TIO
hydroelectric power facilities. Dewatering of streams due to water use did occur in some areas
Freeman, and Byron, J., Freeman, Regional
IA SPR RAN l POT mGa EVA9,000 11
10. Catherine, M., Pringle, Mary, C.,
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 26,300 mGal
4%
infrastructure, including grazing, stocking of nonnative trout, diversions for irrigation, and small
IBU
R DIST
WATER RECYCLE 3,600 mGal
LEAKS 6,900 mGal
1% WATER CYCLE WAT ER U
PRICIPITATION 136,000 mGal
Change Have Drastically Reduced the
: TION
GRO
Metropolitan Water District (MWD) water, the sources of that water are also heavily impacted by
26,00UNDWATER R 0 mG ECHAR GE al
use, water pollution, and flood control structures. While Los Angeles is only one of many users of
Report, Institue of the Environment and
EVAPORATION 31 mGal
STORAGE:
ecosystem had become severely degraded by a combination of agricultural and municipal water 8. Water Management in Los Angeles
IMPORTED WATER
the point of devastating some areas. The historic Owens River was sustained by snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada, terminating in the saline Owens Lake.3 In 1913, the Los Angeles Aqueduct began pulling water from the river upstream of the lake. Below the aqueduct, all flow was eliminated except during extremely wet years. However, in the late 1920s, Owens Lake started to become dry. Native flora and
20
fauna species have been severely affected in the Owens River. Some fish are federally listed
11. Stormwater Capture, Treatment and
endangered species. Flow alteration from water diversions and impoundments, in combination
Recharge for Urban Water Supply, 2016.
Figure 2 Water Cycle in Los Angeles.11
12. Los Angeles Basin Stormwater
Los Angeles imports 88 percent of its drinking water from other cities. Everyone says that Los Angeles lacks of water,
Conservation Study. Task 2 Water Supply
but the truth is we are losing it. We let 93 billion gallons stormwater and 42 billion gallons outdoor use water flow
& Water Demand Projections.
into ocean through stormwater drainage system. Today we only capture 26 billion gallons urban runoff.12
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1. Chapter Two - Catastrophic Floods and Stormwater Management
History of Major Flood in Los Angeles that Changed the Urban Landscape 13. Thirty Dead in Southland Floods, Los
“Southland skies opened yesterday and rained death and destruction over a wide area as Southern California’s heaviest
Angeles Times, 3 March 1938
rainstorm in a quarter of a century entered its fifth day. The storm’s death toll, which had mounted to ten during the day,
.
leaped to a possible thirty at dusk when bridges in Long Beach and Universal City toppled into the maelstroms...”
14. Simpson, Kelly, Los Angeles Flood of
--Los Angeles Times13
1938: The Destruction Begins, History & Society of LA, 27 February 2012.
Historically, Los Angeles has experienced several catastrophic flood events which have caused much damage. Hundreds of people died in these events and. Government spent lots of money
15. Cram, Justin, Los Angeles Flood of
on post disaster repair.14 The 1938 flood event was the worst one in decades, and changed the
1938: Cementing the River’s Future,
urban development and urban landscape in Los Angeles. In 1938, Los Angeles was inundated with
Departures. KCET, July 22 2013.
two storm systems delivering record breaking rainfalls. The storm started to occur on Februray 27th, 1938. By the second day, 14.43 inches of of rain had fallen equivalent to the average annual rainfall. In the end, the storm brought a total of 10 inches of rain in the lowlands and upwards of 32 inches of rain in the mountains.15
THE DESTROY OF FLOOD During that flood event, the soils of San Gabriels River gave way. Tons of massive debris and sedimentation flowed down dozens of steep and narrow canyons that poured their contents on to the Los Angeles basin. After this flood event, more than 6,000 homes and businesses were destroyed and 1,500 homes were damaged and uninhabitable. Hundreds of people lost their lives, thousands more were evacuated. About one third of Los Angeles was influenced by stormwater. The stormwater surged from sourth to north, especially the San Fernando Valley, Venice, Compton, and Long Beach area. The Los Angeles River reached a maximum flood stage of about 99,000 cubic feet per second. Because of the bridge washouts and flooded lines, the three transcontinental railroads servicing the Los Angeles area stopped operations, making the greater Los Angeles area was isolated from the outside world. In addition, schools and colleges were closed, and students could not go to school for weeks because of the flooded playgrounds, basins, and streets. The whole city was paralyzed.
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23
16. Cram, Justin, Los Angeles Flood of
1938: Cementing the River’s Future, Departures. KCET, July 22 2013. 17. ArcGIS, http://www.arcgis. com/home/webmap/viewer.
Figure 3 Flood damage to a bridge in Studio City, 1938.16
Water Supply Reservoir Flood Control Channel Flood in 1938
0
15
30 mile
Figure 5 Striking US Army Corps of Engineers Map of Los Angeles County.17 Figure 4 A house that was washed a block away, 1934.16
24
25
18. Small Losses Prove Value of Dam
IT COULD HAVE BEEN WORSE
.System: Huge Amouts of Water Stored
A MORE COMPLETE FLOOD CONTROL SYSTEM
and Damage Held to Minimum, Los
In 1938, Los Angeles county already had its own drainage
Angeles Times, March 4 1938.
system with fourteen flood control basins and dams.
After the catastrophic floods in 1938, the local
There was enough stormwater being held into these
government started a comprehensive flood control
19. Davis, Mike, Ecology of Fear: Los
flood control basin to cover 105,336 acres a foot deep.
plan.19 This comprehensive plan created a three-prong
Angeles and The Imagination of
All that water flowed down into the basins along with
approach. First, it called for the construction of several
Disaster, Metropolitan Books, Page 70-
the runoff. These drainage areas worked well during that
large flood control dams,-Sepulveda, Hansen, and
71, 1988.
flood event, avoiding greater damage. There were two
Lopez-at the mouths of 17 tributary canyons. The plan
incomplete dams at that time, the Los Angeles Dam and
also included improvement of 49.07 miles of main
20. Report of The Chief of Engineers
the Hansen Dam. If not for the existing fourteen dams,
channel, and 53.42 miles of tributary channels and the
U. S. Army, Part 1, Volume 2, Corps of
the flood damage of Los Angeles watershed would have
reconstruction of 109 bridges.20 Santa Fe and Whittier
Engineers, January 1 1942.
been much worse than what it was.18 The flood engineers
Narrows flood control basins were also built in the San
kept working on the construction of Los Angeles Dam
Gabriel Basin. Second, debris basins were constructed
and Hansen Dam to solve the flood problems.
for collecting mud and rock during storms. Third, the
21. Kudler, Glick, Adrian, 9 Views of The
LA River Today and Before It Was Paved
channels were reconstructed to be deeper, wider and
in 1938, Los Angeles Curbed, Augst 19
concrete to enable stormwater to transport to the ocean
2015.
as quickly as possible.
Figure 6 Los Angeles River in 1931.21
Figure 7 Los Angeles River After 1941 New Comprehensive Plan.21
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27
The Development of Stormwater Drainage System 22. History of Los Angeles’s Stormwater
Drainage Management, LA’s Watershed
At the beginning of 20th century, with the rapid population increase and urban development, rain
Protection Program, LA Stormwater,
water that had been absorbed by unpaved land began to flow though the paved and developed
2017.
areas, leading to a decrease in groundwater storage and an increase of rainwater flowing into Los Angeles’ local waterways. These natural waterways could not capture the increasing rainwater
23. Los
Angeles County Storm Drain System, Los Angeles Department of
and the region experienced catastrophic and deadly floods in 1930s to 1940s. In response, the
Public Works.
River, San Gabriels River, and Ballona Creek and build an urban stormwater drainage system. The
local government established the 1941 new comprehensive plan to channelize the Los Angeles result was a complex 1,500-mile system comprised of more than 30,000 catch basins and 100 miles of open channels.22 After that, stormwater drainage system has gradually expanded.
