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History of Romania Școala Gimnazială Vădeni, Vădeni, Brăila, Romania

[Tastaţi numele firmei]

Prehistory The Thinker of Hamangia, Neolithic Hamangia culture (c. 5250-4550 BC)

0,000 year old modern human remains were discovered in present day Romania when the "Cave With Bones" was uncovered in 2002.

In 2011 older modern human remains were identified in the UK (Kents Cavern at 41,000BP) and Italy (Grotta del Cavallo at 43,000BP), nonetheless the Romanian fossils are still among the oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Europe, so they may be representative of the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.

One of the fossils found—a male, adult jawbone—has been dated to be between 34,000 and 36,000 years old, which would make it one of the oldest fossils found to date of modern humans in Europe. A skull found in Peștera cu Oase (The Cave with Bones) in 2004-5 bears features of both modern humans and Neanderthals. According to a paper by Erik Trinkaus and others, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in January 2007, this finding suggests that the two groups interbred thousands of years ago.

Dacia The sanctuaries of the ancient Dacian Kingdomcapital, Sarmizegetusa Regia

The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in book IV of his Histories written c. 440 BCE. Herein he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. The Dacians, widely accepted as part of the Getaedescribed earlier by the Greeks, were a branch of Thracians that inhabited Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova, northern Bulgaria and surroundings).

The Dacian Kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership

Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. Julius Caesar intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to Pompey, but was assassinated in 44 BC. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king Decebalus.

The Roman Empire conquered Moesia by 29 BC, reaching the Danube.

In 87 AD Emperor Domitian sent six legions into Dacia, which were defeated at Tapae. The Dacians were eventually defeated

by Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province of Roman Dacia.

Roman Dacia (106-275 AD) Roman Dacia, between 106 and 271 AD.

The Romans exploited the rich ore deposits of Dacia. Gold and silver were especially plentiful, and were found in great quantities in the Western Carpathians. After Trajan's conquest, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver. The Romans heavily colonized the province, and thus started a period of intenseromanization, the Vulgar Latin giving birth to the Proto-Romanian language.

The geographical position of Dacia Felix (another name for the Roman province of Dacia) made it difficult to defend against the barbarians, and during 240 AD - 256 AD, under the attacks of the Carpi and the Goths, Dacia was lost. The Roman Empire withdrew from Dacia Romana around 271 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.

Roman conquest of Dacia stands at the base of the origin of Romanians. Several competing theories have been introduced to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate thatRomanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians and Vlachs.

Early Middle Ages Between 271 and 275, the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded afterwards by theGoths. The Goths mixed with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia, in the south, by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages and Moldova, in the east, by Dragoş around 1352.

Different migrating peoples lived alongside with the local populations, such as the Gothic Empire (Oium) from 271 until 378, the Hunnish Empire until 435, the Avar Empire andSlavs during the 6th century.

BasarabI

The battle of Posada

Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Ţara Românească "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania.

The Pechenegs (a semi-nomadic Turkic people of the Central Asian steppes) occupied the steppes north of the Black Sea (8th–12th century) and by the 10th century they were in control of all the lands between the Don and lower Danube rivers. During the 11th and 12th century, the nomadic confederacy of the Cumans and (Eastern) Kipchaks (who are considered to be either the eastern branch of the Cumans or a distinct but related tribe with whom the Cumans have created a confederacy) were the dominant force over the vast territories stretching from as far as presentday Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Ukraine, down to southern Moldavia and western Wallachia.

By the 11th century, the area of today's Transylvania became a largely autonomous part of the Kingdom of Hungary. Kings of Hungary invited the Saxons to settle in Transylvania, to populate the sparsely inhabited region. Also living in Transylvania were the Székely. After the Magyar conquest (10-11th century), Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of Hungary until the 16th century, when it became the independent Principality of Transylvania until 1711. Many small local states with varying degrees of independence developed, but only in the 14th century the larger principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia emerged to fight a threat in the form of the Ottoman Turks, who conquered Constantinople in 1453.

Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century until it gradually fell under the Ottomans' suzerainty during the 15th century. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula, Romanian: Vlad Ţepeş), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456–62, and 1476. In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for being the inspiration to the "vampire" main character in Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula. As a king, he courageously maintained an independent policy towards the Ottoman Empire. The Romanians appreciate him as a ruler with an extreme sense of justice and the defender of the Wallachian independence and, in general, the western European Christianism against the Ottoman expansionism.

Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania. In addition to its uniquearchitecture, the castle is famous because of persistent myths that it was once the home of Vlad III Dracula.

the

The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen Great between 1457 and 1504.

His 47 years' reign was unusually long at that time only 13 rulers worldwide were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful both military and civil ruler ( losing only 2 out of 50 battles ), after each victory he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with a very unique and interesting style. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the VoroneĹŁ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV nominated him as verus christianae fidei athleta (a true Champion of the Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia also came under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

In the period the Romanians received the Orthodoxy during Bulgarian rule, which subsequently became the traditional religion.

Early modern period By 1541, the entire Balkan peninsula and most of Hungary became Ottoman provinces. In contrast, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, came under Ottoman suzerainty, but conserved fully internal autonomy and, until the 18th century, some external independence. During this period, also called the Phanariot Epoch, the Romanian lands were characterised by the slow disappearance of the feudal system and the distinguishment of some rulers like Vasile Lupu and Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia, Matei Basarab and Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia, and Gabriel Bethlen in Transylvania. At that time the Russian Empire appeared to become the political and military power which threatened the Romanian principalities.

John II, the non-Habsburg king of Hungary, moved his royal court to Alba Iulia in Transylvania, and after his abdication from the Hungarian throne, he became the first "Prince of Transylvania". His Edict of Turda was the first decree of religious freedom in the modern European history (1568). In the aftermath Transylvania was ruled by mostly Calvinist Hungarian princes (until the end of the 17th century), and Protestantism flourished in the region.

Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601), of Transylvania (1599–1600), and of Moldavia (1600). For a short time during his reign Transylvania was ruled together with Moldavia and Wallachia in a personal union. After his death the union dissolved and as vassal tributary states Moldova and Wallachia still had an internal autonomy and some external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.

Michael de Brave entering in Alba Iulia

Seal of Michael the Brave during the personal union of the two Romanian principalities with Transylvania

The Principalities of Moldavia andWallachia in 1786, Italian map by G. Pittori, since the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni.

The Principality of Transylvania reached its golden age under the absolutist rule of Gabor Bethlen (1613–1629). In 1699, Transylvania became a part of the Habsburgs' Austrian Empire, following the Austrian victory over the Turks. The Austrians, in their turn, rapidly expanded their empire: in 1718 a major part of Wallachia, Oltenia, was annexed to the Austrian monarchy and was only returned in 1739. In 1775, the Austrian empire occupied the north-western part of Moldavia, later on called Bukovina, while the eastern half of the principality (by the name of Bessarabia) was occupied in 1812 by Russia.

Map of Europe in 1648 showing Transylvania and the two Romanian principalities: Wallachia and Moldova

During the Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and the Ottoman suzerainty overWallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were actually second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where in fact they constituted the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities like Brașov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.

Revolutions of 1848 As in other European countries, 1848 brought up the revolution upon Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania, through Tudor Vladimirescu and his Pandurs in the Wallachian uprising of 1821. The goals of the revolutionaries - full independence for Moldavia and Wallachia, and national emancipation in Transylvania - remained unfulfilled, but were the basis of the subsequent evolutions. The uprising helped the population of all three principalities recognise their unity of language and interests; all tree Romanian principalities were very close, not only in language, but also geographically.

People

in Bucharest during

the

1848

events,

carrying

the Romanian tricolor

After the unsuccessful 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers rejected the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing the Romanians to proceed alone their struggle against the Turks. Heavily taxed and badly administered under the Ottoman Empire, in 1859, people's representatives in both Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same "Domnitor" (ruling Prince of the Romanians): Alexandru Ioan Cuza.

Thus, Romania was created as a personal union albeit that did not include Transylvania, where the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian, although Romanian nationalist spirit inevitably ran up against the Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the territory firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a vast majority.

Alexandru Ioan Cuza

Independence and Kingdom of Romania In an 1866 coup d'état, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of HohenzollernSigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. He was appointed Domnitor Ruling Prince of the United Principality of Romania, as Prince Carol of Romania.

Romania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78 in which she fought on the Russian side.

In the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was finally officially recognized as anindependent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded the district of Bassarabia to Russia "in exchange" for the access to the ports on the Black Sea shore, and acquired Dobruja.

In 1881, the Romanian principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became on the 26 of March King Carol I of Romania.

The 1878–1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece,Serbia and Montenegro against Bulgaria.

In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilater, the Durostor and Caliacra counties.

Peleş Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs

Carol I of Romania

World War I (1916–1918) Territories inhabited by Romanians before WWI.

The new state, squeezed between the great powers of the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires, looked to the West, particularly France, for its cultural, educational, military and administrative models. In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the Entente side, after the Entente agreed to recognize Romanian rights over Transylvania, which was part of Austria-Hungary until that time.

In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.

The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917. In May 1918, Romania was in no position to continue the war, and negotiated a peace treaty with Germany (see Treaty of Bucharest, 1918).

In October 1918, Romania joined the war again and by the end of the war, the AustroHungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated. Governing bodies created by the Romanians of Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina chose union with the Kingdom of Romania, resulting in Greater Romania. Since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed,Bassarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918.

By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovinawas ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bassarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.

Romanian troops at Marasesti battlefield in1917

Greater Romania (1918–1940) Great Romania (1920 - 1940)

The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time. Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km 2 or 120,000 sq mi), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.

Historically, Greater Romania—România Mare—represented one of the ideals of Romanian nationalism. Greater Romania is still seen by many as a "paradise lost", often by comparison with the "stunted" Communist Romania. To exploit the nationalistic connotation of the term, a nationalist political party uses it as its name.

In 1918, at the end of World War I, Transylvania and Bessarabia united with the Romanian Old Kingdom. The Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania voted to unite their region by the Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia. Bessarabia, having declared its independence from Russia in 1917 by the Conference of the Country (Sfatul Țării), called in Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks who were spreading the Russian Revolution.

The union of the regions of Transylvania, Maramureș, Crișana and Banat with the Old Kingdom of Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon, which recognised the sovereignty of Romania over these regions and settled the border between the independent Republic of Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania. The union of Bucovina and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles. Romania had also recently acquired the Southern Dobruja territory called "The Quadrilateral" from Bulgaria as a result of its participation in the Second Balkan War in 1913.

