JoTT 3(10): 2109-2152 by ZOO-WILD

October 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 10 | Pages 2109â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2152 Date of Publication 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

ÂŠ Zeeshan Mirza

Haploclastus validus

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9A, Lal Bahadur Colony, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641004, India Phone: +91 422 2561087, 2561743; Fax: +91 422 2563269 Email: threatenedtaxa@gmail.com, articlesubmission@threatenedtaxa.org Website: www.theatenedtaxa.org EDITORS Founder & Chief Editor Dr. Sanjay Molur, Coimbatore, India Managing Editor Mr. B. Ravichandran, Coimbatore, India Associate Editors Dr. B.A. Daniel, Coimbatore, India Dr. Manju Siliwal, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Meena Venkataraman, Mumbai, India Editorial Advisors Ms. Sally Walker, Coimbatore, India Dr. Robert C. Lacy, Minnesota, USA Dr. Russel Mittermeier, Virginia, USA Dr. Thomas Husband, Rhode Island, USA Dr. Jacob V. Cheeran, Thrissur, India Prof. Dr. Mewa Singh, Mysuru, India Dr. Ulrich Streicher, Oudomsouk, Laos Mr. Stephen D. Nash, Stony Brook, USA Dr. Fred Pluthero, Toronto, Canada Dr. Martin Fisher, Cambridge, UK Dr. Ulf Gärdenfors, Uppsala, Sweden Dr. John Fellowes, Hong Kong Dr. Philip S. Miller, Minnesota, USA Prof. Dr. Mirco Solé, Brazil Editorial Board / Subject Editors Dr. M. Zornitza Aguilar, Ecuador Prof. Wasim Ahmad, Aligarh, India Dr. Giovanni Amori, Rome, Italy Mr. Deepak Apte, Mumbai, India Dr. M. Arunachalam, Alwarkurichi, India Dr. Aziz Aslan, Antalya, Turkey Prof. R.K. Avasthi, Rohtak, India Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, Coimbatore, India Dr. Hari Balasubramanian, Arlington, USA Dr. Maan Barua, Oxford OX , UK Dr. Aaron M. Bauer, Villanova, USA Dr. Gopalakrishna K. Bhat, Udupi, India Dr. S. Bhupathy, Coimbatore, India Dr. Anwar L. Bilgrami, New Jersey, USA Dr. Renee M. Borges, Bengaluru, India Dr. Gill Braulik, Fife, UK Dr. Prem B. Budha, Kathmandu, Nepal Mr. Ashok Captain, Pune, India Dr. Cleofas R. Cervancia, Laguna , Philippines Dr. Apurba Chakraborty, Guwahati, India Dr. Kailash Chandra, Jabalpur, India

Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury, Guwahati, India Dr. Richard Thomas Corlett, Singapore Dr. Gabor Csorba, Budapest, Hungary Dr. Paula E. Cushing, Denver, USA Dr. Neelesh Naresh Dahanukar, Pune, India Dr. R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Chennai, India Dr. A.K. Das, Kolkata, India Dr. Indraneil Das, Sarawak, Malaysia Dr. Rema Devi, Chennai, India Dr. Nishith Dharaiya, Patan, India Dr. Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman, Queenswood, South Africa Dr. William Dundon, Legnaro, Italy Dr. J.L. Ellis, Bengaluru, India Dr. Susie Ellis, Florida, USA Dr. Zdenek Faltynek Fric, Czech Republic Dr. Hemant Ghate, Pune, India Dr. Dipankar Ghose, New Delhi, India Dr. Gary A.P. Gibson, Ontario, USA Dr. M. Gobi, Madurai, India Dr. Stephan Gollasch, Hamburg, Germany Dr. Michael J.B. Green, Norwich, UK Dr. K. Gunathilagaraj, Coimbatore, India Dr. K.V. Gururaja, Bengaluru, India Dr. Mohammad Hayat, Aligarh, India Dr. V.B. Hosagoudar, Thiruvananthapuram, India Prof. Fritz Huchermeyer, Onderstepoort, South Africa Dr. V. Irudayaraj, Tirunelveli, India Dr. Rajah Jayapal, Bengaluru, India Dr. Weihong Ji, Auckland, New Zealand Prof. R. Jindal, Chandigarh, India Dr. Pierre Jolivet, Bd Soult, France Dr. Rajiv S. Kalsi, Haryana, India Dr. Werner Kaumanns, Eschenweg, Germany Dr. P.B. Khare, Lucknow, India Dr. Vinod Khanna, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Cecilia Kierulff, São Paulo, Brazil Dr. Ignacy Kitowski, Lublin, Poland Dr. Krushnamegh Kunte, Cambridge, USA Prof. Dr. Adriano Brilhante Kury, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Dr. P. Lakshminarasimhan, Howrah, India Dr. Carlos Alberto S de Lucena, Porto Alegre, Brazil Dr. Glauco Machado, São Paulo, Brazil Dr. Gowri Mallapur, Mamallapuram, India Dr. George Mathew, Peechi, India Prof. Richard Kiprono Mibey, Eldoret, Kenya Dr. Shomen Mukherjee, Jamshedpur, India Dr. P.O. Nameer, Thrissur, India Dr. D. Narasimhan, Chennai, India Dr. T.C. Narendran, Kozhikode, India Stephen D. Nash, Stony Brook, USA continued on the back inside cover

JoTT Communication

3(10): 2109–2119

Robust Trapdoor Tarantula Haploclastus validus Pocock, 1899: notes on taxonomy, distribution and natural history (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Thrigmopoeinae) Zeeshan A. Mirza 1, Rajesh V. Sanap 2 & Manju Siliwal 3 Zoology Department, Bhavans College, Andheri (W), Mumbai, Maharashtra 400058, India D5/2, Marol Police Camp, Marol Maroshi Road, Andheri (E), Mumbai, Maharashtra 400059, India 3 Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society, 9-A, Lal Bahadur Colony, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641004, India Email: 1 snakeszeeshan@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 rajeshvsanap@gmail.com, 3 manjusiliwal@gmail.com 1 2

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman Manuscript details: Ms # o2627 Received 15 November 2010 Final received 29 August 2011 Finally accepted 23 September 2011 Citation: Mirza, Z.A., R.V. Sanap & M. Siliwal (2011). Robust Trapdoor Tarantula Haploclastus validus Pocock, 1899: notes on taxonomy, distribution and natural history (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Thrigmopoeinae). Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2109–2119. Copyright: © Zeeshan A. Mirza, Rajesh V. Sanap & Manju Siliwal 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Contribution: ZM & RS carried out surveys at Aarey Milk Colony and Matheran. MS carried out surveys at Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary. The paper received equal contribution from all the authors. For Author Details & Acknowledgements see end of this article

Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs

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Abstract: The genus Haploclastus is endemic to India and is represented by six species. One of the species H. validus Pocock, 1899 was described from Matheran and has remained poorly known in terms of its natural history and distribution. During recent surveys the species was for the first time found again since its description nearly 110 years ago. Based on the new material collected it is redescribed and data on its natural history and distribution are added. It is the first record of an Indian theraphosid spider, which closes its burrow with a trapdoor. Keywords: Haploclastus validus, taxonomy, Theraphosidae, trapdoor spider, Western Ghats.

INTRODUCTION The genus Haploclastus is endemic to India and is represented by six species, namely, Haploclastus cervinus Simon, 1892, H. kayi Gravely, 1915, H. nilgirinus Pocock, 1899, H. satyanus Barman, 1978, H. tenebrosus Gravely, 1935 and H. validus Pocock, 1899 (Siliwal et al. 2005; Siliwal & Raven 2010; Platnick 2011) of which five have been reported from the Western Ghats (Pocock 1900; Gravely 1915, 1935; Molur & Siliwal 2004). While conducting surveys in Aarey Milk Colony, Mumbai, authors (RS & ZM) collected specimens of both sexes of the genus Haploclastus. Initially, it was considered a trapdoor spider of the family Ctenizidae due to its trapdoor burrow structure and some morphological characters. After examining the specimens under a stereomicroscope, it was identified as belonging to the genus Haploclastus of the family Theraphosidae based on the presence of a distinct maxillary heel, the apical segments of the PLS being digitiform, the presence of claw tufts and absence of a rastellum (Dippenaar-Schoeman 2002). Members of the genus Haploclastus possess numerous horizontally aligned thorn-like setae arranged in two to three rows above and below the maxillary suture along with long tapering modified setae aligned vertically in a diffuse pattern on the prolateral side of the maxilla which are distinctly present in females. The species of Haploclastus, which had the closest distribution range to Mumbai, was H. validus from Matheran. To confirm this, surveys were carried out in Abbreviations: ALE - Anterior lateral eye; AMC - Aarey Milk Colony; AME - Anterior median eye; d - dorsal; fe - femur; me - metatarsus; MOQ - Median ocular quadrate; MS - Manju Siliwal; p - prolateral; pa - patella; PLE - Posterior lateral eye; PLS - Posterior lateral spinnerets; PME - Posterior median eye; PMS - Posterior median spinnerets; r retrolateral; ta - tarsus; ti-tibia; v - ventral.

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Matheran, Raighad District, Maharashtra, the type locality of H. validus. From Matheran, both male and female specimens belonging to a single Haploclastus species were collected. This confirms that only one species of Haploclastus occurs in Matheran. Moreover, after examining male and female specimens from Matheran, it was clear that the recent synonym of H. robustus with H. validus by Siliwal & Raven (2010) was valid. In addition to this, females and males from both the localities (Matheran and Aarey Milk Colony) shared characters that were found to be common, further supporting that the species from AMC was H. validus. According to Siliwal & Raven (2010), the type specimens of H. validus is presumed to be either lost or deposited in some European museum. Therefore, redescription of this species based on type specimens is not possible. The original description of the H. validus lacks information on the species natural history, detailed morphometry of legs and structure of genitilia. Molur & Siliwal (2004) coined a common name for this species as ‘Strong Large Burrowing Spider’ which needs to be changed as this species is now known to be a trapdoor spider and hence, we propose it as ‘Robust Trapdoor Tarantula’.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Specimens were collected during opportunistic surveys in different parts of Maharashtra. Measurements were taken with a MitutoyoTM Dial Caliper. All measurements are in mm. Spermathecae were dissected and cleared in clove oil. Total length excludes chelicerae. All illustrations were prepared with the help of camera lucida by MS and morphological details were observed under Labomed stereo-binocular microscope. Descriptive style follows the standardized descriptive style provided by Siliwal & Molur (2007, 2009). All specimens are deposited at the Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society (WILD), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Taxonomy Haploclastus Simon, 1892 Phlogiodes Pocock 1899: 748; Pocock 1900: 179; Smith 1987: 94. Haploclastus Simon, 1892: 269; Raven 1985:157 2110

Type species: Haploclastus validus Pocock, 1899 Diagnosis: Fovea deep and slightly procurved; numerous horizontally aligned thorn-like setae in two to three rows above and below the maxillary suture along with long tapering modified setae aligned vertically in diffuse pattern on prolateral side of maxilla (Raven 1985). Haploclastus validus Pocock, 1899 Haploclastus robustus Pocock, 1899: 748; Haploclastus validus, Siliwal & Raven 2010: 72 Type material: Holotype female of H. validus (= H. robustus), Matheran, Raighad District, Maharashtra, coll. Bombay Natural History Society, deposited at Natural History Museum, London. Not examined. Material examined 1 male, 27.iv.2010, Matheran, Raighad District, Maharashtra (19000’N & 73017’E; 800m elevation), coll. Rajesh Sanap and Zeeshan Mirza, WILD-10ARA-1102; 1 female, 19.ii.2010, Matheran, Raighad District, Maharashtra (19000’N & 73017’E; 800m elevation) coll. Ashish Jadhav & Rajesh Sanap WILD10-ARA-1103; 1 male, 24.vi.2009, Aarey Milk Colony, Mumbai, Maharashtra (1907’31’’N & 72052’76’’E; 104m elevation), coll. Zeeshan Mirza & V. Rathode, WILD-10-ARA-543; 1 female, 28.xii.2009, Aarey Milk Colony, Mumbai, Maharashtra, (1907’31’’N & 72052’76’’E; 104m elevation), coll. Rajesh Sanap & Zeeshan Mirza, WILD-10-ARA-544; 1 female, Bhimashankar WLS, Maharashtra, (19004’04.4”N & 73032’20.3”E; 858m elevation), coll. Manju Siliwal, Saroj Behera & Mandar Kulkarni, WILD-09ARA-360. Diagnosis Male - Carapace slightly shorter than metatarsus + tibia of leg I; slightly longer than patella + femur of leg III; considerably shorter than tarsus + metatarsus of leg IV and tibia + patella of leg I. ALE clearly larger than the rest. Embolus broad at base, slightly twisted anteriorly and flatten, flattened end resembles a duck’s bill which tapers into a stout point; ventrally with rows of poorly developed keels. Female Carapace slightly longer than metatarsus + tibia of leg IV; slightly shorter than twice the length of tarsus +

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The Robust Trapdoor Tarantula

metatarsus of leg II. Fused seminal receptacle; brickshaped structure with the upper edges smooth and rounded rose to form small mounds. Redescription of male (Figs 1–11), WILD-10ARA-1102 Total length 26.10; carapace 12.46 long, 9.10 wide; abdomen 13.64 long and 9.10 wide, chelicerae 6.96 long. Spinnerets: PMS, 1.70 long, 0.60 wide, 0.84 apart; PLS, 6.82 total length (2.58 basal, 1.80 middle, 2.44 distal; midwidths1.12, 0.86, 0.62 respectively). Morphometry of leg and palp given in Table 1. Colour in life (Image 1): Carapace blackish-brown, carapace overall covered with dense silvery curved grey hair radiating from fovea. Abdomen covered with thick mat of brownish-black hair. Femora, patellae and tarsi of all legs covered with brownish hair; metatarsus and tibia of all legs covered with silvery grey hair. Carapace (Fig. 1): Fovea procurved. Length to width 1.6, bristles: 14 long on caput in mid-dorsal line; 9 long, 6 short anteromedially; 14 long, 12 short between PME; 3 short between AME–AME; 7 long, 4

Z.A. Mirza et al.

short on clypeal edge. Eyes (Fig. 2): Ocular group 0.86 long, 2.14 wide; diameter AME 0.40, PME 0.18, ALE 0.46, PLE 0.30; distance between ALE-AME 0.21, AME-AME 0.26, PLE-PME 0.12, PME-PME 1.10; MOQ not square, 0.42 long, 0.86 front width, 1.34 back width. Maxillae (Figs 3 & 6): Prolateral face with randomly arranged long bristles above and below maxillary suture. Cuspules ca. 200 in triangular patch in anterior corner. 3.82 front length, 4.68 back length, 2.32 wide. Maxillary lyra: No definite shape, small spike setae above and below suture arranged randomly. No ventral brush of lyra. Labium (Fig. 3): 1.45 long, 1.76 wide with ca. 220 cuspules restricted to upper region of labium covering ¼ of area. Chelicerae (Figs 4 & 5): Ectal lyrate, grove glaborous; lyra, straight, black spines in 3–4 rows. Promarginal teeth in 2 rows: 11 outer large teeth, 6 small on inner edge adjacent to larger teeth; 50 basomesal teeth in 3-4 rows.

Image 1. Haploclastus validus male from Matheran (Raighad District, Maharashtra) Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | October 2011 | 3(10): 2109–2119

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2 3

Figures 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;7. 1 - Dorsal view of spider, scale 0.5mm; 2 - Eye, scale 1mm; 3 - Sternum, maxillae, labium, scale 0.5mm; 4 - Chelicerae, scale 1mm; 5 - Chelicerae teeth, scale 1mm; 6 - Maxillae, scale 1mm; 7 - Spinnerets, scale 1mm

Sternum (Fig. 3): 6.22 long, 5.06 wide. Oval, high in centre, sloping gradually, reddish-brown, covered with dense mat of short black hair. Posterior tip sharp but not separating coxae IV. Long black hair radiating 2112

margin. Sigilla (Fig. 3): Three pairs, posterior, oval, 1.16 diameter, ca. 1.00 apart, 1.16 from margin, submarginal; middle, oval, 0.62 diameter, ca. 3.50 apart,

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Table 1. Haploclastus validus, measurements of legs and palp of male specimen from Matheran, WILD-10-ARA-1102. Ranges and mean include all male specimens collected from Maharashtra. Leg I

Leg II

Leg III

Leg IV

Palp

1102*

Range

Mean± SD

1102*

Range

Mean± SD

1102*

Range

Mean± SD

1102*

Range

Mean± SD

1102*

Range

Mean± SD

Femur

11.08

11.0812.39

11.73 ±0.92

9.76

9.7611.80

10.78 ± 1.44

8.80

8.8011.04

9.92 ± 1.58

11.10

11.1012.76

11.93 ± 1.17

6.20

6.206.10

6.15 ± 0.07

Patella

5.38

5.386.94

6.16 ±1.10

5.10

5.104.98

5.04 ± 0.08

4.04

4.043.24

3.64 ± 0.56

5.04

5.043.29

4.17 ± 1.23

3.06

3.062.42

2.74 ± 0.45

Tibia

9.08

9.087.78

8.43 ±0.91

7.56

7.567.60

7.58 ± 0.02

6.32

6.326.46

6.39 ± 0.09

9.26

9.269.78

9.52 ± 0.36

6.12

6.125.94

6.03 ± 0.12

Metatarsus

7.40

7.406.72

7.06 ±0.47

6.32

6.325.79

6.06 ± 0.34

7.26

7.267.02

7.14 ± 0.16

10.42

10.429.80

10.11 ± 0.43

Tarsus

4.44

4.444.51

4.47 ±0.04

4.38

4.384.70

4.54 ± 0.01

3.72

3.724.72

4.22 ± 1.70

4.36

4.365.11

4.74 ± 0.53

2.18

2.181.50

1.84 ± 0.48

Total

37.38

37.3839.36

38.37 ±0.69

33.12

33.1234.57

33.85 ± 1.02

30.14

30.1432.49

31.32 ± 0.66

40.18

40.1840.75

40.47 ± 0.40

17.56

17.5615.96

16.76 ± 1.31

Femur

3.98

3.982.9

3.44 ±1.12

3.34

3.342.65

3.0 ± 0.48

3.64

3.642.94

3.29 ± 0.49

3.96

3.962.45

3.21 ± 1.06

1.68

1.681.40

1.54 ± 0.19

Tibia

2.32

2.321.90

2.11 ±0.29

2.06

2.061.89

1.98 ± 0.12

2.40

2.401.94

2.17 ± 0.32

2.22

2.221.91

2.07 ± 0.21

2.36

2.361.84

2.1 ± 0.36

Midwidth

1102* - Specimen from Matheran

ca. 0.20 from margin and anterior, marginal and round. Legs: Formula 4123. Leg III clearly thicker than the rest. Metatarsi I 1.50 times longer than tarsi I, metatarsi II 1.31 times longer than tarsi II, metatarsi III 1.50 times longer than tarsi III, metatarsi IV 1.91 times longer than tarsi IV. Metaspines: I, 1 ventral; II, 1 ventral, 3 ventrolateral; III, 5 dorsal, 1 ventral, 6 ventrolateral; V: 1 dorsal, 1 ventral, 6 ventrolateral, 2 prolateral. Absent elsewhere. Trichobothria: ta I, 24 clavate, 13 long 8 short filiform, ta II, 19 clavate, 12 long, 8 short filiform; ta III, 20 clavate, 12 long, 6 short filiform; IV, 15 clavate 10 long, 6 short filiform. Leg Coxae: Coxal base dorsally easily seen from above. I longest, about 1.23 times longer than II. Coxae IV widest. Coxae I-IV covered with short and long black hair with black bristles with pallid tips; I-II sloping forward and III-IV sloping backwards. Claws: Paired bare claws on all legs; palp with a single bare claw. Abdomen pilosity (Fig. 1): Dorsally covered with mat of short brown hair intermixed with long black and pallid hair and ventrally with short and long brown hair with yellow cuticle exposed.

