JoTT 3(1): 1401-1492 26 Jan 2011 by ZOO-WILD

January 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 1 | Pages 1401-1492 Date of Publication 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta

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JoTT Communication

3(1): 1401-1414

3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium

Special Series

Seasonal dynamics of butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India K. Jahir Hussain 1, T. Ramesh 2, K.K. Satpathy 3 & M. Selvanayagam 4 Environmental and Safety Division, Radiological Safety & Environmental Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu 603102, India 2, 4 Loyola Institute of Frontier Energy (LIFE), Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600034, India Email: 1 zakir781@yahoo.co.in, 2 faunaldiversity@gmail.com, 3 satpathy@igcar.gov.in (corresponding author), 4 drmssel@yahoo.co.in 1, 3

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: K.A. Subramanian Manuscript details: Ms # o2603 Received 14 October 2010 Final received 24 November 2010 Finally accepted 06 December 2010 Citation: Hussain, K.J., T. Ramesh, K.K. Satpathy & M. Selvanayagam (2011). Seasonal dynamics of butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1401-1414. Copyright: ÂŠ K. Jahir Hussain, T. Ramesh, K.K. Satpathy & M. Selvanayagam 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Details: see end of this article. Author Contribution: TR helped KJH during the field work and in Manuscript preparation. KKS and MS immensely contributed in manuscript correction and in designing the investigation. Acknowledgements: Authors are thankful to Dr. Krushnamegh Kunte, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA, for help in identification. Authors are grateful to Dr. Baldev Raj, Director, IGCAR for his continuous encouragement and support.

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Abstract: Seasonal population trends of butterflies inhabiting the campus of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) at Kalpakkam were recorded by setting a permanent line transect of 300m and recording all species of butterflies observed within a 5m distance. The survey yielded 2177 individuals of 56 butterfly species, belonging to the families Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Papilionidae and Hesperiidae. Nymphalidae were found to be the dominant family during all seasons. Species richness and abundance were highest during the northeast monsoon and winter periods, indicating that in the southern plains of India butterflies prefer cool seasons for breeding and emergence. The taxonomic structure of the butterflies sampled resembles that of the Western Ghats and other regions of India in two ways: (a) dominance of nymphalids and (b) peak abundance during wet seasons. A detailed study of ecologically important local butterfly fauna and their host plants is in progress, to construct a butterfly garden in Kalpakkam to attract and support butterflies. Keywords: Butterfly, DAE campus, dominance, Kalpakkam, peak abundance, seasonality.

Introduction Seasonality is a common phenomenon in insect populations. Seasonal fluctuations are often influenced by environmental factors including temperature, photoperiod, rainfall, humidity, variation in the availability of food resources, and vegetation cover such as herbs and shrubs (Anu 2006; Anu et al. 2009; Shanthi et al. 2009; Tiple & Khurad 2009). Butterflies have important ecosystem roles including pollination, and they are useful in studies of population and community ecology (Pollard 1991) as indicators of ecosystem health because they are very sensitive to changes in microclimate and habitat (Erhardt 1985; Kremen 1992). Many species are strictly seasonal (Kunte 1997), and their population dynamics are generally considered to be governed by environmental factors. In India butterflies have been documented since the turn of 19th century (Williams 1927, 1930, 1938), however, little information is available concerning butterflies in the southern plains region. The purpose of this study is to determine trends in butterfly species constellations and identify their This article is part of the peer-reviewed Proceedings of the 3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium (3ALCS-2010) jointly organized by the IUCN SSC South Asian Invertebrate Specialist GroupÂ (SAsISG); Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University; Zoo Outreach Organisation and Wildlife Information Liaison Development, held from 25 to 29 October 2010 at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. http://www.zooreach.org/3alcs2010.html

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

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Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

K.J. Hussain et al.

Image 1. Study area

temporal variation, diversity and abundance.

Materials and Methods Study area: The DAE campus at Kalpakkam (12 33.7’N & 80010.5’E, ~2500 acres), Tamil Nadu, encompasses seashore and a vast plain area of the Bay of Bengal (Image 1). The coastal system forms a complex natural site where intense interactions occur among land, sea and atmosphere. This unique ecosystem spreads through the biologically diverse and productive habitat of native flora and fauna and is aesthetically blended with introduced vegetation. The main natural vegetation observed at DAE campus is dry evergreen and scrub comprising of members predominantly belonging to the families Poaceae, Fabaceae, Cyperaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Verbenaceae, Solanaceae, Rubiaceae, Convolvulaceae and Amaranthaceae (Gajendiran & Ragupathy 2002). Butterfly census technique: Butterfly species abundance was assessed quantitatively across different seasons. To determine abundance, field work was carried out from June 2008 to May 2009 using the 0

1402

line transect count method as per Kunte (1997) with minor modification. In this method five permanent 300-line transects were set up in each plot using Global Positioning System (GPS) (Garmin, 76CSx). Transects covered all microhabitats including gardens, scrub, riparian corridors, sandy areas and monoculture Casuarina plantation. Each transect was slowly traversed at a uniform pace for 30 minutes from 0930 to 1130 hr during good weather periods (no heavy rain and strong wind). This is a suitable method adopted by others for surveying butterflies in a wide range of habitats (Walpole & Sheldon 1999; Caldas & Robbins 2003; Koh & Sodhi 2004). All individuals were identified in the field using standard guides (Gunathilagaraj et al. 1998; Kunte 2000; Hussain et al. 2008). Data analysis: For the interpretation of collected data, the year was divided into four periods: southwest monsoon - SWM (June to September), northeast monsoon - NEM (October to December), winter (January to February) and hot summer (March to May). Data on mean temperature, mean relative humidity, monthly rainfall and number of rainy days were collected from the meteorological station at IGCAR,

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

K.J. Hussain et al.

Table 1. Total number, percentage of genus, species and individuals collected per family

Papilionidae

Pieridae

No. of genera

No. of species

No. of individual

300 250

4 (9%)

5 (9%)

144 (6.6%)

11 (25%)

15 (26.7%)

635 (29%)

Lycaenidae

12 (27.2%)

12 (21.4%)

209 (9.6%)

Nymphalidae

13 (29.5%)

20 (35.7%)

1176 (54%)

Hesperiidae

4 (9%)

4 (7%)

13 (0.5%)

2177

Total (5)

Abundance

Family

350

200 150 100

Results and Discussion Community composition of butterfly fauna: A total of 2177 individuals comprising 56 butterfly species from five families and 44 genera were recorded during the present study. Nymphalidae was the dominant family in terms of species richness (20 species; 29.5% of genera) and abundance, followed by Pieridae (15 species, 25% genera), Lycaenidae (12 species, 27.2% genera) and Papilionidae (five species, 9% genera). Hesperiidae was represented by only four species in the surveyed area (Table 1). A similar pattern has been reported from the northern and southern parts of the Western Ghats, and also from other regions of India (Kunte 1997; Devy & Priya 2001; Sreekumar & Balakrishnan 2001; Bhalodia et al. 2002; Chandra et al. 2002; Nair 2002; Soniya & Palot 2002; Arun & Azeez 2003; Palot & Soniya 2003; Borkar & Komarpant 2004; Rane & Ranade 2004; Ambrose & Raj 2005; Bhuyan et al. 2005; Eswaran & Promod 2005; Padhye et al. 2006; Chandra et al. 2007; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Kumar et al. 2007; Rufus & Sabarinathan 2007; Dolia et al. 2008). Interestingly, 62.5% of the species, and 83% of the individuals collected belonged to two families (Nymphalidae and Pieridae). The greatest number of species was observed in the month of October (32 species), representing 57% of total species

May

April

Mar

Feb

Jan

Dec

Nov

Oct

Sep

Aug

July

Months

Figure 1. Abundance profile for butterflies observed in different months

Mean ofindividuals individuals Meanno. no. of

Kalpakkam. Pearson’s correlation analysis was carried out to assess correlations between abiotic factors and richness and abundance of the butterfly populations. Species richness (sample based rarefaction) at different seasons and seasonal species composition (cluster analysis) were calculated using Biodiversity Pro software version 2 (McAleece et al. 1997).

June

350 350 300 300 250 250 200

200 150

150 100

100 50 50 0

SWM sWM

NEW neM

Winter Winter Seasons

Summer summer

Seasons

Figure 2. Seasonal abundance patterns of butterfly communities in Kalpakkam

(8 species were represented by a single individual). Some species, namely, Danaus chrysippus, Acraea violae, Tirumala septentrionis, Eurema hecabe and Ariadne merione were observed regularly and more commonly (Appendix 1). Temporal abundance and seasonality profile of butterflies: The observed butterfly numbers from all transects were pooled and considered as a

Table 2. Seasonality of butterflies in different seasons in Kalpakkam SWM

NEM

Winter

Summer

Richness (number of species)

Abundance (Average)

204

287

248

Unique species

Rainfall (Mean mm)

224

744.5

18.5

Temperature °C (Average)

30.6

28.4

27.7

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K.J. Hussain et al.

SWM NEM Winter Summer

140 140

Average no.of individuals

120 120 Average no. of individuals

Average no.of individuals

Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

100 100

8080 6060 4040 2020 00

Nymphalidae

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Pieridae

LycaeniidaePieridae Nymphalidae Families Lycaeniidae

Figure 3. Population trends of butterfly families in different seasons

Families

month of collection. Butterfly population fluctuated monthly. At DAE campus three major abundance peaks were observed in the months of July, October and January/February (Fig. 1). Earlier, Kunte (2005) had observed peak butterfly activity from October to January/February at Nilgiri and Anamalai Hills of southern Western Ghats. Our results are in accordance with his observation. Butterfly population rapidly declined during the period March to June. Usually, in southern India, these months are very hot (Maximum temperature 340C). Moreover, factors such as scarcity of water, poor nectar and dry vegetation, results in less butterfly abundance and lower survival ability of most species. Swaay (1990) suggests that butterflies, like any other insects are very vulnerable to changes in their environment because of their specialized life cycle. Any minor to major abiotic stress may lead to substantial decline to complete dwindling of the butterfly species and thus the change in butterfly diversity can be used as an indicator of environmental degradation. Figure 2 describes butterfly abundance patterns during different seasons. More number of adult butterflies were observed during the periods of NEM and winter followed by SWM and summer. In southern plains, ideal breeding season for most of the butterflies is NEM and it continues till winter. This is due to the fact that during these seasons Tamil Nadu receives sufficient rain (Mean 744.5mm) and prevalence of conducive temperature (280C) (Table 2). These two factors are vital to both butterflies as well as larval host plants. In tropical region with distinct wet 1404

SWM SWM NEM NEM Winter Winter Summer Summer

Papilionidae Lycaeniidae

Papilionidae

Families

Hesperiidae Papilionidae

Hesperiidae

and dry seasons, many insect species attain maximum adult abundance during the wet seasons (Didham & Springate 2003; Tiple & Khurad 2009). In agreement with above observation, the present study also revealed that the butterfly abundance and species diversity were more during wet season (NEM) than in other periods. In India the monsoons govern, distribution of butterfly communities (Didham & Springate 2003; Hill et al. 2003; Kunte 2005; Padhye et al. 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009) to a large extent. Many researchers have reported that butterflies are good responders to changes in the environment (Kunte 1997; Arun 2002; Borkar & Komarpant 2004; Kunte 2005; Padhye et al. 2006; Tiple et al. 2006; 2007; Joshi 2007; Mathew & Anto 2007; Krishnakumar et al. 2008). The relationships between butterflies and climate are complex, involving all four stages of the life cycle. Food habits among species (Gilbert & Singer 1975; Kitahara et al. 2000) also influence the relationships between climate and butterfly diversity and abundance (South wood 1975). Some predominant host plants such as, Lantana camara, Lucas aspera, Tridax procumbens, Mimosa pudica, Gomphrena serrata, Vernonia cinerea, Tephrosia purpurea, Canthium dicoccum, Euphorbia antliquaram, Crotalaria verucosa, Heliotropium indicum, Calotropis gigantean have appeared to play major role on diversity and abundance patterns of butterfly communities at Kalpakkam. Some butterfly species were observed in more numbers and a few of them were seen at particular season. In our observation 13 unique species (seen only in single season) were recorded during NEM. Similarly four unique species

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

Hesperiidae

Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

Expected No. of species

SWM

NEM

Winter

K.J. Hussain et al. Jaccard cluster analysis (Single link)

Summer

40 30

Summer

NEM

20 Winter

10 0

100 150 200 Number of individuals

250

300

SWM

Figure 4. Sample based rarefaction curve for the different seasons

were observed in the SWM and only two unique species were observed during the winter (Table 2). This interesting pattern is not only due to the density/ availability of the host plants, but also probably due to the phenophases of the host plants (Kunte 2000-01). Among overall family abundance, the Nymphalidae was preponderant during all the seasons, followed by Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Papilionidae. Abundance of Nymphalidae remained same during all seasons except during summer. On other hand, Pieridae and Lycaenidae populations fluctuated widely during all the seasons. Pieridae abundance was more during NEM, whereas Lycaenidae was more during winter. Seasonal preference of different groups could be the possible reasons and this gives rise to the emergence of unique species. Thus the presence of the unique species altered the entire population trend and changed

0 % Similarity

100

Figure 5. Jaccard similarity matrix dendrogram (presence and absence) comparing different seasons by their butterfly species assemblage

the community composition (Fig. 3). Seasonal richness: Estimates of species richness during different seasons are expressed through sample based rarefaction (Fig. 4). Expected number of species have been plotted against occurrence of individuals. This plot provides a measure of species diversity which is robust to sample size effect permitting comparison between communities. Steep curves indicate more diverse communities. A striking point of an examination of the rarefaction curves is that during NEM period highest curvature was noticed indicating more diverse communities which also coincided with field observation. This means that species richness per occurrence of individuals was highest in this season. The other extreme season was summer during which relatively low species richness was observed.

Table 3. Abiotic and butterfly variation in different months Year-Month

Temperature (°C)

Humidity (%)

Rainfall (mm)

Rainy days

Richness

Abundance

2008-June

32.7 (30.5)*

53.7 (73.1)*

12.5

164

2008-July

31.2 (30.7) *

65.5 (73.5) *

207

2008-August

30.0 (29.3) *

72.9 (75.8) *

104.5

158

2008-September

28.9 (29.3) *

73.9 (79.8) *

194

2008-October

28.8 (28.2) *

75.0 (83.8) *

307

311

2008-November

28.6 (26.5) *

71.9 (83.7) *

349

218

2008-December

28.0 (26.3) *

67.5 (80.9) *

88.5

184

2009-January

27.3 (27.3) *

65.9 (80.0) *

18.5

239

2009-February

28.2 (27.4) *

65.2 (79.8) *

Nil

233

2009-March

29.1 (27.9) *

71.4 (81.7) *

131

2009-April

31.4 (31.2) *

68.6 (81.9) *

Nil

2009-May

32.6 (30.6) *

65.5 (77.4) *

*Data in parenthesis is mean of 10 years (source: Kalpakkam Meteorological Station)

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

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Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

K.J. Hussain et al.

Table 4. Correlation between weather parameter and butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam FactorsÂ

Temp. (Â°C)

Humidity

Rainfall (mm)

Rainy day

Richness

Temp. (Â°C)

Humidity

-0.506

Rainfall (mm)

-0.316

0.524

Rainy day

-0.237

0.561*

0.889**

Richness

-0.578*

0.111

0.454

0.489

Abundance

-0.652*

0.225

0.547

0.566*

0.918**

Abundance

* significant at < 0.05; ** significant at < 0.01

SWM period appeared to have comparatively steeper rarefaction curve, indicating relatively high evenness as compared with most other communities, whereas winter has relatively low evenness. Cluster analysis: The clustering of species based on their presence and absence during different seasonal periods was compared by using Jaccard single linkage clustering (Fig. 5). The similarity matrix showed that SWM and winter formed a single cluster group. This indicated that both periods having the similar species composition, while NEM and summer periods behaved as independent period. Eventhough the above finding conforms the seasonal variability in species composition, the scale of variability was just 10-15 %, which is not significant. This clearly showed that entire butterfly community was made up of large proportion of common species of general nature. Abundance, richness and their correlation with weather parameters: Butterflies prefer a suitable climatic condition and they respond reasonably to even subtle the change in climate, which has been attributed to the fact that their entire life directly depend on temperature and monsoons. Mathew & Anto (2007) have reported that temperature ranges between 2729 0C and humidity ranging between 60-80 % are the most favourable for butterfly growth. In present study, the period between September to February (NEM and winter) was found to be conducive for butterfly community, which was mainly due to the optimum temperature and high humidity. Earlier studies (Kunte 2000-01; Padhye et al. 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009) also suggest that temperature and precipitation are two vital factors which influence butterflies richness and population directly. Their abundance and richness increased with decreasing temperature and increasing humidity, the abundance drastically decreased at higher temperature during summer months which 1406

ranged from March to May (Tables 2 & 3). Increase in temperature during summer and increase in relative humidity during rainy seasons significantly influenced the population buildup and communities at Kalpakkam. Similar findings have been reported from elsewhere where in the population was correlated negatively with temperature and positively with relative humidity (Mathew & Anto 2007). The correlation analysis between weather parameter and butterfly diversity and abundance at Kalpakkam is given in Table 4. During the present study increased number of butterfly species was associated with wetter seasons, and their abundance fluctuation was positively correlated with richness (R = 0.918, p = <0.01%) (Woods et al. 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009). Temperature was negatively correlated with richness (R = -0.578, p = <0.05) and abundance (R = -0.652, p = <0.05). It is known fact that high temperature negatively affects butterfly abundance, life cycle and activity (Roy et al. 2001). It is known that elevated atmospheric temperature affects adversely the butterfly abundance, life cycle and their psychological activity (Roy et al. 2001). In the present investigation the Plain Tiger and Tawny Castor were observed during all the seasons and significant numbers were observed even during summer. In this context it is worth mentioning that species present during summer and presumed to be well adapted species are hardly the ones well adapted to other seasons.

Conclusion Nymphalidae was found to be the dominant family during all seasons, and October and January appeared to be the most favourable period for butterflies in the DAE campus. Moreover, the NEM periods followed

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

K.J. Hussain et al.

Appendix 1. Seasonal abundance (mean) and list of butterfly species recorded in Kalpakkam Family / Subfamily

Scientific name

Common name

SWM

NEM

Winter

Summer

Papilionidae 1

Papilioninae

Atrophaneura aristolochiae (Fabricius, 1775)

Common Rose

Papilioninae

Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus, 1758)

Tailed Jay (Image 2)

Papilioninae

Papilio polytes (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Mormon

Papilioninae

Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus, 1758)

Crimson Rose

Papilioninae

Papilio demoleus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Lime Butterfly (Image 3)

2 1

Pieridae 6

Coliadinae

Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus, 1758)

Mottled Emigrant

Coliadinae

Catopsilia Pomona (Fabricius, 1775)

Common Emigrant

Coliadinae

Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Grass Yellow (Image 4)

7 9

Pierinae

Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius, 1793)

Pioneer (Image 5)

Pierinae

Appias libythea Fabricius, 1775

Striped Albatross

Pierinae

Cepora nerissa (Fabricius, 1795)

Common Gull

Pierinae

Colotis amata (Fabricius, 1775)

Small Salmon Arab

Pierinae

Colotis danae (Fabricius, 1775)

Crimson Tip (Image 6)

Pierinae

Colotis etrida (Boisduval, 1836)

Little Orange Tip

Pierinae

Colotis eucharis (Fabricius, 1775)

Plain Orange Tip

Pierinae

Delias eucharis (Drury, 1773)

Common Jezebel

Pierinae

Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus, 1758)

Great Orange Tip

Pierinae

Pareronia valeria (Cramer, 1776)

Common Wanderer

Pierinae

Leptosia nina (Fabricius, 1793)

Psyche (Image 7)

Pierinae

Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus, 1764)

Yellow Orange Tip

5 1 1

Nymphalidae 21

Biblidinae

Ariadne merione (Cramer, 1777)

Common Castor (Image 8)

Danainae

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Plain Tiger (Image 9)

Danainae

Danaus genutia (Cramer, 1779)

Striped Tiger (Image 10)

Danainae

Euploea core (Cramer, 1780)

Common Crow (Image 11)

Danainae

Tirumala limniace (Cramer, 1775)

Blue Tiger (Image 12)

Danainae

Tirumala septentrionis (Butler, 1874)

Dark Blue Tiger

Heliconiinae

Acraea violae(Fabricius, 1793)

Tawny Coster

Heliconiinae

Phalanta phalantha (Drury, 1773)

Common Leopard

Limenitidinae

Neptis hylas (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Sailer (Image 13)

Nymphalinae

Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus, 1758)

Great Eggfly (Image 14)

Nymphalinae

Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus, 1764)

Danaid Eggfly

Nymphalinae

Junonia orithya (Linnaeus, 1764)

Blue Pansy

Nymphalinae

Junonia iphita (Cramer, 1779)

Chocolate Pansy (Image 15)

Nymphalinae

Junonia atlites (Linnaeus, 1763)

Grey Pansy (Image 16)

Nymphalinae

Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus, 1758)

Lemon Pansy (Image 17)

Nymphalinae

Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758)

Peacock Pansy (Image 18)

Nymphalinae

Junonia hierta (Fabricius, 1798)

Yellow Pansy (Image 19)

Nymphalinae

Cynthia cardui (Linnaeus, 1758)

Painted Lady (Image 20)

Satyrinae

Melanitis leda (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Evening Brown

Satyrinae

Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius, 1775)

Common Bush Brown

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4 4 2

1 1

3 1

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Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam Family / Subfamily

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Scientific name

Common name

SWM

NEM

Winter

Summer

Lycaenidae 41

Curetinae

Curetis thetis (Drury, 1773)

Indian Sunbeam

Polyommatinae

Azanus ubaldus (Cramer, 1782)

Bright Babul Blue

Polyommatinae

Castalius rosimon (Fabricius, 1775)

Common Pierrot (Image 21)

Polyommatinae

Catochrysops strabo (Fabricius, 1793)

* Forget Me Not

Polyommatinae

Chilades lajus (Stoll, 1780)

Lime Blue

Polyommatinae

Everes lacturnus (Godart, 1824)

Indian Cupid

Polyommatinae

Jamidesceleno celeno (Cramer, 1775)

Common Cerulean

Polyommatinae

Leptotes plinius (Fabricius, 1793)

Zebra Blue

Polyommatinae

Pseudozizeeria maha (Kollar, 1844)

Pale Grass Blue

Polyommatinae

Zizina otis (Fabricius, 1787)

* Lesser Grass Blue

Theclinae

Arhopala amantes (Hewitson, 1862)

* Large Oakblue

Theclinae

Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius, 1775)

Common Silverline

4 3

1 7

5 13

Hesperiidae 53

Hesperiinae

Parnara guttata (Bremer & Grey, 1852)

Common Straight Swift

Hesperiinae

Suastus gremius (Fabricius, 1798)

* Indian Palm Bob

Pyrginae

Gomalia elma (Trimen, 1862)

* African Mallow Skipper

Pyrginae

Spialia galba (Fabricius, 1793)

Indian Grizzled Skipper Total (56 Species)

204

287

1 248

*recorded only during inventory, hence, not included in data

Image 2. Tailed Jay Graphium agamemnon

Image 3. Lime Butterfly Papilio demoleus

by winter are more diverse and denser seasons for these insects. From cluster analysis it was clear that the overall species assemblage variability was very

meager. This was due to the dominance of generalist species rather than seasonal specialists. It was also observed that NEM harboured more seasonal specialist

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Image 5. Pioneer Anaphaeis aurota

Image 4. Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe

Image 6. Crimson Tip Colotis danae

Image 7. Psyche Leptosia nina

Image 9. Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus

Image 8. Common Castor Ariadne merione Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1401-1414

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Image 10. Striped Tiger Danaus genutia

K.J. Hussain et al.

Image 11. Common Crow Euploea core

Image 12. Blue Tiger Tirumala limniace

Image 13. Common Sailer Neptis hylas 1410

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Butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam

Image 15. Choclate Pansy Junonia iphita

K.J. Hussain et al.

Image 14. Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina

Image 16. Grey Pansy Junonia atlites

Image 17. Lemon Pansy Junonia hierta

Image 18. Peacock Pansy Junonia almana

Image 19. Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta

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Image 20. Painted Lady Cynthia cardui

species than other seasons. In the present study we observed that the temperature range of 27-29 0C and relative humidity between 80-85 % were most suitable climatic conditions for the coastal plain butterfly assemblage.

References Anu, A., T.K. Sabu & P.J. Vineesh (2009). Seasonality of litter insects and relationship with rainfall in a wet evergreen forest in south Western Ghats. Journal of Insect Science 9: 46. available online: insectscience.org/9.46 Ambrose, D.P. & D.S. Raj (2005). Butterflies of KalakadMundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. Zoos’ Print Journal 20(12): 2100-2107. Anu, A. (2006). Entomofaunal Dynamics and Biochemistry of Litter Decomposition in a Natural Forest with Special Reference to the Systematics of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae). PhD Dissertation. University of Calicut, Kerala, India. Arun, P.B. & P.A. Azeez (2003). On the butterflies of Puyankutty forest, Kerala, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 18(12): 1276-1279. Arun, P.R. (2002). Butterflies of Siruvani forest of Western Ghats, with notes on their seasonality. Zoos’ Print Journal 18(2): 1003-1006. Bhalodia, K., V.J. Bhuva, S.M. Dave & V.C. Soni (2002). Butterflies of Vansda national park, Gujarat. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(10): 903-904. Bhuyan, M., R.P. Bhattacharyya & P.B. Kanjilal (2005). Butterflies of the Regional Reserch Laboratory Campus, Jorhat, Assam. Zoos’ Print Journal 20(6): 1910-1911. 1412

Image 21. Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon

Borkar, M.R. & N. Komarpant (2004). Diversity, abundance and habitat associations of butterfly species in Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary of Goa, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 19(10): 1648- 1653. Caldas, A. & R.K. Robbins (2003). Modified Pollard transects for assessing tropical butterfly abundance and diversity. Biological Conservation 110: 211–219. Chandra, K., L.K. Chaudhary, R.K. Singh & M.L. Koshta (2002). Butterflies of Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(10): 908-909. Chandra, K., R.M. Sharma, A. Singh & R.K. Singh (2007). A checklist of butterflies of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh states, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(8): 2790-2798. Chandrakar, M., S. Palekar & S. Chandkar (2007). Butterfly fauna of Melghat region, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(7): 2762-2764. Devy, M.S. & D. Priya (2001). Response of wet forest butterflies to selective logging in Kalakad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve: Implications for conservation. Current Science 80(3): 400-405. Didham, R.K. & N.D. Springate (2003). Determinants of temporal variation in community structure. pp. 28-39 In: Basset, Y., V. Novotny, S.E. Miller & R.L. Kitching (eds.). Arthropods of Tropical Forests. Spatio-temporal Dynamics and Resource Use in the Canopy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Dolia, J., M.S. Devy, N.A. Aravind & A. Kumar (2008). Adult butterfly communities in coffee plantations around a protected area in the Western Ghats, India. Animal Conservation 11: 26–34. Erhardt, A. (1985). Diurnal Lepidoptera: sensitive indicators

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of cultivated and abandoned grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology 22: 849-862. Eswaran, R. & P. Pramod (2005). Structure of butterfly community of Anaikatty hills, Western Ghats. Zoos’ Print Journal 20(8): 1939-1942. Gajendiran, n. & S. Ragupathy (2002). The macroflora of east coast at Kalpakkam. Report submitted to Director IGCAR. Kalpakkam. Gilbert, L.E. & M.C. Singer (1975). Butterfly ecology. Annual Review in Ecological Systematics 6: 365-397. Gunathilagaraj, K., T.N.A. Perumal, K. Jayaram & M.G. Kumar (1998). Some South Indian Butterflies: Field Guide. Project Lifescape, Indian Academy of Science, Bangalore, 274pp. Hill, J.K., K.C. Hamer, M. Dawood, J. Tangah & V.K. Chey (2003). Interactive effects of rainfall and selective logging on a tropical forest butterfly in Sabah, Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology 19: 1–8. Hussain, K.J., K.K. Satpathy, M.V.R. Prasad, V.T. Sridharan, T. Ramesh & M. Selvanayagam (2008). Faunal Diversity Assessment at Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) Campus, Kalpakkam. IGCAR 268pp. Joshi, P.C. (2007). Community structure and habitat selection of butterflies in Rajaji National Park, a moist deciduous forest in Uttaranchal, India. Tropical Ecology 48(1): 119123. Kitahara, M., K. Sei & K. Fujii (2000). Patterns in the structure of grassland butterfly communities along a gradient of human disturbance: further analysis based on the generalist/ specielist concept. Population Ecology 42: 135-144. Koh, L.P. & N.S. Sodhi (2004). Importance of reserves, fragments and parks for butterfly conservation in a tropical urban landscape. Ecological Applications 14: 1695-1708. Kremen, C. (1992). Assessing the indicator properties of species assemblages for natural areas monitoring. Ecological Applications 2: 203-217. Krishnakumar, N., A. Kumaraguru, K. Thiyagesan & S. Asokan (2008). Diversity of papililonid butterflies in the Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuary, Western Ghats, southern India. Tiger Paper 35: 1-8. Kumar, M.P.M.P., B.B. Hosetti, H.C. Poomesha & H.T.R. Gowda (2007). Butterflies of the Tiger Lion Safari, Thyavarekoppa, Shimoga, Karnataka. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(8): 2805. Kunte, K. (1997). Seasonal patterns in butterfly abundance and species diversity in four tropical habitats in the northern Western Ghats. Journal of Bioscience 22: 593-603. Kunte, K. (2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press Limited, Hyderabad, India, 254pp. Kunte, K. (2000–01). Butterfly diversity of Pune city along the human impact gradient. Journal of Ecological Society 13&14: 40-45. Kunte, K. (2005). Species composition, sex-ratios and movement patterns in Danaine butterfly migrations in southern India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 102(3): 280-286.

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McAleece, N., P.J.D, Lambshead & P.L.J. Paterson (1997). BiodiversityPro (Version 2). The Natural History Museum, London. Mathew, G. & M. Anto (2007). In situ conservation of butterflies through establishment of butterfly gardens: A case study at Peechi, Kerala, India. Current Science 93(3): 337-347. Nair, V.P. (2002). Butterflies of the Government College campus, Madappally, Kozhikode District, Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(10): 911-912. Padhye A.D., N. Dahanukar, M. Paingankar, M. Deshpande & D. Deshpande (2006). Season and landscape wise distribution of butterflies in Tamhini, northern Western Ghats, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(3): 2175-2181. Palot, M.J. & V.P. Soniya (2003). A preliminary report on the butterflies of Lonar Crater Lake, Buldhana District, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 18(11): 1267-1268. Pollard, Ε. (1991). Monitoring butterfly numbers: p. 87. In: Goldsmith, F.B. (ed.). Monitoring for Conservation and Ecology, Chapman and Hall, London. Rane, N.S & S.P. Ranade (2004). Butterflies of Tamhini Dongarwadi area, Mulshi, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 19(3): 1411-1413. Roy, D.B., P. Rothery, D. Moss, E. Pollard & J.A. Thomas (2001). Butterfly numbers and weather: predicting historical trends in abundance and the future effects of climate change. Journal of Animal Ecology 70: 201-217. Rufus, K.C. & S.P. Sabarinathan (2007). A checklist of butterflies of Thengumarahada in the Nilgiris, southern India. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(9): 2837-2838. Shanthi, R., K.J. Hussain & K.P. Sanjayan (2009). Influence of weather on the incidence of sucking pest complex on summer-irrigated cotton crops of Tamil Nadu. Hexapoda 16(1): 89-92. Soniya, V.P. & M.J. Palot (2002). On a collection of butterflies from paddy field ecosystem of Palakkad District, Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(7): 829. Southwood, T.R.E. (1975). The dynamics of insect populations. pp. 151-199. In: Pimentel, D. (ed.). Insects, Science, and Society. Academic Press, New York. Sreekumar, P.G. & M. Balakrishnan (2001). Habitat and altitude preferences of butterflies in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. Tropical Ecology 42(2): 277-281. Swaay, C.A.M (1990). An Assessment of the Changes in Butterfly Abundance in The Netherlands during the 20th Century. Biological Conservation 52: 287-302 Tiple, A.D., V.P. Deshmukh & R.L.H. Dennis (2006). Factors influencing nectar plant resource visits by butterflies on a university campus: implications for conservation. Nota Lepidopterologica 28: 213–224. Tiple, A.D., A.M. Khurad & R.L.H. Dennis (2007). Butterfly diversity in relation to a human-impact gradient on an Indian university campus. Nota Lepidopterologica 30(1): 179-188. Tiple, A.D. & A.M. Khurad (2009). Butterfly Species Diversity, Habitats and Seasonal Distribution in and around

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Nagpur City, Central India. World Journal of Zoology 4(3): 153-162 Walpole, M.J. & I.R. Sheldon (1999). Sampling butterflies in tropical rainforest: an evaluation of a transect walk method. Biological Conservation 87: 85â&#x20AC;&#x201C;91. Williams, C.B. (1927). A study of butterfly migration in south India and Ceylon, based largely on records by Mssrs. G. Evershed, E.E. Green, J.C.F. Fryer and W. Ormiston. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 75: 1-33. Williams, C.B. (1930). The Migration of Butterflies. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, London, 473pp. Williams, C.B. (1938). The migration of butterflies in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 40: 439-457. Woods, J.N., J. Wilson & J.R. Runkle (2008). Influence of Climate on Butterfly Community and Population Dynamics in Western Ohio. Environmental Entomology 37(3): 696-706.

