Volume4. Number2 - Julv 1993
THE OSTRACO]Y
EGYPTIAN STUDY SOC IET Y @ DHNHr9o9
PUBLICATIONSCOMMITTEE FrankPettee JudyGreenfield Mary Pratchett SandyKerns CherylPreyer DavidPepper Jill Taylor
IN THIS ISSUE PAGE I 5
ESS STAFF LIAISON Dr. RobertPickering
THE OSTR4CON is publishedthree times pâ‚Źr ]ear b! Dembersof the EgyptianStudy Society. The ESS,a supportgroup of the DINVER N{tlSEtlNl OF NATIIRAL HISTORY, is a non-protlt organization whose purpose is to study ancient Egypt. Articles are contributedby menlberson a voluntarybasis. Member parlicipalionis cncouraged. Nothing may be printed in whole or in part Nithout \!ritlen pennission. O1993EgyptianStudySociet)
PublicationofTHE OSTRACONis supportedbv d grantiianl THE PETTY FOUNDATION
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ARTICLE Constructionand Plastering of Wood Coffns by JackKullman Ancient Egypt Reborn in Tropical Seas? by StuartWier Impressionsofa Traveler in Egypt by Ann Lowdermilk Excerptsfront a Travel Diary by LizziePepper Lecture Notes; Grot'ing Up in Egpt by Stuartwier Influence of the British by Philip Daley Alerander's Greot Adventure by CherylPreyer Conservdtionin Archeology by JudyGreenfield Discoveriesat Giza by BarbaraGarland Religion ofthe Connnoners by RuthVaiana
CONSTRUCTION AND PLASTERING OF THE WOODEN COFFINS OF THE NON-ROYAL EG\?TIANS
the timber. Holesfor dowelsmight havebeendrilled by a bradawl, which looks like a screwdriver with a sharp edgeanda woodenhandle.When rwisred,it cutsa lroli throughthe wood. Anothertool usedfor drilling holes was the bow-dril/, which was similar to the bradawl althoughthere was no wooden handle attaclred.and it used a palm-nut with a hole to receive the bit. A woodenbow with a cord tied at each end was wrapped aroundthe bit, and a rapid sawingmotion with the bow rotatedthe bit and cut a hole thoughthe wood. Because hammerswith metal headswere unknown at that time, chiselswereusedto cut tenonjoints by being hammeied with a woodenmallet. The wood-planewas not usedin Egypt, so shaping had to be dore with atlzes made of copper with wooden handles;smoothingwas done bv rubbing the surface with sandstone. lll tool, *e." copperwith woodenhandles.
By Jack Kullman
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: A noriye Colorqdan, Jack Kullman is a relired architectural designer who has been a yolunteer interpreter for both the Ramses and Aztec exhibits. He is cunently working on lhe DMNH collection of artifacts fom Cokrado College. Thh article came out of his research for the Mummy Study Group which plans to build a replica of a woodencffin in the DMNH collection.
CONSTRUCTION. Wooden coffins date back as far as the Old Kingdom. They were rrade from rough planks connectedto each other by the use of dowels, a method of construction whichremainedin useuntil the end of theMiddleKingdom. By the early Middle Kingdom, approximatel), 2000 BCE, the r.vealthy rvereburied insidea rectangularcoffin constrlrctedfiom well-cut boards of cedar imported from Lebanon. The boardswere connectedto each othcr by dowels with tenon joints at the corners. The coffin sat on four or rnore planks perpendicular to the bottom boards. Glue was used in the Early Dynastic Period for inlay work lrut was not generally used before the New Kingdorn. Therefore, dowels were probably the only method used for connections. Tire poorerEgyptianscould not afford the imported cedar and had to use local trees sLrchas the sycatnore!a popularshadetree in Egypt and Syria, with a sweet edible fruit, and the tamarisk,a small evergreerrtree. The boards lvould have been rough-cut, doweled,and coatedwith plastermuch like the two coffins on display at thc DMNH.
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Tools usedto coustructa coffin probablyincludeda sar.r, to cut tl']ewood by a pulling motion and an a.r to split I
IN
Anthropoid (man-shaped) coffins iu the Middle Kingdom were made of cdrtonnoge (linen soaked in 'gesso'plaster)similar to casts used by nrodern doctors for broken bones. They rvould ther be enclosed in rectangular wooden coffins. In the late Second Intermediate Period (aboLlt 1600 BCE), anthropoid coffins were nade frorn a single piece of wood carved out ofa tree trunk. They r.vere similar to a dugoutcanoervith the addition of a lid orr top. The rough wood was then covered with plaster and painted. Tliroughoutthe l Sth Dynasty wooden coffins were constructedof narrow planks doweled to each other. This resulted in less massive coffins. In many modest l9th Dynasty burials, lids were placed dirgctly over the mummv. A IJ SE likenessof the person as he appearedin life was painted on the lid. The lids frorn the coffins of Isis and Sennedjemfrom the Rarlses II Exhibit at the Denver Museum of Natural History in 1987 arc exarnplesof this. The lid was then fitted lirectly under the cover lid of the anthropoidcoffin.