Image 2. Haploclastus validus male palpal bulb. Not to scale

Spinnerets (Fig. 7): Two pairs, yellowish brown covered with golden hair. Male Palp (Image 2, Fig. 9–11): Embolus broad at base slightly twisted forward and flatten, flattened end resembles a duck’s bill which tapers into a stout point. Ventrally with rows of poorly developed keels. Morphometry of WILD-10-ARA-543: Total length 26.10. Carapace 14.45 long, 9.11; chelicerae 6.10 long. Sternum: 6.22 long, 5.06 wide. Labium: 2.56 long, 2.16 wide. Abdomen 11.54 long,

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10 11

Figures 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;11. 8 - Spermathecae; 9 - Male palp, prolateral view; 10 - Male palp, retrolateral view; 11 - Male palp, ventral view (scale 1mm)

8.06 wide. Spinnerets: PMS, 1.50 long, 0.58 wide, 0.60 apart; PLS, 2.08 basal, 1.76 middle, 2.02 distal; midwidths, 1.06, 0.98, 0.60 respectively; 5.86 total length. Abdomen pilosity: Cuticle not visible dorsally in juveniles and sub-adults. Large adults (especially those containing eggs in the body cavity) with cuticle entirely exposed with a fine layer of scattered short golden hair. Redescription of female, WILD-10-ARA-1103: Carapace 14.39 long, 12.60 wide, chelicerae 7.94. Abdomen 17.50 long, 15.02 wide. Spinnerets: PMS, 2114

2.04 long, 0.74 wide, 0.85 apart; PLS, 3.31 basal, 1.56 middle, 2.47, distal; midwidths 1.35, 1.09, 0.85, respectively and 1.30 apart. Morphometry of leg and palp given in Table 2. Colour in life (Image 3): Carapace reddish-brown overall with two prominent (after preservation) black bands emerging from fovea running across caput, entire surface covered with short black and golden hair. Abdomen black dorsally, yellowish on ventral and ventrolateral side covered with short and long black hair. Legs overall covered with long as well as short brown hair. Carapace: Fovea deep, procurved. Length to

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Table 2. H. validus, measurements of legs and palp of female specimen from Matheran, WILD-10-ARA-1103. Ranges and mean include all female specimens collected from Maharashtra Leg I

Leg II

Leg III

Leg IV

1103*

Range

Mean± SD

1103*

Range

Mean± SD

1103*

Range

Mean± 1103* SD

Femur

5.68

5.689.48

7.58 ± 2.69

5.36

5.368.29

6.83 ± 2.07

4.78

4.787.30

6.04 ± 1.78

Patella

4.26

4.265.69

4.98 ± 1.01

3.58

3.587.08

5.33 ± 2.47

3.56

3.565.42

Tibia

4.82

4.826.61

5.72 ± 1.26

2.94

2.945.21

4.08 ± 1.60

2.68

Metatarsus

2.22

2.224.11

3.17 ± 1.32

2.18

2.184.08

3.13 ± 1.34

Tarsus

1.70

1.703.77

2.74 ± 1.46

2.04

2.043.34

Total

18.68

18.6829.66

24.17 ± 7.76

16.1

16.128

Palp

Range

Mean± SD

1103*

Range

Mean± SD

7.06

7.069.68

8.37 ± 1.85

4.68

4.686.68

5.68 ± 1.41

4.49 ± 1.31

4.10

4.106.45

5.28 ± 1.66

2.72

2.723.32

3.02 ± 0.42

2.684.04

3.36 ± 0.96

4.42

4.426.74

5.58 ± 1.64

2.80

2.804.18

3.49 ± 0.97

3.24

3.244.73

3.99 ± 1.05

5.02

5.027.58

6.3 ± 1.81

2.69 ± 0.91

1.88

1.883.49

2.69 ± 1.13

2.18

2.183.64

2.91 ± 1.03

2.88

2.884.16

3.52 ± 0.90

22.05 ± 8.41

16.14

16.1424.98

20.56 ± 6.25

22.78

22.7834.09

28.44 ± 7.99

13.08

13.0818.34

15.71 ± 3.71

Midwidth Femur

1.70

1.702.70

2.2 ± 0.70

1.88

1.882.48

2.18 ± 0.42

2.40

2.403.32

2.86 ± 0.65

1.86

1.862.71

2.29 ± 0.60

1.16

1.161.68

1.92 ± 0.36

Tibia

1.80

1.802.85

2.33 ± 0.74

1.78

1.782.64

2.21 ± 0.60

1.90

1.902.59

2.25 ± 0.48

1.92

1.922.74

2.33 ± 0.38

1.42

1.422.06

1.74 ± 0.42

1103* - Specimen from Matheran

Image 3. Haploclastus validus female from Aarey Milk Colony (Mumbai, Maharashtra) depicting coloration in life. Not collected

Image 4. Haploclastus validus female maxillae prolateral view. Not in scale

width ratio 1.14. Caput raised high and eye group on a tubercle. Bristles: 11 long on caput in mid-dorsal line; 4 long, 16 short antero-medially; 6 long, 18 short between PME; 10 long, 13 short on clypeus edge. Eyes: Ratio of eye group width to length 2.4. ALE clearly larger than rest, AME slightly larger than PLE, PLE and PME almost equal in diameter. ALE 0.58, AME 0.47, PLE 0.32, PME 0.31; ALE-AME 0.23, AME-AME 0.40, PLE-PME 0.11, PME-PME 1.06, ALE-PLE 0.30, PLE-PLE 1.79, ALE-ALE 1.50. Ocular group 0.80 long and 2.34 wide. MOQ 0.68

long; front width 0.90 and back width 1.18. Clypeus absent. Maxillae: Prolateral face with three to four rows of thorn setae intermixed with long spine-like bristles above and below the maxillary suture. Long spine setae scattered above as well as below the thorn rows. Cuspules ca. 200 in a triangular patch in the anterior corner. Maxillary lyra (Image 4): No definite shape, small

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thorn setae above and below suture arranged randomly. No ventral brush of lyra. Labium: 2.56 long, 2.16 wide, labiosternal grove shallow, 265 cuspules similar in size to those on the maxilla. Chelicerae: Ectal lyrate, grove glaborous; lyra, straight, black spines in 3-4 rows. Promarginal teeth in 2 rows 15 outer large teeth, 10 small on inner edge adjacent to the larger teeth; 49 basomesal teeth in 3-4 rows. Sternum: 7.91 long and 5.72 wide. Longer than wide, high at 1/3 region and gradually sloping. Posterior edge acutely sharp, not separating coxae IV. Sternum reddish-brown with a mat of golden short hairs. Long black hair radiating from the marginal area. Sigilla: Three pairs, posterior, oval, 1.19 diameter, ca. 1.04 apart, 1.7 from margin; middle, oval, 0.79 diameter, ca. 3.43 apart,0.04 from margin and anterior, marginal and round. Legs: Formula 4123. Leg III clearly thicker than the rest. Metatarsi I 1.09 times longer than tarsi I, metatarsi II 1.22 times longer than tarsi II, metatarsi III 1.40 times longer than tarsi III, metatarsi IV 2.08 times longer than tarsi IV. Metaspines: I: 1 ventral; II: 2 ventrolateral; III: 2 ventral, 6 ventrolateral, 2 dorsal; V: 1dorsal, 2 ventral, 6 ventrolateral.Absent elsewhere. Trichobothria: ta I, 26 clavate, 12 long 4 short filiform, ta II, 22 clavate, 12 long, 7 short filiform; ta III, 21 clavate, 10 long, 5 short filiform; IV, 17 clavatem 10 long, 6 short filiform. Clavate in distal half in middorsal, filiform in distal 2/3rd in two rows. Leg coxae: Numerous short scattered spinules on prolateral face of coxae of leg I, II, III and IV. Leg I-III with median narrow light brush, IV glabrous. II-IV with setose mound up from inner corner low mound with few bristles. All retrolaterally lack ventral edge and ventrally with uniform setation. Coxal base dorsally easily seen from above. I longest, about 1.11 times longer than II. Coxae IV widest. Coxae I–IV covered with a mat of golden hair and also with long black hair; I-II sloping forward and III-IV sloping backwards. Claws: Paired bare claws on all legs; palp with a single bare claw. Abdomen pilosity: Dorsally covered with a mat of short brown hair intermixed with long black and pallid 2116

hair and ventrally with short and long brown hair with yellow cuticle exposed. Spinnerets: Two pairs, yellowish-brown covered with golden hair. Spermathecae (Fig. 8): Fused seminal receptacle. A brick-shaped structure with upper edges smooth and rounded, present to form small mounds. Variations: Total length 16.11–31.89 (23.14±8.03). Carapaces 7.28–14.39 (9.97±3.86) long, 6.02-12.6 (8.81±3.4) wide. Sternum: 3.56–7.91 (5.36 ± 2.27) long, 3.07– 5.72 (4.32±1.33) wide. Labium: 0.98-2.16 (1.59±0.59) long, 1.3-2.56 (1.8±0.67) wide. Abdomen range 8.83– 17.5 (13.17±4.34) long, 5.61–15.02 (9.73± 4.81) wide. Spinnerets: PMS, 1.18–2.04 (0.60 ± SD 0.60) long, 0.70–0.74 (mean ± SD 0.03) wide, 0.48–0.85 (mean ± SD 0.26) apart; PLS, 1.28–3.31 (2.07± SD 1.09) basal, 1.05–1.56 (1.26±0.27) middle, 0.51–2.47 (1.46±0.98) distal; midwidths, 0.98–1.35 (1.19±0.19), 0.89–1.09 (0.96±0.11), 0.70–0.85 (0.75±0.08) respectively; 2.84–7.34 (4.79±2.31) total length. Abdomen pilosity: Cuticle not visible dorsally in juveniles and sub-adults. Large adults (especially those containing eggs in the body cavity) with cuticle entirely exposed with a fine layer of scattered short golden hair. Distribution India (Image 5): Maharashtra: Matheran, Raighad District; Jauli, Satara District; Aarey Milk Colony, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai; Kolad, Raighad District; Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Pune District.

NATURAL HISTORY Matheran is situated at an elevation of 800m and the forest is of semi-evergreen type. The forest in this area is contiguous to that of Prabalgadh and Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary. Terminalia arjuna, Mallotus philippensis, Albizia amara, Ficus racemosa, Atalantia racemosa, Carvia callosa, Olea dioica, Mangifera indica, Pittosporum dasycaulon and Memycylon umbellatum (Image 6) dominate this area. The temperature fluctuates between 13–34 0C and the highest rainfall recorded is 850mm. Male

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Image 5. The northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra showing the known range of Haploclastus validus

Image 6. Collection site at Matheran (Raighad District, Maharashtra)

specimens of H. validus were commonly encountered during night walks from June to October. A single female was found after excavating a burrow found under a rotting log in a private estate. The habitat at Aarey Milk Colony is highly degraded and altered. The vegetation in the area is of deciduous type and heavily mixed with exotic species. Some of these include Butea monosperma, Tectona grandis, Acacia spp., Ziziphus spp., Pongamia pinnata, Cassia fistula, Mangifera indica, Gliricidia sepium, Delonix regia and Eucalyptus melliodora.

Most of the burrows were found at the base of trees and some in the vicinity of large boulders. All burrows had double door entrances leading to a single tube except for the female found in Bhimashankar, that burrow had a single entrance. The door is made up of a thin layer of silk to which the surrounding soil adheres making the outer layer indistinguishable from its surroundings. The door is usually ‘D’ shaped or circular, ranging from 10 to 23.62 mm in diameter and 1.80 to 4 mm thick (Image 7). The doors are hinged to the burrow on one side. The burrow is covered with a fine layer of silk. The entrance of the burrow of one specimen from Aarey measured 17.74mm. The burrows are 12 inches to 24 inches deep. The burrow end is slightly wider than the entrance forming a chamber. More than 8–10 burrows can be found at the base of a single tree. The male from Aarey Milk Colony was found under a rotten tree trunk during the monsoons and the one from Matheran was dug out from its burrow in the month of April along with its exuvia. Both the females were dug out from their burrows. Several burrows at Aarey Milk Colony were excavated. One of the excavated burrows contained a female carrying an egg sac below her chelicerae (Image 8) and the other burrows had only the egg sac silk cover from which juveniles

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Image 8. Female Haploclastus validus with an egg sac. Not collected

Image 7. Trapdoor burrow, depicting the structure and shape of the door and the entrance

Image 10. Habitat destruction at Aarey Milk Colony for removal of soil for brick making. Note the exposed burrow due to this practice in the inset

Image 9. Female Haploclastus validus at the entrance of the burrow. Not collected

had already dispersed. A burrow was found with the entrance covered with a thick layer of web covering the entrance behind the door in the month of March. The burrow was observed till the first week of June when the web covering was absent and a few juveniles were observed at the periphery of the entrance inside the burrow (Image 9). This indicates that the female mates during the monsoon and post monsoon periods and lays eggs by late winter or early summer and the 2118

juveniles disperse before the next monsoons. With the onset of the monsoons, males of this species can be commonly seen on roads and they die in large numbers due to the heavy vehicular traffic in Aarey Milk Colony in Mumbai and Kolad in Raighad District and are killed if they enter houses. At Aarey Milk Colony, this species has been seen in sympatry with other spiders such as Idiops bombayensis, Plesiophrictus millardi and Chilobrachys fimbriatus. This species and others are under threat at Matheran, Kolad and Aarey Milk Colony from soil erosion (Image 10), destruction of forests and from vehicular traffic. Anthropogenic activities like removal of soil leads to major loss of this species.

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REFERENCES Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S. (2002). Baboon and Trapdoor Spiders of Southern Africa: An Introduction Manual. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 13, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, 128pp. Gravely, F.H. (1915). Notes on Indian mygalomorph Spiders. Records of Indian Museum, Calcutta 11: 257–287. Gravely, F.H. (1935). Notes on Indian mygalomorph spiders. II. Records of Indian Museum, Calcutta 37: 69–84. Molur, S. & M. Siliwal (2004). Common names of South Asian Theraphosid spiders (Araneae: Theraphosidae). Zoos’ Print Journal 19(10): 1657–1662. Platnick, N.I. (2011). The World Spider Catalog, version 12.0. American Museum of Natural History, online at http://research.amnh.org/iz/spiders/catalog. DOI: 10.5531/db.iz.0001. Pocock, R.I. (1899). Diagnoses of some new Indian Arachnida. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 12: 744–753. Pocock, R.I. (1900). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida. Taylor and Francis, London. 279pp. Raven, R.J. (1985). The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae): cladistics and systematics. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 182: 1–180. Siliwal, M. & S. Molur (2007). Checklist of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) of South Asia including the 2006 update of Indian spider checklist. Zoos’ Print Journal, 22(2): 2551–2597. Siliwal, M. & S. Molur (2009). Redescription, distribution and status of the Karwar Large Burrowing Spider Thrigmopoeus truculentus Pocock, 1899 (Araneae: Theraphosidae), a Western Ghats endemic ground mygalomorph. Journal of Threatened Taxa 1(6): 331–339. Siliwal M. & R.J. Raven (2010). Taxonomic change of two species in the genus Haploclastus Simon 1892 (Araneae, Theraphosidae). ZooKeys 46: 71–75. Siliwal, M., S. Molur& B.K. Biswas (2005). Indian spiders (Arachnida, Araneae): updated checklist 2005. Zoos’ Print Journal 20(10): 1999–2049. Simon, E. (1892). Histoire naturelle des araignées. Volume 1, part 1. Paris, 256pp. Smith, A.M. (1987). The Tarantula: Classification and Identification Guide (second edition). Fitzgerald Publishing, London, 178pp.