Proclamation of Union between Transylvania and Romania

The Union of 1918 united most regions with clear Romanian majorities into the boundaries of a single state.

However, it also led to the inclusion of various sizable minorities, including Magyars (ethnic Hungarians), Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, Bulgarians, etc., for a total of about 28% of the population (Magyars mostly in Transylvania; Germans in Transylvania, Bukovina, and Banat; Ukrainians in part of Bessarabia and Bukovina, Bulgarians in Dobrudja).

Recognized by the Romanian Constitution of 1923 and supported by various laws (education, electoral, etc.), national minorities were represented in Parliament, and several of them created national parties (the Magyars in 1922, the Germans in 1929, the Jews in 1931), although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on 1 December 1918 were not fulfilled.

Transition to authoritarian rule Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars. From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a liberal constitutional monarchy, but one facing the rise of the nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937. From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship. The first dictator was King Carol II, who abolished the parliamentary regime and ruled with his camarilla.

In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, amongst other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. Following the severe territorial losses of 1940 (see next section), Carol was forced to abdicate, replaced as king by his son Mihai, but the power was taken by the military dictator Ion Antonescu (initially in conjunction with the Iron Guard). In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai.

World War II and aftermath (1940–1947) Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and pink indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.

During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28, 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of noncompliance. Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in

combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration.

In 1940, Romania lost territory in both east and west: In June 1940, after receiving an ultimatum from the Soviet Union, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (see Soviet occupation of Bessarabia). Two thirds of Bessarabia were combined with a small part of the USSR to form the Moldavian SSR. Northern Bukovina and Budjak were apportioned to the Ukrainian SSR. In August 1940, Northern Transylvania was awarded to Hungary

by Germany and Italy through the Second Vienna Award. Southern Dobruja was also lost to Bulgaria shortly after Carol's abdication.

Because Carol II lost so much territory through failed diplomacy, the army supported seizure of power by General Ion Antonescu. For four months (the period of the National Legionary State), he had to share power with the Iron Guard, but the latter overplayed their hand in January 1941 and were suppressed. Romania entered World War II under the command of the German Wehrmacht in June 1941, declaring war to the Soviet Union in order to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Romania was awarded the territory between Dniester and the Southern Bug by Germany to administer it under the name of Transnistria.

Romania's borders during World War II (1941-1944)

The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescuand the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, prompting multiple bombing raidsby the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bassarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu.

The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.

According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, Antonescu's dictatorial government of Romania is responsible for the murder in various forms including deportations to concentration camps and executions by the Romanian Army and Gendarmerie and the German Einsatzgruppen of some 280,000 to 380,000 Jews on Romanian territories and in the war zone of Bassarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria.

A map of Romania after WWII.

On 20 August 1944 the Soviet Red Army crossed the border into Romania. On 23 August 1944 Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania who joined the Allies and declared war on Germany. On 31 August 1944 the Soviet Red Army entered Bucharest.

Despite Romania`s change of sides its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947.

With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. Romania suffered additional heavy casualties fighting the Nazis in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered almost 300,000 casualties.

The Paris Peace Treaty at the end of World War II rendered the Vienna Awards void: Northern Transylvania returned to Romania, but Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and southern Dobruja were not recovered. The Moldavian-SSR became independent of the Soviet Union only with the latter's 1991 demise and turned into the Republic of Moldova.

Communist period (1947–1989) In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed arepublic, and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.

Soviet occupation following World War II led to the formation of a communist People's Republic in 1947, and the abdication of King Michael, who went into exile. The leader of Romania from 1948 to his death in 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the First Secretary of the Romanian Workers' Party, who first sowed the seeds of greater independence from the Soviet Union by persuading Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev to withdraw troops from Romania in April 1958.

Nicolae Ceauşescu condemning the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968

After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae Ceauşescu, started to pursue independent policies, including the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (Romania being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), and the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany. Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel.

Nicolae Ceaușescu As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF and the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae Ceauşescu's autarchic policies.

Ceauşescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority of the police state and imposed a cult of personality. These led to a dramatic decrease in Ceauşescu's popularity and culminated in his overthrow and execution in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.

Seduced by Ceauşescu's "Independent" foreign policy, Western leaders were slow to turn against a regime that, by the late 1970s, had become increasingly arbitrary, capricious and harsh. Rapid economic growth fueled by foreign credits gradually gave way to wrenching austerity General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party and severe political repression, which became increasingly draconian through the 1980s. During the 1947–1962 period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported persons, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees.

There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Between 60,000and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by doctors. It is estimated that, in total, two million people were direct victims of Communist repression in Romania.

Standard as President of Romania in Communist

1989 Revolution The Romanian Revolution of 1989 resulted in more than 1,000 deaths in Timişoara and Bucharest, and brought about the fall of Ceauşescu and the end of the Communist regime in Romania. After a weeklong state of unrest in Timişoara, a mass rally summoned in Bucharest in support of Ceauşescu on December 21, 1989 turned hostile. The Ceauşescu couple, fleeing Bucharest by helicopter, ended up in the custody of the army.

After being tried and convicted by a kangaroo court for genocide and other crimes, they were executed on December 25, 1989. The events of this revolution remain to this day a matter of debate, with many conflicting theories as to the motivations and even actions of some of the main players.

Romanian Revolution Part of the Revolutions of 1989

Demonstrators and army vehicles in Bucharest

Ion Iliescu, a former Communist Party official marginalized by Ceauşescu, attained national recognition as the leader of an impromptu governing coalition, the National Salvation

Front (FSN) that proclaimed the restoration of democracy and civil liberties on December 22, 1989. The Communist Party was initially outlawed by Ion Iliescu, but he soon revoked that decision; as a consequence, Communism is not outlawed in Romania today. However, CeauĹ&#x;escu's most controversial measures, such as bans on abortion and contraception, were among the first laws to be changed after the Revolution, and their legality has not been widely questioned since then.

Transition of to free market (1990-2004) After the fall of CeauĹ&#x;escu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, took partial multi-party democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNŢCD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began inUniversity Square, Bucharest.

The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence, with some of

the protesters attacking the police headquarters, national television station, and the Foreign Ministry.

After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest.Various worker groups from Romania's industrial platforms responded, some of whom engaged in altercations with the protesters. But the most visible and politically influential were the coal miners of the Jiu Valley.

After representatives of the government met with leaders of the Jiu Valley coal miners union, thousands of miners were organized and arrived in Bucharest June 14.

Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on May 20, 1990. Running against representatives of the re-established pre-war National Peasants' Party and National Liberal Party, and taking advantage of FSN's tight control of the national radio and television, Iliescu won 85% of the vote. The FSN secured two-thirds of the seats in Parliament. A university professor with strong family roots in the Communist Party, Petre Roman, was named prime minister of the new government, which consisted mainly of former communist officials. The government initiated modest free market reforms.

Ion Iliescu

Because the majority of ministers in the Petre Roman government were ex-communists, anti-communist protesters initiated a round-the-clock anti-government demonstration in University Square, Bucharest in April 1990. Two months later, these protesters, whom the government referred to as "hooligans", were brutally dispersed by the miners from Jiu Valley, called in by President Iliescu; this event became known as the mineriad (see June 1990 Mineriad). The facts surrounding these events are disputed by the miners, who claim that most of the violence was perpetrated by government agents that were agitating the crowds.

Some of the counter-protesters also attacked the headquarters and private residences of opposition leaders. Later Parliamentary inquiries showed that members of the government intelligence services were involved in the instigation and manipulation of both the protesters and the miners, and in June 1994 a Bucharest court found two former Securitate officers guilty of ransacking and stealing $100,000 from the house of a leading opposition politician. Petre Roman's government fell in late September 1991, when the miners returned to Bucharest to demand higher salaries. A technocrat, Theodor Stolojan, was appointed to head an interim government until new elections could be held.

New constitution In December 1991, a new constitution was drafted and subsequently adopted, after a popular referendum, which, however, attracted criticism from international observers who accused the government of manipulating the population and even of outright fraud. (The constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on October 18–19, 2003, again plagued by fraud accusations made by internal and international observers.) The new constitution, which took effect October 29, 2003, follows the structure of the Constitution of 1991, but makes significant revisions, among which the most significant are extension of the presidential mandate from four years to five, and the guaranteed protection of private property.

March 1992 marked the split of the FSN into two groups: the Democratic National Front (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the Democratic Party (PD), led by Petre Roman. Iliescu won the presidential elections in September 1992 by a clear margin, and his FDSN won the general elections held at the same time. With parliamentary support from the nationalist PUNR (National Unity Party of Romanians), PRM (Great Romania Party), and the ex-communist PSM (Socialist Workers' Party), a new government was formed in November 1992 under Prime Minister Nicolae Văcăroiu, an economist. The FDSN changed its name to Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) in July 1993.

The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since

then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian Băsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.

Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention (CDR) emerged as the winner of the second round of the 1996 presidential elections and replaced Iliescu as chief of state. The PDSR won the largest number of seats in Parliament, but was unable to form a viable coalition. Constituent parties of the CDR joined the Democratic Party (PD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania (UDMR) to form a centrist coalition government, holding 60% of the seats in Parliament.

Emil Constantinescu

This coalition of sorts frequently struggled for survival, as decisions were often delayed by long periods of negotiations among the involved parties.

Nevertheless, this coalition was able to implement several critical reforms. The new coalition 3rd President of Romania government, under prime minister Victor Ciorbea remained in office until March 1998, when Radu Vasile (PNŢCD) took over as prime minister. The former governor of the National Bank, Mugur Isărescu, eventually replaced Radu Vasile as head of the government.

The 2000 elections, brought Iliescu's PDSR, known as Social Democratic Party (PSD) after the merger with the PSDR, back to power. Iliescu won a third term as the country's president. Adrian Năstase became the prime minister of the newly formed government.

Adrian Năstase

Mugur Isărescu

European Union membership (2004- present) Presidential and parliamentary elections took place again on November 28, 2004. No political party was able to secure a viable parliamentary majority and opposition parties alike that the PSD had committed large-scale electoral fraud There was no winner in the first round of the presidential elections. The joint PNL-PD candidate, Traian Băsescu, won the second round on December 12, 2004 with 51% of the vote and thus became the third post-revolutionary president of Romania.