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Sennedjem'sinner-lid was constructedof wood, and then plasteredand painted. The outsidecoffin was also coveredwith plasterwhich had a raisedrelief for many ofthe vignettesand hieroglyphs. The coffin was then paintedand coveredwith a clear varnish. By the 2lst Dynasty every inch on the exterior of the coffin was coveredby raisedreliefsin plaster. PLASTER COATING; The final stage in producing an anthropoidcoffin beganwith preparingthe woodenbase with plaster. Three types of plaster were probably known to the Egyptians: lime, gypsum,and gesso. Lime was usedas a fertilizer and could also have been usedas plaster.The first stepto createplasterfrom Iime involvesthe processof producing lime from limestone which is called lirne-burning. Heating limestone (calciumcarbonate)to a high temperaturedrivesout the carbonic acid and moisture,leaving quicklime. After the stoneis burned,it is groundup-inIoa powder. When water is added to the quicklime, a chemical reaction takesplacewhich resultsin hydratedlime or slakelime Lime putty 5i-apld3teringmaterialcreatedby addinga suffic,ient'ciuantityof water to hydrated lime in order to fonn a thick paste. Gypsuntplasler was usedto cover the walls of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings during the New Kingdom. The processof producinggypsum plasterfrom gypsum (hydrouscalcium sulfate,which has a water contentof approximately20olo)consistsof crushing and grinding the rock and then heatingit . After heatingthe gypsum of tlte water at a liigh temperature,about three-quarters calcination. powder. This is called is removedfrom tlre When r.vateris added to the powder, it crystallizesor sets, and thereby, changesback to its original forrn. This materialis known as plasterof Paris. When plasterof Paris is mixed with water, it sets up very fast, which makes it hard to work with. Lime can be added to gypsum to slow the processof setting. According to Morris Bierbrier in THE TOMBBUILDERS OF THE PHARAOHS (p 47): "as the stone n.lasonscut away the halls of the tomb, the plasterlnen were hard at work behind them on the walls. The unevensurlaceswere coveredwith a layerof gypsutnand whitewashto rnakethem as smoothas possible.The rnethodof supplyingthe workerswith gypsumseemsto have variedfrom periodto period. At onetime specific gypsum-makers were aftachedto eachsideof the gangto burn raw gypsumandmix it with waterto July 1993
form the plaster." Gessowas usedas a basefor paintingand could also be usedto make plaster. Gessoplasteris a mixture ofglue (a productcontaininggelatinfrom animals)and whiting (groundchalk of limestone)which was usedfor making cartonnageand as a ground for paintingover stoneand plaster. To gain insightto which type of plasterwas usedon the ancient coffins, I conductedmy own experiments. I mixed differenttypesof plasterand appliedthem to 3%" x 6" blocks of rough-sawncedar. Modern methodsof plastering claim that plaster should not be applied directlyto wood, and that lime putty usedalonewill not setand will shrinkand crackwhen it dries. Methods. By mixing a skim coat (r/ro" to r/:2") of lime putty from hydratedlime and applying it to the cedar, I found that it did not bond well and did crack after drying. I also discoveredthat when plasterof Paris is mixed with water to form a putty and applied ro the cedar, it seemed to bond better and did not crack; however, it set up too fast and was hard to work with. I then tried mixing trvo-partshydrated lime to one-part plasterof Parisand found that althoughthe skim coatof plasterdid not set as fast, the bonding was not as good as the plaster ol Paris. Therefore, if a coffin was requiredto have a raisedrelief for hieroglyphs(as on more than a skim coat of plasterwould Sennedjem's), havebeenrequired. Next, I applied up to %" of gypsum plasterto a cedar block and found it bondedwell. I cut into the plaster about l/:2" deep with a steel tool to form some hieroglyphs.I then scrapedout the plasterbetweenthe glyphs. After roundingoff the glyphs, it appearedto be about the same depth of relief as I rememberedon coffin. Sennedjem's When I appliedup to %" of two-partslime and one-part gypsumplasterto a cedarblock, I found that it did not bond as well as the gypsumalone,but it did carvemore easilybecauseit was softer. Another rnethodfor obtaining a raised relief could be the applicationof wet plasterof Parisover a dried skim coat of plasterof Paris. I tried a sampleof this method and four.rdit hard to apply and control becauseit set up too fast. The artwork for hieroglyphswould haveto be laid out first on the dried skim coat of plaster,and then tlre new wet plaster applied over the glyphs. After drying,the glyphsr.vouldhaveto be cut out and trimmed L
down. This method may be the easierone when only a few simple glyphs are required in relief. However, when a large area is to be covered with complicated pictures, the first method of cutting out between the glyphs.lookslike the logicalchoice. I did not haveany criteriaon how to make gessoplaster, and I did not want to boil down the neighborsdog to make glue! Therefore,I usedcommercialgessowhich is an acrylic polymer emr.rlsion.I addedplasterof Paris as a substitutefor whiting. The gessoby itself was Iike a creamy soup, so I addedthe gypsum to make a paste in orderto build it up on the wood block. Eventhoughtlre gessowas thinned with water, the plasterof Paris did not set up in the gesso like it would have with plain water. This material did not spreadlike plaster,so I appliedit with a putty knife and smoothedit out with a brush. I found that a mixture with a small amount of gypsum added reacted the same way as the larger amount added to the sample board. It bonded to the wood very well; however,there were shrinkagecracks where the plasterwas greaterthan 1/16"thick. These crackscould probablybe filled by applyinganothercoat over them. Carving out the plasterfor a raisedrelief seemedto be easy. Not knowing how the Egyptians mixed or applied gesso,I did not continue with any other experiments. Conclusion. Even though lime plaster and gypsum plaster are comfllon plasters today, A. Lucas, author of AND MATERIALS EGYPTIAN ANCIENT INDaSTRIES, states that no evidence has been found that lime plasterwas used before the PtolemaicPeriod. The reason is that the temperature required to produce quicklime from limestone is 900 degrees C. (1652 degrees F.) and the temperature required for the calcinationof gypsum is about 130 degreesC. (266 degreesF.). In a country where wood is scarceand the climateis dry, gypsumwould be the betterchoice. The Greeks and Romans used lime in Europe because gypsumis uselessfor outdoorwork in a wet climate. This leavesus with only two choicesof plasterfor the coffins: gypsum or gesso. Gypsum is common throughoutEgypt, even though it varies in color and composition. Gypsum is never pure but contains limestoneand ouartz sand with small amountsof other ingredients. When calcium carbonate(limestone) is found in ancientgypsumplaster,it was probablynot an additive, but was a part of the gypsum as it was found. It did not act as lime in the mix but as an aggregate, becausethe temperaturewas not high enough to convert it to quicklimewhen firing the gypsum.