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Author Details: Dr. K. Jahir Hussain has obtained his MSc and MPhil in Zoology from Madurai Kamaraj University and PhD from the University of Madras in the year 2007. He has published a book on Biodiversity of DAE campus, Kalpakkam. He is presently working on biodiversity conservation and environmental impact assessment in IGCAR and designated as visiting scientist. Shri. T. Ramesh is a research scholar since 2008, after successfully completing his M.Sc and M.Phil in Zoology from Madurai Kamaraj University. He has enrolled for PhD under the guidance of Dr. M. Selvanayagam. Dr. K.K. Satpathy is an environmental scientist with several papers and books to his credit. Presently he is head, Environmental and Safety Division and Chairman, Environmental Empowered Task Force of IGCAR. Prof. M. Selvanayagam is a well known zoologist from Loyola College, Chennai and he is the director of Loyola Institute of Frontier Energy.

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JoTT Communication

3(1): 1415-1424

Breeding biology of the Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus (Aves: Pycnonotidae) in the Western Ghats, India Peroth Balakrishnan Division of Conservation Ecology, Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641108, India & Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, c/o. Anupallavi, Chungathara, Nilambur, Kerala 679334, India Current address: Department of Zoology, NSS College, Manjeri, Kerala 676122, India Email: baluperoth@gmail.com

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Ignacy Kitowski Manuscript details: Ms # o2381 Received 02 January 2010 Final received 05 November 2010 Finally accepted 20 December 2010 Citation: Balakrishnan, P. (2011). Breeding biology of the Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus (Aves: Pycnonotidae) in the Western Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1415-1424. Copyright: © Peroth Balakrishnan 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Author Details: see end of this article. Acknowledgements: This study was funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Logistical support and permission to use field stations were provided by the Forests and Wildlife Department of Kerala. I am grateful to Drs. V.S. Vijayan, L. Vijayan, R. Sankaran (late), P.A. Azeez, P. Pramod, T.V. Sajeev, L.D.C. Fishpool, K.S.A. Das, S. Manchi and D. Mukherjee and M. Vimal for generous support and discussions during the study. I am obliged to Drs. K. Swarupanandan, N. Venkatasubramanian, K. Kunhikannan, V.S. Ramanchandran and T.S. Nayar and P.S. Jothish and S. Suresh for help with plant identification. Karuppusamy, Jose, Mohandas, Mahesh, Sainudheen, Kaliappan and Mari provided field assistance. I am grateful to Drs. V.S. Vijayan, Will Cresswell, N.S. Sodhi, G. Ritchison, N.V. Joshi, K.S.A. Das and A.P. Zaibin, T.N. Bindu and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript.

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Abstract: The breeding biology of the endemic Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus was studied from 2003 to 2005 in Silent Valley National Park, Western Ghats, India. Nests were located during three field seasons from the arrival (December) to the dispersal of the birds (June) and collected data on various breeding parameters, availability of fruits and weather conditions. All nests were found in mid-elevation evergreen forests ranging from 900 to 1,400 m elevation. Breeding occurred in the drier months (January–May), which coincides with high fruit availability. Nest building lasted 3–8 days. Majority of the nests (>72%; n = 39) were built on two plant species (Ochlandra travancorica and saplings of Syzygium sp.) and the mean nest height was 1.52 ± 0.80 m (n = 52). Nests were randomly oriented around the nesting plants with a mean vector of orientation equaling 160.450. The clutch size averaged 1.53 ± 0.50 eggs (range = 1–2; n = 47). Incubation and nestling periods were 13 ± 0.87 (n = 9) and 12 ± 0.50 (n = 9) days, respectively. Overall nest success was 10.79%. Nest success rates varied among incubation and nestling periods. Grey-headed Bulbul exhibit life-history traits associated with low productivity such as short breeding season, low clutch size, fewer broods per year and high predation rates indicating that deterioration of breeding habitats might seriously hamper the long-term survival of the species. Keywords: Breeding biology, Grey-headed Bulbul, life-history traits, nesting success, Pycnonotus priocephalus, Silent Valley, tropical forests, Western Ghats.

Introduction Information on life history traits, especially for rare species, are essential for estimating and understanding population growth rates (Stahl & Oli 2006), and predicting responses to environmental changes to be able to develop appropriate conservation management strategies (Martin 1996; Newton 1998; BirdLife International 2000; Both & Visser 2005). Yet, breeding biology and life history traits of most tropical birds are poorly known and large groups like bulbuls are no exception (Stutchbury & Morton 2001; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). The family Pycnonotidae (bulbuls) comprises about 140 species and 355 taxa, widespread in southern Asia, Africa, Madagascar and islands of the western Indian Ocean (Sibley & Monroe 1990; Fishpool & Tobias 2005; Woxwold et al. 2009). The reproductive traits of only a few widespread and lowland pycnonotids have been studied in Asia and Africa (e.g., Liversidge 1970; Vijayan 1975, 1980; Walting 1983; Ali & Ripley 1987; Hsu & Lin 1997; Kruger 2004; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Here, I report the first study of the reproductive biology of the Grey-headed Bulbul, Pycnonotus priocephalus (Image 1), one of the 16 restricted-range bird species of the Western Ghats, southern India

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Image 1. Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus, the study species.

(Stattersfield et al. 1998). It has a very limited distribution in the heavy rainfall areas along the southwestern side of India from Belgaum and Goa south through Kerala including the Nilgiris, Palnis, western Mysore and Coorg from plains to 1,400m (Ali & Ripley 1987; Balakrishnan 2007). Although Greyheaded Bulbuls are reported from the moist deciduous, scrub, and evergreen forests in the rain shadow areas, the breeding of the species is restricted to the midelevation west coast tropical evergreen forests (c. 50km2) between 700m and 1,400m in Silent Valley National Park (Balakrishnan 2007). The species was listed as Least Concern (BirdLife International 2008) based on the qualitative descriptions in Ali & Ripley (1987) and Grimmett et al. (1998). A recent survey of the Grey-headed Bulbul along the Western Ghats revealed rarity and natural patchy occurrence within evergreen forests and seasonal altitudinal movements (Balakrishnan 2007). Following this the species has been uplisted to Near Threatened category (BirdLife International 2010). Owing to these attributes together with continuing habitat loss and degradation, it is essential to understand key life history traits including developmental periods and survival rates of Greyheaded Bulbul. The objectives of the present study was to obtain information on the breeding season, nesting plants, nest placement, clutch sizes, developmental periods, nesting success and causes of nest failures 1416

and compare this information with available data for other bulbuls.

Materials and Methods Study area This study was conducted in the core area of Silent Valley National Park (11000’-11015’N & 76015’76035’E, area: 89.52km2, elevation: 658-2,383 m) in the Western Ghats, India, during January 2003 through May 2005. The climate is typically tropical, with mean annual rainfall above 5,000mm, which falls mostly during the south-west monsoon period (May– September). January to March are comparatively drier months. From June to December the relative humidity is often high, around 95%. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures at Silent Valley during the study period were 25.80C and 19.80C, respectively. The general vegetation in the area is typical wet evergreen with montane sholas (forests) and grasslands at higher elevations. Within the study sites, the distribution and breeding of Grey-headed Bulbul was recorded only in the evergreen forests. The vegetation in the breeding habitat is dominated by large evergreen trees such as Cullenia exarillata, Canarium strictum, Calophyllum elatum, Elaeocarpus serratus, Myristica dactyloides, Mesua ferrea, Elaeocarpus munronii, Syzygium

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spp., Palaquium ellipticum, Persea macrantha and Poeciloneuron sp. The sub-canopy and understorey is dominated by species such as Clerodendrum viscosum, Maesa indica, Chloranthus brachystachys, Ochlandra travancorica and several Strobilanthes species. Field methods I located and monitored nests of Grey-headed Bulbul during three breeding seasons from the arrival (December) to the dispersal of the birds (June) in 2003 through 2005. I recorded 20, 23 and 25 pairs of Grey-headed Bulbul from the intensive study area during 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons respectively and a total of 54 nests during this period. Since the species is extremely shy and finding nests from the large stretch of understorey patches was very difficult, most of the nests were located by observing the behaviour of adult birds (carrying nest materials and food and frequent visits to certain patches; Martin & Guepel 1993). Breeding seasonality was determined from the nesting records of each month during three years. To examine whether the seasonal variation in fruit availability influences the timing of breeding, I monitored 25 plant species that comprised >90% of their fruit diet in two transects of 2,000 x 20 m. These plants include 15 trees (Antidesma menasu, Callicarpa tomentosa, Clerodendrum viscosum, Allophyllus cobbe, Litsea floribunda, Litsea stocksii, Olea dioica, Oreocnide integrifolia, Persea macrantha, Symplocos cochinchinensis, Symplocos racemosa, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium sp., Viburnum sp. and Ziziphus rugosa), six shrubs (Chloranthus brachystachyus, Lantana camara, Leea indica, Maesa indica, Psychotria nigra and Polygonam chinense), three lianas (Rubia cordifolia, Rubus ellipticus and Smilax sp.) and one epiphyte (Scurrola parasitica). I quantified the number of species and percent of individuals fruiting per month as an indicator of fruit availability. Weather data were collected from the Walakkad forest station of the Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department. The breeding status including the dates of nest construction, egg laying, incubation and nestlings were recorded every day for each nest found. Nest contents were determined by using a mirror and pole for inaccessible nests. Nests that fledged at least one young were considered successful. Observations of fledgling in or near nest, or parents feeding new

P. Balakrishnan

fledglings in the general area of the nest were taken as evidence of a successful nest. Depredation was assumed when eggs or nestlings (when too young to fledge) disappeared (Martin & Roper 1988). Various aspects of nest placement such as nest plant species, nest height (height of the nest above ground), relative height (height of nest above ground divided by the height of the plant) and height of nesting plant were measured in the field immediately after the fledging of the young. Orientation of the nests relative to the main stem was recorded for all nests. Compass bearings of nests were recorded to the nearest degree using a Suunto MCA-D compass. Data analysis The influence of temperature, rainfall and availability of fruits on the breeding season was tested using Spearman rank correlation (Zar 1999). Nesting success of Grey-headed Bulbul was estimated from 47 intensively monitored nests by different methods. First, I calculated the apparent nesting success (number of successful nests divided by the total number of nests found). Second, I calculated the reproductive success as an index of the chick fledged versus eggs laid (see Vijayan 1980; Jehle et al. 2004), and finally, I used the Mayfield estimator (Mayfield 1975) to calculate the daily mortality and survival rates and nesting success. The daily mortality rate (m) was calculated by dividing the number of clutches that failed to survive by the total number of days all nests were under observation and exposed to loss. The daily survival rates (DSR) were calculated as, 1-number of failed nests/number of exposure days. Then, to obtain an estimate of nest survival over the entire nesting period, the daily survival rate is raised to the power equivalent to the average number of days (d) in the nesting period as, nest survival = (DSR)d. Nest survival for the entire nesting period and for incubation and nestling periods were calculated separately. The variance (v) and standard error (SE) are approximated for the estimator of daily survival probabilities by following Johnson (1979) and Hensler (1985). The null hypothesis of uniform distribution of nest orientation in all directions was tested by using Raoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spacing test (Zar 1999). Watson-Williams F test was used to test the variations in the orientations of moss and vine nests and successful and failed nests (Batschelet 1981; Bergin 1991; Zar 1999). Circular

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99 88 77 66 55 44 33 22 11 00

2003 2004 2005

Results Breeding season The Grey-headed Bulbul began arriving at the study sites by the third week of December. The breeding activities were commenced in January and the first egg laying dates were 2, 10 and 26 January for 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons respectively. I found 47 nests of Grey-headed Bulbul, 14, 15 and 18 nests during 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons respectively from Silent Valley. Additionally, seven more nests were located in the surrounding reserved forests (Nilambur and Mannarkkad forest divisions), but not included in the analysis except for nest placement attributes. Peak egg laying was observed in early April during 2004 and 2005 while it was in late March during 2003 (Fig. 1). The breeding season (January-May) of the species was positively correlated with maximum temperature (Spearman’s r = 0.660, n = 29, p < 0.01), number of species with fruits (Spearman’s

No. of species

F M A M Months J J A S O N D

Figure 1. Breeding season ofMonths Grey-headed Bulbul based on the number of clutches initiated per month during 20032005 at Silent Valley National Park

r = 0.895, n = 27, p < 0.01; Fig. 2) and % of individuals monitored fruited (Spearman’s r = 0.761, n = 27, p < 0.01; Fig. 2) and inversely correlated with the monthly rainfall (Spearman’s r = –0.373, n = 29, p < 0.05; Fig. 3). Although a negative trend exists, number of nests per month was not statistically correlated with the number of rainy days per month (Spearman’s r = –0.350, n = 29, p = 0.063; Fig. 3). Nest structure, placement and orientation Three types of nests were constructed based on the variation in the microhabitat. The dominant (n = 35) typical bulbul nests (hereafter: vine nests) were made mainly of vines and grasses and seen mostly in Strobilanthes patches. Second type of nests (hereafter: moss nests) constructed mainly with Ochlandra leaves

% of individuals

No. of nests 10

No. of species / % of individuals

60 40

20 10

No. of nests

statistics were computed using the statistical package Oriana (Kovach Computing Services 2004, Version 2.01c) and other analyses were performed using SPSS (SPSS Inc. 1999, Version 10.0). Results are reported as Mean ± SE values and a probability level of ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant and ≤ 0.01 was considered highly significant. The summary statistics for circular data are presented as mean vector (µ ± SE0).

No.ofofnests nests No.

Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus

J F MA M J J A S O N D J F MA M J J A S O N D J F MA M 2003

2004

2005

Figure 2. Relationship between breeding seasonality of Grey-headed Bulbul with the fruiting phenology of 25 major food plants at Silent Valley National Park. 1418

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Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus

Rainfall (cm)

No. of nests

200

150

100

No. of nests

Rainy days

250

No. of rainy days / rainfall (cm)

P. Balakrishnan

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F MA M J J A S O N D J F MA M 2003

2004

2005

Figure 3. Relationship between clutch initiations of Grey-headed Bulbul with monthly rainfall and number of rainy days/ month at Silent Valley National Park.

and green moss (n = 18) were located mostly in reedbamboo (Ochlandra travancorica) patches. A single nest, of a third type made with fresh green leaves was also recorded (Table 1). The construction time varied considerably between the two major nest types, 3–5 days for the vine nests (n = 4) and 6–8 days for moss nests (n = 2). Grey-headed Bulbul used 12 plant species for nesting. Nests were located on live plants except the four nests placed on dead branches of Ochlandra travancorica, Strobilanthes foliosus and sapling of Syzygium sp. Ochlandra travancorica (n = 21, 38.89%) and saplings of Syzygium sp. (n = 18, 33.33%) were the most used plant species, followed by Calamus pseudotenuis (n = 3), Lasianthus jackianus, Thottea siliquosa, and an un-identified shrub (two each) Oreocnide integrifolia, Antidesma menasu, Saprosma glomerata, Strobilanthes foliosus, Sarcococca coriacea and an unidentified sapling (one each). All the moss nests except one recorded on Strobilanthes foliosus were on Ochlandra travancorica. Of the 35 vine nests, 18 were on saplings of Syzygium sp. The nests were 1.52 ± 0.80 m (range = 0.52–4.8 m, n = 52) above the ground, and at a mean relative height of 0.61 ± 0.20 (range = 0.18–1.00, n = 52). All the nests were placed in the junctions of multiple branches, closer to the central stem except for the nests placed on Oreocnide integrifolia and Sarcococca coriacea. In general, there was no significant difference in the nest height (ANOVA: F2,48 = 0.737, p = 0.484), height of nesting plant (ANOVA: F2,48 = 0.353, p = 0.705), and relative nest height (ANOVA: F2,48 = 0.879, p =

0.422) between the breeding seasons. Nest placement attributes significantly varied between the moss and vine nests. The moss nests had higher nest heights (2.29 ± 0.20 m vs 1.08 ± 0.05 m; ANOVA: F1,48 = 51.540, p < 0.001) and were placed on taller plants compared to the vine nests (4.17 ± 0.33 m vs 1.90 ± 0.15 m; ANOVA: F1,48 = 51.281, p < 0.001). However, there was no difference in the relative nest heights between the moss and vine nests (0.59 ± 0.05 vs 0.63 ± 0.03; ANOVA: F1,48 = 0.939, p = 0.337). Nests were significantly non-uniformly oriented with clear avoidance of the north side of the nesting plants (mean vector, µ ± SE = 160.45 ± 9.230; Rao’s spacing test: U = 227.5, n = 48, p < 0.01). Nest orientation deviated significantly from random for both moss (Mean vector, µ ± SE = 190.88 ± 14.500; Rao’s spacing test, U = 180, p < 0.05) and vine nests (Mean vector, µ ± SE = 147.01 ± 10.910; Rao’s spacing test, U = 207.5, p < 0.01) and slightly differed between two nest types (Watson-Williams test: F1,45 = 5.56, p = 0.023). There was no variation in nest orientation between the successful (Mean Vector, µ ± SE = 141.26 ± 27.250) and failed nests (Mean vector, µ ± SE = 164.13 ± 9.720; Watson-Williams test: F1,46 = 0.864, p = 0.358). In general, the nests were placed in the leeward side of the nesting plants. Clutch size and developmental periods The average clutch size of Grey-headed Bulbul was 1.53 ± 0.50 eggs (range = 1–2 eggs, n = 47), with 53% of nests with two and remaining with one egg. Of the 31 vine nests monitored, 71% of nests were

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Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus Nesting parameters

P. Balakrishnan

2003 No.

2004 %

No.

2005 %

No.

Pooled %

No.

Total nests

Moss nests

42.86

26.67

27.78

31.91

Vine nests

50.00

73.33

72.22

65.96

Leaf nests

7.14

2.13

Nest with two eggs

57.14

40.00

61.11

53.19

Nest with one egg

42.86

60.00

38.89

46.81

Total eggs monitored

Egg predation\destruction

40.91

76.19

79.31

66.67

Chick hatched

59.09

23.81

20.69

33.33

Chick predation

15.38

40.00

66.67

37.50

Chick fledged

84.62

60.00

16.67

62.50

Overall nesting success*

50.00

14.29

3.45

*calculated as an index of chick fledged versus eggs laid.

with one egg and remaining with two eggs each. All the moss nests monitored (n = 15) produced two eggs each. There was a significant reduction in the clutch size by advance of the breeding season (Spearman’s r = –0.457, n = 46; p < 0.001). One egg was laid per day, and incubation started with the last egg. The mean incubation period for all the nests for which a complete record is available from the clutch completion to hatching was 13.00 ± 0.87days (range = 12–14 days, n = 9). Nestlings spent an average of 12 ± 0.50 days (range = 11–13 days, n = 9) in the nest. The overall period for incubation to fledgling lasted a mean of 25 ± 0.89 days (range = 24–26 days, n = 6). Thus the entire breeding cycle including the nest construction, egg laying and developmental periods completed within a month. Nest success Nine of 47 nests (19.15%) monitored fledged young, with successful nests producing 1.67 ± 0.50 young/nest. Apparent nesting success (successful nests/total nests found) varied significantly between the breeding years. The highest percentage of nesting success was in 2003 (42.86%), while it was 13.33% and 5.56% during 2004 and 2005, respectively. A total of 15 chicks were fledged from 72 eggs of 47 nests (20.83%). Egg mortality was quite heavy (66.67%) owing to high predation and varied significantly between breeding seasons. Out of 72 eggs laid, only 24 (33.33%) were hatched. Nine chicks disappeared from the nests due to predation (Table 1). Using 1420

20.83

Table 1. Breeding performance of Greyheaded Bulbul in Silent Valley National Park during 2003–2005.

Mayfield’s method, the daily survival rates were 0.899 ± 0.017 and 0.958 ± 0.018 during the incubation and nestling periods, respectively, and 0.915 ± 0.013 overall. The Mayfield nest success was 24.97% and 60.01% during the incubation and nestling periods, respectively, and 10.79% for the overall nesting period. Nest success differed among years, 32%, 5.69% and 4.53% respectively, for 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons (Table 2). There was no significant variation in the egg survival among the moss (25.42%) and vine nests (22.33%). However, chicks of moss nests had a significantly better chance of surviving the nestling period (100%) than vine nests (34.55%). Consequently, the overall nesting success of moss nests (16.66%) was significantly higher than the vine nests (6.52%, Table 3). Apparent nesting success also varied between the moss nests (26.67% of 15 nests) and vine nests (12.9% of 31 nests). The single leaf nest found in 2003 successfully fledged two chicks. More than 90% of the nest failures were due to predation and trampling. Nest predation was characterized by complete loss of the clutch or brood.

Discussion Breeding of open-country Pycnonotus species have been recorded in all months and some are known quite commonly to raise 3–5 broods in a year while breeding activities in the montane forest species tends to be suppressed during the wet and coldest months (Ali

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Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus

P. Balakrishnan

Table 2. Nest survival for Grey-headed Bulbul in different reproductive stages and breeding seasons. No. of successful nests

Nest exposure days

DMR a

DSR ± SE b

Nest survival variance

95% confidence interval c

Mayfield nest success

Incubation (47)

326

0.101

0.899 ± 0.017

2.791 x 10-4

0.866, 0.932

24.97

Nestling (14)

120

0.042

0.958 ± 0.018

3.328 x 10

-4

0.923, 0.994

60.01

Overall nesting (47)

446

0.085

0.915 ± 0.013

1.748 x 10

-4

0.889, 0.941

10.79

2003 (14)

180

0.044

0.956 ± 0.015

2.359 x 10-4

0.925, 0.987

2004 (15)

102

0.108

0.892 ± 0.028

8.050 x 10

-4

0.836, 0.947

5.69

2005 (18)

155

0.116

0.884 ± 0.027

7.047 x 10-4

0.832, 0.936

4.53

Reproductive period / Year (No. of nests monitored)

Nest exposure days are the total number of days that active nests were monitored; aDMR - daily mortality rate; bDSR - daily survival rate; cconfidence interval for daily probability of nest survival.

Mean ± SE

Reproductive period

Estimated parameter

Incubation

Nestling

Overall nesting

Moss nest n = 15

Vine nest n = 31

Daily survival rate Egg survival variance 95% confidence interval Percent success

0.900 ± 0.029 8.182 x 10-4 0.844, 0.956 25.42

0.891 ± 0.022 4.804 x 10-4 0.848, 0.934 22.33

Daily survival rate Chick survival variance 95% confidence interval Percent success

1.000 ± 0.000 0.000 1.000, 1.000 100

0.915 ± 0.036 1.315 x 10-3 0.844, 0.986 34.55

Daily survival rate Nest survival variance 95% confidence interval Percent success

0.931 ± 0.020 4.050 x 10-4 0.891, 0.970 16.66

0.897 ± 0.019 3.554 x 10-4 0.860, 0.933 6.52

& Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Breeding of Grey-headed Bulbul is highly seasonal (JanuaryMay; Fig. 1) and coincides with high fruit availability and absence of high rainfall (Fig. 2, 3). The general breeding patterns of the bird community at Silent Valley was also highly seasonal during the study period (Das 2008; P. Balakrishnan pers. obs.). Moreover, the breeding season of south Indian passerines is strongly related to the pre-monsoon during May to June, a month before the peak monsoon (Pramod & Yom-Tov 1999), so that the peak food demand of chicks coincides with the arrival of the monsoon (Ali & Ripley 1987). The heavy rainfall during longer south-west (June– September) monsoon may also restrict the breeding of open-cup nesting species to the drier months. The general fruiting pattern in Silent Valley National Park shows a bi-modal pattern with a higher peak during the late summer-early south-west monsoon (March–May) and a smaller peak in the early north-west monsoon (November-December) (Balakrishnan 2007). On the

Table 3. Daily survival probabilities of eggs and nestlings and percentage nesting success for the incubation, nestling and overall nesting periods estimated using Mayfield’s method for the different nest types of Grey-headed Bulbul in Silent Valley National Park.

other hand, food plant species of Grey-headed Bulbul showed a single peak which coincides with the first peak of general fruiting and breeding season of the study species. Thus, fruit availability is an important factor deciding the breeding season of Grey-headed Bulbul however, further studies on the availability of other food sources such as caterpillars are required to understand relative importance of weather conditions and food abundance in determining the timing of breeding. Nesting plant selection by Grey-headed Bulbul seems to be adaptive. Of the 12 plant species used for nesting, two species (Ochlandra travancorica and saplings of Syzygium sp.) together bear about 72% of nests. Besides giving enough support for nest placement, high foliage cover on the Ochlandra provides a camouflaging background to the moss nests. On the other hand, the liana draped Syzygium saplings with a dull background form a better camouflaged environment for the vine nests (background matching

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Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus

P. Balakrishnan

hypothesis: Martin 1988; Filliater et al. 1994; Hansell 2000). The differential nest placement attributes of Grey-headed Bulbul in Ochlandra and Strobilanthes patches are also adaptive to the respective microhabitats. The moss nests in the Ochlandra patches are placed above 2m well inside the foliage and thus camouflaged from the predators. On the other hand, the nests in the Strobilanthes patches are placed around one meter height in a pale background surrounded by dry stems and lianas. However, in both the habitats, nests were placed in the middle of the nesting plants. The nonuniform orientation of nests around the nest plants was towards the leeward directions of the nest sites and orientation did not affect the outcome of the nests. The nest construction period of Grey-headed Bulbul (3–8 days) was similar to that of other species (Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer: 2–5 days, Yellowthroated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus: 3–8 days, Cape Bulbul Pycnonotus capensis: 2–10 days; see Ali & Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Similarly the incubation (13 days) and nestling periods (12 days) of Grey-headed Bulbul fall within the range of the developmental periods reported for pycnonotids (11– 14 days and 10–13 days for incubation and nestling periods, respectively; Vijayan 1975, 1980; Ali & Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005; P. Balakrishnan pers. obs.). In most of the African and Asian species of bulbuls, the clutch usually consists of two or three eggs and many species known to lay four or five eggs (Ali & Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). The average clutch size of Grey-headed Bulbul was 1.53 ± 0.50 eggs with half of the nests producing a single egg (Table 1). This is one of the lowest clutch size reported for the pycnonotids (Ali & Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Intra-seasonal decline in the clutch size, which is a commonly observed pattern in several tropical and temperate birds (Hamann & Cooke 1989; Doligez & Clobert 2003), was also observed for the study species. The role of different mechanisms hypothesized to explain the clutch size reduction including seasonal variation in the food availability and predator abundance (Hamann & Cooke 1989; Martin 1992; Doligez & Clobert 2003) needs further experimental studies. Since the bulbuls were not colour marked, the estimation of the nesting attempts per year was unclear. Available data suggests that Grey-headed Bulbul is a single-brooded passerine, although, possibility of a 1422

replacement brood is not ruled out. Moreover, in spite of the extensive search in all territories, the number of nests recorded was fewer than the total number of pairs recorded in all the breeding seasons. The overall Mayfield nest success of Grey-headed Bulbul was low at 10.79% (with 24.97% for egg stage and 60.01% for the nestling stage; Table 2) compared to that of Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica and Squaretailed Black Bulbul Hypsipetes ganeesa which breeds in the same habitat (Balakrishnan 2009; 2010). Some authors have reported higher predation rates during the nestling period (reviewed in Martin 1992). However, I found higher predation during the egg stage as reported by others (e.g., Mermoz & Reboreda 1998). Nest predation rates of Grey-headed Bulbul appear to be significantly higher than that of the average rates (71%) recorded for the open cup-nesting tropical birds (Robinson et al. 2000; Stutchbury & Morton 2001). In southern India, the nesting success of lowland bulbuls was reported as 13.2% (15 chicks out of 114 eggs) for White-browed Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus and 8.3% (11 chicks out of 134 eggs) for Red-vented Bulbul (Vijayan 1975, 1980) and, this figure drops to 8% in the introduced population of Red-vented Bulbul in Fiji (Walting 1983). However, these studies are conducted in highly disturbed habitats and the species are known to raise several broods per year (Vijayan 1980; Ali & Ripley 1987; Fishpool & Tobias 2005). The nest losses of Grey-headed Bulbul were mainly caused by predation and trampling by large mammals such as Asian Elephant Elephas maximus and Sambar Deer Cervus unicolor. Nests in the Ochlandra patches, which are a major feeding ground for the elephants, seemed to be highly vulnerable. In the present study the direct evidence of predation is restricted to a single observation of egg predation by Jungle Striped Squirrel Funambulus tristriatus. The potential nest predators at the study site include White-bellied Treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra, Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda, Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis, and Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea, Indian Rat Snake Ptyas mucosa, Common Vine Snake Ahaetulla nasuta and several species of small mammals and snakes. Brood parasitism is a major problem for a number of African bulbuls (Krüger 2004) and two species of Asian bulbuls (Fishpool & Tobias 2005). However, no brood parasitism was observed in the Grey-headed Bulbul nests during this study.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1415-1424

Breeding biology of Pycnonotus priocephalus

The results of the present study show that timing of breeding and developmental periods of Grey-headed Bulbul is similar to that of many congeners or other tropical species. However, they exhibit several life history traits associated with low productivity such as relatively short breeding season, low clutch size (lowest in the genus), less number of broods per year and nesting failures due to predation. These atypical reproductive traits along with the restricted range, patchiness in occurrence and large-scale loss of lowland habitats in Western Ghats (Menon & Bawa 1997; Stattersfield et al. 1998; Mittermeier et al. 1999) suggests that any further deterioration of the breeding habitats might seriously hamper the long-term survival of Grey-headed Bulbul. Further research on the life history traits including the age of first reproduction, adult and juvenile survival and breeding success in other sites is also required before recommendations on effective conservation measures can be made.

References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 737pp. Balakrishnan, P. (2007). Status, distribution and ecology of the Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus in the Western Ghats, India. PhD Thesis. Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India, xvi + 223pp. Balakrishnan, P. (2009). Breeding biology and nest site selection of Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica in Western Ghats, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 106(2): 176–183. Balakrishnan, P. (2010). Reproductive biology of the squaretailed Black Bulbul Hypsipetes ganeesa in the Western Ghats, India. Indian Birds 5(5): 134–138. Batschelet, E. (1981). Circular Statistics in Biology. Academic Press, London, 371pp. Bergin, T.M. (1991). A comparison of goodness-of-fit tests for analysis of nest orientation in Western Kingbirds (Tymnnus verticalis). Condor 93: 164–171. BirdLife International (2000). Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Cambridge, 852pp. BirdLife International (2008). Species fact sheet: Pycnonotus priocephalus. <www.birdlife.org>. Downloaded on 15 February 2009. BirdLife International (2010). Species factsheet: Pycnonotus priocephalus. Downloaded from <http://www.birdlife.org> Downloaded on 25 October 2010. Both, C. & M.E. Visser (2005). The effect of climate change

P. Balakrishnan

on the correlation between avian life-history traits. Global Change Biology 11: 1606–1613. Das, K.S.A. (2008). Bird community structure along the altitudinal gradient in Silent Valley National Park, Western Ghats, India. PhD Thesis. Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Doligez, B. & J. Clobert (2003). Clutch size reduction as a response to increased nest predation rate in the Collared Flycatcher. Ecology 84: 2582-2588. Filliater, T.S., R. Breitwisch & P.M. Nealen (1994). Predation on northern cardinal nests: does choice of site matter? Condor 96: 761–768. Fishpool, L.D.C. & J.A. Tobias (2005). Family Pycnonotidae (bulbuls), pp. 124–253. In: del Hoyo, J., A. Eliott & D.A. Christie (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 10, Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 896pp. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998). Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Cristopher Helm–A & C Black Ltd, London, 384pp. Hamann, J. & F. Cooke (1989). Intra-seasonal decline of clutch size in Lesser Snow Geese. Oecologia 79: 83–90. Hansell, M.H. (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 288pp. Hensler, G.L. (1985). Estimation and comparison of functions of daily nest survival probabilities using the Mayfield method, pp. 289–301. In: Morgan B.J.T. & P.M. North (eds.). Statistics in Ornithology.Springer-Verlag, New York, 418 pp. Hsu, M.J. & Y.-S. Lin (1997). Breeding ecology of Styan’s Bulbul Pycnonotus taivanus in Taiwan. Ibis 139: 518–522. Jehle, G., A.A.Y. Adams, J.A. Savidge & S.K. Skagen (2004). Nest survival estimation: a review of alternatives to the Mayfield estimator. Condor 106: 472–484. Johnson, D.H. (1979). Estimating nest success: the Mayfield method and an alternative. Auk 96: 651–661. Krüger, O. (2004). Breeding biology of the Cape Bulbul Pycnonotus capensis: a 40–year comparison. Ostrich 75: 211–216. Liversidge, R. (1970). The Ecological Life History of the Cape Bulbul. PhD Thesis. University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. Martin, T.E. (1988). On the advantage of being different: Nest predation and the coexistence of bird species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 85: 2196–2199. Martin, T.E. (1992). Interaction of nest predation and food limitation in reproductive strategies. Current Ornithology 9: 163–197. Martin, T.E. (1996). Life history evolution in tropical and south temperate birds: what do we really know? Journal of Avian Biology 27: 263–272. Martin, T.E. & J.J. Roper (1988). Nest predation and nest site selection in a western population of the Hermit Thrush. Condor 90: 51–57. Martin, T.E. & G.R. Geupel (1993). Nest-monitoring plots: methods for locating nests and monitoring success. Journal of Field Ornithology 64: 507–519.

