JoTT 4(4): 2481-2552 26 April 2012 by ZOO-WILD

April 2012 | Vol. 4 | No. 4 | Pages 2481â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2552 Date of Publication 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

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Dr. Apurba Chakraborty, Guwahati, India Dr. Kailash Chandra, Jabalpur, India Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury, Guwahati, India Dr. Richard Thomas Corlett, Singapore Dr. Gabor Csorba, Budapest, Hungary Dr. Paula E. Cushing, Denver, USA Dr. Neelesh Naresh Dahanukar, Pune, India Dr. R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Chennai, India Dr. A.K. Das, Kolkata, India Dr. Indraneil Das, Sarawak, Malaysia Dr. Rema Devi, Chennai, India Dr. Nishith Dharaiya, Patan, India Dr. Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman, Queenswood, South Africa Dr. William Dundon, Legnaro, Italy Dr. Gregory D. Edgecombe, London, UK Dr. J.L. Ellis, Bengaluru, India Dr. Susie Ellis, Florida, USA Dr. Zdenek Faltynek Fric, Czech Republic Dr. Carl Ferraris, NE Couch St., Portland Dr. R. Ganesan, Bengaluru, India Dr. Hemant Ghate, Pune, India Dr. Dipankar Ghose, New Delhi, India Dr. Gary A.P. Gibson, Ontario, USA Dr. M. Gobi, Madurai, India Dr. Stephan Gollasch, Hamburg, Germany Dr. Michael J.B. Green, Norwich, UK Dr. K. Gunathilagaraj, Coimbatore, India Dr. K.V. Gururaja, Bengaluru, India Dr. Mark S. Harvey,Welshpool, Australia Dr. Magdi S. A. El Hawagry, Giza, Egypt Dr. Mohammad Hayat, Aligarh, India Prof. Harold F. Heatwole, Raleigh, USA Dr. V.B. Hosagoudar, Thiruvananthapuram, India Prof. Fritz Huchermeyer, Onderstepoort, South Africa Dr. V. Irudayaraj, Tirunelveli, India Dr. Rajah Jayapal, Bengaluru, India Dr. Weihong Ji, Auckland, New Zealand Prof. R. Jindal, Chandigarh, India Dr. Pierre Jolivet, Bd Soult, France Dr. Rajiv S. Kalsi, Haryana, India Dr. Rahul Kaul, Noida,India Dr. Werner Kaumanns, Eschenweg, Germany Dr. Paul Pearce-Kelly, Regent’s Park, UK Dr. P.B. Khare, Lucknow, India Dr. Vinod Khanna, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Cecilia Kierulff, São Paulo, Brazil Dr. Ignacy Kitowski, Lublin, Poland Dr. Pankaj Kumar, Tai Po, Hong Kong Dr. Krushnamegh Kunte, Cambridge, USA continued on the back inside cover

JoTT Communication

4(4): 2481–2489

The first record of Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875 from Nepal with new locality records of Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) and P. tenuis (Temminck, 1840) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) Sanjan Thapa 1, Pradeep Subedi 2, Nanda B. Singh 3 & Malcolm J. Pearch 4 Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Universal College, Maitidevi, Kathmandu, Nepal 4 Harrison Institute, Centre for Systematics and Biodiversity Research, Bowerwood House, 15 St. Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent TN13 3AQ, England Email: 1 sanjan_thapa@yahoo.com, 2 itsme_mayalu@yahoo.com, 3 nandakalikot@gmail.com, 4 harrisoninst@btinternet.com (corresponding author) 1,3 2

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Sanjay Molur Manuscript details: Ms # o2906 Received 09 August 2011 Final received 14 February 2012 Finally accepted 18 February 2012 Citation: Thapa, S., P. Subedi, N.B. Singh & M.J. Pearch (2012). The first record of Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875 from Nepal with new locality records of Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) and P. tenuis (Temminck, 1840) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae). Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2481–2489. Copyright: © Sanjan Thapa, Pradeep Subedi, Nanda B. Singh & Malcolm J. Pearch 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. For Author Details, Author Contribution and Acknowledgements See end of this article.

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Abstract: Between September 2008 and September 2010, faunal surveys were carried out by the first author in Paschim Kusaha V.D.C. (Village Development Committee) in the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in south-eastern Nepal. The surveys resulted in the collection of three species of vespertilionid bats, which included the first record from Nepal of Dormer’s Pipistrelle Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875. A brief description is given of the external, cranial, and dental characters of each of the three species collected and the bacula of Pipistrellus coromandra and P. tenuis are illustrated. Keywords: Distribution, Global 200, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Pipistrellus, Scotozous dormeri, Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands. Nepali Abstract:

;g\ @))* ;]K6]Da/ b]lv ;g\ @)!) ;]K6]Da/ ;Dd sf]zL6Kk' jGohGt' cf/Ifsf] s'zfxf uf=lj=;= df rd]/fsf] vf]hL ul/of] . h;df ltg k|hfltsf rd]/fx? ;+sng ul/Psf lyP . lo ltg k|hfltsf rd]/fx? dWo] Pp6f g]kfnsf] nfuL gFof k|hflt, 8f]/d/sf] rd]/f -:sf]6f]h; 8d]{/L_ kfOof] . clg afFsL b'O{ dWo] Pp6f sf]/f]d]G8nsf] lklk:6/]n rd]/f -lklk:6/]n; sf]/f]dfG8/f _ / ;fgf] lklk:6/]n rd]/f -lklk:6/]n; l6g'O;_ km]nf k/]sf] 5 . lo rd]/f k|hfltsf zl//sf ljleGg efu ;lxt vKk/, bGt ;DjlGw hfgsf/L oFxf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . sf]/f]d]G8nsf] lklk:6/]n rd]/f / ;fgf] lklk:6/]n rd]/ fx?sf] lnË:yL lrq0f ul/Psf] 5 .

Introduction Three species of Pipistrellus (P. coromandra, P. javanicus, and P. tenuis) are known to occur in Nepal (Thapa 2010; Pearch 2011) whilst the monospecific genus Scotozous, although prevalent in the adjacent Indian state of Bihar (Bates & Harrison 1997), has remained unrecorded hitherto from the country. Abbreviations: The definitions of measurements are as follows: HB - head and body length; T - tail length; TIB - tibia length; HF - hindfoot length; FA - forearm length; Thumb - first metacarpal length; 3mt - third metacarpal length; 1ph3mt - length of the first phalanx of the third metacarpal; 2ph3mt - length of the second phalanx of the third metacarpal; 4mt - fourth metacarpal length; 1ph4mt - length of the first phalanx of the fourth metacarpal; 2ph4mt - length of the second phalanx of the fourth metacarpal; 5mt - fifth metacarpal length; 1ph5mt - length of the first phalanx of the fifth metacarpal; 2ph5mt - length of the second phalanx of the fifth metacarpal; E - ear length; Tragus tragus length; GTL - greatest length of skull; CCL - condylo-canine length; BB - breadth of braincase; PC - postorbital constriction; RW - rostral width; C-M3 - maxillary toothrow length; c-m3 - mandibular toothrow length; M - mandible length; C1-C1 - anterior palatal width (the distance between the outer borders of the upper canines); M3-M3 - posterior palatal width (the distance between the outer borders of the last upper molars); Baculum - baculum length. CA - Conservation Area; F.M.N.H. - The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, U.S.A.; NP - National Park; WR - Wildlife Reserve.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April | 4(4): 2481–2489

2481

New records of bats from Nepal

S. Thapa et al.

The biological diversity and distribution of small mammal taxa in the protected areas of Nepal was discussed by Pearch (2011), who highlighted the need for further volant and non-volant small mammal surveys, notably in those protected areas of the country that do not return small mammal records currently (Kanchenjunga CA, Khaptad NP, Koshi Tappu WR, and Royal Bardia NP). These are the first surveys focusing on bats to be carried out in the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu WR, which lies wholly within the critical/endangered Global 200 terrestrial ecoregion number 91, TeraiDuar Savanna and Grasslands (Olson & Dinerstein 2002). Nepal forms part of the Himalaya Hotspot as defined by Conservation International (2007).

Materials and Methods Study area Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (approximately 0 26 33’57”–26043’40”N & 86055’15”–87005’02”E) is situated in south-eastern Nepal in the Terai (Fig.

800

810

820

830

840

1), the latter being a composition of tropical and subtropical savannas, grasslands, and shrublands supporting mainly an Indomalayan fauna (WWF 2001) that stretches from the north-western Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand eastwards to the northwestern parts of Assam and the south-eastern fringes of Bhutan. The reserve, established in 1976 with an original ground area of 175km2 (reduced by a G.I.S. survey in 2000 to 149.6km2 (D.N.P.W.C./P.P.P. 2001)), was designated a Ramsar (wetlands of international importance) site in 1987. Five hundred and fourteen floral taxa are found within the reserve, principal among which are Indian Rosewood Dalbergia sisso and the Cutch Tree or Khair Acacia catechu. The Red Silk Cotton Tree Bombax ceiba dominates the forest, which comprises approximately four percent of the reserve, while about 67 percent of the reserve is covered with grassland (Heinen 1993). The River Kosi flows from north to south through the eastern part of the reserve, which is characterised elsewhere by watercourses, mudfalts, sandbanks, grassland, savanna, lakes, marshes and riverine forest

850

860

870

880 N

300

50km

TIBET NEPAL

290

280

280 Kathmandu

270

800

270

INDIA

810

820

830

840

850

860

870

880

Figure 1. Map of Nepal showing the location of Koshi Tappu WR (K.T.) and Royal Bardia NP (R.B.) and the delineation within the country’s borders of the terrestrial ecoregions, Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (area shaded dark grey) and Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests (area shaded light grey). The area within the black box is depicted in greater detail in Fig. 2. 2482

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2481–2489

New records of bats from Nepal

S. Thapa et al.

26045’ 5km

Koshi Tappu W.R.

26040’

Buffer zone

1 3

26035’

NEPAL INDIA 86 55’ 0

(I.S.R.W. 1995). The reserve is surrounded on all sides by a buffer zone, the limits of which lie between one and five km from the reserve’s boundary (Fig. 2). Specimens of evening bats were collected in dwellings or outbuildings in the neighbourhood of Goshi Tole and Samsul Tole in Paschim Kusaha V.D.C. (Village Development Committee), the same lying one km south-east of the park headquarters at Kusaha. The study site, which occupies an area within the southeastern section of the buffer zone, is dominated by agricultural land and scattered trees (mainly Dalbergia sisso). The reserve has a seasonal tropical monsoon climate with a wet season lasting from June to mid September (Sah 1997). The mean annual rainfall at Kusaha ranges from 1601–2000 mm. (D.N.P.W.C. / P.P.P. 2001). The average daily maximum temperature range is 23.5–33.4 0C (Sah 1997). The mean monthly temperature range is 15.7–29.2 0C (Singh 2001).

870

Figure 2. Koshi Tappu W.R. and buffer zone. Black dots indicate the following localities: 1 - Kusaha; 2 Goithi Tole; 3 - Samsul Tole.

Specimens and measurements The six voucher specimens, which were collected by hand, were preserved in 70% ethanol before being transferred to the Museum of the Central Department of Zoology (CDZ), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, where they are retained as wet specimens with skulls extracted. Preparation of the bacula of three specimens (CDZ TU_BAT 021, CDZ TU_BAT 022, and CDZ TU_BAT 024) and the skulls of all six specimens followed Bates et al. (2005). Bacula were photographed through the eye-piece of an Olympus CH microscope using a Canon A 2000 digital camera. Twenty eight external, cranial, dental, and bacular measurements of each specimen were taken (where possible) and these are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 together with comparative measurements of specimens of Scotozous dormeri from India (Table 1) and of Pipistrellus coromandra (Table 2) and P. tenuis (Table 3) from India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, the same listed in Bates & Harrison (1997).

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86058’E, elevation 83m.

Table 1. External, cranial, and dental measurements (in mm.) of Scotozous dormeri (CDZ TU_BAT 019) from Kusaha, Koshi Tappu WR, Nepal and from India.

Kusaha, KTWR

India

CDZ TU_BAT 019

(Bates & Harrison 1997)

mean

Range

53.0

48.9

39.0-55.0

3.6

30.0

35.3

27.0-41.0

3.8

TIB

10.0

8.0

6.2

5.0-8.0

1.1

33.5

34.4

32.7-36.3

0.9

Thumb

6.5

3mt

32.5

33.7

31.7-36.5

1.3

1ph3mt

12.0

2ph3mt

9.0

4mt

32.0

33.3

31.6-36.4

1.2

1ph4mt

12.0

2ph4mt

8.0

5mt

32.0

32.6

31.2-35

1.1

1ph5mt

9.0

2ph5mt

6.0

10.0

11.9

10.0 - 18.0

1.6

Tragus

5.0

GTL

14.1

14.3

13.7-15

0.3

CCL

13.2

13.3

12.8-13.6

0.2

7.0

7.1

6.8-7.5

0.2

3.5

3.9

3.6-4.2

0.2

5.6

5.6-6.4

0.2

C-M3

5.3

5.4

5.2-5.6

0.1

c-m3

5.7

5.8

5.5-6.1

0.1

10.7

10.8

10.4-11.2

0.3

C1-C1

4.5

M3-M3

6.5

6.7

6.3-7.0

0.2

Baculum

n - number of specimens; s - standard deviation.

Systematic review of species Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875 Dormer’s Bat, Dormer’s Pipistrelle. Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875: 373. Bellary Hills, India. New material 01.iv.2009, 1 male (adult) (CDZ TU_BAT 019), 1km south-east of Kusaha, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (buffer zone), Sunsari District, 26035’N & 2484

Diagnosis and description The single specimen exhibits a greyish brown dorsal pelage with pale hair tips. The ventral surface is paler than the dorsal with individual hairs having buffy white tips. Hairs on both dorsal and ventral areas have dark brown roots; hairs on the dorsum are longer than those on the ventrum. The ears, face, and membranes are a uniform midbrown. The skull, which is flattened dorsally, has distinct lambdoid crests. In the dentition, there is no secondary cusp on the first upper incisor (i2), which is large with a distinct posterior cingular cusp. The second upper incisor (i3) is absent. The upper canine (C1) has anterior and posterior cingular cusps but no secondary cusp. The first upper premolar (pm2), which has a crown area two-thirds that of i2, is intruded from the toothrow. C1 and the second upper premolar (pm4) are in close proximity. The baculum of CDZ TU_BAT 019 was damaged and was not examined. Distribution in Nepal 1km south-east of Kusaha (this paper). IUCN status Least Concern (ver. 3.1, 2001) (Molur & Srinivasulu 2008). Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) Coromandel Pipistrelle, Indian Pipistrelle, Little Indian Bat. Scotophilus coromandra Gray, 1838: 498. Pondicherry, Coromandel coast, India. New material 31.iii.2009, 2 males (adult) (CDZ TU_BAT 022, CDZ TU_BAT 024), 1 female (adult) (CDZ TU_BAT 023), 1km south-east of Kusaha, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (buffer zone), Sunsari District, 26035’N, 86058’E, elevation 83m. Diagnosis and description The dorsal pelage of the collected material is a uniform chestnut brown. The ventral surface is pale brown; hairs have cinnamon brown tips and black roots. The ears and membranes are a uniform mid

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2481–2489

New records of bats from Nepal

S. Thapa et al.

Table 2. External, cranial, and dental measurements (in mm) of Pipistrellus coromandra (CDZ TU_BAT 022; CDZ TU_BAT 023; CDZ TU_BAT 024) from Kusaha, Koshi Tappu W.R., Nepal and from India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

Kusaha, KTWR

India, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka

CDZ TU_BAT 022 023, 024

(Bates & Harrison 1997)

Mean

range

mean

Range

41.7

41.0–43.0

42.3

34.0–49.0

3.7

31.7

31.0–32.0

32.0

22.0–39.0

3.5

TIB

11.5

10.5–13.0

–

5.3

5.0–6.0

5.6

3.4–8.0

1.0

30.0

29.0–31.0

30.0

25.5–34.3

1.7

Thumb

5.3

5.0–6.0

–

3mt

29.7

29.0–30.0

29.0

25.8–33.1

1.4

1ph3mt

11.3

11.0–12.0

–

2ph3mt

15.0

–

4mt

29.3

29.0–30.0

28.7

25.7–32.7

1.6

1ph4mt

10.0

–

2ph4mt

7.7

7.0–9.0

–

5mt

28.5

28.0–29.0

28.1

25.2–31.1

1.6

1ph5mt

7.7

7.0–8.0

–

2ph5mt

5.0

4.0–5.5

–

10.0

10.3

7.1–14.0

1.2

Tragus

4.0

–

GTL

12.7

12.5–13.3

12.5

11.8–13.1

0.3

CCL

11.4

11.2–11.7

11.2

10.6–11.9

0.3

6.5

6.2–6.7

6.2

5.7–6.7

0.2

3.4

3.3–3.6

3.4

3.0–3.8

0.2

4.4

4.3–4.7

4.9

4.3–5.3

0.2

C–M3

4.5

4.4–4.6

4.4

3.9–4.6

0.1

c–m3

4.9

4.7–5.0

4.7

4.1–5.1

0.2

9.0

9.0–9.1

8.9

8.2–9.5

0.3

C1–C1

4.2

4.1–4.3

–

M3–M3

5.7

5.4–6.0

5.5

5.0–6.0

0.2

Baculum

2.9

2.5–3.3

–

n - number of specimens; s - standard deviation; see Appendix 1 for individual specimen measurements

brown. Some hairs are present on the interfemoral membrane in the vicinity of the body. The skull is slightly elevated posteriorly although, in dorsal profile, it is essentially straight. The first upper incisor (i2) is bicuspidate. The second upper incisor (i3) is well developed and, in lateral view, is separated narrowly from the upper canine (C1). C1 has a secondary cusp and a marked posterior

cingular cusp. The first upper premolar (pm2) is intruded from the toothrow, its crown area equal to that of i2. C1 and the second upper premolar (pm4) are close to each other but not in contact. The first lower premolar (pm2) is extruded marginally from the toothrow; its crown area is three-quarters that of the second lower premolar (pm4). The baculum of P. coromandra (CDZ TU_BAT 022) has a mainly straight shaft with a mild depression at approximately two-thirds of its length, which gives the distal end an elevated appearance (Fig. 3). The tip of the baculum is notably bifid and the basal lobes are deflected ventrally. The tip of the right hand fork was broken off during preparation of the material. Distribution in Nepal Bairia (Hinton & Fry 1923). Bardhaha Khola (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000); Bharabise (F.M.N.H.); Dudora Nala/Park Rd. (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Hazaria (Hinton & Fry 1923). “Nepal Valley” [Kathmandu Valley] (Scully 1887). Simal Ghol Tal (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Tamar Tal (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Tiger Tops, Dhangari Khola (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). IUCN status Least Concern (ver. 3.1, 2001) (Csorba et al. 2008). Pipistrellus tenuis (Temminck, 1840) Least Pipistrelle, Indian Pygmy Bat. Vespertilio tenuis Temminck, 1840 (1824–1841): 229. Sumatra (Tate, 1942). Pipistrellus mimus Wroughton, 1899: 722. Mheskatri, Dangs, Surat District, W. India. New material 31.iii.2009, 1 male (adult) (CDZ TU_BAT 021), 1 female (adult) (CDZ TU_BAT 020), 1km south-east of Kusaha, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (buffer zone), Sunsari District, 26035’N & 86058’E, elevation 83m. Variation Following the analysis of Sinha (1980), Bates & Harrison (1997) refer all specimens from the Indian subcontinent to the subspecific form P. t. mimus. The

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2481–2489

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Table 3. Selected external, cranial, and dental measurements (in mm.) of Pipistrellus tenuis (CDZ TU_BAT 020; CDZ TU_BAT 021) from Kusaha, Koshi Tappu WR, Nepal and from India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Kusaha, K.T.W.R.

India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka

(CDZ TU_BAT 020; CDZ TU_BAT 021)

(Bates & Harrison 1997)

Mean

range

mean

range

37.5

36.0–39.0

39.1

33.0–45.0

27.8

25.5–30.0

28.9

20.0–35.0

3.7

TIB

11.0

5.0

5.3

3.0–7.0

1.4

27.0

26.0–28.0

27.7

25.0–30.2

1.2

Thumb

4.5

4.0–5.0

3mt

26.5

26.0–27.0

26.7

23.9–29.7

1.3

1ph3mt

10.5

10.0–11.0

2ph3mt

15.0

4mt

25.5

24.0–27.0

26.4

23.7–29.2

1.2

1ph4mt

10.5

10.0–11.0

2ph4mt

6.8

6.0–7.5

5mt

26.0

25.0–27.0

25.9

23.5–28.5

1.2

1ph5mt

7.0

2ph5mt

5.0

11.3

10.0–12.5

9.7

5.0–11.0

1.5

Tragus

3.5

3.0–4.0

GTL

11.4

11.3–11.4

11.5

10.7–12.1

0.3

CCL

10.3

10.2

9.3–10.7

0.3

6.4

6.3–6.4

5.6–6.3

0.2

3.3

3.2–3.4

3.3

2.9–3.7

0.2

4.2

4.0–4.3

4.4

3.9–4.8

0.2

C–M3

3.9

3.8–4.0

3.8

3.5–4.1

0.1

c–m3

4.3

4.1–4.4

4.1

3.8–4.4

0.1

8.2

7.9

7.2–8.3

0.2

C1–C1

3.8

3.7–3.8

M3–M3

5.2

5.0–5.3

4.9

4.5–5.2

0.1

Baculum

3.5

n - number of specimens; s - standard deviation; see Appendix 1 for individual specimen measurements

new material listed above is referred similarly as the bacular morphology of CDZ TU_BAT 021 compares favourably with that of Pipistrellus mimus as depicted by Hill & Harrison (1987: 290, Fig. 7(g)). Diagnosis and description The pelage on the dorsal surface is a uniform midbrown with individual hairs having black roots. Hairs on the ventral surface, which is paler than the 2486

dorsal, have buffy brown tips. The ears and membranes are dark brown. Cranial morphology is similar to P. coromandra (CDZ TU_BAT 022-024) although the average size of the skull is smaller. In the dentition, the first upper incisor (i2) is bicuspidate. The robust, second upper incisor (i3) is slightly higher than the second cusp of i2. i3 is close to, but not in touch with, the upper canine (C1), which has a distinct posterior secondary cusp. The crown area of the first upper premolar (pm2), which is intruded from the toothrow, is about half that of i2 (cf. Bates & Harrison, 1997: 175, who indicate that in specimens of tenuis from India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, the crown areas of the two teeth are “about equal”). The baculum of the single male P. tenuis collected from the study area (CDZ TU_BAT 021) has a long, thin shaft and a notably bifid tip (Fig. 3). The tip is declined from the horizontal at the most distal part. The basal lobes are clavate and are deflected ventrally at approximately 450 to the shaft. Distribution in Nepal Bahwanipur Village (Banke District) (Mitchell, 1980). Bairia (Hinton & Fry 1923). Dudora Nala/Park Rd. (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Hazaria (Hinton & Fry 1923). Sauraha [Sauraba] (H.N.H.M.; Myers et al. 2000). Simal Ghol Tal (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Tamar Tal (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). Tiger Tops, Dhangari Khola (Royal Chitwan NP) (Myers et al. 2000). IUCN status Least Concern (ver. 3.1, 2001) (Francis et al. 2008).

Discussion Whilst Scotozous dormeri may be distinguished relatively easily from Pipistrellus coromandra and P. tenuis on account of its greyish brown dorsal pelage and pale hair tips on both dorsal and ventral surfaces, it is not possible to differentiate P. coromandra from P. tenuis using external characters alone (Bates & Harrison 1997; Srinivasulu et al. 2010) as the two taxa share a similar outward appearance and there is often to be found an overlap in the ranges of morphological

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l Pipistrellus coromandra

1mm

l Pipistrellus tenuis

Figure 3. Dorsal (d) and lateral (l) views of the bacula of Pipistrellus coromandra (CDZ TU_BAT 022) and Pipistrellus tenuis (CDZ TU_BAT 021).

measurements. It is considered generally to be the case, however, that coromandra is a larger bat and this may be evinced by a comparison of cranial measurements of the two taxa (Bates & Harrison 1997; Srinivasulu et al. 2010). It can be seen from Tables 2 and 3 that in each of the mean cranial values given (GTL, CCL, BB, PC, and RW), specimens of P. coromandra examined within the study area are greater in size than specimens of P. tenuis although there remains overlap in the BB, PC, and RW measurement ranges, notably in the breadth of braincase (BB), where the range given for tenuis falls wholly within that of coromandra. The complexities of the specific discrimination of pipistrelles both in Nepal and elsewhere have been highlighted by Myers et al. (2000) and Hill & Harrison (1987), respectively. It is suggested that one method of minimising or eliminating these difficulties would be to use the process of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to analyse DNA extracted not only from the two taxa mentioned but from other Pipistrellus species that are difficult to discriminate using conventional taxonomic methods. The addition of Scotozous dormeri to Nepalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s faunal list increases the number of bats known from

the country to 51 and the number of non-volant, terrestrial, small mammal taxa to 119 (see Pearch 2011 for details of small mammal species recorded hitherto) while the collection of Pipistrellus coromandra and P. tenuis from the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu WR extends the easternmost limit of the two speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ranges in Nepal by 108km and 157km, respectively. Of the ten localities from which P. coromandra is now known in Nepal, nine are either in the critical/ endangered subtropical broadleaf forests of southern and central Nepal or in the critical/endangered TeraiDuar savanna and grasslands. All nine of the localities at which P. tenuis has been collected are also to be found in one or other of these two critical/endangered ecoregions. The degeneration of habitat in the Terai is occasioned primarily by logging, erosion, overgrazing, and the clearance of rare grasslands for agricultural purposes (WWF 2001) and it was estimated over a decade ago that almost 75 percent of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands had already been degraded (WWF 2001). As the small mammal fauna of this region has not been sampled extensively (Pearch 2011), there remains an incomplete understanding of the extent to which populations of small mammals have been depauperated. The record of S. dormeri brings the number of bat species occurring only in this ecoregion in Nepal to three. Following the collection of the material discussed herein in the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu WR, it is recommended that a detailed survey of the Reserve, itself, be undertaken. The recommendation of Pearch (2011) that similar surveys be carried out in the other three protected areas in Nepal that return no records of small mammals is reiterated. The primary focus of attention in this respect should be Royal Bardia NP in south-western Nepal (Fig. 1), firstly, as it comprises both the critical/endangered ecoregions mentioned above and, secondly, because it retains some of the best preserved tracts of natural tall grassland habitat in Nepal (Thapa et al. 2010; WWF 2001). As pressure on the habitats in southern Nepal increases, it is essential that the component fauna of protected areas in Nepal and the efficacy of those areas in the conservation of small mammals is understood properly.