Plasterfound in the tombs of Saqqarais of good quality gypsum, 97Yo pure or better, probably from a source found in the Faiyum. Plaster from the tomb of Tutankhamunvaries from 66.3Voto 84.8% pure as found by A. Lucas. Thesewould have to be the best available and the plaster used by non-royal persons would be lesspure. This would probablyexplain why someplastersbond betterthan otlrers. The otherchoice to cover the irregularitiesin a coffin would be gesso plaster,but the processof making glue would take more heat than to make calcinatedgypsumwhich is required to reachonly 268oF., not much more than the 212" F. to boil water. Gypsumrock would be easierto obtair than the requiredanimalsfor the glue. My guessis that nonroyal coffins were covered with gypsum plasterto cover the irregularities,then gessowas used as sizing before painting. PAINTING; After the plastering was completed, the final stage of painting took place. The pigments of Egyptianpaintsare naturallyoccurringminerals,finely ground. The colorsusedwere black,blue,brown,green, gray, pink, red, white, and yellow. Black pigmentwas from carbonin someform, possiblysoot. Blue pigment was from azrrite, a blue carbonateof copper from the easterndesertand used in tlie early dynasties. The most common blue pigment was an artificial frit that consistedof crystallinecompoundof silica, copper,and calcium (calcium-coppersilicate). This was made by heatingsilica,malachite,limestone,and natrontogether. Brown pigment was ocher, a natural oxide of iron from the Dakhla Oasis. Green pigment was malachite,a natural copper ore from the easterndesert, also used in early dynasties. In later times, an artificial frit was used. Gray pigment came from a mixture of black and white. Pink pigment was a mixture of red and white. Red pigment was made from ocher. White pigment from calcium carbonate (limestone) or calcium sulfate (gypsum). Yellow came from yellow ocher, hydrated oxide of iron from the western desert,or from orpiment which was a natural sulfide of arsenic, probably importedfrom Persia. The material rnixed with the pigmentsto make paint was water rather than an oil base such as linseedoil (probablyknown in Egypt)and would havebeensimilar to tempera used today. A binder would have been added. This might have been size (gelatin or glue), an animal productmade by boiling down bones,skins and cartilage,or gum of acaciagrown in Egypt. Gum and alburrin (white of egg)could also havebeenused. lf a coffin was plasteredwith gypsum plasterto cover
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up faults and irregularities in the wood, it would probably be covered with a coat of gesso to seal the plasterbefore it was painted. The compositionof the varnish applied over Sennedjem'scoffin has not been identified. Analyses of a few clear ancient varnishes show them to be soluble in alcohol and ether, but insolublein turpentineand petroleumspirits. Shellacis solublein alcohol - the same as the coffin varnish,but anciert naturalshellachas a dark color. unlike the clear varnish used which is practically colorless. The solubility of a material can decreasewith age and exposure,so the insolubility in a particularsolventmay not be originalbut somethingthat occurredover time. From examiningpicturesof coffins and tombs in books and tlre two coffins at the Denver Museum of Natural History, I concludedthat plasterdid not always bond well for the Egyptians. As you miglit remember,the coffin of Sennedjem was almost perfect. He was a tomb and knew betterthan most builderofthe Pharaoh's job. I believethat the the propermaterialsto do the _best personconstructingthe goff-rnsir the Museum usedtlte to him. The lack of bonding local materialsaya+la5le could have-odiurred becausethe wood was too smooth gs+rCf,Ii,asterwas not pure enough. After-all, plasterers - todayclaim that one cannotapply plasterto wood at alll
REFERENCES Andrews,Carol. EGYPTIAN MAMMIES. MusetrnPublications Ltd.,1q84.
British
Bierbrier,Morris. THE TOMB BUILDERS OF THE PHAMOHS. A ColonnadeBook - British Museum Publications, 1982. ENCYCLOPEDIA. BRITANNICA JUNIOR Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1954. Burk-Dalzell-Townsend. ARCHITECTUL4L & Chicago: BUILDING TRADES DICTIONARY. TechnicalSociety,1950. American DENVER BUII,DING CODE 1965. El Mahdy, Christine. MUMMIES, MYTH AND MAGIC. ThamesandHudson,1989. James,T.G.H. AN INTRODaCTION TO ANCIENT EGYPZ.New York: HarperandRow, 1979. July 1993
PHARAOH TRIUMPHANT' THE Kitchen, K.A. LIFE AND TIMES OF RAMSES II. Warminster, Aros& PhillipsLtd., 1982. England: Lucas, A. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MATERIALS & INDUSTRIES. London:EdwardArnold& Co.,Third 1948. edition. RAMSES II . THE GREAT PHARAOH AND HIS DMNH, 1987. TIME. Exhibircatalogue, United StatesGypsum. GVPSUM CONSTRUCTION GypsumCo., 1978. HANDBOOK.UnitedStates WEBSTERS NEW BOOKS,INC.
AMERICAN
DICTIONARY
ANCIENT EGYPT: REBORN IN TROPICAL SEAS? By Stuart Wier ABOUT THE AUTIIOR: Stuart Wierjoined the ESSct year ogo,just as soon os he found out about it. He has been interested in Egtpt since childhood though he has not yet been there. Stu has degrees in pltysics and geophysics from Duke and Princeton. He participated in excavations in Winchester, England, over 20 years ago and personally excavated the grave of a tenth century Saxon nobleman in the ruins of the Saxon I4/inchesterCathedral! Stu also likes sailins taditional wooden vessels.
All of us who admire and study ancient Egypt have wondered what everyday life was really like in those times. We graduallybuild up an unconsciousimageof the qualities of life in ancient Egypt. Recently, I saw a television special about a society with characteristics which seemed remarkably similar to my notion of ancient Egypt. Again and again some practice or idea would provoke sudden recognition. See if you think the comparisonis valid. This society is an ancient one, animated by a lively religious faith and permeatedby colorful art. It is said to be "an oasis of beauty and belief," not a bad descriptionofancient Egypt, either. Life is basedon the village; the heart of the economy is the family plot, hand+illed. Practicallyall arableland is cultivatedand water is carefully regulated through small channels. The staple grains are viewed as literal gifts of the gods. Religion and art are highly developedand central to this culture.
traditional dance and music. All of these are expressionsof religious belief and of the land of the people. Art is not confined to special crafts; prosperous farmers may also be master sculptors in wood or teachersof dance. The temples are filled with stone carvings.Dancers'masks are believedto literallyhavea spirit oftheir own, a connectionto the divine. This fascinating society which recalled the ancient Egyptiansto mind lives on Bali, an island borderingthe Indian Oceanand paft of Indonesia. Superficiallyvery different from Egypt, Bali is a lush tropical land where severalcrops can be harvestedin a year. Egypt, in the time of the pharaohs,was similarly a green land able to feed her peoplewell - but also a place surroundedby the hostiledesertwhere demonslurked. Bali is sunounded by the ocean, which most Balinese regard with trepidation. Like Egypt, Bali looks inward to itself, not out acrossthe sea. The similarity seemsstronserthan it looks at first, on many levels. There is one wonderful difference between Bali and ancient Egypt. You can visit Bali and experiencea living culture basedon the land, the village. and the family, inspired by art and daily religious belief. Balinese life is close to that of ancient Egypt in many ways, very different in others, and very different from our life. By the way, lest anyone think otherwise, I do not believe there was ever any actual link between Egypt and Bali!