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Mayfield, H. (1975). Suggestions for calculating nest success. Wilson Bulletin 87: 456–466. Menon, S. & K.S. Bawa (1999). Applications of geographical information systems, remote sensing and a landscape ecology approach to biodiversity conservation in the Western Ghats. Current Science 73: 134–145. Mermoz, M.E. & J.C. Reboreda (1998). Nesting success in brown-and-yellow Marshbirds: effects of timing, nest site, and brood parasitism. Auk 115: 871–878. Mittermeier, R.A., N. Myers & C.G. Mittermeier (1999). Hotspots. Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX and Conservation International, London, 432pp. Newton, I. (1998). Population Limitation in Birds. Academic Press, London, 597pp. Pramod, P. & Y. Yom-Tov (1999). The breeding season and clutch size of Indian passerines. Ibis 142: 75–81. Robinson, W.D., T.R. Robinson, S.K. Robinson & J.D. Brawn (2000). Nesting success of understorey forest birds in lowland Panama. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 151–164. Sibley, C.G. & B.L. Monroe (1990). Distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1136pp. Stahl, J.T. & M.K. Oli (2006). Relative importance of avian life-history variables to population growth rate. Ecological Modelling 198: 23–39. Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosby, A.J. Long & D.C. Wege (1998). Endemic Bird Areas of The World: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. BirdLife International, Cambridge, 860pp. Stutchbury, B.J.M. & E.S. Morton (2001). Behavioral Ecology of Tropical Birds. Academic Press, London, ix+164pp. Vijayan, V.S. (1975). Ecological isolation of Bulbuls with special reference to Pycnonotus cafer cafer and P. luteolus luteolus at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu. PhD Thesis. University of Bombay, Mumbai, India, 274pp. Vijayan, V.S. (1980). Breeding biology of bulbuls, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus (Class: Aves, Family: Pycnonotidae) with special reference to their ecological isolation. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 75: 1090– 1117. Walting, D. (1983). The breeding biology of the Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer in Fiji. Emu 83: 173–180. Woxvold, I.A., J.W. Duckworth & R.J. Timmins (2009). An unusual new bulbul (Passeriformes: Pycnonotidae) from the limestone karst of Lao PDR. Forktail 25: 1–12. Zar, J.H. (1999). Biostatistical Analysis. 4th edition. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, xii+664pp.

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Author Details: Dr. P. Balakrishnan was a Research Fellow at SACON, Coimbatore. He is also associated with the Wildlife Research & Conservation Trust, Nilambur. His research interests include ecology and conservation of threatened and fragmented populations, wildlife–habitat relationships, human and climate change impacts on the demography and life-history strategies of birds.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1415-1424

JoTT Short Communication

3(1): 1425-1431

Taxonomic aspects and coning ecology of Cycas circinalis L. (Cycadales: Cycadaceae), a threatened species of India A.J. Solomon Raju 1 & N. Govinda Rao 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India Email: 1 ajsraju@yahoo.com (corresponding author), govindnidigattu@gmail.com 1,2

Abstract: Cycas circinalis is Red Listed Endangered species. It is a tropical dry deciduous dioecious shrub confined to the Western Ghats and its adjacent regions. It reproduces asexually and sexually. Asexual mode exists in male plants only but further studies are suggested for confirmation. In the asexual mode, bulbils arise as offshoots of the stem; they germinate either on the same plant to produce additional shoots or fall off to germinate and produce new plants. Sexual reproduction involves cone and seed production. The sex of the plant is identifiable only during the coning phase. The plant is typically anemophilous and it is highly effective for optimal seed set. The cones of both sexes show weak thermogenesis and odour production during maturation process and these two processes have absolutely no role in pollination. Coning and leaf flushing events occur in quick succession in both sexes. Seed set is optimal and the seed coat is four-layered consisting of sarcotesta, sclerotesta, a thick layer of spongy tissue and a thin membranous jacket enclosing the female gametophyte tissue; the spongy layer is important to cause floatation in water for seed dispersal which occurs during the rainy season. Keywords: Anemophily, bulbil reproduction, coning phenology, Cycas circinalis, leaf phenology.

Cycas circinalis is an Endagnered (IUCN Red List: Varghese et al. 2009) deciduous Indian endemic gymnosperm species restricted to the Western Ghats Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Cleofas R. Cervancia Manuscript details: Ms # o2372 Received 28 December 2009 Final received 10 April 2010 Finally accepted 24 December 2010 Citation: Raju, A.J.S. & N.G. Rao (2011). Taxonomic aspects and coning ecology of Cycas circinalis L. (Cycadales: Cycadaceae), a threatened species of India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1425-1431. Copyright: © A.J. Solomon Raju & N.G. Rao 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: We thank Dr. K. Henry Jonathan, for field assistance during the course of the work. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

and hills of the southern peninsular, as far north-east as Chennai, in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Hill 1995; Hill et al. 2003). The species name got its origin from the Latin word “circinus” meaning inrolled leaflets in developing leaves. Good populations exist in a number of national parks and forest reserves despite the use of this plant in some pockets of its distribution. It typically occurs in fairly dense, seasonally dry, scrubby woodlands in hilly areas and is suggested to be an adaptable species with colonies extending from rocky hill outcrops down to coastal habitats at sea level (Singh 1993; Lindstrom & Hill 2007). This species is commonly cultivated as a garden ornamental plant in the Eastern Ghats region. The clumps of C. circinalis are exploited for their feathery leaves which are sold in the local flower markets; the plants are also cut by the locals to remove the pith from the stem due to its medicinal properties. In Kerala, the locals, however, do not practice the devastating cutting of stems for medicine. Further, there are very large populations along the coast and have been integrated within local villages, hence, they are left undisturbed (Lindstrom & Hill 2007). Cycas circinalis has close resemblances to another Data Deficient species, C. sphaerica; this led Rao & Sreeramulu (1986) to document C. sphaerica as C. circinalis in the flora of Srikakulam where C. sphaerica occurs. Reddy et al. (2007) distinguished these two species on the basis of certain female cone characteristics. Hill et al. (2003) reported that C. circinalis is suffering from poor reproduction due to loss of pollinators. They have also mentioned that experimental studies are lacking in Asian cycads and very little is known about pollination in the genus Cycas. Some Asian cycads have been considered to be entomophilous due to the release of volatile compounds from their cones

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during maturation process, and the involvement of insect groups in the pollination of other cycads. With this backdrop, C. circinalis has been investigated for its pollination ecology and the same is described and explained in the light of relevant information. Materials and Methods Cycas circinalis is a tropical dry deciduous shrub. Seven male and three female plants cultivated in Andhra University and in other places of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, were used for the study during 2008-2009. The average temperature during the summer season is 38.80C. Plant characteristics, leaf and coning phenology were carefully observed. Leaf characteristics and leaflet number per leaf were also recorded. The male and female cones were examined for heat production during the maturation period; the temperature within and outside the cone before, during and after pollen shedding in male cone and during maturation of female cone was measured by using a thermometer. In male cones, the arrangement and number of sporophylls, and the number of sori consisting of microsporangia were recorded. The pollen output per microsporangia/sporophyll/cone and the pollen grain characteristics were recorded by following the protocol suggested by Dafni et al. (2005). Pollen protein content per sporophyll/cone was also estimated as per the method prescribed by Lowry et al. (1951). In female cones, the number of sporophylls per cone and the number of ovules per sporophyll/cone were recorded. Ten ovules were used to record the ovule characteristics. The pollen grain characteristics were examined for anemophilous traits. The plant characteristics were also considered to evaluate the efficiency of anemophily. Seed set in all the three female plants was recorded. The duration of seed maturation was also observed by following female cones periodically until maturation. Seed characteristics were examined in detail. Further, one hundred offshoots of stem “bulbils” were followed to determine the success of germination and production of new shoots right on the stem or new plants after detachment. Results C. circinalis is a palm-like shrub with an erect solitary stem up to 8m with a diameter of up to 30cm. The plant consists of a slightly swollen stem covered 1426

with thick bark which in turns bears persistent leaf bases. The apex of the stem is crowned with 20-25 pinnately compound leaves each of which consists of 62-135 pairs of leaflets. It is dioecious but plant sex can be determined only during cone formation. Both male and female plants show coning episode at the same time during April-June. The coning plants are leafless prior to cone production. In male plants, the number of cones produced is equivalent to the number of off-shoots, while female plants without off-shoots produced a single cone (Image 1 a,b). Further, a male shoot rarely produces two cones at a time (Image 1c). Male cones are shortly stalked, compact, narrowly ovoid woody structure, light brown to light orange in colour, 42.11 ± 3.12 cm long and 14-16 cm diameter. A cone consists of 729 ± 44 sporophylls which are arranged spirally around a central 35.4 ± 0.86 long axis. All the sporophylls are fertile except a few at its basal and apical parts. Each sporophyll is a woody, brown coloured, 5.22 ± 0.44 cm long and 2-3 cm wide, and more or less horizontally flattened structure with a narrow base and an expanded upper portion. The upper part is terminated with a prominent 1.86 ± 0.34 cm long prominent apical spine. The narrow basal part is attached to the cone axis. Each sporophyll contains an adaxial surface and an abaxial surface. The adaxial surface does not bear microsporangia while the abaxial surface bears microsporangia up to the expanded part of the sporophyll (Image 1d). The sporangia occur in groups of 3 or 4; each such group represents a ‘sorus’ (Image 1e). Each sporophyll contains 934.4 ± 143.93 microsporangia; each sporangium contains 19,875 ± 4,023 pollen grains and the total number of pollen grains are 1,85,71,200 ± 35,66,377. Each male cone contains 1354,21,19,040 ± 260,06,01,846 pollen grains. The pollen grains are light yellow, powdery, spheroidal, 24.9µm in size, unicellular and uninucleate surrounded by a thick exine and thin intine (Image 1 f-h). The total protein content in all the microsporangia of a microsporophyll is 8.42mg and per cone is 6.14g. Male cones produce heat at maturation during which they elongate loosening the sporophylls. Just before pollen shedding, the temperature is 34.2 ± 0.63 0 C within the cone and 33.4 ± 1.13 0C outside the cone. During pollen shedding, it is 35.8 ± 0.86 0C within the cone and 33.7 ± 0.75 0C outside the cone. After pollen shedding, it is 34.4 ± 0.67 0C within the cone and 33.5 ± 0.49 0C outside the cone. The temperature

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A.J.S. Raju & N.G. Rao

Image 1. Cycas circinalis a & b - Single male cone per each branch of male plant; c - Two male cones per branch in male plant; d - Microsporophyll with sporangia; e - Dehisced sori; f & g - Dry, powdery pollen; h - Pollen grains

regime during cone maturation process shows that the endogenous heat production caused a rise of 1.60C against the ambient temperature. At this temperature

the cone produced a mild foetid odour which could be detected by smell 10m away; after pollen shedding, the strength of the odour gradually diminished over

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a period of about five days. With the mild odour and protein-rich pollen, the cones could not attract any insect species before, during and after pollen shedding (Image 2a). The pollen being powdery falls off and accumulates on the adaxial side of the sporophylls which are situated below and it is also scattered all over the stem due to wind activity. The pollen-shed male cones gradually bend to one side and remain in place for about one year. The cones in this position make way for the emergence of new leaves at the top of the stem (Image 2b). The rachis of a very young leaf is circinate with coiled leaflets; the leaflets are sessile, semi-glossy, gradually expand into lanceolate structures with flat margins and softly acute apex arranged on both sides of the rachis in opposite manner. Each leaf has 55-90 pairs of light green leaflets. The new leaves develop fully within three weeks and fall off during late winter. Female cones represent a cluster of megasporophylls and emerge at the apex of the stem. Each cone consists of 48.66 Âą 18.44 megasporophylls which are orange, triangular, tomentose and 25.34 Âą 5.46 cm long. Female cones do not produce any detectable odour during their maturation process. Each sporophyll is differentiated into a basal stalk and an upper pinnate flat lamina which is lanceolate and regularly dentate with about 30 pungent lateral 2-3 mm long spines which are quite distinct from 12-31 mm long and 3-5 mm wide apical spine. Ovules are formed on the lateral sides of the stalk and their number varies from 2 to 12. One-ovuled megasporophylls are 0.5%, twoovuled 1%, three-ovuled 0.5%, four-ovuled 2.5%, five-ovuled 7.5%, six-ovuled 44%, seven-ovuled 13%, eight-ovuled 27% and nine-ovuled 4%. Ovules are sessile, orthotropous, creamy white, sub-globose and unitegmic. Integument remains fused with the body of the ovule except at the apex of the nucellus where it forms nucellar beak and a micropyle opening. The mature cones open slightly exposing the ovules at pollination. The number of ovules is 270 in plant 1, 157 in plant 2 and 315 in plant 3. The pollen dispersed by wind reaches the nucellar surface of the ovule and the germinating ones produce pollen tubes which in turn penetrate the nucellar region and subsequently deliver the male gametes into the archegonial chamber. Aborted ovules shrink and change colour to black (Image 2e). The fertilized ovules begin development immediately but slowly; the new leaves emerge 1428

from the center of sporophylls as soon as the ovules are fertilized (Image 2c), grow well during the rainy season and fall off during late winter by which time the seeds begin to mature. The developing seeds bulge out gradually through the gaps between sporophylls (Image 2d). Seed set is 57.77% in plant 1, 36.94% in plant 2 and nil in plant 3. Seeds are flattened, sub-globose, 25-38 mm long, 20-24 mm wide. The seed coat consists of four layers, the fleshy sarcotesta yellow to brown, smooth sclerotesta, a thick layer of spongy tissue and a thin membranous jacket enclosing the female gametophyte tissue. The embryo is white, cellular and the upper region elongates into suspensor. The sarcotesta eventually becomes wrinkled and at this stage seeds fall to the ground for dispersal. The decomposition of sarcotesta takes place naturally exposing the sclerotesta to enable seed germination. C. circinalis also reproduces by bulbils, a mode of asexual reproduction. Bulbils are offshoots of the stem and are produced during the rainy season. Scores of bulbils arise from the upper as well as the lower part of the stem of only male plants (Image 2f). Some bulbils germinate on the stem and add new shoots (Image 2 g,h) while some others germinate and produce new plants after detachment. The success rate of bulbils to produce new shoots or plants is 25%. Discussion C. circinalis shows leaf flushing event after the maturation of cones of both sexes. The leaf flushing activity in coned plants appears to be an inevitable and essential process to gain the lost energy in both sexes and also to supply the photosynthate for the growing seeds in female plants. The leafless state of plants during the coning phase appears to be an evolved process for effective pollen dispersal by wind for maximizing seed set in female plants. The sex of the plant is identifiable only during the coning phase. Newell (1983) also stated that the plants can be sexed only during the coning phase in cycads. Tang (1987) reported that in cycads, male and female cones number from one to several per plant. In C. circinalis, the number of male cones is proportionate to the number of off-shoots per plant and the off-shoots appear to be a result of the growth of bulbils on the plant itself; while female plants seem to produce a single cone due to lack of off-shoots which seem to be related to the bulbil mode of asexual reproduction. Asexual

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A.J.S. Raju & N.G. Rao

Image 2. Cycas circinalis a - Male cone axis without any insect breeding; b - Dead bent male cone and leaf flushing in male plant; c - Leaf flushing from the center of female cone after fertilization; d - Seeds; e - Aborterd ovules and seeds; f - Bulbil production from the stem; g - Bulbil germination; h - New plant from bulbil right on the stem; it subsequently produces a new branch if not detached. Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1425-1431

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reproduction has not been evidenced in the female plants observed in this study. Published reports indicate that C. panzhihuaensis and C. seemanni are pollinated by wind and beetles (Wang et al. 1997; Keppel 2002); C. rumphii, C. thouarsii and C. media by beetles (Vorster 1995; Norstog & Nicholls 1997); and C. revoluta primarily by beetles (Kono & Tobe 2007). Further, thermogenesis and odour production occur during the process of maturation of cones of both sexes in C. rumphii, C. thouarsii and C. revoluta; the odour attracts beetles in both sexes and the beetles visiting the cones effect pollination (Vorster 1995). In C. circinalis, heat production is not very significant and also odour emission is not strong enough to attract insects. Insect activity on both sexes of the plant is absent during coning phase suggesting that the plant is not entomophilous. Proctor et al. (1996) stated that anemophilous species produce typically non-sticky pollen grains that disperse singly and easily. In C. circinalis, the male cones produce huge amounts of light, dry and powdery pollen grains which disperse singly and easily into the air. The pollen quantity increases further with more than one cone produced in some male plants. Jolivet (1998) also stated that a male cone of C. circinalis produces enormous quantities of pollen, up to 100cucm. The meteorological conditions for airborne pollen transport are optimal during the coning season of the plant and hence anemophily becomes highly effective. These findings are in agreement with Faegri & van der Pijl (1979) and Proctor et al. (1996) who stated that genuinely anemophilous plants are characterized by mechanisms to ensure that the pollination phase is perfectly timed so that the pollination event is initiated when meteorological conditions for airborne pollen transport are optimal. Seed set in female cones in the total absence of insects substantiates the role of wind in pollination. It also shows that airborne pollen penetrates well into the female cone although it slightly exposes the ovules. Niklas & Norstog (1984) reported that C. circinalis is pollinated exclusively by wind. Further, they suggested that pollination may have two phases here: the transport of wind-borne pollen grains to megasporophylls and then the subsequent transport of adhering pollen to ovules by water and/ or wind. Stevenson et al. (2009) also mentioned that pollen blown onto the blades of erect megasporophylls might be washed down to the ovules by dew or rain. 1430

In this study, C. circinalis with coning phase during the dry season does not experience receipt of water, dew or rain and hence, the two pollination phases are exclusively a function of wind activity. In Cycads, the seeds usually have brightly coloured sarcotesta, and attract a variety of birds and mammals. These animals feed on the fleshy sarcotesta and disperse the seeds which are protected by a hard sclerotesta (Schneider et al. 2002). C. circinalis seeds with lemon to yellow coloured sarcotesta do not attract any animal class although various bird species are a common sight in the study area. Fallen seeds remain undisturbed. Dehgan & Yuen (1983) reported that seed coat is four-layered in C. rumphii and C. thouarsii; it consists of sarcotesta, sclerotesta, a thick layer of spongy tissue and a thin membranous jacket enclosing the female gametophyte tissue; the spongy layer is important to cause flotation in water for seed dispersal. In C. circinalis also, the seed coat is fourlayered and the layer of spongy tissue seems to be important to cause floatation in water for dispersal. Seeds fall to the ground during late winter and may be washed down to other places by rain water during the rainy season. C. circinalis also reproduces asexually by bulbils during rainy season. Since it is asexual reproduction, bulbils produce new plants of the same sex from which they are produced. In this study, only male plants have been found to produce bulbils. After detachment, the germinating bulbils form only male plants. Further, some bulbils germinate on the mother plant itself and add new shoots, each of which produces a crown of new leaves subsequently. Each additional shoot takes participation in cone production and hence, it seems to be highly advantageous for the species to assure pollen supply to most of the ovules, if not to all in female plants in order to achieve optimal seed set. Further studies on female plants elsewhere, especially in their natural areas are required to confirm that female plants do not reproduce by the asexual mode of reproduction. References Dafni, A., P.G. Kevan & B.C. Husband (2005). Practical Pollination Biology. Enviroquest, Ltd., Cambridge, 590pp. Dehgan, B. & C.K.K.H. Yuen (1983). Seed morphology in relation to dispersal, evolution, and propagation of Cycas

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L. Botanical Gazette 144: 412-418. Faegri, K. & L. van der Pijl (1979). The Principles of Pollination Ecology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 244pp. Hill, K.D. (1995). The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in the Indian region, with notes on the application and typification of the name Cycas circinalis. Taxon 44: 23-31. Hill, K.D., C.J. Chen & P.K. Loc (2003). Regional Overview: Asia. Chapter 5, pp. 25-30, In: Donaldson, J. (ed.). Cycads: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cycad Specialist Group, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Cambridge, UK. Jolivet, P. (1998). Jurassic Park ou les Coleopteres des cycadales. Le Coleopteriste 33: 77-85. Keppel, G. (2002). Notes on the Natural History of Cycas seemannii (Cycadaceae). South Pacific Journal of Natural Science 19: 35-41. Kono, M. & H. Tobe (2007). Is Cycas revoluta (Cycadaceae) wind- or insect-pollinated? American Journal of Botany 94: 847-855. Lindstrom, A.J. & K.D. Hill (2007). The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in India. Telopea 11(4): 463-488. Lowry, O.H., N.J. Rosebrough, A.L. Farr & R.J. Randall (1951). Protein measurement with the folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193: 265-275. Newell, S.J. (1983). Reproduction in a natural population of cycads (Zamia pumila L.) in Puerto Rico. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 110: 464-473. Niklas, K.J. & K. Norstog (1984). Aerodynamics and pollen grain depositional patterns on Cycad megastrobili: implications on the reproduction of three cycad genera (Cycas, Dioon and Zamia). Botanical Gazette 145: 92104.

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Norstog, K.J. & K.J. Nicholls (1997). The Biology of the Cycads. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 363pp. Proctor, M., P. Yeo & A. Lack (1996). The Natural History of Pollination. Harper Collins Publishers, London, 479pp. Rao, R.S. & S.H. Sreeramulu (1986). Flora of Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India, Meerut University, Meerut, 640pp. Reddy, C.S., K.S. Rao, C. Pattanaik, K.N. Reddy & V.S. Raju (2007). Cycas sphaerica Roxb.: A little known endemic species from Eastern Ghats, India. Journal of Plant Sciences 2: 362-365. Schneider, D., M. Wink, F. Sporer & P. Lounibos (2002). Cycads: their evolution, toxins, herbivores and insect pollinators. Naturwissenschaften 89: 281-294. Singh, R. (1993). The Indian Cycas in the field. Cycad Newsletter 16: 2-3. Stevenson, D.W.M., K.J. Norstog & P.K.S. Fawcett (2009). Cycad Biology: Pollination biology of Cycads. Virtual Cycad Encyclopedia, Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, USA, 513pp. Tang, W. (1987). Heat production in cycad cones. Botanical Gazette 148: 165-174. Varghese, A., V. Krishnamurthy, R. Garnesan & K. Manu (2009). Cycas circinalis. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. <www.iucnredlist. org>. Downloaded on 06 January 2011. Vorster, P. (1995). Comments on Cycas revoluta. Encephalartos 42: 25-26. Wang, Q., C.L. Li, S.Y. Yang, R. Huang & F.L. Chen (1997). Pollination biology of Cycas panzhihuaensis L. Zhou et. and S.Y. Yang. Acta Botanica Sinica 39: 156-163.

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JoTT Short Communication

3(1): 1432-1436

Floral and reproductive biology of Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina (Gentianales: Apocynaceae) in semi-arid environment of India R.C. Sihag 1 & Nidhi Wadhwa 2 Laboratory of Bee Behaviour & Pollination Ecology, Department of Zoology & Aquaculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana 125004, India Email: 1 sihagrc@rediffmail.com, 2 nidhiw2009@rediffmail.com (corresponding author) 1,2

Abstract: Sarpagandha plant Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth., ex Kurz bears small, tubular white to pinkish flowers with gamopetalous corolla, containing nectar deep at the base of the corolla tube. Psychophilous mode of pollination appears to be prevalent. Flowering occurs during two summer months. Anthesis takes place in the morning when atmospheric temperature ranges from 25-29 0C, and anther dehiscence from 28-31 0C. Flower longevity is for a little more than two days. Nectar is produced on both the days of flower opening, and over a wide range of ambient temperature (29-44 0C). Flowers are protogynous preventing selfing. Pollen viability and stigmatic receptivity are for a short duration. When compared with the ‘absolute reproductive potential’, the ‘realized reproductive potential’ is very low. Keywords: Fertility status, floral biology, pollination, psychophily, reproductive potential, Rauvolfia, sarpagandha.

Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth., ex Kurz.) is a medicinal plant par excellence (Blackwell 1990), producing useful alkaloids like reserpine (Sahu 1983). Various parts of this plant are used to

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: K.R. Sasidharan Manuscript details: Ms # o2337 Received 30 October 2009 Final received 29 November 2010 Finally accepted 21 December 2010 Citation: Sihag, R.C. & N. Wadhwa (2011). Floral and reproductive biology of Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina (Gentianales: Apocynaceae) in semi-arid environment of India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 14321436. Copyright: © R.C. Sihag & Nidhi Wadhwa 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Dr. C.S.Tyagi, Sectional Head, Medicinal Plants, for raising the sarpagandha plants and providing the field facilities. The financial assistance received by NW as merit stipend from CCS HAU is gratefully acknowledged. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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treat human ailments (Dutta & Virmani 1964; Farooq 2005; Ebadi 2007), in alternative systems of medicine. Sarpagandha is a threatened species found in the subtropical regions. Seed propagation is considered to be the best method for raising commercial crop, though seed production is highly variable and low (Bhadwar et al. 1956). To understand the probable reasons for low seed yield and threatened status of this plant, the present study was undertaken. Materials and methods Sarpagandha seeds were sown in the field in mid November 2005 and a nursery was raised at the Research Farm of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India). Ten-week old plants from the nursery were transplanted in small plots in the last week of January (on 24 January, 2006) and the plants were raised according to the prevailing agronomic practices (Image 1). (i) Floral morphology and pollination mechanism: The functional relationship between floral morphology and probable pollinators was studied by recording floral attributes like number and placement of floral parts; and structure and position of the ovary. Corolla length and breadth/diameter were also measured (n = 50 in each case). (ii) Floral phenology: Dates when the first flowering appeared marked commencement whereas complete absence of flowers on the plants marked cessation of flowering. Based on this, the flowering period was determined (n = 100 plants). Dates of mediocre and peak flowering (number of flowers per m2) were recorded by visual observations. Temperature maxima and minima during these periods were also recorded. The time of anthesis, anther dehiscence and nectar production were recorded by confirming the

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Floral and reproductive biology of Rauvolfia serpentina

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Image 1. Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina in bloom Image 2. An inflorescence of Sarpagandha plant

opening of flower, presence of pollen and nectar in the newly opened flowers till their shedding (n = 100 respectively). Observations were repeated at weekly intervals till cessation of flowering. Longevity of the flower was determined by recording the time of opening and shedding (n = 900; flowers taken at each weekly interval = 100, total weekly observations during flowering period = 9). (iii) Fertility status: Pollen was applied by hand on the stigma in the morning after anther dehiscence with the help of a fine brush. The lay out plan for hand pollination experiments was as under: (a) Self-pollination experiments (Pollination within the same flower) - Pollen (Day 1 flower) x Stigma (Day 1 flower) - Pollen (Day 2 flower) x Stigma (Day 2 flower) (b) Cross-pollination experiments (Pollination between flowers of same plant) - Pollen (Day 1 flower) x Stigma (Day 1 flower) - Pollen (Day 1 flower) x Stigma (Day 2 flower) - Pollen (Day 2 flower) x Stigma (Day 1 flower) - Pollen (Day 2 flower) x Stigma (Day 2 flower Each experiment was repeated on 50 sets of flowers and observations were recorded on seed sets in the flowers receiving pollen. (iv) Duration of pollen viability and stigmatic receptivity: Pollen from the controlled/guarded flowers was applied on the stigmas of first day and second day at an interval of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 hours after liberation (i.e. at 0600, 0800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600 hr on the first day and at 0600, 0800, 1000 and 1200 hr on the second day). Seed set was recorded in 30 sets

of flowers in each case. Recipient flowers exhibiting seed set confirmed viability of pollen/receptivity of stigma. (v) Absolute and ecological reproductive potential: Number of inflorescences per plant, flowers per inflorescence (n = 50 in each case), ovaries per flower, locules per ovary, and ovules per locule (n = 100 in each case) were recorded. The absolute/ maximum reproductive potential of the plant (its inherent capability to produce seeds) was derived by multiplying the average values of these attributes. To determine the ecological/realized reproductive potential of Sarpagandha, 50 plants were selected randomly in the field and marked. On maturity, plants were harvested individually, seeds were taken out and counted in a seed counter. The ecological/ realized reproductive potential (number of seeds produced per plant) of this plant was determined accordingly. Results and Discussion (i) Floral morphology and pollination mechanism: Inflorescence of Sarpagandha is terminal and consists of small flowers in compact cymes forming a hemispherical head at the end of a long peduncle (Image 2). Flowers are small, pedicillate, complete and hermaphroditic with five deep red and glabrous sepals. Five petals in gamopetalous condition form a tubular corolla which is swollen in the middle and white to pink in colour. Corolla tube measure 17.7 ± 0.22 mm (mean ± SD, n = 50) in length and 2.52 ±

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Number of flowers

40 Number of flowers

30 20

60 40 20

10 0

17.4

17.5

17.6 17.7 Corolla length (mm)

17.9

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of corolla length in Sarpagandha

0.79 (mean ± SD, n = 50) mm in breadth / diameter (Figs. 1 & 2). Five stamens in epipetalous condition are enclosed within the dilated portion of the corolla tube. Two connate carpels have a filiform style and large bifid stigma; a bilocular ovary has two ovules in each locule. The flowers of Sarpagandha have highly narrow and long tubular corolla. Such flowers make them a perfect representative of psychophilous pollination syndrome negating all other syndromes (Barrows 1976; Schemske 1976; Faegri & van der Pijl 1979; Suzuki et al. 1987; Sihag & Kaur 1997). (ii) Floral phenology: Flowering occurred during peak summer, last week of May, when maximum & minimum temperatures ranged between 35.2-43 0C and 20-29 0C, and within eight days on all the Sarpagandha plants (Table 1). Flowering remained mediocre (quantified in terms of numbers / m2) for about two weeks from early June to mid June when maximum and minimum temperatures ranged between 33.4-42.7 0 C and 20.5-28.5 0C, respectively. The peak flowering, continued for 43 days, when ambient temperature fluctuated between 31-40.9 0C maximum and 20.930.7 0C minimum. Thereafter, decline started till

1.5

2 2.5 Corolla breadth (mm)

Figure 2. Frequency distribution of corolla breadth in Sarpagandha

cessation in the first week of August when maximum and minimum temperatures fluctuated between 32.636.3 0C and 25.0-26.5 0C. Thus, the plant remained in blooming stage from last week of May to first week of August over wide range of temperature (Table 1). Temperature dependent floral phenology has been reported earlier also (Ramani 1995; Sihag & Kaur 1995; Sihag & Priti 1997). Flowers started opening in the early morning between 0500-0530 hr when ambient temperature fluctuated between 24-29 0C (Table 2). However, anthers did not dehisce on the first day of flowering; it took place on the second day of flower opening between 0700-0730 hr at relatively higher temperature range of 28-31 0C. Under the semi-arid sub-tropical conditions of Hisar, flower longevity was a little more than two days - ranged between 54-58 hr (mean ± SD = 56.53 ± 2.20, n = 900). Nectar secretion started on the first day of flower opening between 0800 to 0830 hr in the morning and continued up to 1300 to 1330 hr in the evening; it again started between 1500 to 1530 hr to continue till dusk at 1730hr on both the days. Nectar production was for a longer time and at wider range of temperature, 27 to 44 0C (Table 2). The diurnally opening tubular flower with liberation

Table 1. Duration of different parameters of Sarpagandha plant in relation to ambient temperature. Plant parameters

Time intervals (dates)

Duration (days)

Ambient temperature (0C)

Max.

Transplantation

Commencement of flowering

Mediocre flowering a

Peak flowering

Cessation flowering a

24.i.2006 a

Ranges

Min.

Averages Max. Min.

22.7

9.0

22.7

9.0

24.v.2006 to 31.v.2006

35.2-43.0

20.0-29.0

40.3

25.2

01.vi.2006 to 17.vi.2006

33.4-42.7

20.5-28.5

38.3

24.5

18.vi.2006 to 31.vii.2007

31.0-40.9

20.9-30.7

36.7

25.6

05.viii.2006 to 12.viii.2006

32.6-36.3

25.0-26.5

34.2

25.9

- Observations made on 100 plants

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Floral and reproductive biology of Rauvolfia serpentina

Time range (hr)

Duration (hr)

Ambient temperature ranges (oC)

1/2

25-29 25-29

Flower opening a

0530-0600

Anther dehiscence

0700-0730

1/2

Nectar production a

0800-1300, 1500-1730

7.30

Flower longevity

54-58

56.5 ± 2.2

27-44 25-44

- Observations made on 100 flowers; b - Mean ± SD of 900 observations

120

Age of first day flowers (hr)

Percent flowers

Table 2. Different floral parameters of Sarpagandha in relation to ambient temperature.