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References Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997). Bats of the Indian Subcontinent. Harrison Zoological Museum, Sevenoaks, Kent, 258pp. Bates, P., V.D. Thong & S. Bumrungsri (2005). Voucher Specimen Preparation: Bats. Unpublished Practice Manual, Harrison Institute, U.K., 10pp. D.N.P.W.C. (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation) / P.P.P. (Park People Programme) (2001). Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and Proposed Buffer Zone Resource Profile. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Park People Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal, iv+62pp. Conservation International (2007). http://www. biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/himalaya/pages/ conservation.aspx Downloaded on 21 March 2012. Csorba, G., P. Bates, N. Furey, S. Bumrungsri, S. Molur & C. Srinivasulu (2008). Pipistrellus coromandra. In: I.U.C.N. 2011. I.U.C.N. Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 20 March 2012. Dobson, G.E. (1875). On the genus Scotophilus, with description of a new genus and species allied thereto. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 24: 368–373. Francis, C., G. Rosell-Ambal, B. Tabaranza, L. Lumsden, L. Heaney, J.C. Gonzalez & L.M. Paguntulan (2008). Pipistrellus tenuis. In: I.U.C.N. 2011. I.U.C.N. Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 20 March 2012. Gray, J.E. (1838). A revision of the genera of bats (Vespertilionidæ), and the description of some new genera and species. Magazine of Zoology and Botany 2: 483–505. Heinen, J.T. (1993). Population viability and management recommendations for Wild Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Biological Conservation 65(1): 29–34. Hill, J.E. & D.L. Harrison (1987). The baculum in the Vespertilionidae (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) with a systematic review, a synopsis of Pipistrellus and Eptesicus, and the descriptions of a new genus and subgenus. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) (Zoology) 52(7): 225–305. Hinton, M.A.C. & T.B. Fry (1923). Report No. 37: Nepal. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 29: 399–428. I.S.R.W. (Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands) (1995). http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Database/Searchforsites/ tabid/765/language/en-US/Default.aspx. (downloaded on 01 March 2011). Mitchell, R.M. (1980). New records of bats (Chiroptera) from Nepal. Mammalia 44(3): 339–342. Molur, S. & C. Srinivasulu (2008). Scotozous dormeri. In: I.U.C.N., 2011. I.U.C.N. Red List of Threatened Species. 2488

Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 20 March 2012. Myers, P., J.D. Smith, H. Lama, B. Lama & K.F. Koopman (2000). A recent collection of bats from Nepal, with notes on Eptesicus dimissus. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 65(3): 149–156. Olson, D.M. & E. Dinerstein (2002). The Global 200: priority ecoregions for global conservation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 89: 199–224. Pearch, M.J. (2011). A review of the biological diversity and distribution of small mammal taxa in the terrestrial ecoregions and protected areas of Nepal. Zootaxa 3072: 1–286. Sah, J.P. (1997). Koshi Tappu Wetlands: Nepal’s Ramsar Site. I.U.C.N., Bangkok, Thailand, xviii+254pp. Scully, J. (1887). On the Chiroptera of Nepal. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 56: 233–259. Singh, G.R. (2001). Community Development and Biodiversity Tourism at Koshi Tappu Ramsar Site in Eastern Nepal. Unpublished Thesis (Charles Sturt University, Australia), xx+241pp. Sinha, Y.P. (1980). The bats of Rajasthan: taxonomy and zoogeography. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 76(1–4): 7–63. Srinivasulu, C., P.A. Racey & S. Mistry (2010). A key to the bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of South Asia. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(7): 1001–1076 Tate, G.H.H. (1942). Review of the vespertilionine bats, with special attention to genera and species of the Archbold collections. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 80: 221–297. Temminck, C.J. (1824–1841). Monographies de mammalogie, ou description de quelques genres de mammifères, dont les espèces ont été observées dans les différens musées de l’Europe. 392pp. [Vol. I. livr. 1–4. pp. 1–156 (1824); livr. 5. pp. 157–204 (1825); livr. 6, pp. 205–244, (1826) ; livr. 7, pp. 245–268 (1827); Vol. II, livr. 1, pp. 1–48 (1825); livr. 2, pp. 49–140 (1837); livr. 3, pp. 141–272 (1840); livr. 4 and 5, pp. 273–392 (1841)]. C.C. Vander Hoek, Leiden and Dufour, Paris. Thapa, S. (2010). An updated checklist of valid bat species of Nepal. Small Mammal Mail - Bi-Annual Newsletter of CCINSA and RISCINSA 2(1): 16–17. Thapa, S.B, M.J. Pearch & G. Csorba (2010). The second locality record of Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825 (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae) from Nepal. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 107(3): 241–244. Wroughton, R.C. (1899). Some Konkan bats. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 12: 716–725. WWF (2001). http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles /terrestrial/im/im0701_full.html (downloaded on 10th May, 2011).

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Appendix I. Measurements of individual bat specimens mentioned in this paper. Scotozous dormeri

Pipistrellus coromandra

Pipistrellus tenuis

CDZ TU_BAT 019

CDZ TU_BAT 022

CDZ TU_BAT 023

CDZ TU_BAT 024

CDZ TU_BAT 020

CDZ TU_BAT 021

53.0

41.0

43.0

36.0

39.0

30.0

31.0

32.0

25.5

30.0

TIB

10.0

13.0

11.0

10.5

11.0

8.0

5.0

6.0

5.0

33.5

29.0

31.0

30.0

26.0

28.0

Thumb

6.5

5.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

5.0

3mt

32.5

29.0

30.0

29.0

26.0

27.0

1ph3mt

12.0

11.0

12.0

11.0

10.0

11.0

2ph3mt

9.0

15.0

4mt

32.0

29.0

30.0

29.0

24.0

27.0

1ph4mt

12.0

10.0

11.0

2ph4mt

8.0

7.0

9.0

7.0

6.0

7.5

5mt

32.0

28.0

29.0

28.5

25.0

27.0

1ph5mt

9.0

8.0

7.0

8.0

7.0

2ph5mt

6.0

4.0

5.5

5.0

10.0

12.5

Tragus

5.0

4.0

3.0

4.0

GTL

14.1

13.3

12.5

11.3

11.4

CCL

13.2

11.2

11.4

11.7

10.3

7.0

6.6

6.7

6.2

6.3

6.4

3.5

3.6

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.4

5.6

4.4

4.7

4.3

3.8

4.0

C-M3

5.3

4.4

4.6

4.5

4.1

4.4

c-m3

5.7

5.0

4.7

5.0

8.2

10.7

9.0

9.1

3.7

3.8

C1-C1

4.5

4.1

4.3

5.0

5.3

M3-M3

6.5

5.4

5.7

6.0

4.0

4.3

Baculum

3.3

2.5

3.5

Author Details: Sanjan Thapa is Bat Conservation Officer at the Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation in Kathmandu. His research interests include ecology and conservation with particular regard to the taxonomic identification and molecular systematics of bats. He has a Master’s degree in Zoology from the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. Pradeep Subedi is a graduate in Biotechnology and Biochemistry from Universal College, Maitidevi, Kathmandu, Nepal. Nanda Bahadur Singh is an Associate Professor at the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University. He has a Ph.D. in Ethnogenetics from the University of Tokyo, Japan. Malcolm Pearch is a researcher at the Harrison Institute in Sevenoaks, England, where his principal area of interest is the biological diversity, distribution, and taxonomy of small mammal taxa in the terrestrial ecoregions of the Himalayan region. Author Contributions: ST conducted the original fieldwork and the subsequent scientific inquiry on which this paper is based. PS provided technical and practical assistance during laboratory analysis. NBS supervised scientific procedures and research methodology. MP advised on taxonomic and zoogeographic aspects and on the preparation of the manuscript. Acknowledgments: The authors are pleased to acknowledge Prof. Dr. Ranjana Gupta, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, for the use of her Department’s facilities; Prof. Paul A. Racey, University of Aberdeen, for his kind donation of materials and for his continuing encouragement and support; the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (D.N.P.W.C.) for granting permission to undertake research in the buffer zone of Koshi Tappu W.R.; Mr. Prem Budha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, for providing photographic lenses; the Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation (S.M.C.R.F.), New Baneshwor, Kathmandu for supplying field and laboratory equipment; Mr. Dibya Raj Dahal for assisting in the preparation of bacula and skulls; Stephen Rossiter, Queen Mary, University of London, for his constructive criticism of the text; Dr. Gabor Csorba, Hungarian Natural History Museum, Budapest, for his continuing support and invaluable guidance; and the reviewers of the manuscript for their judicious comments. At the Harrison Institute, the authors are grateful to David Harrison, Paul Bates, and Nikky Thomas for their critical analysis of the manuscript and for their useful suggestions and advice.

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JoTT Communication

4(4): 2490–2498

Tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) of ancient reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka Chandima Dangalle 1, Nirmalie Pallewatta 2 & Alfried Vogler 3 Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka Department of Entomology, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom Email: 1 cddangalle@gmail.com (corresponding author) 2 nirmalip@yahoo.com, 3 a.vogler@nhm.ac.uk

1,2 3

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Anonimity requested Manuscript details: Ms # o2896 Received 29 July 2011 Final received 26 December 2011 Finally accepted 19 February 2012 Citation: Dangalle, C., N. Pallewatta & A. Vogler (2012). Tiger beetles (Coleoptera:Cicindelidae) of ancient reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2490–2498. Copyright: © Chandima Dangalle, Nirmalie Pallewatta & Alfried Vogler 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.

Abstract: The reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka are ancient man-made riparian habitats. Adequate food supply and suitable climatic and soil parameters make these habitats ideal for tiger beetles. Twenty-six reservoirs were investigated for the presence of tiger beetles, and four species were recorded: Calomera angulata (Fabricius, 1798), Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa (Dejean, 1825), Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa (Putzeys, 1875) and Lophyra (Lophyra) catena (Fabricius, 1775). Calomera angulata is the most common species, occurring in the majority of reservoir habitats. Key environmental factors of climate and soil were examined and linked to habitat preferences of tiger beetle species. Keywords: Coleoptera, Cicindelidae, habitat preferences, reservoirs, tiger beetles. Sinhala Abstract: jeõ, Y%S ,xldfõ olakg ,efnk bmerKs mrsir moaO;shls’. usksid jsiska ;kk ,o fuu jeõ c,dY%s; cSjska i|yd losu jdiia:dkhls’. m%udKj;a wdydr iemhqu ksid;a, fhda.H jQ ld,.=Ksl yd mdxY= ;;aj ksid;a, fuu jdiia:dk ghs.¾ l=reusKshkaf.a jdih i|yd b;d iqÿiq fõ’. fuu wOHhkfha oS jeõ jsis yhla jsu¾Ykh lrk ,o w;r tysoS ghs.¾ l=reusKshka jsfYaI 4 la wkdjrkh jsh( Calomera angulata Fabricius 1798, Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa Dejean 1825, Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa Putzeys 1875, Lophyra (Lophyra) catena Fabricius 1775. fuu jsfYaI w;=rska jeõ nyq;rhl olakg ,enqkq jsfYaIh jQfha Calomera angulata h’. jeõ mrsir moaO;s j, m%Odk ld,.=Ksl yd mdxY= ,laIK mÍlaId lrk ,o w;r, tu ,laIK ghs.¾ l=reusKs jsfYaIhkaf.a jdiia:dk reÑl;ajh yd iïnkaO flrsKs’.

Author Details: See end of this article Author Contribution: CD conducted field studies in Sri Lanka and laboratory work in the Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom. She contributed towards research design and methodology and writing of the paper. NP contributed towards formulating the initial concept, research design and methodology and writing of the paper. AV contributed by formulating the initial concept and research design. Acknowledgments: We wish to thank the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka (Research Grant No. RG/2003/ZOO/01) for funding the present study. We are also greatly indebted to the Department of Zoology, University of Colombo; the Natural History Museum of London, United Kingdom and the Department of Wildlife Conservation of Sri Lanka. We are grateful to Prof. Nimal Dangalle, Department of Geography, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka for his assistance in the preparation of maps and locational lists.

University of Colombo

OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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INTRODUCTION Tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) have been recorded from Sri Lanka since the 1860s. Identified species, their distributions and habitats are given by Tennent (1860), Horn (1904), Fowler (1912), Wiesner (1975), Naviaux (1984) and Acciavatti & Pearson (1989). These records together show 59 tiger beetle species from Sri Lanka, of which 39 are endemic. The majority of tiger beetles in Sri Lanka are terrestrial and diurnal, and are included in the genera Cicindela, Calochroa, Calomera, Lophyra, Jansenia, Cylindera, Myriochila, Hypaetha and Callytron. These species occupy a variety of habitats on the island such as riverine sandy areas, beaches and coastal areas, lagoons by the ocean, forests, forest openings, wet rocks along water courses, grasslands, fallow fields and road cuts (Wiesner 1975; Naviaux 1984; Acciavatti & Pearson 1989). However, the habitats of many species are unrecorded, and current localities of occurrence are unknown. Tiger beetles are highly habitat-specific (Knisley & Hill 1992; Adis et al. 1998; Morgan et al. 2000; Cardoso & Vogler 2005; Satoh et al. 2006; Pearson & Cassola 2007). Human activities in Sri Lanka have caused habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, increasing the risk of extinction for many species including endemics (IUCN 2006). Therefore, Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April | 4(4): 2490–2498

Tiger beetles of ancient reservoirs

it is highly likely that insect species with narrow habitat requirements, such as the tiger beetles, will be threatened with extinction in the near future given the pressures of development in the country. Therefore, it is imperative that the current occurrence and status of tiger beetles be investigated. The ancient man-made reservoir (tank) systems are a unique habitat in Sri Lanka, dating back to about 2500 years when the country had a hydraulic civilization. They were built by the kings for irrigation purposes, domestic and municipality needs, and flourish today in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Sigiriya in the North-Central Province of the country (Bandaragoda 2006). Over 30,000 reservoirs have been built in Sri Lanka, and some are still found covered by thick jungle dotting the landscape all over the country, especially in the dry zone (De Silva 1988). A noteworthy, modern day feature of this unique system for water storage is that it performs important roles in conservation of Sri Lankan biodiversity apart from the original roles for which they were constructed. Although the reservoirs are man-made they very often blend seamlessly with the natural environment and it is nearly impossible to separate the man-made, reservoir-based agricultural environment from the natural environment. We report here the first recorded occurrence of tiger beetle species from the ancient reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka. The study reports the occurrence of four tiger beetle species that have been previously found in other habitat types in Sri Lanka and other countries, associated with reservoir habitats for the first time. Further, we reveal the habitat preferences of the tiger beetle species associated with the reservoir habitats of Sri Lanka.

METHODS AND MATERIALS Study area Twenty six reservoirs were surveyed for the occurrence of tiger beetle species from December, 2003 to November 2005. Most of the reservoirs were located in the North-Central Province of the country, while the other reservoirs were located in the NorthWestern, Southern, Central and Western provinces of the island (Fig. 1, Table 1).

C. Dangalle et al.

20 40km

Figure 1. Reservoirs of Sri Lanka surveyed for the occurrence of tiger beetles

Measuring habitat variables of the reservoirs The habitat variables of the climate and soil of the reservoirs in which tiger beetles occurred were measured as follows: (i) Climate variables: The ambient temperature, degree of solar radiation, relative humidity and wind speed of the habitat were recorded using a portable integrated weather station with optional sensors (Health EnviroMonitor, Davis Instrument Corp., Hayward, CA, USA). (ii) Soil variables: These included the soil type/ texture, using the sedimentation technique “soil textural triangle” (Bierman 2007); soil colour, measured by comparison with a Munsell soil colour chart; soil temperature, determined by using an Insert soil thermometer (SG 680-10) ranging from -10 to 110 0C; soil pH, determined by using a portable soil

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Table 1. The reservoirs of Sri Lanka surveyed for tiger beetles Reservoir

Location

Date surveyed

Nuwara Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8020’88”N & 80025’97”E, 80.69m

December 2003, July 2004

Thisa Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8020’53”N & 80023’06”E, 79.86m

Reservoir

Location

Date surveyed

Kandalama Wewa

Dambulla, Matale District, Central Province 7052’51”N & 80041’51”E, 176.52m

December 2003, December 2005

December 2003

Devahuwa Wewa

Dambulla, Matale District, Central Province 7048’41”N & 80033’20”E, 181.66m

December 2003

Abhaya Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8016’33”N & 80020’08”E, 86.15m

December 2003

Kurundankulama Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8035’01”N & 80043’18”E, 105.5m

April 2005

Mahakanadarawa Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8023’25”N & 80031’98”E, 85.04m

July 2004

Tabbowa Wewa

KaruwalagasWewa, Puttalam District, North-Western Province 8004’32”N & 79056’69”E, 20.42m

June 2004

Nachchaduwa Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8015’85”N & 80028’67”E, 96.01m

July 2004

Billu Wewa

Puttalam District, NorthWestern Province 7008’54”N & 79051’20”E 20.15m

June 2004

Turuwila Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8013’56”N & 80026’15”E, 120.5m

April 2005

Talawa Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8016’08”N & 80020’19”E, 105.69m

April 2005

Rajangana reservoir

Tambuttegama, Anuradhapura District, North-Central Province April 2005 8013’06”N & 80025’49”E, 79.75m

Kala Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8002’01”N & 80032’16”E, 125.88m

July 2004

Balalu Wewa

Anuradhapura District, NorthCentral Province 8002’01”N & 80032’18”E, 125.64m

July 2004

Minneriya Wewa

Polonnaruwa District, NorthCentral Province 8002’33”N & 80002’36”E, 96.25m

Giritale Wewa

Parakrama Samudra

April 2005

December 2003

Kimbulwila Wewa

Malwana, Gampaha District, Western Province 6056’57”N & 80000’55”E, 23.37m

August 2003

Gammanpila Wewa

Bandaragama, Kalutara District, Western Province 6031’48”N & 79058’08”E, 5.25m

June 2004

Chandrika Wewa

Embilipitiya, Hambantota District, Southern Province 6019’03”N & 80051’19”E, 9.76m

November 2004

December 2003

Ridiyagama Wewa

Ambalantota, Hambantota District, Southern Province 6020’89”N & 80098’56”E, 2.74m

November 2004

Polonnaruwa District, NorthCentral Province 7056’32”N & 81001’09”E, 131.45m

December 2003

Tissa Wewa

Tissamaharama, Hambantota District, Southern Province 6017’12”N & 81016’91”E, 16.16m

November 2005

Polonnaruwa District, NorthCentral Province 7057’01”N & 80059’98”E, 56.69m

December 2003

Yoda Wewa

Kirinda, Hambantota District, Southern Province 6015’60”N & 81018’61”E, 13.11m

November 2005

pH meter (Westminster, No. 259); soil moisture, determined by selecting five random spots of a locality and collecting samples down to a depth of 10cm and estimating the difference in weight before and after oven drying to 107–120 0C in the laboratory; and soil salinity, determined by a YSI model 30 hand-held 2492

Nikawaratiya, Kurunegala District, North-Western Magalla Wewa Province 7044’31”N & 80007’47”E, 54.62m Ibbagamuwa, Kurunegala District, North-Western Batalagoda Wewa Province 7032’12”N & 80002’04”E, 131.98m

salinity meter. Collection of beetles Tiger beetle species were surveyed between 1000 –1500 hr at all localities. Adult tiger beetles were searched in specific habitats including the bank of the

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reservoir, surrounding shrub area near the reservoir, and off-road trails. Beetles were collected using a standard insect net. Specimens were preserved in 96% ethanol and stored at -200C after examining for morphological characters and recording morphometric measurements. Permission to enter various areas for tiger beetle collection and for collecting specimens was obtained from the Department of Wildlife Conservation of Sri Lanka.

Table 2. Reservoirs ecosystems of Sri Lanka and associated tiger beetles

Identification of tiger beetles Taxonomic keys of the Cicindela of the Indian subcontinent by Acciavatti & Pearson (1989), descriptions of Horn (1904) and Fowler (1912) were used to identify the species and confirmation of identification was done through comparisons with specimens available at the National Museum of Colombo and Natural History Museum (NHM), London. Taxonomic names of species, with the present nomenclatural changes, are based on Wiesner 1992, except for the use of Calomera instead of Lophyridia, which is based on Lorenz (1998). The beetles were observed under a photomicrographic attachment which was also used in photographing each specimen (Nikon AFX-DX, Tokyo, Japan).

Reservoir

Species Recorded

Nuwara Wewa

Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa

Thisa Wewa

Calomera angulata

Mahakanadarawa Wewa

Calomera angulata

Nachchaduwa Wewa

Calomera angulata Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa

Kala Wewa

Calomera angulata

Parakrama Samudra

Calomera angulata

Kandalama Wewa

Calomera angulata Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa

Devahuwa Wewa

Calomera angulata Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa Lophyra (Lophyra) catena

Tabbowa Wewa

Calomera angulata Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa

Batalagoda wewa

Calomera angulata

Ridiyagama Wewa

Lophyra (Lophyra) catena

North-Western provinces while a few were located in the Central and Southern provinces (Image 1, Table 2). Habitat variables of the reservoirs Habitat sampling from December 2003 to November 2005 revealed that tiger beetles occur on sandy soils of reservoirs in areas of sparse vegetation. The beetles exhibited a significant preference for sunlit areas with high solar radiation where climatic and soil temperatures were only slightly different. A soil moisture of 4.25±0.67 % prevailed in the soils of the reservoirs which were more or less neutral with a salinity of zero value. The climatic and soil conditions of the reservoir habitats are given in Table 3.

RESULTS Tiger beetle species were recorded from the sandy banks of eleven reservoirs of Sri Lanka. Most of the reservoirs were located in the North-Central and

Tiger beetle species recorded from the reservoirs of Sri Lanka Four species of tiger beetles, Calomera angulata (Fabricius, 1798), Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa (Dejean, 1825), Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa (Putzeys, 1875) and Lophyra (Lophyra) catena (Fabricius, 1775) were recorded from the reservoir habitats of Sri Lanka (Table 2).

Image 1. Kandalama Reservoir, Matale District, Central Province of Sri Lanka with the sandy bank on which tiger beetles were found

Calomera angulata (Fabricius, 1798) (Image 2) Calomera angulata was the most common tiger beetle species in reservoir ecosystems and dominated all other species in terms of occurrence (Fig. 2).

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Table 3. Climate and soil parameters of the reservoir habitats of tiger beetles recorded at the time of collection Temperature (0C)

Solar Radiation (w/m2)

Relative Humidity (%)

Wind Speed (MPH)

Soil Type

Soil Colour

Soil Temperature (0C)

Soil pH

Soil Moisture (%)

Soil Salinity (ppt)

Nuwara Wewa

159

Thisa Wewa

736

sand

black

6.9

0.35

sand

yellow

6.7

0.12

Mahakanadarawa Wewa

sand

very dark grayish-brown

7.0

9.14

Nachchaduwa Wewa

32.8

256

sand

dark yellowishbrown

7.0

7.94

Kala Wewa

38.5

618

sand

light olive brown

7.0

0.64

Parakrama Samudra

29.5

sand

light yellowishbrown

7.5

0.15

Kandalama Wewa

sand

brownish-yellow

8.0

5.2

Devahuwa Wewa

363

sand

reddish-yellow

38.5

6.8

0.13

Tabbowa Wewa

206

sand

light olive brown

7.0

3.65

35.2

655

sand

yellowish-brown

42.5

6.8

11.49

sand

dark reddishbrown

7.0

7.93

33.64±2.11

7.08± 0.63

4.25± 0.67

Reservoir

Batalagoda Wewa Ridiyagama Wewa Average±SE

105

34.27± 2.96

298.36± 34.11

52.27± 8.65

8.09± 1.17

10 Number of reservoirs

Basal dot Humeral lunule Marginal band

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Middle band Apical lunule

Calomera angulata

Cylindera Myriochila (Oligoma) (Monelica) lacunosa fastidiosa Tiger beetles species

Lophyra (Lophyra) catena

Figure 2. Distribution of Tiger Beetle species in reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka

than the other species.

Image 2. Calomera angulata (x 10 x 1.0)

The species was found in nine out of 11 reservoirs and formed large populations of a single species in five of the habitats (Batalagoda Wewa, Kala Wewa, Mahakanadarawa Wewa, Parakrama Samudra, Thisa Wewa), while in the other four tank systems (Devahuwa Wewa, Kandalama Wewa, Nachchaduwa Wewa, Tabbowa Wewa) it co-occurred with either Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa, Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa or Lophyra (Lophyra) catena (Table 2). Even when co-occurring, Calomera angulata was more abundant 2494

Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa (Dejean, 1825) (Image 3) Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa was recorded from four reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka. In three reservoirs, Kandalama Wewa, Nachchaduwa Wewa, Tabbowa Wewa, it co-occurred with Calomera angulata, while a single population was found at Nuwara Wewa, Anuradhapura (Table 2).