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Z.A. Mirza et al. Author Details: Zeeshan A. Mirza is a student currently perusing a bachelor’s degree in science. He is interested in the study of mygalomorph spider, scorpions and reptiles. He is currently working on the biodiversity documentation of Aarey Milk Colony. He has described several new species of scorpions and trapdoor spiders. Rajesh V Sanap is a graduate student interested in the study of mygalomorph spiders and scorpions. He is currently working on the biodiversity documentation of Aarey Milk Colony. He has described several new species of scorpions and trapdoor spiders. Manju Siliwal is an arachnologist and currently is working as Research Associate at Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society, Coimbatore. Her expertise is on mygalomorph (primitive) spiders and has described many new species of spiders including trapdoor spiders and tarantulas. Acknowledegments: Authors (ZM & RS) wish to thank Vishal Shah, Shardul Bajikar, Amit Panariya, Dr. Santosh Tunagre, Vishwanath Rathode for all their help and encouragement. The Dairy Ministry is thanked for encouragements and permission to carry out surveys at Aarey Milk Colony. Agarwal Janseva Charitable Trust is thanked for providing logistic support to ZM and RS. Ashish Jadhav is thanked for assistance during field work. Special thanks to Bhavan’s College for constant support and encouragement to ZM. ZM thanks Gavin Desouza and Kunal Ullalkar for their continued support and kind help. MS would like to thank DEFRA / FFI Flagship Species Fund (project No. 06/16/02 FLAG) for the financial support to the Indian Tarantula Project, during one of the survey trips this trapdoor spider was found. MS is also grateful to the following personnel: Sally Walker, Zoo Outreach Organisation (ZOO), Coimbatore for her encouragement to the spider study; Sanjay Molur, WILD/ZOO for initiating the tarantula project and Robert Raven, Queensland Museum, Australia for providing pictures of the type specimen of H. robustus. We wish to acknowledge Mandar Kulkarni for assistance during field work and all his help.

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Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya, northeastern India B.K. Sharma 1 & Sumita Sharma 2

Freshwater Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Shillong, Meghalaya 793022, India Email: 1 profbksharma@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 sumitasharma.nehu@gmail.com

1,2

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Stephen C. Weeks Manuscript details: Ms # o2637 Received 03 December 2010 Final received 04 August 2011 Finally accepted 01 October 2011 Citation: Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2011). Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya, northeastern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2120–2127. Copyright: © B.K. Sharma & Sumita Sharma 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Details: Drs. B.K Sharma and Sumita Sharma specialize in aquatic biodiversity and limnology and have made significant contributions to faunal diversity, biogeography and ecology of freshwater zooplankton of India. The corresponding author is a Professor in Department of Zoology and Dean, School of Life Sciences, NEHU, Shillong. Author Contribution: This study is the result of work undertaken by the authors at the Freshwater Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong. Acknowledgements: This study is a part of the “University with Potential for Excellence Program (Focused Area: Biosciences) of NorthEastern Hill University, Shillong. Thanks are due to the Head, Department of Zoology and the Coordinator (UPE Biosciences), North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong for necessary facilities. The permission granted by the Conservator of Forests, Meghalaya is sincerely acknowledged. The authors are thankful to an anonymous reviewer for useful suggestions.

North-Eastern Hill University

(University with Potential for Excellence)

OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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Abstract: Thirty-four species of Cladocera, belonging to 24 genera and seven families, documented from the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve of Meghalaya indicate fairly speciose and diverse taxocoenosis and comprise 57.7% of species known from this state. Coronatella anodonta is the first confirmed report from India and two species are new records from Meghalaya. Disperalona caudata is an interesting Australasian element and a number of species show regional distributional importance. The Cladocera of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve show tropical characteristics with Cosmopolitan > Cosmotropical species, and are characterized by a distinct richness of the littoralperiphytonic members of the Chydoridae as well as a paucity of limnetic elements. The species richness of Cladocera in various localities ranges between 11–24 (15±3) species. Keywords: Alpha diversity, conservation area, India, micro-crustaceans.

INTRODUCTION The systematic studies on Indian freshwater Cladocera were initiated by Baird (1860) but there is yet limited information on faunal and ecosystem diversity of these entomostracous crustaceans from different states of India in general (Sharma & Michael 1987; Michael & Sharma 1988; Sharma 1991) and in aquatic ecosystems of its conservation areas in particular. The studies on occurrence and distribution of these fishfood organisms in aquatic biotopes of conservation areas of northeastern India are limited to the reports from two Ramsar sites (Sharma & Sharma 2008, 2009) and two preliminary lists from Meghalaya by Hattar et al. (2004) and Sharma (2010a). This pioneering study on Cladoceran alpha diversity of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya is interesting in view of the paucity of biodiversity studies of this area. An inventory of the documented species is presented. Comments are made on the biogeographically interesting species as well as on the richness, nature and composition of Cladoceran fauna.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study is a part of our investigations on faunal diversity of zooplankton of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) which is spread over parts of East, West and South Garo Hills districts of the state of Meghalaya, northeastern India (Fig. 1). It was declared a national park in 1997 and was designated a biosphere reserve in May, 2009. NBR Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | October 2011 | 3(10): 2120–2127

Cladocera of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve

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Figure 1. District map of Meghalaya showing location of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (indicated in dark green) and its core area shown in light green; (after Sharma & Sharma 2011).

abounds in various wildlife including elephants, hoolock gibbons, rare varieties of birds and pheasants, rare orchids and is a ‘National Citrus Gene Sanctuary’ to a very rare endemic species of Citrus indica (locally called ‘memang narang’ or ‘orange of the spirits’). One hundred and ten qualitative plankton samples were collected from 33 localities (four localities only partially sampled) of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (25021’–25034’N & 90014’–90029’E), during July and September 2009 and January 2010, by towing a nylobolt plankton net (# 55µm) and were preserved in 5% formalin. The sampled biotopes, in this otherwise hilly terrain, include shallow rain-fed water bodies and some perennial ponds, often with filamentous algae, semi-terrestrial vegetation and a few with Eichhornia crassipes. All the samples were screened with a wildstereoscopic binocular microscope and the cladocerans were isolated. Permanent mounts of different species made in a Polyvinyl-alcohol lactophenol mixture were examined with a Leica DM 1000image analyzer. The Cladocera were identified following Smirnov (1971, 1974, 1996), Michael & Sharma (1988), Sharma & Sharma (1999, 2008) and Van Damme et al. (2010). An account of faunal diversity of Rotifera present in our collections was published recently by Sharma & Sharma (2011).

RESULTS

The details of the sampled localities of the NBR are given in Table 1 along with the number of species collected from each locality. In addition, Table 2 includes a systematic list of the Cladocera examined in this study.

DISCUSSION Thirty-four species of Cladocera observed in our collections from the NBR reveal the fairly speciose nature of these micro-crustaceans. Our report is important in view of a total of 58 species of this group known to date from the state of Meghalaya (vide Sharma & Sharma 1999; Sharma 2008, 2010b). The recorded richness also assumes importance in light of a conservative estimate (Fernando & Kanduru 1984; Sharma & Michael 1987; Sharma 1991) of the occurrence of up to 60–65 species of Cladocera from tropical and subtropical parts of India. Coronatella anodonta is the first confirmed report from India; Disperalona caudata and Chydorus ventricosus are new records from Meghalaya. Our samples are characterized by rich generic diversity: out of

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Table 1. List of the sampled localities Dates of collection

Locality

Location

Species recorded (vide list: Table 2)

Manchuri Chiring

25 34’26.2”N 90018’44.1”E

1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 21, 22, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34 = 17

12.vii.2009, 20.ix.2009, 02.i.2010, 27.i.2010

Dinamangre

25 33’32.0”N 90019’13.8”E

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33 = 19

12.vii.2009, 20.ix.2009, 02.i.2010, 27.i.2010

Dinamangre I

25033’37.9”N 90019’29.1”E

2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 32 = 16

12.vii.2009, 20.ix.2009, 02.i.2010, 27.i.2010

Chirapat Chiring

25033’08.2”N 90022’42.1”E

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34 = 24

12.vii.2009, 20.ix.2009, 02.i.2010, 27.i.2010

Chirapat

25033’06.9”N 90022’41.6”E

2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 24, 30, 33 = 12

12.vii.2009, 27.i.2010

Chirapat I

25033’07.7”N 90022’42.3”E

2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 24, 30, = 10

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009, 03.i.2010, 28.i.2010

Mandal Chiring

25031’29.2”N 90021’58.9”E

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33 = 22

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009, 03.i.2010, 28.i.2010

Mandal Chiring I

25030’28.9”N 90021’57.2”E

1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32 = 18

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009, 03.i.2010, 28.i.2010

Mandalgre

25030’31.2”N 90021’58.1”E

1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 24, 28, 32, 34 = 15

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009

Mandalgre I

25030’31.2”N 90021’58.1”E

2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 24,26, 32 = 11

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009, 03.i.2010, 28.i.2010

Daribokgre

25029’27.9”N 90019’55.5”E

2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24. 28, 39, 32 = 17

13.vii.2009, 19.ix.2009, 03.i.2010, 28.i.2010

Adugre

25028’55.0”N 90029’10.9”E

1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19, 25, 30, 32, 34 = 15

Kalupara Chiring

25 34’15.2”N 90014’04.1”E

4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29..30, 32, 33 = 17

14.vii.2009, 21.ix.2009, 05.i.2010, 29.i.2010

Manchuri Chiring

25 33’25.8”N 90018’44.0”E

1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32 = 16

14.vii.2009, 21.ix.2009, 05.i.2010, 29.i.2010

Tosekgre

25032’54.0”N 90017’59.0”E

2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 21. 25, 28, 30, 32, 34 = 14

14.vii.2009, 21.ix.2009, 05.i.2010, 29.i.2010

Matchurigre

25032’53.3”N 90017’37.9”E

4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 26, 30, 32, 34 = 15

14.vii.2009, 29.i.2010

Matchurigre I

25032’55.3”N 90016’59.1”E

2, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21, 25, 30, 32 = 11

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009, 06.i.2010, 30.i.2010

Sasategre Chiring

25028’10.0”N 90015’40.1”E

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 30, 32, 33 = 21

Sasategre Chiring I

25028’40.0”N 90016’10.3”E

2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, 22, 24, 28, 30, 32 = 11

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009, 06.i.2010, 30.i.2010

Sasategre

25028’10.0”N 90015’40.1”E

2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30, 34 = 15

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009, 06.i.2010, 30.i.2010

Sangkenigiri

25024’13.2”N 90014’39.0”E

1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17, 21, 22, 24, 28, 31, 32 = 14

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009, 06.i.2010, 30.i.2010

Dapgre

25023’23.9”N 90016’27.3”E

3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 23, 25, 28, 32, 34 = 14

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009

Dapgre I

25023’24.5”N 90017’38.1”E

2, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 17, 22, 24, 32 = 10

15.vii.2009, 22.ix.2009, 06.i.2010, 30.i.2010

Rongram Chiring

25022’54.5”N 90017’01.8”E

2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21. 22, 25, 28, 30, 32, 34 = 15

East Garo Hills 12.vii.2009, 20.ix.2009, 02.i.2010, 27.i.2010

West Garo Hills 14.vii.2009, 21.ix.2009, 05.i.2010, 29.i.2010

15.vii.2009, 29.i.2010

South Garo Hills 11.vii.2009, 23.ix.2009, 07.i.2010, 31.i.2010

Reng Sangre

25024’52.1”N 90016’09.0”E

1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 22, 27, 28, 30, 32 = 14

11.vii.2009, 23.ix.2009, 07.i.2010, 31.i.2010

Reng Sangre I

25024’12.6”N 90016’39.2”E

2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 28 30, 34 = 15

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Locality

Location

Species recorded (vide list: Table 2)

11.vii.2009, 23.ix.2009, 07.i.2010, 31.i.2010

Mitapgre

25 23’50.9”N 90016’27.3”E

1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 22, 24, 39, 32, 33 = 15

11.vii.2009, 23.ix.2009, 07.i.2010, 31.i.2010

Mitapgre I

25023’57.0”N 90016’27.8”E

2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 21. 25, 28, 39, 32, 34 = 14

11.vii.2009, 23.ix.2009, 07.i.2010, 31.i.2010

Nengirang Chiring

08.i.2010

Chokpot Bibagre *

08.i.2010

Chokpot *

08.i.2010

Chokpot Market *

08.i.2010

25 21’00.5”N 90025’58.9”E 0

Gilmatkolgre*

1, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18, 23, 24, 28, 30, 32 = 13 4, 8, 10, 12, 17, 24 = 6 5, 7, 10, 11, 19, 31 = 6 4, 9, 10, 17, 32 = 5 2, 6, 10,13, 17, 30, = 6

*only representative collections, hence, not considered for richness comparisons

Table 2. Systematic list of the examined Cladocera Super-class: Crustacea Class: Branchiopoda Super-order: Cladocera (s. str.) Ctenopoda: Sididae 1. Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885 2. D. sarsi Richard, 1895 3. Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884 Anomopoda: Daphniidae 4. Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars, 1885 5. Scapholeberis kingi Sars, 1901 6. Simocephalus (Echinocaudus) acutirostratus (King, 1853) 7. S. (Coronocephalus) serrulatus (Koch, 1841) 8. S. (s. str.) mixtus Sars, 1903 Bosminidae 9. Bosmina longirostris (O. F. Muller, 1776) 10. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895 Moinidae 11. Moinodaphnia macleayi (King, 1853) Macrothricidae 12. Macrothrix spinosa King, 1853 13. M. triserialis (Brady, 1886) Ilyocryptidae 14. Ilyocryptus spinifer Herrick, 1882 Chydoridae: Chydorinae 15. Alonella clathratula Sars, 1886 16. A. excisa (Fischer, 1854) 17. Chydorus sphaericus (O. F. Muller, 1776) 18. C. ventricosus Daday, 1898 19. Dadaya macrops (Daday, 1898) 20. Disperalona caudata Smirnov, 1996 21. Dunhevedia crassa King, 1853 22. Picripleuroxus similis Vavra, 1900 23. Pseudochydorus globosus (Baird, 1843) Aloninae 24. Alona costata Sars, 1862 25. A. guttata guttata Sars, 1862 A. guttata tuberculata Kurz, 1875 26. A. pulchella King, 1895 27. A. quadrangularis (O. F. Muller, 1776) 28. Camptocercus uncinatus Smirnov, 1971 29. Coronatella anodonta (Daday, 1905) 30. C. rectangula (Sars, 1862) 31. Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer, 1854) 32. Karualona karua (King, 1853) 33. Leberis davidi (Richard, 1895) 34. Oxyurella singalensis (Daday, 1862)

30 genera of Cladocera recorded from the state of Meghalaya (Sharma & Sharma 1999; Sharma 2008), 24 genera are represented in this study. Further, among eight families of freshwater Cladocera known from India, seven are represented in our collections: the phylogenetic stem Ctenopoda belong to one family (i.e., Sididae) while Anomopoda are represented by six families (Daphniidae - Bosminidae - Moinidae Macrothricidae - Ilyocryptidae - Chydoridae). The species-rich nature, as well as the rich higher diversity (genera and families), reflects the fairly diverse composition of the cladoceran communities of the NBR. This salient feature concurs with previous work on the faunal diversity of the Rotifera of this biosphere reserve (Sharma & Sharma 2011). Incomplete Cladocera inventories from the conservation areas of India may not permit meaningful comparison with our report. This generalization is evident from the reports of only one species from the Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh (Rane 1984) and nine species from the Saipung Wild Life Sanctuary / Narpuh Reserve Forest of Meghalaya (Hattar et al. 2004). The faunal diversity is distinctly richer than the 21 species (Sharma 2010a) examined from the Baghmara Reserve Forest of Meghalaya. The richness, however, broadly compares with the reports of 31 species from the Nagerhole National Park, Tamil Nadu (Raghunathan & Rane 2001), 29 species from the Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra (Rane 2005a) and 39 species each from the Keoladelo National Park, Rajasthan (Venkataraman 1992), as well as the Nathsagar wetland and the Jaikwadi Bird Sanctuary, Maharashtra (Rane 2005b). On the other hand, the richness is distinctly lower than the reports of 45 (Sharma & Sharma 2008) and 51 (Sharma &

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Image 1. Coronatella anodonta (Daday), parthenogenetic female, lateral view

Image 3. Disperalona caudata Smirnov, parthenogenetic female, lateral view

Sharma 2009) species known from two Ramsar sites of India, namely Deepor Beel (Assam) and Loktak Lake (Manipur), respectively. However, we caution against over-emphasizing the importance of the stated comparisons without considering sampling intensity and the nature of the different ecosystems. Daday (1905) described Alona anodonta from Lake Gregory, but his description and illustrations were not satisfactory (refer: Rajapaksa & Fernando 1982). Rajapaksa & Fernando (1982), in turn, recorded it from Sri Lanka with proper figures as A. cf. anodonta Daday, 1905. Brehm (1933) examined specimens without characteristic tubercles and described them as A. pseudoanodonta. The former was designated as A. pseudoanodonta anodonta and the latter as A. pseudoanodonta pseudoanodonta by Smirnov (1971). Van Damme et al. (2010) termed this treatment to be incorrect as anodonta is an earlier described species, 2124

Image 2. Coronatella anodonta (Daday), postabdomen, lateral view

Image 4. Alonella clathratula Sars, parthenogenetic female, lateral view

and opined these to be different species which require more analysis. He also proposed to allocate them to the genus Coronatella. An earlier Indian report of Coronatella anodonta from the Keoladeo National Park (Venkataraman 1998), a Ramsar site, remains indeterminate because of the different shape of the diagnostic labrum as well as the shape and armature of its characteristic postabdomen and, hence, needs confirmation. Fernando & Kanduru (1984) listed this species in their publication on the latitudinal distribution of Cladocera on the Indian subcontinent but lacked any indication of its occurrence in India. In view of the mentioned facts, the present study (Images 1 & 2) is the first confirmed report of Coronatella anodonta in India. The Australasian Disperalona caudata (Image 3) is a biogeographically interesting species observed