20 15 10 5 0 53

55 56 57 58 Flower longevity (hr)

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of flower longevity in Sarpagandha

of floral reward during day time further makes it an example of psychophilous pollination syndrome (Faegri & van der Pijl 1979; Sihag & Kaur 1997). The flower longevity was very short (56.5h, n = 900, Table 2, Fig. 3), most probably due to the very high ambient temperature regime. (iii) Fertility status: As pollen was not available on the first day of flower opening, self-pollination was not possible on day one. Whether stigma was receptive or not on the day of flower anthesis, could not be ascertained. On the second day, after anthesis self-pollen was available, but self-pollination resulted in no seed set. Either stigma was not receptive in second day flowers or due to self-incompatibility in the flowers. These possibilities were tested through cross-pollination experiments. Crossing also was not possible between any two first day flowers as well as between a first day flower as pollen donor and a second day flower as recipient due to non-availability of pollen in the donor flower. Cross-pollination between second day flower as pollen donor and second day flower as pollen recipient also resulted in no seed set. This again indicates self-incompatibility or non-receptivity of stigma on the second day. However, cross-pollination between first day flower as pollen recipient (stigma) and second day flower as pollen donor (pollen available) produced seeds in 100% recipient flowers,

100

60 4

Reciplent flowers (%) setting seeds

Floral parameters

R.C. Sihag & N. Wadhwa

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Age of pollen (hr) (pollen from second day flowers)

Figure 4. Level of pollen viability and/ or stigmatic receptivity (measured by per cent of flowers setting seeds) after different time duration in Sarpagandha.

indicating protogyny in Sarpagandha. However, fresh self-pollen (from second day flower) could not fertilize the ovary of second day flower confirming that stigma was not receptive on the second day after anthesis. These experiments revealed that in the two days’ age of flower, its stigma was receptive only on the first day as anthers dehisced on the second day when stigma had become non-receptive. Therefore, flowers of Sarpagandha need to be cross-pollinated as in umbelliferous plants (Sihag 1985a), onion (Sihag 1985b) and all cultivars of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) (Ray & Sharma 1995). (iv) Duration of pollen viability and stigmatic receptivity: The pollen of Sarpagandha remained almost fully viable and stigma fully receptive only for four hours (Fig. 4). Thereafter, viability of pollen and/or receptivity of stigma declined. These were low after eight hours and very low after 10 hours. On the next day, flower completely lost stigmatic receptivity, even fresh pollen did not produce seeds in the pollenrecipient flowers. Therefore, pollination has to be completed on the first day itself, that too within a short period (< 6hr).

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Table 3. Values of different floral attributes of sarpagandha determining its absolute and ecological reproductive potentials Floral attribute

Value a

Number of inflorescences on a plant (I)

40.5 ± 22.8

Number of flowers in an inflorescence (F)

Number of ovaries per flower (O) 2

1±0

Number of locules per ovary (L)

2±0

Number of ovules per locule (S) 2

Absolute/maximum reproductive potential (Rm)

Ecological /realized reproductive potential (Re) 4

45.4 ± 9.07

2±0 3

7355 3178 ± 356

- Mean ± s.d.; 1 - n = 50; 2 - n = 100; 3 - Derived by multiplying values of 1-5 attributes; 4 - Derived from number of seeds produced per plant (n = 50) a

(v) Absolute and ecological reproductive potential: The number of inflorescences per plant ranged from 17 to 63 (mean ± SD = 40.5 ± 22.8, n = 50) and flowers in the inflorescences ranged from 36 to 54 (mean ± SD = 45.4 ± 9.07, n = 50). Each flower produced four seeds (n = 100) on an average, and the normal Sarpagandha plant indicates a potential to produce 7355 seeds which is the absolute / maximum reproductive potential (Rm) (Table 3). The ecological/ realized reproductive potential (Re) under Hisar conditions was, only 43.2% (3178 ± 356 seeds per plant) of its absolute/maximum reproductive potential (Table 3). This may be due to the presence of some strong ecological constraint(s). Factors responsible for low ecological reproductive potential remain to be investigated.

References Badhwar, R.L., G. Karira & S. Ramaswami (1956). Rauvolfia serpentina: Methods of propagation and their effect on root production. Indian Journal of Pharmacy 18(5):170-175. Blackwell, W.H. (1990). Poisonous and Medicinal Plants. Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, xix+329pp. Barrows, E.M. (1976). Nectar robbing and pollination of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae). Biotropica 8(2): 132-135.

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Dutta, S.C. & O.P. Virmani (1964). Rauvolfia serpentina. Bulletin of National Botanical Garden 107: 1-20. Ebadi, M. (2007). Pharmacodynamic Basis of Herbal Medicine. Second Edition, CRC Press, New York, 699pp. Faegri, K. & L. van der Pijl (1979). The Principles of Pollination Ecology. Pergamon Press, New York, xii+244pp. Farooq, S. (2005). Medicinal Plants Field and Laboratory Manual. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, 530pp. Ramani, S. (1995). Floral biology and mellitophily of niger, pp. 6068. In: Sihag, R.C. (ed.). Pollination Biology: Pollination Plant Reproduction and Crop Seed Production. Rajendra Scientific Publishers, Hisar, vi+210pp. Ray, P.K. & S.B. Sharma (1995). Floral biology and pollination ecology of litchi, pp. 35-45. In: Sihag, R.C. (ed.). Pollination Biology: Pollination Plant Reproduction and Crop Seed Production. Rajendra Scientific Publishers, Hisar, vi+210pp. Sahu, B.N. (1983). Rauvolfia Serpentina: Sarpagandha: Chemistry and Pharmacology - Vol. II. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers, New Delhi, xiv+595pp. Schemske, D.W. (1976). Pollination speciality in Lantana camara and L. trifolia (Verbenaceae). Biotropica 8(4): 260-264. Sihag, R.C. (1985a). Floral biology, melittophily and pollination ecology of cultivated umbelliferous crops, pp. 269-277. In: Varghese, T.M. (ed.). Recent Advances in Pollen Research. Allied Publishers, New Delhi. Sihag, R.C. (1985b). Floral biology, melittophily and pollination ecology of onion crops, pp. 278-284. In: Varghese, T.M. (ed.). Recent Advances in Pollen Research. Allied Publishers, New Delhi Sihag, R.C. & G. Kaur (1995). Floral biology, melittophily and pollination ecology of sunflower, pp. 69-87. In: Sihag, R.C. (ed.). Pollination Biology: Pollination Plant Reproduction and Crop Seed Production. Rajendra Scientific Publishers, Hisar, vi+210pp. Sihag, R.C. & G. Kaur (1997). Pollination mechanisms and syndromes, pp. 19-37. In: Sihag, R.C. (ed.). Pollination Biology: Basic and Applied Principles, Rajendra Scientific Publishers, Hisar, vi+210pp. Sihag, R.C. & Priti (1997). Environmental factors and pollination, pp. 99-131. In: Sihag, R.C. (ed.). Pollination Biology: Basic and Applied Principles, Rajendra Scientific Publishers, Hisar, vi+210pp. Suzuki, N., K. Yamashita, A. Niizuma & K. Kiritani (1987). Studies on ecology and behaviour of Japanese black swallow tail butterflies. 6. Nectar feeding of Papilio helenus nicconicolens Butler and P. protenor demetrius Cramer as main pollinators of glory bower, Clerodendron trichotomum, Thunb. Ecological Research 2(1): 4152.

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JoTT Short Communication

3(1): 1437-1444

Deepor Beel revisited: new records of rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) with remarks on interesting species B.K. Sharma 1 & Sumita Sharma 2 Freshwater Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Shillong, Meghalaya 793022, India 2 North Eastern Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Risa Colony, Fruit Gardens, Shillong, Meghalaya 793003, India Email: 1 profbksharma@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 sumitasharma.nehu@gmail.com 1

Abstract: Plankton samples collected (April 2009 - March 2010) from Deepor Beel, a Ramsar site, revealed 21 species of the Phylum Rotifera belonging to 12 genera and eight families as new records. Amongst these, Brachionus durgae is a new record for northeastern India. The recorded species included the Australasian Brachionus dichotomus reductus and Notommata spinata; two Oriental endemics, namely, Keratella edmondsoni and Lecane blachei while Lecane lateralis, L haliclysta, Lepadella benjamini, Platyias leloupi, Mytilina acanthophora, Macrochaetus longipes, Trichocerca bicristata and T. flagellata are examples of regional distribution interest. The present report increases the number of species recorded from this important wetland of northeastern India to 134 species which, in turn, is the richest rotifer diversity known till date from any aquatic ecosystem of South Asia. Keywords: Deepor Beel, interesting species, new records, Ramsar site, Rotifera.

Deepor Beel, a Ramsar site of India and an important floodplain lake of northeastern India, is an

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Willem H. De Smet Manuscript details: Ms # o2482 Received 11 June 2010 Final received 18 October 2010 Finally accepted 22 December 2010 Citation: Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2011). Deepor Beel revisited: new records of rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) with remarks on interesting species. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1437-1444. Copyright: © B.K. Sharma & Sumita Sharma 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: This study is undertaken under the “University with Potential for Excellence Program (Focused Area: Biosciences)” of NorthEastern Hill University, Shillong. Thanks are due to the Head, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong for necessary facilities. One of the authors (SS) is also thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India and the Officer-in-charge, NERC, Zoological Survey of India, Shillong. The authors express sincerest thanks to three anonymous referees for valuable comments and suggestions. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

interesting ‘hot-spot’ for its aquatic biodiversity. This largest wetland of the Brahmaputra River basin of Assam is under severe environmental stress because of general habitat degradation and various anthropogenic activities. The authors conducted a limnological survey of this beel during November 2002 - October 2003 and reported (Sharma & Sharma 2005) 110 species of Phylum Rotifera, while (Sharma & Sharma 2010) added three species to the earlier list based on samples collected in 2006. During the course of our recent limnological reconnaissance of Deepor Beel (April 2009 - March 2010), the authors initiated work on invertebrate faunal diversity and documented 116 species of Rotifera, including 21 species as new records from this Ramsar site with one new record from northeastern India. Various new records are briefly diagnosed and comments are made on occurrence of biogeographically interesting elements. Materials and Methods The present study is a part of limnological survey, undertaken during April 2009 - March 2010, in Deepor Beel (910 35’-91043’E & 26005’-26011’N; area 40km2; elevation 42m), located in the Kamrup District of lower Assam, India. This floodplain lake is covered with various aquatic macrophytes namely Hydrilla verticillata, Eichhornia crassipes, Vallisneria spiralis, Utricularia flexuosa, Trapa bispinosa, Euryale ferox, Najas indica, Monochoria hastaefolia, Ipomea fistulosa, Hygrorhiza aristata, Polygonum hydropiper and Limnophila sp. Qualitative plankton samples were collected by towing a nylobolt plankton net (No. 25) from different parts of this Ramsar site and were preserved in 5% formalin. The samples were screened for rotifers and the species were isolated and mounted individually in

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New records of rotifers

B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

polyvinyl alcohol-lactophenol mixture. The species were identified following Koste (1978), Segers (1995), Sharma (1998), and Sharma & Sharma (1999, 2000, 2008). Photographs were taken with a Leica DM 1000 image analyzer. Segers (2002) is followed for the recent system of nomenclature of Rotifera and remarks on the distribution are made vide Segers (2007). The reference materials are deposited in the holdings of Freshwater Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.

18. T. flagellata Hauer, 1937 19. T. iernis (Gosse, 1887) 20. T. pusilla (Jennings, 1903)

Systematic list of new records of Rotifera from Deepor Beel Phylum: Rotifera Class: Eurotatoria Subclass: Monogononta Order: Ploima Family: Brachionidae 1. Anuraeopsis navicula Rousselet, 1911 2. Brachionus dichotomus reductus Koste & Shiel, 1980 3. B. durgae Dhanapathi, 1974 4. Keratella edmondsoni Ahlstrom, 1943 5. Platyias leloupi Gillard, 1957

Anuraeopsis navicula Rousselet, 1911 Characters: Lorica boat-shaped and granulated; dorsal plate with two longitudinal ridges running parallel to each other and then united at the posterior end to form a single ridge. Distribution: Pantropical. India: Assam, Gujarat, Orissa, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.

Family: Mytilinidae 6. Mytilina acanthophora Hauer, 1938 Family: Trichotriidae 7. Macrochaetus longipes Myers, 1934 Family: Lepadellidae 8. Colurella sulcata (Stenroos, 1898) 9. Lepadella benjamini Harring, 1916 10. L. eurysterna Myers, 1942

Family: Dicranophoridae 21. Dicranophoroides caudatus (Ehrenberg, 1834) Taxonomic notes Various interesting species observed presently are briefly diagnosed below:

Brachionus dichotomus reductus Koste & Shiel, 1980 (Image 1) Characters: Lorica dorso-ventrally compressed, stippled, and with maximum width in its posterior region. Anterior occipital margin with distinct median spines. Posterior spines moderately long and divergent. Distribution: Australasia. India: Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura.

Family: Notommatidae 16. Notommata spinata Koste & Shiel, 1991 Family: Trichocercidae 17. Trichocerca bicristata (Gosse, 1887) 1438

50Âľm

Family: Lecanidae 11. Lecane arcula Harring, 1914 12. L. blachei Berzins, 1973 13. L. doryssa Harring, 1914 14. L. haliclysta Harring & Myers, 1926 15. L. lateralis Sharma, 1978

Image 1. Brachionus dichotomus reductus (ventral view)

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New records of rotifers

B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

Brachionus durgae Dhanapathi, 1974 (Image 2) Characters: Lorica almost oval, smooth, compressed dorso-ventrally. Anterior occipital margin with six saw-tooth like spines of nearly equal length. Footopening situated ventrally in posterior region. Distribution: African, Neotropical, Oriental and Palearctic regions. India: Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.

100Âľm

Image 3. Keratella edmondsoni (dorsal view)

Image 2. Brachionus durgae (dorsal view)

Keratella edmondsoni Ahlstrom, 1943 (Image 3) Characters: Lorica elongated and granulated; with six anterior occipital spines, median occipitals longest and curved. Dorsum with characteristic pattern of carinal plaques. Posterior spines equal and divergent. Distribution: Oriental region. India: Assam, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Platyias leloupi Gillard, 1957 Characters: Lorica broadly circular, granulated and moderately compressed. Anterior dorsal margin with two blunt spines, posterior end with two long and parallel spines. Dorsum with distinct keel under the triangular frontal dorsal plaque. Distribution: Tropicopolitan. India: Assam. Mytilina acanthophora Hauer, 1938 Characters: Lorica granulated, dorsally arched

and laterally compressed; anterior ventral corners with triangular cusps. Toes long and ending into acute points. Distribution: Pantropical. India: Assam, Punjab and West Bengal. Macrochaetus longipes Myers, 1934 Characters: Lorica shield-shaped, with serrate external margins and dorsum with 12 long spines. Head protruded. Anal segment flanked by long spines. Toes long and pointed. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam and Meghalaya. Colurella sulcata (Stenroos, 1898) Characters: Lorica elongated, with a longitudinal cleft; anterior margins of lorica rounded, posterior angles not produced. Foot and toes directed forwardly; toes long. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tripura and West Bengal. Lepadella benjamini Harring, 1916 (Image 4) Characters: Lorica broadly oval, with maximum width in its middle region. Head aperture with ventrally directed rim; anterior dorsal margin nearly straight and

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B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

50Âľm

Image 4. Lepadella benjamini (ventral view)

Image 5. Lecane blachei (dorsal view)

ventral margin with U-shaped sinus. Posterior end of lorica slightly concave. Foot-groove with divergent sides. Distal foot-segment elongated and projecting beyond lorica. Toes long, pointed and gently ventrally curved. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Manipur.

sinus flanked by undulating sides and blunt external angles. Dorsal plate with distinct surface markings. Toes fused partly at base, claws with distinct basal spines. Distribution: Oriental region. India: Assam, Delhi and West Bengal.

Lepadella eurysterna Myers, 1942 Characters: Lorica almost oval in outline; dorsal plate moderately arched. Posterior margin of lorica convex in the region of its foot-opening. Toes elongated and pointed. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam, Delhi and Meghalaya.

Lecane doryssa Harring, 1914 Characters: Lorica with few surface markings; anterior occipital margins straight and coincident. Toes slender and with pointed and undifferentiated claws. Distribution: Tropicopolitan. India: Assam and Meghalaya.

Lecane arcula Harring, 1914 Characters: Lorica small, elongate-oval; with straight and coincident anterior margins. Ventral plate elongated. Antero-lateral occipital spines distinct. Toes parallel-sided; claw small. Distribution: Tropicopolitan. India: Assam and Meghalaya. Lecane blachei Berzins, 1973 (Image 5) Characters: Lorica oval, anterior dorsal margin nearly straight, ventral margin with a shallow median 1440

Lecane haliclysta Harring & Myers, 1926 (Image 6) Characters: Lorica elongate-oval; anterior ventral margin with small spines at external angles. Dorsal and ventral plates with surface markings. Toes parallel-sided for more than 3/4 of their length and then terminating into small undifferentiated pointed claws. Distribution: Tropicopolitan. India: Assam and Meghalaya.

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New records of rotifers

B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

Distribution: Palaeotropical. India: Assam, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tripura and West Bengal.

50µm

Trichocerca bicristata (Gosse, 1887) (Image 8) Characters: Lorica slender and elongated; with two characteristic distinct keels extending unto 2/3 the length of dorsum, separated by wide depression of dorsum. Left toe longer than body, right toe reduced; sub styles present.

Image 6. Lecane haliclysta (ventral view)

Image 8. Trichocerca bicristata (lateral view)

Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam, Bihar and Orissa. 50µm

Image 7. Lecane lateralis (dorsal view)

Lecane lateralis Sharma, 1978 (Image 7) Characters: Lorica ovate; anterior dorsal margin concave and anterior ventral margin with a shallow sinus flanked by undulating sides. Ventral plate with characteristic postero-lateral extensions. Toes long, parallel-sided along ¾ of their lengths, then tapering and terminating into stout claws; each claw with one basal spicule.

Trichocerca flagellata Hauer, 1937 (Image 9) Characters: Body ovoid and head indistinctly demarcated. Keel high vaulted with wide striated area extending to the beginning of the short foot opening. Left toe longer and slightly sigmoid, right toe reduced and stylet present. Distribution: Tropicopolitan. India: Assam, Meghalaya and Tamil Nadu. Trichocerca iernis (Gosse, 1887) Characters: Body elongate, slightly curved and with a short spine at anterior margin of lorica. Striated keel extending from anterior margin to end of abdomen. Left toe nearly ¾ of body length, right toe short, basal stylet present.

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Image 9. Trichocerca flagellata (lateral view) Image 10. Notommata spinata (dorsal view)

Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam and Kashmir. Trichocerca pusilla (Jennings, 1903) Characters: Body cylindrical; anterior end straight but with longitudinal folds. Toes unequal; left toe long and ventrally directed, right toe very small. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Bihar, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tripura and West Bengal. Notommata spinata Koste & Shiel, 1991 (Image 10) Characters: Body laterally expanded into two distinct alae and without dorsal hump. Lateral tip of each ala armed with stout triangular cusp. Trophi modified virgate, asymmetric. Distribution: Australia. India: Assam. Dicranophoroides caudatus (Ehrenberg, 1834) Characters: Body cylindrical. Trunk with lateral sulci and longitudinal folds. Tail prominent. Toes long and terminating into acute tips. Trophi large and stout. Distribution: Cosmopolitan. India: Assam. Remarks A total of 116 species of Rotifera, belonging to 35 genera and 19 Eurotatorian families, are documented from plankton samples collected from Deepor Beel during April 2009 - March 2010. Of these, 21 species belonging to 12 genera and eight families are new 1442

additions to our earlier species inventory (Sharma & Sharma 2005) from this wetland while Brachionus durgae is a new record for northeastern India. Our report includes a number of biogeographically interesting rotifers. Amongst these, the Australasian elements Brachionus dichotomus reductus and Notommata spinata deserve special mention. Their occurrence highlights the affinity of Assam Rotifera with those of Southeast Asia and Australia confirming the earlier generalization of Sharma (2005). Referring to the former brachionid, Segers (2001) commented on the occurrence of the reductus vicariant of B. dichotomus outside Australia, hypothesizing the recent expansion of these populations to Southeast Asia with Australia as possible origin of this taxon. The record of disjunct populations of the reductus vicariant from Deepor Beel lends support to Segersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hypothesis. Interestingly, both Australasian elements show a distribution restricted to northeastern India; the former is known from Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura while the later is known only from Assam. The occurrence of two Oriental endemics i.e., Keratella edmondsoni and Lecane blachei is another salient feature of the present study. The former was described originally from Tamil Nadu (Ahlstrom 1943) as K. quadrata var. edmondsoni while Nayar (1965) subsequently proposed it to be raised to the status of a distinct species. Besides the Indian records from Assam, Rajasthan, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, K. edmondsoni is known from northeastern Thailand.

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New records of rotifers

Lecane blachei, described as a new species from Cambodia (Berzins 1973), was also recorded from Thailand while its occurrence in India is confined to Assam, West Bengal and Delhi. Amongst other interesting species, Brachionus durgae, Lecane lateralis, L haliclysta, Lepadella benjamini, Platyias leloupi, Mytilina acanthophora, Macrochaetus longipes, Trichocerca bicristata and T. flagellata are examples of regional distributional interest. Of these, the cosmo (sub)-tropical B. durgae was described as a new species from Andhra Pradesh (Dhanapathi 1976) while its current distribution extends to African, Neotropical, Oriental and Palearctic regions (Segers 2007). Besides the type-locality, the Indian reports of this brachionid are from Orissa while Sharma & Sharma (2009) recently recorded it from Tamil Nadu. Sharma (1978) described Lecane lateralis from West Bengal as an Indian endemic; Savatenalinton & Segers (2005) categorized it as an Eastern Hemispheric rotifer while this lecanid is now considered as palaeotropical element (Sharma & Sharma 2008). This species is known to occur in the Indian inland waters from Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Lepadella benjamini, a cosmopolitan species, is examined from the state of Manipur (Sharma 2007) from the Indian subcontinent. Besides, it is reported from China and Thailand among the Asian countries. Besides, Lecane haliclysta, Platyias leloupi and Macrochaetus longipes are so far known from northeastern India while Mytilina acanthophora, Trichocerca bicristata and T. flagellata show disjunct populations in India. To sum up, the present report of 21 new records of Rotifera from Deepor Beel raises the number of species known from this important floodplain lake of northeastern India to 134 and, hence, adds to the relevance of Deepor Beel as a Ramsar site. The richness is higher than the 120 species examined from Loktak Lake (Sharma 2009) - another Ramsar site of India as well as the 106 taxa from Thale-Noi Lake, a Ramsar site in Thailand (Segers & Pholpunthin 1997). However, we should caution against over-emphasizing the importance of the present record as Dumont & Segers (1996) argued that lakes in the tropics could contain 210+ species of rotifers. Sampling intensity and methodology can vastly influence the diversity encountered: the total species reported for Deepor Beel incidentally coincides with the report obtained

B.K. Sharma & S. Sharma

from two samples only from a non-descript Laotian rice field and adjacent pond (Segers & Sanoamuang 2007). Nevertheless, the qualitative features of the rotifer fauna of Deepor Beel hint at a high biodiversity value. A more extensive, sampling campaign, focusing in particular on quantitative aspects of the fauna of this Ramsar site may corroborate these initial findings. REFERENCES Ahlstrom, E.H. (1943). A revision of the Rotatorian genus Keratella with description of three new species and five new varieties. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 80: 411-457. Berzins, B. (1973). Some rotifers from Cambodia. Hydrobiologia 41(4): 453-459. Dhanapathi, M.V.S.S.S. (1976). New species of rotifers from India belonging to the family Brachionidae. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 62: 305-308. Dumont, H.J. & H. Segers (1996). Estimating lacustrine zooplankton species richness and complementarity. Hydrobiologia 341: 125-132. Koste, W. (1978). Rotatoria. Die Rädertiere Mitteleuropas, begründet von Max Voigt. Überordnung Monogononta. Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart. I. Text (673pp). II. Tafelbd. (T. 234). Nayar, C.K.G. (1965). Taxonomic notes on Indian species of Keratella (Rotifera). Hydrobiologia 26: 457-462. Savatenalinton, S. & H. Segers (2005). Rotifers from Kalasin province, Northeast Thailand, with notes on new and rare species. Zoological studies 44(3): 361-367. Segers, H. (1995). Rotifera: Lecanidae. In: Guides to Identification of the Microinvertebrates of the Continental Waters of the World. 2. SPB Academic Publishing bv. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 264pp. Segers, H. (2001). Zoogeography of the Southeast Asian Rotifera. Hydrobiologia 446/ 447: 233-246. Segers, H. (2002). The nomenclature of Rotifera: annotated checklist of the valid family and genus group names. Journal of Natural History 36: 631-640. Segers, H. (2007). Annotated checklist of the rotifers (Phylum Rotifera), with notes on nomenclature, taxonomy and distribution. Zootaxa 1564: 1-104. Segers, H. & P. Pholpunthin (1997). New and rare Rotifera from Thale Noi Lake, Pattalang Province, Thailand, with a note on the taxonomy of Cephalodella (Notommatidae). Annals of Limnology 33: 13-21. Segers, H. & L. Sanoamuang (2007). Note on a highly diverse rotifer assemblage (Rotifera: Monogononta) in a Laotian rice paddy and adjacent pond. Internationale Revue Hydrobiologie 92(6): 240-146. Sharma, B.K. (1978). Contributions to the rotifer fauna of West Bengal. Part I. Family Lecanidae. Hydrobiologia 57: 143‑153.

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New records of rotifers

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Sharma, B.K. (1998). Freshwater Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria). In: State Fauna Series: Fauna of West Bengal 3(11): 341-461. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Sharma, B.K. (2005). Rotifer communities of floodplain lakes of the Brahmaputra basin of lower Assam (N. E. India): biodiversity, distribution and ecology. Hydrobiologia 533: 209-221. Sharma, B.K. (2007). Notes on rare and interesting rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) from Loktak Lake, Manipur - a Ramsar site. Zoosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Print Journal 22(9): 2816-2820. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (1999). Freshwater Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria). In: State Fauna Series: Fauna of Meghalaya 4(9): 11-161. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2000). Freshwater Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria). In: State Fauna Series: Fauna

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of Tripura 7(4): 163-224. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sharma (2005). Faunal diversity of Rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) of Deepor beel, Assam (N. E. India) - a Ramsar site. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 102(2): 169-175. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sumita (2009). Biodiversity and distribution of freshwater rotifers (Rotifera, Eurotatoria) of Tamil Nadu. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 109(3):41-60. Sharma, B.K. & S. Sumita (2010). Notes on new records of monogonont rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) from floodplain lakes of Assam. Records of the Zoological Survey of India 110(2): 49-55. Sharma, S. & B.K. Sharma (2008). Zooplankton diversity in floodplain lakes of Assam. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Paper No. 290: 1-307.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1437-1444

JoTT Short Communication

3(1): 1445-1448

New locality record and additional information on the habitat of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird, 1859) (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cyclestherida) in India Sameer M. Padhye 1, Hemant V. Ghate 2 & Kalpana Pai 3 Research Fellow, 2 Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra 411007, India Head, Department of Zoology, Modern College, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharashtra 411005, India Email: 1 sameer.m.padhye@gmail.com, 2 hemantghate@gmail.com, 3 kalpanapai@unipune.ernet.in 1 3

Abstract: The paper reports the presence of the branchiopod Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird) in one permanent and one temporary fresh water pond near Pune City, Maharashtra. Keywords: Branchiopoda, Cyclestheria hislopi, Maharashtra, permanent fresh water pond, Pune.

Cyclestheria hislopi is a clam shrimp in the order, Cyclestherida of the class Branchiopoda (Martin et al. 2003; Olesen 2009). This parthenogenetically breeding species consists mostly of females with rare occurrence of males in some populations. While morphological and phylogenetic aspects of Cyclestheria hislopi are well known, its ecological preferences are yet to receive attention. Cyclestheria hislopi described from Nagpur, India, by Baird (1859) as Estheria hislopi was transferred

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Stephen C. Weeks Manuscript details: Ms # o2335 Received 20 October 2009 Final received 15 December 2010 Finally accepted 21 December 2010 Citation: Padhye, S.M., H.V. Ghate & K. Pai (2011). New locality record and additional information on the habitat of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird, 1859) (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cyclestherida) in India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1445-1448. Copyright: © Sameer M. Padhye, Hemant V. Ghate & Kalpana Pai 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowlegements: We thank Dr. Jørgen Olesen (Denmark) for help and critical review; Dr. Michael Korn (Germany) for help in identification and literature; Dr. Gunale of the Botany Department, University of Pune for help in identification of phytoplankton; authorities of Modern College, and Zoology Department of Pune University for facilities and CSIR for financial support. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

to a new family, Cyclestheriidae, by Sars, in 1889 (Olesen et al. 1996). Later Nayar & Nair (1967) and Nair (1968) reported it from Kerala, and Battish (1981) from Punjab, India. Paul & Nayar (1977) studied populations of Cyclestheria in Kerala and reported that they were found in shallow, temporary ponds with plenty of rooted vegetation and were predominantly associated with the weed Hydrilla verticillata. It is pan-tropical in occurrence between 300N & 350S and has been reported from Australia, Africa, the Americas and various parts of Asia (Olesen et al. 1996); it occurs also in permanent water bodies in addition to temporary pools. Males are known from four sites only, all of which are either in the northern or southern extremes of range. In this note we report a new locality of occurrence of Cyclestheria hislopi, with additional observations on the physico-chemical parameters. Methods Samples of Cyclestheria hislopi were collected as a part of our survey for invertebrates in various small ephemeral or permanent ponds in the Pune environs, with a net (mesh about 300µm) swept at an approximate depth of 6cm in both the localities. It was found in two man-made ponds, a permanent one, Ganesh Talav (18039’9.28”N & 73045’46.75”E) (Images 1 & 2) and a temporary pond near Dighi Town (18035’58.68”N & 73052’37.14”E) (Images 3 & 4). Maximum depth of both the ponds was approximately 2m. Ganesh Talav is approximately 50m long and 25m wide and has aquatic vegetation, mainly of Hydrilla sp., while the pond near Dighi is about 25m long and 15m wide lacking rooted aquatic vegetation. Both the ponds are close to rivers but distinct. Sample collection was done from October 2008 to May 2009 in Ganesh Talav, while in Dighi from

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1445-1448

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New locality record of Cyclestheria hislopi

S.M. Padhye et al.

Images 1-4. Habitats studied. 1 & 2 - The Dighi Pond; 3 & 4 - Ganesh Talav (ÂŠ Hemant Ghate & Sameer Padhye)

December 2008 to March-April 2009. Sampling was done in February by filtering 5L of water from approximately 0.3m2 area in a single site for one day. Samples were preserved in 4% formalin for identification of Cyclestheria hislopi as well as the phytoplankton. Physico-chemical parameters (conductivity, salinity, and total dissolved solids) of both habitats were recorded in the field with portable EUTECH Multi-parameter PCS Tester 35. Samples were dissected and photographed under Kyowa or Leica MZ6 Stereomicroscope with attached Canon Powershot digital camera. Measurements were made using ERMA stage and ocular micrometer. Results The aquatic vegetation of Ganesh Talav mainly consisted of Hydrilla spread all over. The pond also 1446

had the guppy Lebistes reticulatus, insect larvae and dragonfly nymphs. Water level in the pond was more or less same during the collection period, maximum depth being 1.5-2 m. Cyclestheria hislopi was found in low densities in Ganesh Talav (Images 5 & 6). The pond near Dighi was ephemeral and received water from the start of monsoon (July) and it remained filled till the end of March 2009. Aquatic vegetation was absent during most of the monsoon period, but during the last 20 days of March, algal mats were observed in a few places. The maximum depth of the pond was 1m. Density of Cyclestheria hislopi was much higher in this pond than in Ganesh Talav and it increased as the pond started drying. Preliminary analysis of the phytoplankton composition of the two ponds showed the presence of diatoms and, to a lesser degree, green algae. Members

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1445-1448

New locality record of Cyclestheria hislopi

S.M. Padhye et al.

Images 5-6. Cyclestheria hislopi. 5 - Parthenogenetic female of Cyclestheria hislopi in transmitted light; 6 - Parthenogenetic females of C. hislopi in incident light (ÂŠ Hemant Ghate & Sameer Padhye)

of the diatom genera Fragillaria, Oscillatoria, Nitzschia, Navicula, and Cymbella were observed. Green algal species of Eudorina and Actinastrum and Spirogyra were seen, but the last was not very abundant. Composition of phytoplankton in both the ponds was similar. Physico-chemical features of the two habitats were different. Salinity, conductivity and T.D.S. were five times higher in the ephemeral pond near Dighi than in the permanent pond Ganesh Talav, while pH was lower (Table 1). Surface temperature was the highest in the temporary pool near Dighi (maximum of 310C; Table 1), as it was smaller.

in permanent water bodies in Colombia. This report confirms that Cyclestheria do live in permanent water bodies (in contrast to other clam shrimps) and that they do not require aquatic vegetation. It is also found that Cyclestheria tolerate the presence of Lebistes fish. Furthermore, Cyclestheria tolerate a large variation in the physico-chemical properties, e.g., a pH up to 9, temperatures up to 310C and fluctuations in other parameters like conductivity. Gut composition of Cyclestheria hislopi showed the presence of diatoms, as primary food. Fish normally do not co-exist with C. hislopi, but Ganesh Talav offers a unique opportunity to study this coexistence. Witham et al. (1998) stated that habitats of small invertebrates, such as clam shrimps, are often overlooked and therefore destroyed. Ganesh Talav, the permanent pond in this study, is under stress since lot of organic matter is repeatedly being dumped in the pond, despite steps taken to prevent. It is very unfortunate since this pond is quite a unique habitat, being the only permanent water body harbouring

Discussion Nayar & Nair (1968), while reporting C. hislopi from India, observed that Cyclestheria was always found in association with Hydrilla. In our case, however, it was found in temporary water bodies without vegetation. Rosseler (1995) reported the presence of Cyclestheria

Table 1. Physico chemical properties of Ganesh Talav and Dighi Pond habitats. Date

Temperature (0C)

Conductivity (ÂľS/cm)

T.D.S (ppm)

Salinity (ppt)

Dighi

Ganesh Talav

Dighi

Ganesh Talav

Dighi

Ganesh Talav

Dighi

Ganesh Talav

Dighi

Ganesh Talav

04.ii.2009

8.51

7.82

28.2

26.5

547

338

389

234

0.266

0.154

11.ii.2009

8.39

8.23

29.2

656

352

465

253

0.324

0.173

18.ii.2009

8.54

8.95

28.2

627

211

445

150

0.305

0.104

25.ii.2009

8.56

9.07

30.4

28.7

650

208

461

147

0.317

0.101

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New locality record of Cyclestheria hislopi

S.M. Padhye et al.