Rites for the dead are long-planned, expensive and colorful, and serve the role of freeing the ancestorsfrom their bonds to earth. The dead may be uninterred for some length of time before suitable preparations are arranged. Without the proper rites, the souls of the deceasedare fated to an indeterminatebondageto earth, unableto fulfill their destiny. Unlike the Egyptians, these souls are destined for eventual reincarnation on earth. However, while awaiting that event, they reside in a land just like the one from which they came except that it is free of all troubles. This is an afterlife the Egyptianswould recognize. The arts are actively pursued everywhere and are a part of daily life, especially sculpture, painting and f,
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IMPRESSIONSOF A TRAVELER IN EGYPT BY Ann Lowdermilk
ABOaT THE AUTHOR: Ann Lov'dermilk is htown by ESSntembersas the hosless of many ESSJunctionsJor which she and her husbandBob have generouslyoffered their lovely house and garden Prior to her matiage, Ann u,orkedJor Martin Marietta where she utilized her degree in math doing highly sophisticated calculations She currenlly tutors for their famous programs stu(lentsin math and science and "tags along with Bob to Egtpt and ktves it." Ann is a co-author rtf "NSK Spetiing" in the DPS, an innovalil)e program to help yorrgti"rt in grades K-12. Ann's intelligence, senseo;f httmor, and percepti)eness is erident in this atticle she wrote aJter "tagging along" on their l1lest trip to Egypt
As the plane landed in Cairo, I had tlle urge to say' " "Toto, I don't think we're in Kansas anymore of the oulpost each the Englislrtried lo tnake Althorrs.lr British frrrpirereem tike lrome.fglpt said"'No thank you," and brushedasidetheir fleeting presence.ll your answerto the questioll,"English?,"is' "yes" (thinking that they are inquiring about language),tliey are polite' When the ansrveris, "No, American'" thel' break into big happygrins and warm up imnlediately. "We LOVE Americans! We love Bush You love BLrsir?" As of February,they rvere very nncertainand questioningof Ciintott. One of the taxi drivers, who had worked cn several projeots rvith Americaus, gave Lrs some very sage advice. He said if you want to get alongwith Egyptians, just open up to tllem irr.rmediatelyOn the rvay across town, you can find out about every job they have had, the nalnesof their children,rvhat they think of politics, localand international,etc.,etc.,etc ln Egypt,time is fluid like the Nile Thingsdo get done. bllt time flows by witlrout many outward signs of change. Most Egyptiansseemvery happy and relaxed' lvith ,. ore handsto do the jobs thanjobs to do There is time to visit ard smoke the hubbly-bubblypipe rvith friends. We noticedan ittcreasein the nurnberof veiled rvontetl on the streets of Cairo f'rom November l99l' to gain in support, February1993. As the fundarnentalists will not be they that feel young women more that is traditionally; dress marriageableunless they July 1993
clothedfrom neck to ankle in a dresswith long sleeves and wearinga scarfthat coverstheir hair and shoulders, leavingonly their facesand handsvisible! In Sharmil Sheik, on the Sinai Peninsula,a bank clerk at the new resort hotel proudly introducedhis new bride to me' She was dressedfrom the top of lier head to the tip of lrer toes in traditionalattire of bright chartreuse!He, of course,was dressedin westernstyle They were on a working honeymoonat his new posting. We talked a long time. She r.vasshy and retiring, he was proud and happy. I took their picture with their cameraand then with my cameraand we exchangedaddresses. In the villages, the women and children looked like exotictropicalflowers that have drifted acrossthe fields on a light desed breeze. Brilliant fuschia, orange, yellorv, green, and purple brought bright splashesof color to the greenfields and clotheslinesof the villages as rvell as to the edge of the canalswllere the women rvere waslring. Tlie villages thenrselveslooked like picturesfrom a child's book of Bible stories-- adobe buildingsrvith dusty palm treesand camels. A camel is lnuch betterthan a truck in Egypt. It costsmuch lessto buy and maintainand the fuel is free. A camelalso lasts for about20 years.and every byproductcan be usedor recycled! My husbald'scotisitrand his u'ife have lived in Egypt for the past four years. He is otl loan from CSU, lraining tlle Eglptians in water resourcemanagement' I-le saysthat the AsrvanHigh Dam was a necessityfor Egypt to feedher people. The increasedgrorvingseason of the world alloiusthe Egyptianfannerto fann at 1980/o standard. He believesthat they are the best farmersin the n'orld and he truly likes and respectstllem. Egyptian larv is basedon the Napoleoniccode and has some strangetwists. For example,if you own property and sorneoneelsebuilds a houseon it and you takethem to court, you lvill probablylose -- becausethe house has greater value! One Egyptian found out that sorneoneelse was startillgto build on his land while he rvasout of torvn. lnsteadof suing, lie had a rnidnight part)'for his friends.completervith buildozerand truck' The dozeroperatoraskedwhy he rvarltedto demolislra perlectly good house. and he ansrveredthat it hadn't tumed orlt e\actly as he had ptanned By the time the constructiorlcrep arrived tlle next morning, there \Yas 'Ilie man *1to had been no lrouse,just vacant land! building the housetook thc o*'ner of the land to court' But, no house,no judgment. After the trial, the judge comnrented."You really understandhow to handlethe system." 6
One last word of advice on handling the "system.', If you fly Egypt Air, be sure to get your reconfirmation in writing. After having problemson our retum flight on our first trip, we carefully reconfirmed at the hotel office of Egypt Air. However, when we showed up at flight time for Luxor, we found our reservations had beencanceled. "You shouldhavereconfirmed. " "We did reconfirm at the Cairo Sheraton Office." "They don't care. You must reconfirm downtown. Why weren't you here early since you have a problem?" "We didn't know that we had a problem. Besides,we wgle here early. We couldn't get into the terminal because we were behind two tour buses of people." We got on the plane to Luxor, only to renew the battle for space on the return flight to Cairo to catch a plane back to the States. MISR (misery) Travel and Egypt Air have no compassionfor the non-grouptraveler. Cet a writtencopy of that elusivereconfirmationor you might not make it back to Kansas-- oops, Colorado!
EXCERPTSFROM A TRAVEL DIARY By Lizzie Pepper
ABOaT THE AUTHOR: Lizzie Pepper will be rwelve in August and will enter Middle School this fall. She is very acth)e in sports: on the sv)im team, a S.C. soccer player, and recently completed the Ceal Bany Basketball Camp. Lizzie enjoys reoding and v)riting, belongsto the Boulder Youth Choir, and loves her pets. She kept a diary during a trip to Egypt with her palents in February, 1993, and the following are the observations of this bright and observant young lady.