0
7
14 mile
Went Back to Ground 98% of Rainfall Figure 8-1 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System in 1910.23
28
29
0
Went Back to Ground 95% of Rainfall
0
14 mile
7
14 mile
Went Back to Ground 75% of Rainfall Figure 8-2 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System in 1930.23
30
7
Figure 8-3 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System in 1950.23
31
0
7
0
14 mile
7
14 mile
More than 25 Billion Gallons Stormwater Drained into Ocean each Storm Month Went Back to Ground 40% of Rainfall
Went Back to Ground 50% of Rainfall Figure 8-4 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System in 1990.23
32
2000 Mile Stormwater Drain Pipe Figure 8-5 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System in 1910.23
33
STORMWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM SOLVE THE FLOOD ISSUE The Los Angeles’s stormwater drainage network views the storm as an urban development issue. 24. Davis, Mike, Ecology of Fear: Los
It carries excess water from rainfall, sprinklers or outdoor use sewer water away from city streets
Angeles and The Imagination of
and straight to the ocean in order to leave more space for urban development and protect
Disaster, Metropolitan Books, Page 70-
urban safety and property. Every day, tens of millions of gallons of urban runoff flows into local
71, 1988.
waterways through the stormwater drainage network. On a rainy day, the flow can be as much as 10 billion gallons. Because of the construction of stormwater drainage system, the flood issue is
25. Report
of The Chief of Engineers
almost solved and the flood zone is decreased greatly. 24
U. S. Army, Part 1, Volume 2, Corps of Engineers, January 1 1942.
Stormwater Drainage Pipe Natural Drainage Flood in 1938 100-year Flood now
0
15
30 mile
Figure 9 Los Angeles Stormwater Drainage System.25
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35
The Decrease of Groundwater Storage 26. Geohydrologic Study of The Central
“Situated on a semiarid coastal plain, the greater Los Angeles area relies significantly on groundwater for its water supply.
and West Coast Basins of LA County,
Historical groundwater development of the Central and West Coast Basins caused a large decline in groundwater levels
California Water Science Center, USGS.
and seawater intrusion. These effects led to the adjudication of the basins in the early 1960s and initiation of a series of groundwater management activities, including construction and operation of injection barriers, recharge of groundwater
27. Water
Management in Los Angeles, Institute of The Environment, UCLA, 2015.
basins through spreading grounds, restriction of groundwater withdrawal in certain periods, and use of imported and reclaimed water in lieu of some pumping.” --USGS26
Groundwater is an essential water source in dry areas, especially in Southern California. Many cities in this region pump groundwater to meet significant total demands for drinking water, irrigating, industrial use and so on. Recognizing the threats of depleted basins and sea water intrusion, groundwater pumpers in the several ground water basins organized to regulate pumping and develop long-term resource preservation plans for the aquifers as early as 1949.2 They codified the details of these plans in court-approved “adjudications.” Imported water from the Metropolitan Water District was essential in helping users agree to curtail pumping regimes, albeit with pumping levels that still exceeded the natural volume of groundwater recharge.27 Today, the water scarcity, climate change, and population increase strain the availability of water imports to supplant or recharge Los Angeles groundwater basins.27 As chapter one mentioned, today Los Angeles imports 88 percent of its drinking water from other cities though three main aqueducts, Los Angeles Aqueduct, California Aqueduct and Colorado River Aqueduct. Only 12 percent of drinking water is from local water resources. The annual rainfall in Los angeles is 12.5 inches on average.(Fig. 11) However, there are just 3 square miles of spreading grounds in the entire 1540 square miles watershed of Los Angeles and San Gabriel Rivers. This is less than two tenth of one percent of this whole area.(Fig. 12) For the lack of water infiltration, the groundwater 80
200
70
0 -200 -400 -600 -800 -1000 -1200
1930
60 50 40 30 20
50% 40%
Freeway Precipitation 40 in
0
15
30 mile
10 1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Figure 10 Los Angeles Historic Annual Rainfall and Groundwater Storage26
36
(inches) Annual Precipitation
400
Catastrophic Floods
Groundwater Storage (1000'S of AF)
storage is much lower than before.(Fig. 10)
2010
0
5 in Figure 11 Los Angeles Annual Rainfall12
37
1. Chapter Three - Stormwater Causes Great Local Water Pollution
Water Pollution in Los Angeles 28. The Facts about Infections of the Eye,
In the 1970 Oscar winning song, Raindrops Keep Fallin’ on My Head, Burt Bacharach and Hal David got it all wrong to
Keck Medicine of USC, USC Roski Eye
describe the water condition in Los Angeles, even in the whole U.S.:
Institute.
Raindrops keep fallin’ on my head But that doesn’t mean my eyes will soon be turnin’ red
29. Fleischli, Steve, Los Angeles County
Cryin’s not for me
Water Pollution and the U.S. Supreme
Cause I’m never gonna stop the rain by complainin’
Court, NRDC, November 20, 2012.
Because I’m free… Nothin’s worryin’ me..
Viral infections like adenoviral conjunctivitis, commonly known as “pink eye” is one of the most common eye infections in Los Angeles.28 Red eyes, known as pinkeye, are among the many health problems those raindrops can cause when they fall on urban environments and pick up pollution, turning into a toxic brew. Polluted water resources also can cause more serious health consequences, such as gastrointestinal, respiratory and neurological illnesses.29 In Los Angeles, drought has a choking grip on the 10.2 million people who live in here. There are some of more visible of the current changing this song to be:
Parched brown stamp lawns and freeway signs Extolling water conservation and scorched, tinder Dry hillsides in LA Cause we’re never gonna love our water by actions Because We’re not free... Nothin’s I care... There are more and more large cities and small towns paying attention to the harm caused by water shortage and water pollution. Unfortunately, Los Angeles ( with more than 70 miles of spectacular beaches), as one of our most populous regions is lagging behind. The rapid urban development and population growth brings a huge water pressure to Los Angeles, although Los Angeles has decrease 21 percent of city water use over the last two years. The summer temperatures already hover around triple digits. If the high temperature and drought condition
Stormwater Drainage Pipe Natural Drainage Lake Existing Spreading Ground Watershed Abover Spreading Ground
continue, how could people who live in Los Angeles get their drinking water?
0
15
30 mile
Figure 12 Water Infiltrated Area23
38
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- POLLUTED UNDERGROUND WATER 30. Daniel Ross, Truthout, Industrial
Pollution Is Threatening Our Drinking
As chapter one mentioned, currently, Los Angeles relies on getting drinking water from three
Water: A Dispatch From Los Angeles
main sources: northern California, the Colorado River and groundwater beneath the county’s
County, TRUTHOUT, July 23, 2015.
surface. However, chronically taking water from other cities has destroyed their local ecological environment. While groundwater is the most accessible of the three, it’s far from the cleanest. Indeed, no other county in the state is more reliant than LA County on groundwater that has been deemed contaminated at one time or another.30 But that does not mean that Los Angeles ignores this problem. Since the 1980s, billions of dollars have been pumped into cleaning the county’s four main water basins: the San Fernando, San Gabriel, Central and West Coast Water Basins. But all these years later, a losing battle is still being waged in some areas against the continued migration of contamination into clean aquifers, a
Figure 13(a) Eutrophication Water Pollution.
Figure 13(b) Dead Fish in Waterways.
Figure 13(c) Trash in Costal Line.
Figure 13(d) Waste Water Discharge.
toxic legacy from decades of heavy industrial pollution in the region. There are 452 miles of rivers 3
or channels and 57 miles of costal lines being polluted. (Fig. 13)
Figure 13 Los Angeles Water Pollution.