The PNL leader, Călin Popescu Tăriceanu was assigned the difficult task of building a coalition government without including the PSD. In December 2004, the new coalition government (PD, PNL, PUR Romanian Humanist Party - which eventually changed its name to Romanian Conservative Party and UDMR), was sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu.

Traian Băsescu Post–Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.

Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora. The main emigration targets are Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, UK, Canada and the USA.

Romania joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 2004, and the European Union, alongside Bulgaria, on January 1, 2007.

In April 2008, Bucharest hosted the NATO summit.

In January 2012, Romania started the first large national protests since '89, motivated by the global economical crisis of that time and as an answer to the crisis situations and unrest in Europe of 2000s.

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HISTORY OF SPAIN

Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the Peninsula came under the rule of Rome. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the Peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe and the leading world power for a century and a half and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.

Continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, whose rule oversaw a period of stagnation but that finished with a powerful economic surge. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.

"Regnorum Hispaniae nova descriptio". 1631. Willem Blaeu. (casareal.es)

Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago.

Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The two main historical peoples of the Peninsula were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited the Atlantic side, in the north, center (Celtiberian), northwest and southwest part of the Peninsula.

Western Mediterranean 509 B.C (ccssloranca.files.wordpress.com)

Phoenicians and Greeks is documented by Strabo and the Book of Solomon. Between about 800 BCE and 300 BCE, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. The Carthaginians briefly exerted control over much of the Mediterranean side of the Peninsula, until defeated in the Punic Wars by the Romans.

Roman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom During the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Empire captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania.

Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century of the Template Common Era and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.

The weakening of the cWestern Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year.

The Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Duero river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name –Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.

Muslim Iberia In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.

CĂłrdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture.

In the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories.

Fall of Muslim rule and unification The Reconquista ("Reconquest") was the centuries-long period of expansion of Iberia's Christian kingdoms. The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.

The year 1492 also marked the arrival in the New World of Cristopher Columbus, during a voyage funded by Isabel. As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms. With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first worl power.

Imperial Spain The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language. Spain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs – Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598).

This period saw the Italians Wars, the revolt of the comuneros, the Dutch revolt, the Morisco revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish war and wars with France.

The Spanish Empire expanded to include great parts of the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It was the first empire of which it was said that the sun never set.

In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual relative decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.

The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire.

The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy.

Napoleonic rule and its consequences In 1807, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and the deeply unpopular Godoy led to a declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the kingdom unopposed, supposedly to invade Portugal, but instead they occupied Spanish fortresses. This invasion by trickery led to the abdication of the ridiculed Spanish king in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

The 2nd May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings against the Bonapartist regime across the country. These revolts marked the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly coordinated

Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish guerrillas and armies, and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from the Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII. Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War (1936–39) ensued. Three years later the rebel Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious with the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

The Republican side was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades, but it was not supported officially by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of NonIntervention.

The Civil War claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens. Most of their descendants now live in Latin American countries, with some 300,000 in Argentina alone.

Spain under Franco After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the U.S. to establish a military presence on the Iberian peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth in what became known as the Spanish miracle, which resumed the much interrupted transition towards a modern economy.

Post-Franco With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.

On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. In 1986 Spain joined the European Community, which later became the European Union.

HISTORY OF EXTREMADURA Prehistory Cave Dwellers : the earliest evidence of human presence in Extremadura is found at the prehistoric cave of Maltravieso, containing paintings dated by paleontologists at approximately 30,000 B.C. Depicted in these paintings are hands missing the little finger, leading some to link this to some sort of magical religious rite.

Prehistoric Tribes: before the arrival of the Romans, Extremadura was inhabited by four principal tribes: from the Tagus River northward, the Vetonians; from the southern border to the Guadiana River, the Turdetanians; in the central zone, the Lusitanians; and in the Western strip (near presentday Badajoz), the Celts.

Dating from the Iron Age there are other castros generally built on top of hills or high plains. The inhabitants of Extremadura during this time seem to have lived primarily from raising livestock, mostly cattle, goats, sheep and pigs. Land apparently belonged jointly to tribal groups, with the women responsible for the cultivation of crops such as wheat, olives, and grapes. The men dedicated their time to hunting and to defending their people against attacks. There appears to have been some mining as well as some commerical interchange with the Phoenicians. There have also been found some artifacts of Carthaginian and of Greek origin, although not significant enough to lead one to conclude these colonizers made it to Extremadura. From this period, as well, there is evidence of much religious activity, denoted by cave paintings, magical rites, and special burial ceremonies.

Roman Age Extremadura first came into contact with Roman civilization between the years 155 and 152 B.C. when the local Lusitananians and Vetonians began to defend themselves against Roman invasions.

The real establishment of Roman society in all of the province of Lusitania (including what is now Extremadura) began in the the year 25 B.C. with the founding of the city Emérita Augusta (Mérida), built as a home base for the Roman legions VAlauda and X Gémina, who had fought against the Asturs and Cantabrians in the north of the peninsula. In a short time, Mérida came to be the most important Roman city of the Iberian peninsula, and the 8th most important in all of the empire.

An important point along the Vía de la Plata, the Roman highway which joined Asturias to Andalusia, was the magnificent bridge which crossed the Guadiana River at Mérida.

“Via de la Plata” the Roman Highway. (www.lugaresconencanto.org) Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, the history of Extremadura can be broken down into three main periods: a) Barbaric Peoples b) Arab Conquest c) Christian Reconquest

The Occupation by the Barbaric People With the invasion of the Barbaric tribes came the loss of influence of many of the Roman cities, (with the exception of Mérida, which continued on as the regional capital) and the increasing ruralization of Extremadura. The continued cultural importance of Mérida is evidenced in its election as the seat of the Archbishopric of Spain. The archbishop Masona was elected by the Fathers of the Spanish church to preside the Third Council of Toledo, in which the Visigothic king Reccared officially renounced his loyalty to Arianism and converted to Catholicism. As a result, there was an increased merging of hispano-roman and visigothic cultures.

The Conquest and Domination of the Arabs In the year 713, Mérida fell captive to the advancing army of the Arab general, Muza. From this time, on several occasion the Berbers who settled in Mérida, as well as the remaining Christians, attempted uprisings against the Emirate of Córdoba, but were eventually put down. In 855, when Mérida is defeated by the forces of Mohammed I, that the population of Mérida looks to the protection of Abderramán-ibm-Meruvan, who had established himself in the then small village of Badajoz. In the following years as Meruvan gained in power, Badajoz gained in significance and prestige, surpassing the importance of Mérida in the region. In the year 930, Mérida and Badajoz were named as capitals of two separate provinces.

The Christian Reconquest In 1142 Alfonso VII reconquered Coria and initiated the great Christian advance in Extremadura.

During succeeding years, various cities and fortresses in the region changed hands back and forth between Christian and Muslim forces. During the years 1218-1230, important Christian gains were made under the reign of Alfonso IX and the contribution of the military orders of Alcántara and Calatrava.

Soldier from “Orden de Calatrava” (www.todoavante.es)

Conquistadors Land of the Conquistadors Extremadura was the cradle of the world's most famous discoverers and explorers of the New World. Without the aid of modern communication, traveling mostly on foot in heavy medieval armour, these men blazed the first trails across the New World. Here is a list of some of their discoveries and explorations:

Land of Conquistadors Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Mississippi River

Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas

Hernando de Soto

and Louisiana Pacific Ocean

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Aztec Empire

Hernán Cortés

Inca Empire Peru

Francisco Pizarro

Amazon River

Francisco de Orellana

During the Spanish conquest of America, the vast majority of the most famous conquistadores were born in Extremadura. These include among others, Cortés, Pizarro, Orellana, Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Hernando de Soto, Alvarado, and Valdivia. The rationale given to explain the participation of so many Extremadurans in the conquest of America is in part the relative economic privation of the region and the dream of finding riches in the fabled El Dorado Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541).

Conquerer of Peru.

During the modern and contemporary eras Extremadura was affected by two principal factors: the consequences of the medieval Reconquest and its setting along the border with Portugal. On the heels of the Reconquest, the land in Extremadura was divided between the military orders, and the various royalty and aristocracy. The common people were considered as vassals of one of these three groups. At the same time, the border with Portugal led to Extremadura being the scene of continual pillaging and at times to open war with the Spanish ruling forces. These conflicts include the fighting related to the ascendancy of Isabella to the throne of Castille, the armed intervention accompanying the pretension of Spanish king Felipe II to the Portuguese crown, the almost three decade long War of Restoration fought from 1640 to 1668, and at the beginning of the 18th century the War of Spanish Succession.

1

Finnish history The Swedish Empire 1249-1809 The middle ages in Finland began after the Iron Age during the crusades in the 12th century. The campaigns organized by the king of Sweden connected Finland to Sweden for almost 600 years. The Middle Ages brought religion and signs of power to Finland. The crown built castles and the religious people built castles for their god. The role of the bishop was rising as a leader and a tax collector.

Reformation 1527 The reformation in Finland was done by Mikael Agricola and Paavali Juusten. Its most central principles were the teaching of the Christian religion in Finnish and Mikael Agricola started to make the written language of Finnish. A church service with the people's mother tongue has not been recorded in any other way other than in Paavali Juusten's memory.

In the Middle Ages Finland was the battlefield of the east and west.

The divided church, the Orthodoxies and the Catholics of the west fought long for the bordering areas of their countries.

Finland's part of the war was agreed in peace treaty of Pähkinäsaari 1323.

The western people of Karelia and the people of Savo came to the western church's sphere of influence, when the area of Laatokka was left to be the Orthodox Church’s support area.

2 The Cudgel War 1596-1597 Cudgel War was Finnish peasants’ rebel against the nobility. The war ended horribly. Over 3000 of peasants died. One famous person of the Cudgel War was Jaakko Ilkka. He was a rich man and he started the first conflict of the Cudgel War.

Russian Grand Duchy 1809—1917 The estate society

The huge famine 1695-1697 One third of Finns died. The frost took the harvest, potatoes and root vegetables rotted to the fields, and lots of people got sick.

In the 1800's in Finland there were four estates; nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and peasantry; people had rights and duties according to which estate he belonged to.

In Finland about 70% of the people didn’t belong to any estate in the 1800's.

Finnish war 1808-1809 French Emperor Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I agreed in Tilsit in 1807 to put pressure on Sweden to join continent trade embargo, which was directed against England. When Sweden would not be persuaded, Russia began military operations against Sweden at the end of February 1808. The army proceeded to Southern Finland without significant resistance. The war continued in the central and in the northern parts of Finland further into the next year. The poorly led Swedish-Finnish army’s military actions brought, despite some winning battles, a loss. Finland became a part of Russia in the peace treaty of Hamina on the seventeenth of September 1809.