February Z In Egypt, I stayed at the Cairo Sheraton Hotel in the Cleopatratower which has a fabulous view of the Nile from the balcony! Todaywas my first day in Egypt and it was very thrilling to be in such a different country! To catch up on my history, we went to the museumand sawjewelry, old papyruspaintings,ancient clothingmaterial,and mummiesof all sorts! But it was a shock to me that the Egyptian museum wasn'tjust about ancient Egypt, some of it was about Rome and Greeceandtheir conquestsof Egypt in ancienttimes. February 8. Today was pyramid day at Giza for me and the ESS group. First we saw Klrufu's great pyramid and then Menkaure's(grandsonof Khufu) pyramid. I got to go inside both of them! I noticed when I was in there that the farther into the pyramid you go, the hotter it gets and the less fresh air there is. I also had a chanceto go into Meresankh'stomb, which was extremely exciting becauseof the beautiful artwork and statues tltat are placed all over the walls. Then we went to the desert where I saw scarab beetles, and we actually found a mummy! It was buried in the sand and was wrappedup in linen. All aroundwere human bones,skulls,rocks. and potteryofall sorts,mixed in the sand. Our guide is Mohammed Shata,former pyramid inspectorfrom Giza. Mohammed is going to be guiding us around Cairo 90o/o ofthe time we are herel Today I have seen,heard, and recorded in my mind how to write Arabic numbers! They look very different from ours. February 9. Today we went to Giza again, but mostly we were in the desert. Afterwards, we went to a papyrus shop that was filled with papyrus paintings and my parents and I got about 14 papyrus paintings there! Then we came home, all worn out from the day. We
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decidedto eat at tlie coffeeshopin our hotel whereI had Egyptianlentil soupand it was deliciousl February 10. Today we visited the Red Pyrarrid and then took our daily stroll in the desefi for a little bit. Aflerrvardswe headedto the Bent Pyramidrvhichhasan entranceabout 30 feet high, or so it seemed. Since I nevergot the chanceto climb the side of the pyrarnid, Mom, HarriettePeters(a friend), Khalied (an Egyptian inspectorofthe pyramids),and I visitedsomeothersites in the area,and then waited at the bus until everyone else got back. Also during the day we visited the workmen'svillage at Giza wherethey were nrakingnew discoveries,which was all the more exciting. Therewas even a tomb in which the hieroglyphicwriting said the owner would put a curse on anyone who touchedl.tis bones. I didn'ttouch anything! Fehruury.12. We rventto Mereruka'stomb at Saqqara rvhich was faaaaaaaaabulous! The entire tomtr'srvalls rverecompletell'coveredwith beautiful altwork which was stunning. We even got to go down into the bLrrial chamber. [t n'asvery dusty. After that, we went to Abu Sir wlrere lve enjoyedwalking aroundthe sun temples. Next, $,ejourneyed over to the mastaba(sort of like a of nremorialbuilding with a burial chamberunderneath) Ti, and I got a chanceto ride on a camel namedMosesl I-leswayedso much that I still felt like I was riding on the carrel after I sat down. February -1J. First we went to an Egyptianbook shop and boughtsomebooks,and afterrvardsrve drove to the Khan-El-Khalili, a bazaarof sofis, wlrere my parents and I bought2 pairsof earringsfor me, and a Horus and three-piecerirrgs fbr nrom and Harriette at the same jewelry storel Also we bought about 60 scarabbeetles at the bazaar for my two classesat school, and my motherboughtme a jewelry box. Afterwards rve said good-bye to Mohammed and thankedhim for being our guide February 14. Today we drove through the desert to coast. Alexandria,a city in Egypt on the Mediterranean February 1-J. We met our new guide, a lady named Amira, and headedover to seethe fortressof Kyte Bey, a castlebuilt on the site of a famousancientlighthouse. We went inside and learned a lot about the fortress. Thenwe visited somemore tombs and wanderedaround the Greco-RomanMuseum looking at tons of oil larnps andotherstuff. I also boughta camel cushionand some othersouvenirsto take home. July 1993
February 16. On the way back from Alexandria, I visiteda monasterywhich is a kind of churchfor Coptic (Christian)Egyptians,and our group had a guide rvho happenedto be one of the rnonks! I got to grind some grains with a big stonervheelwhere they make bread. We saw a room that, if you stood in a certainplace,you could hear a personrvhisperwho was standingacross from yoLl when they beganto talk, their voices rvould echoin your ears. Aller the tour, we listenedto the man tell somestoriesaboutthe founderof the monastery,and the monksofferedus breadand tea,and then rve left. To finish. I shall tell you about Napoleonic larv in a story that an Egyptianfellow told our group: "tn Egypt rve havea law where if you haveboughta pieceof land and have not been seen near it for longer than three months,anotherman can staft to build on it. This law, that comes from France,says that you must then sell your land to the man who built his lrouseon itl Well, one day I was driving to visit m1' land when I saw a first settingof brick foundation. There was a man rvorking on it, so I knervhe was building a houseon my land. I told hirn that he was building on my land,but all he did was laugh and said "Try and make me move!" So t.ne and my brothermade up a crazy plan to get rid of the man and the housefor good! AII our fiiends came to help us from 9:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. and we tore down the building! The next day rvhenthe man cameto rvork on his houseand it was gone,he was furiousandtold us, "l'm goingto kill you! I'rn going to kill y ou!" over and over. But I am still alive, so I guesshejust must have found someoneelse'sland to build his houseon!" This rvasaboutthe only way aroundthis silly la,'v.
LECTURENOTES
Blue gtized hi
o. Tomb of Senbi, MeiL Metropolitan Museutu of Att' Nv
GROWING UP IN EG\?T Presented by Charlotte Vaille ESS FebruarYMeeting
attemptsto date other remainsfound in the desert. Vaille attendedCairo High School and her interestin history grew. With like-minded friends, she made jaunts which many of us in the ESScan only lropeto do some day. Theseoutingsincludedpre-dawnclimbs of the Great Pyramid to watch the sunrise,picnics at Giza, and horsebackrides into the desertwhere one can find ancientpotsherdsand small oil lamps which are very common and datable by style. Many of us can appreciate the thrill of finding an ancient aftifact, in place,which you are able to recognize,date,and put in its historicalsetting. College work in anthropology,at three universities, extendedVaille's study of human culture, past and present,which continuesto the presentday.