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Image 5. Camptocercus uncinatus Smirnov, parthenogenetic female, lateral view

from the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. Described from Australia, this species is known outside of Australia to this date only from Thailand and northeastern India; the latter report refers to its occurrence in Assam (Sharma & Sharma 2007, 2008) while the present study extends its distributional range to the adjoining state of Meghalaya. Alonella clathratula (Image 4), A. pulchella, A. guttata tuberculata, Simocephalus serrulatus, Camptocercus uncinatus (Image 5), Chydorus ventricosus and Graptoleberis testudinaria (Image 6) are examples of regional distributional interest in India. Amongst the stated species, Alonella clathratula was formerly treated as a subspecies of A. excisa by Smirnov (1971) while Smirnov (1996) subsequently resurrected its specific status based on an elongated body and postabdomen as well as a different distributional range. The former occurs in Australia, the Ethiopian and neotropical regions, and Java while A. excisa shows a cosmopolitan distribution. A. clathratula is apparently overlooked in the Indian works, until its reports from Bihar (Sharma & Sharma 2001), Assam (Sharma & Sharma 2008, 2010) and Meghalaya (Sharma 2010a). Alona guttata tuberculata, treated as a subspecies of A. guttata by Smirnov (1971), is distinctly characterized by rounded pits or tubercles on its head shield and valves. The former is known only from Europe, Columbia, and former USSR as against the nominate Alona guttata which apparently is a cosmopolitan species. A. guttata tuberculata is, however, recently documented from India from Meghalaya (Sharma 2008) and Assam (Sharma & Sharma 2010). Simocephalus acutirostratus appears to occur in central India and southwards (Sharma

B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

Image 6. Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer), parthenogenetic female, lateral view

1991) while S. serrulatus is so far only known from southern India, Assam and Meghalaya. The cosmopolitan Graptoleberis testudinaria shows a disjunct occurrence in India, with records from Kashmir, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Assam and Andhra Pradesh. Smirnov (1971) described Camptocercus uncinatus from Lake Nikolaevskoe (Russia) while Smirnov (1998) again provided a detailed description of this species to resolve taxonomic anomalies, anticipating its wider occurrence, and remarked on the need for re-examination of the reports supposed to be that of C. australis, in particular. The first confirmed record of C. uncinatus from the Indian subcontinent is provided by Sharma (2008) who proposed C. latikae, described by Rane (1985) from Madhya Pradesh, as its synonym. This species is so far known from this country from the states of Assam and Meghalaya. Chydorus ventricosus, an anomalous chydorid, was re-described by Rajapaksa & Fernando (1986). This species is known from Sri Lanka, Java, Africa and South America while it is so far observed in this country from southern, central and western India. C. ventricosus is recently reported (Sharma & Sharma 2010) from northeastern India from Assam and this study extends its distribution to the state of Meghalaya. Interestingly, the stated aspects indicate that the occurrence of Alona guttata tuberculata, Camptocercus uncinatus and Chydorus ventricosus is restricted to northeastern India. Alona davidi is assigned to the genus Leberis following Sinev et al. (2005). The Chydoridae, the largest family of Cladocera, forms a main component (20 species, 58.8%) of the

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reported species. This generalization concurs with the composition of the Indian Cladocera (Sharma 1991) and also with the faunas of various regions or states of this country. The chydorids essentially include the littoral-periphytonic species. On the contrary, the paucity of planktonic Cladocera, a distinctive feature of our study, is apparently attributed to a shallow ephemeral nature of the majority of water bodies in the study area and even the lack of distinct limnetic conditions in others. However, a few members of this category include Bosmina longirostris, Bosminopsis deitersi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, and Moinodaphnia macleayi and these exhibit limited occurrences. Alona costata, Chydorus sphaericus, Diaphanosoma sarsi, Karualona karua, Macrothrix triserialis and Simocephalus mixtus show common occurrence and the rest of the listed species are observed in fewer samples. Our collections show qualitative dominance of cosmopolitan species while cosmotropical and pantropical elements are well represented. In general, the cladoceran fauna of the NBR exhibits a ‘tropical character’. The stated generalization is in broader conformity with the general composition of several tropical cladoceran communities (Fernando 1980; Fernando & Kanduru 1984; Dussart et al. 1984; Sharma & Michael 1987; Sharma 1991; Sharma & Sharma 2008, 2009). The present study raises the cladoceran richness (58 species) known earlier from this state (vide Sharma & Sharma 1999; Sharma 2008, 2010a) to 61 species, the highest recorded from any state of India, and is followed by the reports from Jammu & Kashmir (59 species) > West Bengal (52 species). The limited collections examined by us from different localities (excluding four partially sampled localities of South Garo Hills) indicate total species richness ranging from 11-24 (15±3) species and this is fairly speciose. Peak richness observed in Chiring Chirapat is followed by the reports of 22 and 21 species from Mandal Chiring and Sasategre Chiring, respectively. In addition, various localities of East, West and South Garo Hills districts indicate broadly concurrent mean richness; i.e., between 16±3, 14±3 and 14±1 species, respectively. To sum up, the cladoceran fauna of the NBR is fairly rich and diverse, reflects a tropical character with cosmopolitan > cosmotropical species, reveals certain biogeographically interesting species and 2126

is characterized by distinct richness of the littoralperiphytonic members of the Chydoridae as well a paucity of planktonic Cladocera. The fauna, however, still requires extensive future collections from the study area. Nevertheless, this study is an important contribution to our understanding of the aquatic biodiversity of the biosphere reserves and conservation areas of India.

REFERENCES Baird, W. (1860). Description of the two new species of Entomostraceous Crustacea from India. Proceeding of the Zoological Society, London 213–234. Brehm, V. (1933). Die Cladoceren der Deutschen Limnologischen Sunda-Expedition. Archive fur Hydrobiolologie (Suppliment) 11: 631–771. Daday, E. (1905). Untersuchungen uber die SűsswasserMikrofauma Paraguays. Zoologica 18: 1–374. Dussart, B.H., C.H. Fernando, J. Matsumura-Tundisi & R.J. Shiel (1984). A review of systematics, distribution and ecology of tropical freshwater zooplankton. Hydrobiologia 113: 77–91. Fernando, C.H. (1980). The freshwater zooplankton of Sri Lanka, with a discussion of tropical freshwater zooplankton composition. Internationale Revue Hydrobiologie 65: 411– 426. Fernando, C.H. & A. Kanduru (1984). Some remarks on the latitudinal distribution of Cladocera on the Indian subcontinent. Hydrobiologia 113: 69–76. Hatter, S.J.S., N. Sen, R. Mathew & S. Sharma (2004). Faunal diversity of Saipung Wild Life Sanctuary / Narpuh Reserve Forest, Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya. Conservation Area Series 21: 1–66. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988). Indian Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera). Fauna of India and adjacent countries series, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 262pp. Raghunathan, M.B. & P.D. Rane (2001). Cladocera (Crustacea). In: Fauna of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve: Fauna of Conservation Area Series 11: 31–37. Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1982). The Cladocera of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), with remarks on some species. Hydrobiologia 94: 49–69. Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1986). A review of the systematics and distribution of Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1889, with the first description of the male and redescription of the species. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 818–832. Rane, P. (1984). Occurrence of Pleuroxus similis Vavra (Cladocera: Crustacea) in Kanha National Park, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 45(1): 82–84.

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Rane, P. (1985). A new species of the genus Camptocercus Baird, 1843 (Cladocera) from Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Crustaceana 48: 113–116. Rane, P.D. (2005a). Cladocera (Crustacea), pp. 451–500. In: Fauna of Melghat Tiger Reserve: Fauna of Conservation Area Series 24. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Rane, P.D. (2005b). Crustacea: Cladocera, pp. 77–99. In: Fauna of Nathsagar wetland and Jaikwadi Bird Sanctuary, Wetland Ecosystem Series 7. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Sharma, B.K. (1991). Cladocera, pp. 205–223. In: Animal Resources of India: Protozoa to Mammalia: State of the Art. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Sharma, B.K. & R.G. Michael (1987). Review of taxonomic studies on freshwater Cladocera from India with remarks on biogeography. Hydrobiologia 145: 29–33. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (1999). Freshwater Cladocerans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera). Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.State Fauna Series: Fauna of Meghalaya 4(9): 469–550. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2001). Contributions to the cladoceran fauna (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Bihar. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 99: 31–43. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2007). New records of two interesting chydorid cladocerans (Branchiopoda: Cladocera: Chydoridae) from the floodplain lakes of Assam, India. Zoo’s Print Journal 22(8): 2799–2801. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2008). Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Deepor beel, Assam (Northeast India) - A Ramsar site. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 105(2): 196–201. Sharma, B. K. & S. Sharma (2009). Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Loktak Lake (a Ramsar site), Manipur (N.E. India). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 106(2): 156–161. Sharma, B. K. & S. Sharma (2010). Taxonomic notes on some interesting Cladocerans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera) from Assam (N.E. India). Records of Zoological Survey of India 110(2): 39–47. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2011). Faunal diversity of Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(2): 1535–1541.

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Sharma, S. (2008). Notes on some rare and interesting Cladocerans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) from Meghalaya. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 108(2): 111– 122. Sharma, S. (2010a). Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda), pp. 25–33. In: Faunal diversity of Baghmara Reserve Forest, Meghalaya. Fauna of Conservation area series 44. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Sharma, S. (2010b). Micro-faunal diversity of Cladocerans (Crustacea, Branchiopoda, Cladocera) in rice field ecosystems of Meghalaya. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 110(1): 35–45. Sinev, A.Y., K. Van Damme & A.A. Kotov (2005). Redescription of tropical-temperate cladocerans Alona diaphana King, 1853 and Alona davidi Richard, 1895 and their translocation to Leberis Smirnov, 1989 (Branchiopoda: Anomopoda: Chydoridae). Arthropoda Selecta 14(3): 183– 205. Smirnov, N.N. (1971). The World Chydorid Fauna (in Russian). USSR Academy of Sciences, Zoological Institute Nova Series 101: 539pp. Leningrad. Smirnov, N. N. (1974). The World Macrothricidae (in Russian). USSR Academy of Sciences, Zoological Institute Nova Series 104pp. Leningrad. Smirnov, N.N. (1996). Cladocera: The Chydorinae and Sayciinae (Chydoridae) of the World In: Dumont, H.J. & T. Nogrady (eds.). Guides to Identification of the Microinvertebrates of the Continental Waters of the World: 11. SPB Academic Publishing by Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Smirnov, N.N. (1998). A revision of the genus Camptocercus (Anomopoda, Chydoridae, Aloninae). Hydrobiologia 386: 63–83. Van Damme, K.V., A. A. Kotov & H. J. Dumont (2010). A checklist of names in Alona Baird 1843 (Crustacea: Cladocera: Chydoridae) and their current status: an analysis of the taxonomy of a lump genus. Zootaxa 2330: 1–63. Venkataraman, K. (1992). I. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur and its environs. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 89(1): 17–26. Venkataraman, K. (1998). Three new records of Cladocera (Crustacea) from India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 95(3): 527–530.

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Observations on Sambar Rusa unicolor (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) stags during hard and velvet stages of antler cycle in captivity V. Vishnu Savanth 1, P.C. Saseendran 2, K.S. Anil 3, V. Ramnath 4, Justin Davis 5 & A. Prasad 6 PhD Scholar, 2 Professor and Head, 3 Associate Professor, 5,6Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Production Management, Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Thrissur, Kerala 680651, India Email: 1 vishnusavanth@rediffmail.com (corresponding author), 2 sasipcs@yahoo.co.in, 3 anilkundukulam@hotmail.com, 4 drvrnath@gmail.com 1 4

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: L.A.K. Singh Manuscript details: Ms # o2672 Received 11 January 2011 Final received 09 September 2011 Finally accepted 15 September 2011 Citation: Savanth, V.V., P.C. Saseendran, K.S. Anil, V. Ramnath, J. Davis & A. Prasad (2011). Observations on Sambar Rusa unicolor (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) stags during hard and velvet stages of antler cycle in captivity. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2128–2135. Copyright: © V. Vishnu Savanth, P.C. Saseendran, K.S. Anil, V. Ramnath, Justin Davis & A. Prasad 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Details: see end of this article Author Contribution: The work was part of the MVSc research of the first author. The co-authors guided with technical inputs for the research as well as preparation of the manuscript. Acknowledgements: The research was funded by Kerala Agricultural University. We are thankful to The Director, Directorate of Museums and Zoos, Thiruvananthapuram and the Superintendent of State Museum and Zoo, Thrissur for providing facilities for the research. The help by Dr. Sunil, Veterinary Surgeon of the State Museum and Zoo, is also acknowledged.

Abstract: This research was carried out at the State Museum and Zoo, Thrissur, Kerala, India from June to October, 2009. The objective was to observe and record the physical and behavioural changes in Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor stags linked to their territorial display during various stages of the breeding cycle. In total, there were 70 Sambar in the enclosure, at the commencement of the study, of which 22 were males including 16 adult stags. Six stags were selected for the study. Observations were made by focal animal sampling technique. An ethogram was devised and behavioural patterns were indicated on it. The behavioural score derived from the ethogram was significantly higher in stags in their hard antler stage when compared to the stags in the velvet stage. The stags in the hard antler stage were more massive, had bigger antlers, darker coat colour, thicker neck, larger scrotum and maintained a larger ‘harem’ in comparison to the velvet stage stags which preferred a rather subdued life. The most dominant stags in the hard antler stage had up to 17 female members in his territory. As the stags in velvet entered the rut season, the dominant stag had up to 19 females in his territory. The study is expected to be useful to evolve strategies to identify and reduce a few males not contributing in breeding in any particular enclosure and thus curtail expenses in management of cervids in captivity. Keywords: Rusa unicolor, captive management, dominance hierarchy, ethogram.

Introduction Behavioural variation in ungulate populations is an area of research, which could provide insights not only into the evolution of ungulate behaviour, but also more generally, into the evolution of the process in individual decision-making (Isvaran 2005). One such behaviour is related to breeding, particularly in the context of dominance hierarchy, factors enforcing changes in the hierarchy, the breeding cycle and maintenance of healthy populations in captive conditions. The present study is an attempt to record dominance hierarchy visà-vis different types of behaviour associated with body conditions and breeding display in a population of Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor maintained in the State Museum and Zoo, Thrissur in Kerala, and it provides some basal information that may be needed to evolve strategies to curtail the exploding population and reduce the cost of maintenance in captivity.

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June through to October, 2009. As per the birth register at the zoo this period records a high incidence of breeding activity among Sambar. In a population of a total of 70 Sambars in the enclosure there were 22 males including 16 adult stags at the commencement of the study. A total of six stags were selected for the study under ‘focal animal sampling technique’. In this technique a single individual is observed for a specified period of time and all the instances of different categories of its behaviour are duly recorded (Martin & Bateson 1993). On the basis of decreasing order of ‘dominance hierarchy’ three of the Sambars namely H1, H2 and H3 were in the rut or hard antler stage, and others namely V1, V2 and V3 were in the later stages of velvet growth. The factors taken into account for ranking the Sambars were the body and antler size, the ability of a stag to occupy vantage positions during feeding time, its display leading to the ability to attract a larger number of females, capacity to aggressively dictate to other stags of the herd, and carry out most of the breeding activities in the herd. Data on behaviour of Sambar which could be linked to the breeding status of the animal were used to design the ethogram (columns 2 and 3: Table 1). An ‘ethogram’, which is a set of terms and descriptions of

the behaviour of an animal may be comprehensive of all behaviours of a species or it may be for only one sex, age group or type of behaviour (Lehner 1987). The ethogram presented in this study is adapted with modifications over Roshin (2005) who conducted a similar study on Spotted Deer Axis axis. During the four months of the main study, Sambars were observed for a total of 318 hours, and each animal received around 53 hours of observation. The observations were carried out from 0600 to 1800 hr to go with the normal activity schedule of the deer as well as the zoo. The 12-hour study period was divided into twelve segments of one hour duration each and each animal was allotted two such segments every week. The stag and the time segment in which the observation was to be taken were selected randomly. The animals were observed and every activity of the deer during that particular one-hour period was recorded in the ethogram. The number of times an animal exhibited a particular behaviour during its allotted one hour was noted. The frequency of exhibition of each behaviour was allotted a particular score as per the standard score card presented in Table 1, columns 3 to 6 (adapted and modified from Roshin 2005). The score was higher for exhibiting a behaviour directly related to breeding, and the score allotted was lower for behaviour less

Table 1. Ethogram and score chart used for behavioural data collection. Description (1)

Behaviour (Diurnal) (2)

(3)

Breeding behaviour score / week 5

(4)

(5)

(6)

Licks its body or rubs against tree/wall.

Rubbing or grooming

21–30

11–20

1–10

Sniffing the lower abdomen, vulva or urine of the females.

Sniffing

21–30

11–20

1–10

Head with antlers are held high.

Head held high

11–15

6–10

1–5

Elevating its head and curling its upper lip.

Flehmen

9–12

5–8

1–4

Males going after the receptive female of the herd.

Chasing females

9–12

5–8

1–4

Mounting over the female in an attempt to mate.

Mounting

6–12

3–5

1–2

Fighting among the males.

Fighting

8–11

4–7

1–3

Thrust and ejaculation.

Service (Mating)

5–7

2–4

Vocalization, mate calls

Bellowing

5–6

3–4

1–2

Spraying urine onto its own face, neck and antler.

Urine spraying

5–6

3–4

1–2

Chasing away other males from certain areas by the superior males of the herd, rubbing its body on the trees.

Territory marking

4–5

2–3

Gathering food or water.

Feeding and drinking

1–4

5–8

9–12

Engages in rumination of food.

Rumination

1–3

4–6

7–9

Individual will not show any specific activity and will be lying down

Resting

1–2

3–4

5–7

Activities which have not been listed above

Other solitary

9–12

5–8

1–4

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Observation of the stags before, during and after the four months study period revealed that the antlers of the Sambar deer were in velvet growth for a span of 7–8 months. The complete shedding of the velvet appearance took about 5–6 days. Stag H1 maintained a behavioural score of 42±11.73 during the hard antler phase whereas during the velvet phase it slipped to 9.66±2.25 (Fig. 1). The weeks which show the lowest score for H1 are between the 7th and 9th weeks of the study. In this case the antler was cast off during the 7th week. The behavioural score of stag H2 was 42.85±12.58 during the hard antler stage and it reduced to 12.6±2.3 during the velvet period (Fig. 2). The weeks which show the lowest score for H2 are between the 8th and 9th weeks. In this case the antler was cast off during the 8th week. Stag H3 had a behavioural score of 44±14 during the rut season; it became 12.6±3.13 during the velvet stage (Fig. 3). The weeks which show the lowest behavioural score for H3 are between the 8th and 10th weeks. In this case the antler was casted off during the 8th week. The behavioural score of stag V1 was 23.16±12.84 during the velvet stage, but as it entered the rut season, its score shot up to 51.81±5.54 (Fig. 4). The weeks which show the highest score for V1 are between the 7th and 11th weeks. This is equal in duration as observed 2130

Behavioural score

RESULTS

Week number

Figure 1. Behavioural scores of H1. The weeks which show the lowest score for H1 are between the 7th and 9th weeks. In this case the antler was cast out during the 7th week (vertical red line). The behavioural score was 42±11.73 during the hard antler phase whereas during the velvet phase it slipped to 9.66±2.25.