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41
TOP 10 SOUCRES OF WATER QUALITY IMPACT
#6: MERCURY
#8: AQUATIC WEED INVASIVES
31. Kessler, Rebecca, Stormwater
Water pollution exacerbates the water pressure issue even more. Unless we take some actions to solve this probelm,
33. Smith, Emerson, Joshua, Mercury, DDT
Mercury is a toxic metal that poses risks to human health
Non-native aquatic invasive weeds are increasingly being
Strategies: Cities Prepare Aging Infrascture
contaminated plumes will become so dense and permanent that the rest of the wells in Los Angles will need to be
and other contaminants in fish are at a
when released to the environment. At high enough
recognized as some of the most destructive and rapidly
for Climate Change, Environmental Health
shut down. Before coming up with the solution to solve the local water problems, the main water pollution impact
four-decade low, LA Times, Februray 08,
concentrations in the local water resources, the toxic
spreading of the invasive species. Some are poisonous,
Perspectives, December 2011.
sources should be understood. (Fig. 34)
2016.
substance can cause cancer, neurological disorders, birth
others interfere with agriculture, and waterways.34 In
defects, thyroid problems and other ailments in people
Southern California this includes Eichhornia Crassipes
30
32. Morgan, J. J., Liijestrand, H. M.,
#1: URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFF
our streams. This waste can cause pollution problems
34. Invasive Weeds in Los Angeles County,
who consume tainted fish.33 Although fish in today’s
and Hydrilla Verticillata, causing millions of dollars of
Measurement and interpretation of acid
The traditional stormwater drainage system does not
where it is discharged by using up oxygen in the water,
Agricultural Commissioner/ Weights &
oceans contain far lower levels of mercury, DDT and other
damages.35
rainfall in the Los Angeles Basin, W. M.
have the function of cleaning water. When it rains,
killing fish and other plants.
Measures, County of Los Angeles.
toxic substances than at any time in the last four decades,
Keck Laboratory of Hydraulics and Water
water runs into L.A.’s storm drains. Stormwater flows
Resources, December 10, 2009.
directly into our local waterways and then to the ocean
#4: ACID RAIN
35. Water Quality, Public Health, County of
untreated. Compared with sewer water, the stormwater
Acid rain, originates from the combustion of fossil fuels.
Los Angeles.
is not connected to a treatment facility before entering
As an industrial city, Los Angeles uses many fossil fuels
our ocean. Thus, the pollutants in urban neighborhoods ,
to produce energy. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur
such as flow with the rain water into local water resources, causing water pollution.
In Los Angeles, some water impurities cause significant #7: HYDROLOGIC MODIFICATION
health problems. High levels of the bacteria E. coli have
Hydrologic modifications include channlizing the natural
been linked to gastrointestinal illness; high levels of
36. Status Report: Onstie Wastewater
stream channel and its associated corridor. Common
arsenic have been tied to cancer.36 Many local people
dioxide (SO2) are emitted into the atmosphere while
Treatment Systems in California, California
examples of such modifications to habitat or hydrology
died because of it.
burning. When it enters the atmosphere, NOx and SO2
Wastewater Training & Research Center,
include the widening, deepening and channelization of
are transformed into nitric acid and sulfuric acid and
August 2003.
400hardening of streambanks, dam and reservoir streams,
80 #10: INADEQUATE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
200
70
#2: AGING STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE
fall back to the ground through wet deposition, like
operations, and construction in and along stream riparian
Although there are some onsite wastewater treatment
Aging stormwater infrastructure poses another water
rainfalland snow. Due to the heavy traffic condition, tons
buffers and wetlands. The effect on the hydrology is that -200
construction
quality problem: The percentage of U.S. stormwater
of carbon dioxide is released, making the rain naturally
the waterways not only lose their own ability to infilter -400
maintenance, increased density of homes, undersized 40
pipe that will be in “poor,” “very poor,” or “life elapsed”
acidic. Increased acidity has a negative effect on water
-600 the polluted water, but alos lose the habitat. and treat
30 and overused systems and the installation of systems on
(older than its predicted life span) condition rose from
quality and aquatic life. Various insects that constitute
23% in 2000 to 45% in 2020.31 All this aging stormwater
an important food source for fish-such as mayflies-
infrastructure could not guarantee that the wast water
are sensitive to low pH. Low pH also increases the
will not leak in the course of transportation.
concentration of heavy metals-such as aluminum and mercury-in the water and can result in increased toxicity
#3: NUTRIENT ETROPHICATION
for aquatic life.32
0
-800
This has a great effects on neighboring flora and faura. -1000
herbicides on our grasses and in our gardens and huge
The historic legacy of industrial pollution persists, and
20%
amounts of contaminants used in argiculture can end
new inputs of industrial elements are increasing in the
10%
up causing water pollution. When it rains, or when it
region. During the industrial activities, oil and antifreeze
infiltrates, the water can carry these pollutants into the
leaks. When water runs over the ground it can pick up
street where it enters the stormwater system or directly
these substances where they then enter the storm drain.
into the groundwater. Excess lawn grass and yard waste
Every little bit this water picks up can have a cumulative
after mowing or trimming can put unwanted fertilizer in
impact on water quality at our local beaches.
contaminants
like pesticides
and
Angeles,
the
60
poor50 routine
sites with unacceptable conditions can all lead20to onsite 10 0
50%
30%
of
Los
system failure and water quality impacts.36
-1200
#5: LEGACY POLLUTANTS
amounts
in
40%
Nutrient etrophication is also a big concern. Small
42
#9: PATHOGENS SELFISH
mercury still is a main water quality impact source.
0
Urban Aging WW Nutrient Stormwater Infrastructure Etrophication Runoff Impaired
Impacted 50% 40% 30%
Acid Rain
Legacy Pollutants
Mercury
Hydro Modification
Aquatic Weed Invasives
Pathogens Inadequate Shelifish Onsite Septics
Figure 14 Top 10 Sources of Water Quality Impact.35
43
NETWORK WITH WATER HARVESTING AREA
Stormwater Water Pollution Polluted runoff is the number one source of contamination to Los Angeles’s waters. A large portion 37. Stormwater Pollution Basics,
of contaminants found in Los Angeles County waters are due to pollution from the thousands of
Department of public works, Los Angeles
industrial facilities located throughout the County including factories, oil fields, scrap metal yards,
County.
and waste processing facilities. Polluted runoff also comes from human activities, which includes the use of detergents, fertilizers, oil and trash.37
38. Alamillo James, As a Large Storm Rolls
into L.A., Runoff Issues Flood My Mind,
The County of Los Angeles estimates that during a typical storm event upwards of 10 billion
Heal the Bay, December 16, 2016.
gallons of storm water flushes into the local waterways and ocean. (Fig. 15) That’s enough to fill nearly 120 Rose Bowls. In another words, 10 billion gallons would provide enough water for a city the size of Santa Monica for more than three months.38 However, the worse thing is the stormwater drainage system brings a lot of pollution. After a storm event, detritus is littered over the coast and beaches in Los Angeles. Almost every storm event brings physical debris, mostly plastics, to our waterways and oceans. In addition, after the storm event, polluted water can make the local water resources unhealthy for aquatic organisms and recreational users. In Los Angeles County alone, there are more than 70 major outfalls that spew trash, animal waste, pesticides, used motor oil, and human-gastrointestinal viruses into our county’s water bodie. This urban micro-brew of pollution can accumulate in just a couple days on sidewalks and roadways, 12 million people in a highly urbanized landscape, before being washed into the storm drains after a rain event.37
0'
Freeway Polluted River River/ Channel High Pollution Burden Low Pollution Burden
44
50000'
0
Figure 15 Los Angeles Water Pollution.35
15
100000'
30 mile
Figure 16 Los Angeles Water Flow Diagram.
45
1. Chapter Four - Climate Change in Los Angeles
Heat Island in Los Angeles 39. Barragan, Bianca, LA Gets More
“We must take action now. Each year, more Americans die as a result of heat than all other natural disasters combined.
Added Warmth from Urban Heat Islands
And the L.A. neighborhoods that have the least tree canopy — the northeast Valley and southeast L.A. — are at greatest
Than Anywhere in the State, CURBED Los
risk for heat-related hospitalizations and deaths.”