3 Autonomy becomes true 1855 - 1891

Porvoo’s parliament 1809 During the war the emperor of Russia Alexander I invited the parliament to Porvoo. The members of the four estates swore loyalty to the emperor and the emperor gave sovereign insurance, where he promised that Finnish people could have their own religion and their own constitution. A major change to the earlier governmental position was that Finland was given autonomy. A new period began in the Finnish history.

Alexander II’s rise to the emperor started a new season in Finland. Finland got own stamps (1856) and money (1860). The first railway from Helsinki to Hämeenlinna finished in 1862. The Finnish language became an official management and trial language. The parliament of estate gathered in 1863. An extensive economic and societal renewal started in Finland which continued over two decades.

4

Independence 1917 The First World War and the Russian revolution made the independence of Finland possible.

Finland became independent on the sixth of December 1917.

Finland's Independence

Finland became independent on the 6th of December in 1917. Finland was meant to be a kingdom. Finnish people wanted a king from Germany. His name was Friedrich Karl, but he gave up the crown and never came to Finland.

The war had its price. The “whites” lost an estimated amount of 3100 men and the “reds” 3600. The “reds” had killed 1649 “whites” outside of the war.

Kingdom or republic?

The Independent Finland was meant to be republic but the experiences of the civil war supported the monarchists. The socialists who joined the rebellion lacked from parliament, and the monarchists wanted Finland to become a kingdom. As a consequence of Germany being defeated in the war, Finland didn’t become a kingdom. The first president of the republic was K.J Ståhlberg.

Winter war 1939

Civil war 1918 In January 1918, there began a civil war in Finland. The worker class in Finland, the so called “reds” started the revolution.

And the opposite side the "whites”, led

by Regent Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim, announced themselves as the official army. The war lasted for four months and ended in the victory of the “whites” in May 1918.

Finland got in to the Soviet Union’s front lines during the non-aggression pact. In October Moscow invited Finland to the negotiations, where Finland was asked to give away territories to Soviet Union.

Because Finland didn’t agree, Soviet Union started a war by opening fire at Kannas and bombing Helsinki. Finland was supported by many matters against the enemy in the war. Finland’s advances were cold winter and the ability to use the terrain. Despite some great victories, Finland had to lose to Soviet Union and give up big territories.

5 Continuation war 1941 Germany started an attack against the Soviet Union on the twenty-second of June 1941. Finns neither wanted to show as attacker nor Germany’s confederate.

The goal of the war was to get Karelia back.

Finland had to cut off all the relationships to Germany and the Germans had to leave the country. When the Germans left, they burnt almost the whole Lapland. Finland lost 10% of their territories because the Soviet Union wanted more area from Finland.

Soviet Union started a big attack on Karelia on the ninth of June 1944. 11 days later Finland lost Vyborg. President Ryti got help from Germany and things started to get better but Germans would help only if Finland didn’t make a peace treaty with the Soviet Union.

Moscow’s truce was concluded in the beginning of September and its conditions were confirmed in Paris 1947.

Lapland War The Lapland War was a war between Finland and Germany from September 1944 to April 1945. Finns had to drive the Germans away from Finland by 15th September. The Germans were still in Northern Finland that day so Finns started a war. The Germans started to destroy Lapland. The worst part was already over in November 1944 but the rest of the Germans left Finland in April 1945.

Finland had to pay 600 million dollars as war indemnity in six years. Later they dropped the amount of the indemnities lower, but the amount rose to the original in 1952. The indemnities were paid fully in 1952.

6 From YYA-Treaty European Union

to

the

After the war Juho Kusti Paasikivi was chosen as president after Mannerheim 1946. He created a new political line in the difficult situation with respect to the USSR. It was called the Line of Paasikivi.

The Soviet Union came down at the beginning of 1990. In 1995 Finland became a member of the European Union after the new president Martti Ahtisaari was elected.

Immigration

National self-confidence was improved especially with the Olympics of Helsinki.

Finland became a member of the United Nations and the Nordic Council.

Immigrants have left to the USA, Australia and Russia from Finland. An important immigration started in the 1860s and continued till the 1930s, the Finnish moved abroad a lot, about 12 00014 000 people every year.

Economic growth has been fast until the beginning of the 1990s. The biggest reason for the growth was business with the Soviet Union. Finland became a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 1961.

Finland’s long-term president Urho Kekkonen resigned his position as a president in autumn 1982.

In 1982 Prime Minister Mauno Koivisto was chosen president.

In 2011 immigrants have come to Finland from Russia, Somalia, China, India and USA. Since 1980 there have been more movers to Finland than leavers. In 1969 and 1970 the emigration was so fast that the Finnish population dropped. The move from Finland to Sweden grew very much after the Second World War. Shortage of labor in Sweden was reason for immigration.

7 The Success Finland

Stories

of

Finland is a rather small country with just a few actual Finnish companies, but still some of them have gained popularity worldwide. These companies include the famous ex-leading telephone company Nokia, Rovio (the company behind Angry Birds), Marimekko (a Finnish fashion design company), Supercell (the company behind Clash of Clans and Hay Day), Hesburger (a Finnish fast-food company that currently has stores in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, and is planned to open in Poland and Brazil).

8

Finnish Presidents 1919-1925 Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg was a Finnish jurist and academic, who played a central role in the drafting of the Constitution of Finland in 1919. He was the first President of Finland (1919–1925) and a nationalist liberal.

1925–1931 Lauri Kristian Relander Lauri Kristian Relander was the second President of Finland. A Prominent member of the Agrarian League, he served as a member of Parliament, and as Speaker, before his election as President.

1931-1937 Pehr Evind Svinhufvud Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was the first Head of State of independent Finland 1918 and third President of Finland from 1931 to 1937. Serving as a lawyer, judge, and politician in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, he played a major role in the movement for Finnish independence.

9

1937-1940 Kyรถsti Kallio Kyรถsti Kallio was the fourth President of Finland. He was a prominent leader of the Agrarian League, and served as Prime Minister four times and Speaker of the Parliament six times.

1940-1944 Risto Heikki Ryti Risto Heikki Ryti was the fifth President of Finland, from 1940 to 1944. Ryti started his career as a politician in the field of economics and as a political background figure during the interwar period.

1944-1946 Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was a Finnish military leader and statesman. Mannerheim served as the military leader of the Whites in the Finnish Civil War, Regent of Finland, Commander In-Chief of Finland's Defense during World War II, and the sixth President of Finland.

10

1946-1956 Juho Kusti Paasikivi Juho Kusti Paasikivi was the seventh President of Finland.

Representing the Finnish Party and the National Coalition Party, he also served as Prime Minister of Finland and was generally an influential figure in Finnish economics and politics for over fifty years.

1956-1982 Urho Kaleva Kekkonen Urho Kaleva Kekkonen was a Finnish politician who served as Prime Minister of Finland and later as the eighth and longestserving President of Finland. Kekkonen continued the “active neutrality” policy of his predecessor President Juho Kusti Paasikivi, a doctrine that came to be known as the “Paasikivi– Kekkonen line”, under which Finland retained its independence while maintaining extensive trade with both NATO members as well as those of the Warsaw Pact.

1982-1994 Mauno Henrik Koivisto Mauno Henrik Koivisto is a Finnish politician who served as the ninth President of Finland from 1982 to 1994. He also served as Prime Minister 1968–1970 and 1979–1982. He was the first Social Democrat to be elected as President.

11

1994-2000 Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari is a Finnish politician, the tenth President of Finland, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and United Nations diplomat and mediator, noted for his international peace work.

2000-2012 Tarja Kaarina Halonen Tarja Kaarina Halonen is a Finnish politician who was the 11th President of Finland, serving from 2000 to 2012. The first female head of state in Finland, Halonen had previously held two appointments as a minister and served as a member of the parliament from 1979 to 2000 until her election to the presidency.

2012Sauli Väinämö Niinistö Sauli Väinämö Niinistö is the 12th and current President of Finland, in office since 2012. A lawyer by education, Niinistö was Minister of Finance from 1996 to 2003 and the National Coalition Party candidate in the 2006 presidential election.

ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATION HITTIES Hitties who spoke a language which is a kind of Indo-europan language family, ruled Anatolia for a long time and introduced themselves finely through their specific lifestyles. There are some arguments about their origin of place. Some says they come from Thrace, Caucasus. Their first settlement is HattuĹ&#x;a which was near Middle Anatolia, Çorum. This place is the capital of state. They govern the country between 1450-1200 BC. Their language is the first known language in Indo-Europe language family. They used another language in their formal writing. They wrote on clay tablets. Today the writings on the surface of the rocks which can be found almost everywhere in Anatolia is hieroglyph alphabet. . The first treatment in history is Kades treatment which was signed by Hitties and Egypt (Ramses II). There are a lot of stone memorials and a variety of clay tablets with pictograms in Anatolia.

Hitite rock Sculpture

PHRYGIANS

Vase of Phrigians

Sard City The kingdom was settled in Middle Anatolia between 750-300 BC. They came from Europe in 1200 through straits to Anatolia. They battled with Assur long years. When Midas was the king it was their golden age, their most productive eras in art and commerce. They were polytheist. Their famous god is mother god Kbele. They made progress on weaving, woodworking and mining. They had unique style. Phrygians gave importance on agriculture and made laws on it. For example the penalty of killing an ox or breaking cultivator is death.

URARTIANS The kingdom was established on the east side of Anatolia. At first they were living dispersed confederation then they came together and became stronger. Owing to using metallic weapons their military success got power. They battled with Assur, Meds who ruled over Persia and Scythians coming from Caucasia. It was Meds who put an end to the presence of Urartians.

LYIANS They made history with inventing money and using it. They ruled West Anatolia and Antalya. They are also knows by their famous “king way”. Lydians adored Sun and Moon gods. Their capital city was Sard. The remains are in Manisa, Salihli in Turkey now. They were destroyed by Meds Lydians money

IONIA

Efesos

They were settled down İzmir and Büyük Menderes area. They lived as city- state which is called as “polis”. The basic city states are Smyrna, Phocaean, Ephesus, Mylet. These city states could not unite because of the commerce and the keenness of liberty but they had got the union of culture due to their belief. They got a wide web of commerce thanks to their commerce colonies settled on the coast of Mediterranean. Thales, Psagor, Diogenes and Homerros are the famous Ionian scholars. . Artemis temple which is one of the 7 wonders of the world and Apollon temple belong to Ionians. They were destroyed by Persians.