Week number

Figure 2. Behavioural scores of H2. The weeks which show the lowest score for H2 are between the 8th and 9th weeks In this case the antler was cast off during the 8th week (vertical red line). The behavioural score was 42.85±12.58 during the hard antler stage and it reduced to 12.6±2.3 during the velvet period.

Behavioural score

related to breeding. To obtain the ‘breeding behaviour score’ for any particular stag the score recorded for each hour of observation and for each listed behaviour were added up. The stags were observed for various changes in the physical condition and the number of females they led. The physical changes observed were purely subjective and at no point of the study were the animals restrained or immobilized as it could have led towards behavioural aberrations. The observations were mainly on the shifting of antler stages, size of the stag, changes in the coat colour, and neck and testicular circumference. The changes seen in the behavioural score of the stags were correlated to the shifting antler stages. Statistical analysis was done as described by Snedecor & Cochran (1994).

Behavioural score

Observations on Rusa unicolor

Week number

Figure 3. Behavioural scores of H3. The weeks which show the lowest score for H3 are between the 8th and 10th weeks In its case the antler was cast off during the 8th week (vertical red line). The behavioural score was 44±14 during the rut season; it became 12.6±3.13 during the velvet stage.

for V2, but it onset early. In this case the velvet was shed during the 7th week. Stag V2 had a behavioural score of 24.85±13.83 during the velvet phase; as it shifted to the hard antler stage, the score increased to 51.9±5.38 (Fig. 5). The weeks which show the highest score for V2 are between the 8th and 12th weeks. This is a longer duration than

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Behavioural score

Observations on Rusa unicolor

Week number

Behavioural score

Figure 4. Behavioural scores of V1. The weeks which show the highest score for V1 are between the 7th and 11th weeks. This is equal in duration as observed for V2, but it onsets early. In this case the velvet was shed during the 7th week (vertical green line). The behavioural score of stag V1 was 23.16±12.84 during the velvet stage, but as it entered the rut season, its score shot up to 51.81±5.54.

Week number

Figure 6. Behavioural scores of V3. The three weeks which show the highest score for V3 are the 10th, 11th and 12th weeks. In its case the velvet was shed during the 10th week (vertical green line). The behavioural score of V3 was 30.33±14.76 during the velvet antler stage, the shift to the rut took the score up to 53.75±4.83.

that observed for V3. In this case the velvet was shed during the 8th week. The behavioural score of V3 was 30.33±14.76 during the velvet antler stage, the shift to the rut took the score up to 53.75±4.83 (Fig. 6). The three weeks which show the highest score for V3 are the 10th, 11th and 12th weeks. In this case the velvet was shed during the 10th week. Figures 7 and 8 show the comparison of behavioural scores of the hard antlered and the velvet antlered groups, respectively. All three Sambars in each group follow a similar trend of behavioural score, differing, however spatially. The lowest score was reached early by H1 which is the most dominant in the group (Fig.7). The peak score is attended early by V1 which is the most dominant in the group (Fig.8). The behavioural scores were very high during the ‘hard antler’ stage for all six stags in comparison with their own scores during the ‘velvet antler’ period. Since Sambars are nocturnal in habit, mounting and

Week number

Figure 5. Behavioural scores of V2. The weeks which show

the highest score for V2 are between the 8th and 12th weeks. This is a longer duration than that observed for V3. In its case the velvet was shed during the 8th week (vertical green line). The behavioural score was 24.85±13.83 during the velvet phase. As it shifted to the hard antler stage, the score increased to 51.9±5.38.

service could not be observed more than once, but other activities allied to breeding like chasing of females, sniffing and Flehmen’s reaction were observed many times. Territorial behaviour, holding the head high, fighting, spraying urine upon its own body and face were also observed quite a few times. The stags seemed to be in peak size and had the best body condition during the later stages of velvet growth. The good body condition was maintained through the initial phases of the rut season but, during the later stages of rut/ hard antler phase, the stags were seen in a worn out state. Deteriorated body condition was observed in those stags whose antlers were freshly cast; the stags appeared skinny, emaciated, with coat thickness much less and some of them carrying the gore wounds sustained during tussles for territory, hinds and rations. The antler regrowth stage was found to be a recuperating stage during which the stag prepared itself to face the next rut. The scrotum showed significant enlargement in the stags approaching the rut season. The coat colour was slightly darker in shade in the hard antler stages in comparison to those in other stages. The neck musculature was blown up in size during the rut season. The stag H1 possessed the largest ‘harem’ followed by H2 and H3 with a membership of 17, 13 and seven individuals, respectively, till they retained the hard antlers. Casting off the antlers brings in a sudden dissolve in the ‘harem’ size as the members prefer to join any other male that is in rut. An antler cast male or one with a newly growing antler was observed to be submissive even to the females in the herd on various occasions. As V1, V2 and V3 entered the rut season, V1 formed

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Behavioural score

60 50

40 30 20 10 0 1

7 9 Week number

Figure 7. Comparison of behavioural scores of H1, H2 and H3: All three Sambars follow a similar trend of behavioural score. The lowest score is reached early by H1 which is the most dominant in the group.

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60 50

30 20 10 0 1

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the largest harem, followed by V3 and V2 not lagging far behind. These three stags enjoyed a membership of 19, 14 and 13 individuals, respectively.

DISCUSSION The antlers are indicative of the status of breeding activity of the male and are important in dominancy display. Antler growth cycles are closely related to sexual cycles in stags and are directly attributable to variations in seasonal photoperiod influencing gonadal steroidogenic activity. Testosterone levels peak immediately before rut and it is the rapid decline in its level that causes antler casting. Antler growth occurs at a low testosterone concentration and is seen increasing when the antler growth nears completion. The hard antlers decorate the stags for the whole rut season which lasts for about four to five months. This is followed by the antler casting stage wherein the stag may lose its antler often in a fight or by hitting against a tree or a fence. The stag may lose both the antlers on the same day or there may be a gap of 2–3 days for the second one to fall. This stage does not 2132

Figure 8. Comparison of behavioural scores of V1, V2 and V3. All three Sambars follow a similar trend of behavioural score. The peak score is attended early by V1 which is the most dominant in the group.

last long, as antler growth is a rapid continuous cycle, and the initiation of the next set of antlers would set in without much delay. Velvet shedding and antler hardening is a consequence of high testosterone levels (Woodbury & Haigh 2007). Quantified trends have been observed as behavioural scores in relation to antler stage, stage after shedding of antlers or transition from velvet to hard-antler stage. This shows the significance of antlers in territorial display are linked to breeding. Findings in the case of Sambar stag in this study are similar to observations made on other deer species. Komers et al. (1997) suggested that dominance rank is the most important factor in determining the level of reproductive behaviours exhibited. As per Mulley (2007), Fallow Deer bucks will fight vigorously during the pre rut to establish dominance. Skinner & Harrington (2003) had supportive observations that in a group of Sika Deer the activities directly associated with mating were significantly different between the territorial and non territorial groups. Pereira et al. (2005) observed that breeding behaviour of male Pampas Deer during rut was characterized by predominately ano-genital sniffing, flehmen, urine

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sniffing, chasing and mounting. In this study, good body condition was maintained in the initial phases of the rut season but, during the later stages of rut/hard antler phase, the stags were seen in a worn out condition which is indicative of the hardships undergone during the rut for maintenance of the harem as well as the dominance quotient. Asher et al. (1987) reported that Fallow Deer bucks exhibited pronounced live weight gains over spring and summer months, to reach a peak mean weight and rapid live weight losses over the rutting period with a minimum mean live weight. Monfort et al. (1993) reported that antler length, body weight and chest girth were maximal during pre-rut in Eldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Deer which was in complete agreement with the findings of the present study. The study showed significant enlargement of the scrotum in the stags approaching the rut season. The stags in the hard antler stage had much larger testes than those in antler cast or velvet growth stages. Monfort et al. (1993) observed maximal scrotal circumference and combined testes volume in mid winter. Georitz et al. (2003) also supported the findings with the claim that all reproductive organs were highly developed during the rut only. This finding was supported by Haigh (2007) who stressed that the scrotal circumference increased markedly and peaked at about the same time of the onset of the rutting season in Wapiti and Red Deer. The coat colour was observed to be slightly darker in shade in hard antler stags in comparison with those in other stages. The neck musculature was blown up in size during the rut season. Similar were the findings of Gomez et al. (2006) who claimed that in case of Iberian Red Deer, neck circumference showed a time course reaching the highest values during the days of decreasing photoperiod. Blake et al. (2007) observed the neck muscles thicken during the rut season in the Reindeer also. In a population of captive Sambar Deer, males are known to control the group led by the alpha male which is identified by its good physical appearance, sharp and long antlers, positioning at vantage points to take the major share of feed and its mates (Saseendran et al. 2003). Achieving a high social rank may be advantageous for individuals at high population densities, because dominance status may determine the priority of access to limited resources and reduce

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individual loss of body mass. The establishment of dominance relationships between individuals involves variable levels of aggressiveness that can be influenced by resource availability (Taillon & Cote 2007). The stag H1 at Thrissur Zoo possessed the largest harem followed by H2 and H3 with a membership of 17, 13 and 07 individuals respectively. But the status of being the leader of the harem continued only till they retained the antlers, the casting of antlers by these males and the coming to rut of the till then velvet stags lead to a large dropout in the harem membership of the former stags who preferred to join the harems of V1, V2 and V3. Among these stags, V1 owned the largest harem, followed by V3, and V2. The mentioned stags enjoyed a membership of 19, 14 and 13 individuals respectively. Fraser & Broom (1997) avowed that the strongest stags are able to command the largest â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;harems and enjoy the most copulation which was supportive of the results of the present study. McElligott et al. (2001) reported that larger mature Fallow bucks have advantages over other males when competing for mating. Yoccoz et al. (2002) claimed that prime-aged males are most often the harem holders among Red Deer. Observations made by Semiadi et al. (1994) on Rusa unicolor maintained in captivity at Flock House Agricultural Centre, Bulls, Manawatu, New Zealand, indicated that although the dominant rutting Sambar stag collected a harem, the dominant stag displayed a high degree of tolerance toward the presence of other stags in hard antler within the harem. Even though the hormonal and the reproductive cycle follow different patterns in case of seasonal temperate deer and the non seasonal tropical deer, the behavioural and the physical observations were quite similar. Only difference was that there were males in rut throughout the year and births were taking place at any time of the year unlike the temperate deer which breed only during a particular season. The adversaries caused by the overactive deer in rut season in terms of attack on fellow members or the animal keepers and on road encounters in case of wild deer will be present throughout the year, only consolation being that not every male deer will be in rut at the same time unlike the deer from temperate countries.

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REFERENCES Asher, G.W., A.M. Day & G.K. Barrell (1987). Annual cycle of live weight and reproductive changes of farmed male fallow deer (Dama dama) and the effect of daily oral administration of melatonin in summer on the attainment of seasonal fertility. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 79: 353–362. Blake, J.E., J.E. Rowell & M.P. Shipka (2007). Reindeer Reproductive Management. pp. 970–974. In: Youngquist, R.S. & W.R. Threlfall (ed.). Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology - 2nd Edition. Saunders Elsevier Inc., St. Louis, Missouri. Fraser, A.F. & D.M. Broom (1997). Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare - 3rd Edition. CAB International, New York, 437pp. Gomez, J.A., A.J. Garcıa, T.L. Castillejos & L. Gallego (2006). Effect of advancing births on testosterone until 2.5 years of age and puberty in Iberian Red Deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). Animal Reproduction Science 96: 79–88. Haigh, J.C. (2007). Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of male Wapiti and Red Deer, pp. 932–936. In: Youngquist, R.S. & W.R. Threlfall (ed.). Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology - 2nd Edition. Saunders Elsevier Inc., St. Louis, Missouri. Isvaran, K. (2005). Variation in male mating behaviour within ungulate populations: patterns and processes. Current Science 89(7): 1192–1199. Komers, P.E., C. Pelabon & D. Stenstrom (1997). Age at first reproduction in male fallow deer: age-specific versus dominance-specific behaviours. Behavioural Ecology 8: 456–462. Lehner, P.N. (1987). Design and execution of animal behaviour research: An overview. Journal of Animal Science 65: 1213–1219. Martin, P. & P. Bateson (1993). Measuring Behaviour: An Introductory Guide - 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 222pp. Mc Elligott, A.G., M.P. Gammell, H.C. Harty, D.R. Paini, D.T. Murphy, J.T. Walsh & T.J. Hayden (2001). Sexual size dimorphism in fallow deer (Dama dama): do larger, heavier males gain greater mating success? Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 49: 266–272. Monfort, S.L., J.L. Brown, M. Bush, T.C. Wood, C. Wemmer, A. Vargas, L.R. Williamson, R.J. Montali &

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D.E. Wildt (1993). Circannual inter-relationships among reproductive hormones, gross morphometry, behaviour, ejaculate characteristics and testicular histology in Eld’s Deer Stags (Cervus eldi thamin). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 98: 471–480. Mulley, R.C. (2007). Reproductive management of fallow deer, pp. 952–964. In: Youngquist, R.S. & W.R. Threlfall (eds.). Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology 2nd Edition. Saunders Elsevier Inc., St. Louis, Missouri. Pereira, R.J.G., J.M.B. Duarte & J.A. Negrao (2005). Seasonal changes in fecal testosterone concentrations and their relationship to the reproductive behaviour, antler cycle and grouping patterns in free-ranging male Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus bezoarticus). Theriogenology 63: 2113–2125. Roshin, A.J. (2005). Breeding behaviour and testosterone level of male spotted deer. MVSc Thesis. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. Saseendran, P.C., A. Naser & C. Sunilkumar (2003). Dominance and activity pattern of captive alpha stag of sambar deer population. Proceedings of 28th Conference of Ethological Society of India; Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Coimbatore, 46–48pp. Semiadi, G., P.D. Muir & T.N. Barry (1994). General biology of Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolour) in captivity. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 37: 79–85. Skinner, J.D. & H. Harrington (2003). Mate choice in Sika Deer (Cervus nippon): who chooses whom? Irish Veterinary Journal 56(12): 616–617. Snedecor, G.W. & W.G. Cochran (1994). Statistical Methods. 10th edition. IBH Publishing Company, Calcutta. Taillon, J. & S.D. Cote (2007). Social rank and winter forage quality affect aggressiveness in White-tailed Deer fawns. Animal Behavavior 74: 265–275. Woodbury, M.R. & J.C. Haigh (2007). Antlers and reproduction, pp. 977-981. Youngquist, R.S. & W.R. Threlfall (eds.)., In: Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology - 2nd Edition. Saunders Elsevier Inc., St. Louis, Missouri. Yoccoz, N.G., A. Mysterud, R. Langvatn & N.C. Stenseth (2002). Age and density dependent reproductive effort in male red deer. Proceedings of Royal Society London 269(B): 1523–1528.

Author Details: V.V. Savanth is pursuing his PhD on non human primate reproduction. P.C. Saseendran and K.S. Anil are working on hormonal population control in non human primates, healthcare and management of captive elephants and human-elephant conflict mitigation. V. Ramnath is undertaking research on stress physiology and antioxidants, cancer biochemistry, molecular biology, tumour immunology, radio biology and animal cell culture technology. Justin Davis is delving to find managemental interventions to improve dairy farming. A. Prasad is working to explore climatological adaptation in mammals

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EDITORIAL COMMENTS: Sambar Rusa unicolor and the Spotted Deer Axis axis are two common species of deer maintained in captive facilities in India. The paper by Savanth et al. on captive sambar of Thirssur presents two points that are noteworthy—about the breeding season in Sambar and a suggestion to the management for maintaining breeding population that ensures sound breeding, safety of animals and economy in cost of maintenance. Literature indicates that breeding by natural and introduced population of Sambar is widespread through the year, and it is also known in general that in protracted captive populations the breeding activities may get prolonged. Peak calving in Sambar in the zoo at Thrissur is June to October, when all behaviour related to rutting, territorial displays, etc. were also recorded for publication. Sankar & Acharya (2004) have reviewed the details about sambar. The peak rutting season of Sambar occurs between October and December (Lydekker 1916; Schaller 1967). Sankar (1994) reported from Sariska in Rajasthan of western India that there the Sambars are in peak rut in winter, when all the stags carried antlers. For Nepalese populations of Sambar, Mishra (1982) reported peak calving time as close to the monsoon season or June–July. Semiadi et al. (1994) reported calving by a semi-domesticated herd of Sambar in Manawatu, New Zealand (40014’S & 175016’E) from January to November, with a peak in April/May. In Similipal Tiger Reserve, Orissa, eastern India, the main breeding season for sambar is the rainy season, i.e., September– October, and the frequency of sighting very young fawns is very high from the last week of March to the end of April. Occasionally, discarded full-grown embryonic fawns have been seen at abandoned Akhand Shikar camps. This confirms that peak calving season in Sambar coincides around the time ‘Akhand Shikaar’ takes place. This type of shikar is a traditional practice of mass hunting of wild animals by tribal people in Similipal which the entire district administration gears up to thwart. During the breeding season the male Sambar exhibits lekking and attracts nearby females. Territory concept in Sambar is not rigid. For aggregation of females ‘harem’ is a loosely used term. The aggregations dissolve or change when a particular hierarchical structure changes. During such transition in hierarchical status male-male fight is common. These bits of information, read with information from wild populations confirm that calving in Sambar, peaks seasonally, but the species mate and reproduce round the year. Unplanned or unrestricted breeding of deer, and allowing too many male deer to remain in one enclosure are likely to increase the cost of maintenance, and create problems of congestion and intra-specific fights which may be fatal. The availability of the choice of more numbers of male deer in a population is one of the factors for ensuring better progeny. In a population in the wild because of the process of natural selection and survival of the fittest, maintenance of a healthy and stable population is a natural order, but in captivity a manager has to decide the process towards this goal through appropriate selection, segregation and environment enrichment. Timing of segregation is important and a site-specific knowledge on breeding behaviour is necessary for the manager. Therefore, research towards ethological records on exhibited species should always be encouraged. Mishra, H. R. (1982). The ecology and behaviour of Chital Axis axis in the Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal, with comparative studies of Hog Deer Axis porcinus, Sambar Rusa unicolor and Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom. Sankar, K. (1994). The ecology of three large sympatric herbivores (chital, sambar and nilgai) with special reference for reserve management in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan. PhD Thesis. University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Sankar, K. & B. Acharya (2004). Sambar, pp. 163–170. In: Ungulates of India. Envis: Wildlife and Protected Areas. Vol.7, No.1. Wildlife Institute of India, 448pp. Schaller, G.B. (1967). The Deer and the Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 370pp. Lydekker, R. (1916). Wildlife of the World. Vol.II. Rowland Ward Ltd., London, U.K.