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Humeral lunule Middle band

Marginal band

Small medial spot Large apical spot

Apical spot

Apical lunule

Image 3. Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa (x 10 x 1.0)

Image 4. Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa (x 10 x 1.5)

Devahuwa Wewa, Central Province and Ridiyagama Wewa, Southern Province (Table 2). The species occupied sandy bank area of the reservoir shaded by grasses and shrubs. Sutural band

DISCUSSION

Humeral lunule Marginal band Middle band

Apical lunule

Image 5. Lophyra (Lophyra) catena (x 10 x 1.0)

Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa (Putzeys, 1875) (Image 4) A single specimen of Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa was found co-occurring with Calomera angulata and Lophyra (Lophyra) catena at Devahuwa Wewa, Central Province. C. lacunosa occupied the wet sandy habitat most close to the water edge of the reservoir. Lophyra (Lophyra) catena (Fabricius, 1775) (Image 5) Lophyra (Lophyra) catena were encountered at

Reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka are riparian habitats that were constructed by humans about 2500 years ago (Bandaragoda 2006), and are integrated and inter-woven with the natural environment. The ecosystem consists of a reservoir, a sandy bank, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as a wind breaking barrier, and paddy fields. The sandy bank formed along the margin of the water level attracts many invertebrates due to accumulated organic matter and high food supply. Such riparian habitats are known to be preferred by tiger beetles not only because of adequate food resources but also due to safety from predators and low human disturbance (Bhargav & Uniyal 2008). Tiger beetles are known to be specialized species with narrow habitat requirements, hence changes in the habitat can lead to their disappearance (Diogo et al. 1999). Morphological differences between species of tiger beetles are apparently affected by selection for specific habitat requirements (Cardoso & Vogler 2005). Therefore, the discovery of tiger beetles in the

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reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka, identification of the species and recordings of habitat conditions of the ecosystems is of utmost importance. Tiger beetles are predatory insects that prefer riverine habitats with sandy soils and minimal vegetation, where periodic disturbance by wind and water removes encroaching vegetation (Warren & Buttner 2008). Female tiger beetles are specific in choosing oviposition sites, as larval stages are soil dwelling and spend their entire life in the same location (Brust et al. 2006). The larvae of Cicindela hirticollis of Nebraska, USA are known to select burrow locations with at least 7% soil moisture to avoid difficulties associated with digging in loose, dry sand and to avoid abrasion of soft-bodied larvae. Further, soil moisture is known to be necessary for cohesion of soil particles and to prevent the collapse of the burrow walls (Brust et al. 2006). However, certain species that have evolved as sand dune species are known to prefer a soil moisture of less than 4% and have higher amounts of cuticular hydrocarbons to avoid dessication (Romey & Knisley 2002). The tiger beetle species of the reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka were found on soils of 4.25±0.67 % moisture, a value in between the above extremes. The colour of the soil on which they occur is also known to be correlated with the structural colouration of species, an apparent adaptation for remaining inconspicuous to natural enemies reliant on visual cues (Seago et al. 2009). The closely packed pits on the elytral surface of tiger beetles and the surface microsculpture of the elytron is capable of reflecting wavelengths that create a diffuse matte brown, green or similarly unsaturated hue; often matching the colour of the surrounding soil (Seago et al. 2009). The soils of the reservoirs of Sri Lanka inhabited by cicindelids were mainly brown, matching the bronze, copper-green and copper-brown colours of Calomera angulata, Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa, Lophyra (Lophyra) catena and Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa. The expanded white maculations on the elytra may have functioned in lowering the body temperature making them able to forage longer without overheating. According to Seago et al. (2009), Cicindela formosa and Neocicindela perhispida found on white beaches have expanded white maculations that significantly lowers the body temperature and enabling them to forage longer without overheating. The environmental 2496

Table 4. Morphometric characters recorded for the tiger beetle species of reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka Body Weight (mg)

Body Length (mm)

Left Mandible Length (mm)

Calomera angulata

54.69±3.19 (n=25)

11.31±0.88 (n=25)

2.33±0.53 (n=17)

Cicindela (Monelica) fastidiosa

52.57±2.14 (n=9)

11.72±0.74 (n=9)

2.26±0.51 (n=2)

Cicindela (Oligoma) lacunosa

17.9 (n=1)

8.1 (n=1)

Cicindela (Lophyra) catena

74.7 (n=1)

11.4 (n=1)

2.35 (n=1)

Species

temperature of the reservoir ecosystems which was 34.27 ± 2.960C may also be suitable for the occurrence of tiger beetles as ground temperature ranging from 32–330C is known to be suitable for the activity and viability of tiger beetle populations, and a temperature of 34 – 350C determined the greatest number of matings in Cicindela (Cephalota) circumdata leonschaeferi Cassola (Eusebi et al. 1989). Calomera angulata was the most common tiger beetle species found in a majority of reservoir ecosystems. When co-occurring it was far more abundant than the other species and only single specimens of L. catena and C. lacunosa were found co-occurring with C. angulata at Devahuwa wewa. The low number of sympatric tiger beetle species in reservoir habitats may be due to competition for food resources as all species in these habitats had more or less similar mandible lengths (Table 4). Calomera angulata, the key tiger beetle species of the reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka, has been reported from Sri Lanka as far back as 1904 (by Horn) and 1912 (by Fowler). However, it was identified as Cicindela sumatrensis Herbst 1806 and was reported from riverine and coastal locations, and certain other locations where the habitat is not defined. Wiesner (1975) and Acciavatti & Pearson (1989) have recorded Calomera angulata from India and Nepal, but have not recorded the species from Sri Lanka. Wiesner (1975) reports that the species can be found near the water’s edge on open, moist sandy banks of rivers. More recently, Shook (1987) has reported Calomera angulata from along river habitats in Thailand. However, Satoh & Hori (2004) define Calomera angulata as a coastal tiger beetle occurring along the sea coast of Japan co-occurring with other tiger beetle species in most instances.

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Myriochila (Monelica) fastidiosa, a species restricted to Sri Lanka and India has been cited in several works of literature inhabiting grasslands, scrub forests, forest paths and old fields (Horn 1904; Fowler 1912; Naviaux 1984; Acciavatti & Pearson 1989). Lophyra (Lophyra) catena was first recorded in Sri Lanka in 1860 by Tennent, and later by Horn (1904), Fowler (1912), Naviaux (1984) and Acciavatti & Pearson (1989). Naviaux (1984) reported the species from margins of rivers and lagoons by the ocean, as well as in large sunny forest clearings. However, field work done in the present study (December 2003 to November 2005) also revealed the species from sandy lawns, foot paths and dry sand of coastal areas away from the water. Cylindera (Oligoma) lacunosa, a species restricted to Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu, India, has been reported from forest openings of Sri Lanka (Horn 1904; Fowler 1912; Naviaux 1984; Acciavatti & Pearson 1989). None of the above tiger beetle species are endemic to Sri Lanka and can be found in the Indian subcontinent and countries of South East Asia. The vast majority of the endemic flora and fauna of Sri Lanka are restricted to the wet zone of the country as are the tiger beetle species (Dangalle et al. 2011a,b). Therefore, the reservoir habitats of Sri Lanka are perhaps less important than other habitats for supporting endemic tiger beetle species. However, the reservoir habitats may have facilitated the dispersion of tiger beetles within Sri Lanka and may have played a role in facilitation of colonization of wet zone habitats by the endemic tiger beetles, by provision of transitional habitats. The two endemic tiger beetle species, Cylindera (Ifasina) waterhousei and Cylindera (Ifasina) willeyi, reported from the wet zone of Sri Lanka (Dangalle et al. 2011a,b) are species of the genus Cylindera which occurs in subtropical and temperate regions of Africa, Madagascar, Eurasia, Asia and South-East Asia (Sota et al. 2011). According to Pearson & Ghorpade (1989) these taxa dispersed to Sri Lanka using continuous forest habitats that were available from south-eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent, and traveled down the Western and Eastern Ghats to reach central Sri Lanka which was continuous with the southern division of the Western Ghats. The reservoir habitats may have provided a suitable habitat for the dispersal of these small bodied beetles with weak flying abilities. Similarly, as many tanks are connected to a network of

C. Dangalle et al.

canals and streams and thus indirectly to major rivers, it is tempting to theorize that coastal zone species would have made the transition to reservoir habitats along such interconnected waterways. More data on the occurrence and viability of tiger beetle populations along the canal and stream networks of the ancient tank system needs to be collected. In conclusion our study reveals that reservoir (tank) habitats which are man-made and dating back thousands of years have been colonized (‘invaded as new habitat’) by tiger beetle species which are known to occupy other types of habitats elsewhere in the world. Suitable climatic and soil conditions of the locations have facilitated the occurrence of tiger beetle species in these habitats and the study reports the habitat preferences of the species of reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka.

REFERENCES Acciavatti, R.E. & D.L. Pearson (1989). The tiger beetle genus Cicindela (Coleoptera, Insecta) from the Indian subcontinent. Annals of Carnegie Museum 58(4): 77–355. Adis, J., W. Paarmann, M.A. Amorim, E. Arndt & C.R.V. da Fonseca (1998). On occurrence, habitat specificity and natural history of adult tiger beetles (Coleoptera:Carabidae: Cicindelinae) near Manaus, Central Amazonia, and key to the larvae of tiger beetle genera. Acta Amazonica 28(3): 247–272. Bandaragoda, D.J. (2006). Limits to donor-driven water sector reforms: Insight and evidence from Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Water Policy 8: 51–67. Bhargav, V.K. & V.P. Uniyal (2008). Communal roosting of tiger beetles (Cicindelidae:Coleoptera) in the Shivalik Hills, Himachal Pradesh, India. Cicindela 40(1–2): 1–12. Bierman, P. (2007). Management solutions to soil limitations. State Master Gardener Conference, Department of Soil, Water and Climate, University of Minnesota, 9pp. Brust, M., W. Hoback, K.F. Skinner & C.B. Knisley (2006). Movement of Cicindela hirticollis Say larvae in response to moisture and flooding. Journal of Insect Behavior 19(2): 251–263. Cardoso, A. & A.P. Vogler (2005). DNA taxonomy, phylogeny and Pleistocene diversification of the Cicindela hybrid species group (Coleoptera:Cicindelidae). Molecular Ecology 14: 3531–3546. Dangalle, C., N. Pallewatta & A.P. Vogler (2011a). The current occurrence, habitat and historical change in the distributional range of an endemic tiger beetle species Cicindela (Ifasina) willeyi Horn (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) of Sri Lanka. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(2): 1493–

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1505. Dangalle, C., N. Pallewatta & A.P. Vogler (2011b). The occurrence of the endemic tiger beetle Cicindela (Ifasina) waterhousei in Bopath Ella, Ratnapura, Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka. 39(2): 163–168. De Silva, S.S. (1988). Reservoirs in Sri Lanka and their fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 298: 128. Diogo, A.C., A.P. Vogler, A. Gimenez, D. Gallego & J. Galian (1999). Conservation genetics of Cicindela deserticoloides, an endangered tiger beetle endemic to southeastern Spain. Journal of Insect Conservation 3: 117–123. Eusebi, M.P., L. Favilli & S. Lovari (1989). Some abiotic factors affecting the activity and habitat choice of the tiger beetle Cephalota circumdata leonschaeferi (Cassola) (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae). Italian Journal of Zoology 56(2): 143–150. Fowler, W.W. (1912). Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma (Coleoptera general introduction and Cicindelidae and Paussidae). Reprinted by Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, (1973), New Delhi, 529pp. Original is by Taylor and Francis Horn, W. (1904). The Cicindelidae of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica 2(5): 30–45. IUCN, The World Conservation Union (2006). Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. 308pp. Knisley, C.B. & J.M. Hill (1992). Effects of habitat change from ecological succession and human impact on tiger beetles. Virginia Journal of Science 43(1): 133–142. Lorenz, W. (1998). Systematic list of extant ground beetles of the world (Insecta Coleoptera “Geoadephaga”: Trachypachidae and Carabidae incl. Paussinae, Cicindelinae, Rhysodinae). Tutzing, Germany, 490pp. Morgan, M., C.B. Knisley & A.P. Vogler (2000). New taxonomic status of the endangered tiger beetle Cicindela limbata albissima (Coleoptera:Cicindelidae): Evidence from mtDNA. Ecology and Population Biology 93(5): 1108–1115. Naviaux, R. (1984). Coleoptera, Cicindelidae. Les Cicindelés de Sri Lanka. Revue Scientifique Du Bourbonnais 57–80. Pearson, D.L. & F. Cassola (2007). Are we doomed to repeat history ? A model of the past using tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) and conservation biology to anticipate the future. Journal of Insect Conservation 11: 47–59. Pearson, D.L. & K. Ghorpade (1989). Geographical distribution and ecological history of tiger beetles (Coleoptera:Cicindelidae) of the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Biogeography 16: 333–344. Romey, W.L. & C.B. Knisley (2002). Microhabitat segregation of two Utah sand dune tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae). The Southwestern Naturalist 47(2): 169– 174. Satoh, A. & M. Hori (2004). Interpopulation differences in the mandible size of the coastal tiger beetle Lophyridia angulata associated with different sympatric species. Entomological 2498

Science 7: 211–217. Satoh, A., T. Ueda, E. Ichion & M. Hori (2006). Distribution and habitat of three species of riparian tiger beetle in the Tedori River System of Japan. Community and Ecosystem Ecology 35(2): 320–325. Seago, A.E., P. Brady, J. Vigneron & T.D. Schultz (2009). Gold bugs and beyond: a review of iridescence and structural colour mechanisms in beetles (Coleoptera). Journal of the Royal Society Interface 6: S165–184. Shook, G.A. (1987). A preliminary list of the tiger beetle genus Cicindela from Thailand. Cicindela 19(1): 13–20. Sota, T., H. Liang, Y. Enokido & M. Hori (2011). Phylogeny and divergence time of island tiger beetles of the genus Cylindera (Coleoptera:Cicindelidae) in East Asia. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 102: 715–727. Tennent, J.E. (1860). Ceylon: An account of the island physical, historical and topographical with notices of its natural history, antiquities and productions. Longman & Roberts, London, 643pp. Warren, S.D. & Buttner, R. (2008). Active training military areas as refugia for disturbance dependent endangered insects. Journal of Insect Conservation 12(6): 671–676. Wiesner, J. (1975). Notes on Cicindelidae of India and Sri Lanka. Cicindela 7(4): 61–70. Wiesner, J. (1992). Checklist of the Tiger Beetles of the World: (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae). Verlag Erna Bauer, Keltern, Germany, 364pp.

Author Details: Dr. Chandima Dangalle is a Senior Lecturer in Zoology, attached to the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Her expertise lies in the fields of Entomology and Molecular Biology. Her research focuses on collecting baseline data on the distribution and habitat preferences of tiger beetles in Sri Lanka. Further, she studies the evolution and phylogeny of the species using mitochondrial DNA sequences of collected specimens. She conducted her PhD in the Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka and Department of Entomology, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom. Dr. Nirmalie Pallewatta is a Senior Lecturer and the current head of the department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. A zoologist by training, she received her PhD in 1986 from the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine at the University of London, United Kingdom. Dr. Alfried Vogler works on the molecular systematics of Coleoptera. He has a joint position at the Natural History Museum and at Imperial College, London. Together with PhD students and postdocs, he is currently studying basal relationships of Scarabaeinae and Aphodiinae. He is also interested in the factors determining the composition of dung beetle communities and the effect of species interactions on the evolution of ecomorphological diversity.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2490–2498

JoTT Short Communication

4(4): 2499–2509

An annotated checklist of opisthobranch fauna (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia) of the Nicobar Islands, India C.R. Sreeraj 1, C. Sivaperuman 2 & C. Raghunathan 3 1,2,3 Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, National Coral Reef Researh Institute, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 744102, India

Email: 1 crsreeraj@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 c_sivaperuman@yahoo.com, 3 raghuksc@rediffmail.com

Abstract: This paper presents 52 species of opisthobranchs recorded from the Nicobar group of Islands. Of these, Aldisa erwinkoehleri, Dermatobranchus rodmani, Glossodoris pallida, Noumea simplex, Pectenodoris trilineata, Okenia kendi, Tambja morosa, Phyllidia elegans, Phyllidiopsis annae, Flabellina riwo and Phidiana indica represent new records for Indian waters. Keywords: India, opisthobranch, Nicobar, nudibranch.

The Andaman and Nicobar archipelago consists of 572 islands, islets and rocky outcrops with an aggregate coastline of 1,962km. The continental shelf area is very limited with an estimated area of 16,000km2 and the sea is very deep within a few kilometers from the shore. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the islands encompasses around 0.6 million km2, which is again around 30% of the EEZ of India. This provides a great opportunity to explore the vast diversity of the

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Deepak Apte Manuscript details: Ms # o2783 Received 03 April 2011 Final received 05 January 2012 Finally accepted 27 February 2012 Citation: Sreeraj, C.R., C. Sivaperuman & C. Raghunathan (2012). An annotated checklist of opisthobranch fauna (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia) of the Nicobar Islands, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2499– 2509. Copyright: © C.R. Sreeraj, C. Sivaperuman & C. Raghunathan 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to Dr. K. Venkataraman, the Director, Zoological Survey of India for the facilities provided. The financial assistance supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India is also acknowledged.

seas around these islands. Opisthobranchs are one of the less studied groups of molluscs in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The earliest opisthobranch study in Indian waters dates back to 1864 with the work of Alder & Hancock. The knowledge about opisthobranchiate faunal diversity of Indian subcontinent is too little to interpret. Although variegated, these organisms could drag the attention of only a few scientists. In recent times Apte (2009), Apte et al. (2010), Raghunathan et al. (2010), Ramakrishna et al. (2010), Sreeraj et al. (2010), Apte & Salahuddin (2011), and Matwal & Joshi (2011) studied opisthobranch fauna of India. The molluscan studies of Andaman and Nicobar Islands were started in the late 19th century. The available literature shows that the earliest molluscan study was on a collection of marine shells made by E.A. Smith in 1878. The first report on nudibranch from these Islands was published by Eliot (1910), which deals with a collection of nudibranchs by Annandale. Opisthobranchiate taxonomy and ecology of these Islands has recently commenced (Raghunathan et al. 2010; Ramakrishna et al. 2010; Sreeraj et al. 2010) including the discovery of many new records for the Indian subcontinent. There has been no research on the community structure and population dynamics of opisthobranchs from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Quantitative studies on opisthobranch populations in Indian waters are scarce. This is due to opisthobranchs’ inherent low numerical density; individuals are small and often cryptic, and mostly sub-tidal. No studies are available on the opisthobranchs of the Nicobar group of Islands; therefore the present attempt has been made to compile the list on the occurrence of this group of animals based on the field surveys conducted during 2009–2011.

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Materials and Methods The Nicobar Islands are situated in the south-east of the Bay of Bengal between 6–10 0N and 92–94 0E. There are altogether 22 large and small islands, out of which only 12 are inhabited. The most northerly island of the group is Car Nicobar, which is 225km from Port Blair and the ten degree channel (about 120km wide) separates this Island from Little Andaman. Chowra, Teressa, Bompoka, Katchal, Kamorta, Nancowry and Trinket form the central group of Nicobar Islands; while in the southern group are Pulo Milo, Little Nicobar, Kondul, and Great Nicobar. The extreme southern point of Great Nicobar, previously known as Pygmalion Point and now Indira Point, is about 145km from Pulo Brass of Achin Head of Sumatra. The uninhabited islands in the central and southern groups are Batti Malv, Tileangchong and Meroe, Trak, Treis, Menchal and Kabra, respectively. Survey sites were selected based on the habitat features and accessibility (Fig 1). Sampling was carried out primarily by scuba diving up to a depth of 30m. Most of the specimens were measured and photographed in their natural habitat and collected in a plastic jar before being brought to the laboratory for examination. Animals were fixed in a solution of 5% formaldehyde and seawater. Before placement

in the fixative solution the animals were narcotised with a solution consisting of 72g/l of MgCl2. The formaldehyde fixed animals were transferred to 95% ethanol for long term preservation. All the collected specimens are deposited in the National Zoological Collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Port Blair. Identification was carried out based on the external morphology only and using following literature; Gosliner et al. (2008), Rudman (1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1995), and Brunckhorst (1993); and two webbased portals, the Australian Museum’s Seaslug Forum (http://www.seaslugforum.net/) and Nudi Pixel (http:// www.nudipixel.net). Taxonomic changes published recently are incorporated. Many of these species have wider distribution globally. However, in the present paper we have provided its occurrence in Indian waters only. Results and Discussion A total of 161 specimens belonging to 52 species were recorded during the study period. These belong to three orders, namely; Cephalaspidea (four species), Sacoglossa (four species), and Nudibranchia (44 species). The Nudibranchia was the most dominant taxon in this study. The distribution of the species

Car Nicobar 9 Bay of Bengal

Port Blair

Teressa Katchall

Andaman Sea

Kamorta Trinket

Nancowry

Little Nicobar 7 Great Nicobar

Figure 1. Nicobar Islands. 2500

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along different islands of Nicobar group is presented in Table 1. A systematic account of the species recorded is given below and detailed descriptions have been given only for the newly reported species. Cephalaspidea Fischer, 1883 Bullidae Gray, 1827 1. Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758. Material examined: 16.ii.2011, two specimens, Champion, Nancowry Island. Distribution in India: All along the west and east coast including Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands (Satyamurti 1952; Rao & Dey 2000; Rao 2003; Apte 2009). Haminoeidae Pilsbry, 1895 2. Atys naucum (Linnaeus, 1758). Material examined: 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island. Identification: Shell is thin and globose. The spire is deeply submerged within the body whorl. Shell is smooth in appearance superficially. Faint growth lines cross the spiral grooves. (Image 1). Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Rao & Dey 2000; Rao 2003). Aglajidae Pilsbry, 1895 3. Chelidonura punctata Eliot, 1903. Material examined: 19.xi.2009, five specimens, Car Nicobar. Distribution in India: Andaman and Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 4. Philinopsis gardineri (Eliot, 1903). Material examined: 21.ii.2011, two specimens, Safed balu, Trinket Island. 01.i.2010, one specimen, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands.

Image 1. Atys naucum

Sacoglossa (von lhering, 1876) Plakobranchidae Gray, 1840 5. Elysia pusilla Bergh, 1872. Material examined: 12.viii.2010, two specimens, Car Nicobar. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands. 6. Plakobranchus ocellatus Van Hasselt, 1824. Material examined: 12.viii.2010, four specimens, Car Nicobar. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep Islands (Rao 1961; Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 7. Thuridilla cf. bayeri (Er. Marcus, 1965). Material examined: 28.ii.2010, two specimens, Kamorta Island; 21.ii.2011, one specimen, Safed Balu, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010) 8. Thuridilla moebii (Bergh, 1888). Material examined: 28.ii.2010, three specimens, Kamorta Island; 20.ii.2011, three specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island; 21.ii.2011, two specimens, Safed Balu, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands. Nudibranchia Blainville, 1814 Hexabranchidae Bergh, 1881 9. Hexabranchus sanguineus (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1830). Material examined: 12.viii.2010, One specimen, Car Nicobar. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Kerala (Eliot 1906; Narayanan 1968; Narayanan 1970; Ramakrishna et al. 2010; Apte & Salahuddin 2011) Polyceridae Alder & Hancock, 1845 Nembrothinae Burn, 1967 10. Tambja morosa (Bergh, 1877). Material examined: 19.viii.2011, three specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island; 22.ii.2011, three specimens, Kamorta Jetty. Identification: Body dark blue or more commonly black with blue markings on the head, notum and foot. Rhinophores and gills black (Image 2). Natural history: A common inhabitant of muddy bottomed reefs and vertical substrata like wharfs where it is found on arborescent bryozoans. Comparatively a fast moving nudibranch. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters. Goniodorididae H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854 11. Okenia kendi Gosliner, 2004. Material examined: 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall

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Table 1. Distribution data of opisthobranchs in various Islands of Nicobar group. 27

Hypselodoris nigrostriata (Eliot, 1904)

Noumea simplex (Pease, 1871)

Pectenodoris trilineata (Adams & Reeve, 1850)

Risbecia ghardaqana (Gohar & Aboul-Ela, 1957)

Risbecia pulchella (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1828)

Thorunna australis (Risbec, 1928)

Thorunna florens (Baba, 1949)

Thorunna horologia Rudman, 1984

Phyllidia marindica (Yonow & Hayward, 1991)

Phyllidia coelestis Bergh, 1905

Phyllidia elegans Bergh, 1869

Phyllidia varicosa Lamarck, 1801

Gymnodoris impudica (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1828)

Phyllidiella pustulosa (Cuvier, 1804)

Aldisa erwinkoehleri Perrone, 2001

Phyllidiella rosans (Bergh, 1873)

Discodoris boholiensis Bergh, 1877

Phyllidiella rudmani Brunckhorst, 1993

Phyllidiella zeylanica (Kelaart, 1859)

Halgerda tessellata (Bergh, 1880)

Phyllidiopsis annae Brunckhorst, 1993

Jorunna funebris (Kelaart, 1858)

Phyllidiopsis gemmata (PruvotFol, 1957)

Chromodoris conchyliata Yonow, 1984

Phyllidiopsis phiphiensis Brunckhorst, 1993

Chromodoris elisabethina Bergh, 1877

Phyllidiopsis striata Bergh, 1888

Chromodoris fidelis (Kelaart, 1858)

Dermatobranchus rodmani Baba, 1949

Flabellina bicolor (Kelaart, 1858)

Phidiana indica (Bergh, 1896)

Pteraeolidia ianthina (Angas,1864 )

Total

Species

Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758

Atys naucum (Linnaeus, 1758)

Chelidonura punctata Eliot, 1903

Philinopsis gardineri (Eliot, 1903)

Elysia pusilla Bergh, 1872

Plakobranchus ocellatus Van Hasselt, 1824

Thuridilla cf bayeri (Marcus, 1965)

Thuridilla moebii (Bergh, 1888)

Hexabranchus sanguineus (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1828)

Tambja morosa (Bergh, 1877)

Okenia kendi Gosliner, 2004

Gymnodoris citrina (Bergh, 1875)

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Chromodoris geometrica (Risbec, 1928) Glossodoris atromarginata (Cuvier, 1804) Glossodoris pallida (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1830) Hypselodoris bullockii (Collingwood, 1881) Hypselodoris maculosa (Pease, 1871) Hypselodoris maridadilus Rudman, 1977

Flabellina riwo Gosliner & Willan, 1991 Flabellina rubrolineata (O'Donoghue, 1929)

CN - Car Nicobar; KM - Kamorta Island; NC - Nancowry Island; TK Trinket Island; KL - Katchall Island; GN - Great Nicobar Island

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Image 2. Tambja morosa

Image 3. Okenia kendi

Island. Identification: It can be identified by its white body with brown and purple pigment on the back and slender appendages (Image 3). Natural history: Found on the rocks with sponges, where it feeds on encrusting bryozoans. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for the Indian Ocean. Gymnodorididae Odhner, 1941 12. Gymnodoris citrina (Bergh, 1875). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 13. Gymnodoris impudica (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1828). Material examined: 15.xi.2009, one specimen, Kamorta Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). Cadlinidae Bergh, 1891 14. Aldisa erwinkoehleri Perrone, 2001. Material examined: 17.ii.2011, one specimen, Kardip, Kamorta Island. Identification: This species can be easily distinguished by its dark colored rhinophores and yellow pigment on the tubercles immediately posterior to the rhinophores (Image 4). Natural history: This is one among the three species of Aldisa which mimics Phyllidia coelestis. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: Previously known only from Thailand. Discodorididae Bergh, 1891 15. Discodoris boholiensis Bergh, 1877. Material

Image 4. Aldisa erwinkoehleri

examined: 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat (Rao 1960; Narayanan 1968; Dayrat 2010). 16. Halgerda tessellata (Bergh, 1880). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, four specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 17. Jorunna funebris (Kelaart, 1858). Material examined: 12.ix.2010, one specimen, B. quarry, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep Islands, Andhrapradesh, Kerala, Gujarat (Alder & Hancock 1864; Eliot 1906; Narayanan 1968; Fontana et al. 2001; Apte 2009; Apte et al. 2010; Ramakrishna et al. 2010)

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Chromodorididae Bergh, 1891 18. Chromodoris conchyliata Yonow, 1984. Material examined: 22.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands 19. Chromodoris elisabethina Bergh, 1877. Material examined: 19.ii.2011, three specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 20. Chromodoris fidelis (Kelaart, 1858). Material examined: 26.ii.2010, one specimen, Kamorta Island; 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island; 18.ii.2011, three specimens, Alukiya, Kamorta Island; 19.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep Islands (Eliot 1906; Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010) 21. Chromodoris geometrica (Risbec, 1928). Material examined: 21.ii.2011, one specimen, Safed Balu, Trinket Island; 22.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands. 22. Glossodoris atromarginata (Cuvier, 1804). Material examined: 19.xi.2009, one specimen, Car Nicobar; 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Tamil Nadu, Kerala (Eliot 1906; Fontana et al. 1999; Ramakrishna et al. 2010) 23. Glossodoris pallida (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1830). Material examined: 18.ii.2011, one specimen, Alukiya, Kamorta Island. Identification: It has a translucent white body with central opaque markings and a yellow marginal band. (Image 5). Natural

history: Inhabits patch reefs, where it is found on the encrusting sponges which it feeds up on. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters 24. Hypselodoris bullockii (Collingwood, 1881). Material examined: 19.ii.2011, six specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 25. Hypselodoris maculosa (Pease, 1871). Material examined: 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island; 22.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 26. Hypselodoris maridadilus Rudman, 1977. Material examined: 16.ii.2011, two specimens, Kamorta Jetty; 18.ii.2011, one specimen, Alukiya, Kamorta Island. Distribution in India: Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009) 27. Hypselodoris nigrostriata (Eliot, 1904). Material examined: 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010) 28. Noumea simplex (Pease, 1871). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall Island. Identification: Body colour pink. Gill and rhinophores tipped with deep orange. The gills vibrate while crawling; a typical character of the genus (Image 6). Natural history: It is reported to feed on pink sponges (Gosliner et al. 2008). Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters 29. Pectenodoris trilineata (A. Adams & Reeve,

Image 5. Glossodoris pallida 2504

Image 6. Noumea simplex Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2409–2509

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1850). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall Island. Identification: Body coloration highly variable, purple with a thin marginal white line. It has three longitudinal lines on the dorsum. The lines are dark blue and interrupted in the specimen observed in Katchall Island, instead of the yellow line seen in Pacific. The gills and rhinophores are orange (Image 7). Natural history: It was found in shallow reef where it was feeding on encrusting sponge. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record to Indian Ocean. 30. Risbecia ghardaqana (Gohar & Aboul-Ela, 1957). Material examined: 21.ii.2011, one specimen, Safed balu, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 31. Risbecia pulchella (Rűppell & Leuckart, 1828). Material examined: 22.ii.2011, two specimens, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands (Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 32. Thorunna australis (Risbec, 1928). Material examined: 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island; 20.ii.2011, four specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Karnataka (Zacharia et al. 2008) 33. Thorunna florens (Baba, 1949). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands. 34. Thorunna horologia Rudman, 1984. Material examined: 20.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands.