Cyclestheria found so far in India.

References Baird, W. (1859). Description of some new recent Entomostraca from Nagpur, collected by the Rev. S. Hislop. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 63: 231-234. Battish, S. K. (1981). On some conchostracans from Punjab with the description of three new species and a new subspecies. Crustaceana 40: 178–196. Martin, J.W., S.L. Boyse & M.J. Grygier (2003). New records of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird, 1859) (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Diplostraca: Cyclestherida) in South East Asia. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 51(2): 215-218. Nayar, C.K. & K.K.N. Nair (1968). On a collection of Conchostraca (Crustacea: Brancbiopoda) from south India, with the description of two new species. Hydrobiologia 32: 219-224. Nayar, C.K.G. (1967). Three new species of Conchostraca from Rajasthan. Bulletin of Systematic Zoology 1(1): 1924.

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Olesen, J. (2009). Phylogeny of Branchiopoda (Crustacea) – character evolution and contribution of uniquely preserved fossils. Arthropods Systematics & Phylogeny 67: 3-39. Olesen, J., J.W. Martin & E.W. Roesseler (1996). External morphology of the male of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird, 1859) (Crustacea, Branchiopoda, Spinicaudata), with a comparison of male claspers among the Conchostraca and Cladocera and its bearing on phylogeny of the ‘bivalved‘ Branchiopoda. Zoologica Scripta 25(4): 291-316. Paul, M.A. & C.K.G. Nayar (1977). Studies on a natural population of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird) (Conchostraca: Crustacea). Hydrobiologia 532: 173- 179. Roessler, E.W. (1995). Review of Colombian Conchostraca (Crustacea) - ecological aspects and life cycles - family Cyc1estheriidae. Hydrobiologia 298: 125-132. Witham, C.W., E.T. Bauder, D. Belk, W.R. Ferren, Jr & R. Ornduff (1998). Global status and trends in ephemeral pool invertebrate conservation: implications for californian fairy shrimp, pp. 147-150. Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems - Proceedings from a 1996 Conference. California Native Plant Society, Sacramento, CA. 1998.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1445-1448

JoTT Short Communication

3(1): 1449-1455

Western Ghats Special Series

Freshwater fish fauna of Koyna River, northern Western Ghats, India Bapurao V. Jadhav 1, Sanjay S. Kharat 2, Rupesh N. Raut 3, Mandar Paingankar 4 & Neelesh Dahanukar 5 Department of Zoology, Balasaheb Desai College, Patan, Satara, Maharashtra 415206, India Department of Zoology, Modern College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Ganeshkhind, Pune, Maharashtra 411007, India 3 Department of Zoology, Elphinstone College, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400032, India 4 Department of Zoology, University of Pune, Ganeshkhind, Pune, Maharashtra 411007, India 5 Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Sai Trinity, Garware Circle, Pune, Maharashtra 411021, India Email: 1 b_v_jadhav@yahoo.co.in, 2 kharat.sanjay@gmail.com, 3 rupesh.raut@gmail.com, 4 mandarpaingankar@gmail.com, 5 n.dahanukar@iiserpune.ac.in (corresponding author) 1 2

Abstract: We studied the freshwater fish fauna of Koyna River for a period of two years from May 2007 to April 2009. We recorded 58 species belonging to 16 families and 35 genera. Eleven out of the 22 fish species endemic to the Western Ghats are restricted to the Krishna River system. Eight endemic fish species are known to be threatened because of various anthropogenic activities. Since the fish fauna of Koyna is relatively less threatened by anthropogenic stressors with currently no record of alien fish species, we propose that Koyna River can be considered as a refuge for conservation of some endemic and threatened freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats. Nevertheless, efforts to maintain low anthropogenic interference and avoiding introduction of alien species are central to our proposal.

Marathi Abstract: MüÉårÉlÉÉ lÉSÏ qÉÍkÉsÉ aÉÉåŽÉ mÉÉhrÉÉiÉ UÉWûhÉÉîrÉÉ qÉÉzÉÉÇcÉÉ AprÉÉxÉ AÉqWûÏ qÉå 2007 iÉå LÌmÉësÉ 2009 ½É SÉålÉ uÉwÉÉïcrÉÉ MüÉsÉÉuÉkÉÏiÉ MåüsÉÉ. AÉqWûÉsÉÉ LMÔühÉ 58 eÉÉiÉÏcÉå qÉÉxÉå AÉRûVûsÉå. rÉÉiÉÏsÉ 22 qÉixrÉ mÉëeÉÉiÉÏ ½É Tü£ü xÉÇ½ÉSìÏ qÉkrÉåcÉ AÉRûVûiÉÉiÉ iÉU 11 mÉëeÉÉiÉÏ Tü£ü M×üwhÉÉ lÉSÏ uÉ ÌiÉsÉÉ ÍqÉVûhÉÉîrÉÉ EmÉlÉ±ÉiÉcÉ xÉÉmÉQûiÉÉiÉ. mÉUÇiÉÑ rÉÉiÉÏsÉ AÉPû mÉëeÉÉiÉÏÇcrÉÉ qÉÉzrÉÉÇcÉÏ mÉrÉÉïuÉUhÉ îWûÉxÉÉqÉÑVåû lÉ¹ WûÉåhrÉÉcÉÏ ÍpÉiÉÏ AÉWåû. iÉÑsÉlÉÉiqÉMü SØwšÉ MüÉårÉlÉÉ ZÉÉåîrÉÉiÉ qÉÉlÉuÉÏ WûxiÉ¤ÉåmÉ MüqÉÏ AxÉsrÉÉqÉÑVåû AÉÍhÉ lÉÌuÉlÉ oÉÉ½ qÉixrÉ mÉëeÉiÉÏ lÉ xÉÉåQûsrÉÉqÉÑVåû MüÉårÉlÉÉ lÉSÏ WûÏ xjÉÉÌlÉMü uÉ îWûÉxÉ WûÉåhrÉÉcrÉÉ qÉÉaÉÉïuÉUÏsÉ qÉixrÉ mÉëeÉÉiÉÏÇxÉÉPûÏ lÉÇSlÉuÉlÉ PûUåsÉ. MüÉårÉlÉÉ lÉSÏ qÉkÉÏsÉ qÉixrÉ mÉëeÉÉiÉÏÇcÉå lÉÇSlÉuÉlÉ ÌOûMüuÉhrÉÉxÉÉPûÏ MüqÉÏiÉ MüqÉÏ qÉÉlÉuÉÏ WûxiÉ¤ÉåmÉÉxÉ mÉëÉåixÉÉWûlÉ SåhÉå AÉÍhÉ lÉuÉÏlÉ qÉixrÉ uÉ qÉixrÉ oÉÏeÉå MüÉårÉlÉÉ lÉSÏiÉ xÉÉåQûhrÉÉuÉU oÉÇSÏ bÉÉsÉhÉå AirÉÇiÉ eÉÂUÏcÉå AÉWåû.

Keywords: Conservation, endemics, invasives, refuge, threats.

The Western Ghats of India has a rich freshwater fish fauna with a high level of endemism (Shaji et al. 2000; Dahanukar et al. 2004). However, current knowledge of the threats faced by Western Ghats fishes suggests that a major part of this fauna is threatened by human activities and invasive alien fish species (Dahanukar et al. 2004). Thus, knowledge of the diversity and distribution of the fish fauna is essential for designing and implementing conservation strategies. However, data on the fish fauna of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra have limitations as most of the rivers have not been surveyed extensively and checklists for individual rivers are not available. In the present study we document the freshwater fish fauna of the

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Anonymity requested Manuscript details: Ms # o2613 Received 24 October 2010 Final received 31 December 2010 Finally accepted 17 January 2011 Citation: Jadhav, B.V., S.S. Kharat, R.N. Raut, M. Paingankar & N. Dahanukar (2011). Freshwater fish fauna of Koyna River, northern Western Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1449-1455. Copyright: © Bapurao V. Jadhav, Sanjay S. Kharat, Rupesh N. Raut, Mandar Paingankar & Neelesh Dahanukar 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: We are thankful to the Principal, H.D. Shalgaokar, Balasaheb Desai College, Patan for providing facilities. Pallavi and Prajakta Khairmode helped with fish collection. The study was self funded. The CEPF-funded freshwater assessment of the Western Ghats encouraged us to publish this work. We duly acknowledge the help from CEPF for publication of this article. We thank three anonymous referees for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

This article forms part of a special series on the Western Ghats of India, disseminating the results of work supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative of l’Agence Française de Développement, Conservation International, the Global Environment Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. A fundamental goal of CEPF is to ensure civil society is engaged in biodiversity conservation. Implementation of the CEPF investment program in the Western Ghats is led and coordinated by the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE).

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1449-1455

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Fish fauna of Koyna River

B.V. Jadhav et al.

Figure 1. Study site

Koyna River in Satara District, in the northern region of the Western Ghats. Even though some studies are available on the fishes of Satara District, information on the fish fauna of Koyna River is limited. Annandale (1919) studied the fish fauna of the Yenna River at Medha in Satara and recorded 18 fish species, while Silas (1953) studied the fauna of Mahabaleshwar and Wai in Satara and recorded 14 species. David (1963) made an extensive survey of the Krishna and Godavari river systems, but did not provide data for individual rivers. Similarly, Jayaram (1995) studied the Krishna River system in detail and mentioned that fishes were collected also from the Koyna River; he did not, however, list the species recorded from the Koyna. The Koyna River (Fig. 1) originates near Mahabaleshwar (17058’N & 73043’E) and it is one of the major tributaries of the Krishna River System in western Maharashtra, India. Unlike most of the 1450

other rivers in Maharashtra, which flow west-east, the Koyna River flows in a southward direction for about 65km, turns sharply eastwards at Helwak (17022’N & 73043’E), in which direction it flows until its confluence with the Krishna River at Karad (17017’45”N & 74010’37”E). We collected fishes from the Koyna River between Koynanagar (17023’34”N & 73044’20”E) and Patan (17022’25”N & 73053’57”E) including small streams draining into this river. Fish were collected for two years, from May 2007 to April 2009. Fish were collected by hand-net in upper stretches in Shiral, Morgiri, Adul, Malhar Peth and Navarasta. In the main river, fish were obtained from local fishermen and local markets at Patan and Koynanagar. Fish were preserved in 4% buffered formalin and identified using available literature (Menon 1964, 1987, 1992; Talwar & Jhingran 1991; Jayaram & Dhas 2000; Jayaram & Sanyal 2003; Jayaram 1991, 2010). Collected fish

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1449-1455

Fish fauna of Koyna River

B.V. Jadhav et al.

Table 1. List of freshwater fish from Koyna River. Family/Species a

WGE b

KRE c

RA d

Family/Species a

WGE b

KRE c

RA d

Nemachilichthys rueppelli (Sykes, 1839)****

Noemacheilus anguilla Annandale, 1919

Schistura denisoni Day, 1867

Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus (Pallas, 1769) Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray, 1831) *

Cyprinidae

Barilius barna (Hamilton, 1822)

Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton, 1807)

Cirrhinus fulungee (Sykes, 1839)

Crossocheilus cf. latius (Hamilton, 1822)

Devario aequipinnatus (McClelland, 1839)

Botia striata Narayan Rao, 1920

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (Valenciennes, 1846)

Bagridae

Garra bicornuta Narayan Rao, 1920

Garra gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon, 1849)

Garra mullya (Sykes, 1839)

Mystus bleekeri (Day, 1877)

Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon, 1849)

Mystus seengtee (Sykes, 1839)

Sperata seenghala (Sykes, 1839)

Siluridae -

Clupisoma taakree (Sykes, 1839)

Neotropius khavalchor Kulkarni, 1952

Sisoridae

Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes, 1839)

Glyptothorax cf. poonaensis Hora, 1938

Glyptothorax trewavasae Hora, 1938

Labeo boga (Hamilton, 1822)

Labeo boggut (Sykes, 1839)

Labeo calbasu (Hamilton, 1822)

Labeo porcellus (Heckel, 1844) Osteobrama vigorsii (Sykes, 1839) Osteochilichthys nashii (Day, 1869)

Puntius cf. amphibius (Valenciennes, 1842)

Puntius jerdoni (Day, 1870)

Puntius sahyadriensis Silas, 1953

Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch, 1794)

Gonoproktopterus curmuca (Hamilton, 1807) **

Osteochilichthys godavariensis (Rao, 1977)

Cobitidae

Schilbeidae

Belonidae

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton, 1822)

Synbranchidae

Monopterus cf. indicus (Silas & Dawson, 1961)

Ambassidae

Chanda nama Hamilton, 1822

Puntius sarana subnasutus (Valenciennes, 1842)

Puntius sophore (Hamilton, 1822)

Pseudambassis ranga (Hamilton, 1822)

Puntius ticto (Hamilton, 1822)

Gobiidae

Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton, 1822)

Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822)

Rohtee ogilbii (Sykes, 1839)

Channidae

Salmophasia balookee (Sykes, 1839)

Channa gachua (Hamilton, 1822)

Salmophasia boopis (Day, 1874)

Channa marulius (Hamilton, 1822)

Salmophasia novacula (Valenciennes, 1840)

Schismatorhynchos nukta (Sykes, 1839)

Tor khudree (Sykes, 1839)

Parapsilorhynchus discophorus Hora, 1921

Parapsilorhynchus cf. tentaculatus (Annandale, 1919)

Mastecembalidae Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepède, 1800)

- Taxonomic status as per Jayaram (2010); b - Western Ghat endemics; - Krishna river system endemics; d - Relative abundance; A - abundant; C - common; M - moderate; R - rare; * - this species was not collected; its occurrence is based on report by fishermen; ** - Gonoproktopterus kolus is considered as synonym of G. curmuca (Jayaram 2010). However, if they are proved to be different, then our species should be considered as G. kolus as per Jayaram (1991); *** - Jayaram (2010) mentions this species as A. moreh, but the original spelling of species given by Sykes (1839) is A. mooreh; **** - Jayaram (2010) spells the specific name as N. ruppelli, however, Eschmeyer (2010) suggests the spelling N. rueppelli. a

Parapsilorhynchidae

Balitoridae

Acanthocobitis mooreh (Sykes, 1839) ***

Indoreonectes evezardi (Day, 1872)

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Fish fauna of Koyna River

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Image 1. Some fishes of the Koyna River. a - Puntius cf. amphibius; b - Puntius sahyadriensis; c - Puntius ticto; d - Osteochilichthys nashii; e - Osteochilichthys godavariensis; f - Barilius bendelisis; g - Barilius barna; h - Schismatorhynchos nukta; i - Crossocheilus cf. latius; j - Rohtee ogilbii; k - Parapsilorhynchus discophorus; l - Parapsilorhynchus cf. tentaculatus; m - Botia striata; n - Schistura denisoni; o - Acanthocobitis mooreh; p - Indoreonectes evezardi; q - Salmophasia balookee; r - Neotropius khavalchor; s - Glyptothorax lonah and t - Mastacembelus armatus. 1452

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specimens, preserved in 4% buffered formalin are deposited in the Zoology Department of Balasaheb Desai College, Satara and the Zoology Department of Modern College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Ganeshkindh, Pune. Assuming that fishing efforts were constant for a given type of fishing net, the relative abundance of the fish was classified into four categories, namely: abundant (76-100% of the total catch), common (51-75% of the total catch), moderate (26-50% of the total catch) and rare (1-25% of the total catch). We recorded 58 fish species belonging to 16 families and 35 genera (Table 1). Some of the fishes collected from Koyna River are shown in Image 1. Cyprinidae was the most dominant family, contributing 30 species in 15 genera. A total of 22 fish species in the Koyna River are endemic to the Western Ghats, of which 11 are restricted to the Krishna River system (Table 1). Of the total 58 species, eight were abundant, 21 common, 19 moderate and 10 rare in the study area (Table 1). Five species reported in the current study have ambiguous taxonomic status. Pethiyagoda & Kottelat (2005, p.151) considered Puntius amphibius to be known only from its lectotype, preserved almost two centuries ago; it remains to be identified with an extant species. In the case of Crossocheilus latius our specimens from Koyna River differ from C. latius sensu stricto in the number of gill rakers (Rui-Feng et al. 2000). Annandale (1919) described Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus from streams in the Khandala and Yenna River systems near Medha in Satara. Although we did not collect this species from Yenna River, the Koyna River specimens of P. tentaculatus do not correspond to our Khandala specimens in body proportions. It is possible that P. tentaculatus sensu lato comprises more than a single species. We also procured five specimens of a smoothskinned Glyptothorax from Patan fish market. Even though this species resembles G. poonaensis (Hora 1938; Silas 1951; Talwar & Jhingran 1991; Jayaram 2010), it differs considerably with larger head length, inter-orbital distance, inter-narial distance, length of dorsal fin, length of adipose dorsal fin, length of ventral fin, length of anal fin and height of caudal peduncle from topotypical G. poonaensis from Pune (specimens in the collection of Zoological Survey of India, Pune: P/2431, P/2432, P/2433). Monopterus indicus sensu stricto, described by Silas & Dawson (1961) from

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Mahabaleshwar in Satara District, differs in having a longer head as compared to Koyna River specimens and possessing a greater number of vertebrae (~135) as compared to fewer vertebrae (~107) in Koyna River specimens. The fish fauna of Koyna is relatively less threatened by human activities, even though some stretches of the river are affected to a minor degree by pollution by sewage and agricultural activities. Near the Patan and Koynanagar areas, the river banks have brickmanufacturing units. The Koyna River in the vicinity of Koynanagar is also affected by dumping of organic waste as a result of the tourist industry in the area. Fishing pressure due to heavy harvest, using different sizes of gill-nets, could also be a threat to the larger fish species of the genera Cirrhinus, Gonoproktopterus, Labeo, Puntius, Schismatorhynchos, Tor, Salmophasia, Barilius and Clupisoma. A major part of the Koyna backwaters, however, is protected through the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. We did not record any alien fishes in the Koyna River. Nevertheless, a number of studies suggest that the fish fauna of the Western Ghats is severely threatened by introduced alien species (Kharat et al. 2003; Wagh & Ghate 2003; Daniels 2006; Raghavan et al. 2008; Knight 2010). Although we failed to record any introduced fish in the Koyna River, studies of other tributaries of the Krishna River in Satara and adjacent areas have recorded several alien fishes (Jayaram 1995). We recorded six species from the Koyna River, considered as threatened by Menon (2004) on the grounds that they are either rare, habitat specific or because of inferred declines in their populations: Labeo porcellus, Puntius jerdoni, Rohtee ogilbii, Schismatorhynchos nukta, Tor khudree and Neotropius khavalchor. Further, Ghate et al. (2002) commented on the decline in the population of S. nukta from other rivers in Krishna River system. Apart from these species, the Koyna River has apparently abundant populations of Puntius sahyadriensis, Garra bicornuta, Botia striata and Clupisoma taakree, of which the last two species were considered as threatened by Dahanukar et al. (2004). The Koyna River appears to offer a potential refuge for the conservation of these species, evidently owing to the fact that these fishes are relatively less affected here by human activities. In conclusion, there is a rich diversity of fishes

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in Koyna and it is relatively less threatened by anthropogenic stressors, even though there is a modest fishing pressure, tourism and organic pollution in some stretches of the river. Further, the fish fauna of Koyna River is not threatened by alien fish species. A major part of the Koyna River backwaters is also protected by the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. Thus, the Koyna River can be considered as a refuge for conservation of some endemic and threatened freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats. It is, however, essential that conservation efforts should ensure that the current status of the fish fauna is maintained by minimising anthropogenic impacts, especially the introduction of alien fish species. REFERENCES Annandale, N. (1919). Bombay streams fauna: notes on fresh water fish mostly from the Satara and Poona Districts. Records of the Indian Museum 16: 125-138. Dahanukar, N., R. Raut & A. Bhat (2004). Distribution, endemism and threat status of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India. Journal of Biogeography 31(1): 123-136. Daniels, R.J.R. (2006). Introduced fishes: a potential threat to the native freshwater fishes of peninsular India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 103(2-3): 346-348. David, A. (1963). Studies on fish and fisheries of the Godavari and Krishna river systems. Part 1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science India 33(2): 263-293. Eschmeyer, W.N. (ed.) (2010). Catalog of Fishes electronic version. <http://research.calacademy.org/ichthyology/ catalog/fishcatmain.asp> On-line version dated 25 October 2010. Download on 22 December 2010. Ghate, H.V., V.M. Pawar & B.E. Yadav (2002). Note on cyprinoid fish Schismatorhynchos (Nukta) nukta (Sykes) from the Krishna drainage, Western Ghats. Zoosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Print Journal 17(7): 830-831. Hora, S.L. (1938). Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. XXXVIII. On the systematic position of Bagrus lonah Sykes, with descriptions of and remarks on other glyptosternoid fishes from Deccan. Records of Indian Museum 40:363375. Jayaram, K.C. (1991). Revision of the Genus Puntius Hamilton from the Indian Region (Pisces: Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae, Cyprininae). Occasional Paper No. 135. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 178pp. Jayaram, K.C. (1995). The Krishna River System: A Bioresources Study. Occasional Paper No. 160. Records of Zoological Society of India, 167pp. Jayaram, K.C. (2010). The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region. Second Edition. Narendra Publishing House, 1454

Delhi, 616pp. Jayaram, K.C. & A. Sanyal (2003). A Taxonomic Revision of the Fishes of the Genus Mystus Scopoli (Family: Bagridae). Occasional Paper No. 207. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 136pp. Jayaram, K.C. & J.J. Dhas (2000). Revision of the Genus Labeo from Indian Region with a Discussion on its Phylogeny and Zoogeography. Occasional Paper No. 183. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 143pp. Kharat, S.S., N. Dahanukar, R. Raut & M. Mahabaleshwarkar (2003). Long term changes in freshwater fish species composition in north Western Ghats, Pune District. Current Science 84(6): 816-820. Knight, J.D.M. (2010). Invasive ornamental fish: a potential threat to aquatic biodiversity in peninsular India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(2): 700-704. Menon, A.G.K. (1964). Monograph of the cyprinid fishes of the genus Garra Hamilton. Memoirs of the Indian Museum 14(4): 173-260. Menon, A.G.K. (1987). The Fauna of India and Adjacent Countries, Pisces, Vol 4, Teleostei-Cobitoidea, Part 1, Homalopteridae. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 259pp. Menon, A.G.K. (1992). The Fauna of India and Adjacent Countries, Pisces, Vol 4, Teleostei-Cobitoidea, Part 2 Cobitidae. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 113pp. Menon, A.G.K. (2004). Threatened Fishes of India and Their Conservation. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 170pp. Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelat (2005). The identity of the South Indian Barb Puntius mahecola (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Suppl. No. 12: 145-152. Raghavan, R., G. Prasad, P.H. Anvar-Ali & B. Pereira (2008). Exotic fish species in a global biodiversity hotspot: observations from river Chalakudy, part of Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Biological Invasions 10(1): 37-40. Rui-Feng, S., Y. Jun-Xing & C. Yin-Rui (2000). A review of the Chinese species of Crossocheilus, with description of a new species (Ostariophysi: Cyprinidae). The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 48: 215-221. Shaji, C.P., P.S. Easa & A. Gopalakrishnan (2000). Freshwater fish diversity of Western Ghats, pp. 35-35. In: Ponniah, A.G. & A. Gopalakrishnan (eds.). Endemic Fish Diversity of Western Ghats. NBFGR-NATP publication, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, India, 347pp. Silas, E.G. (1951). Notes on fishes of the genus Glyptothorax Blyth from peninsular India, with description of a new species. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 50(2): 367-370. Silas, E.G. (1953). Notes on the fishes from Mahabaleshwar and Wai (Satara District, Bombay State). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 51(3): 579-589. Silas, E.G. & E. Dawson (1961). Amphipnous indicus, a new synbranchoid eel from India, with a redefinition of the genus and a synopsis to the species of Amphipnous MĂźller. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 58(2): 366-

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378. Sykes, W.H. (1839). On the fishes of the Deccan. Proceedings of the General Meetings for Scientific Business of the Zoological Society of London 6: 157-165. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991). Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford-IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1158pp. Wagh, G.K. & H.V. Ghate (2003). Freshwater fish fauna of the rivers Mula and Mutha, Pune, Maharashtra. Zoosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Print Journal 18(1): 977-981.

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JoTT Essay

3(1): 1456-1461 3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium

Special Series

Processes involved in assessing priorities for local level Lepidoptera conservation programmes that aim to achieve global conservation impact Roger C. Kendrick Senior Officer (p/t), Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden, Lam Kam Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong S.A.R., China. Email: moths@kfbg.org

Abstract: Identifying viable conservation projects for Lepidoptera that target threatened species depends upon effective identification and execution within a framework of events. This process requires information gathering and analysis, stakeholder discussion and local community involvement, planning, action, monitoring and review. Published working examples from four continents are drawn upon to illustrate all the key stages, focusing on methods for identifying priority areas (complementarity, biodiversity hotspots, habitat distribution, irreplaceability) for conserving threatened Lepidoptera, whilst considering other conservation issues. Keywords: Biodiversity hotspots, complementarity, community involvement, conservation planning, habitat distribution, irreplaceability, IUCN Red List, Lepidoptera, priority areas, threatened species.

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Richard S. Peigler Manuscript details: Ms # o2579 Received 22 September 2010 Final received 19 November 2010 Finally accepted 21 December 2010 Citation: Kendrick, R.C. (2011). Processes involved in assessing priorities for local level Lepidoptera conservation programmes that aim to achieve global conservation impact. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1456-1461. Copyright: © Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden Corporation 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden for supporting the author’s participation at the 3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium, as well as Dr. Gary Ades and Dr. Michael Lau at KFBG for providing critical advice on the structure and content of this presentation paper and to Mark Sterling and three anonymous reviewers also assisted in tightening up the composition. Lastly, but by no means least, the author extends his thanks to the symposium’s organising committee for inviting this paper to be presented at the symposium, and for their endeavour in running the 3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium with such enthusiasm, efficiency and effectiveness, in spite of the many constraints that had to be overcome. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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This paper, a keynote presentation at the third Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium, Coimbatore, October 2010, provides an initial pointer to the key components of a framework that will assist the implementation of Lepidoptera conservation projects, especially those projects focusing on iconic, globally restricted species, by involving local communities in the projects, so that the communities benefit significantly from their contributions to such projects. In an ideal world, there would not be a need to conserve butterflies, moths, or any other flora or fauna. However, humanity has a long track record of mismanaging natural resources in an unsustainable way, no more so than at the current time, where habitat loss and fragmentation is now so severe that the very fabric of life appears to be in danger of collapse. Asia is at the front line of this issue, due to the long history of human civilization here and the burgeoning human population that now accounts for 60% of all humans globally in 30% of the world’s land area. The natural land that supports the wealth of biodiversity found in Asia is constantly being impacted upon, through degradation, conversion to other land uses and unsustainable exploitation. In many parts of Asia, little natural habitat remains, thus it would seem that the priority for nature conservation should be to conserve all remaining natural and semi-natural habitats. Unfortunately, wildlife conservation is generally low

This article is part of the peer-reviewed Proceedings of the 3rd Asian Lepidoptera Conservation Symposium (3ALCS-2010) jointly organized by the IUCN SSC South Asian Invertebrate Specialist Group (SAsISG); Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University; Zoo Outreach Organisation and Wildlife Information Liaison Development, held from 25 to 29 October 2010 at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. http://www.zooreach.org/3alcs2010.html

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on the list of priorities for many governments, who usually see economic growth and human issues as their priority. However, as natural resources underpin humanity, we would all be well advised to ensure our remaining “natural capital reserves” are not further eroded. Where does Lepidoptera conservation at the local level fit in? Lepidoptera should be one of the easier taxa to conserve. They are iconic, being the most popular group of insects in the perception of the general public (Feltwell 1995; Young 1997; Leverton 2001; Glassberg 2003). Their ecology makes them good indicators of change in the environment (Pyle 1984; Dennis 1993). They are a relatively easy group to record (Pollard & Yates 1993; Waring & Townsend 2003) and identify due to the amount of literature available, even in tropical areas (e.g. Migdoll 1988; Robinson et al. 1994; Woodhall 2005; Kehimkar 2008; Holloway 19832009). These assets make Lepidoptera a good group for conserving natural land through the association of rare species to particular habitats in a landscape. The iconic nature of butterflies and moths also makes it easier to get local communities to adopt a rare butterfly (or moth) as their own conservation flagship, or to provide a mechanism for gaining sustainable income from the forest, giving the community a vested interest in conserving the remaining land of conservation value near to them (Morgan-Brown 2007). Conservation Framework Convincing regional, national and international business interests and governments of the benefits of habitat protection may not be so easy. A comprehensive assessment to support the conservation of any particular area is becoming imperative to successful conservation projects, even for threatened taxa, though a “research to implementation” gap exists (Knight et al. 2008). Fortunately, the Convention on Biological Diversity sets out a Strategic Plan (COP6 2002) (i.e. a framework for conservation policies) that can be used as a model (Fig. 1), which includes specifying conservation projects as actions undertaken to meet a wider ranging set of conservation strategies that are adopted at the national level by all signatory countries. This symposium’s second Key Area (assess priority areas / communities for Lepidoptera conservation initiatives at the local level that has global conservation

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impact) is, in effect, a strategy for implementing wildlife conservation in general, modified in this case for the conservation of Lepidoptera. Thus we need to address and focus on points four through seven (Fig. 1) to put the strategy into effect. What does it involve? Objectives to meet the strategy must be identified, then actions that will be prescribed. The outcomes of these actions can be assessed and monitored, providing feedback to the project organisers, participants, funders and supporters as to the level of success of the project. Long term projects must be monitored regularly to enable changes to actions where necessary. Objectives For priority area assessment, there are two critical objectives of Lepidoptera conservation that can be defined: • identify the priority area(s) based upon presence of globally restricted Lepidoptera • identify local communities open to involvement in conservation of the habitat for the Lepidoptera involved within the priority areas These objectives should give clear statements of intent and act as a focus for a programme of specific actions that can be grouped under each objective. Actions – area assessment The first objective (identifying priority areas for globally restricted Lepidoptera) can be undertaken with two main programmes, firstly identifying existing knowledge on species and habitats, then assessing those data: • identify the Lepidoptera species of global conservation concern that occur within the target area – this should involve: • trawling through published literature for species records, and sourcing other records (collections); • undertaking IUCN Red List assessments (global, regional and national) for all species found in the target area - see Hoffmann et al. (2008) for an overview of the Red List criteria application for threatened species and Collins & Morris (1985) for one of the first examples of application at species level; • surveying sites where possible to confirm the presence of threatened species;

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Figure 1. Conservation framework model (based upon COP6 of CBD, 2002) (http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/official/cop-06-05-en.pdf)

•

profile the ecology of each species of global conservation concern, and try to investigate these species if there is no existing documentation. Issues that may have to be addressed include: (i) data ownership; (ii) accuracy (i.e. is the data recorded to an appropriate scale) and reliability of data; (iii) impediments to gathering data; (iv) legal requirements to be observed. Once the baseline data have been gathered, there are different ways these data should be assessed, using the following assessments: • Complementarity / surrogacy: investigate known data by comparing Lepidoptera diversity with that of other taxa to see if the Lepidoptera complement these other taxa, or are representative of other taxa, and thus by focusing on conserving the habitat containing Lepidoptera other priority taxa are also conserved (working examples: Kitching 1996; Bonn & Gaston 2005; Williams et al. 2006; Carmel & Stoller-Cavari 2006; Zafra-Calvo et al. 2010). 1458

•

Biodiversity hotspots: map the richness of Lepidoptera diversity, with the aim of identifying areas that have high Lepidoptera species richness (working examples: Danielson & Treadaway 2004; Balletto et al. 2010 [2009]). • Habitat distribution: (metapopulation dynamics / habitat fragmentation / landscape scale analysis); analyse the degree of fragmentation and connectivity of habitats suitable for the target Lepidoptera, working at a landscape scale, so as to evaluate the viability of a population’s long term survivability, noting that habitat patches are temporally and spatially dynamic (working examples: Grand et al. 2004; Romo et al. 2007; Early et al. 2008). • Irreplaceability: assessing the uniqueness of a species or assemblage of species at a particular site (endemic & threatened species), (working examples: Danielson & Treadaway 2004; van Swaay & Warren 2006; Fattorini 2009). These assessments, though not individually mandatory, are most helpful to make a robust case for