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JoTT Short Communication

3(10): 2136–2142

Comparison of avifaunal diversity in and around Neora Valley National Park, West Bengal, India Utpal Singha Roy 1, Arijit Pal 2, Purbasha Banerjee 3 & Subhra Kumar Mukhopadhyay 4 1 Department of Zoology, 2,3 Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Government College, JN Avenue, Durgapur, West Bengal 713214, India 4 Hooghly Mohsin College, Chinsurah, West Bengal 712101, India Email: 1 srutpal@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 arijitpal1988@gmail.com, 3 banerjeepurbasha@gmail.com, 4 msubhro@yahoo.com

Abstract: Anthropogenic intervention has led to conversion of much of the global diversity by means of habitat alterations. The present study was carried out to investigate the importance of habitat quality and habitat heterogeneity for the diversity, distribution and abundance of avifauna in and around Neora Valley National Park (NVNP) during April–May 2010. A total of 73 bird species belonging to 25 families were recorded during the present study applying a modified point count method. Forest edges were found to be most diverse with a total count of 54 bird species having an abundance of 172.53 number of birds ha-1. Study areas with human settlements was represented by a total species count of 24 with an abundance of 130.39 number of birds ha-1 while a total species count of 22 with an abundance of 69.32 number of birds ha-1 was recorded from thick vegetation assemblage with close canopy cover. This site specific occurrence pattern for avifauna was reflected in the study of diversity indices. The highest Shannon-Wiener general diversity score of 3.77 was recorded for bird species from forest edges. Study areas with dense canopy closure were found to support more habitat specialist bird species while areas having human settlements harboured more opportunistic bird species. An overall negative influence of human settlements on bird diversity, distribution and abundance was evidenced from the present study and needs further investigation. Moreover, intensive studies will certainly enrich our knowledge of avian diversity and distribution pattern from the present study location. Keywords: Avifauna, diversity indices, hotspot, Lava, Neora Valley National Park.

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Rajiv S. Kalsi Manuscript details: Ms # o2542 Received 11 August 2010 Final received 28 August 2011 Finally accepted 27 September 2011 Citation: Roy, U.S., A. Pal, P. Banerjee & S.K. Mukhopadhyay (2011). Comparison of avifaunal diversity in and around Neora Valley National Park, West Bengal, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2136–2142. Copyright: © Utpal Singha Roy, Arijit Pal, Purbasha Banerjee, Subhra Kumar Mukhopadhyay 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the Director of Public Instuction, Government of West Bengal and Divisional Forest Manager, Kalimpong, West Bengal for their kind help and cooperation. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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Neora Valley National Park (NVNP), is a compact patch of virgin forest located in the Eastern Himalaya, is a global ‘Biodiversity Hotspot’. The northern and northeastern boundaries of NVNP are contiguous with Sikkim and Bhutan, respectively, and link the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim. The southern boundaries of NVNP are remotely connected with the Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary and the Gorumara National Park. NVNP belongs to an Important Bird Area (IBA Site code: IN-WB-06 under the IBA criteria: A1 (threatened species), A2 (endemic bird area) and 130: Eastern Himalaya. According to Islam & Rahmani (2004), Prakriti Samsad has recorded 288 species of birds from Lava and Loleygoan ranges which are adjacent to this National Park. Relationship between habitat and bird diversity has been reported by Chettri et al. (2005) from western Sikkim. The present study attempts to prepare a checklist of birds to compare bird diversity of closed canopy covered areas of NVNP, its edges and of the areas where forests are subjected to various degrees of pressure from human disturbances. Study Area Three contrasting forest patches were chosen in the present study depending upon the complexity of habitat structure. A thick vegetation assemblage with close canopy cover, edges of forests, and areas with human settlements in and around NVNP were studied for bird diversity and has been referred to as study area 1 - (27005’49”N & 88041’29”E; 1927m), study area - 2 (27006’01”N & 88040’33”E; 1612m) and study area 3 (27005’11”N & 88039’41”E; 2061m) in the present investigation (Image 1). Study area - 3 was located adjacent to a hill station Lava, a place of major tourist attraction in northern Bengal. Intense anthropogenic influence, both direct and indirect was evident in this

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Image 1. Map of the three study areas in and around Neora Valley National Park.

area. Much of the forest has already been destroyed here and ever increasing tourism pressure is engulfing the remains. Neora Valley was notified as a national park in the year 1992 based on the provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and covers two biomes, the SinoHimalayan temperate forest (Biome-7) from 1800 to 3600 m elevation and the Sino-Himalayan subtropical forest (Biome-8) from 1000 to 2000 m elevation (Islam & Rahmani 2004). The phytogeography of NVNP consists of the subtropical broadleaf hill forest, montane wet temperate forest and subtropical pine forest (Champion & Seth 1968). According to Rodgers et al. (2002) NVNP lies in the bio-geographic zone 2. Floral and faunal composition of NVNP typically represents that of oriental regions with high endemism. Human settlements around this protected area have altered the biodiversity due to habitat degradation. This region is a major tourist attraction and the consequent disturbances coupled with the pressure for livelihood of local people is forcing the conversion of this well known birders’ paradise.

Methods Sutherland (2006) recommended point count as the most efficient method for estimating avian abundance from mixed habitat types. Since the present study site was mostly heterogeneous, a total of 162 point counts (nine counts on each day for six consecutive days at three sites) during the first two hours after sunrise (0600–0800 hr), during noon (1100–1300 hr) and in the evening (1600–1800 hr) between the 29 April and 04 May 2010 were carried out. We selected a grid of nine points in each study site and adjacent points were 200m apart. Counting of birds in bands of 30 and 50 m has been recommended for close forest and open habitat areas (Sutherland 2006). In the present study a fixed radius (always at a distance between 30 and 40 m) circular-plot method was used. At each individual point count, observations were made for 10 minutes for all the birds seen (perched or flying under the canopy) and photographed if not identified immediately. Birds seen or heard within the fixed radius plot were counted separately from those detected outside the plot. Ali (1996), Grimmett et al. (1998)

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and Kazmierczak & Perlo (2000) were followed for identification. Avifaunal density was calculated by applying the formula: Avifaunal density, Ď = (n1 + n2 /π r2m) ln (n1 + n2/n2) (where, r = radius of concentric zone from the point of observation (30 and 40 m); n1 = number of birds counted within r; n2 = number of birds counted beyond r; m = number of replicate counts) following Henderson (2003). Shannon-Wiener index of diversity (H/), Pielou’s evenness index (J/), Margalef’s richness index (DMARG) and Simpson’s dominance index (DSIMP) were calculated to analyze the avian community structure using PAST statistical software (Pandya & Vachhrajani 2010). Although both Shannon measures and Simpson’s index consider the proportional abundances of species, H/ is more sensitive to rare species, whereas DSIMP puts greater emphasis on common species. On the other hand, Margalef’s richness index (DMARG), considers both abundances and species numbers whereas Pielou’s evenness index (J/) considers abundance and species occurrence pattern. Therefore, combinations of these indices were used to comment on the diversity of avifaunal community from the present study locations. Hierarchical cluster analysis was done to construct a dendrogram for commenting on the relation between the study areas, using SPSS 13.0. Results A total of 73 bird species belonging to 25 families were recorded during the short period of the present study (Appendix 1). Family-wise distribution of all the bird species varied widely among all three study sites, with Muscicapidae having the highest representatives followed by Corvidae. The highest bird diversity was recorded in study area - 2 (total species count of 54 with an abundance of 172.53 birds ha-1) followed by study area - 1 (total species count of 24 with an abundance of 130.39 birds ha-1) and study area - 3 (total species count of 22 with an abundance of 69.32 birds ha-1). Figure 1 represents the co-occurrence of birds among the three study sites. The transition zones between study area - 1 and study area - 2, study area 2 and study area - 3 and study area - 1 and study area - 3 were represented by 17, nine and five bird species, respectively. Only five bird species were found at the same time in all three sites. All the diversity indices studied in the present investigation were higher in study area - 2 with H/, DSIMP, J/ and DMARG scores of 3.77, 0.97, 2138

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Figure 1. Graphical presentation of all the bird species from the three study sites (SA 1, 2 & 3) based on commonality of occurrence.

Table 1. Diversity indices for the three study areas (SA 1, 2 & 3) in and around Neora Valley National Park. Diversity indices

SA - 1

SA - 2

SA - 3

Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index

2.639

3.767

2.865

Simpson’s Dominance Index

0.898

0.972

0.929

Pielou’s Evenness Index

0.584

0.801

0.798

Margalef’s Richness Index

4.722

10.290

4.954

Dendrogram using Average Linkage (between groups) Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine CASE Label Num

0 5 10 15 20 25 +------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+

Site I Site II Site III

Figure 2. Dendrogram showing the relationship between the three study areas where study area - 1 and study area 3 with relatively lesser avian diversity were found to form a close cluster.

0.80 and 10.29 respectively (Table 1). Diversity index values recorded from study area - 1 and study area -3 were comparable with H/, DSIMP, J/ and DMARG scores of 2.64 and 2.86, 0.90 and 0.93, 0.58 and 0.80 and 4.72 and 4.95, respectively. Dendrogram, constructed from hierarchical cluster analysis showed that study area - 1 and study area - 3 were nearer to each other while the most diverse forest edges of study area - 2 was the farthest (Fig. 2).

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Avifaunal diversity in Neora Valley National Park

Discussion Conservationists around the globe are facing great challenges under the mounting threats of anthropogenic disturbances to biodiversity. Moreover, holistic inventory of diversity requires nearly impossible levels of time and effort. Considering these factors, shortspan study of biota for overall biodiversity estimation is of great importance and of late much emphasis has been given to prepare checklists of birds on a wider scale (Chakravarthy & Sridhar 1995). This study indicated a greater diversity of birds in forest edges when compared to dense forest patches with closed canopy covers and in areas with anthropogenic settlements and these finding is similar to Aich & Mukhopadhyay (2008). Edges of forests were found to contain both habitat generalist and habit specialist birds while dense canopy closure supported more of habitat specialist avian species like, Spot-bellied Eagle Owl Bubo nipalensis while areas under anthropogenic influence harboured more of opportunistic bird species. Distribution wise, only five bird species were found to be co-occurring in all three study sites. This habitat specific distribution of avifauna was reflected in the study of diversity indices where all the indices were higher in areas of forest edges. Avifaunal diversity and abundance in canopy closure were higher than in areas with human settlements but diversity index scores of both the study areas were comparable. This was also reflected in the dendrogram where the most diverse forest edges (study area - 2) were located separately from the cluster of study area - 1 and study area - 3. This may be attributed to the fact that although both Shannon measures (H/) and Simpson’s index (DSIMP) consider the proportional abundance of species, H/ is more sensitive to rare species, whereas DSIMP puts emphasis on the common species. Species evenness in homogeneous forest edges was higher, and was followed by areas under anthropogenic influence and closed canopy cover. This may be due to the fact that canopy closure supports more specialist species with restricted distribution pattern and narrow niche width while areas under anthropogenic intervention support even distribution of generalist and opportunistic bird species that can exploit the available resources with an overlapping pattern of niche width. Anthropogenic disturbances on forest structure and function are well on record (Bhat & Murali 2001; Chandrashekara et al.

U.S.Roy et al.

2006) and present findings also indicated a negative influence of anthropogenic intervention on overall bird diversity. The present investigation recorded one globally vulnerable species, the Beautiful Nuthatch Sitta formosa. This species has been referred to as Vulnerable [C2a(i)] by BirdLife International (2010) IUCN Red List (2011) for birds, due to its small, declining and highly fragmented population size. Conservation measures have been taken for this species in adjacently located Buxa Tiger Reserve and we would like to propose NVNP to be designated for the same cause. We would also like to mention that the current investigation included a vagrant bird, Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta, a new record from this part of the world. Our short-term study involved only a few selected patches of forests; a more intensive study might yield many more species. Detailed studies might improve the list of avian species and their characteristic distribution in different forest patches from the present location. The impact of anthropogenic alteration of the habitats in and around Neora Valley National Park also needs further intensive studies.

References Aich, A. & S.K. Mukhopadhyay (2008). Comparison of avifauna at the edges of contrasting forest patches in Western Ghat hills of India. Ring 30(1): 5–14. Ali, S. (1996). The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 354pp. Bhat, D.M. & K.S. Murali (2001). Phenology of understorey species of tropical moist forest of Western Ghats region of Uttara Kannada District in South India. Current Science 81(7): 799–805. BirdLife International (2010). IUCN Red List for Birds. http:// www.birdlife.org/. Accessed on 17 December 2010. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Government of India, New Delhi, 404pp. Chandrashekara, U.M., P.K. Muraleedharan & V. Sibichan (2006). Anthropogenic pressure on structure and composition of a shoal forest in Kerala. Indian Journal of Mountain Science 3(1): 58–70. Chakravarthy, A.K. & S. Sridhar (1995). Bird Diversity and Conservation. Ornithological Society of India, Bangalore, 19–31pp. Chettri, N., D.C. Deb, E. Sharma & R. Jackson (2005). The relationship between bird communities and habitat a study

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Appendix 1. Checklist of birds along with their status and abundance (number ha-1) for the three study areas (SA 1, 2 & 3) in and around Neora Valley National Park. Family / Common name

Scientific name

Status

SA - 1

SA - 2

SA - 3

Picus flavinucha

0.00

1.95

Picidae 1

Greater Yellownape Cuculidae

Common Hawk Cuckoo

Hierococcyx varius

0.59

2.10

0.00

Drongo Cuckoo

Surniculus lugubris

0.00

1.95

0.00

Lesser Coucal

Centropus bengalensis

0.00

1.95

0.00

Red-breasted Parakeet

Psittacula alexandri

0.00

2.12

Asian Palm Swift

Cypsiurus balasiensis

0.00

1.84

Spot-bellied Eagle Owl

Bubo nipalensis

1.95

0.00

Centropodidae

Psittacidae

Apodidae

Strigidae

Columbidae 8

Oriental Turtle Dove

Streptopelia orientalis

19.16

3.41

2.16

Spotted Dove

Streptopelia chinensis

0.00

2.63

Barred Cuckoo Dove

Macropygia unchall

1.95

0.00

Accipitridae 11

Black Kite

Milvus migrans

0.00

0.70

Crested Serpent Eagle

Spilornis cheela

0.00

0.26

0.00

Pseudibis papillosa

0.00

2.12

Lanius schach tricolor

0.00

1.18

0.00

Threskiornithidae 13

Black Ibis Lanidae

Long-tailed Shrike Corvidae

Yellow-billed Blue Magpie

Urocissa erythrorhyncha

6.56

0.00

House Crow

Corvus splendens

0.00

5.58

Large-billed Crow

Corvus macrorhynchos

4.20

2.51

2.94

Common Raven

Corvus corax

1.95

0.00

Scarlet Minivet

Pericrocotus flammeus

1.94

4.10

0.00

Yellow-bellied Fantail

Rhipidura hypoxantha

1.95

0.00

White-browed Fantail

Rhipidura aureola

0.00

1.95

0.00

Black Drongo

Dicrurus macrocercus

0.00

1.40

3.76

Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo

Dicrurus remifer

0.00

2.12

Muscicapidae 24

Grey-winged Blackbird

Turdus boulboul

0.00

1.18

0.00

Eurasian Blackbird

Turdus merula

0.00

4.20

1.95

Blue Whistling Thrush

Myophonus caeruleus

0.00

1.29

Dark-sided Flycatcher

Muscicapa striata

1.98

2.87

0.00

Ferruginous Flycatcher

Muscicapa ferruginea

0.00

1.95

0.00

Little Pied Flycatcher

Ficedula westermanni

0.00

0.97

0.00

Verditer Flycatcher

Eumyias thalassina

24.4

3.50

0.70

Small Niltava

Niltava magrigoriae

1.95

0.00

Rufous-bellied Niltava

Niltava sundara

0.00

4.20

0.00

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Family / Common name

Scientific name

Status

SA - 1

SA - 2

SA - 3

Pale Blue Flycatcher

Cyornis unicolor

0.00

4.20

0.00

Pigmy Blue Flycatcher

Muscicapella hodgsoni

0.00

1.95

0.00

White-browed Bush Robin

Tarsiger indicus

0.00

1.95

White-capped Water Redstart

Chaimarrornis leucocephalus

0.00

1.95

0.00

Plumbeous Water Redstart

Rhyacornis fuliginosus

0.00

1.95

0.00

White-tailed Robin

Myiomela leucura

1.95

4.20

0.00

Golden Bush Robin

Tarsiger chrysaeus

1.95

0.00

Pied Bushchat

Saxicola caprata

6.56

0.00

Grey Bushchat

Saxicola ferrea

2.55

5.26

1.95

Sturnidae 42

Common Myna

Acridotheres tristis

0.00

11.00

Hill Myna

Gracula religiosa

0.00

2.87

Sittidae 44

White-tailed Nuthatch

Sitta himalayensis

0.70

1.40

0.00

Beautiful Nuthatch

Sitta formosa

0.00

1.95

0.00

Rusty-flanked Treecreeper

Certhia nipalensis

0.00

3.98

0.00

1.95

0.00

Remizinae 47

Fire-capped Tit

Cephalopyrus flammiceps

Paridae 48

Green Back Tit

Parus major

0.00

6.56

0.00

Great Tit

Parus monticolus

19.16

3.68

0.00

Aegithalos concinnus

1.95

0.00

Aegithalidae 50

Black-throated Tit Hirundinidae

Barn Swallow

Hirudo rustica

0.00

11.76

3.10

Wire-tailed Swallow

Hirudo smithii

0.00

0.70

0.00

Pycnonotidae 53

Crested Finchbill

Spizixos canifrons

0.00

1.95

0.00

Striated Bulbul

Pycnonotus striatus

0.00

0.70

0.00

Red-vented Bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer

0.00

2.55

5.12

Black Bulbul

Hypsipetes leucocephalus

0.00

1.70

0.00

Cisticolidae 57

Plain Prinia

Prinia inornata

0.00

1.18

0.00

Bright-headed Cisticola

Cisticola exilis

0.00

6.56

0.00

Zosterops palpeprosus

2.35

3.33

Zosteropidae 59

Oriental White Eye Silvidae

Hoary-throated Barwing

Actinodura egertoni

0.00

1.95

0.00

Blue-winged Minla

Minla cyanouroptera

0.00

1.95

0.00

Chestnut-tailed Minla

Minla strigula

2.22

3.41

0.00

Rufous-winged Fulvetta

Alcippe castaneceps

0.00

4.20

0.00

Rufous-vented Yuhina

Yuhina occipitalis

0.00

1.95

0.00

Rufous sibia

Heterophasia capistrata

6.56

4.57

0.00

Nectarinidae 66

Mrs.Gouldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sunbird

Aethopyga gouldiae

0.00

2.28

0.00

Green-tailed Sunbird

Aethopyga nipalensis

0.00

1.18

0.00

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Avifaunal diversity in Neora Valley National Park Family / Common name