Phyllidiidae Rafinesque, 1814 35. Phyllidia marindica (Yonow & Hayward, 1991). Material examined: 13.ix.2010, one specimen, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar; 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island; 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island; 21.ii.2011, two specimens, Safed balu, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Tamil Nadu (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 36. Phyllidia coelestis Bergh, 1905. Material examined: 17.ii.2011, one specimen, Kardip, Kamorta Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 37. Phyllidia elegans Bergh, 1869. Material examined: 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island. Identification: Body with black lines and spots. The tubercles are opaque white and the larger ones are tipped with yellow. The rhinophores are yellow. A thick median stripe of black on the sole of foot (Image 8). Natural history: Found on open reef slopes where it is frequently observed on the walls. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters. 38. Phyllidia varicosa Lamarck, 1801. Material examined: 19.ix.2009, one specimen, Car Nicobar; 26.ii.2010, one specimen, Kamorta Island; 28.ii.2010, one specimen, Kamorta Island; 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall Island; 21.ii.2011, one specimen, Safed balu, Trinket Island; 22.ii.2011, two specimens, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Tamil Nadu,

Image 7. Pectenodoris trilineata

Image 8. Phyllidia elegans

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Karnataka (Rao et al. 1974; Zacharia et al. 2008; Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 39. Phyllidiella pustulosa (Cuvier, 1804). Material examined: 22.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 40. Phyllidiella rosans (Bergh, 1873). Material examined: 26.ii.2010, one specimen, Kamorta Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Tamil Nadu (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 41. Phyllidiella rudmani Brunckhorst, 1993. Material examined: 13.xi.2010; three specimens, B. quarry, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar; 19.xi.2009, one specimen, Car Nicobar; 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island; 20.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapang, Katchall Island; 22.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands. 42. Phyllidiella zeylanica (Kelaart, 1859). Material examined: 19.ii.2011, six specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island; 20.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island; 21.ii.2011, one specimen, Safed balu, Trinket Island; 22.ii.2011, two specimens, Sanuh, Kamorta Island; 22.ii.2011, three specimens, Kamorta Jetty. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat (Rao et al. 1974; Eliot 1906; Narayanan 1968; Zacharia et al. 2008; Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 43. Phyllidiopsis annae Brunckhorst, 1993. Material examined: 17.ii.2011, one specimen, Kardip, Kamorta Island. Identification: Body elongate with

arrangement of four black lines as in P. striata. Mantle perimeter granulose with few tiny black spots. Rhinophores black (Image 9). Natural history: Found on shallow reef flat. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters. 44. Phyllidiopsis gemmata (Pruvot-Fol, 1957). Material examined: 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009). 45. Phyllidiopsis phiphiensis Brunckhorst, 1993. Material examined: 19.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). 46. Phyllidiopsis xishaensis Lin, 1983. Material examined: 19.ii.2011, one specimen, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands (Apte 2009; Ramakrishna et al. 2010). Arminidae Iredale & O’Donoghue, 1923 47. Dermatobranchus rodmani Gosliner & Fahey, 2011. Material examined: 18.ii.2011, two specimens, Alukiya, Kamorta Island. Identification: The body is elongated and triangular, flattened and narrow at posterior end. Notum is smooth and fleshy. Marginal sacs are visible along the mantle edge and each contains elongate, stiff rodlets. The color is pinkish-white. One or two transverse brown patches are present near the anterior and posterior thirds of the body. The notum and oral veil have a yellowish-margin, which contains fine brown spots. (Image 10). Natural history: Found © C.R. Sreeraj

Image 9. Phyllidiopsis annae 2506

Image 10. Dermatobranchus rodmani Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2409–2509

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on shallow patch reefs where they feed on soft corals. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: Previously known only from Madagascar and eastern Malaysia. This species was reported as Dermatobranchus sp. 16 in Gosliner et al. 2008 (page 313, bottom photo). This species is recorded for the first time after its description (Gosliner & Fahey 2011) and is new record for Indian waters. Flabellinidae Bergh, 1881 48. Flabellina bicolor (Kelaart, 1858). Material examined: 20.ii.2011, two specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Distribution in India: Lakshadweep Islands, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat (Eliot 1906; Apte 2009; Apte et al. 2010). 49. Flabellina riwo Gosliner & Willan, 1991. Material examined: 20.ii.2011, three specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Identification: The rhinophores are lamellate. The network of opaque white lines on the body and the sub apical band on the cerata are the distinctive characters (Image 11). Natural history: Found on shallow reef flats feeding on hydroids. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters. 50. Flabellina rubrolineata (O’Donoghue, 1929). Material examined: 16.ii.2011, eight specimens, Champion, Nancowry Island; 19.ii.2011, eleven specimens, Kapila, Trinket Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands.

Image 11. Flabellina riwo

Facelinidae Bergh, 1889 51. Phidiana indica (Bergh, 1896). Material examined: 16.ii.2011, two specimens, Champion, Nancowry Island. 20.ii.2011, three specimens, Kapang, Katchall Island. Identification: Orange head with white and yellow markings and cerata with blue, yellow and red (Images 12 & 13). Natural history: Found in shallow reefs feeding on hydroids. Distribution in India: Nicobar Islands, a new record from the present study. Remarks: New record for Indian waters 52. Pteraeolidia ianthina (Angas, 1864). Material examined: 26.ii.2011, one specimen, Kamorta Island; 16.ii.2011, one specimen, Champion, Nancowry Island. Distribution in India: Andaman Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu (Eliot 1909; Apte 2009; Apte et al. 2010; Ramakrishna et al. 2010).

Images 12 & 13. Phidiana indica. Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2499–2509

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Conclusion Most of the information available on the Indian opisthobranchs is pertaining to the peninsular coast. Opisthobranchiate taxonomy and ecology in Andaman and Nicobar Islands recently gained an attention. The present study represents the largest survey, in terms of geography and time from the coasts of Nicobar Islands. Nonetheless, due to an insufficient number of sampling dives, lack of dredge sampling as well as intertidal areas, the total number of the species was not as high as expected. The lack of night sampling is another factor limiting the quantity of identified species. Overall 52 opisthobranch species were recorded, of which 11 were new records for the Indian waters. These findings suggest that the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are indeed a region of high opisthobranch diversity, although till date it remains understudied as established by our new regional records. We expect to find as much as 400 species of opisthobranchs from the Nicobar group of Islands with focused work for a few years. The opisthobranch fauna of this archipelago shows the affinity with species of neighboring countries bordering Andaman Sea rather than eastern coast of India. It is interesting to state that the opisthobranch species of Andaman have more similarity with that of Thai waters of Andaman Sea whereas that of Nicobar has more species similarity with Indonesian waters. However, the opisthobranch fauna of the oceanic Nicobar Islands have very less similarity with that of the opisthobranchs reported from the peninsular coast of India. In this context, the information about the opisthobranchs of Nicobar Islands adds value to the molluscan studies of Indian waters.

REFERENCES Alder, J. & A. Hancock (1864). Notice of a collection of nudibranchiate Mollusca made in India by Walter Elliot Esq., with descriptions of several new genera and species. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 5: 113– 147 Apte, D. & V.K. Salahuddin (2010). Record of Hexabranchus sanguineus (Rüppell & Leuckart 1828) from Lakshadweep Archipelago, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 107(3): 261–262. Apte, D., V. Bhave & D. Parasharya (2010). An annotated and illustrated checklist of the opisthobranch fauna of Gulf 2508

of Kutch, Gujarat, India with 21 new records for Gujarat and 13 new records for India: part 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 107(1): 14–23. Apte, D. (2009). Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep Islands, India with 52 new records to Lakshadweep and 40 new records to India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 106(2): 162–175. Brunckhorst, D.J. (1993). The systematics and phylogeny of phyllidiid nudibranchs (Doridoidea). Records of the Australian Museum 16(Supplement): 1–107. Dayrat, B. (2010). A monographic revision of basal discodorid sea slugs (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Nudibranchia: Doridina). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences Series 4, 61(1): 1–403. Eliot, C. (1906). On the nudibranchs of south India and Ceylon, with special reference to the drawings by Kelaart and the collection belonging to Alder and Hancock preserved in the Hancock museum at New Castle-on-Tyne North. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1906 pt. II: 636–691 and 997–1008. Eliot, C. (1910). Notes on nudibranchs from the Indian Museum. Records of the Indian Museum, 5(4): 247–252. Eliot, C.N.E. (1909). Report on the nudibranchs collected by Mr. James Hornell at Okhamandal in Kattiawar in 1905– 6. In: Report to the government of Baroda on the marine zoology of Okhamandal 1:137–145. Fontana, A., C.L. Maria, L. D’souza, E. Mollo, G. Chandra, P.S. Naikk, Parameswaran, S. Wahidulla & G. Cimino (2001). Selected chemo-ecological studies of marine opisthobranchs from Indian coasts. Journal of the Indian Institute of Science 81(4): 403–415. Fontana, A., P. Cavaliere, N. Ungur, L. D’Souza, P. Parameswaram & G. Cimino (1999). New scalaranes from the nudibranch Glossodoris atromarginata and its sponge prey. Journal of Natural Products 62: 1367–1370. Gosliner, T.M. & S.J. Fahey (2011). Previously undocumented diversity and abundance of cryptic species: a phylogenetic analysis of Indo-Pacific Arminidae Rafinesque, 1814 (Mollusca:Nudibranchia) with descriptions of 20 new species of Dermatobranchus. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 161: 245–356. Gosliner, T.M., D.W. Behrens & A. Valdes (2008). Indo Pacific Nudibranchs and Sea Slugs. Sea Challengers, 425pp. Matwal, M. & D. Joshi (2011). Record of Phyllidiella zeylanica (Mollusca:Gastropoda:Opisthobranchia) after 42 years from Gujarat, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(7): 1951–1954. Narayanan, K.R. (1968). On three opisthobranchs from the south-west coast of India. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 10(2): 377–380. Narayanan, K.R. (1970). On two doridacean nudibranchs (Mollusca:Gastropoda) from the Gulf of Kutch, new to Indian coast. Advance Abstracts of Contributions on Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences in India 4(4): 313–314. Raghunathan, C., C. Sivaperuman & Ramakrishna (2010). An account of newly recorded five species of nudibranch

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(Opisthobranchia, Gastropoda) in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, pp 283–288. In: Recent Trends in Biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Ramakrishna, C.R., C. Sreeraj, C. Raghunathan, J.S. Sivaperuman, R. Yogesh Kumar, Raghuraman, T. Immanuel & P.T. Rajan (2010). Guide to Opisthobranchs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, 196pp. Rao, K.V. 1962 (For 1961). On two opisthobranchiate molluscs, Placobranchus ocellatus Hasselt and Discodoris boholiensis Bergh, from Indian waters not hitherto been recorded. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 3(1–2): 253–256. Rao, K.V., P. Sivadas & L.K. Kumari (1974). On three rare doridiform nudibranch molluscs from Kavaratti Lagoon, Laccadive Islands. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 16(1): 113–125. Rudman, W.B. (1982). The Chromodorididae (Opisthobranchia: Mollusca) of the Indo-West Pacific: Chromodoris quadricolor, C. lineolata and Hypselodoris nigrolineata colour groups. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society 76: 183–241. Rudman, W.B. (1983). The Chromodorididae (Opisthobranchia: Mollusca) of the Indo-West Pacific: Chromodoris splendida, C. aspersa and Hypselodoris placida colour groups. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society 78: 105–173. Rudman, W.B. (1984). The Chromodorididae (Opisthobranchia: Mollusca) of the Indo-West Pacific: a review of the genera. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society 81(2&3): 115– 273. Rudman, W.B. (1986). The Chromodorididae (Opisthobranchia: Mollusca) of the Indo-West Pacific: Noumea purpurea and

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Chromodoris decora colour groups. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society 86: 309–353. Rudman, W.B. (1995). The Chromodorididae (Opisthobranchia: Mollusca) of the Indo-West Pacific: further species from New Caledonia and the Noumea romeri group. Molluscan Research 16: 1–43. Satyamurti, S.T. (1952). The Mollusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of Mannar). Bulletin Madras Government Museum, New Series, Natural History Section 1(2) pt. 6, pp. 1–258, pls. 1–34. Smith, E.A. (1878). On a collection of marine shells from the Andaman Islands. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 10: 804–821. Sreeraj, C.R., P.T. Rajan., R. Raghuraman., C. Raghunathan., R. Rajkumar, Titus Immanuel & Ramakrishna (2010). On some new records of sea slugs (Class: Gastropoda, Subclass: Opisthobranchia) from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, pp. 289–298. In: Recent Trends in Biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Rao, N.V.S. (2003). Indian Seashells (Part-1) Polyplacophora and Gastropoda. Records of Zoological Survey of India. Z.S.I. Kolkata. Rao, N.V.S. & A. Dey (2000). Catalogue of marine molluscs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Paper No. 187, x+323pp. Zacharia, P.U., P.K. Krishnakumar, A.P. Dineshbabu, K. Vijayakumaran, P. Rohit, S. Thomas, G. Sasikumar, P. Kaladharan, R.N. Durgekar & K.S. Mohamed (2008). Species assemblage in the coral reef ecosystem of Netrani Island off Karnataka along the southwest coast of India. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 50(1): 87–97.

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JoTT Short Communication

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A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach (Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops in India Dhanya Balan 1, P.M. Sureshan 2 & Vinod Khanna 3 Western Ghat Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut, Kerala 673006, India SaiDrishti, 151, AshokVihar, Salawala,Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand 248001, India Email: 1 dhanyamkrishna@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 pmsuresh43@yahoo.com, 3 drvkhanna51@gmail.com

1,2 3

Abstract: A new species of blind cryptopid centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach belonging to the hortensis group viz. Cryptops (C.) malabarensis is described from the southern Western Ghats, Kerala, India and the family Cryptopidae (Scolopendromorpha) is reported for the first time from the area. Affinities of the new species with a Madagascar species are discussed and a key to separate the Indian species of Cryptops is also provided. Keywords: Chilopoda, Cryptopidae, Cryptops malabarensis sp. nov, key, new species, Scolopendromorpha, southern Western Ghats.

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Gregory D. Edgecombe Manuscript details: Ms # o3035 Received 14 December 2011 Final received 06 February 2012 Finally accepted 30 March 2012 Citation: Balan, D., P.M. Sureshan & V. Khanna (2012). A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach (Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops in India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2510–2514. Copyright: © Dhanya Balan, P.M. Sureshan & Vinod Khanna 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: We are grateful to Dr. K. Venkataraman, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and C. Radhakrishnan, Officer-inCharge, Western Ghat Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut for providing facilities and encouragement. DB is grateful to Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India for awarding the Junior Research Fellowship and to Dr. John Lewis, UK, for the timely help and advice on matters of taxonomy, assistance with the literature and for useful comments on the manuscript. DB is also thankful to Dr. S. Shankar, Senior Scientist, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala for guidance on matters concerned with the studies in soil ecology. We are grateful to PCCF, Kerala Forest and Wildlife Department for the study permission and Staff, Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary for their encouragement and support during the study. Thanks are also due to Mr. P.K. Umesh, Mr. K.C. Harish and Mr. R.A. Aswanth for assistance rendered during the field trips.

The Western Ghats in India, with its very diverse assemblage of flora and fauna is one of the hotspots of biodiversity (Myers et al. 2000). With a few exceptions, the invertebrate fauna of the Western Ghats has been inadequately studied both in terms of their diversity and conservation priorities (Kunte in press). Though an integral part of the soil ecosystems, the fauna of scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) of the Western Ghats is still little known except for the pioneering works by Attems (1930), Jangi & Dass (1984), Yadav (1993) and Sureshan et al. (2006). A perusal of the literature reveals the occurrence of 40 species of scolopendrid centipedes belonging to eight genera and two families in the Western Ghats. Like the families Plutoniumidae and Scolopocryptopidae and the order Geophilomorpha, the family Cryptopidae are blind centipedes, lacking ocelli. Cryptops Leach, 1815, is the largest genus of the family Cryptopidae, with 153 named species worldwide (Lewis 2002), in four subgenera i.e., C. (Cryptops) Leach, 1815; C. (Chromatonops) Verhoeff, 1906; C. (Haplocryptops) Verhoeff, 1934 and C. (Trigonocryptops) Verhoeff, 1906 (Bonato et al. 2011). The smaller size and fragile body, coupled with an abundance of species names, often founded on inadequate samples and with imprecise descriptions, make cryptopid centipedes a taxonomically difficult group and only seven species in two genera have so far been described from India. The Indian species of Cryptops are Cryptops (C.) feae Pocock, 1891, Cryptops (C.) doriae Pocock, 1891, Cryptops (C.) kempi Silvestri, 1924, Cryptops (C.) setosior Chamberlin, 1959 and Cryptops (Trigonocryptops) orientalis Jangi, 1955 (Khanna 2005, 2008).

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Cryptops (Cryptops) malabarensis sp. nov. (Figs. 2-3 and Images 1–5)

UK NK

WG Boundary region

Figure 1. Location of the Western Ghats in southern India with the two localities of Cryptops malabarensis sp.nov. indicated by coloured circles. UK - Urakkuzhy, Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary; NK - Narayankualam.

Materials and Methods During the faunal exploration surveys, interesting specimens of cryptopids were collected from the forested tracts of southern Western Ghats and its foot-hills (Fig. 1). The collections represent the first record of the family Cryptopidae from the area and permit the description of a new species of Cryptops. The new species shows very close affinity with C. decoratus Lawrence, 1960, which has its distribution in Madagascar (holotype), Mauritius (Lewis 2002), and the Seychelles (Lewis 2007). The specimens are deposited in the Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghat Regional Centre, Calicut (ZSIC), Kerala, India. Digital imaging was carried out using a Leica M205A stereomicroscope and a Leica DFC-500 digital camera. Scanning electron micrographs were captured with a Jeol JCM-5000 Neoscope bench-top SEM. The terminology used by Bonato et al. (2010) is followed in this paper.

Material examined Holotype: 01.viii.2011, 11032’40.59”N & 75055’33.40”E, elevation 641.2m, Urakkuzhy, Kakkayam, Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India, coll. Dhanya Balan, (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/INV 2111) (Images 1–5). Paratypes: 29.viii.2011, three specimens, from type locality, coll. Dhanya Balan (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/ INV 2080, 2108, 2109); 01.iv.2011 two specimens, 11030’26.98”N & 75048’24”E, elevation 145m, Narayamkulam, Calicut District, Kerala, India, coll. P.K. Umesh (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/INV 2079). Diagnosis: A species of Cryptops lacking anterior transverse suture on Tergite-1; tergite paramedian sutures from tergite 4 or 5–20; absence of saw teeth on the ultimate femur (C. hortensis group); ultimate leg tibia with 4–7 saw teeth on the tibia and 3–4 on tarsus one; no accessory spurs associated with the tarsal claw. Description of holotype Body length 23mm. Colour (before and after preservation) greyish-brown with dark subcutaneous pigment on tergites. Ultimate legs yellow. Antennae composed of 17 articles; basal two articles relatively stout with long setae distally. An irregular whorl of long setae on the proximal end of articles 1–3, the rest with setae scattered irregularly, not in whorls but the dorsal middle region is not densely covered. Short, fine setae abundant from 6th

0.5mm

Figures 2–3. Cryptops (Cryptops) malabarensis sp. nov. (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/INV 2108) 2 - Cephalic plate and Tergite-1; 3 - Sternite suture Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2510–2514

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0.4mm

New centipede from Western Ghats

0.4mm

0.5mm

0.4mm

Images 1–5. Cryptops (Cryptops) malabarensis sp. nov. (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/INV 2109). © WGRC, ZSI, Calicut 1 - Forcipular coxosternum; 2 - Cephalic plate ventral; Sternite-21; Prefemur and femur; Tarsus and tibia

article onwards (Images 4 & 5). Cephalic plate and tergite one without sutures, tergite one overlying the posterior edge of the cephalic plate (Fig. 2). Anterior edge of forcipular coxosternite weakly bilobed (Image 1) and with four long and one small setae on each side. Tergite paramedian sutures from tergite 4 or 5–20. Tergite 21 without sutures and with slightly angular posterior margin. Sternites with longitudinal and transverse sulci, longitudinal sulci longer than the transverse (Fig. 3). Sternite 21 with sides converging very slightly and straight posterior margin (Images 2 & 8). Legs 1–19 with undivided tarsi. No accessory spurs associated with the tarsal claw (Image 9). Coxopleuron with nine large pores and with at least three minute setae in porefield; three or four fine setae on posterior margin and upto five between this and porefield. Posterior area of coxopleuron is poreless. Leg 20 with dense ﬁne setae ventrally on prefemur, femur and tibia in all specimens. Ultimate legs with 2512

strong setae on anterior, ventral and posterior surfaces of prefemur and on ventral and posterior surfaces of femur. Median longitudinal glabrous area absent. No distal tubercle on tibia and tarsus. No saw tooth on the femur (Image 4); seven on the tibia and three on the tarsus 1 (Image 3). Additional information from paratypes Body length of paratypes varies between 11–21 mm. Antennae of leftside is damaged in 2079. When compared to the holotype, the number of saw teeth on the ultimate leg tibia varies from four (2079), five (2080) or six (2108, 2109) and on tarsus 1 the variation is either three (2080, 2108, 2109) or four (2079) saw teeth. The number of coxopleural pores are not clearly countable. Etymology The species is named after the type locality “Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary”, Kerala, India.