Reviewedby Stuart Wier
ABOUT THE REVIEI(ER:
(seeenrlier article)
Everyone who attended this meeting experienceda keen,inquiririg,and perceptivemind. From the age of eleven, Charlotte Vaille, a resident of Denver, spent almost nine years in Egypt. Iler step-fatheris an Egyptian, a Muslim, and of course part of a large extended faniily in which Vaille was completely welcome. She clearly loves and appreciatesEgypt, a countryvery rich in cultureand history and still regards it as homeafteryearsof separation. Vaille arrived in Egypt just as the British administration was leaving. During her first year in Egypt, Vaille attendeda British school- madedepressingby a teacher with no love for history or for those with an American accent. She was rescuedfrom this by a Catholicschool in Alexandria,guidedby a nun who delightedin history. Better yet was the local museum, one of the filest Greco-Romanmuseums anywhere. A neighbor, Dr. Fauhry,Dean of Archaeology,encouragedher growing interestin the past,arrdliad the patienceand good-will to listento all of Vaille's questions. Vaille would sometirnesbicycle out to villages,where she beganto see eclroes-or continuations-in modern life of ancient life and practices,such as monumentbuildirg in the cemeteries,still called "cities of the dead" by some villagers. Oue memorableevent was finding a skull in the desert,which was determinedto be a young adult of some 2000 years ago, who had been her killed by a blow to the head. Dr. Fauhryencouraged 9
It is obviousthat the Egyptian life and peopleare close to Vaille's heaft,and she sharedinsightswitli us which might be hard to find elsewhere. There were several tlremesshe ernphasized.One is her convictiollthat the Egyptians'life today is pretty much the san.leas tlvo thousandyears ago which the infonned eye can sec in the bLrildingpractices,daily village lil'e,and qven in the artsanddress. Sheencouragedus to get to know the Egyptians They havea keen senseof civility, a great senseof humor, a love of conversation,and they are hospitable and fiiendly. Vaille urgedtravelersin Egypt to visit villages and talk to the people. Even if you don't know Arabic you will be welcomed if you liave a sincere interest Drink some tea or coffee and don't be in a hulry to leave. When bargaining with sellers in the market remember this is a kind of conversationor social interaction,not a transactionto be completed in the shortestpossibletirre. The Egyptiansare curious and eagerto learn lf you visit a village,they will want to talk about your family, learnwhat is il portantto you artdwhat your life is like. Egyptian guides to the ancient molltlments - solrle positionsare virlually hereditaryand possibly extend sold artifacts back to ancienttirnesto when tlie farr.rilies than better itlfonned to be tnuch are apt uneartlied they great deal of a one would at first suspect. Some have knowledgeonce you get past the normal patter for the tourists. Egyptiansare keen for knowledge;Vaille said they liave an alnrost uncanny ability to leam by watching and listening. Some guides have learnedto read hieroglyphs through association with trained archeologists.There is a sayingthat every Egyptianis
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importanceof peppercornsin Anglo-Egyptianrelations. Protectingtheir sourceof peppercornsin India and Asia was very important to the English government as well as to the East lndia Company. Peppercornswere to the English spice industry what southern cotton later becameto the Englishtextile industry. With their empirestretchingall the way aroundthe globe, the English were constantlylooking for ways to shortentheir trade routes. This led them to Egypt - and there they found the French.
an archeologist. Since they are free of colonial restrictions, they are now free to obtain professional training in the study of the past, and many are makinga careerof it. Vaille finds "modern" Egypt - especiallythe Muslirn period - even more fascinatingthan ancientEgypt, a good reminderto travelersto Egypt that they may miss much of value if they only searchfor the ancient past. Vaille ended with a few tips for travelers to Egypt (be modest in dress and behavior), and by recommending some books including OUTLINE APPER EGYPT HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIYE GUIDE TO THE ANCIENT SITES by Jill Kamil (Longman, 1983). The author is a native Egyptian woman, who Charlotte says understandsEgypt Also better than many other writers. recommended was THE MANNER AND MODERN THE CUSTOMS OF published (first Lane by Edward EGYPTIANS in 1860 and now number 315 in the Everymans Library) for the basis of much of the Islamicworld today.
Dr. Geddesspokeat lengthaboutthe sruggle between the two great European powers for control of this vital area of the Mediterranean. He explained the rise of Muhammad Ali, the Albanian Major who cameto power in Cairo in I 805. Muhammad Ali greatly improved the quality of life for the average Egyptian and tried to lessen foreign exploitationand influence. And of coursethis led to difficulties with England and Turkey and to the diminishing of his powers. Foreign influences were never completely stamped out holvever. Dr. Geddes' statement that certain parts of modem Egyptian life still reflectedone and two-hundred-year-old influences was very interesting.
THE BRITISH INFLUENCE IN EG}?T
From here the talk centered on the nature of the Egyptian people. At first, they were welcomingand hospitableto the English.But abuse and corruption led to wide-spreadand intenseanti-imperialistfeelings which gave riseto occasionalarmedinsurrections.
Presented by Dr. Charles L, Geddes ESS March Meeting Reviewed by Philip Daley ABOaT THE REVIEWER: Philip Daley is ten years old and in his frst year as a member of the ESS. He plans to be an archeologist specializing in Egtptian studies. Philip is a very busy young man whose other hobbies include constructing WWII models (planes, tanks, etc.), biking, soccer, collecting comics, and playing the violin! Although Dr. Geddes has lectured before the I'ttldr n'lemple ESS on previous occasions,this was my first opportunityto hear him. I thought his talk about the English influence on Egypt was very interestingbecause it explored a part of Egyptian history that was new to me. Geddes began with an opening statement about the July 1993
I was furiously scribblingto keep up with all the namesI was hearing,most of whom were new to me: Ismail, Cormer, Salisbury, Farouk, Nassar, and the Mahdi whose fundamentalistmovement was crushed by Kitchenerat Omdurman. ofA
The lecture closed with Dr. Geddes discussingthe Aswan High Dam wliich has both helped and hurt the Egyptian economy. Geddes believesthat Egypt faces an uncertainfuture unlessit overcomesthe many problemsconfrontingit. I haven't been to Egypt yet, but I think that they can overcome their presentdifficulties. They've been doing just that for centuries!