Scientific name

U.S.Roy et al. Status

SA - 1

SA - 2

SA - 3

Passeridae 68

House Sparrow

Passer domesticus

0.00

8.14

Eurasian Tree Sparrow

Passer montanus

0.00

9.72

0.00

Water Pipit

Anthus spinoletta

0.00

6.56

0.00

1.86

4.21

0.00

Fringillidae 71

Eurasian Siskin

Carduelis spinus

Plain Mountain Finch

Leucosticte nemoricola

0.00

9.00

0.00

Gold-naped Finch

Pyrrhoplectes epauletta

14.00

0.00

130.39

172.53

69.32

Total R - Residents; RB - Resident Breeding; S - Summer visitor; V - Vagrant

along a trekking corridor in the Sikkim Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development 25(3): 235–243. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998). Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 888pp. Henderson, P.A. (2003). Practical Methods in Ecology. Blackwell Publishing, USA, vii+163pp. Islam, M.Z. & A.R. Rahmani (2004). Important Bird Area in India: Priority Sites for Conservation. IBCN, Bombay Natural History Society, BirdLife International, UK, xviii+1133pp.

Kazmierczak, K. & B.V. Perlo (2000). A Field Guide to The Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press, 352pp. Pandya, P.J. & K.D. Vachhrajani (2010). Birds of Mahi River estuary, Gujarat, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(6): 994–1000. Rodgers, W.A., H.S. Panwar & V. B. Mathur (2002). Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A Review (Executive summary). Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun, 44pp. Sutherland, W.J (2006). Ecological Census Techniques a handbook. Cambridge University Press, New York, 432pp.

IUCN (2011). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. http://www.iucnredlist.org/. Accessed on 26 August 2011.

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JoTT Note

The genus Asterina (Asterinaceae) on the members of Myristicaceae in Kerala State, India V.B. Hosagoudar 1 & A. Sabeena 2 Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695562, India Email: 1 vbhosagoudar@rediffmail.com (corresponding author) 1,2

Members of the family Myristicaceae are distributed from South East Asia to northern Australia and the Pacific Islands and the family represents three genera, namely, Gymnacranthera, Knema and Myristica in Kerala State (Nayar et al. 2006). Of these, Knema attenuata and Myristica malabarica are endemic to Western Ghats and another unidentified species of the genus Myristica were found infected with black mildew fungus. Microscopic examination of these fungi revealed that they belong to the genus Asterina. Hence, a detailed study of these fungal species was carried out to facilitate their identification. The genus Asterina is represented by about 700 species, characterised by having brown appressoriate mycelium, stellately dehiscing thyriothecium with globose asci and brown uniseptate ascospores.

3(10): 2143–2146

Asterina knemae attenuatae Hosag., Abraham & T.S. Nayar, Mycotaxon 67: 487, 1998; Hosag., Zoos’ Print J. 18: 1283, 2003; 21: 2328, 2006. (Fig. 1) Material examined: 14.ii.1997, on leaves of Knema attenuata (Wallich ex Hook. f. & Thomson) Warb. (Myristicaceae), TBGRI Campus, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, T.S. Nayar HCIO 42462 (type), TBGT 483 (isotype); 10.ii.1997, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Thiruvananthapuram, V.B. Hosagoudar HCIO 4429, TBGT 719. Colonies epiphyllous, dense, crustose, up to 5mm in diameter. Hyphae straight to rarely crooked, branching irregular at acute to wide angles, loosely reticulate, cells 25–30 x 4–6 µm. Appressoria alternate, about 1% opposite, distantly placed, unicellular, broad based to stipitate, mammiform to cylindrical, ovate, entire to 1–4 times sublobate, 7–20 x 10–12 µm. Thyriothecia scattered to 1–3 connate, orbicular to slightly ovate, 150–250µm in diameter, margin crenate, irregularly opened at the centre; asci very few, globose to slightly

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: R.K. Verma Manuscript details: Ms # o2642 Received 07 December 2010 Final received 03 June 2011 Finally accepted 04 October 2011

b 8µm

14µm

Citation: Hosagoudar, V.B. & A. Sabeena (2011). The genus Asterina (Asterinaceae) on the members of Myristicaceae in Kerala State, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2143–2146. Copyright: © V.B. Hosagoudar & A. Sabeena 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: We thank the Director, TBGRI, Palode for providing facilities and to Mr. T. Shaju, TBGRI, Palode for identifying the host plants. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

d 7µm

9µm

Figure 1. Asterina knemae attenuatae Hosag. a - Appressoriate mycelium; b - Thyriothecium; c - Ascus; d - Ascospores

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ovate, bitunicate, octosporous, 54–58 x 45–50 µm; ascospores conglobate, brown, uniseptate, slightly constricted at the septum, 25–27 x 11–13 µm, wall glabrous. Appressoria scattered and about 1% opposite. Kerala is the type locality for this species (Hosagoudar et al. 1998).

Asterina myristicae sp. nov. (Fig. 2) Material examined: 07.i.2008, on leaves of Myristica sp. (Myristicaceae), Arboretum, TBGRI Campus, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, K. Anilkumar TBGT (holotype) (MycoBank 563496). Part of the collection has been deposited in HCIO, New Delhi. Coloniae hypophyllae, tenues, crustosae, ad 3mm diam., confluentes. Hyphae subrectae, flexuosae vel

f 5µm

Asterina myristicacearum sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

11µm

7µm

d 6µm 8µm

Figure 2. Asterina myristicae sp. nov. a - Appressoriate mycelium; b - Thyriothecium; c - Ascus; d - Ascospores; e - Pycnothyriospores 2144

leniter anfractuae, opposite, alternate vel irregulariter acuteque vel laxe ramosae, laxe vel arte reticulatae, cellulae 12–29 x 3–5 µm. Appressoria alternata, opposita, unilateralis, antrorsa, subantrorsa vel retrorsa, 1–3 cellula, recta, curvula, flexuosa vel anfractua, 9–35 µm longa; cellulae basilares unicellularis vel 1–2 septatis, rectae, flexuosae vel anfractuae, 3–27 µm longae; cellulae apicales ovatae, oblongae, rectae vel curvulae, integrae vel sublobatae, 4–11 x 3–8 µm. Thyriothecia dispersa vel aggregata, orbicularis vel leniter ovata, ad 160µm diam., margine crenatae, stellatim dehiscentes ad centre; asci numerosi, globosi vel ovati, octospori, 19–40 x 16–25 µm; ascosporae brunneae, oblongae, conglobatae, uniseptatae, 16– 21 x 8–10 µm, parietus glabrus. Pycnothyriosporae brunneae, pyriformes, unicellularis, 12–15 x 6–10µm. Colonies hypophyllous, thin, crustose, up to 3mm in diameter, confluent. Hyphae substraight, flexuous to slightly crooked, branching opposite, alternate to irregular at acute to wide angles, loosely to closely reticulate, cells 12–29 x 3–5 µm. Appressoria alternate, opposite, unilateral, antrorse, subantrorse to retrorse, 1–3 celled, straight, curved, flexuous to crooked, 9–35 µm long; stalk cells unicellular to 1–2 septate, straight, flexuous to crooked, 3–27 µm long; head cells ovate, oblong, straight to curved, entire to sublobate, 4–11 x 3–8 µm. Thyriothecia scattered to grouped, orbicular to slightly ovate, up to 160µm in diameter, margin crenate, stellately dehisced at the centre; asci many, globose to ovate, octosporous, 19–40 x 16–25 µm; ascospores brown, oblong, conglobate, uniseptate, 16–21 x 8–10 µm, wall smooth. Pycnothyriospores brown, pyriform, unicellular, 12–15 x 6–10µm. Note: This species stands distinct from all other Asterina species known on the members of Myristicaceae in having 1-3-celled appressoria.

Material examined: 30.iv.2008, on leaves of Myristica malabarica Lam. (Myristicaceae), TBGRI Campus, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, A. Sabeena & M.C. Riju TBGT 4979 (holotype) (MycoBank 563497). Part of the collection has been deposited in HCIO, New Delhi. Coloniae epiphyllae, subdensae, ad 3mm diam.

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7µm

10µm

8µm d 7µm

Figure 3. Asterina myristicacearum sp. nov. a - Appressoriate mycelium; b - Thyriothecium; c - Ascus; d - Germinating ascospores

Hyphae rectae vel subrectae, opposite vel unilateralis acuteque vel laxe ramosae, laxe reticulatae, cellulae 17–47 x 2–5 µm. Appressoria saepe dense posita,

alternata, opposita vel subopposita, unicellularis, saepe crassa posita, ovata, globosa, integra, angularis vel sublobata, 7–15 x 7–10 µm. Thyriothecia dispersa vel connata, ovata, ad 170µm diam., margine crenatae, stellatim dehiscentes ad centre et portionio ad centralis dissolutus; asci globosi, octospori, 37–50 µm diam.; ascosporae conglobatae, brunneae, uniseptatae, constrictus ad septatae, 25–32 x 12–17 µm, parietus echinulatus. Colonies epiphyllous, subdense, up to 3mm in diameter. Hyphae straight to substraight, branching opposite to unilateral at acute to wide angles, loosely reticulate, cells 17–47 x 2–5 µm. Appressoria often crowded, alternate, opposite to subopposite, unicellular, often broad based, ovate, globose, entire, angular to sublobate, 7–15 x 7–10 µm. Thyriothecia scattered to connate, ovate, up to 170µm in diam., margin crenate, stellately dehisced at the centre or the central portion dissolved by exposing asci; asci globose, octosporous, 37–50 µm in diam.; ascospores conglobate, brown, uniseptate, constricted at the septum, 25–32 x 12–17 µm, wall echinulate. Note: Crowded appressoria on this host distinguishes from Asterina knemae-attenuatae Hosag. et al. (Hosagoudar & Abraham 2000). By adding these three taxa, the number of Asterina species known on Myristicaceae in the world is raised to eight and the key is provided here to facilitate their rapid identification.

Key to the Asterina species from Kerala 1. 1. 2. 2.

Appressoria two celled ………………… …………………………………….….… Asterina myristicae sp. nov. Appressoria unicellular …………………...........… ……………… ………………………………………………… 2 On Knema ……………………………………… ……………… ……............……… Asterina knemae attenuatae On Myristica ……………………………… …………….…………………… Asterina myristicacearum sp. nov. Key to the Asterina species known on Myristicaceae members

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5. 6. 6. 7. 7.

On Coelocarya ….………………………… ……………… ……………………………………………… coelocaryi On other genera ……………………… ……………… ……………… ……..……………………………………… 2 Appressoria bicellular ………………… ……………… ……….…………………..…………. myristicae sp. nov. Appressoria unicellular …………………… ……………… ……..................……………………………………… 3 Appressoria opposite …………………………………………………………….…………………………………… 5 Appressoria not so ………………………………………………………..............................……………………… 4 Appressoria ampulliform ………………………………………...…………………………………… compsoneurae Appressoria not so …………………………………………………..............................…………………………… 6 Ascospores more than 35µm long ……………………………………………………………………… horsfieldiae Ascospores less than 35µm long …………………………………..………………………………… horsfieldiicola Appressoria opposite, subopposite to alternate ………………………………......… myristicacearum sp. nov. Appressoria not so ………………………………………………………….………………………………………… 7 Ascospores more than 30µm long …………………………………...…………………………………… pycnanthi Ascospores less than 30µm long …………………………………...………………….……… knemae attenuatae

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V.B. Hosagoudar & A. Sabeena

References Hosagoudar, V.B., T.K. Abraham & T.S. Nayar (1998). Asterina knemae-attenuatae sp. nov. from India. Mycotaxon 67: 487–488. Hosagoudar, V.B. & T.K. Abraham (2000). A list of Asterina Lev. species based on the literature. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 24: 557–587. Nayar, T.S., A.R. Beegam, M. Mohanan & G. Rajkumar (2006). Flowering plants of Kerala. Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 1069pp.

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JoTT Note

Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth. (Lamiaceae) - a new record for the Eastern Ghats, India C. Sudhakar Reddy 1 & Chiranjibi Pattanaik 2 Forestry and Ecology Division, National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500625, India 2 Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History, Deccan Regional Station, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500017, India Email: 1 drsudhakarreddy@gmail.com, 2 chiranjibipattanaik@ gmail.com (corresponding author) 1

As part of a project entitled “Biodiversity characterization at landscape level in Eastern Ghats” using remote sensing and Geographical Information System, the authors visited Malkangiri District of Orissa for botanical exploration. The Sileru West Reserve Forest, located in Kondakamberu Hill range of Malkangiri District in Orissa is situated between 18006’N and 82007’E at an altitude of more than 1000m. It is a part of the Eastern Ghats, possessing undulating topography with rocky boulders at some places. Sandy and clay type soil predominate the entire district. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 11.2 and 44 0C in the months of December and May, respectively. Humidity is generally high especially in

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: N.P. Balakrishnan Manuscript details: Ms # o1709 Received 16 January 2007 Final received 29 September 2011 Finally accepted 10 October 2011 Citation: Reddy, C.S. & C. Pattanaik (2011). Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth. (Lamiaceae) - a new record for the Eastern Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2147–2150. Copyright: © C. Sudhakar Reddy & Chiranjibi Pattanaik 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the Department of Space and Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, for the financial support; greatly indebted to Dr. M.S.R. Murthy and Late Dr. M. Brahmam, for their constant encouragement and support. We express our gratitude to the authorities of Orissa Forest Department officials for granting permission and assisting during the field visit. Thanks to Mr. Benjamin Franklin, research scholar for critical examination of the species at BSI Herbarium, Southern Circle, Coimbatore. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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the monsoon and post monsoon months. It receives about 1500mm rainfall annually. Major portion of the annual rainfall is received during southwest monsoon between June to September. This hill range is floristically rich and the vegetation is mostly moist deciduous mixed with few dry deciduous elements. According to Champion and Seth’s classification (1968), the forest type is categorized as southern tropical moist deciduous forest. Several plant species were collected during the study and the species were identified by referring the regional floras. Previous botanical explorations: The pioneering floristic work along peninsular India began with Plants of the Coromandel Coast by William Roxburgh (1795–1820). Some account of the vegetation of Orissa is mentioned in J.D. Hooker and T. Thomson’s Flora Indica (1855). The Flora of British India by J.D. Hooker (1872–1897) recorded stray collections from Orissa. Haines’ Botany of Bihar and Orissa (1921– 1925) and its Supplement by H.F. Mooney (1950) and J.S. Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency of Madras (1915– 1936) are the important floristic works pertaining to the flora of Orissa. Haines described 2529 plant species, out of which only 30% are reported from Orissa region. Mooney added 150 species to botany besides notes on a number of species described by Haines. Gamble’s flora is mostly restricted to southern parts of Orissa. Few sporadic floristic works were carried out by C.E.C. Fischer (1904) followed by D.B. Mukherjee (1935), M.B. Raizada (1948), K.S. Srinivasan & G.V.S. Rao (1961), G. Panigrahi (1963), S.L. Kapoor (1964), and S. Panda & A.P. Das (2004). H.O. Saxena & M. Brahmam (1994–1996) published the Flora of Orissa in four volumes and reported 2727 species belonging to 1062 genera represented by 228 families. Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth. has not been reported from Orissa in any of the earlier publications. Therefore, it is reported here with details such as distribution, brief description, habitat, phenological data, material examined in other Herbarium and biotic association. The voucher specimens are deposited at Herbarium of Regional Research Laboratory (RRL-B), Bhubaneswar. Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth. in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2: 12. 1830–1831; Hook.f. Fl. Brit. India

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Gomphostemma eriocarpum - new record

C.S. Reddy & C. Pattanaik

4: 698. 1885; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 2: 809. 1957 (repr.ed). G. oblongum wight., Ic. t. 1457. 1849. (Lamiaceae). Description: Slender, erect, perennial herbs up to 75cm tall. Leaves elliptic-oblong or oblanceolate, base acute, margin sharply dentate, apex acuminate, up to 15cm long and 5cm broad, scabrid above (Image 1); petioles up to 2.5cm long. Cymes of the whorls sessile. Flowers light yellow. Bracts lanceolate, shorter than calyx. Calyx-teeth ribbed, linear-lanceolate, ca 1.25cm long. Corolla ca 3.7cm long, pubescent; corolla-tube exserted, up to 4mm long, very slender. Fruits nutlets. Habitat: Rare in moist deciduous forests. Specimen examined: 02.i.2004, near Sileru West Reserve Forest Malkangiri District, Orissa, ±1000 m altitude, coll. C.S. Reddy & C. Pattanaik (3218). A good population of mature individuals was observed in the study area. Distribution: Indomalayan region. In India: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The present exploration of the species from Orissa-Andhra Pradesh border is an extended of distribution from the southern states. From earlier collection, it was observed that the species confined to the Western Ghats region but the present study found the species in the Eastern Ghats region also (Image 2). It has not been reported earlier from the Eastern Ghats region. Phenology: Flowering and fruiting between August and January. Specimens Consulted: The collected species is matched with the authentic herbarium specimens stored at MH, Coimbatore. D.B. Deb 30422, Pamba, Kottayam District, Kerala, 27.vi.1968; M. Chandrabose 49190, Ranni, Quilon District, Kerala, 21.xi.1976; M. Mohanan 59324, Way to Agasthyakudam, Trivandrum District, Kerala, 20.ii.1979; M. Mohanan 69253, Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala, 16.viii.1980; B.V. Shetty 28007, slope of Mahendragiri, Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, 27.vii.1966; R. Gopalan 886719, Kannikatty R.F., Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, 18.ix.1988. Biotic association: It is found to grow near moist and shady localities in moist deciduous forests. The associated species are Barleria strigosa Willd., Hemigraphis latebrosa (Heyne ex Roth) Nees, Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC., Globba marantina 2148

Image 1. Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth.