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conserving a particular site (irrespective of why that site is being conserved, as the process is applicable to all flora and fauna) or landscape. Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and where a target species occurs in an area that has good results from all four methods (i.e. the area also has other complementary functions, such as other threatened taxa and high ecosystem service value, is a hotspot for Lepidoptera biodiversity and also other taxa, is part of a larger, unfragmented mosaic of natural habitats and is highly irreplaceable due to a high number of endemic species), then the target site should be relatively easy to conserve. A good working example showing a multiple analysis approach is given by Rouget et al. (2004). Actions – community involvement The second objective (identifying and involving local communities) is critical to any conservation project being successful. Identifying the stakeholders involved in land use issues for a potential or actual wildlife conservation site, then fully engaging them as early as possible in the planning phases of a project will usually result in much clearer understanding of the benefits wildlife conservation will bring to the stakeholders. Benefits may include economic improvement, through (for example) ecotourism, sericulture or butterfly ranching, cultural or spiritual improvement and health, through the provision of ecosystem services (Chan et al. 2006; Miller et al. 2008). Critical stakeholders should include the following: • chairperson (someone seen as incorruptible, unbiased and capable of providing guidance on good governance) • representative of the conservation project proponent • local residential community representative(s) • regional / national NGO representative • regional / national government department(s) representative(s) • local business community representative • local / regional educational institutions (secondary and tertiary) Once the critical stakeholders have been identified they should be brought together to ensure everyone is at the same level of understanding. This requires the conservation project leadership to have assessed

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all the available knowledge pertaining to the project (the results from the assessments) and also to identify gaps in the knowledge (Knight et al. 2008). At the first stakeholder meeting these gaps can be highlighted and hopefully addressed. There are issues regarding data, and the following questions will have to be addressed to the satisfaction of all stakeholders: • who knows what? • are there significant data gaps? • what are the significant impediments to gathering and sharing data? • who owns the data? • what are the data based upon (observation / records / specimens . . . ) • how accurate are the data? • how are the data kept and shared? • are there any training or capacity building needs amongst the stakeholders? Once the full facts have been disclosed, the stakeholders to the project will be in a position to decide upon the best way to proceed. A couple of examples of community involvement spring to mind – the world famous Ornithoptera ranching operations in Papua New Guinea have been operating for 32 years (Hutton 1983), and highlight sustainable operations that provide a local income and benefit a globally threatened taxon (Clark & Landford 1991). More recently, Morgan-Brown (2007) has documented the same approach in Tanzania, with a similar effect on conserving butterfly populations and their habitats and significantly improving the lives of the villagers involved, to the point where other villages are planning to follow suit. However, it has been observed that practices involving ecotourism may not be as beneficial, owing to unsustainable use of resources and the limited capacity of most natural areas to support the numbers of visitors required to benefit the local communities involved (e.g. MacKinnon et al. 1986; Hannah 1992; Wells & Brandon 1992; Swarts 2000). Resources Actions in any project can only take hold when there are sufficient resources. It is assumed that the conservation project will assess what resources are required prior to commencement of the project. There are a number of critical steps that determine whether

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there are sufficient resources, but the preparation of an action plan (for species or for habitat - e.g. Bourn & Warren (1998)) based upon the National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan (each country signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity has recently submitted its fourth NBSAP, see the CBD website for details) should be the starting point and will address resource issues. The action plan should consider the background assessment work mentioned above, plus practical issues, such as legal constraints, sources of funding, manpower, logistics, equipment and responsibility for completion of specific actions. Once prepared, the action plan should be implemented. Monitoring and Review Feedback to stakeholders, participants, project funders and the public is critical to keep the momentum of a conservation project. Good news is always well received and may well help with the project’s continuation and support, especially from local communities. Reviewing projects also provides a mechanism to evaluate how successful a project is, whether it is achieving the targets, and whether alternative or modified strategies, objectives and actions need to be formulated to improve the overall success towards achieving the vision. Consequently, it is imperative that conservation projects have measurable targets and milestones that can be evaluated during the project and upon completion, such that the project can be seen to be a transparent process and have a positive outcome for both the wildlife (Lepidoptera in the context of this article) and the communities that have a vested interest in the project. References Balletto, E., S. Bonelli, L. Borghesio, A. Casale, P. Brandmayr & A.V. Taglianti (2010 [2009]). Hotspots of biodiversity and conservation priorities: A methodological approach. Italian Journal of Zoology 77(1): 2-13. Bonn, A. & K.J. Gaston (2005). Capturing biodiversity: selecting priority areas for conservation using different criteria. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 1083-1100. Bourn, N.A.D. & M.S. Warren (1998). Species Action Plan: ADONIS BLUE Lysandra bellargus (Polyommatus bellargus). Butterfly Conservation, East Lulworth, England, 21pp. 1460

Carmel, Y. & L. Stoller-Cavari (2006). Comparing Environmental and Biological Surrogates for Biodiversity at a Local Scale. Israel Journal of Ecology & Evolution 52: 11-27. Chan, K.M.A., M.R. Shaw, D.R. Cameron, E.C. Underwood & G.C. Daily (2006). Conservation Planning for Ecosystem Services. PLoS Biology 4(11): e379. DOI: 10.1371/journal. pbio.0040379. Clark, P.B. & A. Landford (1991). Farming Insects in Papua New Guinea. International Zoology. Yearbook 30: 127131. Collins, N.M. & M.G. Morris (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Gland Switzerland, vii+401 pp., 8 plates. COP6 [Conference Of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity] (2002). Report of the Open-Ended Inter-Sessional Meeting on the Strategic Plan, National Reports and Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Annex. Item 3: Strategic Plan for the Convention. 10-19. accessed online at http://www.cbd.int/ doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/official/cop-06-05-en.pdf, 15 September 2010. Danielsen, F. & C.G. Treadaway (2004). Priority conservation areas for butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in the Philippine islands. Animal Conservation 7: 79-92. doi:10.1017/S1367943003001215 Dennis, R.H.L. (1993). Butterflies and climate change. Manchester University Press, Manchester, England, xv+302pp. Early, R., B. Anderson & C.D. Thomas (2008). Using habitat distribution models to evaluate large-scale landscape priorities for spatially dynamic species. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 228-238. doi: 10.1111/j.13652664.2007.01424.x Fattorini, S. (2009). Assessing priority areas by imperilled species: insights from the European butterflies. Animal Conservation 12: 313–320. doi:10.1111/j.14691795.2009.00251.x Feltwell, J. (1995). The Conservation of Butterflies in Britain past and present. Wildlife Matters, Battle, England, ix+233pp. Glassberg, J. (2003). Butterflies through Binoculars: A Field Guide to Butterflies in the Boston – New York – Washington Region. Oxford University Press, New York, ix+160pp., 40 plates. Grand, J., J. Buonaccorsi, S.A. Cushman, C.R. Griffin & M.C. Neel (2004). A multiscale landscape approach to predicting bird and moth rarity hotspots in a threatened pitch pine - scrub oak community. Conservation Biology 18(4): 1063-1077. Hannah, L. (1992). African People, African Parks: An Evaluation of Development Initiatives as a Means of Improving Protected Area Conservation in Africa. Agency for International Development, Bureau for Africa, Biodiversity Support Program and Conservation International. Washington, 76pp.

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Lepidoptera conservation programmes

Hoffmann, M., T.M. Brooks, G.A.B. da Fonseca, C. Gascon, A.F.A. Hawkins, R.E. James, P. Langhammer, R.A. Mittermeier, J.D. Pilgrim, A.S.L. Rodrigues & J.M.C. Silva (2008). Conservation planning and the IUCN Red List. Endangered Species Research 6: 113-125. Holloway, J.D. (1983-2009). The Moths of Borneo parts 1 & 3 to 18. Malaysian Nature Journal 37: 1-107. 38: 157-317. 40: 1-165. 43: 57-226. 47: 1-309. 49: 147-326. 51: 1-242. 52: 1-155. 53: 1-188. 55: 279-486. 58: 1-529. 60: 1-268. 62: 1-240 & Southdene Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur (parts 3, 6 & 18); also on-line at http://www.mothsofborneo.com/ accessed 20 September 2010. Hutton, A. (1983). Butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea Oryx 19: 158-162. Kehimkar, I. (2008). The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, xvi + 497pp. Kitching, I.J. (1996). Identifying complementary areas for conservation in Thailand: an example using owls, hawkmoths and tiger beetles. Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 841-858. Knight, A.T., R.M. Cowling, M. Rouget, A. Blamford, A.T. Lombard & B.M. Campbell (2008). Knowing but not doing: selecting priority conservation areas and the research-implementation gap. Conservation Biology 22(3): 610-617. Leverton, R. (2001). Enjoying Moths. T & A D Poyser, London, xi+276pp. MacKinnon, J.K., G. Child & J. Thorsell (1986). Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics. IUCN, Gland, Switzer, 295pp. Migdoll, I. (1988). Ivor Migdoll’s Field Guide to the Butterflies of Southern Africa. New Holland, London, 256pp. Miller, J.Y., J.C. Daniels & T.C. Emmel (2008). Planning for tomorrow: the future of entomological investments. Florida Entomologist 91(1): 139-144. Morgan-Brown, T. (2007). Butterfly Farming and Conservation Behavior in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania. MSc Thesis, Graduate School of The University of Florida, 55pp. Pollard, E., & T.J. Yates (1993). Monitoring butterflies for ecology and conservation. Chapman & Hall, London, xiii+274pp.

R.C. Kendrick

Pyle, R.M. (1984). Handbook for Butterfly Watchers. Houghton Mifflin, New York, xvi+280 pp. Robinson, G.S., K.R. Tuck & M. Shaffer (1994). A Field Guide to the Smaller Moths of South-East Asia. Malaysian Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, 309pp. Romo, H., M.L. Munguira & E. García–Barros (2007). Area selection for the conservation of butterflies in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 30(1): 7–27. Rouget, M., B. Reyers, Z. Jonas, P. Desmet, A. Driver, K. Maze, B. Egoh, R.M. Cowling, L. Mucina & M.C. Rutherford (2004). South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report. Volume 1: Terrestrial Component. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, viii+77pp. (not including appendices). van Swaay, C.A.M. & M.S. Warren (2006). Prime Butterfly Areas of Europe: an initial selection of priority sites for conservation. Journal of Insect Conservation 10: 5–11. Swarts, F. (2000). The Pantanal in the 21st Century: For the Planet’s Largest Wetland, an Uncertain Future. in Swarts, F. (ed.) The Pantanal of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay. Hudson MacArthur, Gouldsboro, PA, USA, 287pp. Waring, P. & M. Townsend (2003). Field Guide to the Moths of Great Britain and Ireland. British Wildlife Publishing, Hook, Hampshire, England, 432pp. Wells, M. & K. Brandon (1992). People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management With Local Communities. World Wildlife Fund. US-AID, 99pp. Williams, P., D. Faith, L. Manne, W. Sechrest & C. Preston (2006). Complementarity analysis: Mapping the performance of surrogates for biodiversity. Biological Conservation 128: 253-264. Woodhall, S. (2005). Field Guide to Butterflies of South Africa. Struik, Cape Town, 440pp. Young, M. (1997). The Natural History of Moths. T & A D Poyser, London, xiv+271pp. Zafra-Calvo, N., R. Cerro, T. Fuller, J.M. Lobo, M.Á. Rodríguez & S. Sarkar (2010). Prioritizing areas for conservation and vegetation restoration in post-agricultural landscapes: A Biosphere Reserve plan for Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. Biological Conservation 143: 787–794.

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JoTT Note

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On the identity and occurrence of Ophioglossum costatum (Pteridophyta: Ophioglossaceae) in Andhra Pradesh, India Vatsavaya S. Raju 1, A. Ragan 2, S. Suthari 3 & M.V. Ramana 4 Plant Systematics Laboratory, Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh 506009, India 4 Department of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500007, India Email: 1 satyavatsa@yahoo.co.in (corresponding author), 2 raganajmeera@yahoo.co.in, 3 sateeshsuthari@yahoo.com, 4 venkat.botany@gmail.com 1-3

The members of the genus Ophioglossum L. (Ophioglossaceae) are known as snake tongue or adderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tongue ferns. The genus comprises, worldwide, an estimated 28-58 (Panigrahi & Dixit 1969) to 40 species (Singh et al. 2009). In India, it is represented by 12 species (Yadav & Tripathi 2002; Goswami et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2009). Pullaiah et al. (2003) recorded three species of the genus for the state of Andhra Pradesh, namely, Ophioglossum gramineum Willd., O.nudicaule L.f. and O. reticulatum L. However, earlier Rao et al. (1999) reported O. pedunculosum Desv. to be common on the hills of Tuni in East Godavari District which is synonymous with Ohioglossum costatum R.Br. - a distinct, widespread

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

Manuscript details: Ms # o2568 Received 10 September 2010 Finally accepted 06 December 2010 Citation: Raju, V.S., A. Ragan, S. Suthari & M.V. Ramana (2011). On the identity and occurrence of Ophioglossum costatum (Pteridophyta: Ophioglossaceae) in Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1462-1464. Copyright: ÂŠ Vatsavaya S. Raju, A. Ragan, S. Suthari & M.V. Ramana 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgement: MVR is obliged to Prof. B. Bhadraiah, Head and Research Supervisor, Department of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad, for encouragement.

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Taxonomic identity In the herbarium, often, the differences between the specimens of O. costatum and O. nudicaule are not perceived properly and confused when the particulars of the subterranean parts such as rhizome shape, size, number of fibrous roots, origin of trophophylls, depth at which the rhizome is buried, presence of stolons, etc. are missing or not indicated. Table 1 provides the differences between these species for their proper identification. Although the sterile fronds arise from the subterranean part of the rhizome in O. costatum, O.nudicaule and O. polyphyllum, the plants attain a height of about 4cm, the rhizome is tuberous, cylindrical with a growing point, stolons help in vegetative propagation, the angle between peduncle and lamina is 900 and the venation of the sterile frond is not double in O. nudicaule. The plants can reach a height of 25cm, the rhizome is globose, tuberous with an apical cupule, no stolons but bear profuse lateral roots and the trophophyll is with a distinct pale midrib in O. costatum, whereas, the sterile fronds are many (2-5; usually 4) and without the distinct costa in O. polyphyllum. Ophioglossum costatum

Editor: P.B. Khare

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species often misidentified with O. nudicaule L.f. The present paper attempts to look at this problem and adds a note on the field identity and occurrence of the paleotropical fern, Ophioglossum costatum R.Br., in Andhra Pradesh.

Ophioglossum costatum R.Br., Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl.: 163. 1810; Balakrishnan et al. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 337. 1960; Panigrahi & Dixit in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 35: 249. f. 38, 39. 1969. O. pedunculosum Desv., Mag. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin 5: 306. 1811; Clausen in Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 19(2): 140. 1938. O. pedunculatum Desv. ex Poir., Enc. Suppl. 4: 164. 1816 (error). Abbreviations: BSID - Herbarium of Deccan Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Hyderabad; KUH - Kakatiya University Herbarium, Warangal; SKU - Herbarium of Department of Botany, Sri Krishna Devaraya University, Anantapur.

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Identity and occurrence of Ophioglossum costatum

V.S. Raju et al.

Table 1. Comparison of diagnostic characters between Ophioglossum costatum and O. nudicaule. Trait

Ophioglossum costatum

Ophioglossum nudicaule

Plant height

13-19.7 cm.

3.59 ± 0.74 cm.

Rhizome (Diameter/length)

0.6-0.9 cm.

0.42 ± 0.02 cm.

(a) Origin

Basipetal.

Acropetal.

(b) Length

3.8-6 cm.

0.87 ± 0.32 cm.

Arising mostly on the circumference of the knob-like rhizome.

Arising on the entire length of the rhizome.

(d) Stolons

Absent (no vegetative propagation by stolons).

Frequently present, arising from the base of rhizome.

(a) Origin

Arising from the centre of the cupule of the rhizome.

Arising from the tip of the rhizome.

(b) Number

1-4 (5 rare) per plant.

1-2 per plant.

Elliptic.

Ovate.

(d) Lamina

4.81 ± 0.7 x 2.14 ± 0.27 cm; spread over the soil surface forming an angle of 40-600 with the fertile segment.

0.70 ± 0.12 x 0.53 ± 0.10 cm; spread over the soil surface forming an angle of 900 with the fertile segment.

(e) Trophophore

About 70–90% of its length subterranean.

Sessile, arising from the base of the substratum as in O. costatum.

(f) Midrib

Present; a band of 3-4 prominent median veins form the midrib.

Absent.

Spike

Length 1.2-2.9 cm, width 0.2-0.25 cm; no sterile tip.

Length 0.78 ± 0.17 cm; sterile tip present.

Sporangia

25-35 pairs per spike.

7-10 pairs per spike.

Roots:

Trophophylls (Sterile fronds):

(After the present study; Yadav & Tripathi 2002; Singh et al. 2009).

O. fibrosum Schumach. in Beskr. Guin. Pl.: 452. 1827; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India: 465. t.289. 1883; Mahabale in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 4: 71. 1962. O. wightii Grev. et Hook., Bot. Misc. 3(8): 218. 1833. O. brevipes Bedd., Ferns South. India: 23, t. 72. 1863. O. bulbosum Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India, Suppl.: 28. t.72. 1876, non Michx. (1803), nom.illeg. Diagnosis: Perennial herbs (geophyte) of 13-19.7 cm high; rhizome tuberous, globose (Image 1d), 0.6 to 1 cm diam., with 37-54 lateral, fibrous, radiating or descending, non-proliferous roots arising from the entire periphery of the knob-like rhizome except at the bottom (Images 1c,e); stolons absent. Trophophylls (sterile fronds) 2 or 3, rarely 4 (even 5 c.f. Beddome, loc. cit. ff. 72, 289) or single arising from a crater (pitlike depression); 3-7 x 1-3 cm, green with distinct pale midrib; usually flat, at times folded or concave; ovate or ovate-lanceolate or elliptic, slightly fleshy, broadly cuneate at base; apex acute to obtuse; margin entire or wavy; standing at 40-600 from the ground; trophophore 70–90% of its length subterranean.

Common stipe 0.8-1.8 cm; peduncle 9.1-14.4 cm, fertile segment (strobilus) arising above the middle of the stalk [peduncle] (Images 1a,b); strobilus 1.22.9 cm (length) x 0.2-0.25 cm (diam.); green (Image 1f), yellowish when ripe (Image 1g); ratio of common stipe, peduncle and strobilus 1.0:7.5:1.5; sporangia 2535 pairs per spike; length 0.75-1 mm, with no sterile tip. Spores trilete. Distribution: (a) Global: Tropical Africa, Madagascar, India to Australia and New Zealand. (b) India: Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu (Balakrishnan et al. 1960); Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Kerala (Panigrahi & Dixit 1969); found in open grassy forest floors, margins of ditches or hill slopes, next to rock boulders, etc. Ex Siccate: 13.vii.2010, Osmania University campus, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, (17025’57.7’’N & 78031’47.2’’E, 517m), V.S. Raju & M.V. Ramana, 001923 (BSID); 14.viii.2010, Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary, Warangal District, (17057’41.5’’N & 79059’00.7’’E, 256m altitude); V.S. Raju, A. Ragan & S. Suthari, 1853 (KUH); 06.xii.2002, Chandragiri, Chittoor District, P.A. Lakshmi, 26240 (SKU).

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Identity and occurrence of Ophioglossum costatum

V.S. Raju et al.

Tuni Hills of East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh reported by Rao et al. (1999); O. pedunculosum Desv. is now treated conspecific with O. costatum R.Br.; (iii) The specimens of O. costatum from Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh were found to be larger bearing long elliptic leaves, etc. (Balakrishnan et al. 1960); (iv) Although O. costatum is not in endangered list, its habitats are threatened due to alien plant invasions (by Hyptis suaveolens, Parthenium hysterophorus, etc.), grazing (Image 1h), etc.

REFERENCES

Image 1. Ophioglossum costatum a - Whole plant (Pakhal); b - Dugout plant (Hyderabad); c - Rhizome with roots (note the origin of fronds from a depression at the top of the rhizome); d - Roots cut to expose the globose nature of the rhizome; e - Rhizome shown topsy-turvy to disclose the baldness at the bottom; f & g Strobilus (young and mature); h - Grazed plant.

Note: (i) Plate 2 by Pullaiah et al. (2003) carry the picture of plants of Ophioglossum nudicaule from Chandragiri, Chittoor District which clearly pertain to O. costatum. Prof. R.R.V. Raju (pers. comm.) confirms the herbarium specimen cited above of the collector at SKU as of O. costatum; (ii) Pullaiah et al. (2003) also failed to record the presence of O. pedunculosum in

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Balakrishnan, N.P., K. Thothathri & A.N. Henry (1960). Some Indian Ophioglossums - taxonomy and distribution. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 2(3&4): 335-339. Goswami, H.K., S.C. Verma & B.D. Sharma (2008). Biology of Pteridophytes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; I. Ophioglossum L. Bionature Monograph, Catholic Press Ranchi, Jharkhand-India, 135pp. Panigrahi, G. & R.D. Dixit (1969). Studies in Indian Pteridophytes. IV. The family Ophioglossaceae in India. Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India 35B: 230-266. Pullaiah, T., A. Ahmed & P.A. Lakshmi (2003). Ophioglossum: pp. 38-42. In: Pteridophytes in Andhra Pradesh, India. Regency Publications, New Delhi. Rao, R.S., S. Sudhakar & P. Venkanna (1999). Flora of East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India. INTACH, A.P. State Chapter, Hyderabad, p.801. Singh, A.P., S. Mishra, S. Gupta, S.K. Behera & P.B. Khare (2009). Studies on the genus Ophioglossum L. in Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India. Taiwania 54(4): 353-364. Yadav, B.L. & M.K. Tripathi (2002). Ophioglossum in Rajasthan - taxonomy and distribution. pp. 248-267. In: Trivedi, P.C. (ed.), Advances in Pteridology. Pointer Publisher, Jaipur.

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JoTT Note

Burmannia championii Thwaites (Dioscoreales: Burmanniaceae), a new addition to the flora of Karnataka Divakar K. Mesta 1, Harsha V. Hegde 2, Vinayak Upadhya 3 & Sanjiva D. Kholkute 4 Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule College of Arts and Science, GogolMargao, Goa 403604, India 2,3,4 Regional Medical Research Centre (Indian Council of Medical Research), Nehru Nagar, Belgaum, Karnataka 590010, India Email: 1 divakarmesta@rediffmail.com (corresponding author), 2 harshavh@rediffmail.com, 3 sirsivinayak@yahoo.com, 4 sankhol@yahoo.com 1

Burmannia championii Thwaites is a small, white, filamentous, saprophytic herb belonging to the family Burmanniaceae. This has been recorded in an evergreen forest patch at Kathalekan near Jog Falls of Uttara Kannada (North Canara) District and at Karani of Shimoga District. Both the localities are in the central Western Ghats region in Karnataka. The voucher specimen of the collection has been deposited at the herbarium of Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), Belgaum (RMRC 00506) (Image 1). The identification has been confirmed by comparing with the authentic specimens housed at Madras Herbarium (MH), Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore. Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: K. Gopalakrishna Bhat Manuscript details: Ms # o2495 Received 29 June 2010 Final received 22 November 2010 Finally accepted 23 December 2010 Citation: Mesta, D.K., H.V. Hegde, V. Upadhya & S.D. Kholkute (2011). Burmannia championii Thwaites (Dioscoreales: Burmanniaceae), a new addition to the flora of Karnataka. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 14651468. Copyright: ÂŠ Divakar K. Mesta, Harsha V. Hegde, Vinayak Upadhya & Sanjiva D. Kholkute 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: Authors are thankful to National Medicinal Plant Board for the financial assistance, Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore (MH) for permission to compare the specimen. DKM is thankful to the Principal, Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule College, Margoa for the support. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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The family Burmanniaceae is represented by 17 genera and 125 species (Hajra 1988). They are distributed in the tropics and sub tropics of both hemispheres. In India, it is represented by two genera (Burmannia and Haplothismia) and 10 species. The genus Burmannia comprises about 57 species (Shu 2010) distributed in tropics of both hemispheres, southern United States, southern Brazil, Bolivia, Mozambique, southern China, Southeast Asia, Japan and southern Australia. Nine species of Burmannia have been reported from India, of which three are endemic. B. championii was reported earlier from Sri Lanka, Malayan peninsula, southern China and Japan (Hajra 1988). It was reported from Taiwan recently by Hsieh & Ohashi (2000). Trimen & Hooker (1984) mentioned this plant as endemic to Sri Lanka and reported it to be rare in moist low lands. In India, B. championii is recorded only from Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Balakrishnan 1976) and Kerala (Joseph et al. 1980). This report of the plant from Karnataka is after a gap of 30 years since its report from Kerala. The report gains importance as Balakrishnan et al. (1983) reported B. championii to be endangered in the Indian subcontinent. The plant was observed in September 2008, as undergrowth in a swampy relic forest called Myristica swamp in Kathalekan (Uttara Kannada District) with a population of several individuals. It was growing amongst decaying litter and wet soil in the swamp and adjoining areas. The plant appeared as a small herb with terminal capitate inflorescence. The same plant was observed during the same field visit at Karani area of Shimoga District in an evergreen forest patch dominated by the trees of Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd. The detailed description of the plant with photographs (Images 2-5) are provided to enable its easy identification. Burmannia championii Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 325. 1864; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 5: 666.1890; Jonker I.c. 38; Balakrishnan in Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 18(1-4): 230-231. 1976; Joseph, Ansari et Mohanan in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 552553. 1980. Specimens examined: 19.ix.2008, Kathalekan,

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Burmannia championii new addition to Karnataka

D.K. Mesta et al.

Image 1. Herbarium sheet of Burmannia championii with accession number RMRC 00506.

Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka, India, coll. Divakar K. Mesta, Harsha V. Hegde and Vinayak Upadhya, 506 (RMRC); 14.x.1979, Madampatty forest, Palghat District, Kerala, India, coll. N.C. Nair, 126012 (MH). It is a saprophytic herb with underground tuber of about 1cm long and 0.6cm diameter. Stem 7-15 cm high and 1mm in diameter, simple, slender, white. Scales 2-4 mm long, lanciolate, spirally arranged; basal scales shorter. Bracts 3-4 mm long, acute. Inflorescence terminal, capitate or sub-capitate, 2-7-flowered. Flowers bisexual, tubular, wingless; up to 1.2cm long, white. Outer perianth lobe up to 3mm, erect, acute; inner perianth lobe 1.5mm long, minutely pubescent. Anthers sessile, halfway down the tube. Ovary to 3mm, oblong-ovoid; style thick, filiform; stigma 3-lobed, funnel shaped. Flowering and fruiting: July-September, in the present localities (Kathalekan and Karani) these plants were in flower during September. The family Burmanniaceae in general and B. championii in particular, are less studied as evidenced by the scanty literature. Hsieh & Ohashi (2000) worked 1466

on SEM of the pollens from the Taiwan specimen. In the similar work, Chakrapani & Raj (1971) reported the pollen morphology of 19 species of Burmannia, including B. championii. The phylogeny and evolution of Burmanniaceae was reported by Merckx et al. (2006) based on nuclear and mitochondrial data. However, they did not considered B. championii in their study. There are no reports either on chemical constituents or medicinal uses of B. championii. Even though, B. coelestis is reported to be used medicinally by Santals in India (Hajra 1988); details are not available. Hence avenues are open to work further on this species. In addition to the earlier report on distribution of the plant in India, our report gives its further extension to the north of Kerala, forming a new addition to the flora of Karnataka. It also throws light on possible likelihood of its occurrence elsewhere in the evergreen forests of Western Ghats. Note: During late monsoon, several individuals of B. championii shoot up from the subterranean tubers, especially in the wet, littered forest floor. The note on the MH herbarium sheet also indicates it as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;most commonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Even though it is a common herb in the ground layer of evergreen forests, it may have lost the attention of botanists due to its appearance like fungal fruiting body and its short life span.

References Balakrishnan, N.P. (1976). Burmannia championii Thw. An addition to the flora of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bulletin of Botanical Survey of India 18(1-4): 230-231. Balakrishnan, N.P. & M.K.V. Rao (1983). The Dwindling Plant Species of Andaman and Nicobar Isalnds, pp. 186201. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (eds.). An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Chakrapani, P. & B. Raj (1971). Pollen Morphological Studies in the Burmanniaceae. Grana 11(3): 164-179. Hajra, P.K. (1988). Burmaniaceae, p. 9. In: Nayar, M.P., K. Thothathri & M. Sanjappa (eds.). Fascicles of Flora of India, Fascicle 19. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata. Hooker, J.D. (1890). The Flora of British India, Vol. 5. L. Reeve and Co., London, 666pp. Hsieh, T.H. & H. Ohashi (2000). A new record of Burmannia championii Thwaites (Burmanniaceae) in Taiwan. Taiwania 45 (4): 346-350. Joseph, J., R. Ansari & C.N. Mohanan (1980). Burmannia championii Thw. An addition to the flora of south India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 76: 552-553.

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Burmannia championii new addition to Karnataka

D.K. Mesta et al.

Image 2-5. Burmannia championii Thw. 2 - Habit; 3 - Plant with intact tuber; 4 - Tuber; 5 - Inflorescence

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Merckx, V., P. Schols, H.M. Van De Kamer, P. Maas, S. Huysmans & E. Smets (2006). Phylogeny and evolution of Burmanniaceae (Dioscoreales) based on nuclear and mitochondrial data. American Journal of Botany 93(11): 1684-1698. Shu, S.Y.Z. (2010). Burmanniaceae in Flora of China 23: 121-123. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/PDF/PDF23/ Burmannia.pdf downloaded on 13 January 2011. Trimen, H. & J.D. Hooker (1984). A Handbook to The Flora of Ceylon. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 131pp.