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Images 6–9. Cryptops (Cryptops) malabarensis sp. nov. (ZSI/WGRC/I-R/INV 2080). © WGRC, ZSI, Calicut 6 - Dorsal view of antenna; 7 - Basal antennal articles; Sternite-21; Pretarsus of leg from middle trunk

Table 1. Ecological observations from the sampling sites Physiographic category

Midland

Highland

Sampling sites

Narayamkulam

Kakkayam

145m

641m

24–30 0C

19–28 0C

120m

75m

agro ecosystem near a semi deciduous forest patch

moist deciduous forest

23–270C

15–250C

soil pH

4.91

4.76

Org. Carbon

3.12

9.15

Altitude Atm. temp Distance from water source Type of vegetation Soil temperature

Ecological observations Habitat: The specimens were collected from moist deciduous forest tracts of southern Western Ghats. All specimens were found in loose soil, about 4–5 cm below the surface. Ecological parameters of the two collection localities during the period of March–April 2011 are provided in Table 1. Discussion Cryptops malabarensis sp. nov. is conspicuously different from the other described Indian species of Cryptops included in the C. doriae group (having saw teeth on the ultimate leg femur); and falls in the Old World C. hortensis group of Lewis (2011) (those lacking saw teeth on the ultimate leg femur), which have not yet been reported from India. C. malabarensis sp. nov. closely resembles C. decoratus Lawrence (1960), which is also

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Key to the Cryptops species of India 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. -

Sternites, at least on some anterior segments with trigonal sutures ………............................………….…….... …………………….………….......................................……(Subgenus Trigonocryptops) C. (T) orientalis Jangi Sternites without trigonal sutures (Subgenus Cryptops) ..................................................................................2 Ultimate leg femur with saw teeth…………….……….......................................................................................3 Ultimate leg femur without saw teeth……… ……………..............................………. C. malabarensis sp. nov. Tergite 1 with an anterior transverse suture. ........................................................................C. kempi Silvesteri Tergite 1 without anterior transverse suture. ....................................................................................................4 Each side of forcipular coxosternite convex and with 12 submarginal setae….......……C. setosior Chamberlin Each side of forcipular coxosternite only slightly convex with 3 or 4 long and one or 2 small setae ……......… …………...…………………………………………………………………...................……………C. doriae Pocock

a member of the Old World C. hortensis group. The two species share the absence of sutures on the cephalic plate and tergite one; anterior margin of coxosternite almost straight, an overlapping number of coxopleural pores (7–9), a similar number of setae in the porefield (at least three) and ultimate leg characters such as prefemur with long fine setae dorsally, absence of a median longitudinal glabrous area, tibia with four and tarsus 1 with two saw teeth. However the new species differs from the holotype description of C. decoratus, in having no median ridges on the tergites, no posterior median depression on tergite 21 and the absence of accessory spurs on the pretarsi. C. decoratus is a Malagasy species closely related to C. melanotypus Chamberlin, 1941 from the Philippines, Mauritius and the Seychelles but Lewis (2011) was unsure of their exact status. However, the strong similarity between the new species and C. decoratus and C. melanotypus suggests dispersal of a group of closely allied species over a wide area. ReferenceS Attems, C. (1930). Myriopoda. 2. Scolopendromorpha. Das Tierreich. De Gruyter, Berlin 54: 1–308. Bonato, L., G. Edgecombe, J.G.E. Lewis, A. Minelli, L.A. Pereira, R.M. Shelley & M. Zapparoli (2010). A common terminology for the external anatomy of centipede (Chilopoda). Zookeys 69: 17–51. Bonato, L., G.D. Edgecombe & M. Zapparoli (2011). Chilopoda Taxonomic overview, pp. 363–443. In: Minelli, A. (ed.). Treatise on Zoology - The Myriapoda—Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 530pp. Chamberlin, R.V. (1959). Entomologische Ergebnisse der Deutschen Indien-Expedition 1955–1958. On some chilopods from India. Entomologische Mitteilungen 19: 21–24. Jangi, B.S. (1955). The chilopod fauna (Scolopendromorpha) of Nagpur India. Annals and Magazines of Natural History 12.7: 69–80. Jangi, B.S. & C.M.S. Dass (1984). Scolopendridae of the Deccan. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 43(1): 27–54. Khanna, V. (2005). Trends in the distribution of centipedes from India. Annals of Forestry 13(1): 130–140. 2514

Khanna, V. (2008). National register of the valid species of Scolopendrid centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) in India. Biosystematica 1(2): 33–45. Kunte, K. (2011 in press). Biogeographic origins and habitat use of the butterflies of the Western Ghats, south-western India. In: Priyadarshan, D.R., K.A. Subramanian, M.S. Devy & N.A. Aravind (eds.). Invertebrates in the Western Ghats - Diversity and Conservation. Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru. Lawrence, R. (1960). Faune de Madagascar 12. Myriapodes Chilopodes 76–84. Leach, W.E. (1815). A tabular view of the external characters of four classes of animals which Linné arranged under Insecta, with the distribution of the genera composing three of these classes into orders etc., and descriptions of several new genera and species. Transactions of the Linnaean Society of London (Series 1) 11: 306–400. Lewis, J.G.E. (2002). The scolopendromorph centipedes of Mauritius and Rodrigues and their adjacent islets (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha). Journal of Natural History 36: 96. Lewis, J.G.E. (2007). Scolopendromorph centipedes from Seychelles with a review of previous records (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha). Phelsuma 15: 8–25. Lewis, J.G.E. (2011). A review of the species in the genus Cryptops Leach, 1815 from the Old World related to Cryptops (Cryptops) hortensis (Donovan, 1910) (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha). International Journal of Myriapodology 4: 11–50. Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858. Pocock, R.I. (1891). On the Myriopoda of Burma. Part 2. Report upon the Chilopoda collected by Sig. L. Fea and Mr. E.W. Oates. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova (Series 2)10: 401–432. Silvestri, F. (1924). Myriapoda from the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Record of the Indian Museum 26: 71–79. Sureshan, P.M., V. Khanna & C. Radhakrishnan (2006). Additional distributional records of scolopendrid centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) from Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(6): 2285–2291. Yadav, B.E. (1993). Scolopendridae (Chilopoda) of Western Ghat with some first records from the state of Maharashtra, India. Records of Zoological Survey of India 93(3–4): 321–328.

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JoTT Note

Additions to the flora of Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India S.P. Gaikwad 1, R.D. Gore 2 & K.U. Garad 3 1,2,3 Life Science Research laboratory, Walchand College of Arts and Science, Solapur, Maharashtra 413006, India Email: 1sayajiraog@gmail.com, 2 ramdgore@gmail.com (corresponding author), 3 garadku@gmail.com

Marathwada region comprising seven districts (7005’–7805’N & 1705’–2005’E) forms a part of the vast Deccan Plateau of Maharashtra, India. The plant wealth of the Marathwada region is known through publications of several researchers (Naik 1966, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1979, 1998; Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Almeida 1998, 2001, 2003, 2009; Singh & Karthikeyan 2000, 2001). Cooke (1958 a,b,c reprint edition) in his ‘Flora of Bombay Presidency’ had not included Marathwada region, as it was then under Hyderabad State. Ramling Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjoining region comprises hills and hillocks which support rich tropical dry deciduous and scrub vegetation. During our floristic explorations, thirteen taxa of flowering plants were recorded which are new to the Marathwada region.

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Enumeration Acacia planifrons Wight & Arn. Prodr. 276. 1834. (Mimosaceae) (Images 1 & 2) Specimen examined: Blatter 17176 (Blatt. Herb.); 17.v.2011, RDG-488. Small armed tree with spreading branches. Leaves 2-pinnate. Stipular spines of two kinds. Flowers in globose heads in axillary fascicles. Pods sub-cylindric, turgid, circinate. Flowering and Fruiting: October–December. Distribution: Apsinga Road (1802’29.64”N & 7603’17.70”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: The species is readily distinguished from others in having an umbrella like canopy, stipular spines of two kinds and circinate pods.

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Arun K. Pandey Manuscript details: Ms # o2835 Received 14 June 2011 Final received 03 February 2012 Finally accepted 18 February 2012 Citation: Gaikwad, S.P., R.D. Gore & K.U. Garad (2012). Additions to the flora of Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2515–2523. Copyright: © S.P. Gaikwad, R.D. Gore & K.U. Garad 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: Authors are grateful to the Principal, Walchand College of Arts & Science, Solapur for providing available research facilities; Director, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, and Curator, Blatter Herbarium, Mumbai for confirmation of identifications, and to RGSTC, Government of Maharashtra for financial assistance. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

Image 1. Acacia planifrons

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Image 2. Acacia planifrons Wight. & Arn.

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1030. 1806. Mimosa senegal L. Sp. Pl. 521. 1753. (Mimosaceae) (Images 3 & 4) Specimen examined: Solapur R. Manakandam 126 (BNHS); 08.v.2011, RDG-491. A small tree; stem prickly. Leaves 2-pinnate. Stipular spines usually ternate. Flowers white in spikes. Pods linear-oblong, flat, 5–6 seeded. Flowering and Fruiting: November–April. Distribution: Ramling Wildlife Sanctuary 0 (18 18’25.22”N & 75055’19.92”E) in Osmanabad

District. Notes: The species can be easily identified by its ternate stipular spines - the two lateral spines are nearly straight or slightly curved upwards and the middle one is curved downwards.

Image 3. Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. 2516

Image 4. Acacia senegal

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex. Schult. Syst. Veg. edt. 15. 5: 565.1819. Iresine javanica Burm. f. Fl. India. 217, t. 65, f. 1. 1768. (Amaranthaceae) (Images 5 & 6) Specimen examined: 02.01.2011, RDG-431. Annual, erect, pubescent herbs. Leaves sessile, alternate, 2–5 x 0.5–1.5 cm. Flowers in axillary or terminal spikes, dioecious. Urticles orbicular-ovoid. Seeds lenticular, black. Flowering and Fruiting: November–January. Distribution: Katri (1803’39.88”N & 7600’56.76”E) in Osmanabad District.

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Ammannia nagpurensis Matthew & Nayar in Bull. Surv. India 31: 158, f.1 a-d. (1989) 1992. (Lythraceae) (Images 7 & 8) Specimen examined: Starky point (Nagpur), Mirashi 252, (Blat.); 21.xi.2010, RDG-280. Annual herbs. Leaves opposite, decussate, linearoblong. Flowers axillary in pedunculate cymes. Calyx campanulate; petals four, caducous. Stamens four. Capsules globose. Flowering and Fruiting: October–November Distribution: Malumbra (17056’28.62”N & 7601’48.72”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: So far this species was known from only the Nagpur region of Maharashtra, so the present collection has extended the range of distribution of the species.

Image 5. Aerva javanica

Image 6. Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex. Schult.

Image 7. Ammania nagpurensis

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Image 8. Ammannia nagpurensis Matthew & Nayar

Cuscuta campestris Yuncker in Mem. Torr. Bot. Club. 18: 138, f. 14. 1932. (Cuscutaceae) (Images 9 & 10) Specimen examined: 12.ix.1960, Near Patanwadi Bridge, Pune, Wadhwa 64209; 12.xi.2010, Koregaon Park, Pune, N.P. Singh 112858 (BSI Pune); RDG351. Stem slender, yellowish. Flowers greenish-yellow. Corolla lobes, acute; scales ovate, triangular. Stamens slender, infrastaminal scales present. Styles two; stigma globose. Flowering and Fruiting: November–February. Distribution: Apsinga (1804’5.29”N & 7602’7.63”E) and Bembli (1809’18.85”N & 7608’27.34”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: Occasionally parasite on Achyranthus aspera L., Lantana camara L. & Vitex negundo L. etc. Dyssodia tenuifolia Loes. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 2, 6: 866.1906. (Asteraceae) (Images 11 & 12) Specimen examined: 11.v.2011, RDG-507. Annual herbs. Leaves sessile, deeply pinnatisect. Heads radiate, pedunculate. Involucral bracts ciliate; phyllaries persistent, each bearing 1–7 round to elliptic oil-glands. Corollas yellow. Achenes black. Flowering and Fruiting: December–May. Distribution: Osmanabad Town (18010’41.90”N & 2518

Image 9. Cuscutta campestris

Image 10. Cuscuta campestris Yuncker

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Image 11. Dyssodia tenuifolia

Image 13. Eulophia graminea

Image 12. Dyssodia tenuifolia Loes.

7602’31.75”E). Note: Peculiar yellow oil glands are present on the outer side of involucral bracts. Eulophia graminea Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 182. 1833. (Orchidaceae) (Images 13 & 14) Specimen examined: 02.iv.2010, RDG-78.

Pseudobulbs conical, green, marked with transverse lines of leaf bases. Leaves linear. Scapes lateral, 1–2 per pseudobulb. Capsules 2–2.5 x 0.7–0.8 cm, ellipsoid-oblong, drooping. Flowering and Fruiting: September–April. Distribution: Apsinga (1805’0.33”N & 0 76 1’40.44”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: Bachulkar & Yadav (1993) had reported this orchid from sugarcane fields near Islampur of Sangli District where they had seen only two individuals. The present collection confirms its occurrence as well as its extended distribution in Maharashtra. However, it was uncommon on wet margins of temporary running water streams.

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Image 14. Eulophia graminea Lindl.

Iphigenia magnifica Ansari & Rolla in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20: 162, t. 1. (1978) 1979. (Liliaceae) (Images 15 & 16) Specimen examined: 06.xii.1983, Shindewadi Kuran near Malegaon (Nashik) Lakshminarasimhan 166228; 03.x.2010, RDG-248. Erect, bulbous, herbs. Leaves linear-lanceolate. Flowers dark brownish-purple; filaments glabrous. Capsules ellipsoid-oblong, many seeded. Seeds subglobose, brown. Flowering and Fruiting: September–February. Distribution: Ramling (18017’21.70”N & 0 75 56’39.26”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: Iphigenia magnifica Ansari & Rolla is endemic to Maharashtra and Karnataka, and regionally vulnerable (Mishra & Singh 2001). It is distinct from I. indica (L.) A. Gray by having glabrous filaments.

Image 16. Iphigenia magnifica

Lavandula bipinnata O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. Pl. 521. 1891. var. bipinnata (Lamiaceae) (Image 17) Specimen examined: 05.xii.2010, RDG-396. Erect, pubescent herbs. Leaves pinnatipartite or deeply divided. Flowers bracteolate; bracts equal to or shorter than calyx, awned. Calyx tubular, hairy. Corolla Pale blue or white, 5-lobed. Flowering and Fruiting: October–February. Distribution: Ghatangri (18013’17.71”N & 0 76 1’15.26”E) & Apsinga (1803’17.28”N & 7603’54.30”E) in Osmanabad District.

Image 15. Iphiginia magnifica Ansari & Rolla. 2520

Lens culinaris Medik. Vorles. Churpf. Phys. Ocon. Ges. 2: 361. 1787. (Fabaceae) (Images 18 & 19) Specimen examined: 26.vi.1964, Near Vaval Dam, Pune District, B.V. Reddi 97922, (BSI Pune); 02.iii.2011, RDG- 461. Pubescent, sub-erect herbs. Leaflets 4–6 paired;

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rachis terminating into tendril. Raceme 1–3 flowered. Flowers white or blue-purple. Pods compressed, 2-seeded. Flowering and Fruiting: December–March. Distribution: Bembli (1809’11.49”N & 0 76 11’53.79”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: It was found occasionally in sugarcane fields. Physalis pubescens L. Sp. Pl. 183. 1753. (Solanaceae) (Images 20 & 21) Specimen examined: Nasik Road H. Santapau 18378-9 (Blat.); 24.x.2010, RDG-322. Branched herbs. Leaves simple, broadly ovate, hairy, long petioled, margins serrate. Flowers solitary, axillary. Calyx lobes exceeding the berry; corolla tube rounded. Fruit a berry. Flowering and Fruiting: August–January. Distribution: Pohaner (1806’58.32”N & 0 76 1’6.53”E), Osmanabad (18011’12.16”N &

Image 19. Lens culinaris Medik.

7602’17.52”E) and Apsinga (1803’40.73”N & 7602’25.17”E) in Osmanabad District. Note: It is common along road sides and in waste land. The species is distinct in having a stout stem and pubescence all over the body.

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Image 20. Physalis pubescens

Image 22. Synedrella vialis

3-nerved from base, ovate-lanceolate. Heads axillary, solitary. Achenes dimorphic, crowned with two spines. Flowering and Fruiting: July–September. Distribution: Sindphal (1800’8.63”N & 0 76 3’1.94”E) in Osmanabad District.

Image 21. Physalis pubescens

Synedrella vialis (Less.) A. Gray in Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 217. 1882. Calytocarpus vialis Less. Syn. 221. 1832. (Astraceae) (Image 22) Specimen examined: Pune (M.R. Almeida-1576, BNHS); 06.iii.2011, RDG-465. Annual, spreading herbs, scabrid-hairy. Leaves 2522

Tragia involucrata L. Sp. Pl. 980. 1753. (Euphorbiaceae) (Images 23 & 24) Specimen examined: 25.ii.1959, Ameni Island, Wadhwa 49030 (BSI Pune); 02.i.2011, RDG-431. Perennial herbs, hispid with stinging hairs; stem twining. Leaves broadly ovate, base rounded or cordate, margins serrate hairy. Flowers in hairy racemes; male in upper part and female in lower part of racemes. Capsules 3-lobed. Flowering and Fruiting: October–January. Distribution: Naldurg (17048’23.76”N &

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REFERENCES

Image 23. Tragia involucrata

Image 24. Tragia involucrata

Almeida, M.R. (1998). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. 2. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, pp. 102, 207, 208, 282. Almeida, M.R. (2001). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. 3 a & b. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, pp. 116, 301, 138, 371, 904. Almeida, M.R. (2003). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. 4a. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, 196pp. Almeida, M.R. (2009). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. 5a. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, pp. 47, 183. Bachulkar, M.P. & S.R. Yadav (1993). Some new plant records for Maharashtra. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 17: 329. Cooke, T.C. (1958a reprint edition) Flora of the Presidency of Bombay Presidency—Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, pp. 435, 474, 478. Cooke, T.C. (1958b reprint edition) Flora of the Presidency of Bombay Presidency—Vol. 2. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, 577pp. Cooke, T.C. (1958c reprint edition) Flora of the Presidency of Bombay Presidency—Vol. 3. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, 119pp. Lakshminarasimhan, P. (1996). Flora of Maharashtra, Monocotyledons—Series 2. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, pp. 28, 139. Mishra, D.K. & N.P. Singh (2001). Endemic and Threatened Flowering Plants of Maharashtra. Botanical survey of India, Kolkata. 236–238pp. Naik, V.N. (1966). A new Crotalaria species from Osmanabad District. Indian Forestry 92(12): 790–791. Naik, V.N. (1967). Amaranthus polygonoides L. from Osmanabad district, a new record for India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 64(1): 134–135. Naik, V.N. (1969). An artificial key to the Leguminosae of Osmanabad district. Marathwada University Journal of Science 8(1): 15–19. Naik, V.N. (1970). A census of Crotalaria species in Osmanabad district. Marathwada University Journal of Science 9: 15– 18. Naik, V.N. (1979). Flora of Osmanabad. Venus publishers, Aurangabad, 464pp. Naik, V.N. (1998). Flora of Marathwada—Vols. 1 & 2. Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad, 1182pp. Singh N.P & S. Karthikeyan (eds.) (2000). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. I. Series 2. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, pp. 771, 826, 976. Singh N. P & S. Karthikeyan (eds.) (2001). Flora of Maharashtra—Vol. II. Series 2. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, pp. 31, 205, 245, 490, 581, 722, 780.

76017’32.22”E) in Osmanabad District.

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4(4): 2524–2528

First record of two Pentatomidae bugs from Chandoli area, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India Hemant V. Ghate 1, Girish P. Pathak 2, Yogesh Koli 3 & Ganesh P. Bhawane 4 1 Head, 2 Student, Department of Zoology, Modern College, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharashtra 411005, India 3 Research Fellow, 4 Professor of Zoology, Department of Zoology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra 416004, India Email: 1 hemantghate@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 pathak.giri172@gmail.com, 3 yogesh14_1985@rediffmail.com, 4 drgpbhawane@rediffmail.com

Casual collection of bugs from shrub vegetation near Chandoli National Park, Kolhapur District, Maharashtra state revealed the presence of two interesting pentatomid bugs. These two bugs have been identified as Andrallus spinidens (Fabricius, 1787) and Sabaeus humeralis (Dallas, 1851), based on information in Distant (1902). Both specimens are preserved in the Zoology Department, Modern College (Reg.No. are B-75 and B-76, respectively for Andrallus and Sabaeus). Andrallus spinidens (Pentatomidae: Asopinae) is a well known predatory bug. Distant (1902), in ‘Fauna of British India’, had described it as

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Alex Ramsay Manuscript details: Ms # o2920 Received 21 August 2011 Final received 16 January 2012 Finally accepted 24 March 2012 Citation: Ghate, H.V., G.P. Pathak, Y. Koli & G.P. Bhawane (2012). First record of two Pentatomidae bugs from Chandoli area, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2524–2528. Copyright: © Hemant V. Ghate, Girish P. Pathak, Yogesh Koli & Ganesh P. Bhawane 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: Authors are grateful to the authorities of Modern College, Pune for facilities and encouragement. We also thank the personnel from the Forest Department (Chandoli), for granting permission to work and collect insects near Chandoli National Park. Thanks are also due to the authorities of Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for providing facilities. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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Audinetia spinidens. The recent nomenclature of Asopinae bugs has been given by Thomas (1994) and, accordingly, the current valid name of this species is Andrallus spinidens. Distant (1902) mentions the distribution of this bug in India from Sikkim, Assam, Khasi Hills, Bengal, Ranchi and Bangalore. We have not come across any published report of this bug from Maharashtra. This note extends the known distributional range of this species to the north of India, although the bug is distributed widely throughout southern Asia and is even found in ‘Malaya Archipelago’, China, Japan, and occurring west to Turkey and more recently, Greece. It occurs also in various parts of the Africa, Syria, Equatorial Guinea, Malawi, Madagascar, Australia, North America and Central America (Distant 1902; Thomas, 1992, 1994 Pericart 2010). This bug is pale brownish overall with a distinct colour pattern, and is somewhat elongate in appearance (Image 1). As an Asopinae member, the bug possesses the typical robust and long rostrum with incrassated first joint. The diagnostic characters of this bug are: head long, lateral lobes (jugae) slightly longer than median lobe (tylus), moderately prolonged, head almost rectangular if eyes are not considered, coarsely punctured, especially the lateral lobes, punctures on lateral lobes dark black (Image 2). Antennae 5-segmented, 1st antennal segment short, not reaching apex of the head, antennal segments dark brown with very fine setae, 4th and 5th segments with ochraceous base. Pronotum with anterior border concave behind the head but the posterior border more or less straight, antero-lateral margin crenulate, lateral angles each produced in straight subacute spines with a small spine at the base of long spine. Pronotum also distinctly sloping anteriorly and convex in the basal region, with a somewhat raised, pale coloured impunctate line joining the two lateral pronotal angles (Images 3 a,b). Entire disc of pronotum covered with coarse black punctures, which in the anterior 1/4th form a pattern in dense clusters around the calli, with heavy but distinct punctures across the rest of the pronotum. Scutellum long and slender, coarsely punctured, triangular gradually narrowing distally. The dark punctures on scutellum are so numerous that it appears darker than pronotum where punctures are well separated;

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Image 3a. Andrallus spinidens: close up of head and pronotum. Dorsal view showing lateral pronotal spines and impunctate pale line joining the two, crenulations of lateral border and pattern of black punctures near pronotal calli

Image 1. Andrallus spinidens, dorsal view. Note the typical colour pattern and dark punctures on ochraceous body

Image 2. Andrallus spinidens head, dorsal view showing a pattern of black punctures, large eyes and more or less elongated head

Image 3b. Andrallus spinidens: further close up of pronotum (dorsal view) showing lateral pronotal spine and coarse black punctures at its base along with short spine. Note also the crenulations of anterio-lateral border

a pale impunctate line extends from the centre of the apical region to the distal end of the scutellum (Image 4). Corium shows dense black punctures, appearing darker than pronotum, with a broad luteous stripe at the side all along its length. Hemelytral membrane smoky with darker parallel veins. The connexivum is dark brown to blackish, the external margins of which are narrowly pale. Ventrally, head is pale with coarse punctures; pro, meso and metasternum are densely punctured, punctures are black in the lateral region and light brown in the median region. A squarish area between fore and mid coxae is pale and impunctate. Sternum also with a median, longitudinal and flattish carina. All legs are pubescent with very fine white hairs (Image 5). All

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Pentatomidae bugs from Chandoli

Image 5. Andrallus spinidens: ventral view of anterior region showing robust rostrum and hairy legs

Image 4. Andrallus spinidens: scutellum close up showing relatively dark coarse punctures in basal area and clear central line as well as an apical colorless area with punctures

legs have femora and tibia pale yellow colored, while the tarsal segments are dark blackish-green, ventrally femora coarsely punctured in all legs, anterior femora spineless. Abdomen coarsely punctured with a series of dark median spots in the anterior most part of each abdominal segment. Some spots elongate and extend as a broad line up to or beyond the segment, 2nd abdominal segment almost wholly covered with black punctures, spiracles and a series of lateral spots close to spiracles, also black (Image 6). The rostrum is relatively stout, four segmented, extends up to hindcoxae and is pale except at the tip which is black (see Image 5). Specimen examined: November 2010, one, coll. Y. Koli. The total length of the studied specimen is 16.5mm (head to tip of the membrane), 14mm (head to end of the body), and breadth between pronotal spines is 8.5mm. There is only a single species described and illustrated under the genus Audinetia in Distant (1902). It is also easily recognizable because of its 2526

Image 6. Andrallus spinidens: abdomen (ventral view) showing characteristic pattern of black coloration and coarse punctures.

typical dorsal colouration. It is a carnivorous bug and a well known biological control agent, especially on lepidopteran larvae (Manley 1982). The other bug Sabaeus humeralis (Fig. 7) (Pentatomidae: Pentatominae) can be diagnosed due to the following characters: body obovate, thickly and coarsely punctuate; color dark or olivaceous green and shining on most parts of the body; head inclined and narrowed anteriorly, with sinuate lateral margins, lateral and median lobes of almost equal length. Lateral lobes of head and a small area behind each lateral spine, reddish-ochraceous, a fine black line borders the outer margin of the lateral lobes while the

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Image 8a. Sabaeus humeralis: head, dorsal view showing reddish-ochraceous lateral lobes, separated from central lobe, by black lines

Image 7. Sabaeus humeralis, dorsal view.

median lobe is distinguished from the lateral lobes by distinct black lines that extend in length behind up to an imaginary line joining median point of the eyes. The dorsal side of the head is transversly striated. A fine vertical line of black punctures is present on the inner side of each ocellus, with a short oblique line of black punctures in front of each ocellus (Image 8a). Antennae are dark green, with 3rd, 4th and 5th segments distinctly darker with basal parts pale greenish. The 1st antennal segment reaches the tip of the head. Pronotum obliquely deflected anteriorly, with spinelike, produced lateral angles (Image 8b). Anterior 1/4th region of pronotum distinctly pale green, strongly contrasting with rest of pronotum ground colouration, the pale green colour extending along the median lobe of the head (see Image 8b). Many punctures on pronotum, especially on lateral spines and some

Image 8b. Frontal view of Sabaeus humeralis showing details of pronotum

parts of scutellum, are dark black. The area between punctures shining green, almost like beetle elytra. Spines of the lateral pronotal angles are green with black tips and possess a reddish ochraceous spot at the posterior margin (Image 9). Ventrally these spines are smooth, pale green and with black tips (Image 10). Scutellum narrowed towards apex. Corium dark green, hemelytral membrane translucent pale green. Ventral side is light green in lateral parts, pale cream in the median region, especially in abdominal area. Legs are pale green. Fine, sparse punctures are present on some parts of the sternum. Mesosternum distinctly carinate. Rostrum green, except the tip which is black, reaching beyond the 2nd abdominal segment. Tips of the posterior angles of each abdominal segment dark black and produced as a minute spine (Image 11). A short, obtuse ventral abdominal spine is present on II

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Image 9. Sabaeus humeralis: close up of pronotal angle (dorsal view) showing dark punctures between shining green area with reddish ochraceous spot on posterior margin

abdominal sternite. Specimen examined: November 2010, one, coll. Y. Koli. The total length of the studied specimen is 17.5mm (from head to tip of the membrane and 16mm to the tip of abdomen) and breadth between pronotal spines is 15mm. The species Sabaeus humeralis is the only species described in Distant’s Fauna (1902). According to Distant, the bug is known from Assam and also from Burma (now Myanmar), extending east to China and this find represents a significant southwesterly addition to its known range in India. It appears that these two species are an addition to the known species of Pentatomidae from Maharashtra, at least on the basis of distribution given by Distant (1902). We are not aware of any previous, published checklist/specific surveys for Pentatomidae of Maharashtra. We feel that extensive surveys and taxonomical works on bugs in Maharashtra are likely to add further to the known number of Pentatomidae species. We hope that the digital images of the prominent characters, provided with this note, will help any naturalist in identifying these bugs.