ROMANS

They were expanded over time and taken into Anatolia, Syria, Palestine. Romans maintained their domination over Anatolia for a long time due to inclusion of Palestine after the separation the east part continued its presence as Byzantion Empire. There are lots of remains of Romans in many parts of Anatolia. A lot of coins and items used in daily life are found and protected.

Aspendos Theatre in Antalya

BYZANTION After the split of the Roman Empire in 395 Eastern Roman Empire began to be called as this name. Tey reigned a long period of time until 1453. Te capital city was Constantinople (Istanbul). The Hrakleios, Isavria, Makedonia, Dukases, Kommenoses families were in the state administration for a long time. Byzantion Empire who ruled 1000 years has taken its place thanks to the contribution and giving value to science and art. The most outstanding work of art in Bzyantion is Saint Sophia. This temple was used as church for 1000 years, used as mosque for 500 years and now this is a museum.

Istanbul which was the capital city of Roman Empire was the largest city of world. This city could only be compared with Bagdath. Fine arts were developed there. Istanbul impressed everybody with its spectacular palaces, high churches, hippodromes, walls, obelisks, wealth and crowd.

Saint Sofia

Aqueduct In Istanbul Writen By Mr Rahim Ă–ZKAYA Mrs. Fatma KORAĹž

ANCIENT TURKISH Central Asia is not well known wherefore it can not be documented before the Great Migrations (5000 BC) which happened as a result of drought.

Migrations caused to the development of world civilization and the formation of a new culture. But we have not got precise information about the people left in the area.

After the migration the first known place where Turks lived is Siberian forests. After battling with the hard conditions of nature thousands of years in that area, they moved as they grew. Some qualities that Turks had via this battles are understood better as they began to appear on the stage of history.

Turks began to appear on the stage of history when they came Otuken Valley ( between Orkhon River and the Tian Shan Mountains). Great Hun Empire is the first known Turkish state. Hun means “people” in Turkish. The founder of the state is Hiung-Nu in Chinese documents but historians are agree on the idea that he is Teoman.

Some of historians think the foundation is 13. decate BC but according to the first written document which is a treaty in 318 BC and Chinese emperorŞi Huangdi made Great Wall built to be protected from Turks between 247210 BC. Both the treaty and the date of building of Great Wall of China show that Huns had been living in that area before 300BC. The founder of the emperor was Teoman and his succesor Mete (210-174 BC) turn the state into an empire.

Kül Tiğin

Acoording to Chinese records the era when the son of Mete Kiyük (or Lao-Şang 174-161 BC) was emperor they went on growing through both west and South. They dominated various tribes that lived in Central Asia. Empire became almost like a mixture of peoples.

As a people, Turks made history with their best training, best mining, friendly behaviour in time of peace and harsh behavior in time of war.

During this period, another Turkish tribe Göktürks who used “Turk” in the name of state began to establish their state in 552 years .

The first Turkish tablet which exists in Mogul today is Orhun Tablet

As it was mentioned before Turks did not discriminate their peoples and this is their state approach. They apply the same law to everyone. They protect their peoples’ identity and did not exploit them. On the contrary, they tried to help them. Turks behaved well the people whom They thought a friend. According to Jean Paul Roux'y (p.27), tolerant behavior of the Turks is one of the most important services they make to world civilization.

As a people, Turks made history with their best training, best mining, friendly behaviour in time of peace and harsh behavior in time of war.

TABGACS The era When Attila was at Hungary, Tabgacs which is a branch of the Turks, directed towards south China. They became dominant in China between 386552 . The Turks marked themselves so deep that Arabs and the Middle Age Greeks called this place as the land of Turks.

SELJUKS EMPİRE

Sultan Alparslan

Seljuks who came from middle East to Anatolia was an Empire that spread over Afghanistan, Iran, Anatolia and Arabistan. In 1071, with the war which took place in Malazgirt, they settled in Anatolia. Long years they fought against Moguls. After their collapse, Anatolian Seljuks got the soverignty. They also fought against Moguls long years.

Because of internal problems the empire diveded into small beyliks (small pieces). Karamanoğlu Beylik and Otoman Empire was the longest of those pieces. The capital city of Karamanoğlu was Karaman and it was conquered by Fatih Sultan Mehmet in 1468.

OTTOMAN EMPİRE

Selimiye Mosque - Edirne Archihtecture Mr. Mimar Sinan

Mostar Bridge - Bosnia Herzegovina

Otoman Empire was founded in 1299. By expanding their territories they became a big empire on Asia, Euro and Africa. They lived such a long time as 600 years. Especially in Balkans, İstanbul, Bursa and Edirne they left wonderful historic buildings and beauties. After Treaty of Sevres, Ottoman Empire was already passed away. As a result of I. World War and the Treaty of Serves, our lands were invaded. Turkish nation launched the Independence War with the leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and they got the success and they founded the Turkish Republic in 1923.

Writen By Mr. Ahmet AYDIN Mrs. Selcan BAĞCI

HISTORY OF TURKISH REPUBLIC

Before Turkısh Republic, there was again another Turkish state on Anatolia, Ottoman Empire. This empire was built in 1299 in Söğüt, Bilecik by Osman Gazi. He gave his name to the state. This empire governed between 1299 and 1922, at brightest times Ottoman dominated three continents. Since Ottoman empire did not discriminate people according to their languages, nationalities, religions they could succeed to govern lots of states. This is the secret of survival for many years. Due to Fatih Sultan Mehmet conquered İstanbul Middle Age was over and New era is started. Sultan Süleyman (Süleyman the Magnificent) period was the time the empire reached the summit of power. After this period, the empire started standstill and decline period. The Ottoman Empire was unable to follow the innovations and developments in the world and French Revolution in 1789 along with the spread of nationalism, lots of states proclaimed their independence . All of these caused Ottoman Empire decline.

During the World war I Ottoman Empire allied with Germany to reach its former power but was defeated in 1918. After this time, the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by the Allied Powers.

Turkish Parlament opened in 23th April 1920

After all of these in 1919-1922 under the leadership of great leader Mustafa Kemal who was a young soldier in that time, people battled with strong enemy states such as England, France, Italy and Greece. It was called Independence War. This battle stopped by a ceasefire agreement in 1922 and finished with a peace treaty in 1923.

1914 and 1922 was the hardest times for us, we fighted to survive. Unlike other countries, Turkish people lost lots of people who was well educated while battling. Now we feel and understand what it means. İn 1922 sultanate was abolished and Ottoman Empire formally ended then under the leadership of Atatürk a new Turkish State was establish on the same land. The republic was announced in 29 october 1923 in Turkey.

After this time Turkey is configurated with a lot of reforms. These reforms have made on the fields like politics, law, education, economy, culture and sociology.

Despite hard times between 1923 and 2013 Turkey has been able to be strong and powerful country.

Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK Our First President

Atatürk while teaching the Latin Alphabet

Ankara: Capital Of Turkey Writen By Mr. Hasan ÖZDİNÇ Mr. Mücahit CÖHCEN

KARAMAN’S HISTORY Athough not known exactly it was discovered from the excavatings that Karaman was an important settlement, trading and culture centre.

It is claimed that Karaman area had settled population inBC 8000. It was a military zone and trading centre in the time of Hittite Empire then it was captured by the Phrigias. BC 322, it was plundered by the Greek kings Perdiccass and Filippos.

In ancient times Karaman was known as Laranda. It was destroyed

by Perdiccas in about 322 BC and later became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It belonged to the Roman and later Byzantine Empire until it was captured by the Seljuks in the early 12th century. Karaman was occupied by Frederick Barbarossa in 1190 . In 1256, the town was taken by theTurkish bey Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey and was renamed Karaman in his honour. From 1275, Karaman was the capital of the Karaman Beylik (and later Ottoman province) of Karamanid.

(Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey)

Yunus Emre (a well known poet through Turkey)

In 1468 Karamanid was conquered by the Ottomans and in 1483 the capital of the province was moved to Konya. Karaman has retained ruins of a Karamanid castle and some walls, two mosques and a Koran school (madrasah) from that age. An exquisite mihrab from a mosque from Karaman can now be found in the Çinili Pavilion near the Archeology Museum in Istanbul.

The poet Yunus Emre (c. 1238-1320) resided in Karaman during his later years and is believed to lie buried beside the Yunus Emre Mosque. A small adjacent park is adorned with quotations from his verse, many of them unfortunately graffitisplattered. In 1222, the Sufi preacher Bahaeddin Veled arrived in town with his family, and the Karamanoğlu emir built a medrese to accommodate them. Veled's son was the famous Mevlana Jelaluddin Rumi, who married his wife, Gevher Hatun, while his family was living in Karaman. It was here, too, that Rumi's mother died in 1224. She was buried, along with other family members, in the Aktekke Mosque (also known as the Mader-i Mevlana Cami), which Alaeddin Ali Bey had built to replace the original medrese in 1370.

In 1222, the Sufi preacher Bahaeddin Veled arrived in town with his family, and the Karamanoğlu emir built a medrese to accommodate them. Veled's son was the famous Mevlana Jelaluddin Rumi.

Written Mr. Fatih Şimşek Mrs. Ayşe Eda KARADENİZ

ANCIENT ITALY Italy is a rich of history country. A lot of people occupied it and they left signs of their culture.

THE CELTS

THE CELTS

THE ETRUSCANS

THE GREEKS

The Celts were an Indo-European population who lived in Europe, in the British islands and in the North of Europe, till the river Danube, between the IV and the III century B.C. In the South, they expanded towards Iberian, Italic and Anatolian peninsulas.

In Italy they occugood at metal pied the Pianura Pa- working. They were polytheistic and they venerated nature gods.

They lived in tribes and used coins.

THE ETRUSCANS

dana area and they arrived at our territory. In fact there are some Celtic tombs in Gravellona Toce.

The Celtics were warriors and very

THE GREEKS

THE ROMANS The city

2

The house

2

The family

3

Clothes

3

Language

3

Between the VIII and VII century B.C. the coastal cities of South Italy were colonized by Greeks.

Napoli, Taranto, Siracusa, Agrigento and many other Greek colonies reached a high level of

economical and cultural richness. So, they were considered more important than their motherland and they were called MAGNA GRECIA (MegĂ le HellĂ s).