Image 2. Distribution of the species in India

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Gomphostemma eriocarpum - new record

L., Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale and Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Remarks: The species has so far been reported only from the Western Ghats of southern India (Sasidharan 2004) and the present collection from the Eastern Ghats is of phytogeographical significance.

REFERENCES Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi, 404pp. Fischer, C.E.C. (1904). Notes on the flora of northern Ganjam. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 15: 537– 556. Gamble, J.S. & C.E.C. Fischer (1915–1936). Flora of the Presidency of Madras. London. (Reprinted ed. 1957), Calcutta, 1685pp. Haines, H.H. (1921-1925). The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Adlard & Son Ltd., London, 233pp. Hooker, J.D. (ed.) 1872-1897). The Flora of British India (7 volumes). Reeve & Co. Ltd., NR, Ashford, Kent, London, 1172pp. Hooker, J.D. & T. Thomson (1855). Flora Indica. London, 785pp.

C.S. Reddy & C. Pattanaik

Kapoor, S.L. (1964). Contribution to our knowledge of the flora of Mahendragiri Hills of Orissa. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 61: 354–369. Mooney, H.F. (1950). Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi, 525pp. Mukherjee, D.B. (1935). Notes on a collection of plants from Mahendragiri. Journal of Indian Botanical Society 14: 305–311. Panda, S. & A.P. Das (2004). Flora of Sambalpur District. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 480pp. Panigrahi, G. (1963). Gandhamardan Parbat, Orissa - A potential source of important indigenous drugs. Bulletin of Regional Research Laboratory (Jammu) 1: 111–116. Raizada, M.B. (1948). Some interesting plants from Orissa. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 48: 667– 680. Roxburgh, W. (1795-1819). Plants of the Coast of Coromandel. W. Bulmer and co., London, 370pp. Sasidharan, N. (2004). Biodiversity documentation for Kerala, Part-6: Flowering Plants, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi. Saxena, H.O & M. Brahmam (1994–1996). Flora of Orissa. Vol 1-4, Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd., Bhubaneswar, 1700pp. Srinivasan, K.S. & G.V.S. Rao (1961). The flora of Parlakimedi and its immediate neighbourhood. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 58: 155–170.

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JoTT Note

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Occurrence of three red listed species of Epinephelus (Perciformes: Serranidae) on Digha coast, India Prasanna Yennawar 1, Prasad Tudu 2 & Anil Mohapatra 3 Marine Aquarium & Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Digha, West Bengal 721428, India Email: 1 yprasanna@rocketmail.com (corresponding author), 2 dular4u@gmail.com, 3 anil2k7@gmail.com 1,2,3

Serranidae is one of the widely distributed marine fish families in Indian waters. This family has 137 species available throughout the world out of which 110 species are known in the Indo-Pacific region (Fishbase 2010) and around 70 species under 15 Genera in Indian waters. In this family, Epinephelus is the major genus contributing 38 species out of 77 species in the IndoPacific and 97 species world over. Digha coast, being one of the major marine fish landing stations on the eastern coast of India, several efforts were made for inventorying marine and estuarine fishes in the area (Manna & Goswami 1985; Goswami 1992; Talwar et al. 1992). The recent updated information about fish fauna of Digha coast was given by Chatterjee et al. (2000) and updated by (Yennawar & Tudu 2010). During routine efforts to maintain diversity in the public

Date of publication (online): 26 October 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 October 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: K. Rema Devi

aquarium at Marine Aquarium & Regional Centre, ZSI, Digha. The authors encountered three more species of Epinephelus, which after thorough literature survey were found to be unreported from this area though listed in the IUCN Red list of threatened fauna. Three new site records of occurrences of the genus Epinephelus are Epinephelus coioides Orange Spotted Grouper (Hamilton, 1822), Brindle Grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) and Striped Grouper Epinephelus latifasciatus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) . The specimens were collected between August 2009 and November 2010 by the local fishers from the Digha coast in live condition for display in the marine aquarium of the Zoological Survey of India. The specimens were identified following (Heemstra & Randall 1993). Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) Synonyms: 1822. Serranus coioides Hamilton, Fishes of Ganges : 82. 1993. Epinephelus coioides Heemstra and Randall, FAO. Fish. Synop., (125) 16: 130. Common names: Orange-spotted Grouper, Estuary Cod or Brown-spotted Grouper. This fish is known as Mérou taches oranges in French and Mero de pintas naranjas in Spanish. Material examined: 1ex., 20.viii.2009, TL 415mm, HL145, CL 75, Hospital Ghat, Digha, coll. Prasanna Yennawar & P.C. Tudu, (MARC, ZSI, Digha. Reg. No.677). The fish was displayed in the aquarium tank

Manuscript details: Ms # o2641 Received 15 December 2010 Final received 08 June 2011 Finally accepted 08 September 2011 Citation: Yennawar, P., P. Tudu & A. Mohapatra (2011). Occurrence of three red listed species of Epinephelus (Perciformes: Serranidae) on Digha coast, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(10): 2150–2152. Copyright: © Prasanna Yennawar, Prasad Tudu & Anil Mohapatra 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Dr. K. Venkataraman, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for his support and guidance. We are also thankful to anonymous reviewer & Editor for critically reviewing the manuscript and useful suggestions. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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Image 1. Orange-spotted Grouper Epinephelus coioides Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | October 2011 | 3(10): 2150–2152

Epinephelus on Digha coast

at MARC, Digha. Diagnostic characters: D XI, 15; AIII, 8; C 18; P 19; V I,5; Body elongated; head length 2.34 times in standard length; head and body tanned dorsally, shading to whitish ventrally; numerous small brownish-orange spots on head, body and median fins; five irregular, oblique bars on the body that bifurcate ventrally; rounded caudal fin. Distribution: Continental shores and large islands from the Red Sea to South Africa and from the east to the western Pacific, where it ranges from the Ryukyu Islands of Japan to Australia and out to the islands of Palau and Fiji, Indo-West Pacific (Russell & Houston 1989). Recently reported from the Mediterranean coast of Israel (Heemstra & Randall 1993). From Indian coastal waters the species was reported from Andhra Pradesh coast (Barman et al. 2004), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Rajan 2003), Chennai coast (Krishnan et al. 2007), Orissa coast (Barman et al. 2007) and Gujarat coast (Barman et al. 2000). The species is presently classified as Threatened in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010). Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) Synonyms: 1790. Holocentrus lanceolatus Bloch, Nat. Ausland Fische. 4. 94 1993. Epinephelus lanceolatus Heemstra and Randall, FAO. Fish. Synop., (125) 16: 174 Common names: Brindle Grouper, Queensland Grouper, Brindle Bass, Giant Grouper, Banded Rockcod in English, Wekhali in Gujarati, Kalava in Tamil, Bontoo in Telugu. Material examined: 1ex., 06.v.2010, TL 277mm, HL 89mm, CL 51mm, Hospital Ghat, Digha, coll. Prasanna Yennawar & P.C. Tudu, (MARC, ZSI, Digha. Reg. No. 702). The fish is on display, in the aquarium tank at MARC, Digha. Diagnostic characters: D: XI, 15; A: III, 8; P. 19; V: I,5; Body robust, eyes small, lower jaw somewhat projecting, mouth oblique, maxillary reaching beyond posterior border of the eye. Pre-operculum obtusely rounded, its hind border finely serrated; small scales on maxilla and snout; Dorsal fin originating above the base of pectorals, spines short and first two spines almost equal in length. Rays of the dorsal fin are more or less curved in shape; caudal fin rounded; Yellowishbrown colour, vaguely mottled; all fins with black

P. Yennawar et al.

Image 2. Giant Grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus

spots and blotches. Distribution: This is the most widely distributed grouper occurring throughout the Indo-pacific region from the Red Sea to Algoa Bay, South Africa and eastward to the Hawaiian and Pitcairn Islands. In the western Pacific its distribution ranges from the north to southern Japan and southward to Australia (from north western Australia to northern New South Wales. From Indian waters this species is reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Rao 2003; Rajan 2003), Andhra Pradesh coast (Barman et al. 2004), Orissa coast (Barman et al. 2007) and Gujarat coast (Barman et al. 2000). The species is presently under Vulnerable category (IUCN 2010). The species is also known to be a traumatogenic species (Halstead et al. 1990). Epinephelus latifasciatus (Temminck & Schlegel,Â 1842) Synonyms: 1842. Serranus latifasciatus Temminck & Schlegel, Fauna of Japonica, poissus: 6. 1993. Epinephelus latifasciatus Heemstra and Randall, FAO. Fish. Synop., (125) 16: 176. Common names: Laterally Banded Grouper, Banded Grouper, Striped Grouper. Material examined: 1ex., 30.xi.2010, SL 318mm, HL 123mm, CL 50mm, Location: Digha Mohana, coll. Anil Mohapatra & P.C. Tudu. (Reg. No. 748). Diagnostic characters: D: XI, 14; A: III, 8; P. 17; V: I,5; Three dark brown lines on the body; fourth line from border of upper jaw below anterior 1/3 of eye through upper edge of base of pectoral fin to caudal base; in caudal peduncle, the lines on either side meet and run along its ventral edge. Body is oblong and

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Epinephelus on Digha coast

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Image 3. Striped Grouper Epinephelus latifasciatus

laterally compressed. Its depth is 2.9 times in standard length. Preopercular border produced at angle, armed with several enlarged serrae. Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Pakistan, India, Viet Nam, Hong Kong, China, Korea, southern Japan, Taiwan, and northwest Australia. Unknown from the east coast of Africa, islands of the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea. From Indian waters the species was reported from Andhra Pradesh coast (Barman et al. 2004), Chennai coast (Krishnan et al. 2007), Orissa coast (Barman et al. 2007) and Gujarat coast (Barman et al. 2000). The species is presently Data Deficient (IUCN 2010).

REFERENCES Barman, R.P., P. Mukherjee & S. Kar (2000). Marine and Estuarine Fishes, In State Fauna Series No.8-Fauna of Gujurat (Part-1), i-vi: 311–412. Barman, R.P., S. Kar & P. Mukherjee (2004). Marine and

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Estuarine fishes. In Sate fauna series 5: Fauna of Andhra Pradesh, Part 2: 97–311. Chatterjee, T.K., Ramakrishna, S. Talukdar & A.K. Mukherjee (2000). Fish and fisheries of Digha coast of West Bengal. Records of Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Paper 188(1): 1–74. Fishbase (2010). Fishbase, Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors. World Wide Web electronic publication, www.fishbase. org,version (7/2010). Goswami, B.C.B. (1992). Marine fauna of Digha Coast of West Bengal, India. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 34(1&2): 115–137. Halstead, B.W., P.S. Auerbach & D.R. Campbell (1990). A Colour Atlas of Dangerous Marine Animals. Wolfe Medical Publications Ltd, W.S. Cowell Ltd, Ipswich, England, 192pp. Heemstra, P.C. & J.E. Randall (1993). FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 16. Groupers of the world (family Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae). IUCN (2010). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. I Version 2010.2. Downloaded in August 2010. Krishnan, S., S.S. Mishra & D. Prabhakar (2007). Fishes. In: Fauna of Chennai coasts, Marine Ecosystem series 1: 119–287. Manna, B. & B.C.B. Goswami (1985). A check list of marine & estuarine fishes of Digha, West Bengal, India. Mahasagar 18(4): 489–499. Rajan, P.T. (2003). A Field Guide to Marine Food Fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 260pp. Rao, D.V. (2003). Guide to Reef Fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 555pp. Russell, B.C. & W. Houston (1989). Offshore fishes of the Arafura Sea. Beagle 6(1): 69–84. Talwar, P.K., P. Mukherjee, D. Saha, S.N. Paul & S. Kar (1992). Marine and estuarine fishes. Fauna of West Bengal, State Fauna Series 3(Part-2): 243–364. Yennawar, P. & P. Tudu (2010). New record of occurrence of Indian Yello Boxfish: Ostracion cubicus (Linnaeus, 1758) from Digha, Northern East Coast of India. Records of Zoological Survey of India 110(1): 115–118.

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Dr. K.S. Negi, Nainital, India Dr. K.A.I. Nekaris, Oxford, UK Dr. Heok Hee Ng, Singapore Dr. Boris P. Nikolov, Sofia, Bulgaria Dr. Shinsuki Okawara, Kanazawa, Japan Dr. Albert Orr, Nathan, Australia Dr. Geeta S. Padate, Vadodara, India Dr. Larry M. Page, Gainesville, USA Dr. Malcolm Pearch, Kent, UK Dr. Richard S. Peigler, San Antonio, USA Dr. Rohan Pethiyagoda, Sydney, Australia Mr. J. Praveen, Bengaluru, India Dr. Robert Michael Pyle, Washington, USA Dr. Muhammad Ather Rafi, Islamabad, Pakistan Dr. H. Raghuram, Bengaluru, India Dr. Dwi Listyo Rahayu, Pemenang, Indonesia Dr. Sekar Raju, Suzhou, China Dr. Vatsavaya S. Raju, Warangal, India Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, New Delhi, India Dr (Mrs). R. Ramanibai, Chennai, India Dr. M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Pune, India Dr. Robert Raven, Queensland, Australia Dr. K. Ravikumar, Bengaluru, India Dr. Luke Rendell, St. Andrews, UK Dr. Anjum N. Rizvi, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Leif Ryvarden, Oslo, Norway Prof. Michael Samways, Matieland, South Africa Dr. Yves Samyn, Brussels, Belgium Dr. K.R. Sasidharan, Coimbatore, India Dr. Kumaran Sathasivam, India Dr. S. Sathyakumar, Dehradun, India

Dr. M.M. Saxena, Bikaner, India Dr. Hendrik Segers, Vautierstraat, Belgium Dr. Subodh Sharma, Towson, USA Prof. B.K. Sharma, Shillong, India Prof. K.K. Sharma, Jammu, India Dr. R.M. Sharma, Jabalpur, India Dr. Arun P. Singh, Jorhat, India Dr. Lala A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar, India Prof. Willem H. De Smet, Wilrijk, Belgium Mr. Peter Smetacek, Nainital, India Dr. Humphrey Smith, Coventry, UK Dr. Hema Somanathan, Trivandrum, India Dr. C. Srinivasulu, Hyderabad, India Dr. Ulrike Streicher, Danang, Vietnam Dr. K.A. Subramanian, Pune, India Mr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, New Delhi, India Dr. P.M. Sureshan, Patna, India Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Dehradun, India Dr. R.K. Verma, Jabalpur, India Dr. W. Vishwanath, Manipur, India Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany Dr. Ted J. Wassenberg, Cleveland, Australia Dr. Stephen C. Weeks, Akron, USA Prof. Yehudah L. Werner, Jerusalem, Israel Mr. Nikhil Whitaker, Mamallapuram, India Dr. Hui Xiao, Chaoyang, China Dr. April Yoder, Little Rock, USA English Editors Mrs. Mira Bhojwani, Pune, India Dr. Fred Pluthero, Toronto, Canada

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October 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 10 | Pages 2109–2152 Date of Publication 26 October 2011 (online & print) Communications Robust Trapdoor Tarantula Haploclastus validus Pocock, 1899: notes on taxonomy, distribution and natural history (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Thrigmopoeinae) -- Zeeshan A. Mirza, Rajesh V. Sanap & Manju Siliwal, Pp. 2109–2119 Faunal diversity of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya, northeastern India -- B.K. Sharma & Sumita Sharma, Pp. 2120–2127 Observations on Sambar Rusa unicolor (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) stags during hard and velvet stages of antler cycle in captivity -- V. Vishnu Savanth, P.C. Saseendran, K.S. Anil, V. Ramnath, Justin Davis & A. Prasad, Pp. 2128–2135 Short Communications Comparison of avifaunal diversity in and around Neora Valley National Park, West Bengal, India -- Utpal Singha Roy, Arijit Pal, Purbasha Banerjee & Subhra Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Pp. 2136–2142 Notes The genus Asterina (Asterinaceae) on the members of Myristicaceae in Kerala State, India -- V.B. Hosagoudar & A. Sabeena, Pp. 2143–2146 Gomphostemma eriocarpum Benth. (Lamiaceae) - a new record for the Eastern Ghats, India -- C. Sudhakar Reddy & Chiranjibi Pattanaik, Pp. 2147–2149 Occurrence of three red listed species of Epinephelus (Perciformes: Serranidae) on Digha coast, India -- Prasanna Yennawar, Prasad Tudu & Anil Mohapatra, Pp. 2150–2152