References

Image 10. Sabaeus humeralis: close up of pronotal spine (ventral view) with black tip

Image 11. Ventral view of Sabaeus humeralis abdomen showing the spiny tips at the posterior angle of each segment

Ceylon and Burma - Rhynchota—Volume 1 (Heteroptera). Taylor and Francis, London, 438pp. (Indian Reprint Today and Tomorrows Printers and Publishers New Delhi 1977). Manley, G.V. (1982). Biology and life history of the rice field predator Andrallus spinidens F. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Entomological News 93: 19–24. Pericart, J. (2010). Hemipteres Pentatomoidea Euro Mediterraneens 3: Podopinae et Asopinae. Faune de France 93. Federation Francaise des Societes de Sciences Naturelles, Paris, 291pp. Thomas, D.B. (1992). Taxonomic Synopsis of The Asopine Pentatomidae (Heteroptera) of The Western Hemisphere. Thomas Say Monograph 16, Maryland, 156pp. Thomas, D.B. (1994). Taxonomic synopsis of the Old World asopine genera (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Insecta Mundi 8(3–4): 145–212.

Distant, W.L. (1902). The Fauna of British India including 2528

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JoTT Note

Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata: Insecta) of Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, central India Ashish D. Tiple 1, Sanjay Paunikar 2 & S.S. Talmale 3 Forest Entomology Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482021, India 1 Deparment of Zoology, Vidyabharati college Seloo, Wardha, Maharashtra 442104, India. 3 Zoological Survey of India, Vijay Nagar, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482002, India Email: 1 ashishdtiple@yahoo.co.in (corresponding author), 2 sdpaunikar@gmail.com, 3 s_talmale@yahoo.co.in 1,2

The Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI), Jabalpur, is one of the nine institutes under the Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education. It lies on the bank of the Gour River on Mandla Road (79059’23.500E & 21008’54.300N) about 10km south east of Jabalpur. The campus is spread over an area of 1.09km2 amidst picturesque surroundings. The area enjoys a semi-arid type of climate with a mean annual precipitation of 1358mm (Image 1). The campus is surrounded by agricultural fields with rural inhabitation. The water reservoir and the vegetation planted around the institute have created

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: K.A. Subramanian Manuscript details: Ms # o2657 Received 23 December 2010 Final received 18 February 2012 Finally accepted 05 March 2012 Citation: Tiple A.D., S. Paunikar & S.S. Talmale (2012). Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata: Insecta) of Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, central India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2529–2533. Copyright: © Ashish D. Tiple, Sanjay Paunikar & S.S. Talmale 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to the Dr. K. A. Subramanian, Zoological Survey of India, Pune for critical identification of odonates and valuable suggestion. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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a very good habitat and source of attraction for many faunal species like insects, reptiles, birds and mammals. The damselflies (Zygoptera) and dragonflies (Anisoptera) are amphibiotic insects, which belong to the order Odonata. They spend a major part of their life cycle in fresh water ecosystem. The adults are generally predacious insects, while the larvae are carnivorus and voracious. Even though the species are usually highly specific to a habitat, some have adapted to urbanization and use man-made water bodies. Being primarily aquatic, their life history is closely linked to specific aquatic habitats (Andrew et al. 2009). Dragonflies mostly occur in the vicinity of different freshwater habitats like rivers, streams, marshes, lakes and even small pools and rice fields. Odonates are good indicators of environmental changes as they are sensitive to changes in the habitats, atmospheric temperature and the weather conditions. They are biocontrol agents, many species of odonates inhabiting agro ecosystems play a crucial role controlling pest populations (Tiple et al. 2008). Fraser (1933–1936) published three volumes on Odonata in the ‘Fauna of British India’ including 536 species and subspecies of Odonata from India with many species from Madhya Pradesh (MP) and from Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. After Fraser’s work, some additions were made to MP, India by Bhasin (1953), Kumar & Prasad (1978) and Mitra (1988) reported 39 species of Odonata from central India. Mitra (1995) while working on Odonata of Indravati Tiger Reserve added nine more species bringing the number of species to 48. Prasad & Varshney (1995) published a checklist of the Indian odonates, including updated data on larval studies of all the known species. Srivastava & Babu (1997) studied the damselflies of Sagar. Mishra (2007) studied the Odonata of Madhya Pradesh and described a total of 70 species belonging to 40 genera and nine families distributed in different localities. But no published checklist of different species of Odonata of TFRI campus is known hence, the present work was initiated. Materials and Methods: The odonates were collected from the Gour River, gardens, temporary and permanent flowing or still water bodies of TFRI

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Odonata of TFRI Jabalpur

A.D. Tiple et.al.

Image 1. Satellite overview map of study locality at the Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur. Source: Google Earth

campus. A biweekly survey was undertaken from 2009–2010 during the monsoon and post monsoon (July–August) periods. The adult specimens were identified with the help of identification keys provided by Fraser (1933, 1934, 1936), Mitra (2006), Subramanian (2005), Andrew et al. (2009), and Subramanian (2009). The odonates were categorized on the basis of their abundance in TFRI campus VC very common (> 100 sightings), C - common (50–100 sightings), R - rare (2–15 sightings), VR - very rare (< 2 sightings) (Tiple et al. 2008). Results and Discussion: A total of 48 species of odonates belonging to 32 genera of two suborders and nine families viz., Coenagrionidae, Protoneuridae, Platycnemididae, Lestidae, Chlorocyphidae, Aeshnidae, Gomphidae, Libellulidae and Macromiidae were recorded Among them, eight previously unrecorded species were included in the check list of Madhya Pradesh. Of the total 48 species 15 were very common, 15 were common, 16 rare and two very rare in occurrence. Most odonates recorded belong to the Libellulidae 2530

(20 species) with one new record (i.e., Orthetrum luzonicum) (Image 2). Coenagrionidae (13) species were recorded with one new record (Agriocnemis femina) (Image 3). The family Gomphidae includes three species with one new record (i. e. Macrogomphus annulatus) (Image 4). Aeshnidae (four) species were recorded with two new records (i.e., Anax immaculifrons (Image 5), Hemianax ephippiger (Image 6)). Only two species were recorded from the Protoneuridae, Lestidae. Family Platycnemididae, Chlorocyphidae and Macromiidae (with one new record, Epophthalmia vittata Image 7) recorded one species respectively from Madhya Pradesh. The list of odonates along with their scientific names and their status is provided in Table 1. So far, the occurrences of 70 species of odonates were reported under 40 genera and nine families from Madhya Pradesh (Mishra 2007). The present observation indicates good diversity of Odonata in the Tropical Forest Research Institute by having about 70% of the reported species from Madhya Pradesh. India harbors 463 species/subspecies of Odonata

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Odonata of TFRI Jabalpur

Image 3. Agriocnemis femina Image 2. Orthetrum luzonicum

Image 5. Anax immaculifrons

Image 4. Macrogomphus annulatus

Image 7. Epophthalmia vittata

Image 6. Hemianax ephippiger

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Odonata of TFRI Jabalpur

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Table 1. List of Odonata recorded from the Tropical Forest Research Institute campus, Jabalpur. Name

Status

Zygoptera (Damselflies)

Name 23

Coenagrionidae 1

Aciagrion pallidum Selys, 1891

Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur, 1842)

Hemianax ephippiger (Burmeister, 1839)*

Ictinogomphus rapax (Rambur, 1842)

Macrogomphus annulatus (Selys,1854)*

Paragomphus lineatus (Selys,1850)

Agriocnemis femina (Brauer, 1868)*

Agriocnemis pieris Laidlaw,1919

Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius, 1798)

Acisoma panorpoides (Rambur, 1842)

Enallagma parvum Selys, 1876

Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius,1793)

Ischnura aurora (Brauer, 1865) Ischnura senegalensis (Rambur, 1842)

Gomphidae

Status

Libellulidae C VC

Bradinopyga geminata (Rambur, 1842)

Crocothemis servilia (Drury, 1770)

VC VC

Pseudagrion decorum (Rambur, 1842)

Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur,1842)

Pseudagrion microcephalum (Rambur, 1842)

Neurothemis intermedia (Rambur, 1842)

Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys, 1876

Neurothemis tullia (Drury, 1773)

Pseudagrion spencei Fraser, 1922 (Image 8)

Orthetrum glaucum (Brauer, 1865)

Rhodischnura nursei (Morton,1907)

Orthetrum luzonicum (Brauer, 1868)*

Protoneuridae

R VR

Orthetrum pruinosum (Burmeister,1839)

Disparoneura quadrimaculata (Rambur,1842)

Orthetrum sabina (Drury, 1770)

Prodasineura verticalis (Selys,1860)

Orthetrum taeniolatum (Schneider,1845)

Pantala flavescens (Fabricius, 1798)

Platycnemididae 16

Copera marginipes (Rambur, 1842)

Potamarcha congener (Rambur, 1842)

Rhyothemis variegata (Linnaeus, 1763)

Tholymis tillarga (Fabricius, 1798)

Tramea basilaris (Palisot de Beauvois, 1805)

Trithemis aurora (Burmeister, 1839)

VC VC

Lestidae 17

Lestes umbrinus Selys,1891

Lestes elatus (Hagen in Selys,1862) Chlorocyphidae

Libellago lineata indica (Fraser, 1928)

Anisoptera (Dragonflies) Aeshnidae 20

Anax guttatus (Burmeister, 1839)

Anax immaculifrons Rambur, 1842*

Gynacantha bayadera Selys,1891

Imge 8. Pseudagrion spencei

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C VC

Trithemis festiva (Rambur, 1842)

Trithemis kirbyi Selys, 1891

Trithemis pallidinervis (Kirby, 1889)

R VC

Macromiidae 48

Epophthalmia vittata Burmeister,1839*

VC - very common; C - common; R - rare; VR- very rare; * - new report

belonging to 140 genera under 19 families (Subramanian 2009). Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh states present 70 species of the entire Odonata diversity of India, which has now increased from 70–76 species. The TFRI campus seems to have a rich odonate diversity of 48 species in a small area (1.09km2), probably due to its establishment on the bank of the river Gaur along with the dense shrub and tree vegetation, providing a major attraction to the Odonata species. The observations recorded in the present study may prove valuable as a reference for assessing the changes due to the environmental conditions in the locality, in future. The findings of the present study Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | April 2012 | 4(4): 2529–2533

Odonata of TFRI Jabalpur

underline the importance of institutional estates in providing preferred abodes for dragonfly and damselfly. Continuous exploration in TFRI campus region could add many more new species from the region.

REFERENCES Andrew, R.J., K.A. Subramaniam & A.D. Tiple (2009). A Handbook on Common Odonates of Central India. South Asian Council of Odonatology, 65pp. Bhasin, G.D. (1953). A systematic catalogue of main identified collection at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Drun. Pt. 12. Order Odonata. Indian Forest Leaflet 121(3): 63–78. Fraser, F.C. (1933). Fauna of British India Odonata 1. Taylor and Francis Ltd. London, 423pp. Fraser, F.C. (1934). Fauna of British India Odonata 2. Taylor and Francis Ltd. London, 398pp. Fraser, F.C. (1936). Fauna of British India Odonata 3. Taylor and Francis Ltd. London, 461pp. Kumar, A. & M. Prasad (1978). On a new species of Agriocnemis Selys, 1869 (Coenagriidae: Odonata) with description of its larva from Dehra Dun Valley, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 75(1): 174–179. Mishra, S.K. (2007). Fauna of Madhaya Pradesh (Odonata:

A.D. Tiple et.al.

Insecta). State Fauna Series, Zoological Survey of India (Kolkata) 15(1) : 245–272. Mitra, T.R. (1988). Note on the odonata fauna of Central India. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 83: 69–81. Mitra, T.R. (1995). Insecta: Odonata including a new species from Central India, pp. 31–34. In: Fauna of Indravati Tiger Reserve. Fauna of Conservation Areas, Zoological Survey of India, 117pp. Mitra, T.R. (2006). Handbook of Common Indian Dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata). Zoological Survey of India, 124pp. Prasad, M. & R.K. Varshney (1995). A checklist of the Odonata of India including data on larval studies. Oriental Insects 29: 385–428. Srivastava, V.K. & B.S. Babu (1997). Annotations on the Damselfly collection from Sagar, Central India. Fraseria 4: 13–15. Subramanian, K.A. (2005). Damselflies and dragonflies of peninsular India-A field Guide. E-book of the Project Lifescape. Indian Academy of Sciences and Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, 118pp. Subramanian, K.A. (2009). A Checklist of Odonata of India. Zoological Survey of India, 36pp. Tiple, A.D., A.M. Khurad & R.J. Andrew (2008). Species Diversity of Odonata in and around Nagpur City, Central India. Fraseria (Proceeding of the 18th International Symposium of Odonatology, Nagpur) 7: 41–45

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JoTT Note

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Sighting of Aglais cashmirensis aesis Fruhstorfer, 1912 (Nymphalidae) from Nagaland, India Tshetsholo Naro North East Network, P.O. Chizami, Phek District, Nagaland, 797102, India Email: tshetsholo@gmail.com

The butterflies of Nagaland are not well known. Some early studies of butterflies of the Naga Hills include the work of Tytler (1915). Subsequently, Tytler (1940) also published records of butterflies from neighbouring Burma. Here, I report the presence of Aglais cashmirensis aesis Fruhstorfer from Nagaland, extending its known range. Since January 2011, I have been observing and photographing butterflies in and around Chizami (25024’0’’N & 94024’0’’E; 981m) in the Phek District of Nagaland, 88km from the state capital, Kohima. The observations were opportunistic. The butterflies were photographed using digital cameras. The butterflies were identified using Kehimkar (2008) and Evans (1932) and the images were confirmed by Sanjay Sondhi, Titli Trust, Dehradun. Amongst the species

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Peter Smetacek Manuscript details: Ms # o3019 Received 23 November 2011 Final received 24 February 2012 Finally accepted 10 March 2012 Citation: Naro, T. (2012). Sighting of Aglais cashmirensis aesis Fruhstorfer, 1912 (Nymphalidae) from Nagaland, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2534–2535. Copyright: © Tshetsholo Naro 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: I would like to thank North East Network (NEN) for involving me in the nature conservation education programme. I offer my admiration and gratitude to Payal Bhojwani Molur, Maya Khosla and Rita Banerji for their relentless guidance and mentoring through the nature conservation education programme in Chizami Nagaland, which pulled me into the world of butterflies. Most of all, I am obliged to Sanjay Sondhi who taught me the intricacies of butterfly watching and identification and also helped me in drafting this manuscript. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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that were identified was the Indian Tortoiseshell Aglais cashmirensis aesis. Aglais cashmirensis aesis is the eastern subspecies of Aglais cashmirensis Kollar with a known distribution from Shimla (Himachal Pradesh) eastwards to western Arunachal Pradesh. Aglais cashmirensis cashmirensis is the western subspecies, which is known from Kulu (Himachal Pradesh) west to Pakistan. Aglais cashimirensis aesis is a resident of Chizami and is well established throughout the area. The butterfly was photographed on 16 June 2011 (Image 1). It is on the wing throughout the year and has been recorded in all months from March to October. It has been noted mainly on exotic garden flowers in open spaces, basking on rocks, the ground, or on roadsides. It can be seen flying close to the ground and is seen mostly on sunny days. Its larval food plant, Urtica species (Nettles) grows abundantly in the area. In recent literature, Kehimkar (2008) reported the easternmost distribution of Aglais cashmirensis as Sikkim. Haribal (1992) too, reported its presence in Sikkim. Older literature too, including Wynter-Blyth (1957) and Evans (1932), mention the easternmost distribution as Sikkim. More recently, Manari (2010) clarified that the range of Aglais cashmirensis actually extended further eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh and reported its presence in Rupa in western Arunachal Pradesh, noting that the presence of Aglais cashmirensis in that area had already been reported by Betts (1950) but had been overlooked by subsequent authors. Publications on butterflies by Tytler (1915), whose work covered the Naga Hills and Manipur does not report this species from the area. In their report on the butterflies of the Khasi and Jaintia hills, Parson & Cantlie (1948) state, “Although there is no reason why this species should not be found on the high plateau, we know of no record”. In more recent butterfly surveys in northeastern India including the South Garo Hills, Meghalaya (Sanjay Sondhi pers. comm. 07 July 2011), Namdapha Tiger Reserve in eastern Arunachal Pradesh (unpublished checklist Sanjay Sondhi) and the Dibang Dihang Biosphere Reserve (Borang 2008) from the higher elevations of central Arunachal Pradesh, there

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Aglais cashmirensis aesis from Nagaland

T. Naro

Image 1. Indian Tortoiseshell Aglais cashmirensis aesis photographed on 16 June 2011 at Chizami Village, Nagaland

have been no records of Aglais cashmirensis. Finally, there have been no records of this species from the neighboring countries of Bangladesh (Larsen 2004) and Myanmar (Tytler 1940; Kinyon 2004). The record of Aglais cashmirensis aesis from Chizami, Phek District, Nagaland extends its known range significantly eastwards from western Arunachal Pradesh. It is, however, surprising that there have been no reported sightings of this butterfly from the area between there and Nagaland, specifically eastern Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

REFERENCES Betts, F.N. (1950). On a collection of butterflies from the Balipara Frontier Tract and the Subansiri area (northern Assam). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 49(3): 488–502. Borang, A., B.B. Bhatt, M. Tamuk, A. Borkotoki & J. Kalita (2008). Butterflies of Dihang Dibang Biosphere Reserve of Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalayas, India. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research 24(1&2): 41–53.

Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian Butterflies— 2nd Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x+454pp+32pl. Manari, G. (2010). On the presence of Aglais cashmirensis Kollar (Nymphalidae) and Heliophorus sena Kollar (Lycaenidae) in Rupa, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(9): 1165–1166. Haribal, M. (1992). The Butterflies of The Sikkim Himalaya and Their Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation, Gangtok, 217pp. Kehimkar, I. (2008). The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, New Delhi, xvi+497pp. Larsen, T.B. (2004). Butterflies of Bangladesh - An Annotated Checklist. IUCN, Bangladesh, 158pp+8 colour pls. Tytler, H.C. (1915). Notes on some new and interesting butterflies from Manipur and the Naga Hills—Part II. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 23: 502– 515+4pls. Tytler, H.C. (1940). Notes on some new and interesting butterflies chiefly from Burma. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 42: 109–123. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957). Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, xx+523pp+72pl.

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JoTT Note

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Record of the Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Squamata: Sauria: Gekkonidae) from the Andaman Islands, India S.R. Chandramouli 1, S. Harikrishnan 2 & Karthikeyan Vasudevan 3 1,2,3 Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box # 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248001, India Email: 1 findthesnakeman@gmail.com, 2 s.harikrishnan09@gmail. com, 3 karthik@wii.gov.in (corresponding author),

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated in the Bay of Bengal. The Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands are separated by a deep channel called the Ten Degree Channel that also divides them into two distinct zoogeographical zones (Rodgers & Panwar 1998). Herpetofaunal affinities of the two island groups have been discussed and in general, it is concluded that the Andamans are more allied to the Indo-Chinese region, while the Nicobars show a greater affinity to the Sundas (Das 1999). The family Gekkonidae is represented in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago by eight and nine species respectively, with three and two species being endemic to each of the two

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: C. Srinivasulu Manuscript details: Ms # o2856 Received 30 June 2011 Final received 23 September 2011 Finally accepted 08 March 2012 Citation: Chandramouli, S.R., S. Harikrishnan & K. Vasudevan (2012). Record of the Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Squamata: Sauria: Gekkonidae) from the Andaman Islands, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2536–2538. Copyright: © S.R. Chandramouli, S. Harikrishnan & Karthikeyan Vasudevan 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: We would like to thank the Department of Forests and Wildlife, Andaman and Nicobar Islands for permission to conduct herpetofaunal surveys in these Islands. We especially thank the Divisional Forest Officer, Middle Andaman and the Range Forest Officer, Long Island, for their support. We thank India’s Department of Science and Technology Science and Engineering Council Projects Appraisal Committee on Life Sciences, for providing funds for this study. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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island groups respectively (Das & Vijayakumar 2009; Harikrishnan et al. 2010). Herewith, we report and confirm the occurrence of Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus typus in the Andaman Islands based on freshly collected specimen during recent herpetofaunal surveys conducted as a part of an ongoing study. Hemiphyllodactylus typus Bleeker, 1860 Two specimens each from two localities, namely Long Island (12.370N & 92.920E; 35m) in the Middle Andaman and Mt. Harriet National Park (c.a. 11.420N & 92.430E; 300m) in the South Andaman, were collected. The specimens HC003 (ZSI 6485-3) and HC058 (ZSI 6485-1) from Long Island (Image 1) were found inside an old building adjacent to a forest. One of the Mt. Harriet specimens HC059 (ZSI 6485-2) was found inside the forest guest house while the other HC060 (ZSI 6485-4) was found outside a cottage. This area is surrounded by primary evergreen forests. We assign these geckos to the nominate species based on the following characters: body depressed, slender and elongate; the first digit in fingers and toes rudimentary and lacking claws, no distinct post-mentals, mental triangular, almost as broad as deep, dorsum smooth, lacking tuberculation, ventral scales smooth and imbricate. Body pale brown, with dark brown irregular streaks on the trunk and paravertebral bright orange spots, tail bright orange coloured ventrally. One of our samples (SVL 39.65mm) HC058 (ZSI 6485-1) was a gravid female and laid two eggs, which measured 7.29×6.02 mm and 7.3×5.81 mm. Another specimen HC059 (ZSI6458-2) measuring 35.9mm SVL had 11 enlarged pre-anal scales with pores arranged in an angular series, and three femoral pores on each thigh that are separated from the pre-anal series. There were two rounded cloacal spurs on each side. The summary of characters and measurements of the four specimens are given in Table 1. The specimens are presently housed at the collections of Wildlife Institute of India, to be deposited at National Zoological; Collection at Zoological Survey of India, Port Blair. HC003 (ZSI 6485-3), HC058 (ZSI 6485-1), HC059 (ZSI6458-2) and HC060 (ZSI 6485-4) are the WII field tag numbers which will be retained even upon deposition at ZSI. Systematics of Hemiphyllodactylus typus was

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Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko

S.R. Chandramouli et al.

image 1. Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus typus Bleeker, 1860 (HC 058) in life from Long Island, Middle Andaman, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

Table 1. Meristic and metric characters of four specimens of Hemiphyllodactylus typus from the Andaman Islands. (All measurements in mm) HC058 (ZSI 6485-1)

HC059 (ZSI 6485-2)

HC 003 (ZSI 6485-3)

HC060 (ZSI 6485-4)

Snout-vent length

39.65

35.90

41.52

34.40

Axilla-groin distance

19.26

17.84

20.39

17.65

Tail length

31.0

26.64

6.24*

17.44*

Head length

6.46

5.73

6.24

5.52

Head width

5.77

5.15

5.64

4.45

Head depth

3.08

3.12

3.37

2.76

Eye diameter

1.90

2.02

2.12

1.53

Eye to nostril

2.50

2.35

2.83

2.25

Eye to snout

3.03

3.15

3.60

2.88

Character

Eye to tympanum

2.73

2.92

3.32

2.90

Supralabials (L, R)

10,10

11,12

10,10

Infralabials (L, R)

9,9

10,9

9,10

9,9

Subdigital lamellae under 4th finger (L, R)

4,4

3,3

4,4

3,3

Subdigital lamellae under 4th toe (L, R)

5,4

4,4

4,3

* - tail incomplete

elaborately discussed by Bauer & Das (1999), who concluded that H. typus is a distinct species composed of a parthenogenetic population. They considered that H. aurantiacus deserved specific distinction from

H. typus based on the reduced number of subdigital lamellae under the 4th toe, reduced number of presacral vertebrae and distinguishable bisexuality in the former species. Also, they remarked that the Sundan population of H. typus was not adequately sampled to be considered unisexual. Literature based on field surveys conducted in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago have not reported this species from any other island except Great Nicobar, which is the southernmost island of the archipelago (Biswas & Sanyal 1980; Das 1999; Vijayakumar 2005). Further, Das (2002) reported it to be recorded from “the Andaman Islands of India, besides Sri Lanka, Thailand, the Malay peninsula, Borneo….” excluding the Nicobars. This was also reiterated by Javed et al. (2010). Somaweera & Somaweera (2009) reported its range from “Bali, Borneo……India….. Nicobar Islands….”, but did not include the Andaman Islands. Zug (2010) in his extensive review of Hemiphyllodactylus redefined H. typus, and did not include the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the geographic range of the species. Elsewhere, in the same publication, he lists Great Nicobar Island as a locality record based on the report of Biswas & Sanyal (1980). Considering this, our observations and samples from two different localities in the Andamans support the earlier report of this species from this region by Das (2002). Since all

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the specimens were found in or close to buildings, the possibility of human introduction into the islands as speculated by Das (1999) cannot be ruled out. In our ongoing surveys we are yet to record this species in primary undisturbed forest. REFERENCES Bauer, A.M. & I. Das (1999). The systematic status of the endemic south Indian Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus aurantiacus (Beddome, 1870). Journal of South Asian Natural History 4: 213–218. Biswas, S. & D.P. Sanyal (1980). A report on the reptilian fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the collection of Zoological Survey of India. Records of Zoological Survey of India 77: 255–292. Das, I. (1999). Biogeography of the amphibians and reptiles of the Andaman and NicobarIslands, India, pp. 43–77. In: Ota, H. (ed). Tropical Island herpetofauna. Origin, Current Diversity and Current Status. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 353pp. Das, I. (2002). A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of India. New Holland Publishers, UK, 144pp. Das, I. & S.P. Vijayakumar (2009). New species of Ptychozoon (Sauria: Gekkonidae) from the Nicobar Archipelago, Indian Ocean. Zootaxa 2095: 8–20.