The Etruscans lived in Etruria (today Tuscany), between the X and I century B.C. Thanks to Etruscan merchants, their life evidences arrived at our city. In ancient time Gravellona was a border city. Who passed through here to reach Switzerland, had to pay a toll. It consisted in gold, but also earthenware crockery and cutlery, bronze clips and trays.

Small parfum bottles, jewels and pins were found in the tombs.

The Etruscans were polytheistic and they believed in life after death. So, they put everyday objects in the tombs; these objects were useful for the afterworld life.

ANCIENT ITALY

Page 2

THE ROMANS AND ROME Italy was the heart of the great Roman Empire and Rome has been his great capital for about five centuries. It was founded in 753 B.C. and grew up on the seven hills, along the river Tevere.

The Emperor lived in

THE CITY

Rome and the city was the political, economical and cultural centre of all the Empire. Definitely, it was the most populated city in the ancient world: it had one million inhabitants about.

The streets of the town were narrow, long, straight and arranged in a network of rightangles. So, the army could move fast. The streets were made of rounded rocks to make the water run during the rivers overflows.

THE HOUSE The Romans had two kinds of houses: the “domus”and the “insula”. The “domus” was a single villa with an inside garden for rich people; the “insula”, which was for common people, was a kind of block of

flats that could have even three floors.

The most part of Romans' furniture were beds. The rich had a lot of beds where they can sleep, eat, write and entertain guests.

The most common were single beds; there were also double beds for the bride and the groom and triple beds for the dining room. Some rich people loved amazing

their guests with huge six people beds!

The Romans had marble tables, but they did not use any chair, only beds or stools without backrest, which people carried with themselves.

There were a lot of carpets on the floor, blankets and quilts on the beds.

Page 3

FAMILY The ancient Roman family was considered a social public organization: Roman people were enforced to marry and to carry on the rice. The rich family was composed by the father, the mother, sons and slaves.

The mother spent her time with her housework and she was specialized in wool weaving and in clothes making for each member of the family.

The father was the head of

the family (“pater familias”): everybody was submitted to his authority.

CLOTHES

Men wore the “tunica” and the “toga”, which was a kind of cloak.

Only men who had Roman citizenship could wear the “toga”.

The “stola” was the women dress: it was a large and long tunic, fixed by

a belt on the waist.

On the “stola” women wore the “palla”, a kind of rectangular cloak, similar to the Greek one.

Children wore a white tunic with a red border till they grew up.

When somebody died, members of his family wore black tunics.

Instead, white was the brides' colour.

LANGUAGE The Roman language was the Latin: it became very important when the Roman Empire expanded. A lot of people spoke Latin for over than one thousand of years.

It has also been the Church official language till last century.

During the centuries,

Latin language evolved in Italian, Spanish, Romanian, Portuguese, Franch: the so-called “new latin” languages.

Class 2C

EVERYDAY LIFE IN MIDDLE AGES (V – XV centuries)

The day started at 6 o' clock in the morning, with the sound of the bells. After making three times the sign of the cross, people got dressed, they washed only their hands and face.

They had a bath only occasionally, sometimes after a long journey.

Then, Medieval people went to the church, because religion was very important. The war, the plague, the

famine, the hillness were considered the demon's actions and the Church offered the only remedy to human suffering.

After breakfast men went to work.

Workshops were opened and streets were full of merchants, travellers and beggars. There were mostly outdoor jobs.

People could listen to preachers' speeches or stories by jesters in squares. Often people could also see public executions of cri-

minals: people who broke the law were tortured and hanged.

At lunch time everybody went

back home. Rich people ate spicy meat, game, vegetables, eggs, cheese, fruit and wine. Poor people usually ate cereal or vegetable soup, bread river fish and eggs.

They had pork once a year and wine only on special occasions.

People didn't use neither dishes, nor forks: they used big slices of bread on which they put the food.

There was only one glass for two people. After lunch there was a break: people stayed outside their houses to speak to neighbours After dinner streets were empty, except for people going to inns (pubs) to drink or to play dice.

Bells rang every three hours, even at night.

CLOTHES Poor men and women wore a long woolen or cotton shirt, rich people a silk one. Women's shirts were long, they reached the ground, while men's shirts were at calf length.

On their shirts people wore a gar.

ment with buttons and strings as long as their shirts. Women's dresses had several pairs of sleeves, so women could change them Men wore two pairs of drawers, a light one and a heavy one on that.

Rich people had fur

cloaks (fox, beaver, ermine, marten, bear), poor ones had felt cloaks. Women wore woollen socks and wooden clogs or cork sole shoes.

HOUSES Houses mostly had two floors and wooden stairs. The bedroom was upstairs, the kitchen and workshop were downstairs. Different rooms were divided by curtains or wooden panels.

The houses of rich people overlooked the main road. The yard, the vegetable garden, the stable, the hen house were at the back. There were just a few pieces of furnitu-

re: they were heavy weight. Beds were very large: for up to five people. There wasn't any sewerage. The dumping went to underground drains or to side lanes.

MOVING Travels were long, difficult and dangerous. People used horses or carriages

and they travelled for no more than 20 km. a day, with several stopovers.

Goods were moved on the rivers,

thanks to winds and current. Sea travelling was very dangerous. People went overseas for pilgrimages or mili-

LIFE EXPECTANCY

Children death rate was very high (20 % of children died before they were 10 years old) and a men aged 60 was considered very old Doctors didn't know the human body, they only knew texts by ancient Greek scholars Ippocrates and Galeno.

Anatomy only appare during Renaissance. Doctors often prescribed to leech, that is to take “infected� blood away from the sick person.

Medicines made from herbs were used, but prayers were often the only remedy.

WOMEN During Middle ages, women were very important in family life. They were busy in housework, in sewing and weaving clothes and garments for everyone in their family, in lighting and maintaining the fire, in getting water for domestic

needs. They helped childbirth and took care of children and relatives with herb balms and potions, because they knew herbs very well. For that reason women were really powerful and their power was consi-

dered dangerous because they could even kill someone using herbs.

So, many women were considered witches and burned on the stake.

Galileo Galilei classe 2B

Risorgimento After the “Congress of Vienna “ ( 1 st November 1814) Italy was divided in several little states which were controlled directly or indirectly by Austria.

The police arrested all people who did not accept this situation.

Some secret organizations were formed and patriots secretly met to decide what to do . The most important secret organizations were the “Carbonari “ group and “ Young Italy”.

“Young Italy” was founded by Giuseppe Mazzini. It was the first time that feelings of Giuseppe Mazzini unity and independence spread.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

The long unification process started in Piedmont , the region where we live .That could happen thanks to Camillo Benso , count of Cavour . He was appointed Prime Minister by king Victor EmBenso Conte di manuel II Camillo Cavour (1810—1860) of Savoy and he formed an alliance with the French Emperor Napoleon III against Austria.

In 1856 almost every region in the North and in the Centre of Italy were part of Piedmont.

Giuseppe Garibaldi took part in the process of unification (called “Risorgimento”)with his military campaign “expedition of the thousand”.

CLASSE 3A

On 6 th May 1860 Garibaldi left from a beach near Genoa with his men and landed in Sicily . They freed southern Italy .

On 14 th March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II became the first king of Italy

The unification process went on with the conquest of Veneto in 1866 and the occupation of the capital city one year later .

IC GALILEO GALILEI

THE FASCISM

Novembre 2013

The History Italia election Matteotti Fascist laws The battle of the grain The militia of Mussolini The Lateran Pacts Foreign policy

Classe III C

The history of the Italian fascism starts with taking the power of Benito Mussolini , on 30th October 1922, until the end of its dictatorship, on 25th July 1943.

On 28th January 1924 the Duce, in a speech from the balcony of Palazzo Venezia in Rome, stated its willingness to fight the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the Italian Communist Party (PCI).

He rejected at the same time each electoral alliance with other parties . In addition to this the National Fascist Party (PNF) entered the plank, the majority of members of liberal and democratic party.

THE KILLING

On 30th May 1924 the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti spoke to the Chamber a tough speech against the government, accusing it of being directly responsible for the abuses that had accompanied him throughout the election period. A few days later, on 10th June 1924, Mr Matteotti was beaten and kidnapped by the fascists at the exit of his home in Rome and then killed. His body was not found until several weeks later. Hs bag was full of documents that had to be the basis of the speech that the Member would have had to say in the House: the evidence of corruption and trafficking in which fascism was involved.

After the assassination of Matteotti opposition MPs decided not to participate longer in the work of Parliament.

sphere of indignation towards the government, which led not only to the parliamentary socialist opposition, but also to the popular De Gasperi and to the Liberals, out of the majority of Giolitti governmental organization (the so-called "Aventine SeIn the elections the plank cession "). (which had the fasces as a symbol ) won 60.1% of the On 3rd January 1925, Mussovotes and 356 deputies lini assumed the political, Consultations took place moral, historical power and in a climate of violence shortly after he planned to and intimidation of the dissolve all political parties except the PNF . fascist squads throughout Italy and, with a hard speech, the deputy socialist Giacomo Matteotti asked to undo them . After his abduction and murder by a gang of fascist extremists, there was an atmo-

OF MATTEOTTI

FASCIST LAWS The Fascist racial laws are a set of legislative and administrative measures that were put in Italy between 1938 and the first five-years period of the forties.

The anti-Semitic legislation included: the prohibition of marriage between Italians and Jews, the prohibition for Jews to have to employ domestic Aryan race, the prohibition to all public administrations and the private companies of a public nature - such as banks and insurance companies - to employ Jews.

The fascist laws enacted between 1925 and 1926, are legal acts which began the transformation actually sorting the Kingdom of Italy in the fascist regime.

THE BATTLE OF GRAIN

In 1925 the Kingdom of Italy was importing 25 million bushels of wheat.

To reverse this situation was studied the Battle of the grain, a campaign that had the aim to achieve complete self-sufficiency.

On July 4th, the Committee of the grain was made up.

This was commanded by Mussolini.

The fascist authorities, with the aim to increase the production of wheat, opposed themselves to crops of plants considered minor.

Among these there were broccoli, turnip greens, lentils and turnips.

They tried to convince farmers to replace them with the grain.

NON TOGLIETE IL PANE AI FIGLI DEI NOSTRI LAVORATORI ACQUISTATE PRODOTTI ITALIANI

Pagina 2

The woman and the family in the Italian fascist society.

As part of the battle for the increase in population the fascist regime produced a law-oriented economic aid for new families: to the new married couples were loans that had to return in the event that they would not children.