Angeles, September 21, 2015.
--Eric Garcetti
40.Urban Heat Island Index for California,
Los Angeles’s temperatures has been higher and higher. According to a new index out from the
California Environmental Protection
state’s Environmental Protection Agency, Los Angeles has an increase temperature from its highly
Agency.
urbanized state. This “Heat island effect” means that an urban area is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to more paved area with low albedo. In fact, the great Los Angeles
41. Understanding the Urban Heat Island
area gets more heat than other nearby region, in part because of how urbanized it is.39 Compared
Index, California Environmental Protection
with other cities, due to the highly urbanization and paved urban surface, Los Angeles area
Agency.
makes itself more of “an urban heat archipelago” rather than a single heat island. Several small urban centers area connected with each other by the heat island chain network, Los Angeles’s
42. Totten, Sanden, LA area has highest
freeways. The concrete and asphalt surface absorb and store heat from sunshine which makes
urban heat island effect in California,
the surrounding area 19 degree hotter in summer. The highest temperatures were found east of
Environment & Science, September 21,
Downtown, then blow inland to the valleys and contained near the base of the San Bernardino
2015.
Mountains.42 (Fig. 18) The heat generated by the urban heat islands in one area tends to move inland to blanket other areas with the overheated air. Heat islands are created by a combination of heat-absorptive surfaces, such as dark pavement
Figure 17 Los Angeles Stormwater Pollution Diagram.
37
and roofing, heat-generating activities, such as engines and generators, and the absence of vegetation, which provides evaporative cooling.40
Main Stormwater Pollutants: - Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production. - Urban neighborhood waste - Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks. - Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines. - Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems.10
46
47
WHY URBAN HEAT ISLANDS MATTER 43. Barragan, Bianca, LA Gets More
During heat waves, hospitalizations and deaths increase. Heat exposure, poor air pollution, and
Added Warmth from Urban Heat Islands
the concentration of heat in urban areas creates health risks. The strong influence of the urban
Than Anywhere in the State, CURBED Los
heat island on nighttime temperatures limits the ability of people to cool down and recover
Angeles, September 21, 2015.
before the heat of the next day. This adds to the risk of illness and fatalities.41 According to the California emergency record documents, during heat waves, respiratory disease, emphysema, heart disease, heart attacks, stroke, diabetes, renal failure, intestinal infections, heat stroke, dehydration, hypertension, and asthma happens more times.42 Because urban heat islands result in locally higher temperatures, there are other bad impacts on the economy and energy consumption. For example, during hotter summers, people use more air conditioning. However, this action increases greenhouse gas emissions. More greenhouse gas will increase the air temperature. Therefore, this problem is especially serious because, within the urban heat island cycle, heat intensity is projected to increase significantly. Heat islands will become even more prevalent in the future. With climate change, heat waves are becoming more frequent, more intense, and longer lasting.43
Freeway High Heate Island Effect Area Moderate to High Heate Island Effect Area Moderate Heate Island Effect Area
0
15
30 mile
Figure 18 Los Angeles Urban Heat Island.42
48
49
- EXTREME HEAT
Future Climate Change in Los Angeles 46. Barragan, Blanca, LA’S Fog is
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above the average high temperature for the region and last for several weeks are defined as extreme heat. During the day time, concrete traps heat;
44. Netburn, Deborah, L.A.’s mayor wants
The latest research projects the Los Angeles region to be 3°F to 4°F warmer by mid-century, creating more frequent
Disappearing and It Could Make Summers
to lower the city’s temperature. These
and intense heat waves that pose particular risk to Los Angeles’s most vulnerable communities.
Very Hot, CURBED Los Angeles, March 4,
during night time, all the heat is released. Therefore, the nighttime temperature is increased.
2015.
The high surface temperatures make it hard for water droplets to condense during nighttime.46
6
scientists are figuring out how to do it, LA Times, February 9, 2017.
The climate of Los Angeles is temperate, with very mild and relatively rainy winters, and warm
Therefore, in Los Angeles, it is harder than anywhere else to form clouds. The low vegetation
and sunny summers. However, the climate is changing, which brings negative effects to all over
47. Misra, Tanvi, A New Study Says
45. Preparing for Climate Change Impacts
California, especially in Los Angeles. The increasing temperatures, more extreme weather, such as
Warming Caused by Urbanizatioin is to
fog in the future in Los Angeles area. From the perspective of everyday life in Los Angeles, fog
in Los Angeles, Strategies and Solutions for
floods and wildfires, and rising sea levels are some of the most significant impacts already affecting
Blame, Why L.A.’s Fog is Disappering,
isn’t much fun. The poor visibility that comes from low clouds can cause flight delays and lead
Protecting Local Communities, Union of
Los Angeles. All these climate changes could have devastating effects on the regional economy,
CITYLAB, March 4, 2015.
to freeway traffic accidents. But from an ecological perspective, this isn’t great news. Fog actually
Concerned Scientists.
urban infrastructure, public health, recreation, tourism, agriculture, and the environment.
44
cover and high paved surface make it too warm for fog to form. In other words, there will be no
is really important for the biologically diverse, drought-sensitive, and flammable ecosystem along the Southern California mountain ranges. Fog deposits water directly onto this ecosystem,
California historically has been a pioneer in addressing global warming, with leading researchers
nourishing it and buffering it from wildfires that are common in L.A. during the summers.47 Lack
from the state’s universities and research labs providing the science on climate change and state
of fog and clouds will make Los Angeles even hotter.
officials taking policy action to reduce carbon emissions. The state’s successes over the years have set an example for other states and the federal government to follow. With the effects of global warming already starting to be felt, however, Los Angeles and other California communities must now make an additional choice: how to best prepare for, and protect against, the changes that cannot be avoided. 45 The climate of Los Angeles may change dramatically in the future. Climate change is primarily responsible for the warming trend, but it’s not the only force at work. Los Angeles is contending with an additional layer of misery caused by what’s known as the “urban heat island effect.” It means that cities — with their asphalt streets, dark roofs, sparse vegetation and car-clogged roads — are almost always a few degrees warmer than the more rural areas that surround them.44 Figure 19 Days of Extreme Heat in Southern California.45 Climate models (Fig. 19) suggest that by 2050, the temperature in downtown L.A. will exceed 95 degrees 22 days per year. In 1990, only six days were that warm. The Long Beach area is expected to see 37 days of this extreme heat per year, compared with 4 in 1990.44
240 180 120 60 0 1950
1965
1980
1995
2010
Figure 20 Foggy Days per Year in Los Angeles.
46
50
51
- AIR POLLUTION
- WATER RESOURCES
48. Maines, Alexa, The Tie Between
Although Los Angeles has already improved its air quality, Los Angeles still is the worst air condition
50. Ekstrom, J.A., and S.C. Moser, Sea-
Most of the precipitation falls to the north of the Los Angeles region during the winter.(Fig. 4)
Wildfires and Air Quality, WeatherBug,
city in the nation. With the changing of local climate, it is harder than before to improve air
level rise impacts and flooding risks in
However, the largest demand for the water use is the southern park of Los Angeles through the
December 30, 2017.
quality in Los Angeles. For example, warming temperatures increase concentrations of ground-
the context of social vulnerability: An
whole year. Because of rising temperature, there will be more rain fall instead of snow at the water supply upstream of Los Angeles. More and more water sources cannot be stored as snow
level ozone, an ingredient in smog, which is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
assessment for the city of Los Angeles.
49. Molina, Genaro, Bel-Air Wildfire Joins
compounds react in the presence of heat and sunlight.