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Harikrishnan, S., K. Vasudevan & B.C. Choudhury (2010). A review of herpetofaunal species description, and studies from the Andaman and Nicobar islands with an updated checklist, pp. 387–398. In: Ramakrishna, C. Raghunathan & C. Sivaperuman (eds.). Recent Trends in Biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 542pp. Javed, S.M.M., K.T. Rao, C. Srinivasulu & F. Tampal (2010). Distribution of Hemiphyllodactylus aurantiacus (Beddome, 1870) (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) in Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(1): 639–643. Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1998). Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. A report prepared for the Department of Environment, Forests & Wildlife, Government of India at Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. Somaweera, R. & N. Somaweera (2009). Lizards of Sri Lanka - A Color Guide With Field Keys. Edition Chimaria, Frankfurt Contributions to Natural History, Vol. 43. Frankfurt Am Main, 303pp. Vijayakumar, S.P. (2005). Status and distribution of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Nicobar Islands, India. Final Report. Rufford Foundation/Madras Crocodile Bank/ Wildlife Institute of India, 48pp. Zug, G. (2010). Speciation and dispersal in a low diversity taxon: the slender geckos Hemiphyllodactylus (Reptilia, Gekkonidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 631: 1–85.

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JoTT Note

Fish feeding adaptation by Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Cercopithecidae) in the Sundarban mangrove swamps, India Joydeb Majumder 1, Rahul Lodh 2 & B.K. Agarwala 3 1,2,3 Ecology & biodiversity laboratories, Department of Zoology, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, west Tripura 799022, India Email: 1 jmtugemo@gmail.com, 2 samurah@gmail.com, 3 bagarwala00@gmail.com (corresponding author)

Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Cercopithecidae), an old world monkey, is one of the most common primate species found in both forested and human habitation areas. It is diurnal, mostly terrestrial and lives in large multi-male groups. Four subspecies, namely M. mulatta mulatta (Zimmermann), M. m. mcmahoni (Pocock), M. m. vestita (MilneEdwards), and M. m. villosa (True) (Gupta 2001) are reported. It is assessed as Least Concern by IUCN (Timmins et al. 2008). Rhesus Macaques are food generalists and mostly feed on the ground (Gupta 2001). However, forest groups tend to be somewhat more arboreal than nonforest groups. In the tidal swamp forests of the Sundarbans, M. mulatta rarely Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

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descend from the trees (Mandal 1964; Mukherjee & Gupta 1965). The natural diet of M. mulatta is primarily vegetarian and includes fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, buds, shoots, twigs, stems, roots, bark, pith, and resin of hundreds of species of angiosperms, gymnosperms, and fungi (Fooden 2000) showing considerable geographical variations (Goldstein & Richard 1989). Lindburg (1971) reported from Dehradun that Rhesus Macaques are largely frugivorous, but occasionally ate termites, grasshoppers, ants, and beetles. Makwana (1979), however, observed that animal food was eaten more often and regularly in Asarori forest and Malik (1983) had observed these monkeys eating bird eggs in Tughlaqabad. Other known animal foods include spiders, crayfish, crabs, shellfish, and honeycombs (Fooden 2000). Rhesus Macaques studied in the Sundarbans fed on mangrove leaves, fruits, molluscs, and crabs (Mandal 1964). During a trip to the Sundarban mangrove forests in February 2011, we sighted an adult male Rhesus Macaque walking to the bank of estuarine water and catching live fish and eating it (Image 1). The rest of the members of the troop observed it from a distance for about 10 minutes and then two other members of the troop followed the act of the first adult and were successful. This observation on M. mulatta suggests that this species is able to feed on a variety of food available to them and, thus, show their high degree of adaptability to a variety of food sources on trees, on

Editor: Mewa Singh Manuscript details: Ms # o2884 Received 22 July 2011 Final received 10 October 2011 Finally accepted 18 February 2012

Citation: Majumder, J., R. Lodh & B.K. Agarwala (2012). Fish feeding adaptation by Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Cercopithecidae) in the Sundarban mangrove swamps, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2539–2540. Copyright: © Joydeb Majumder, Rahul Lodh & B.K. Agarwala 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: We are very thankful to Department of CORAL, IIT Kharagpur and entire organizing team of BDCC, 2010 for arranging such a scientific tour to the Sundarban mangrove forest, West Bengal, and we also thankful to forest department of West Bengal for providing us access to the different core areas of Sundarban mangrove forest. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

Image 1. Male Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta feeding on a fish.

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the ground and in water. Macaques in the coastal forest rely more heavily on high-quality fruits/seeds, which are limited resources but fruit production per tree is higher in the coastal forest (Hanya et al. 2003). As a result, both the population and group density of macaques is about three times higher in the coastal forest (Hanya et al. 2004). As a consequence, there are within and between-group contests for limited food in coastal forests (van Schaik 1989). This could have promoted adaptation to aquatic food in Rhesus Macaques in the Sundarban mangrove swamps.

REFERENCES Fooden, J. (2000). Systematic Review of the Rhesus Macaque, Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann 1780). Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, USA, 180pp. Goldstein, S.J. & A.F. Richard (1989). Ecology of Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) in north-west Pakistan. International Journal of Primatology 10: 531–567. Gupta, A.K. (2001). Status of primates in Tripura, Envis Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas 1(1): 127–135. Hanya, G., N. Noma & N. Agetsuma (2003). Altitudinal and seasonal variations in the diet of Japanese macaques in Yakushima. Primate 44: 51–59. Hanya, G., S. Yoshihiro, K. Zamma, H. Matsubara, M. Ohtake, R. Kubo, N. Noma, N. Agetsuma & Y. Takahata

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(2004). Environmental determinants of the altitudinal variations in relative group densities of Japanese macaques on Yakushima. Ecological Research 19: 485–493. Lindburg, D.G. (eds.) (1971). The Rhesus Monkeys in north India: an ecological and behavioural study, pp. 83–104. In: Rosenblum, L.A. (ed.) Primate Behaviour: Developments in The Field and laboratory Research. Academic Press, New York. Mandal, A.K. (1964). The behaviour of the Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca inulatta Zimmermann) in the Sundarbans. Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society 33: 153–165. Makwana, S.C. (1979). Field ecology and behaviour of the Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta): II. Food, feeding and drinking in Dehradun forests. Indian Journal of Forestry 2: 242–253. Malik, I. (1983). A study of selected behavioural traits of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in free-ranging environments. PhD Thesis. University of Meerut. Mukherjee, A.K. & S. Gupta (1965). Habits of the Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) in the Sunderbans, 24-Parganas, West Bengal. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 62: 145–146. Timmins, R.J., M. Richardson, A. Chhangani & L. Yongcheng (2008). Macaca mulatta. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www. iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 13 April 2012. van Schaik, C.P. (eds.) (1989). The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates, pp. 195–218. In: Standen, V. & R.A. Folley. Comparative Socioecology, Blackwell, Oxford.

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JoTT Note

Tuberculosis in non-human primates of Assam: use of PrimaTB STAT-PAK Assay for detection of tuberculosis Bichitra Gopal Nath 1, Apurba Chakraborty 2 & Taibur Rahman 3 Research Associate,ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Sikkim 737102, India 2 Director of Research (Veterinary), 3 Professor, Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam 781022, India Email: 1 drbichitra.nath@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 drapurba2@gmail.com, 3 drtaibur.rahman@gmail.com 1

Tuberculosis (TB) is an important bacterial disease of non-human primates and remains a serious threat to the health of captive non-human primates as well as their animal keepers. The danger of this disease lies in its frequency of occurrence, its ability to spread rapidly, its high mortality rates and zoonotic potential (Garcia et al. 2004a; Vervenne et al. 2004). Tuberculosis in nonhuman primates is caused by the same organisms that are responsible for tuberculosis in humans (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and cattle (Mycobacterium bovis) (Capuano et al. 2003; Flynn et al. 2003). The study also screened three free ranging nonhuman primates of Kaziranga National Park for TB Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Ulrike Streicher Manuscript details: Ms # o2860 Received 02 July 2011 Final received 05 January 2012 Finally accepted 13 February 2012 Citation: Nath, B.G., A. Chakraborty & T. Rahman (2012). Tuberculosis in non-human primates of Assam: use of PrimaTB STAT-PAK Assay for detection of tuberculosis. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2541–2544. Copyright: © Bichitra Gopal Nath, Apurba Chakraborty & Taibur Rahman 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: The authors are grateful to Dr. Prasanta Boro (Veterinary Officer), WTI for providing the serum samples and the authority of Assam State Zoo and Department of Forest and Environment, Govt. of Assam for the materials and the Head, Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara for providing the facilities. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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by using Prima TB STAT-PAK Assay kit. PrimaTB STAT-PAK is based on lateral flow technology, a simple screening assay with highly sensitive and highly specific results. It is an easy-to-perform disposable kit which can use serum, plasma, or fresh whole-blood samples to provide yes or no results within 15 to 20 minutes. The complete test is easy and convenient to administer, and is less traumatic to the animals. When used alone or in combination with tuberculin skin testing, Prima TB STAT-PAK helps reduce TB transmission. Materials and methods: A total of 27 carcasses of non-human primates of Assam State Zoo and Department of Forest and Environment, Government of Assam were studied from December 2007 to November 2009. The authority of zoo and forest department had submitted the carcasses to the Pathology Department, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara for necropsy to determine the cause of death. Postmortem examinations were conducted, the gross lesions were recorded and tissue samples were preserved in 10% formaldehyde and then processed and stained by routine pathohistological methods with haematoxyline and eosin. From the affected organs, duplicate sections were also stained with special techniques such as Brown and Brenn, Ziehl-Neelsen and modified Periodic Acid Schiff. Smears were prepared from the caseous material inside the tuberculous structures and were also stained by Ziehl-Neelsen’s technique. Three serum samples were collected from free ranging non-human primates of Kaziranga National Park. These animals were found injured and had been caught and tranquilized for treatment by the assistants of Wildlife Trust of India (WTI). Blood/serum samples were collected from these animals for different diagnostic tests. Those three serum samples were tested for TB by using Prima TB STAT-PAK Assay kit. This ready-to-use assay includes a disposable plastic device. A unique cocktail of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis antigens combine with blue latex beads that adhere to the sample if the antibody is present. A blue band will be visible in the Test (T) window signaling a reactive result. A blue band in the Control (C) window indicates a valid test. No band will appear in the Test (T) window if the results are

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Image 1. Liver showing tuberculus lesion

Image 2. Spleen showing tuberculus lesion

Image 3. Photomicrograph of liver showing tuberculus granuloma H&E X 100.

Image 4. Photomicrograph of liver showing giant cell H&E X 400

non-reactive. Result: Off the 27 non-human primate carcasses examined, six were found to be positive for tuberculosis. Macroscopic tuberculous lesions were seen in the liver (Image 1), lungs and spleen (Image 2). The other organs like lymph nodes and kidneys also showed lesions but to a lesser degree. The lesion consisted of numerous yellowish-white nodules of varying size ranging from 1 to 10 mm in diameter. Incision of the nodular growth revealed thick caseous material, which contained numerous acid fast organisms. Microscopically, the liver showed multiple tuberculous granuloma (Image 3) distributed throughout the hepatic parenchyma. The granulomes were characterized by cellular debris surrounded by macrophages, epitheloid cells and giant cells (Image 4) with mild proliferation of connective tissue. The interlobular septa were thickened with

fibrinous exudates along with neutrophils. In the lung parenchyma tuberculous granuloma showed a central area of necrosis with cellular debris surrounded by a large number of epitheloid cells, lymphocytes and Langhan’s giant cells encapsulated by connective tissue. The spleen showed a central large area of necrosis with cellular debris surrounded by a large number of epitheloid cells, Langhan’s giant cells and lymphocytes surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Small acid fast organisms were found in the cytoplasm or in the epitheloid cells of the affected organs. PrimaTB STAT-PAK Assay for detection of Tuberculosis: All three samples showed negative result (Image 5) indicating the serum did not have antibodies to Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis.

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Tuberculosis in non-human primates

Image 5. Negative result in the PrimaTB STAT-PAK Assay for detection of antibodies to Mycobacterium spp. (note: absence of any band in the‘T’ region)

Discussion: Tuberculosis is a common and a major cause of death in non-human primates (Goswami 1994; Goswami & Chakraborty 1996; Martino et al. 2007). The macroscopic and histopathological alterations found in this study were similar to those described by the other researchers. The postmortal study confirmed the earlier report that tuberculosis is widely spread in captive animals and therefore a matter of concern. In the present study, as only carcasses were supplied to the department of pathology, so we did not get the chance to detect TB from blood/serum of animals prior to death which would help us to confirm the diagnosis from both blood/serum test and post mortem lesion. Although the intradermal tuberculin skin test (TST) has been a valuable tool in efforts to control tuberculosis in nonhuman primates, but it gives only intermittently positive results in serial testing of infected animals (Garcia et al. 2004b) and for TSTpositive infected animals (even those with radiographic evidence of lung disease) to eventually give negative TST results on serial testing due to the development of latent infections, anergy associated with progressive disease, or other mechanisms that are poorly understood (Motzel et al. 2003). Recent advances in the sequencing of the M. tuberculosis genome and the development of multiplex microbead assays (MMIA) have provided the opportunity to simultaneously determine antibody profiles against multiple M. tuberculosis antigens. Investigators have reported antibody responses to recombinant antigens unique to M. tuberculosis in infected macaques (Brusasca et al. 2003), as well as the value of antibody profiles in humans against multiple M. tuberculosis antigens in TB serodiagnosis and disease states (Davidow et al. 2005). Another assay format that allows for the

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simultaneous evaluation of the pattern of reactivity to multiple TB-specific antigens is the multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) (Lyashchenko et al. 2000). In this assay, multiple antigens are immobilized in solid phase on nitrocellulose membranes as narrow bands using a semi-automated airbrush printing device. Presence of a visible band is interpreted as a positive result (Lyashchenko et al. 2000). The Prima TB STAT PAK is an improvement over the currently common intradermal tuberculin test because it produces results within 15–20 minutes instead of the currently required 72 hours of repeated observations and requires a small volume (~30 μl) of serum, plasma, or whole-blood. The rapid test can be performed cage-side and does not require laboratory equipment or specific technical training. This assay uses a “cocktail” of three immunodominant TBspecific antigens (ESAT-6, CFP-10, and MPB83), a combination that was sufficient to correctly identify 25 of 27 (93%) macaques (20 rhesus and 7 cynomolgus) experimentally infected with M. tuberculosis or M. bovis and testing of 195 uninfected macaques produced three (1.5%) false positive results (Greenwald et al. 2007). To control the spread of the disease, captive nonhuman primates should be screened regularly. By using Prima TB STAT PAK Assay kit, the animals which are found positive should be quarantined and treated resulting in reduction in the spread of the disease to other healthy animals. Animals infected with TB may not show symptoms of disease for weeks or months (Gibson 1998), but during that time they can spread the infection to other animals. Detection of latent TB infections is therefore a high priority in the control and prevention of the disease in nonhuman primates. The study suggests that colony managers and zoo authorities should screen the animals regularly to control the spread of this infectious disease.

References Brusasca, P.N., R.L. Peters, S.L. Motzel, H.J. Klein & M.L. Gennaro (2003). Antigen recognition by serum antibodies in non-human primates experimentally infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Comparative Medicine 53: 165–172. Capuano, S. V., III, D.A. Croix, S. Pawar,A. Zinovik, A. Myers, P.L. Lin, S. Bissel, C. Fuhrman, E.Klein & J.L.Flynn (2003).

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Experimental Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of cynomolgus macaques closely resembles the various manifestations of human M. tuberculosis infection. Infection and Immunity 71: 5831–5844. Davidow, A., G.V. Kanaujia, L. Shi, J. Kaviar, X.S. Guo, G. Kaplan, D. Menzies & M.L. Gennaro (2005). Antibody profiles characteristic of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection state. Infection and Immunity 73: 6846–6851. Flynn, J.L., S.V. Capuano, D. Croix, S. Pawar, A. Myers, A. Zinovik & E. Klein (2003). Non-human primates: a model for tuberculosis research. Tuberculosis 83: 116–118. Garcia, M.A., D.M. Bouley, M.J. Larson, B. Lifland, R. Moorhead, M.D. Simkins, D.C. Borie, R. Tolwani & G. Otto (2004a). Outbreak of Mycobacterium bovis in a conditioned colony of rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus(Macaca fascicularis) macaques. Comparative Medicine 54: 578–584. Garcia, M.A., J. Yee, D.M. Bouley, R. Moorhead & N.W. Lerche (2004b). Diagnosis of tuberculosis in macaques, using whole-blood in vitro interferon-gamma (PRIMAGAM) testing. Comp Med. 54: 86–92. Gibson, S. (1998). Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases: Non-human Primates in Biomedical Research. San Diego: Academic Press, 59–110pp. Goswami, P.K. (1994). Studies on prevalence of pathological conditions of captive non human primate. MVSc Thesis. Assam Agricultural University. Goswami, P.K. & A. Chakraborty (1996). Studies on

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prevalence of pathological conditions of captive non human primates. Zoos’ Print 11(10): 10. Greenwald, R., K. Lyashchenko, J. Esfandiari, S. Gibson, P. Didier, C. McCombs & L. Stutzman (2007). PrimaTB STAT-PAKTM assay, a novel rapid test for tuberculosis in nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology 69(1): 120. Lyashchenko, K.P., M. Singh, R. Colangeli & M.L. Gennaro (2000). A multi-antigen print immunoassay for the development of serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. Journa of Immunological Methods 242: 91–100. Martino, M., G.B. Hubbard & N. Schlabritz-Loutsevitch (2007). Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in a pregnant Baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Journal of Medical Primatology 36(2): 108–112. Motzel, S.L., R.D. Schachner, R.W. Kornegay, M.A. Fletcher, B. Kanaya, J.A. Gomez, DT-W. Ngai, W.J. Pouch, M.V. Washington, L.A. Handt, J.L.Wagner & H. Klein (2003). Diagnosis of tuberculosis in nonhuman primates, pp. 156–159. In: International Perspectives: The Future of Nonhuman Primate Resources. Washington: National Academies Press. Vervenne, R.A., S.L. Jones, D. van Soolingen, T. van der Laan, P. Andersen, P.J. Heidt, A.W. Thomas & J.A. Langermans (2004). TB diagnosis in non-human primates: comparison of two interferon-gamma assays and the skin test for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 100: 61– 71.

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JoTT Opinion

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Major issues in threat analysis and resolving such problems: an addendum to the GAP analysis Thilina D. Surasinghe School of Agricultural, Forest, and Environmental Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA Email: tsurasi@g.clemson.edu

Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Hari Balasubramanian Manuscript details: Ms # o2833 Received 14 June 2011 Final received 08 February 2012 Finally accepted 20 February 2012 Citation: Surasinghe, T.D. (2012). Major issues in threat analysis and resolving such problems: an addendum to the GAP analysis. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2545–2550. Copyright: © Thilina D. Surasinghe 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Details: Thilina Dilan Surasinghe has conducted a significant number of research on biodiversity of Sri Lanka and published several peer-reviewed scientific articles in numerous journals. He has served as an junior faculty in several Sri Lankan public universities. Currently, he is reading a PhD, majoring Wildlife Biology. His dissertation work is on diversity and distribution of stream salamanders in the montane temperate areas. Acknowledgements: I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Robert Baldwin, Clemson University, SC for providing useful comments and feedback on this paper.

Abstract: Identification of regions that warrant conservation attention is a top priority among global environmental concerns. Conventionally, this objective was achieved via recognizing natural landscapes based on the number of IUCN Red Listed species, percentage of endemism and species diversity. A recent innovation in conservation biology is the use of GIS-based threat analysis models to identify key areas of conservation importance. Compared with GAP Analysis, which only identifies biodiversity-rich unprotected lands, threat analysis serves as a rigorous tool in conservation planning which specifically recognizes threats and habitat suitability to different taxa based on a spatially-explicit analysis. Threat analysis is a highly flexible process which involves building up a model with multiple independent (without autocorrelations) variables that both positively and negatively affect distribution and population persistence of a concerned species. Parameters include rate of land-use change, population density, population growth rate, land management regimes, protection status, habitat suitability and land stewardship. Threat analysis models can be used to understand the current status of a particular species (or a community) and can be used to project future trends about the species under consideration. This publication provides an overview of uses of GIS-based threat analyses in conservation biology and provides insights on the limitations of these models and the directions that should be taken in future. Keywords: Biodiversity conservation, GAP analysis, GIS, land development, land-use, threat analysis.

GAP analysis GAP analysis is a GIS-based scientific methodology that recognizes the extent to which native biodiversity, including wildlife, flora and ecological processes are delegated in our current protected area network. Similarly, GAP analysis identifies all elements and processes of the native biodiversity that occur outside protected areas (Scott et al. 1991). Biodiversity or natural land cover types that are not sufficiently covered by existing conservation lands are considered “gaps” in the protected area network and hence as “gaps” in conservation efforts (Scott et al. 1993). Based on GAP information, conservation authorities and biodiversity experts can provide recommendations to improve the effectiveness of protected areas (Nicolls 1991). Threat analysis is a paramount tool in conservation than GAP analysis where multiple factors are considered on long term survival of species, particularly against human disturbances such as development and urbanization. Apart from identification of conservation gaps, threat analysis discerns the relationship between different land uses and different species. Hence, it distinguishes habitats and populations that are mostly imperiled by human activities (Theobald 2004).

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Threat analysis Threat analysis is not as straight forward as GAP analysis. The central issues in threat analysis are: (i) identification of key factors that endanger the focal species, such as human disturbances, habitat loss and fragmentation; (ii) identification of suitability of different land cover types as habitats or dispersal corridors; (iii) differentiation among levels of protection provided by different types protected areas; (iv) identification of instances where threats are not localized but broadcast, such as acid deposition, nonpoint source pollution, UVB radiation and wildlife diseases. The first step in a threat analysis is to identify human-oriented factors that threaten species in the study area with reference to land use types. Species differ significantly in their responses to disturbances (Dale et al. 2000). For example, conversion of mature forests to home gardens may improve butterfly diversity while reducing forest-specialist vertebrate diversity, and road construction is more likely to fragment populations of mammals and herpetofauna (Lindenmayer et al. 2000) than bird populations. Thus, threats should be recognized taxon-specifically, if not species-specifically. Effects of a particular land use type on biota differ depending on intensity, duration and frequency of the disturbances (Romme et al. 1998). For instance, small-scale lumbering may not be very noxious if rate of exploitation is below rates of regeneration, while commercial logging and silviculture can severely alter natural hydrological regimes, vegetation characteristics and microclimate (Thiollay 1997). Further, rapid urbanization and intensive agriculture cause wetland drainage, drastic changes in the natural land settings and geological alterations, severely endangering the survival of most native species (Kammerbauer & Ardon 1999). The precise means of identification of threats is another issue. Although major, extensive land use types are mapped, minor land use types are not depicted. But, minor land uses such as mining and secondary homes can impose serious impacts on biodiversity (Theobald 2004). Water-filled mining pits act as ecological traps and attract aquatic breeders but do not ensure the persistence of the offspring. Besides, mining adversely affect local water quality, soil structure, and vegetation (Kondolf 1997). In addition, secondary homes, despite 2546

smaller spatial extent of current occurrence functions as development nodes in future land development (Baldwin et al. 2009). Therefore, certain minor landuses can have a significant impact on biodiversity and natural ecosystems disproportionate to their spatial extent. Further, certain land-use land-cover maps do not differentiate different agricultural practices. Different crops require different agro-chemicals and different land settings. Further, the landscape structure of the cropland is determined by physiognomy of the crop. Therefore, impact of agriculture on biodiversity may vary among different crops and farming strategies (Theobald 2003). In such situations, surveying to record minor land use types and different agricultural practices is recommended. It is essential to consult scientific literature and expert ecologists to determine the relationship between land use types and species responses else certain detrimental land use types may get omitted from the threat analysis. The next step in a threat analysis is to determine suitability of landscape for long term viability of biodiversity via: (i) assessment of the suitability of habitats to maintain minimum viable populations; and (ii) evaluation of the suitability of corridors for dispersal (Crooks & Sanjayan 2006). It is imperative to recognize the distinction between suitable habitats and suitable corridors. For a given habitat to be deemed suitable, it should sustain all the necessary biological and physical conditions and resources to support growth, development and reproduction of species (Hirzel 2001). A suitable corridor should serve as the least cost pathway among subpopulations with lowest possible mortality (Ricketts 2001). Habitat connectivity is crucial for population persistence since it maintains gene flow, metapopulation interactions, rescue effect and juvenile dispersal (Crooks & Sanjayan 2006). Suitability of a given corridor needs to be evaluated based on the regional land use patterns and potential threats. Any situation that obstructs species movements such as subsidized predation, physical barriers that predispose dispersing species to mortality such as roads, dams and lack of temporary refuge need to be recognized as threats impeding dispersion and migration (Fischer et al. (2006). Further, the extent of the preferred native vegetation, favorable hydrological regimes, climate, edaphic conditions, geography and other biological resources are some important factors that dictate habitat suitability (Theobald 2003).