In 1939 Ellevi dealt with the dangers of feminism and bourgeois ambition.

THE MILITIA OF MUSSOLINI The Volunteer Militia for National Security was born on January 12th, 1923 The Militia was inserted into the national army through regular recruitment, in an age range between 17 and 50 years The MVSN (Voluntary Militia for National Security) was submitted to the Presidency of the Council of Ministers and, by law, conspired to maintain public order on the Italian territory The commanding general was Mussolini.

THE GENTILE REFORM

GIOVANNI GENTILE

With the Gentile reform, compulsory education was raised to 14 years but the children would have studied for five years at an elementary school and in later

years could choose between: the gymnasium, five-years, which gave access to the grammar school or high school, technical school for three years, followed by four years of higher technical insti-

tute, the institute for training teachers of seven years, destined for future teachers, the school complementary, after which it was not

Classe III C

possible to subscribe to any other school.

Only the children of the upper class and a very small minority of children of other social strata, the more equipped for studies, could attend secondary schools, especially the grammar school; a minority of children of the middle class could also have access to other high schools, the high school and technical

Pagina 3

institutes, while all others must not continue their education after reaching the age of 14.

I FIGLI DELLA LUPA

THE NATIONAL OPERA BALILLA The National Opera Balilla (ONB) was a state entity established by law passed by parliament. "The National Opera table for the assistance and for the physical and moral educ a t i o n o f youth" (complete name of the state) was founded in 1926. It was an Italian Fascist youth organization functioning, as an addition to school education, between 1926 and 1937.

Since it was rigidly centralized, the UN was an instrument of penetration in the institutions of schools. Boys from 8 to 14 years, in the ONB, were called "Balilla" and girls, from 8 to 14, were called "Piccole I t a l i a n e " .

"Avanguardisti" and "Giovani Italiane" were

I BALILLA

respectively boys and girls from 14 to 18.

Between the ages of 18 and 22, young men and women would join additional groups of the ONB - "Fasci Giovanili di Combattimento" and "Giovani Fasciste", respectively. Male students in all forms of higher education were enrolled in the GUF. Black shirt, blue scarf, gray-green trousers, black belt, fez was the uniform of the paramilitary Balilla . In addition to after-school tutorials and "Saturdays fascists", the National Opera mobilized its members for gatherings and school camps.

AVANGUARDISTI

FOREIGN POLICY

Mussolini and Hitler pursued territorial expansionist and interventionist foreign policy agendas from the 1930s through the 1940s culminating in World War II. Mussolini wanted to establish Italian domination of the Mediterranean Sea and secure Italian access to the Atlantic Ocean.

From 1935 to 1939 Germany and Italy escalated their demands for territorial claims and greater influence in world affairs. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. In 1936 Germany remilitarized the industrial Rhineland; the region had been ordered demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles. In 1938 Germany annexed Austria and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis between Germany versus Britain and France . At the same time from 1938 to 1939, Italy was demanding territorial and colonial concessions from France and Britain. In 1939, Germany prepared for war with Poland.

The invasion of Poland by Germany was unacceptable by Britain, France and their allies, resulting in their mutual declaration of war against Germany. In 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II. Mussolini was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity to carry out a long war with France or the United Kingdom and waited until France was on the verge of imminent collapse and surrender from the German invasion before declaring war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940. Mussolini believed that Italy could gain some territorial concessions from France and then concentrate its forces on a major offensive in Egypt. Plans by Germany to invade the UK in 1940 failed after Germany lost the aerial warfare campaign in the Battle of Britain. The war became prolonged contrary to Mussolini's plans resulting in Italy losing battles on multiple fronts and requiring German assistance.

By 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied invasion of Italy,

Benito Mussolini died on 28th April 1945 killed by shots in the town of Tremezzo, in the province of Como. He was killed together with his mistress Claretta Petacci. In a series of articles of "The Unit" of March 1947, a partisan commander Walter Audisio "Colonel Valerio" said to have been the sole author of the killing.

THE MUSSOLINI’S DEATH

Resistance Movement In Italy (1943-45) Class 2A

1st September 1939:Hitler invades Poland, France and England declare war to Germany In 1940: Italy goes to war with Germany.

In 1943: AngloAmerican Allies land to Sicily. Italy signs the Armistice with the Allies. Mussolini is imprisoned, but then he is released

by German people.

In Northern Italy there is “ The Rebublic of Salò” which is dependent from Germany. The King goes to Southern Italy that is then freed.

The Resistance movement against Nazi-Fascism is created.

The Resistance is not well organized.

Partisans are divided into brigades and they create independent republics which last for a short time.

SIMONE MARIOTTI The life is very difficult during the war.

My great grand mother remembers that some German people ordered to stand near the wall.

Luckily they were saved by the driver of a lorry.

Here are some interviews to our classmates!

MARTA GIULIANO During the Second World War my great grand mother is eighteen years old and she lives with her parents and her

sister.

She has one daughter,one month old.

Her husband is a partisan forced to live in the cellar. At Christmas time they move to Switzerland

because German people where dangerous and killed a lot of people; but thanks to the help of the Allies and of the Resistance movement people got free

because they cannot go on in this way.

After the war they come back to Italy.

MIRCO LAURIA A friend of my granddad told me that life was hard

EDOARDO ROSA My grand uncle was on a train for his military service. He jumped off the train with some others and they hid on the mountains. His sister brought him the food hiding it between her and her baby girl.

3B

ITALIAN CONTEMPORARY STORY

THE USTICA DISASTER

The Ustica disaster was in 1980 when an airplane that took off from Bologna exploded while flying over the Tyrrhenian sea in the nearby costs of the middle of Italy.

There were 81 people travelling on the plane, 13 were children. Everybody died in this disaster but only 38 bodies were found in the water. The causes of the accident are still unknown.

Police thought about terrorism and after several researches it was discover that a shuttle had exploded on board but not a bomb.

This crime has not been solved yet and the families of the victims are still asking for justice.

REFERENDUM FOR DIVICE

In 1974 in Italy there was a referendum for divorce. People were asked if they want to cancel the law that permitted divorce four years before. Italy is a catholic country, so catholic people condemned divorce protecting marriage .

In 1974 the “NO” group (who didn’t agree with divorce) won the referendum but soon after, in 1975 and 1976, people who defended divorce definitely grew, thanks to the help of communist party.

REFERENDUM FOR ABORT

The Radical Party in 1978 fought against the law that condemned abortion as a crime and they wrote the law n. 194 that allowed women to decide about their pregnancies.

Italy is a catholic country so lots of people didn’t agree with the radical position but in the latest referendum about abortion in 1981 Italian people decided not to change law n. 194. Anyway nowadays gynecologists can decide not to operate women who want to interrupt pregnancy and they are not condemned by law so as it happened before.

MAFIA

Mafia is a word with deals with criminal organizations. In Italy Mafia is called also Cosa Nostra. Such organizations don’t care about killing people who don’t agree with them and don’t want to help in criminal circumstances.

Mafia can cope with drugs, weapons, prostitution and illegal political affairs.

Lots of heroes, such as Dalla Chiesa, Falcone and Borsellino, who fought against mafia, lost their life in this fight for loyalty.

Alberto Dalla Chiesa was a colonel of Carabinieri who tried to discover mafia’s plans using people who acted like criminals in the mafia groups.

In 1973 he became brigadier general and worked against terrorism such as Brigate Rosse Group. He was really successful in his work against Brigate Rosse so that he became Prefect of Palermo and the Italian Government wanted him to continue his fight against mafia.

But in 1982 on September 3th he was killed with his wife by criminals while he was discovering important facts about Cosa Nostra.

KILLING OF PAOLO EMANUELE BORSELLINO

Paolo Emanuele Borsellino has been an iIalian magistrate who worked against” Cosa Nostra” and was killed by it together with the five young policemen who were with him in via D’Amelio. Italian people consider him and his colleague and friend Giovanni Falcone a national hero.

In 1975 he started to work in Palermo with Rocco Chinnici against Mafia.

Rocco Chinnici became a really close friend of Borsellino, so that his daughter too choose him like a sort of guide.

In 1980 six people of the mafia association were arrested and the “pool” against mafia was created. Several policemen became bodyguards of Borsellino, his family and people of the pool because of the very dangerous work against” Cosa Nostra”.

Borsellino explained that the pool was gathered together to get the work against mafia stronger and safer for the people working for justice.

The pool asked the Italian State to protect them but only in 1980 Dalla Chiesa arrived in Palermo as Prefect.

Soon after Chinnici was killed by mafia and Borsellino explained in public what it was happening with mafia and the Italian State.

In 1991 mafia had already planned to kill Borsellino and in 1992 he was killed with a bomb. He was killed with his five bodyguards.

ENTRY OF THE EURO On January 1st 2002 Euro became the new currency for twelve countries of UE. The new currency had to help UE to grow up in developing economy and European culture. But now we’re living a sort of disillusion about it and lots of economists and common people think about euro as the cause of the economic crisis that Europe is suffering.

KILLING OF ALDO MORO

Aldo Moro was born in 1916. He was a very important politician who tried to pass by the difficult situation between the conservative parties and the communist ones.

On March 16th 1978 the car that Aldo Moro and his five bodyguards were using to go to work was stopped by Brigate Rosse killers .They shot the car and killed the bodyguards . Aldo Moro, who was kidnapped for 55 days. During these days he wrote about 86 letters to the major personalities of the political world and the Pope Paul VI. Some of them were posted, the others were founded in the prison in which Aldo Moro was hidden.

During the 55 days Brigate Rosse wrote nine short letters in which they accused Moro for his openness to the communist parties. Brigate Rosse didn’t want any sort of alliance with the conservative parties.

On May 9th after a sort of illegal process he was killed by Mario Moretti and his body was founded hidden in a car in the centre of Rome. The radio told about at 2 o’clock p.m.

History of Poland

History of Poland The historically recorded Polish state begins with Mieszko I in the second half of the 10th century.

Mieszko I chose to be baptized in the Western Latin Rite in 966.Mieszko's son Bolesław I Chrobry (ruled 992-1025) established a Polish Church province, pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned at the end of his life in 1025, becoming the first King of Poland. During the Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor authorized the founding of the Archbishopric of Gniezno.