Prepared for the Mayor’s Office, City of Los
in land area. The increasing amount of water flowing into ocean threatens the impact of sea
the Siege Across Southern California, LA
Angeles in the end of 2017.(Fig. 20) Smoke from wildfires wreaks havoc on air quality and can
Angeles, 2012.
level rise. Therefore, strengthening water conservation measures—such as climate-appropriate
Times, Los Angeles Times, December 6,
pose serious health risks for local people. Smoke is composed of gases and fine particles, which
landscaping, rain gardens, improving water use efficiency in households and agriculture, and
2017.
go deep into your lungs when you breathe it in. Not only will it make your eyes itch, but it can
improving water infiltration into the soil through permeable surfaces—also helps.50
45
The biggest wildfire occured in Los
also cause severe health complications for those with heart and lung diseases.48 50. Ekstrom, J.A., and S.C. Moser, Sea-
- ELECTRICITY CHALLENGE
level rise impacts and flooding risks in the context of social vulnerability: An assessment for the city of Los Angeles.
Los Angeles’s electricity system is facing many challenges in this warming world. Higher
Prepared for the Mayor’s Office, City of Los
temperatures and extreme weather are projected to the increase of electricity use, such as air
Angeles, 2012.
condition. Meanwhile, transmission lines bringing power to metropolitan Los Angeles is located in areas that are projected to be more vulnerable to damage from wildfires, which means more wildfires may occur in the future. Given these chanllenges, I propose Los Angeles finding the lost space in the urban area in order to create a urban forest network, decreasing the air pollution and solving the heat island issues.
Figure 20 Wildfire in Los Angeles.49
52
53
1. Chapter Five - How Freeway Can Be A Green Infrastructure Network?
Lack of Green Spaces in Los Angeles 51. Barragan, Blanca, Just How Park Poor
“The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors will consider putting a parcel tax on the ballot that could be used to raise
is Los Angeles County? Half of Residents
funds for open, green spaces—important considering that a recent parks-needs assessment conducted at the behest of
Don’t Live within 10 Minutes of A Park, and
the board found that 51 percent of county residents don’t live within a 10-minute walk (half a mile) of a park.”51
Other Sad Park Facts About LA County,
--Blanca Barragan
CURBED Los Angeles, May 23, 2016.
Los Angeles County is “green space poor” compared to other urban areas throughout the United 52. Gordon, Billi, Why L.A. Needs More
States. Because of the development of technology, we do not need to live in caves like animals.
Green Space, Now, Los Angeles Times,
We build buildings and developed our cities, which is a good process, except that it comes with
November 13, 2015.
various damages and hidden costs. Los Angeles is becoming a much denser, urban city. With the increasing urban area, Los Angeles has run out of spaces to grow out. The urbanization has
53. Lane Ashley, Green Spaces: Remapping
left little green space for people. In Los Angeles, the tree canopy covers 21 percent of the city,
Los Angeles, Art&Culture, The National,
compared with the national average of 27 percent.52
April 6, 2016.
Although Los Angeles has many big urban parks, such as Griffith Park, the biggest urban park in the nation is Topanga State Park which spans 265,226 hectares. Beyond these specific areas, Los Angeles has one of the lowest percentage of green urban spaces in the nations. In Los Angeles, almost 50 percent of local residents do not live wthin a ten-minute walking distance of a green space or public park, compared with New York’s 4 percent. 53 Lack of green spaces means there is less opportunity for rainwater to permeate into the the soil recharging ground water, growing vegetations, improving air and water quality, and providing habitat for wildlife. In addition, for local residents, especailly for children, a lack of access to green space results in poor health, crime and even domestic violence. Green space is not only a play ground for children to play and get knowledge about nature but also a best place for adults to reduce stress and get exercise. As Los Angeles continues to grow, people are creating a human-centric city. Building more green spaces could decrease the psychological elements that lead to violent behavior, in addition to many ecological benefits.52
54
55
54. Sivasubramanian, Ramya, Measure
A to Improve Park Equity in Los Angeles County, NRDC, September 28, 2016. 55. So, Wai, Shuk, Urban Green Space
Accessibility and Environmental Justice: A GIS-Based Analysis, August 2016.
Green Space in Los Angeles
Avilable Green Space to Residents
56. 2016 NRPA Field Report Park
and Recreation Agency Performance Benchmarks, National Recreation and Park Association, 2016.
Park Amenities Condition
Park Infrastructure Condition
Figue 23 Park Condition in Los Angeles.51 LACK OF GREEN SPACE The average green space per thousand people in Los
residents, or “High Need,” averaging 1.6 acres per 1,000
Angeles is 3.3 acres, which is lower than the average
residents.54 Access to urban green space can have a great
condition in the nations. The average natioanl green
influence on human health. Urban green spaces promote
space per thousand people is 9.7. In addition, all these
physical activity, improve the general public health of
green spaces are disproportionately distributed. The
urban residents, and enhance psychological well-being.55
Countywide Comprehensive Parks and Recreation Needs
Additionally because parks clean water and air, the lack
Assessment—which analyzed the physical condition of
of green space has environmental implication. Therefore,
parks, community access to green spaces, neighborhood
finding more space and transforming them into green
demographics, and population density—found that
spaces is very important in Los Angeles.
56
Freeway Moderate Park Need High Park Need Very High Park Need
0
30 mile
more than half of County residents live in areas classified Figure 22 Los Angeles Water Pollution.
51
56
15
either “Very High Need,” averaging 0.7 acres per 1,000
57
Finding Lost Space - Freeway 57. Trancik, Roger, Finding Los Space:
“Lost spaces are the undesirable urban area that is in need of redesign—antispaces, making no positive contribution
Theories of Urban Design, New York: Van
to the surroundings or users. They are ill-defined, without measurable boundaries, and fail to connect elements in a
Nostrand Reinhold, 1986.
coherent way.” 57 --Roger Trancik
58. Mobility Plan 2035, General Plan Mobility Element, Los Angeles Department
During urbanization, there are five factors that cause lost spaces in a highly developed city: the
of City Planning
highway, the Modern Movement in architecture, urban renewal and zoning, competition for image on the part of private enterprise, and changing patterns of land use in the inner city. All these five factors have together created the dilemma of modern urban space. The street network, zoning system make the urban space lost its social meaning as a multipurpose space. With the loss of a collective sense of the meaning of public space, we also lose the sense that there are rules for connecting parts through the design of outdoor space. Therefore, Neighborhoods and district no longer interacted, but became isolated, homogeneous enclaves. In Los Angeles, 42 to 45 percent of urban land is devoted to the storage and movement of automobiles58, which causes the urban space to be separated, encompassed by vast open areas without social purpose. However, lost spaces offer tremendous opportunities to the designer for urban redevelopment and creative infill and for rediscovering the many hidden resources in our cities. “There are five major factors that have contributed to lost space in our cities: (1) an increased dependence on automobile; (2) the attitude of architects; (3)
Figure 25 Before (Left) and After (Right) Freeway Construction
zoning and land-use policies of the urban-renewal period that divided the city; (4) an unwillingness on the part of contemporary institutions-public and
LINEAR SPACE - POTENTIAL GREEN FIELD
private-to assume responsibility for the public urban environment; and (5) an abandonment of industrial, military, or transportation sites in the inner core
59. Lau, Clement, Candidate, Urban
Highways and freeways cut through urban areas. Above
more green spaces and parks to improve the ecological
of the city.”
Freeway Cap Parks Policy Briefing Parper,
is an image showing how many lost spaces after a
problems and to meet the recreation and public health
Considering the Barriers and Opportunities
freeway proposed on site. (See Figure 25). The highway
needs of its local residents, especially children.59 Because
The automobile and modern movement methods, such as rail roads and freeways, are the biggest
for More Park Space in Los Angeles, Los
destroyed an established community and some urban
of the huge unused space along the freeway, redesigning
reasons for these lost spaces. It has resulted in an urban environment in which highways and
Angeles Sustainability Collaborative.
green open spaces. It also created an impenetrable
all these spaces (Fig. 26) to create park space is one way
parking lots are the predominant types of open space. In the 1940s, the highway system was
barrier through the city. Los Angeles has experienced
to address the shortage of green spaces and parks.
motivated both by the needs of military defense and by the desire to foster economic growth.
major disruptions caused by the interstate highway
All these highways and freeways cut through Los Angeles. By creating a complex pattern of
systems. The lack of public parks in Los Angeles is an
connected roads within the city, huge areas of lost space are left.
issue that demands urgent attention. Los Angeles needs
57
58
59
Freeway Stormwater Runoff Treatment
Design Strategy
Freeway stormwater runoff treatment includes three parts: water collection structure, gravel basin, and bioretention basin in order to preliminarily purify the polluted water.