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JoTT Note

Butterflies of Vidarbha region, Maharashtra State, central India Ashish D. Tiple Department of Zoology, Entomology Division, RTM Nagpur University Campus, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India Forest Entomology Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482021, India Email: ashishdtiple@yahoo.co.in

The Indian sub-region hosts about 1,504 species of butterflies (Gaonkar 1996; Smetacek 1992; Kunte 2009; Roy et al. 2010) of which peninsular India hosts 351, and the Western Ghats 334. In central India, the butterfly diversity reported by D’Abreau (1931) totalled 177 species occurring in the erstwhile Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh & Vidarbha). Vidarbha is the eastern region of Maharashtra State covering Nagpur division and Amravati division. It occupies 31.6% of the total area of Maharashtra. It borders the state of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh to the south and Marathwada and Khandesh regions of Maharashtra to the west. No published checklist of butterfly species of Vidarbha region is known, hence, the present work was initiated. Habitats: Vidarbha lies on the northern part of Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Peter Smetacek Manuscript details: Ms # o2397 Received 29 January 2010 Final received 30 July 2010 Finally accepted 24 November 2010 Citation: Tiple, A.D. (2011). Butterflies of Vidarbha region, Maharashtra State, central India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1469-1477. Copyright: © Ashish D. Tiple 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: Thanks to Prof. A.M. Khurad, Head, Department of Zoology; RTM Nagpur University and Dr. Nitin Kulkarni, Scientist F, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur for their comments on an earlier draft and kind encouragement. I thank Dr. R.M. Sharma, Central Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jabalpur for literature and critical suggestions from time to time. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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the Deccan Plateau. Unlike the Western Ghats, there are no major hilly areas. The Satpura range lies to the north of Vidarbha in Madhya Pradesh. The Melghat area of Amravati District is the southern offshoot of the Satpura range. Wainganga is the largest of all the Vidarbha rivers. Other major rivers that drain the Vidarbha region are the Wardha and Kanhan rivers which are all tributaries of the Godavari River. To the north, five small rivers, namely Khandu, Khapra, Sipna, Gadga and Dolar along with Purna, are the tributaries of the Tapti River. From the administrative point of view, Vidarbha comprises 11 districts namely, Amravati, Akola, Bhandara, Buldhana, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Gondia, Nagpur, Wardha, Washim and Yavatmal. Forest type: The forests are well distributed over all the agro-climatic zones. The forest types found in the area are classified as sub-tropical hill forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical dry deciduous forests and lush green deciduous forests (Champion & Seth 1968), which are home to a variety of flora and fauna. All Maharashtra’s tiger reserves are located in Vidarbha. They are Melghat Tiger Reserve in Amravati District, Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in Chandrapur District and Pench Tiger Reserve in Nagpur District. Climatic conditions: Vidarbha has three main seasons: the wet Monsoon and post-Monsoon season from June to October, the cool dry winter from October to March and the hot dry season from April till the onset of rains. The temperature of Vidarbha ranges from a minimum of 12-250C to a maximum of 30-48°C with relative humidity varying from 10-15% to 60-95%. Annual precipitation is 1700mm 90% of the precipitation falls in four months, i.e. from June to September (Tiple 2009). History of butterfly surveys in Central India: In central India, the butterfly diversity was reported earlier by Forsayeth (1884), Swinhoe (1886), Betham (1890, 1891), and Witt (1909). Subsequent works include several species from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Evans 1932; Talbot 1939, 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957). D’Abreau (1931) documented a total of 177 species occurring in the erstwhile central provinces including Pachmari, Pench and Seoni, Nimar, Hoshangabad, Jabalpur, Burahanpur, Raipur, Bastar, Chanda and Nagpur districts (now Madhya

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Pradesh and Vidarbha). In addition to this, Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Abreau (1931) provided a special list of 92 butterfly species from Nagpur city. In the recent past, several workers have studied butterflies from urban, rural and protected areas of Vidarbha. Pandharipande (1990) in his preliminary studies listed only 61 butterfly species in Nagpur City, representing eight families. A total of 48 species of butterflies were recorded belonging to 35 genera from Lonar Crater Lake, Buldhana District (Palot & Soniya 2003); 45 butterflies and 54 moths were reported from Pench Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra) by Singh (2004); 65 species belonging to 52 genera representing seven families from Pench Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra (Sharma & Radhakrishnan 2004); 45 species belonging to 36 genera representing eight families from Melghat Tiger Reserve (Sharma & Radhakrishnan 2005); 43 species of butterflies of 29 genera from the Tiger Reserve in Tadoba National Park, Maharashtra (Rai et al. 2006); 68 species of butterflies of 50 genera were recorded from Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve (Sharma & Radhakrishnan 2006); 53 species belonging to 36 genera representing seven families from Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary, Buldhana District (Sharma 2008); 53 species of butterflies were recorded from Pohara Malkhed Reserve Forest, Amravati District by Kasambe & Wadatkar (2004); 52 species of butterflies belonging to five families (22 species to Nymphalidae, 12 to Lycaenidae, 10 to Pieridae, 5 to Papilionidae and 3 species to Hesperiidae) were reported from Amravati University Campus, Maharashtra (Tiple et al. 2006, 2007); 51 butterfly species were recorded belonging to seven families from Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra (Chandrakar et al. 2007); 101 species of butterflies of eight families and 19 subfamilies were recorded (22 species of Nymphalidae, 6 of Danaidae, 10 of Satyridae, 23 of Lycaenidae, 1 of Riodinidae, 16 of Pieridae, 9 of Papilionidae, and 14 species of Hesperiidae) from Melghat Tiger Reserve (Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009); 103 species of butterflies belonging to eight families and 19 subfamilies were recorded from Melghat Tiger Reserve (Wadatkar 2008); and 98 species of butterflies belonging to Papilionidae (06 species), Pieridae (14 species), Nymphalidae (39 species), Lycaenidae (24 species) and Hesperiidae (15 species) in reserve forest area, Seminary Hill, Nagpur city (Tiple & Khurad 2009b). Recently, Tiple & Khurad (2009a) reported 145 1470

species of butterflies recorded at eight study sites, of which 62 species were new records for Nagpur City. The highest number of butterflies recorded belonged to the family Nymphalidae (51 species) with 17 new records, followed by Lycaenidae (46 species) with 29 new records, Hesperiidae (22 species) with 14 new records, Pieridae (17 species) with four new records and Papilionidae (9 species). The compilation of all these studies in Vidarbha region and stray records resulted in the enumeration of 167 species of butterflies belonging to 90 genera representing five families and is given in Table 1. The highest number of butterflies recorded belonged to the Nymphalidae (50 species), followed by Lycaenidae (47 species), Hesperiidae (34 species), Pieridae (23species) and Papilionidae (13 species). All scientific names follow reports by Varshney (1983); Kunte (2000) and common English names are after Wynter-Blyth (1957). Continuous exploration in Vidarbha region could add many more new records for the region. Among the 167 butterflies recorded from Vidarbha region, 14 species come under the protected category of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Among them Pachliopta hector and Hypolimnas misippus come under Schedule I of the Act. The species recorded which come under Schedule II are Hypolimnas misippus, Eurema andersonii, Appias albina, Tanaecia lepidea, Spindasis elima, Melanitis zitenius, Euchrysops cnejus, Ionolyce helicon and Lampides boeticus. The species recorded which come under Schedule IV are Appias libythea, Tarucus ananda, Baoris farri, Euploea core (Kunte 2000; Gupta & Mondal 2005). Interestingly, some butterflies (Graphium antiphates, Papilio crino, Ypthima avanta, Everes argiades and Hasora chabrona) which were recorded earlier by Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Abreau (1931) from Vidarbha (Nagpur city) were not seen in recent years. The probable causes of this could be the loss of habitats by ever expanding urbanization along with the broader climatic changes (Tiple et al. 2007). During the last decade, the city has expanded twice in its circumference causing loss of natural habitats of butterflies. Urban development is expected to have a deleterious impact on butterfly populations, if only because the construction of buildings and concrete replaces or reduces the area of natural and semi-natural habitats. The quality of residual habitats may also be adversely affected by

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Butterflies of Vidarbha region

A.D. Tiple

Table 1. List of butterflies recorded from Vidarbha region Sno

Common name

Scientific name

Distribution

Papilionidae (13) 1

Tailed Jay

Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Jay

Graphium doson (C.& R. Felder)

Nagpur and Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Spot Swordtail

Graphium nomius (Esper)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Bluebottle

Graphium sarpedon (Linnaeus)

Nagpur and Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Tiple & Khurad 2009aa; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Common Rose

Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Crimson Rose

Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus)*

Common throughout Vidarbha

Malabar Rose

Pachliopta pandiyana Moore

Amravati, Melghat (Chandrakar et al. 2007)

Fivebar Swordtail

Graphium antiphates (Cramer)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931)

Common Mime

Papilio clytia (Linnaeus)

Nagpur, Pench National Park (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004)

Lime

Papilio demoleus Linnaeus

Common throughout Vidarbha

Blue Mormon

Papilio polymnestor Cramer

Nagpur, Chandrapur Tadoba National Park (Tiple & Khurad 2009a; A. Tiple pers. obs.)

Common Mormon

Papilio polytes Linnaeus

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Banded Peacock

Papilio crino Fabricius

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931)

Pieridae (23) 14

Pioneer

Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Albatross

Appias albina (Boisduval)*

Nagpur, Amravati (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Eastern Striped Albatross

Appias libythea (Fabricius)*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Lemon Emigrant

Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Mottled Emigrant

Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Gull

Cepora nerissa (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Small Salmon Arab

Colotis amata (Butler)

Nagpur, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931, Sharma 2008)

Crimson Tip

Colotis danae (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati & Buldana, (D’Abreau 1931; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009;)

Small Orange Tip

Colotis etrida (Boisduval)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Plain Orange Tip

Colotis eucharis (Fabricius)

Buldana (Sharma 2008)

Large Salmon Arab

Colotis fausta (Oliver)

Buldana (Sharma 2008)

Common Jezebel

Delias eucharis (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Painted Jezebel

Delias hyparete (Linnaeus)

Gadchiroli (Bhamaragad forest) Tiple Personal obsevation.

One-spot Grass Yellow

Eurema andersonii (Moore)*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Three-spot Grass Yellow

Eurema blanda (Boisduval)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Small Grass Yellow

Eurema brigitta (Cramer)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Grass Yellow

Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Spotless Grass Yellow

Eurema laeta (Boisduval)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Great Orange Tip

Hebomoea glaucippe (Linnaeus)

Amravati, Melghat (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

White Orange Tip

Ixias marianne (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2005, 2006; Tiple et al. 2007; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Yellow Orange Tip

Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus)

Nagpur and Amravati (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005, 2006; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Tiple et al. 2007; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

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Butterflies of Vidarbha region Sno 35 36

A.D. Tiple

Common name

Scientific name

Psyche

Leptosia nina (Fabricius)

Buldana (Sharma 2008)

Pareronia valeria (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005, 2006; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Tiple et al. 2007; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Wanderer

Distribution

Nymphalidae (50) 37

Plain Tiger

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Striped Tiger

Danaus genutia (Cramer)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Glassy Tiger

Parantica aglea (Stoll)

Nagpur, Amravati (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005; Tiple et al. 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Blue Tiger

Tirumala limniace (Cramer)

Common throughout the Vidarbha

Dark Blue Tiger

Tirumala septentrionis (Butler)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Common Indian Crow

Euploea core (Cramer)*

Common throughout Vidarbha

Brown King Crow

Euploea klugii Moore

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Bamboo Treebrown

Lethe europa (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Common Treebrown

Lethe rohria (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Dark Branded Bushbrown

Mycalesis mineus (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Bushbrown

Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Tamil Bushbrown

Mycalesis subdita (Moore)

Nagpur, Amravati (Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Longbrand Bushbrown

Mycalesis visala Moore

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Nigger

Orsotriaena medus Fabricius

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Evening Brown

Melanitis leda (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Dark Evening Brown

Melanitis phedima (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati (Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Great Evening Brown

Melanitis zitenius ( Herbst)*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Threering

Ypthima asterope (Klug)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Lesser Threering

Ypthima inica (Hewitson)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Four Ring

Ypthima huebneri Kirby

Nagpur, Amravati, Bhandara, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2005, 2006; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Jewel Fourring

Ypthima avanta Moore

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931)

Common Fivering

Ypthima baldus (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006 )

Tawny Rajah

Charaxes psaphon Westwood

Nagpur and Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Black Rajah

Charaxes solon (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Common Nawab

Polyura athamas (Drury)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Anomalous Nawab

Polyura agraria Swinhoe

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Baron

Euthalia aconthea (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati and Buldana, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005, 2006; Tiple et al. 2007; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Gaudy Baron

Euthalia lubentina (Cramer)

Nagpur, Pench National Park (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004)

Baronet

Symphaedra nais (Forster)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2005, 2006; Tiple et al. 2007; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Grey Count

Tanaecia lepidea (Butler)*

Bhamaragad forest in Gadchiroli (Published in local Newspaper)

Great Eggfly

Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

1472

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Butterflies of Vidarbha region Sno

A.D. Tiple

Common name

Scientific name

Distribution

Danaid Eggfly

Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)*

Common throughout Vidarbha

Commander

Moduza procris (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati, Buldana, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2005, 2006; Chandrakar et al. 2007; Tiple et al. 2007; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Common Sergeant

Athyma perius (Linnaeus)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Staff Sergeant

Athyma selenophora (Kollar)

Amravati (Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Short Banded Sailer

Neptis columella (Cramer)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Sailer

Neptis hylas (Linnaeus)

Common throughout the Vidarbha

Chestnut-Streaked Sailer

Neptis jumbah Moore

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Painted Lady

Cynthia cardui (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Peacock Pansy

Junonia almana (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Grey Pansy

Junonia atlites (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Yellow Pansy

Junonia hierta (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Chocolate Pansy

Junonia iphita (Cramer)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Lemon Pansy

Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Blue Pansy

Junonia orithya (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Leopard

Phalanta phalantha (Drury)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Angled Castor

Ariadne ariadne (Linnaeus)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Common Castor

Ariadne merione (Cramer)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Joker

Byblia ilithyia (Drury)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple et al. 2007; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Tawny Coster

Acraea violae (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Lycaenidae (48) 87

Plum Judy

Abisara echerius (Stoll)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Red Pierrot

Talicada nyseus (GuérinMenéville)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Pierrot

Castalius rosimon (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

Dark Pierrot

Tarucus ananda de Nicéville *

Nagpur, Amravati (Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Rounded Pierrot

Tarucus nara Kollar

Common throughout Vidarbha

Zebra Blue

Leptotes plinius Fabricius

Common throughout Vidarbha

African Babul Blue

Azanus jesous (Guérin- Menéville)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Bright Babul Blue

Azanus ubaldus (Stoll)

Nagpur, Buldana (Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Dull Babul Blue

Azanus uranus Butler

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Indian Cupid

Everes lacturnus (Godart)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Common Hedge Blue

Acytolepis puspa (Horsfield)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Plain Hedge Blue

Celastrina lavendularis (Moore)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Lime Blue

Chilades laius (Stoll)

Common throughout Vidarbha

100

Plains Cupid

Chilades pandava (Horsfield)

Common throughout Vidarbha

101

Small Cupid

Chilades parrhasius (Butler)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

102

Eastern Grass Jewel

Chilades putli Kollar

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

103

Grass Jewel

Chilades trochylus Freyer

Common throughout Vidarbha

104

Dark Grass Blue

Zizeeria karsandra (Moore)

Common throughout Vidarbha

105

Lesser Grass Blue

Zizina otis (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

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Butterflies of Vidarbha region

A.D. Tiple

Sno

Common name

Scientific name

Distribution

106

Pale Grass Blue

Psuedozizeeria maha (Kollar)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

107

Tiny Grass Blue

Zizula hylax (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

108

Gram Blue

Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius)*

Common throughout Vidarbha

109

Ciliate Blue

Anthene emolus (Godart)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

110

Pointed Ciliate Blue

Anthene lycaenina (C.&R. Felder)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

111

Forget-me-Not

Catochrysops strabo (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

112

Pea Blue

Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)*

Common throughout Vidarbha (D’Abreau 1931 as Polyommatus boeticus)

113

Cerulean

Jamides alecto (C.&R. Felder)*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

114

Dark Cerulean

Jamides bochus (Stoll)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

115

Common Cerulean

Jamides celeno (Cramer)

Common throughout Vidarbha

116

Pointed Line Blue

Ionolyce helicon (C.&R. Felder)*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

117

Opaque 6-Line Blue

Nacaduba beroe (C.&R. felder)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

118

Transparent 6-Line Blue

Nacaduba kurava (Moore)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

119

Dingy Line Blue

Petrelaea dana (de Nicéville)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

120

Tailless Line Blue

Prosotas dubiosa Evans

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

121

Common Line Blue

Prosotas nora (C. Felder)

Common throughout the Vidarbha

122

Leaf Blue

Amblypodia anita (Hewitson)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

123

Large Oakblue

Arhopala amantes (Hewitson)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

124

Western Centaur Oakblue

Arhopala pseudocentaurus (Doubleday)

Amravati (Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

125

Common Acacia Blue

Surendra quercetorum (Moore)

Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006)

126

Scarce Shot Silverline

Spindasis elima Moore*

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

127

Shot Silverline

Spindasis ictis Hewitson

Nagpur, Buldana (Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

128

Plumbeous Silverline

Spindasis schistacea (Moore)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

129

Common Silverline

Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

130

Common Guava Blue

Virachola isocrates (Fabricius)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

131

Indian Red Flash

Rapala iarbus (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple et al. 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

132

Slate Flash

Rapala manea (Hewitson)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple et al. 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Hesperiidae (34) 133

Common Banded Awl

Hasora chromus (Cramer)

Nagpur, Chandrapur, Amravati (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

134

Common Awl

Hasora badra (Moore)

Amravati (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2005)

135

White Banded Awl

Hasora taminatus Hubner

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

136

Plain Banded Awl

Hasora vitta (Butler)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931)

137

Brown Awl

Badamia exclamationis (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (A. Tiple pers. obs.; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006 ; Tiple et al. 2007; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

138

Common Spotted Flat

Celaenorrhinus leucocera (Kollar)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

139

Multi-spotted Flat

Celaenorrhinus pulomaya (Moore)

Pench National Park (A. Tiple pers. obs.)

140

Fulvous Pied Flat

Pseudocoladenia dan (Fabricius)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

141

Tricolour Pied Flat

Coladenia indrani (Moore)

Nagpur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004)

142

Spotted Small Flat

Sarangesa purendra Moore

Amravati (Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

143

Golden Angle

Caprona ransonnetti (C.&R. Felder)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

144

Indian Skipper

Spialia galba (Fabricius)

Common throughout Vidarbha

1474

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A.D. Tiple

Sno

Common name

Scientific name

Distribution

145

Bush Hopper

Ampittia dioscorides (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

146

Grass Demon

Udaspes folus (Cramer)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

147

Vindhyan Bob

Arnetta vindhiana (Moore)

Amravati (Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

148

Chestnut Bob

Iambrix salsala (Moore)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

149

Indian Palm Bob

Suastus gremius (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur, Buldana (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple et al. 2007; Sharma 2008; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

150

Common Redeye

Matapa aria (Moore)

Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006)

151

Tamil Grass Dart

Taractrocera ceramas (Hewitson)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

152

Common Grass Dart

Taractrocera maevius (Fabricius)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

153

Indian/Common Dartlet

Oriens goloides (Moore)

Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur (D’Abreau 1931; Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

154

Common Dart

Potanthus pseudomaesa

Nagpur Ramtek (D’Abreau 1931; A. Tiple pers. obs.)

Telicota ancilla (Herrich-Schäffer)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

155

Dark Palm Dart

156

Pale Palm Dart

Telicota colon (Fabricius)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

157

Paintbrush Swift

Baoris farri (Moore)*

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

158

Bevan's Swift

Borbo bevani (Moore)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

159

Rice Swift

Borbo cinnara (Wallace)

Common throughout Vidarbha

160

Conjoined Swift

Pelopidas conjuncta (HerrichSchaffer)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

161

Small Branded Swift

Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius)

Nagpur, Amravati (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

162

Large Branded Swift

Pelopidas subochracea (Moore)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004, 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

163

Contiguous Swift

Polytremis lubricans (HerrichSchäffer)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

164

Straight Swift

Parnara naso (Bremer & Grey)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

165

Kanara Swift

Caltoris canaraica (Moore)

Nagpur (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

166

Blank Swift

Caltoris kumara (Moore)

Nagpur, Chandrapur (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2006; Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

* protected under Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972

Table 2. Unusual records for the Vidarbha region Common Name

Scientific Name

Distributions

Papilio protenor Cramer

Amravati, Melghat (Chandrakar et al. 2007)

Pieris canidia (Sparrman)

Nagpur, Pench National Park (Sharma & Radhakrishan 2004)

Yellow Rajah

Charaxes marmax Westwood

Nagpur City (Tiple & Khurad 2009a)

Banded Treebrown

Lethe confusa Aurivillius

Amravati Melghat (Chandrakar et al. 2007; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Mycalesis malsara (Moore)

Nagpur City, Amravati Melghat (D’Abreau 1931; Tiple & Khurad 2009a; Wadatkar & Kasambe 2009)

Everes argiades (Pallas)

Nagpur (D’Abreau 1931). This is probably misidentified, since E. argiades is a Himalayan taxon. It was probably E. lacturnus that D’Abreau recorded.

Papilionidae Spangle Pieridae Indian Cabbage White Nymphalidae

Whiteline Bushbrown Lycaenidae Tailed Cupid

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Butterflies of Vidarbha region

A.D. Tiple

various forms of pollutants (Dennis & Williams 1986; Tiple & Khurad 2009b). Some authors have reported rather unusual records for the region. These reports were checked and found to be based on sightings and field identifications. Since it appeared that these reports could possibly be based on misidentified butterflies, it was thought better to include these species in a separate table (Table 2) pending confirmation of their presence in the study area. Table 2 therefore contains unsubstantiated new records for the region which have been reported in the literature.

REFERENCES Betham, J.A. (1890). The butterflies of the Central Provinces. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 5: 19-28; 151-161; 279-286. Betham, J.A. (1891). The butterflies of the Central Provinces. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 6: 175-183; 318-331. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of The Forest Types of India. Government of India Printing Press, New Delhi, 404pp. Chandrakar, M., S. Palekar & S. Chandrakar (2007). Butterfly fauna of Melghat Region, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(7): 2762-2764. D’Abreau, E.A. (1931). The Central Provinces Butterfly List. Records of the Nagpur Museum Number VII. Government Printing Press, Nagpur City, 1-39pp. Dennis, R.L.H. & W.R. Williams (1986). Mate locating behaviour of the large skipper butterfly Ochlodes venata: flexible strategies and spatial components. Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 41: 45–64. Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian butterflies. 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x+454pp+32pls. Forsayeth, R.W. (1884). Life history of sixty species of Lepidoptera observed in Mhow, Central India. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 3: 377-419. Gaonkar, H. (1996). Butterflies of Western Ghats with notes on those of SriLanka. A report to the Center of Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen and Natural History Museum, London, 89pp. Gupta, I.J. & D.K. Mondal (2005). Red Data Book, Part II: Butterflies of India. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, xv+535pp. Kasambe, R. & J. S. Wadatkar (2004). Butterflies of Pohara Malkhed Reserve Forest, Amravati District (Maharashtra). Bugs ‘R’ All 7(2): 5-6. Kunte, K. ( 2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities 1476

Press (Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore), xviii+254pp. Kunte K. (2009). Occurrence of Elymnias obnubila Marshall and de Nicéville, 1883 (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) in southern Mizoram: Range extension of the species and an addition to the Indian butterfly fauna. Journal of Threatened Taxa 1(11): 567-568. Palot, M.J. & V.P. Soniya (2003). A preliminary report on the Butterflies of Lonar Crater Lake, Buldhana District, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 18(11): 1267-1268. Pandharipande, T.N. (1990). Butterflies from Nagpur City, Central India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 29(1/2): 157-160. Rai, M.M., P. Giradkar, M.K. Rathod & A.M. Khurad (2006). Biodiversity: Colour pattern and butterfly diversity in Tiger Reserve in Tadoba National Park, Maharashtra, pp. 65-74. In: William, S.J. (ed.). Life to Our Mother Earth. G.M. Offset Press, Chennai. Roy, A.B., U. Ghosh & K. Kunte (2010). Sighting of Elymnias panthera (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae : Satyrinae) in West Bengal, eastern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(1): 670-671. Sharma, R.M. (2008). Insecta: Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera and Grypocera). Fauna of Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary, Zoological Survey of India. Conservation Area Series 37: 181-190. Sharma, R.M. & C. Radhakrishnan (2004). Insecta: Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera and Grypocera). Fauna of Melghat Tiger Reserve. Zoological Survey of India. Conservation Area Series 24: 377-400. Sharma, R.M. & C. Radhakrishnan (2005). Insecta: Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera and Grypocera). Fauna of Pench National Park. Zoological Survey of India. Conservation Area Series 20: 251-274. Sharma, R.M. & C. Radhakrishnan (2006). Insecta: Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera and Grypocera). Fauna of Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve. Zoological Survey of India. Conservation Area Series 25: 255-277. Singh, J. (2004). Status of tiger conservation in the Pench National Park and Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra. Proceedings of the Symposium on Three Decades of Project Tiger in Melghat 119 -133. Smetacek, P. (1992). Record of Plebejus eversmanni (Stgr.) from India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 89: 385-386 Swinhoe, C. (1886). On the Lepidoptera of Mhow. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, pp.421-465. Talbot, G. (1939). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, 600pp. Talbot, G. (1947). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, 506pp. Tiple, A.D. (2009). Butterflies from Nagpur city, Central India: Diversity, population, nectar and larval host plants and the implications for conservation. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to RTM Nagpur University. pp.145.

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Tiple, A.D. & A.M. Khurad (2009a). Butterfly Species Diversity, Habitats and Seasonal Distribution in and around Nagpur City, Central India. World Journal of Zoology. 4(3): 153-162. Tiple, A.D. & A.M. Khurad (2009b). Butterfly diversity of Seminary Hill, Nagpur (Central India) with their habitat and occurrence. Hislopia 1: 39-44. Tiple, A.D., A.M. Khurad & R.L.H. Dennis (2007). Butterfly diversity in relation to a humanâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;impact gradient on an Indian university campus. Nota Lepidopteralogica 30(1): 179-188. Tiple, A.D., V.P. Deshmukh & R.L.H. Dennis (2006). Factors influencing nectar plant resource visits by butterflies on a university campus: implications for conservation. Nota Lepidopteralogica 28: 213-224.

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Varshney, R.K. (1983). Index Rhopalocera Indica. Part II. Common names of Butterflies from India and neighbouring countries. Records of the Zoological Survey of India. Occasional Paper 47: 1-49. Wadatkar, J.S. (2008). Butterflies of Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra with notes on their abundance, status. MelVyaghra XIII(III): 1-5. Wadatkar, J.S. & R. Kasambe (2009). Butterflies of Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra with notes on their abundance, status and larval host plants. The Ecoscan (2):165-171 Witt, D.O. (1909). The butterflies (Rhopalocera) of the Nimar district, Central Provinces. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 19(3): 564-571. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957). Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, 523pp.

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JoTT Note

3(1): 1478-1484

Avifauna of wetlands of Amravati region, Maharashtra, India Gajendrasingh Pachlore ¹ & Mamata Chandrakar ² C/o Dr S.B. Pachlore, Sitaram Baba Colony, Ekvira Nagar, Pharshi Stop, Amravati, Maharashtra 444606, India ² C/o R.B. Chandrakar, Parvati apartment, Shegaon Naka, V.M.V. Road, Amravati, Maharashra 444604, India Email: 1 gpachlore@yahoo.com, 2 mamatachandra@rediffmail.com

The avifauna of India and Pakistan was studied by Ali & Ripley (1987, 1988). A total of 536 species were reported from India by Ali (2002). From the Amravati region, Wadatkar (2001) and Wadatkar & Kasambe (2002) reported 171 species of birds from Pohra-Malkhed region and the Amravati University region. This study is of immense importance to the wetlands which are mentioned here, as it has been observed that the water level of the wetlands is continuously declining and they are also getting polluted heavily by local human activities. The source of water to all the lakes in this study is only rain water, thus the uncertainty in the amount of rainfall is another big reason for the shrinkage of a large area under water; eventually such poor and

Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Rajah Jayapal Manuscript details: Ms # o2034 Received 18 August 2008 Final received 12 November 2010 Finally accepted 25 November 2010 Citation: Pachlore, G. & M. Chandrakar (2011). Avifauna of wetlands of Amravati region, Maharashtra, India Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1478-1484. Copyright: © Gajendrasingh Pachlore & Mamata Chandrakar 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The Authors are thankful to Dr. M.M. Baig, Head, Department of Zoology, G.V.I.S.H Amravati for his help and support. Authors are also thankful to colleagues Ananta, Pankaj Shelke, Parikshit Deshmukh, Gurav Lahe, Rakesh verma, Amit Mahalle. Authors would also like to extend thanks to Mr. Vikramsingh Pachlore, Director, P.C.B.S.M.R.D.Institute, Amravati, and Mr. Pankaj Pachlore and Mrs. Sarika Pachlore for providing valuable inputs in writing the manuscript. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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polluted wetlands are taken as the last choice by the migratory birds, hence causing a great loss to the richness of the wetlands. A regular and meticulous study of these wetlands will definitely help to keep a record of birds species (resident and migratory), thus helping to restore as well as to maintain the present condition of all of the three wetlands. Study area Amravati is located at 20093”N & 77075”E, at an elevation of 343m in Maharashtra. Three wetland areas of Amravati region have been studied which include Chhatri Lake, Wadali Lake and Bhivapur Lake or Talav. Chhatri Lake (20053’42.6”N & 77046’66.2”E, 372m) covers an area of 111.231934m2 (Image 1). Wadali Lake (20055’24.37”N & 77047’46.12”E, 377m)covers an area of 77.818996m2 (Image 2). Bhivapur Lake (20055’79.1”N & 77059’68.7”E, 352m) the largest of the three lakes is 162.744404m2 in area; fishing is extensively done on a large commercial basis (Image 3). Out of the three wetlands mentioned here, Chatri Talav and Wadali Talav are located in Amravati City and are thus taken care of by the Amravati Municipal Corporation (AMC); however, the AMC has given these two lakes on lease to other groups which are now responsible for the maintenance of the lakes and also earn profit by various activities like, boating, recreational games for children and snacks stalls for people of all ages who visit the lake. Slightly different from the above two, the Bhivapur Talav is maintained by the Amravati Zillah Parishad (ZP). The ZP also takes out a tender of five years for any party interested in carrying out fishing activities at Bhivapur Talav, preference is always given to the fishing community. The predominating vegetation is typically dry deciduous type (Champion & Seth 1968). Common plant species are Acacia arabica, Azardirachta indica, Zizyphus jujuba, Eucalyptus sp., Lantana camara, Ipomoea fistula, Cassia sp. etc. Aquatic weeds of these areas are Hydrilla sp., Typha sp., Cyperus sp., Chara sp., among others. The climate of Amravati is tropical wet and dry

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Birds of Amravati wetlands

G. Pachlore & M. Chandrakar

77046”E

77077”E

20089”N

Area of the Chhatri Lake 111.231m2

N 0 20053”N 77046”E

200 m

77059”E

77098”E

20093”N

20053”N 77077”E

20093”N

Image 1. Study area - Chhatri Lake

77078”E

77047”E

20092”N

Area of the Bhivapur Lake 162.744m2

Area of the Wadali Lake 77.818m2

N 0

20055”N

N 0

77047”E

500 m

20055”N 200 m 77078”E

20055”N

77059”E

Image 2. Study area - Wadali Lake

20055”N

77098”E

Image 3. Study area - Bhivapur Lake

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Table 1. Consolidated checklist of birds of wetlands of Amravati region, along with status, sighting months and sites of birds. Common name

Scientific name

Status

Month of sight

Lake Chhatri

Wadali

Bhivapur

Podicipitidae 1

Little Grebe

Mar

Phalacrocorax niger

Mar

Tachybaptus ruficollis

Phalacrocoracidae 2

Little Cormorant Ardeidae

Grey Heron

Ardea cinerea

Purple Heron

Ardea purpurea

Black-crowned Night Heron

Nycticorax nycticorax

* *

Large Egret

Casmerodius albus

Cattle Egret

Bubulcus ibis

Little Egret

Egretta garzetta

Yellow Bittern

Ixobrychus sinensis

Great Bittern

Botaurus stellaris

Feb #

Threskiornithidae 11

Black Ibis

Pseudibis papillosa

Oriental White Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephalus

Mar

Glossy Ibis

Plegadis falcinellus

Jun

Feb-Apr

Ciconiidae 14

White-necked Stork

Ciconia episcopus

Open-billed Stork

Anastomus oscitans

Nov-Mar

Mar

Anatidae 16

Brahminy Shelduck

Tadorna ferruginea

Northern Pintail

Anas acuta

Common Teal

Anas crecca

Spot-billed Duck

Anas poecilorhyncha

Nov-Mar

Eurasian Wigeon

Anas penelope

Nov-Feb

Red-crested Pochard

Rhodonessa rufina

Nov-Feb

Common Pochard

Aythya ferina

Nov-Feb

Cotton Teal

Nettapus coromendelianus

Garganey

Anas querquedula

Mar

Lesser Whistling Duck

Dendrocygna javanica

Mar

Accipitridae 26

Black-shouldered Kite

Elanus caeruleus

Black Kite

Milvus migrans

Shikra

Accipiter badius

Western Marsh Harrier

Circus aeruginosus

Feb

Phasianidae 30

Grey Francolin

Francolinus pondicerianus

Indian Peafowl

Pavo cristatus

* *

Rallidae 32

Purple Moorhen

Porphyrio porphyrio

Common Coot

Fulica atra

White-breasted Waterhen

Amaurornis phoenicurus

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Birds of Amravati wetlands

G. Pachlore & M. Chandrakar

Status

Month of sight Chhatri

Wadali

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Mar-Oct

Metopidius indicus

Mar-Oct

Vanellus indicus

Common name

Scientific name

Common Moorhen

Gallinula chloropus

Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Bronze-winged Jacana

Lake Bhivapur

Jacanidae

Charadriidae 38

Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Red-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus malabaricus

Little Ringed Plover

Charadrius dubius

Common Sandpiper

Actitis hypoleucos

June-mar

Wood Sandpiper

Tringa glareola

June-mar

Himantopus himantopus

Nov- Mar

Esacus recurvirostris

Cursorius coromandelicus

Scolopacidae

Recurvirostridae 43

Black-winged Stilt Burhinidae

Great Stone Plover Glareolidae

Indian Courser Rostratulidae

Snipe sp.

Gallinago sp.

Dec-Feb.