c -R!. Kdn'dk
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ALEXANDER'S GR-EAT ADVENTURE IN EG}?T Presented by Dr. J. Donald Hughes ESS April Meeting Reviewed by Cheryl Preyer
At the April ESS meeting,Dr. Don Hughes,professorof ancient history at the University of Denver, brought Alexander'simpact on Egypt to Iife. The audiencewas captivated by tlie story of Alexander's heroic quest -especiallythe tidbit that AlexanderconqueredEgypt at the tender age of 23. Hughes' lecture took us up to Alexander'stragic death and the developmentof his Iegendarystatusafterward. Alexanderascendedto the throne of Macedoniaat the age of 20 when his father, Philip, was assassinated. Alexanderhad expressedconcernthat his father would leave no domain unconqueredfor himself to tackle. Alexander had memorized Homer's " iad" and was determined to out-perfonn the heroes he compared lrimself to. He decided to follow a sort of hero's journey. Alexander took an amy into Asia Minor where it met and defeateda much larger army. He and his soldiers continuedto march througb Turkey (as we know it today)conqueringall along the way. By the time they reached the other side of Turkey, the Shah of Persia (DariusIII) arrived with his army. The two armieshad managedto passeach other! Tliey had to turn around to fight - each from the wrong side of the field. Again (by now this should not come as much of a surprise), Alexandertriumphed and the Persianarmy fled. Though Alexander left a path of conqueredterritories in his wake, two areas stubbornly refused to surrender. The first was Tyre, on the Phoenician Coast (Lebanon) and the second was Gaza. Alexander spent seven months besiegingTyre and, later, a number of months on Gaza. WhenGazasurrendered, Alexandermarchedinto Egypt. His first stop was Peluzium (east of where the Suez Canal stands today). He appearedriding his horse, Bucephalus. This beautiful horse helped enhancehis heroic image. The animal could not be broken and so was given to Alexander by his father when the boy was l5 yearsold. Alexanderrealizedthe horseshied at its own shadow and so was able to tame him bv ridine him ll
into the sun. Accompanyingthe king on his many adventurousjoumeys, the horse finally carried him to India where it died. Alexander paid homageto the beast by naminga city after him. Back to Egypt: Tyre was an important asset to Alexanderas it provided a port. This enabledhim to receive a fleet of ships from Greece. Egypt then surrendered to Alexander. He captured it without striking a blow. In fact, Egypt welcomed him with open arms. Its inhabitants had not been treated well under Persianrule and looked forward to new leadership. The Persianrepresentativein charge of Egypt submitted and handedover the territory without a fight. Egypt embraced Alexander, and Alexander treated Egypt kindly. lt is saidthat Alexanderwent to Memphis (the ancientcapital)and made a sacrificeto Apis, the Bull God, who had been dishonoredby the Persians. Alexander was also known on occasion to seek the counselof Egyptianoracles. This, of course,was very wise on Alexander'spart; he assuredtlre friendshipand loyalty ofthe Egyptiansby honoringtheir ways. Alexanderwas well-rewardedin his own right. As ruler of Egypt, he was given god-status(what more could a fearless,twenty-three-year-old adventurerdesireof his conquests?).Moreover, this was his first taste of ruling as an absolutemonarch. Although he was also the ruler of Macedonia, that society operated under a semidemocraticsystem. Alexanderdid bring someGreekelementsto Egypt. For example,he stagedgymnasticand musicalcompetitions. As in Greece, decorated pots were awarded as prizes. He also integrated elements of Egyptian and Greek myms. On the lsle of Pharos(which is no longer an island), Alexander founded a Greek city named after hirnself, Alexandria. He had already named three other cities after himself, though none were as grand as Alexandria. He marked out the boundariesof the city and planned it, includinga numberof Greektemplesand one dedicated to Isis. Having conqueredEgypt at the ageof 23, it is obvious that Alexanderwas an industriousyoung man. His goal was to conquerthe entire world as he knew it. Because he had so much pressingbusinesselsewhere,Alexander did not stay long in Egypt. When he left Alexandria, it was for good; he would not return until his body was transportedback for burial.
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Hughes summarizedsome key points of AlexandeCs adventureas follows: Alexanderbelievedhe was divine. Egypt becamean important Hellenistic kingdom. o Alexandria, a great city, was built. o Alexanderdied in Babylonofa fever he had contractedin Mesopotamia(lraq). o Alexander was worshipped after his death. . JuliusCaesarcomparedhimselfto Alexander(also,he had seen Alexander's PreservedbodY). . Alexander'sbody was placed in a crystal coffin filled with honeY. This \lt,as surroundedbY anothercoffin made of gold. r Alexander was buried in a tomb in Alexandria. . The tomb has beenlost sincethe Arabic Conquest. o Ptolemy IV removed the golden coffin and melted it down to PaYtroops. . Ptolemy took over Egypt after Alexander's death. o Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II foundedthe library in Alexandria-- the greatest library ofthe ancientworld. o Alexander ruled from Greeceto lndia and from Sovie,Central Asia to EgYPt This was one ofthe greatestancient empires.
o .
As usual, Dr. Don Hughesprovided his ESS audience with a fascinating lecture and many of us leamed a great deal about Egypt and Alexander and horv they influencedeach other-
CONSERVATION IN THE SERVICE OF ARCHEOLOGY Presentedand Summarized BY JudY Greenfield Art & ArcheologyLectureSeries,April 27
Eachof us at the Rocky Mountain ConservationCenter has had to field questionsfrom the public about such things as where to buy blue spruceand how they may contributeto the "Save the Rainforest"campaign. It's not surprising that people confuse us with an organizationconcemedwith environmentalissues;few have heard of the rather unusual field of art conservation. disciplinewhich aims Conservationis a science-based to extend the shelf-life of an artifact -- be it a painting, print, piece of farm equipment, cave art, or a Faberge egg. But even conservators,with all their best efforts, can't stop the march of time. On a philosophicalnote, everything eventually succumbs to entropy - that is, greater chaos and a lower energy state. Conservators can, at best, slow down the inevitable decay of our material culture. The key word is pleserrationi we arm to preserve lTot only the artifact itself, but the informationit may contain. Thereare threebasicaspectsofart conservation: Interventive - in which the artifact is treated in order to chemicallyand/or physically stabilize it. For example, the artifact may be disassembled, old restorations removed, cleaned,and/ormissingportionsreconstructed. Preventive conservation deals with monitoring and controlling environmentalfactors such as humidity, light, pests, and providing proper display and storageconditionsto help prolong This aspect of the life of the artifact. conservationmay be thought of "an ounce of preventionis worth a poundof cure " Investigation - each artifact embodies informationabout the culture which made and we are responsiblefor usedit. As conservators, this information. preserving extractingand Within the rather broad field of art conservationare variousspecialties:objects,paintings,paper,and textile
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conservation. But regardless of tbe area of specialization,we're all ruled by a strict code of ethics set forth by our national professional organization, the American Institute of Conservation. These mandates includeminimal intervention(do as little as possibleto stabilize the object), thorough documentation, and reversibility of the treatmentwheneverpossible.