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Initially in threat analysis, habitat with preferable natural ecological conditions for the focal species should be selected. Then, human oriented threats with respect to the land uses should be assessed. The final product should contain ecologically most favorable habitats with least threats for the persistence of species. Although land use categories indicate species vulnerability, they do not adequately reflect degree of vulnerability of each species. Hence, a quantified relationship should be drawn between species responses and land use activities (Theobald 2004). A recent innovation in assessing habitat suitability is inclusion of socioeconomic factors and development pressure into habitat values (Baldwin & deMaynadier 2009). Some socioeconomic factors that can be included in the development pressure are: human population density, population change, industrial growth and land conversion rates, and willingness to pay (Theobald 2003). Higher human density leads to higher rates of resource exploitation and higher degrees of disturbances. Human population density around protected areas has been often used as an index of biodiversity degradation (Cincotta & Engelman 2000). Brashares et al. (2001) showed a high correlation between extinction risk in national parks and human population size around national parks. Land transformation modifies ecosystem processes and affects habitat quality resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation (Sanderson et al. 2002). House and road densities are easily accessible and effective socioeconomic factors to evaluate habitat suitability. Higher house and road densities indicate low habitat suitability. House density is a better parameter than population density since population census is tied to primary residence and undermines the influence of secondary homes and recreational sites. There is a pragmatic link between the house density and alterations of natural landscapes (Theobald 2003). Depending on the overall house and road densities, a scale can be produced ranging from lowest to highest values. Making predictions based on current land uses provides better insights because it shows potential areas with high threat to biodiversity in future. For example, Baldwin & deMaynadier (2009) developed a development pressure index by multiplying current population density by growth rates where they found that areas with low densities but high growth rates pose greater threats for biodiversity than high density-low

T.D. Surasinghe

growth rate areas. Making perditions on population growth convokes several problems. The growth of already urbanized area can be relatively constant. But, the population growth rate of recently developed or newly industrialized areas can be exponential and difficult to project. Subsidies provided by the central government for biodiversity conservation and management is gradually decreasing, around the world government funds are mostly spent on direct social and economic development (White & Lovett 1999). Hence, raising funds for conservation and management of protected areas is becoming a responsibility of the public and the park management where funds will be generated via tourism and grant acquisition from the private sector, which is known as the “willingness to pay” the cost of conservation by the public in order to use natural landscapes for recreational, aesthetic and to preserve essential ecosystem functions (Turpie 2003). Incorporation of a measurement on “willingness to pay”, such as contingent valuation as a variable in treat analyses is timely. The third challenge in a threat analysis is to evaluate the protection provided to the focal species within their overall distribution range. Not all the conservation lands protect species equally. The legislative declaration determines the protection status (Wilson et al. 2006). Wildlife in private lands does not receive any protection. Wilderness governed by the central government such as national parks and those protected under international laws such as Ramsar Wetlands, Man and Biosphere Reserves beget the high conservation attention. Sanctuaries and forests managed for silviculture are subjected to exploitation of which the conservation level is intermediate (Wilson et al. 2006). Therefore, conservation level of different habitats and dispersal corridors should be assessed based on legislations. Here, it is highly recommended that a scoring system is adopted for the purpose if evaluation and prioritization. Threat analysis can only incorporate local effects of land use. But, there are several broadcast effects that severely affect biodiversity such as diffuse-source pollution, acid rains, UV radiation and diseases, which are not affiliated directly with the local land uses or disturbances. Origin of these threats can either be global or human activities happening physically distant from the concerned areas. These broadcast effects cannot be cartographically represented.

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Besides, GIS data on such threats may be non-existent or scarce and difficult to interpret geo-spatially (Wright & Schindler 1996). For instance, to assess the effect of acid rains we need to access long-term data on soil pH in multiple locations in the area of interest immediately after a rainfall. In diffuse-source pollution, for example air-borne agro-chemicals can get deposited in wilderness where the presence can only be verified through examining field samples of soil and water for pesticide residues (Myers 1996). Moreover, field measures on acid rains and pollution are usually transient and highly variable in space and time which prevent them from being mapped. Spatial occurrence and relative prevalence of wildlife diseases for different habitats are difficult to map. Distribution of diseases in a given landscape is a function of species movement and means of transmission of infective agents. Therefore, disease prevalence in a selected area is strictly subjected to dramatic changes over time and space (Daszak & Cunningham 1999). Further, if focal areas have been surveyed for diseases, some information can be gained through a literature survey. However, to generate accurate disease-prevalence maps, surveys should be very spatially broad and representative. Inclusion of climate change into a threat analysis can be highly problematic. Climate change models such as the global circulation model are derived from global climatic data and projections applied for larger geographic areas (Mitchell et al. 1999). Therefore, the applicability of global climate models to geographically limited spatial extents will not provide accurate predictions. To make educated projections on climate change for a local area, we need to have long-term high resolution climatic information for the area of interest. Globally, decisions on biodiversity conservation are taken from an economy-driven, cost-benefit perspective (Ninan & Sathyapalan 2005). Therefore, the cost of conservation actions incurred by land purchases, habitat restoration, species management, wages for the park personnel, and maintenance of roads and trails within the protected area is weighted against the potential benefits including tourism and recreation-based revenues, productive use of protected landscapes for sustainable forestry and game production, and preservation of ecosystem goods and services (Watzold et al. 2010). Therefore, inclusion of efficient cost-benefit assessments on conservation 2548

is crucial in threat analyses. Linked with the cost of conservation is the irreplaceability of wilderness. With growing anthropocentric demand for lands and natural resources, the lands available for conservation are declining. Thus, a spatially-explicit assessment of landscape irreplaceability with respect to species endemism, landscape permeability, unique community assemblages, and ecological functions is of foremost importance (Das et al. 2006). Threat analyses are useful in many currently existing large-scale, global and cross-continental conservation planning concepts such as Key Biodiversity Areas (Eken et al. 2004), biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000; Mittermeier et al. 2005), major tropical wilderness (Mittermeier et al. 1998), global freshwater ecoregions (Abell et al. 2008) and Global 200 (Olson et al. 2002). For instance, in the process of threat analysis, full or partial inclusion of a Key Biodiversity Area within a focal area can be included into the GIS model as a separate variable with a high priority score. Moreover, threat analyses can be implemented as a tool to identify habitats for site-based conservation requiring the immediate conservation attention within the Global 200 or global freshwater ecoregions. The final output of the threat analysis should integrate all these considerations. It should recognize the susceptibly of wilderness to development pressures and adverse land use practices, ecological habitat suitability, cost effectiveness, and levels of conservation attention received. Then, areas with highest development pressures and anthropogenic disturbances, least existing conservation attention but highest ecological suitability and irreplaceability where increased conservation actions are cost-effective should beget the highest priority in conservation and management. In this way, limited financial and intellectual resources can be successfully allocated for wilderness that seriously requires them. This is a prime need in biodiversity conservation. Reference Abell, R., M.L. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S.C. Balderas & W. Bussing (2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: a new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. Bioscience 58: 403â&#x20AC;&#x201C;414. Baldwin, R.F. & P.G. deMaynadier (2009). Assessing threats

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to pool-breeding amphibian habitat in an urbanizing landscape. Biological Conservation 142: 1628–1638. Baldwin, R.F., S.C. Trombulak & E.D. Baldwin (2009). Assessing risk of large-scale habitat conversion in lightly settled landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 91: 219–225. Brashares, J.S., P. Arcese & M.K. Sam (2001). Human demography and reserve size predict wildlife extinction in West Africa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 268: 2473–2478. Cincotta, R.P. & R. Engelman (2000). Nature’s Place: Human Population Density and the Future of Biological Diversity. Population Action International, Washington DC, 87pp. Crooks, K.R. & M. Sanjayan (2006). Connectivity Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 732pp. Dale, V.H., S. Brown & R.A. Haeuber (2000). Ecological principles and guidelines for managing the use of land: a report from the Ecological Society of America. Ecological Applications 10: 639–670. Das, A., J. Krishnaswamy, K.S. Bawa, M.C. Kiran, V. Srinivas, N.S. Kumar & K.U. Karanth (2006). Prioritisation of conservation areas in the Western Ghats, India. Biological Conservation 133: 16–31. Daszak, P. & A.A. Cunningham (1999). Extinction by infection. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14: 279. Eken, G., L. Bennun, T.M. Brooks, W. Darwall, L.D.C. Fishpool, M. Foster, D. Knox, P. Langhammer, P. Matiku & E. Radford (2004). Key biodiversity areas as site conservation targets. Bioscience 54: 1110–1118. Fischer, J., D.B. Lindenmayer & A.D. Manning (2006). Biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resilience: ten guiding principles for commodity production landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4: 80–86. Hirzel, H., V. Helfer & F. Metral (2001). Assessing habitat suitability models with a virtual species. Ecological Modelling 145: 111–121. Kammerbauer, J. & C. Ardon (1999). Land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical watershed in the hillside region of central Honduras. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 75: 931–100. Kondolf, G.M. (1997). Hungry water: effects of dams and gravel mining on river channels. Environmental Management 21: 533–552. Lindenmayer, D.B., C.R. Margules & D. Botkin (2000). Indicators of forest sustainability biodiversity: the selection of forest indicator species. Conservation Biology 14: 941– 950. Mitchell, J.F.B., T.C. Johns, M. Eagles, W.J. Ingram & R.A. Davis (1999). Towards the construction of climate change scenarios. Climate Change 41: 547–581. Mittermeier, R.A., N. Myers, J.B. Thomsen, G.A.B. da Fonseca & S. Olivieri (1998). Biodiversity Hotspots and Major Tropical Wilderness Areas: Approaches to Setting Conservation Priorities. Conservation Biology 12: 516– 520.

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Mittermeier, R.A., P.R. Gil, M. Hoffman, J. Pilgrim, T. Brooks, C.G. Mittermeier, J. Lamoreux & G.A.B. Da Fonseca (2005). Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Cemex, Mexico, 391pp. Myers, N. (1996). Two key challenges for biodiversity; discontinuities and synergisms. Biodiversity Conservation 5: 1025–1034. Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858. Nicholls, A.O. (1991). Examples of the use of generalized linear models in analysis of survey data for conservation evaluation, pp. 191–201. In: Margules, C.R. & M.P. Austin (eds.). Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data Analysis. CSIRO, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia, 220pp. Ninan, K.N. & J. Sathyapalan (2005). The economics of biodiversity conservation: a study of a coffee growing region in the Western Ghats of India. Ecological Economics 55: 61–72. Olson, D.M. & E. Dinerstein (2002). The Global 200: Priority ecoregions for global conservation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical garden 89: 199–224. Ricketts, T.H. (2001). The matrix matters: effective isolation in fragmented landscapes. American Naturalist 158: 87–99. Romme, W.H., E.H. Everham, L.E. Frelich, M.A. Moritz & R.E. Sparks (1998). Are large, infrequent disturbances qualitatively different from small? Ecosystems 1: 524–534. Sanderson, E.W., M. Jaiteh, M.A. Levy, K.H. Redford, A.V. Wannebo & G. Woolmer (2002). The human footprint and the last of the wild. Bioscience 52: 891–904. Scott, J.M., B. Csuti, K. Smith, J.E. Estes & S. Caicco (1991). Gap analysis of species richness and vegetative cover: an integrated biodiversity conservation strategy, pp. 282–297. In: Kohn, K.A. (ed.). Balancing on the Brink of Extinction. Island Press, Washington, DC, 329pp. Scott, J.M., F. Davis, F. Csuti, R. Noss, B. Butterfield, C. Groves, H. Anderson, S. Caicco, F. D’Erchia, T.C.J. Edwards, J. Ulliman & R.G. Wright (1993). Gap analysis: a geographic approach to protection of biological diversity. Wildlife Monographs 57: 5–41. Theobald, D.M. (2003). Targeting conservation action through assessment of protection and exurban threats. Conservation Biology 17: 1–13. Theobald, D.M. (2004). Placing exurban land-use change in a human modification framework. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: 139–144. Thiollay, J.M. (1997). Disturbance, selective logging and bird diversity: a neotropical forest-study. Biodiversity Conservation 6: 1155–1173. Turpie, J.K. (2003). The existence value of biodiversity in South Africa: how interest, experience, knowledge, income and perceived level of threat influence local willingness to pay. Ecological Economics 46: 199–216. Watzold, F., M. Mewes, R. van Apeldoorn, R. Varjopuro, T.J.

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Chmielewski, F. Veeneklaas & M.L. Kosola (2010). Costeffectiveness of managing Natura 2000 sites: an exploratory study for Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 2053–2069. Wilson, K.A., M.F. McBride, M. Bode & H.P. Possingham (2006). Prioritizing global conservation efforts. Nature 440: 337–340. White, P. & J. Lovett (1999). Public preferences and willingness-to-pay for nature conservation in the North York Moors National Park, UK. Journal of Environmental Management 55: 1–13. Wright, R.F. & D.W. Schindler (1996). Interaction of acid rain and global changes: Effects on terrestrial and aquatic systems. Water Air Soil Pollution 85: 89–99.

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JoTT Response

Supplement to Khan 2012 Technological enhancements needed in photo-trap approach for forthright use by tiger population managers L.A.K. Singh 1830-Mahatab Road, Friends’ Colony, Old Town, Bhubaneswar, Odissa 751002, India Email: laksinghindia@gmail.com

The fundamental lesson given to budding Wildlife Managers of 1970s was that if they were sure about the continued existence of a healthy population of predator (tiger) at the apex of the ecological pyramid they may draw a logical conclusion that the herbivore and the vegetative habitat forming the lower strata of the pyramid were also in sound conditions. If correctly implemented the status of large cats can indeed be accurately assessed while it is not within possible reach of such order for herbivores or the vegetation. This is true even today. In the year 1972 the first All India Tiger Census was carried out by pugmark tracking (Choudhury 1970). Thereafter census of tiger has been carried out at intervals and based on the results and experiences of field experts at least 39 areas in India have been identified for conservation of tiger and its habitat. Also in this process, a series of management prescriptions have been implemented because of which tiger still survives in the wild (MOEF-Government of India 2006). ‘Pugmark Tracking’(Singh 1999, 2000) continued to be the accepted method for studying large cats in India until 2004. It was also used in Bangladesh (MOEF-Bangladesh 2004) and Sri Lanka (Kittle & Watson 2007). There is no disagreement that abundance of large Date of publication (online): 26 April 2012 Date of publication (print): 26 April 2012 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Manuscript details: Ms # o3103 Received 16 February 2011 Citation: Singh, L.A.K. (2012). Supplement to Khan 2012 - Technological enhancements needed in photo-trap approach for forthright use by tiger population managers. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2551–2552. Copyright: © L.A.K. Singh 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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felids is governed by the abundance of their prey communities (eg., Karanth & Nichols 1998), but the number of tigers determined by pugmark tracking lost trust with some as tigers were “not sighted” in the forest. At about this time incompletely trained persons were asked to interpret pugmark tracings or plaster casts. Besides, the level of implementation of pugmark tracking for large felid census varied in different parts of India. Finally there was one highlighted case where the actual results of the exercise were not revealed because of administrative or some other constraint. Ultimately, the foundation provided by all past census results from all places got discredited. It even ignored the arduous path that was covered from 1973 to mid 1990s for expanding tiger conservation network. In spite of knowing well that photographing of tiger is not easy in dense forest a new wave of interest emerged with the people and researchers for producing photographic evidences of tigers in tiger reserves. In this context using camera-trap had the required potentiality. Camera trap was not new for the wildlife fraternity. I give credit to Mr Howard Hunt of Atlanta Zoo who was identifying egg predators visiting nests of Alligator mississippiensis in Okefenokee Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, USA. Howard monitored the alligator nests during 1976 to 1985 with Kodak Instamatic X-15 cameras set with mouse-trap shutter releases and mounted on stakes. The camera was connected to the nest mound with thread. Disturbance to the mound tripped the camera and a single photograph recorded each incident (Hunt 1987). During mid 1990s demonstrations were made (Karanth 1995) and extensively popularized for possible use of camera traps to assess populations of tiger in India. With the support of National Tiger Conservation Authority, from the year 2005–06 camera-trap and a series of other field exercises have been implemented at the all-India level (Jhala et al. 2008, 2011). The recent publication by Khan (2012) describes one such use of camera trap in Bangladesh. The application of photo-trap principle with extensively improved cameras and statistical extrapolation constitute a type of sample study. The technique is developing as an easier approach to deduce the minimum number of tigers in inhospitable areas or areas with low tiger density. The technique has been successful in creating a new wave

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of interests for tiger conservation. It has drawn wide attention among intelligentsia, the researchers and media as it produces photographs of tigers. However, considering the presently low level of fieldutility for tiger managers, the sampling method using photo traps under discussion needs to be improved. The results from the method have to rise above the academic look and be more meaningful for forthright use by Tiger Population Managers and the staff who are in-charge of protecting and conserving tigers and their territories. The staff should be able to know the continued presence of tiger during their own day to day field activities. Statistical extrapolation of sampled ‘photographic results’ is unable to ascribe this important task. As an example, the study (Khan 2012) involved 290 field days spanned over a period of two years, and it could conclude, from seven photographs, the presence of five tigers, which is 2.5% of the estimated minimum population of 200 tigers. To a small number of identified tigers addition was made of statistically deduced virtual tigers to the extent of 97.5% of the population. Photographing a tiger with camera trap is laudable. But for the use of this technique to highlight the status of tiger and help in conservation, it should be improved to obtain repetitive field evidences of the order of 500% or more than actual existence and reject all overlaps so that a more accurate minimum number of tigers is known with their field details. It should be able to discuss the figures of only non-virtual tigers, and present details about the composition of tiger population as male, female and cub in some kind of size-index classes representing different age classes. The result should highlight the spatial distribution and movement areas in relation to male-female and mother-cub dispositions with blank ranges mirroring sites of anthropogenic pressure. The usefulness of the results should not be thwarted with possibility of changes to the population because of the time taken in years to complete field work and deduce results. The entire procedure should also aim at preserving the traditional skill of forest people and involve the field staff to such an intimate level that each staff is able to identify himself with the tiger and its territory he is expected to protect or conserve. The field science should be simple and aimed for practice by field personnel who are not researchers of any standard. For effective conservation of a species like tiger the Manager should be equipped with results that have not emerged because of reduced field rigors and conveniences of 2552

sampling experiments. It is wished that in order to match the alreadyevident-utility of pugmark tracking the photo-trap technique addresses the above mentioned aspects. It may get identified as the method to move with for tiger conservation in the coming decades. Science is developing fast and it could happen sooner than we think.

REFERENCES Choudhury, S.R. (1970). Let us count our tiger. Cheetal 14(2): 41–51. Hunt, R.H. (1987). Nest Excavation and Neonate Transport in Wild Alligator mississippiensis. Journal of Herpetology 21(4): 348–350. Jhala, Y.V., R.Gopal & Q. Qureshi (eds.) (2008). Status of the Tigers, Co-predators, and Prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 151pp. Jhala, Y.V., Q.Qureshi, R.Gopal & P.R.Sinha (eds.) (2011). Status of the Tigers, Co-predators, and Prey in India, 2010. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 302pp. Karanth, K.U. (1995). Estimating tiger Panthera tigris populations from camera-trap data using capture-recapture models. Biological Conservation 71: 333–338. Karanth, K.U. & J.D. Nichols (1998). Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic capture and recaptures. Ecology 79(8): 2852–2862. Khan, M.M.H. (2012). Population and prey of the Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) (Carnivora: Felidae) and their prey in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(2): 2370–2380. Kittle, A. & A. Watson (2007). Home range, demography and behaviour of the Sri Lankan Montane Zone Leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) Study Site 1 - Hantana Range: Dunumadalawa Forest Reserve. A. Kittle & A. Watson - The Leopard Project. www.wwct.org/demography.aspx. Accessed on 21 February 2009 and 12 February 2012. MoEF-Bangladesh (2004). Tiger Census 2004. www.moef. gov. bd/document/Final_TigerCensus_-2004.pdf. Accessed on 29 September 2009. MoEF-Government of India (2006). Evaluation Report of Tiger Reserves in India. Prject Tiger Directorate. Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, 244pp. Singh, L.A.K. (1999). Tracking Tigers: A Pocket Book for Forest Guards. WWF Tiger Conservation Programme - December 1999, 39pp. Singh, L.A.K. (2000). Tracking Tigers: Guidelines for Estimating Wild Tiger Populations Using the Pugmark Technique. Revised Edition. WWF Tiger Conservation Programme, Delhi, India, 36pp.

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Prof. Dr. Adriano Brilhante Kury, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Dr. P. Lakshminarasimhan, Howrah, India Dr. Carlos Alberto S de Lucena, Porto Alegre, Brazil Dr. Glauco Machado, São Paulo, Brazil Dr. Gowri Mallapur, Mamallapuram, India Dr. George Mathew, Peechi, India Prof. Richard Kiprono Mibey, Eldoret, Kenya Dr. Lionel Monod, Genève, Switzerland Dr. Shomen Mukherjee, Jamshedpur, India Dr. P.O. Nameer, Thrissur, India Dr. D. Narasimhan, Chennai, India Dr. T.C. Narendran, Kozhikode, India Stephen D. Nash, Stony Brook, USA Dr. K.S. Negi, Nainital, India Dr. K.A.I. Nekaris, Oxford, UK Dr. Heok Hee Ng, Singapore Dr. Boris P. Nikolov, Sofia, Bulgaria Prof. Annemarie Ohler, Paris, France Dr. Shinsuki Okawara, Kanazawa, Japan Dr. Albert Orr, Nathan, Australia Dr. Geeta S. Padate, Vadodara, India Dr. Larry M. Page, Gainesville, USA Dr. Arun K. Pandey, Delhi, India Dr. Prakash Chand Pathania, Ludhiana, India Dr. Malcolm Pearch, Kent, UK Dr. Richard S. Peigler, San Antonio, USA Dr. Rohan Pethiyagoda, Sydney, Australia Mr. J. Praveen, Bengaluru, India Dr. Robert Michael Pyle, Washington, USA Dr. Muhammad Ather Rafi, Islamabad, Pakistan Dr. H. Raghuram, Bengaluru, India Dr. Dwi Listyo Rahayu, Pemenang, Indonesia Dr. Sekar Raju, Suzhou, China Dr. Vatsavaya S. Raju, Warangal, India Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, New Delhi, India Dr (Mrs). R. Ramanibai, Chennai, India Dr. Alex Ramsay, LS2 7YU, UK Dr. M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Pune, India Dr. Robert Raven, Queensland, Australia Dr. K. Ravikumar, Bengaluru, India Dr. Luke Rendell, St. Andrews, UK

Dr. Anjum N. Rizvi, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Leif Ryvarden, Oslo, Norway Prof. Michael Samways, Matieland, South Africa Dr. Yves Samyn, Brussels, Belgium Dr. K.R. Sasidharan, Coimbatore, India Dr. Kumaran Sathasivam, India Dr. S. Sathyakumar, Dehradun, India Dr. M.M. Saxena, Bikaner, India Dr. Hendrik Segers, Vautierstraat, Belgium Dr. R. Siddappa Setty, Bengaluru, India Dr. Subodh Sharma, Towson, USA Prof. B.K. Sharma, Shillong, India Prof. K.K. Sharma, Jammu, India Dr. R.M. Sharma, Jabalpur, India Dr. Tan Koh Siang, Kent Ridge Road, Singapore Dr. Arun P. Singh, Jorhat, India Dr. Lala A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar, India Prof. Willem H. De Smet, Wilrijk, Belgium Mr. Peter Smetacek, Nainital, India Dr. Humphrey Smith, Coventry, UK Dr. Hema Somanathan, Trivandrum, India Dr. C. Srinivasulu, Hyderabad, India Dr. Ulrike Streicher, Danang, Vietnam Dr. K.A. Subramanian, Pune, India Mr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, New Delhi, India Dr. P.M. Sureshan, Patna, India Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Dehradun, India Dr. R.K. Verma, Jabalpur, India Dr. W. Vishwanath, Manipur, India Dr. E. Vivekanandan, Cochin, India Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany Dr. Ted J. Wassenberg, Cleveland, Australia Dr. Stephen C. Weeks, Akron, USA Prof. Yehudah L. Werner, Jerusalem, Israel Mr. Nikhil Whitaker, Mamallapuram, India Dr. Hui Xiao, Chaoyang, China Dr. April Yoder, Little Rock, USA English Editors Mrs. Mira Bhojwani, Pune, India Dr. Fred Pluthero, Toronto, Canada

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Journal of Threatened Taxa ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

April 2012 | Vol. 4 | No. 4 | Pages 2481–2552 Date of Publication 26 April 2012 (online & print) Communications The first record of Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875 from Nepal with new locality records of Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838) and P. tenuis (Temminck, 1840) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) -- Sanjan Thapa, Pradeep Subedi, Nanda B. Singh & Malcolm J. Pearch, Pp. 2481–2489 Tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) of ancient reservoir ecosystems of Sri Lanka -- Chandima Dangalle, Nirmalie Pallewatta & Alfried Vogler, Pp. 2490–2498 Short Communications An annotated checklist of opisthobranch fauna (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia) of the Nicobar Islands, India -- C.R. Sreeraj, C. Sivaperuman & C. Raghunathan, Pp. 2499– 2509 A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach (Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops in India -- Dhanya Balan, P.M. Sureshan & Vinod Khanna, Pp. 2510– 2514 Notes Additions to the flora of Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India -- S.P. Gaikwad, R.D. Gore & K.U. Garad, Pp. 2515–2523

Sighting of Aglais cashmirensis aesis Fruhstorfer, 1912 (Nymphalidae) from Nagaland, India -- Tshetsholo Naro, Pp. 2534–2535 Record of the Indo-Pacific Slender Gecko Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Squamata: Sauria: Gekkonidae) from the Andaman Islands, India -- S.R. Chandramouli, S. Harikrishnan & Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Pp. 2536–2538 Fish feeding adaptation by Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Cercopithecidae) in the Sundarban mangrove swamps, India -- Joydeb Majumder, Rahul Lodh & B.K. Agarwala, Pp. 2539– 2540 Tuberculosis in non-human primates of Assam: use of PrimaTB STAT-PAK Assay for detection of tuberculosis -- Bichitra Gopal Nath, Apurba Chakraborty & Taibur Rahman, Pp. 2541–2544 Opinion Major issues in threat analysis and resolving such problems: an addendum to the GAP analysis -- Thilina D. Surasinghe, Pp. 2545–2550 Response Supplement to Khan 2012 - Technological enhancements needed in photo-trap approach for forthright use by tiger population managers -- L.A.K. Singh, Pp. 2551–2552

First record of two Pentatomidae bugs from Chandoli area, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India -- Hemant V. Ghate, Girish P. Pathak, Yogesh Koli & Ganesh P. Bhawane, Pp. 2524–2528 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata: Insecta) of Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, central India -- Ashish D. Tiple, Sanjay Paunikar & S.S. Talmale, Pp. 2529– 2533