Greater Painted-snipe

Rostratula benghalensis

Laridae 48

River Tern

Sterna aurantia

Columbidae 49

Blue Rock Pigeon

Columba livia

Red Collared Dove

Streptopelia tranquebarica

Spotted Dove

Streptopeli chinensis

Pterocles indicus

Psittacula krameri

Pteroclididae 51

Painted Sandgrouse Psittacidae

Rose-ringed Parakeet Cuculidae

Greater Coucal

Centropus sinensis

Pied Crested Cuckoo

Clamator jacobinus

May-Sept

Asian Koel

Eudynamys scolopacea

Tyto alba

Ketupa zeylonensis

Tytonidae 56

Barn Owl Strigidae

Brown Fish Owl Apodidae

Asian Palm Swift

Cypsiurus balasiensis

House Swift

Apus affinis

Alcedinidae 60

Small Blue Kingfisher

Alcedo atthis

Lesser Pied Kingfisher

Ceryle rudis

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Status

Month of sight Chhatri

Wadali

Bhivapur

Halcyon smyrnensis

Merops orientalis

Coracias benghalensis

Upupa epops

Common name

Scientific name

White-breasted Kingfisher

Lake

Meropidae 63

Small Green Bee-eater

Indian Roller

Coraciidae

Upupidae 65

Common Hoopoe Alaudidae

Ashy-crowned Sparrow Lark

Eremopterix grisea

Common Crested Lark

Galerida cristata

Wire-tailed Swallow

Oct-Mar

Black Drongo

Dicrurus macrocercus

Hirundinidae Hirundo smithii

Dicruridae

Sturnidae 70

Brahminy Starling

Sturnus pagodarum

Asian Pied Starling

Sturnus contra

Common Myna

Acridotheres tristis

Jungle Myna

Acridotheres fuscus

Rosy Starling

Sturnus roseus

Mar-May

Corvidae 75

House Crow

Corvus splendens

Indian Treepie

Dendrocitta vagabunda

Mar #

Pycnonotus cafer

Chrysomma sinensis

Pycnonotidae 77

Red-vented Bulbul

Yellow-eyed Babbler

Timaliidae

Jungle Babbler

Turdoides striatus

Large Grey Babbler

Turdoides malcolmi

Nov- Mar

Motacilladae 81

Yellow Wagtail

Motacilla flava

Forest Wagtail

Dendronanthus indicus

White Wagtail

Motacilla alba

Paddyfield Pipit

Anthus rufulus

Jul-Nov

Large Pied Wagtail

Motacilla maderaspatensis

Prinia socialis

Sylviidae 86

Ashy Prinia Turdidae

Indian Robin

Saxicoloides fulicata

Oriental Magpie-robin

Copsychus saularis

Pied Bush Chat

Saxicola caprata

Bluethroat

Luscinia svecica

Feb

Common Stone Chat

Saxicola torquata

Dec

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* *

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Birds of Amravati wetlands

Common name

G. Pachlore & M. Chandrakar

Scientific name

Status

Month of sight

Lake Chhatri

Wadali

Bhivapur

Nectariniidae 92

Purple Sunbird

Nectarinia asiatica

Daniidae 93

Bay-backed Shrike

Lanius vittatus

Rufous-backed Shrike

Lanius schach

Mar #

MuscicapidaeÂ Â 95

Asian Paradise-flycatcher

Terpsiphone paradise

Ploceidae 96

House Sparrow

Passer domesticus

Baya Weaver

Ploceus phillippinus

June-Aug

The status (seasonal occurrence), feeding habits, months of bird sighting and place of occurrence in the various habitats have been worked out. Different parameters were used as below: R - Resident; RM - Resident Migratory; M - Migratory; + - throughout the Year, # - sighted once; * - Presence

climate with hot dry summers from March to June. The monsoon season is from July to October and warm winters from November to March; the highest and lowest temperature ever recorded was 46.70C on 25 May 1954 and 5.00C on 09 February 1887 respectively. The Avifauna of these wetland areas has not yet been reported. This study will provide a base for further study. Methods The study is based on the observations of two years from March 2006 to March 2008. Regular visits were made to these study areas. In all 230 visits were made to each of the wetlands by three teams, comprising of minimum of three and maximum of 10 persons in each team. Observations were carried on a fixed path in a 1km radius at each station by using the line transect method by Gaston (1973). The birds were observed during the peak hours of their activity from 0600hr to 1000hr and in the evening from 1600hr to 1800hr. Observations were also made during other times of the day as per convenience. Classification followed in this study is as per Ali (2002). Observation Ninety-seven species of birds were recorded from three wetland areas of Amravati region (Table 1). Out of 97 species reported, 66 species were local or resident, 20 were resident migrant and 12 species were migrant. Wadali Lake region was found to be

inhabited by the highest number of species i.e. 90. This was followed by Chhatri Lake and Bhivapur Lake with species found to be 88 and 77 respectively . The eating habits revealed that the highest number of birds recorded were insectivores (48), followed by piscivores (21), omnivores (12), grainivores (11), carnivores (6), frugivores (3), nectarivores (1). Out of 97 taxa recorded, the Oriental White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus is listed as Near Threatened (IUCN 2007) globally and the Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Arora 2003). Discussion During the period of entire survey, the pair of Black-headed Gull Larus ribdibundus was sighted only once at Chatri Talav during the winter of 2007. Also the Purple Swamp Hen Porphyrio porphyrio population shows seasonal fluctuation in the number of individuals. Although no bird count was done, it was observed during the field visits that the number of Purple Swamp Hen individuals were sometime found in large numbers during winter and rainy seasons, but remarkably low during summers. Many of these wetlands are used for Ganesh and Durga idol immersion during the festival time of Ganesh Chaturti and Navratri. The total absence of management at the time of idol immersion pollutes these wetlands. Polluted shores of such wetlands have caused increases in the number of scavenger birds like the House Crow Corvus splendens which are

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found to be feeding on the eggs of Common Coots, Purple Moorhen, and Jacanas and are thus responsible for the decrease in their population. To maintain the biodiversity richness of these areas serious attempts should be made from the concerned authorities, as well as from the local population. Educating the local population and making them aware of these facts will increase the wetland biodiversity richness

References Ali, S. & D.S. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of Birds of India & Pakistan - 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, 737pp. Ali, S. (2002). The Book of Indian Birds. 13th revised edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 326pp. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1988). Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan: together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, 890pp.

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Arora, K. (2003). Forest laws. The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 as amended by the Wild (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002. Professional Book Publishers, New Delhi, 85pp. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of The Forest Types of India. Govt. of India, Delhi, 185pp. Gaston, A.J. (1973). Methods for estimating bird population. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72(2): 272281. Grimmette, K., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999). Birds of Indian Subcontinent . Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 384pp. IUCN (2010). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 09 December 2010. Wadatkar, J.S. (2001). Checklist of birds from Amravati University Campus, Amravati. Zoos’ Print Journal 16(5): 497-499. Wadatkar, J.S. & R. Kasambe (2002). Checklist of Birds from Pohra-Malkhed Reserve Forest, District Amravti, Maharashtra. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(6): 807-811.

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JoTT Note

Conservation status of the globally Vulnerable Dugong Dugong dugon (Müller, 1776) (Sirenia: Dugongidae) in the coastal waters of Kalpitiya area in Sri Lanka D.M.S.S. Karunarathna 1, M.A.J.S. Navaratne 2, W.P.N. Perera 2 & V.A.P. Samarawickrama 3 Nature Exploration & Education Team, No. B-1 / G-6, De Soysapura, Morauwa 10400, Sri Lanka 2 IUCN – Sri Lanka country office, No. 53, Horton Place, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka 3 No. 104, Bulawaththa, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Email: 1 dmsameera@gmail.com (corresponding author), 3 woodowl@gmail.com 1

The Dugong Dugong dugon is the only extant species belonging to the family Dugongidae, order Sirenia (Phillips 1984; Weerakoon & Goonatilake 2006; Ilangakoon 2006; Ilangakoon & Tun 2007). It is distributed in coastal and marine environments ranging from northwest to northeast Australia, southeast to northeast Africa and the south and southeast Asia region (Smith & Marsh 1990; Adulyanukosol 2000; Marsh et al. 2002; D’ Souza & Patankar 2009). It Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: Kumaran Sathasivam Manuscript details: Ms # o2235 Received 11 June 2009 Final received 22 November 2010 Finally accepted 06 December 2010 Citation: Karunarathna, D.M.S.S., M.A.J.S. Navaratne, W.P.N. Perera & V.A.P. Samarawickrama (2011). Conservation status of the globally Vulnerable Dugong Dugong dugon (Müller, 1776) (Sirenia: Dugongidae) in the coastal waters of Kalpitiya area in Sri Lanka. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1485-1489. Copyright: © D.M.S.S. Karunarathna, M.A.J.S. Navaratne, W.P.N. Perera & V.A.P. Samarawickrama 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: The authors wish to thank Dr. Channa Bambaradeniya for critically reviewing this manuscript. We also would like to thank Mrs. Suseema Liyana-Arachchi (GN), Mrs. Inoka Amaradeva (GN), and villagers in Soththupitiya, Thirikkapallama, Karative, Puttalama, Mampuriya, Kandakuliya, Gangewadiya, Theheliya, Palliyawasalture, Kuringyampitiya, Kalpitiya, Uchchamunei, Bathtalangunnduwa, Pubudugama and Sevvanthive villages for their cooperation and sharing their observations, and also IUCN Sri Lanka country office for facilitating the conduct of this study. Finally, we wish to thank Mr. Niranjan Karunarathna (YZA) for numerous help during the preparation of this paper. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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is listed as a globally Vulnerable species (Marsh 2008) and also listed in CITES appendix I. The Dugong is one of a suite of large, long-lived marine vertebrates, including turtles and inshore cetaceans, which are under pressure from human activities (Phillips 1984; Preen 1998), and its maximum longevity observed is 73 years (Marsh et al. 1984). The gestation period is estimated to be about 12-14 months, with females birthing single young (Marsh 1986). The Dugong is a grazer which feeds on sea-grasses in near shore areas (Marsh et al. 2002; Chansue et al. 2006). Dugongs look rather like a rotund dolphin without a dorsal fin. The head is distinctive with the mouth opening ventrally below a broad flat muzzle (Phillips 1984) covered sparsely with short stout hairs that are most developed around the mouth (Marsh 1989). The Dugong has been given the highest level of legal protection in South Asia, being listed under Schedule (I) of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (Marsh et al. 2002; D’ Souza & Patankar 2009), and also in the Wildlife and Nature Protection Ordinance in Sri Lanka “Act No. 1. of 1970” (Phillips 1984). The species is a relatively large and rare marine mammal in Sri Lanka (Santiapillai 1981; Phillips 1984; Ilangakoon 2006). The occurrence of the Dugong in Sri Lanka’s waters appears in the literature in the late 19th century, at which time it seems to have been rare (Haley 1884; Nevill 1885). This article intends to document the conservation status of the Dugong in the coastal waters of the Kalpitiya and Puttalama areas in northwestern Sri Lanka, based on recent field observations and information gathered from local communities (Image 1). The habitat of Dugong in Kalpitiya and Putalama areas: The Kalpitiya and Puttalama Lagoon area has several plant species: Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicenia marina, Acrostichum aureum, Acanthus illicifolius, Bruguieria cylindrical, B. gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Exoecariya agallocha, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Scyphiphora hydrophyllaceae, Sonneratia alba and Xylocarpus granatum dominant mangrove forests. The lagoon also harbours patches of sea-grass beds, which consists of species such as Halophila beccarii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis, H. ovata, Thalassia hemprichii,

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Lagoon (Marsh et al. 2002; pers.obs.). The Dugong visits the sea grass beds in the nearshore areas of Kalpitiya, while fishermen have also observed this species in the Kalpitiya Lagoon area. The average depth of the near-shore area is about 2m, while the Kalpitiya Lagoon area is approximately 1.5m in depth. The sea area and brackish water temperature varies from 27-28 0C. The average annual rainfall in this area is 1,100mm, with most of the rainfall occurring from December to March, with occasional rains in the other months. The weather gradually becomes very dry from August to December with the highest temperatures recorded in August. The mean annual temperature in the Puttalama District is 280C with a maximum of 320C and a minimum of 240C. Recent field observations: We interviewed 78 fishermen (32 fisheries societies in 21 fisheries villages) engaged in near-shore fishing activities in the Kalpitiya and Puttalama areas. Their frequency of Dugong observations averaged once in every 100 fishing trips, indicating a low chance of encountering Dugongs in this area. Two specimens were observed in fisheries bycatch during the study period; on 05 December 2007 (Image 2) in the Soththupitiya Village (8007’03.41’’N & 79044’21.44’’E) in Kalpitiya Peninsula, and on 21 October 2008 in Puttalama. The Soththupitiya specimen was an adult male with a snout to tail end length of approximately 1.5m that was accidentally caught in a fishing net in the Kalpitiya Lagoon area. The body was taken away by junior officers of Kalpitiya navy camp. Some fishermen had observed Dugongs in Puttalama Lagoon in Uchchamunei and Kalpitiya. They did not provide the exact dates of these observations. There is an

Image 1. Map of the Puttalama Lagoon of Dugong habitat. (Yellow circle is catch point and red circle is landing sites).

Cymodocea rotunda, C. serrulata, Halodule uninervis, H. dinifolia, and Syringodium isoetifolium as dominant aquatic vegetation. The Dugong - preferred sea grass, Halodule and Halophila, are also present in Puttalama 1486

Image 2. The Dugong from fisheries bycatch in Soththupitiya Village, Puttlam, Sri Lanka. Photographed with a mobile phone.

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Status of Dugong in Kalpitiya area, Sri Lanka

accepted fact that the Muslim community in the area does not like to catch and eat Dugongs for religious reasons, which is useful information for education and awareness programmes. Trends in population status: According to Santiapillai (1981), prior to the mid 1980s, Dugongs were both abundant and widely distributed along the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka, although no numbers are available regarding the abundance. At this time they were actively hunted in the Puttalama area using gillnets. Over the past 30 years however, Dugong numbers have declined dramatically and sightings are now very rare. Interviews fishermen yielded just 12 reported sightings since the beginning of year 2000 (9 incidental captures and 3 live animals), which is a small number even for the 1% observation frequency mentioned above. According to fishermens in this area, a small resident population is known to exist in just two remaining areas, Kalpitiya (Images 3 a, b, c) and Uchchamunei area. In some areas Dugongs are

D.M.S.S. Karunarathna et al.

referred to as ‘Caddadt pandri’ (sea pigs) in Tamil (Phillips 1984). An island near Kalpitiya is called ‘Pandipitiya’ (pig island) most probably refering to Dugong island. Threats to Dugong in Kalpitiya and Putalama areas: The main threat to Dugongs in the past was deliberate hunting for meat (Ilangakoon 2006). Anthropogenic threats to Dugong in the Kalpitiya area can be divided into direct and indirect impacts. According to information gathered from local communities, Dugongs were killed there at the rate of one animal every four months. Direct impacts include hunting, habitat loss, habitat degradation, water pollution and accidental entanglement as a result of commercial fishing practices. Indirect impacts include agricultural practices such as land clearing and the application of fertilizers with subsequent run-off impacting sea grass beds, which serve as the feeding habitats of the Dugong. Other indirect impacts include disturbance and alteration of habitat from mining, use of harmful

Image 3. A - Undisturbed mangrove forest patch in Soththupitiya; B - Lagoon view of Kalpitiya area; C - Boat ride to different islands in Kalpitiya area; D - Interviews with fishermen of Wavata Villuwa area in Puttalam. Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1485-1489

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fishing practices such as drag nets / push nets, dredging and trawling activities. The sea grass beds are also adversely affected by sedimentation related to aquaculture ponds in the area. However, according to the historical notes from 1957 and 1959, some 100 to 150 dugongs were taken each year in the Mannar District of Sri Lanka (Phillips 1984). Recommendations for conservation of Dugong: The following suggestions are made to conserve the dwindling populations of Dugong in the northwestern coastal waters of Sri Lanka: (i) Scientific research and monitoring: A systematic research on this threatened marine mammal should be initiated, to document its current distribution in the area, habitat status, breeding and migration patterns. The local fishermen should be involved in a community based monitoring programme to document observations related to Dugong, including records on bycatch. Priority attention should be placed to document the small resident population of Dugong in this area, as informed by the fishermen. The National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) Station in Kalpitiya could play a lead role in monitoring programs, also Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC). (ii) Environmental education and awareness: A well-planned and targeted program has to be carried out among local communities on the need to conserve the Dugong, and other marine mammals, reptiles (i.e., turtles, sea snakes) and coral reef fish in the area. Such a good programme should be targeted at discouraging local communities from consuming Dugong meat. The Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Ministry of Education, Educational Publication Department, and environmental related NGO’s may perhaps play the most important role in environmental education and awareness programmes, also the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC). (iii) Declaration of a protected area: There is tremendous potential to declare a marine and coastal Ramsar site (an internationally important wetland) in this area, which would enable to conserve the habitats of not only the Dugong, but several other marine animals inhabiting this region. The naval base in Kalpitiya could play a vital role in the conservation of Dugongs in this area. We believe that the lagoon areas are very important but they need to be planned and managed in such a way that they balance the needs 1488

to protect the marine environment whilst promoting poverty alleviation, integrated livelihoods and a human rights approach to development along the Puttalama Lagoon. References Adulyanukosol, K. (2000). Dugong survey in Thailand. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 7(2): 191-194. Chansue, N., S. Monanunsap & A. Sailasuta (2006). Pyometra with diffuse fibrin fibrinopurulent peritonitis in a Dugong (Dugong dugon). Proceedings of AZWMP, Chulalongkorn University Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangkok, Thailand, 56pp. D’ Souza, E. & V. Patankar (2009). First underwater sighing and preliminary behavioural observation of Dugongs (Dugong dugon) in the wild from Indian waters, Andaman Island. Journal of Threatened Taxa 1(1): 49-53. Ilangakoon, A.D. (2006). Taxonomy and current satus Marine mammals in Sri Lanka, pp. 302-308. In: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Ed.). Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation, IUCN Sri Lanka, Colombo, xiii+308. Ilangakoon, A.D. & T. Tun (2007). Rediscovering the Dugong (Dugong dugon) in Myanmar and capacity building for research and Conservation. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 55(1): 195-199. Haley, A. (1884). Administration Report of the Director of the Colombo museum for 1883. National Museum of Sri Lanka, Colombo, 18pp. Marsh, H. (1986). The status of the dugong in Torres Strait, pp. 53-76. In: Haines, A.K., G.C. Williams & D. Coates (eds.). Torres Strait Fisheries Seminar, Port Moresby, Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, 285pp. Marsh, H. (1989). Chapter 57 – Dugongidae, pp. 1-18. In: Walton, D.W. & B.J. Richardson (eds.). Fauna of Australia: Volume 1B Mammalia. CSIRO Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS), 827pp. Marsh, H. (2008). Dugong dugon. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. <www. iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 14 January 2011. Marsh, H., G.E. Heinsohn & P.W. Channells (1984). Changes in the ovaries and uterus of the dugong, Dugong dugon (Sirenia, Dugongidae) with age and reproductive activity. Australian Journal of Zoology 32: 743-766. Marsh, H., H. Penrose, C. Eros & J. Hugues (2002). Dugong, Status Reports and Action Plans for Countries and Territories. Early Warning and Assessment Report Series of United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP), 162pp. Nevill, H. (1885). Dugong. Taprobanian 1(1): 2. Phillips, W.W.A. (1984). Manual of the Mammals of Sri Lanka, 2nd Revised Edition, Part – 3. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka (WNPS) Colombo, pp. i-xxxv+269-389, xx-xxxix plts.

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Preen, A. (1998). Marine protected areas and Dugong conservation along Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Indian Ocean Coast. Environmental Management 22(2): 173-181. Santiapillai, C. (1981). On the ecology and conservation of the dugong Dugong dugon in Sri Lanka. Tiger Paper 8(1): 2-6. Smith, A. & H. Marsh (1990). Management of Traditional hunting of Dugongs [Dugong dugon (MĂźller, 1776)] in the northern great Barrier reef, Australia. Environmental management 14(1): 47-55. Weerakoon, D.K. & W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake (2006). Taxonomic status of the Mammals of Sri Lanka, pp. 216231. In: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (ed.). Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation, IUCN Sri Lanka, Colombo, xiii+308pp.

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JoTT Note

3(1): 1490-1492

Behavioural and virological studies on a rescued Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis from western Maharashtra, India Satish Pande 1, Pranav Pandit 2, Aditya Ponkshe 3, Ram Mone 4, Shailesh Pawar 5 & Akhilesh Mishra 6 1-4 Ela Foundation, C-9, Bhosale Park, Sahakarnagar-2, Pune, Maharashtra 411009, India 5,6 National Institute of Virology, Microbial Containment Complex, 130/1, Sus Road, Pashan, Pune, Maharashtra 411021, India Email: 1 pande.satish@gmail.com, 2 pranav.vet@gmail.com, 3 ponkshe.aditya@gmail.com, 4 moneram@gmail.com, 5 pawarshailesh@hotmail.com (corresponding author), 6 acm1750@gmail.com

On 05 August 2008 a villager witnessed a large raptorial bird descending from the sky and landing on the ground, in an open field at Bhangaon Village, Shrigonda Taluk (18061’N & 74069’E), Pune District, Maharashtra, India. The bird looked exhausted and was unable to fly. When approached it assumed a drooping neck posture. The raptor was caught and was handed over to the forest department at Shrigonda. This is a semi-arid region on the Deccan Plateau interspersed with agricultural cropland, scrub areas and villages. This bird was identified as the Critically Endangered Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis. Date of publication (online): 26 January 2011 Date of publication (print): 26 January 2011 ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) Editor: William Dundon Manuscript details: Ms # o2471 Received 28 May 2010 Final received 20 December 2010 Finally accepted 25 December 2010 Citation: Pande, S., P. Pandit, A. Ponkshe, R. Mone, S. Pawar & A. Mishra (2011). Behavioural and virological studies on a rescued Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis from western Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1490-1492. Copyright: © Satish Pande, Pranav Pandit, Aditya Ponkshe, Ram Mone, Shailesh Pawar & Akhilesh Mishra 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the Forest Department, Maharashtra, for inviting us for the examination of the vulture, for local hospitality and for the necessary permissions. Mr. Prashant Deshpande, Ela Foundation for support in field work and staff of the Avian Influenza department for the laboratory assistance. OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD

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The vulture was kept in a nursery and offered 500g of fresh raw beef daily. After an unsuccessful release attempt after five days in the nursery, it was kept in captivity for another week. It has been reported that two species of vultures, the Indian White-backed Vulture and the Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus, have declined in population by more than 90% throughout India (Green et al. 2004; Shultz et al. 2004). Affected birds exhibit signs of illness (neck drooping syndrome) for approximately 30 days prior to death (Cunningham et al. 2003; Watson et al. 2008). Epidemiological observations have been found to be consistent with an infectious cause for this morbidity and mortality (Cunningham et al. 2003). We undertook further investigations on this bird because vultures are threatened with extinction and, therefore, it is of the utmost importance to investigate the causes of morbidity and mortality in these birds. With the permission of the forest department, samples for laboratory tests including haematology and virological studies were collected. The samples collected were blood, serum, cloacal and tracheal swabs. Virological investigations were performed at the National Institute of Virology (NIV), Pune, India. Fresh faecal samples were also examined for parasites and the bird was closely checked for the presence of ectoparasites. During this time the vulture, although active (e.g. flapping its wings often), appeared to be emaciated. When the vulture was observed from outside of the room in which it was being nursed, it perched erect with its neck extended, alertly scrutinizing its surroundings. However, when the vulture was approached by entering the room, it adopted a posture indicative of thanatosis, a behaviour of birds in which they exhibit neck drooping and feign death (Watson et al. 2008). When touched, the vulture gave the typical threat display of extended wings, flared body feathers, jabbed with its powerful beak and lashed out with one foot in a threatening manner. Upon retreating, the neck drooping posture was not resumed and the wings were kept extended for some time. The biometry and haematological findings of the captive individual were as shown in Table 1. Blood parasites including Plasmodium species were specifically looked for because they have been described as one of the causes of morbidity in vultures

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Behavioural and virological studies on Gyps bengalensis

Table 1. Biometry and haematology of the Indian Whitebacked Vulture Gyps bengalensis. Parameter

Observed value

Range

Wing chord

610mm

535-608

Tail

290mm

217-232

Tarsus

109mm

108-124

Beak length

68mm

71-81

Beak depth

35mm

Middle toe

94mm

Talon

24mm

Weight

2850g

3500-5560 g (n = 29 males and females)

Total erythrocyte count

2.0x106/mm3

Total leucocyte count

14.6x10 /mm

< 109/mm3

Haemoglobin

8 g/dl

12.2-20 g/dl

(Ranges for biometry parameters are as per Ali & Ripley 1969; ranges for haematological parameters are as per Coles 1997)

(Sudhan et al. 2004). Parasites were not seen in the blood smear. India experienced several outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in domestic poultry from 2006 to 2009 in parts of the western and northeastern states; namely Maharashtra and Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam and Tripura (Chakrabarti et al. 2009). Avian influenza (AI) surveillance in wild migratory, wild resident, domestic birds and poultry was undertaken by the NIV jointly with the Ela Foundation, Pune, India from 2006 to 2008 and various bird samples were screened for HPAI H5N1 and other AI viruses (Pawar et al. 2009). To rule out the possibility of infection with AI viruses and other viral infections, cloacal, tracheal and serum samples were collected from the vulture. The cloacal and tracheal samples were transported in viral transport medium (Hankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s balanced salt solution) with antibiotics (Penicillin, Streptomycin, Gentamycin, Amphotericin B) (WHO 2002). All of the samples were transported to the laboratory by cold-chain. Cloacal and tracheal samples of the vulture were negative for AI viruses, Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV), Infectious Bursal Disease Virus by virus isolation. Serum was negative for the presence of antibodies against AI H5N1, H5N2, H9N2, H7N1, and NDV by the haemagglutination inhibition test. The ectoparasites found included a few unidentified bird lice.

S. Pande et al.

The vulture was ringed and it gained 1.5kg during the captivity period. There were no signs of bone injury or soft tissue trauma. On 24 July 2008, when a guard opened the door to feed the vulture, it escaped and flew away. Two days later, at about 0630hr, a farmer reported sparking followed by the sound of an explosion from overhead live electricity wires. He found a large dead bird on the ground underneath the wires, partially burnt and still smoking. He noticed the ring on the leg of the bird and contacted us. The location of the bird was Parner, Maharashtra about 60km from the point of release. Subsequent necropsy revealed ecchymosis on the pectoral muscles. As there was no evidence to suggest visceral gout diclofenac estimations were not performed. The neck-drooping behaviour, that the vulture had intermittently exhibited in captivity, was previously thought to be a sign of illness but it is now thought to be a mechanism of thermoregulation as well as a predator avoiding strategy especially when in close proximity to humans (Watson et al. 2008). We suggest that the neck-drooping behaviour observed by us could have been due to a predator avoidance strategy and not due to visceral gout. Neck-drooping has been previously associated with visceral gout which is caused by the ingestion of the drugs Diclofenac and Ketoprofen used to treat domestic livestock (Cunningham et al. 2003). We feel that such neck drooping is exhibited when a solitary vulture is approached by humans but, while feeding in flocks, this behaviour is not usually exhibited, even when humans approach. Vultures in flocks either ignore human presence or make threatening displays by sudden wing flapping and neck extension or they fly away for some distance if approached. We have observed such flock behaviour on innumerable occasions over the past 25 years (Pande et al. 2003). To summarize, no viral infection or toxicity was responsible for the morbidity observed in the vulture under investigation. The neck drooping behaviour reported here and which has previously been observed by others, was interpreted, in this context, as a predator avoiding strategy and, therefore, not due to illness. In addition, our report suggests that electrocution may also be an explanation for the decreasing numbers of vultures in India.

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | January 2011 | 3(1): 1490-1492

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Behavioural and virological studies on Gyps bengalensis

REFERENCES Ali, S. & D.S. Ripley (1969). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka - Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 384pp. Chakrabarti, A.K., S.D. Pawar, S.S. Cherian, S.S. Koratkar, S.M. Jadhav, B. Pal, S. Raut, V. Thite, S.S. Kode, S.S. Keng, B.J. Payyapilly, J. Mullick & A.C. Mishra (2009). Characterization of the Influenza A H5N1 Viruses of the 2008-09 Outbreaks in India Reveals a Third Introduction and Possible Endemicity. PLoS ONE 11: e7846. Coles, B.H. (1997). Avian Medicine and Surgery. Blackwell Science, Second Edition, Cambridge, UK, 408pp. Cunningham, A.A., V. Prakash, D. Pain, G.R. Ghalsasi, G.A.H. Wells, G.N. Kolte, P. Nighot, M.S. Goudar, S. Kshirsagar & A. Rahmani (2003). Indian vultures: victims of an infectious disease epidemic? Animal Conservation 6: 189-197. Green, R.E., I. Newton, S. Shultz, A.A. Cunningham, M. Gilbert, D.J. Pain & V. Prakash (2004). Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 793â&#x20AC;&#x201C;800. Pande, S., S. Tambe, C.F. Francis & N. Sant (2003). Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (including Birds of Goa), Oxford University Press, Mumbai, i-xii+377pp.

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Pawar, S.D, S. Pande, A. Jamgaonkar, S. Koratkar, B. Pal, S. Raut, M. Nanaware, K. Ray, A. Chakrabarti, S.S. Kode, V. Thite, M.R. Khude, S. Randive, A. Basu, A. Pawashe, A. Ponkshe, P. Pandit & P. Deshpande (2009). Avian influenza surveillance in wild migratory, resident, domestic birds and in poultry in Maharashtra and Manipur, India, during avian migratory season 2006-2007. Current Science 97: 550-554. Shultz, S., H.S. Baral, S. Charman, A.A. Cunningham, D. Das, G.R. Ghalsasi, M.S. Goudar, R.E. Green, A. Jones, P. Nighot, D.J. Pain & V. Prakash (2004). Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 271: S458-S460. Sudhan, N.A., K.K. Ponuswamy, K. Husain & M. Zama (2004). Anaemia in a Cinereus Vulture Aegypius monachus-A Case Report. Zoosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Print Journal (19)12: 1711. Watson, R.T., M. Gilbert & M. Virani (2008). Neckdrooping posture of Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gypa bengalensis) in close proximity to human observers. Journal of Raptor Research 42: 66-67. WHO (2002). Manual on Animal influenza diagnosis and surveillance, WHO/CDS/CSR/NCS 2002. 5.

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Dr. Sekar Raju, Suzhou, China Dr. Vatsavaya S. Raju, Warangal, India Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, New Delhi, India Dr (Mrs). R. Ramanibai, Chennai, India Dr. Robert Raven, Queensland, Australia Dr. K. Ravikumar, Bengaluru, India Dr. Luke Rendell, St. Andrews, UK Dr. Anjum N. Rizvi, Dehra Dun, India Dr. Yves Samyn, Brussels, Belgium Dr. K.R. Sasidharan, Coimbatore, India Dr. Kumaran Sathasivam, India Dr. S. Sathyakumar, Dehradun, India Dr. M.M. Saxena, Bikaner, India Dr. Subodh Sharma, Towson, USA Prof. B.K. Sharma, Shillong, India Prof. K.K. Sharma, Jammu, India Dr. R.M. Sharma, Jabalpur, India Dr. Arun P. Singh, Jorhat, India Dr. Lala A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar, India Prof. Willem H. De Smet, Wilrijk, Belgium

Mr. Peter Smetacek, Nainital, India Dr. C. Srinivasulu, Hyderabad, India Dr. Ulrike Streicher, Danang, Vietnam Dr. K.A. Subramanian, Pune, India Mr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, New Delhi, India Dr. P.M. Sureshan, Patna, India Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Dehradun, India Dr. R.K. Verma, Jabalpur, India Dr. W. Vishwanath, Manipur, India Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany Dr. Ted J. Wassenberg, Cleveland, Australia Dr. Stephen C. Weeks, Akron, USA Prof. Yehudah L. Werner, Jerusalem, Israel Dr. Hui Xiao, Chaoyang, China English Editors Mrs. Mira Bhojwani, Pune, India Ms. Mary Regen Jamieson, Massachusetts, USA Dr. Fred Pluthero, Toronto, Canada Dr. Krishnan Srinivasan, Chennai, India

Journal of Threatened Taxa is indexed/abstracted in Zoological Records, CAB Abstracts, Index Fungorum, Bibliography of Systematic Mycology, EBSCO and Google Scholar.

Journal of Threatened Taxa ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)

January 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 1 | Pages 1401-1492 Date of Publication 26 January 2011 (online & print) Communications

Notes

3rd ALCS Symposium Special Series Seasonal dynamics of butterfly population in DAE Campus, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India -- K. Jahir Hussain, T. Ramesh, K.K. Satpathy & M. Selvanayagam, Pp. 1401-1414

On the identity and occurrence of Ophioglossum costatum (Pteridophyta: Ophioglossaceae) in Andhra Pradesh, India -- Vatsavaya S. Raju, A. Ragan, S. Suthari & M.V. Ramana, Pp. 1462-1464.

Breeding biology of the Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus (Aves: Pycnonotidae) in the Western Ghats, India -- Peroth Balakrishnan, Pp. 1415-1424 Short Communications Taxonomic aspects and coning ecology of Cycas circinalis L. (Cycadales: Cycadaceae), a threatened species of India -- A.J. Solomon Raju & N. Govinda Rao, Pp. 1425-1431 Floral and reproductive biology of Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina (Gentianales: Apocynaceae) in semi-arid environment of India -- R.C. Sihag & Nidhi Wadhwa, Pp. 1432-1436 Deepor Beel revisited: new records of rotifers (Rotifera: Eurotatoria) with remarks on interesting species -- B.K. Sharma & Sumita Sharma, Pp. 1437-1444 New locality record and additional information on the habitat of Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird, 1859) (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cyclestherida) in India -- Sameer M. Padhye, Hemant V. Ghate & Kalpana Pai, Pp. 1445-1448

Burmannia championii Thwaites (Dioscoreales: Burmanniaceae), a new addition to the flora of Karnataka -- Divakar K. Mesta, Harsha V. Hegde, Vinayak Upadhya & Sanjiva D. Kholkute, Pp. 1465-1468. Butterflies of Vidarbha region, Maharashtra State, central India -- Ashish D. Tiple, Pp. 1469-1477. Avifauna of wetlands of Amravati region, Maharashtra, India -- Gajendrasingh Pachlore & Mamata Chandrakar, Pp. 14781484. Conservation status of the globally Vulnerable Dugong Dugong dugon (M端ller, 1776) (Sirenia: Dugongidae) in the coastal waters of Kalpitiya area in Sri Lanka -- D.M.S.S. Karunarathna, M.A.J.S. Navaratne, W.P.N. Perera & V.A.P. Samarawickrama, Pp. 1485-1489. Behavioural and virological studies on a rescued Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis from western Maharashtra, India -- Satish Pande, Pranav Pandit, Aditya Ponkshe, Ram Mone, Shailesh Pawar & Akhilesh Mishra, Pp. 1490-1492.

CEPF Western Ghats Special Series Freshwater fish fauna of Koyna River, northern Western Ghats, India -- Bapurao V. Jadhav, Sanjay S. Kharat, Rupesh N. Raut, Mandar Paingankar & Neelesh Dahanukar, Pp. 1449-1455 Essay 3rd ALCS Symposium Special Series Processes involved in assessing priorities for local level Lepidoptera conservation programmes that aim to achieve global conservation impact -- Roger C. Kendrick, Pp. 1456-1461