NEW DISCOVERIf,S AT GIZA
The lecture focused on my specialization within the objects conservation field: archeological conservation. Archeological conservation is a particularly interesting area of conservation because it involves sleuthing. Often the conservator makes discoveries about an artifact as treatment progresses. By careful study, analysis, and treatment, an otherwise mute artifact can speakvolumes about the people who made it. Often the artifact itself is rather unremarkable and barely recognizable.A particularlygood exampleofthis was a Medieval Scottish die. The opposing faces of the die, which were probably made of antler tine, consistedof concentriccircles totaling seven,as with modern dice. A void, presentin a pair of opposingfaces,was revealed by an x-radiograph. According to an archeologist familiar with medieval artifacts, this void may have beenfilled with mercury to createa genuine loaded die!
ABOUT THE hEVIEWER: Barbara Garland's intercst in Egypt was sparked when her husband Gordon, an Egqtian history mojor, joined the ESS. Barbarct grew up on Long Island and, having a deaf siste\ studied to leach the decf in college. She is a professional dress-maker and designer and also works in real estate. This talented lady and her husband were the teffifc hostsfor the famous ESSKing Tut Party last November.
Slides illustrating case histories of artifacts my colleagues and I have studied and conserved accompaniedmy presentation. Some of the featured artifacts were no doubt recognized by members of the audienceas part of the Denver Art Museum collection. The final slide. a fragmentof Egyptiancarlonnage.was shown for the benefit of ESS attendees. Stay tuned: the cartonnagefragment is slated for conservationtreatment this summer. Bob Hanawalt(who Iecturedsomemonths ago on Amarna) expressed a great interest in the iconography on the fragment and has painstakingly decipheredits crudehierogllphs.
Presented By Mohammed Shata DMNH IMAX Lecture, May Reviewed By Barbara Garland
I would like to preface this review by stating emphatically, I am not now, never was in this lifetime, and probably never will be, a dyed-in-the-wool Egyptophile; my husbandis! I am, however, fascinated with people and enjoy putting together the piecesof tlie ptzzle that help to answerthe age-old questions: where did we come from and why are we here now? After an intensive weekend of studying all you ever wanted to know about pyramids and more, presentedby fellow ESS members,I was pleasantly surprisedto find Mohammed Shata's lecture on the new discoveries at Giza a lively and entertaining overview of Egypt - its kings and queensand its pyramids. Shata'slecturewas fascinating, and he was extremely knowledgeable, delightfully charming,and funny! It was fun listening to him good naturedly ribbing various members of the ESS who have had the fabulous opportunity to tour Egypt with him. This friendly and knowledgeableman is truly a jewel of an ambassadorof good will and an excellentscholarof Egyptianantiquities. Using slides of recently discovered artifacts, Shata compared some of the similarities between the way things were done in Ancient Egypt and what you still see there today. He showed us several slides of newly discovered statues at Luxor. However, I especially enjoyed his slides and commentary about the recently excavatedartifacts from the workmen's village at Giza. The findings were remarkable. It revealed a facet of Egypt I never knew existed, and the statueswitli their crystal eyes were magnificently lifelike and inspiring to seeand hearabout. The richnessof the burialsof these "common people" is surprising,and there should be
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much to learn from further excavationsin this area. When MohammedShatareturnsto give anotherlecture about anything relatedto Egypt, bring as many people as you can for they will really enjoy him. He is truly a fascinating and scholarly spokespersonfor Egypt! Thankyou, MohammedSliata,and thanksto all the ESS nrembersthat worked hardto put this programtogether!
RELIGION FOR THE COMMONERSOF ANCIENT EGYPT Presentedby Dr. Emily Teeter ESSJuneMeeting Reviewedby Ruth Vaiana
ABOUT THE REVIEWER: Ruth Vaiana has traveled extensively throughout Europe and the Orient. She explored Greece last year with her mother. A veteran ESS member, Ruth has served on the ESSBoard and various comntittees. She is also a great cook and has assistedwith many of the ESSporluck receptions.
When lve think of religion in ancientEgypt, we tend to reflectuponthe kings and their relationshipto the gods. Dr. Emily Teeter, Assistant Curator at the Oriental Institute Museum of Chicago, gave us a different perspectrve. Teeter explainedthat we need to understandwhat the comrron folk (rekhyt) of ancient Egypt believed as rvell. Contraryto popular belief that only the pharaoh and priests could communicate with the gods, the averagepersonhad plenty ofaccess. Assistedby a slide presentation,she did a superbjob of illustrating the people'sinvolvementand accessto the templesas well as of the roles of private cults, festivals,and popular religion, such as oracles,which had such an impact on cornmonEgyptiandaily life. A brief examplefrom her lecturewas the explanationof the Opet f'estivalswhich took place periodically. The ritual consistedof the god-statuesbeing removedfrom the inner sanctuaryby the king or priest. They were bathed and anointed, offerings were made and food stuffs were brought in preparationfor the eventual journey down the Nile to otltertemplesfor worship.
(asDteticspooh.Sednrcnt.Pettie
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'\tuseun. Uni\ctsit). Callege,
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Although tlre inner sanctuariesrvere reservedfor high priestsand kings, ordinary people had ways of getting the attentionof their gods. An interestingfeature of solnetenples were the earscarvedon the outsidewalls to insurethat the gods *,ould indeedhear the petitions requestedby the people. This allowed ready accessto the gods for commoners. Also, it's noteworthy that commonersrvereallorvedin the templesto worship,and a number of them even held part time postsas priests. This rvasa volunteerserviceand dependedon their level
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of understanding of the religion. Teetervividly describedhow the ancientEgyptiansused multiplicity in their worship. The channels of communicationto the gods for the commonersincluded oracles (seers called rekhet), dreams (manifestationsor signs called baw), and the ritual of writing letterson pottery to their dead ancestors'spirit (called a/c/r). It was thought that their deceased ancestors were to act as intermediaries to the gods for petitions sent by the remainingliving. For common folk, their immediate needs were of utmost importance; one of their most common reasons for seeking the gods was for supplication. In conclusion,we saw that the ancientEgyptiansused woven patternsof ideasand beliefs in their daily life and perceivedso called "death"as only a mirroredreflection ofthe ohvsicalworld.
THE DENVER MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2001Colorado Blvd. Denver,CO 80205
EGYPTIAN
ST UDY S OC IETY l5
July 1993