There are many lost space in Los Angeles. I decided to uses all these unused space to break the traditional stormwater drainage system. Based on the existing freeway stormwater drainage, by inserting water treatment units, the heavy
Water Collection Structures
polluted freeway stormwater runoff would be treated. On the unused spaces surrounding freeway, using effluent
Adding water collection and storage structures could
creates an urban forest, where the neighborhood stormwater runoff could be cleaned and infiltrated into ground
slow down the rate of the rainwater flowing through
water.
bioretention basin. During the rainy day, some of the
Water Tank
Chamber Systerm
Land Cut
Rainwater Hog
rainwater could be stored in these structures. And the water could be released gradually. Thus, the bioretention FREEWAY AND SURROUNDING AREA
basin could clean the freeway runoff by stages in order to improve purification efficiency. Depending on the type of freeway and the size of the available space, the four types of water storage shown on the right can be choosed. RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL,INDUSTRIAL AREA OUTDOOR USE SEWAGE AND RUNOFF
FREEWAY STORMWATER RUNOFF
Water tank could be installed on ground or under ground. It ccan store large quantities of water. Chamber system is used under ground. As the blow diagram shows that it has the function of storage and irrigation. Rainwater hog can be used on ground or on freeway. Land cut methond can create topography change.
WATER TREATMENT
FREEWAY WATER TREATMENT
EFFLUENT
URBAN FORESTRY URBAN FOREST
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PRODUCTION
ECONOMIC PRODUCTION
DUST ABSORPTION AIR PURIFICATION WATER PURIFICATION PUBLIC SPACE BIOHABITAT
POLLUTION ABSORPTION BIOMASS PRODUCTION: FUEL TIMBER, FIBER
60
Trees Engineered Soils Sand Layer Water Chamber Gravel Layer Inflow Pipe
Trees Engineered Soils Sand Layer Water Chamber Gravel Layer Inflow Pipe
Trees Engineered Soils Sand Layer Water Chamber Gravel Layer Inflow Pipe
61
Gravel Basin Gravel basin can filter out solid impurities, such as cigarette butts, garbage,
Gravel Basin
plastics, etc. It can make sure that all the solid pollutants will not flow into planted basin or waterways with stormwater. Bioretention Basin Because of the freeway stormwater runoff is heavy polluted by N, P, metal, and toxic elements. Stormwater is collected into basin which consists of a remediative plants, engineered soil, sand bed, ponding area, gravel layer, and
Bioretention Basin
Above diagrams shows the existing five types of freeway drainage infrastructure. According to the freeway drainage
concrete basin. Each of the components of the bioretention area is designed
typology and available space size, I choose specific water collection and storage method combined gravel basin and
to perform a specific function. The sand bed also reduces the velocity, filters
bioretention basin to form the stormwater treatment units.
particulates, and spreads flow over the length of the bioretention area. Aeration and drainage of the planting soil are provided by the deep sand bed. The ponding area provides a temporary storage location for runoff prior to its evaporation or infiltration. Some particulates not filtered out by the grass filter strip or the sand bed settle within the ponding area. The engineered soil also filters pollutants and provides an environment conducive to the growth of microorganisms, which degrade petroleum-based products and other organic material. The clay in the engineered soil provides adsorption sites for hydrocarbons, heavy metals, nutrients and other pollutants. Stormwater storage is also provided by the voids in the planting soil. The stored water and nutrients in the water and soil are then available to the plants for uptake.
Gravel Layer Precaset Concrete Basin
62
Remediative Plants Engineered Soils Sand Layer Gravel Layer Outflow Pipe Pre-cast Concrete Basin
Gravel Layer Precaset Concrete Basin
Remediative Plants Engineered Soils Sand Layer Gravel Layer Outflow Pipe Pre-cast Concrete Basin
63
Define The Text Site As the analysis map on next page shows that, by overlying the water quality analysis, heat island analysis, soil infiltration ability analysis, and truck freeway traffic volume analysis. I defined part of freeway I-10 and freeway 710 as my strategy text site for the following reason. First, it is located on the high water polluted area. As the greatest pollution source, if the stormwater pollution issue could be solved or alleviated, the water quality of the this area will be greatly improved. Second, this freeway go through a large heat island zone, where a new green space network is needed to reduce the increasing temperature. Third, this freeway go through a good soil infiltration quality area, which provide a good opportunity for the urban stormwater runoff infiltrate into soil and recharge ground water. Fourth, there are many trucks drive through this freeway for goods moving. Truck emission causes air pollution, water pollution and dust. If transform this freeway into urban forest network, all these issue could be solved. In addition, according to the existing freeway section, we can see that there are many unused space on the two side of the freeway. Therefore, I choosed this freeway as my strategy test site to test my thesis theory.
Freeway Test Freeway Good Infiltration Soil
High Heat Island Effect Area Moderate to High Heat Island Effect Area Moderate Heat Island Effect Area Poor Water Quality Area
64
0
15
30 mile
65
EXISTING SECTIOING A
A
BC D EXISTING SECTIOING B
EXISTING SECTIOING C
EXISTING SECTIOING D
0
66
60
120'
67
Strategy Phases
Phase One 90,000 TREES TOTAL Foresting the Intherchanges of Freeway
12.5 inches RAINFALL
30 mile FREEWAY
17,000 metric tons CARBON DIOXIDE
30 mile FREEWAY
INNOVATIVE URBAN FOREST
Phase Two
169,000 TREES TOTAL Conecting All the Forested Interchanges of Freeway
169,000 URBAN TREES
24,500,000 sq ft FREEWAY SURFACE
49,000,000 sq ft URBAN SURFACE
782 gallons water per year per tree
Phase Three 200,000 TREES TOTAL
Extend Urban Froest into Neigborhood
132,158,000 gallons WATER
<
203,000,000 gallons WATER
200,000,000 gallons Runoff
0
5
10 mile
In order to plant enough trees to offset the car emission from freeway. I calculated the tree number that I need. If all the freeway stormwater runoff could be collected and flow into the urban forest area, trees do not to be extra irrigated.
68
69
Plant Species in Bioretention Basin
Plant Pallette Urban wild forest and seasonal wetland designed to catch rainwater and reduce or prevent its flow off the site. They promote infiltration of rainwater into the soil and help filter and breakdown pollutants in the stormwater runoff. Urban wild forest can also add beauty and value to the landscape. This plant pallette features mostly California native species that are suitable for many vegetated areas.
Rosa californica
Leymus triticoides
Baccharis salicifolia
Festuca californica
Cercocarpus betuloides
Arctostaphylos spp.
Tree Species
100'
MAX 50' HEIGHT
Nassella lepida
Carex subfusca
Plant Species in Urban Forest
CROWN DIAMETER SPECIES AVERAGE LIFESPAN FUNCTION WATER NEED
70
60' Robinia pseudoacacia
20' Platanus racemosa
35' Pinus radiata
50' Platanus acerifolia
40' Liriodendron tulipifera
50' Acer negundo californicum
25-50 yr
100-200 yr
80-90 yr
250-400 yr
250-300 yr
Nitrogen-fixer Large root
Ozoner remover Pollutant remover
CO2 remover
Smog, soot, dust reflected heat
Pollutant remover
Pollutant remover
Dry
Moisture-retentive
Dry to Medium
Dry
Dry to Medium
Moderate
Muhlenbergia rigens
Carex pansa
Juncus patens
Eschscholzia californica
Physocarpus capitatus
Adenostema fasciculatum
500-700 yr
Ribes malvaceum
Eriogonum fasciculatum
71
1. Chapter Six - Case Studies
Highway Overpass Landscape Detention System -DLANDstudio 60. HOLD System Study, DLANDstudio
Site: Long Island Sound, NY, CT
Architecture + landscape Architecture
Firm: DLANDstudio
pllc, 2015.
Date: Designed 2011-2012 and Constructed 2013-2014
SUMMARY DLANDstudio has developed four prototypical Highway Outfall Landscape Detention Systems (HOLDS) to collect and treat stormwater flowing down from elevated highways. There are over 7200 miles of elevated highways that traverse cities across the county. By combining the existing highway stormwater drain with a bioretention basin, this system creates planted, modular green infrastructure units that absorb and treat the pollutants from highway runoff, like used motor oil, heavy metal elements and grease from contaminated outfalls, rendering runoff much cleaner as it is released a grant to study the potential locations of additional sites for HOLDS within the Long Island Sound watershed.60
72
73
BACKGROUND 61. Long Island Sound HOLD System
There are more than 7,200 miles of elevated highways
Study, DLANDstudio Architecture +
in U.S. The majority of these structures are constructed
landscape Architecture pllc, 2015.
with downspouts that connect to adjacent waterways. All the highway drains convey toxins and debris into the waterways, polluting the local water resouces. The Highway Outfall Landscape Detention System, or HOLD System, redefines this relationship between the highway drainage system and waterways. The HOLD System redirects the water into a modular treatment area and using two clean units to treat the highway runoff before it directly flow into the waterways. This system uses gravel and planted, modular green infrastructure that absorb and filter pollutants. The HOLD System catches unsavory elements such as cigarette butts and other detritus that are left on the highways before the rain event and prevents them from entering larger bodies of water or
Traditional System
the drinking water system.
60
GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE
Downspout or Scurpers
The traditional stormwater treatment methods are gray
Sedimentation Basin
infrastructure systems including pipes, storage tanks, and
Outflow Pipe
other physical â&#x20AC;&#x153;hardâ&#x20AC;? structures that collect, direct, and retain runoff. Such structures rely on centralized, largescale systems that prevent groundwater recharge and can further fragment the landscape.61
Gravel Drainage Channels
In Los Angeles, adding more new gray infrastructure is
Planted Basin
hard to solve the water pollution issue because of high costs and site constraints. However, by restoring natural functions, municipalities can enhance the capacity and effectiveness of existing infrastructure and improve stormwater outcomes.2 Thinking about, based on the
Outflow Pipe
freeway topologies, how to put the natural treatment unit in to the drainage system.
74
HOLD System
75
1. Chapter Six - Case Studies
BACKGROUND
Manchaca Greenway 62. Central Texas Regional Mobility
Site: Manchaca, TX
Central Texas Regional Mobility Authoority Raises Awareness of Its Traffic-Calming Efforts, Downtown Austin Patch,
Authority’s Green Mobility Challenge,
Firm: AECOM
Augst 9 2017.
American Planning Association, September
Date: 2011
-AECOM
64. Cantu, Tony,
In a 2016 study by the Central Texas Regional Mobility
by using the linear spaces along the freeway. There are
Authority, 81% of people in the region said they love
two lines in the middle of the freeway being removed
living in the area. But with that love comes frustration
to transform it from paved surface into green spaces.
over ever-congested traffic in a part of the country to
Some native plants with pollution-remove function
which many are moving. The local government does not
were planted in swales. When it is rainy, rainwater flows
sugarcoast the issue of traffic. They worked with AECOM
through the freeway surface into the bioretention basin.
to provide real transportation and mobility solutions by
Water will be treated on site by the roots. By using the
64
12 2012.
SUMMARY
changing the existing grey infrastructure into a multi-
specific planting pattern, all kinds of pollutants would
63. Manchaca Greenway, Green Mobility
The “Green Mobility Challenge”, sponsored by the Central Texas Roadway and Mobility
functional green infrastructure.
be absorbed. Finally, the cleaned water will flow into the
Challenge, AECOM, November 29 2011.
Association, was a sustainable design competition that challenged Texas’ most creative landscape
pipe inlet that is on the bottom of the bioretention basin,
architects, planners and engineers to propose “greener” ways of constructing, operating, and
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
and flow into the urban forest area on the two sides of
maintaining future transportation projects. By holding the idea that a road is more than just a
Heavy traffic brings many problems that makes an
freeway for tree irrgation.
road, AECOM designed the Manchaca Greenway. This project combines many design elements,
increasing number of local people unable to live in this
such as stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs), recreation linear park, wildlife movement
environment. Air pollution makes people sick, especially
However, there is no water storage structure being
corridors. The new green infrastructure aims to manage stormwater runoff, improve water quality,
for children and the seniors. Noise bother people’s
designed. For Los Angeles, thinking about how to store
reduce total suspended solids, enhance natural resources, and provide space for trails.
lives. The most important thing is the water pollution.
the treated water during dry season and make it irrigate
Rainwater was polluted when it flow through the freeway
the created landscape, urban forest, will be the most
suface.
significant question.
62
63
In order to solve all these problems, AECOM designed a freeway urban forest with stormwater treatment structure Pedestrian Path
Freeway
Vegetated Swale
Bio slope
with Modular Bio-filter
Bioretention Swales
76
77 Figure 4 Cross Section of Greenway for Stormwater Management
1. Chapter Six - Case Studies
Akron Ohio Freeway Forest
67. Emily Matchar, An Ohio City is
-AECOM
Turning a Freeway into a Pop-Up Forest, SMITHSONIAN.COM, Jun 2017.
65. Central Texas Regional Mobility
Site: Akron Ohio, CA
68. Alissa Walker, An Ohio City is Turning
Authority’s Green Mobility Challenge,
Firm: AECOM
a Freeway into a Forest, Akron Plans To
American Planning Association, September
Date: 2017
Convert a Deconmmissioned Highway into a 35-acre Park, CURBED, Jun 2017.
12 2012.
SUMMARY 66. Manchaca Greenway, Green Mobility
The city of Akron Ohio, is the latest to reclaim its vehicular infrastructure for its citizens, and it’s
Challenge, AECOM, November 29 2011.
doing it in a revolutionary way: For three months next summer, a decommissioned freeway will be transformed into a 35-acre park filled with trees. This freeway was built in 1963 for 120,000 vehicles per day, but only 18,000 vehicles use it daily now.65 This project could be a very cool solution for sovling the climate change issue and air pollution issue, which opens people’s eyes to what we could do for the freeways.66 For Los Angeles, according to pLAn 2050, there will be a more complete public transportation system, such as metro and bus. In additioin, the use of some freeways is declining in Los Angeles. Thus, there will be an opportunity to remove some freeways and transform them into urban forest in the future.
The highway used to be key to economic development. However, now, removing the highway or making it a place for people is key to economic development.67 As above image showing the freeway will be demolished in 2018. All the traffic will be guided to the nearby two streets. An urban forest will be built on the original freeway area, which could give neighborhoods the chance to physically reconnect, help emissions and air pollution to drop, and provide citizens with a vision for how much better urban life can be without a freeway running through it.68
78
79
1. Chapter Seven - Site Analysis
Freeway I-10 in Downtown Los Angeles 69. Adderly, Kevin, Main Routes of the
Dwight D. Eisenhower National System, Interstate and Defense Highways, December 31, 2014. 70. Downtown LA Demographic Study
2013, DowntownLA.com, 2013.;
The design site is the part of Freeway I-10. The whole freeway opened in 1965, with a formal dedication held in 1966. This part of freeway is 10 lanes wide. Most of these lanes are full and crowded at peak travel times.69 However, in the past 5 years, the traffic volume of this parts was keeping decreasing. This freeway is located in Downtown Los Angeles area, which is the central business district of Los Angeles, as well as a diverse residential neighborhood of some 58,000 people.70
80
81
History of Downtown Los Angeles
73. Historical Map: Los Angeles Pacific
Electric Network, 1925, Transit Map, http:// transitmap.net/post/41981852277/pacific-
71. Downtown History, Downtown Center
At the beginning, settlements in this central Los Angeles area was by the Tongva, a Native
Business Improvement District Archived,
Americanpeople. This was a very rich place with all the requisites for a large settlement. The city
Wayback Machine, August 4, 2009.
was founded by the settlers from Mexico in 1781. In the 1880s, this area started to be developed
electric-1925
very fast. With the rapid development of infrastructure enhancements and the street construction, 72. Downtown History, Downtowan
this area eventually became the present-day Civic Center and Historic Core neighborhoods.71
LA, https://www.downtownla.com/ explore.
By 1920, the development of private and municipal rail lines were the mos comprehensive in the world in mileage at that time. It brought a lot of opportunities to Los Angeles. A large influx of residents, business development and land development not only made this area became the central area of the whole city, but also transformed LA into a large metropolitan area.72 After World War II, as the figure 26 shows that, the development of the Los Angeles freeway network, and subsequently, increased automobile ownership led to decreased investment downtown. Los Angeles entered the stage of suburbanization development. Many business activities moved to new suburbs. Since 1930s, numerous historic buildings in the Plaza area were demolished and transformed into street-level parking lots. At the same time, due to the decline of commercial trade in the number of residents in Downtown LA dramatically reduced.72 in 1955, Los Angeles government undertook the Bunker Hill Redevelopment Project, a massive clearance project that recognized land use and leveled homes, in order to left enough spaces for the future commercial skyscraper development. During this period the entire neighborhood was cleared and updated.72 For now, Downtown LA is a higly developed area, with lots of skscrapers. However, many old basic infrastructures have not been updated, such as freeways. They all has single function and poor physical state.
Figure 26 Historical Map: Los Angeles Pacific Electric Network, 1925.73
82
83
74. Los Angeles State Highway in 1963, 1960 to 1969, California, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/maps/?fa= location%3Acalifornia&all=true&c=50&dat es=1960-1969&st=list
Tree Canopy Analysis From this diagram we can see that the coverage of the tree canopy is very low surrounding the test freeway. High building and street density left many paved surface. The existing condition of tree canopy is very poor, but it also bring an opportunity for me to change the conditon and bring a urban forest into this area.
Historical Map: Los Angeles State Highway in 1963.74
84
85
Stormwater Drainage Analysis
75. Times staff, Older concrete buildings in
Tree Canopy Analysis
From this diagram we can see that the density of the stormwater drainage pipes is very high.
Los Angeles, LA Times, 2014.
Scientists used public records, maps and street surveys to compile a list of nearly 1,500 concrete
Highly paved surface depends on these pipes to convey stormwater into waterways in order to
buildings constructed before 1976 in Los Angeles.75 Downtown Los Angeles is in this high old
keep safty. Most of the stormwater pipes were constructed in the 1940s. And they were installed
concrete builidngs area. All these building is old, and dangrous. They have to be demolished
along the streets, which biring an opportunity for me to expand the freeway urban forest net work
in the future. Considering the design phases, I decided to demolished the old concrete builings
into the neighborhood by transform some streets into green streets.
along the freeway and in the neighborhood in the future, in order to create more spaces for urban forest.
86
87
1. Chapter Eight - Design Details
Three Nodes Based on the design strategy, the freeway interchange will be forested first, then plant trees along the freeway, finally, expand the freeway urbanforest network into neighborhood by using streat to create green space, and transforming some old concrete building into green space. According to the freeway topology, I defined three main nodes for this freeway. Node ons has a planting phases. Node two and three all have construction phases. They will be built step by step. Node one: Freeway interchange
Node One
Node two: Freeway demolish Node three: Reuse Old concrete building space
Node Three Node Two
0
88
1500
3000'
89
Node One
Nourish The Soil - 0 year
Planting Trees - 4 year
Trees Variation - 10 year
Wildness Freeway Forest - 16 year
Because there are many space that I can use, not only freeway stormwater B
runoff should be collected and treated, but also the neighborhood stormwater
runoff.
By
studying
the existing city stormwater pipes, I choosed some areas used as a stormwater capture and treat wetland A
in the urban forest area. I devided the whole space into several planting zone based on how much water it 40 m
40 m
40 m
40 m
40 m
40 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
20 m
10 m
10 m
10 m
10 m
10 m
10 m
0m
0m
0m
0m
0m
0m
Oa
kS
t
SF
igu
roa
St
can get.
0 Proposed Green Space
Water Circulation
500
1000' Circulation
In order to improve the tree ability of offsetting the green house gas, and removing the pollutants in stormwater, I plant trees 12 ft away from each other; and use a six-yearing cycling method.
More Water Less Water
90
Stromwater Drainage Water Flow Water Infiltration Area
Existing Circulation Proposed Circulation
91
Dry Period Section A
Wet Period Section A
92
93
Dry Period Section B
Wet Period Section B
94
95
96
97
Existing Condition
Remove the Freeway Surface
slope land and some low wetland
The traffic volume of this freeway has kept decreasing since
As the red color marked, the freeway surface will be removed, but
were defined.
2012. According to the pLAn 2035 and 2050, there will be a more
the concrete poles will be kept as the historical meaning. Freeway
complete public transportation system in Los Angeles, Thus, I
is a kind of history and culture of Los Angeles. Thus I decided to
decided to domolised part of the elevated freeway, by using the
keep the concrete poles of freeway.
which left a huge shaded space under
dro
ple
Pe
the freeway surface. By studying the
an
Ma
On this part, the freeway is very wide,
St
Av
e
Node Two
SS
traffic volume of this area, I found the t
traffic volume of this area has kept tra lS
decreasing. Thus, I tried to remove
en
some freeway surface to active the
SC
EW
ash
ing
ton
shaded space. In addition, by doing land fill and land cut, I changed the
Blv
d
C
topography of this site. Some dry
third case study as a reference.
Vegetation Analysis
0
Proposed Green Space
Water Circulation
500
Guide Traffice Flow
Build urban forest
There are two streets on the sides of freeway, but there is no car
Using the vacant spaces to create urban forest.
1000'
Circulation
driving through it. Therefore I decided to guide the traffice flow into the two streets, and make it become one-way street.
More Water Less Water
98
Stromwater Drainage Water Flow Water Infiltration Area
Existing Circulation Proposed Circulation
99
Dry Period Section C
Wet Period Section C
100
101
Mateo St
S Santa Fe Ave
Node Three
Existing Section D
Due to the increasing land value, people build house closer and closer to freeay because it is affordable. There area just some very linear
D
space long the freeway. In order to get more space for building urban forest, I plan to demolish the old concrete building along the freeway. Step One Section D
0
Proposed Green Space
More Water Less Water
102
Water Circulation
Stromwater Drainage Water Flow Water Infiltration Area
450
Step Two Section D
900'
Circulation
Existing Circulation Proposed Circulation
103
104
105
106
107
1. Chapter Nine - Conclusion
Conclusion Los Angeles has three main problems: lacking of water, water pollution and air pollution. The climate of Los Angeles is very dry. But people donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t cherish water. Billions gallons of rainwater has been conveyed into ocean every year. But, the worst thing is that we let the heavy polluted water flow into waterways, which caused huge ecological and economic losses, rather than just loosing the rainwater. Green space is the best way to solve these two problems. However, in our urban area, it is very hard to find enough space to create green area. By doing researches, I found that although freeway is the most notorious infrastructure, which is the greatest pollution source of stormwater pollution and air pollution, it still left an opportunity for us to redefine the role of freeway. After investigation and study, LAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freeway system could be reconfigured to improve water quality, decrease air pollution and add more green space by reusing the lost space. According to the freeway and freeway stormwater drainage typology, create different freeway stormwater treatment units. Using these effluent to maintain the urban forest. My thesis rethinks the role of freeway in order to make it not only a transportation method, but a multifunctional infrastructure.
108
109
1. Reference
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