Bolesław III Wrymouth divided Poland among his sons in 1138, internal fragmentation eroded the initial Piast monarchy structure in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Piast Kingdom was effectively restored under Władysław I the Elbow-high (1306-1333), crowned in 1320. Nest king, King Casimir III the Great (1333-1370), Władysław's son and the last of the Piast rulers, significantly strengthened and expanded the country. Progress was made in the recovery of the central province of Mazovia and in 1340 the conquest of Red Ruthenia began, marking Poland's expansion to the east. The Congress of Kraków took place in 1364 and the future Jagiellonian University was founded that year.

The Kingdom continued under Louis I of Hungary (ruled Poland 1370-1382) of the Angevin dynasty. Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila (King Władysław II Jagiełło 1386-1434), the Jagiellonian dynasty (1386–1572) formed the Polish–Lithuanian union.

In the Baltic Sea region, Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in the Battle of Grunwald (1410). The reign of the young Władysław III (1434–44),[14] a king of Poland and Hungary, was cut short by his death at the Battle of Varna, fought against the forces of the Ottoman Empire. Central to the Jagiellonian period was the long reign of Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447-1492). In 1454 Royal Prussia was incorporated by Poland and the Thirteen Years' War with the Teutonic state ensued.he European Renaissance currents evoked in late Jagiellonian Poland (kings Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus) an immense cultural and scientific flowering (the Golden Age), of which the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (died 1543) is the best known representative.

Battle of Grunwald

I Reczpospolita and rulers of elective - Federal State composed of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, existing in years 1569-1795 : - Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) and his sons - Władysław IV (1632-1648) and John Casimir (1648-1668) led to the war with Sweden , Russia, Turkey , and reporting to the Tartars . Country enfeebled the creation of a Cossack . This led to the destruction and decline in the international position of the state , the loss of large territories and growing anarchy , chaos and lawlessness internal magnates . Real , but short-lived success then was to get Moscow (1610) .

The situation deteriorated even brief reign of Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki ( 1669-1673 ) .

Only John III Sobieski (1674-1696) , the great leader and politician , he started repairing the state. European fame brought him many victories over the Turks (including the relief of Vienna in 1683 ) . In view of the opposition magnates lay in ruins his plans to reform the anarchic system and recover the power position of the Republic . This led to the partition and the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian in the eighteenth century.

- Saxon times in the first half of the eighteenth century, the Republic experienced a period of serious political crisis .It was a time when Poland was ruled by the kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty , Augustus II (1697-1733) and Augustus III ( 1733-1763 ) .Their reign , however, was caused weakness and the economic crisis of the Republic and the dependence of Tsarist Russia.

Polish Armed Conflict - The war with Turkey.

The Ottoman Empire maintained peaceful relations with the Republic until 1619 , when he made a diversionary action lisowczycy in Transylvania. Hetman Żółkiewski , ahead of the Turkish attack , marched into Moldavia. Republic forces were defeated - . In 1621 , in the camp of Chocim forces Jan Karol Chodkiewicz resisted Turkish forces . Also, there was signed a truce , but the Turks have to commit to stop the marauding invasions of Tatars . 1673 at the Battle of a Chocim Turks were defeated . Forces of the Republic led hetman Jan Sobieski , who in 1674 was elected king. After the victory of the Republic regained some land Sobieski dealt a decisive blow to the Turks on September 12th, 1683 , under the Vienna.

The peace treaty signed in Karłowice after the death of Sobieski in 1699 the Republic regained Podolia .On June 17th, 1696 ,Jan III Sobieski died.

- Khmelnytsky Uprising 1648-1667 Discord in the Sejm and the use of the peasants by the nobility in Ukraine advantage of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, who organized the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth. He entered into an alliance with the Tatar khan . Nierejestrowi rebellious Cossacks and the Registry , which is in arrears with the payment of their pay , backed Tartar troops under the command of Tuhaj Bey defeated the forces of the Republic of the Yellow Waters and Korsun . In August 1649 Jeremy Wiśniowiecki forces were besieged in the fort Zbaraj . Cossack forces were surrounded by the troops of King John Casimir Ladislas brother , who died in 1648 . Only by George Ossoliński , who bribed the Tartar Khan , an agreement was reached with the Khmelnitsky . He received the title of captain of the host Zaporojian and the number of registered Cossacks twice raised from 20 to 40,000 . In 1651 years of John Casimir army , numbering 60,000 soldiers , Cossacks army smashed Beresteczko . As a result of this victory was to reduce the record to 20,000 and reducing the Cossack land to the province of Kiev . Settlement was signed in the White Church. But it did not last long. In 1652 there was a battle Batoh culminating in the victory of the Cossacks and the pogrom in the Polish army . In 1654 the Cossacks entered into an arrangement with Russia in Pereyaslav . Thus, the Polish - Cossack war became a war Polish - Cossack and Russian .

- Swedish Deluge 1655-1660

Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655 during the Second Northern War (1655-1660). Formally ended his room in Oliwa included in 1660. This war was carried out not only by Sweden, during the war changed both alliances and forces on both sides. It was a continuation of previous wars waged by the Republic, was also rooted in a dispute over the throne of Sweden has initiated by King Sigismund III Vasa. Swedish Deluge showed weakness organizational Republic, and its efficiency invader received such through collaboration and bribery in the Republic. And although the Swedes were finally driven out, it incurred losses and expenses peace concessions were high, and some material damage, particularly Swedish Polish cultural plunder, are visible today.

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War with Russia, 1654-1667 Tsar's army of 200,000 soldiers took Smolensk , Belarus and Minsk , and part of Lithuania's Vilnius and Grodno . Cossack troops backed by Russian meals surrounded Lviv, took Lublin and reached all the way to the river. Follow-up to the invasion of the Russians stopped the Swedes.

Russia feared the rise of Sweden in the Baltic Sea and decided to call a truce with the Republic .

Settlement signed in Niemierzy . Khmelnytsky had ambitious plans . He wanted to become independent from Russia, sought an agreement with the Swedes and Siedmiogrodzianami .

Khmelnytsky's successor John ( Ivan ) Wyhowski entered into an arrangement with the Republic of the Hadziaczu . Under the agreement was to be formed Cossack state of three provinces: Kiev , Chernihiv and Bracław with their officials and liberties of the Church hierarchy for noble Cossack elders , but the agreement never took effect , and Wyhowski was overthrown . The fight for control of Ukraine resumed Russia . The Polish army defeated the Russian forces under Połonka and Cudnów and regained Vilnius and took all of Ukraine . Wins have not been used because there was insufficient funds to pay the outstanding salaries of the army and declared a confederation .The truce was signed in Moscow in 1667 Andrusovo .

Enlightenment in Poland In Poland, the ideas of the Enlightenment were adopted later than in Western Europe, which was connected with the fact that the middle class has gained greater importance only in the second half. Eighteenth of the century assumed that the time frame of the Polish Enlightenment covers the period from the 40s Eighteenth century until 1822. The Enlightenment guided many prominent contemporary artists of the eighteenth century. Thanks to them, there is a rapid development of education, science, political and cultural life. Through activities such as Stanislaw Kostka Potocki, Ignacy Potocki. Poland became the first they country in Europe to obtain a modern constitution. Then also were trying to build a country on the principles of the Enlightenment, which interrupted by partitions.

Classicism in Poland is sometimes called the style of Stanislaus (from King Stanisław August Poniatowski). In these times of Stanislaus there was an attempted to reform the university teaching. Universities have become substantially higher vocational schools. In 1765 King

Stanisław August Poniatowski founded the School Knights, created the Permanent Council and the Commission of National Education. The Society was set up to Elementary Books, and at the initiative of the king the meeting arose which various Polish thinkers called "Thursday dinners".

Four reforms: -reform of the military-increasing number of troops fiscal-reform-nobles will have to pay taxes, -participation of 24 representatives from cities in the Parliament, but only in an advisory, -formed government in the cities (the city), -town people will be able to purchase goods of the earth, -integrity of the person (personal freedom town people), -will be able to hold lower offices. The Constitution of 3 May 1791, - Polish hereditary monarchy, - Abolished the liberum veto and free election, - Separation of powers, - Legislative power in the hands of parliament - The judicial power in the hands of a neighbors earthly city and the Crown Court - Peasants under the care of the right - Abolished the division of the Republic and made a joint government, the treasury and the army.

Partitions of Polish - the period in Polish history in the years 1772-1795, when the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth through Russia, Prussia and Austria made an assignment for the benefit of part of its territory as a result of losing the war or the threat of force. The cause of partition was the inability of the country to reform that could improve Polish military power.

Dabrowski's Mazurka-Polish patriotic song of 1797 from 26th February 1927 was the official national anthem of the Polish Republic.

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 King Stanisław August Poniatowski

The Age of Partitions Poles rebelled several times against the partitioners, particularly near the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. One of the most famous and successful attempts at securing renewed Polish independence took place in 1794, during the Kościuszko Uprising, at the Racławice where Tadeusz Kosciuszko, a popular and distinguished general who had served under Washington in America, led peasants and some Polish regulars into battle against numerically superior Russian forces. In 1807, Napoleon I of France recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic Wars, Poland was again divided by the victorious Allies at the Congress of Vienna of 1815. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar as a Congress Kingdom which possessed a very liberal constitution. However, the tsars soon reduced Polish freedoms, and Russia annexed the country in virtually all but name. Thus in the latter half of the 19th century, only Austrian-ruled Galicia, and particularly the Free City of Kraków, created good environment for free Polish cultural life to flourish.

Throughout the period of the partitions, political and cultural repression of the Polish nation led to the organisation of a number of uprisings against the authorities of the occupying Russian, Prussian and Austrian governments. Notable among these are the November Uprising of 1830 and January Uprising of 1863, both of which were attempts to free Poland from the rule of tsarist Russia. The November uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when, led by Lieutenant Piotr Wysocki, young non-commissioned officers at the Imperial Russian Army's military academy in that city revolted. They were soon joined by large segments of Polish society, and together forced Warsaw's Russian garrison to withdraw north of the city.

Over the course of the next seven months, Polish forces successfully defeated the Russian armies of Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch and a number of other Russian commanders; however, finding themselves in a position unsupported by any other foreign powers, save distant France and the newborn United States, and with Prussia and Austria refusing to allow the import of military supplies through their territories, the Poles accepted that the uprising was doomed to failure. Upon the surrender of Warsaw to General Ivan Paskievich, many Polish troops, feeling they could not go on, withdrew into Germany and there laid down their arms. Poles would have to wait another 32 years for another opportunity to free their homeland.

When in January 1863 a new Polish uprising against Russian rule began, it did so as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Imperial Russian Army.

However, the insurrectionists, despite being joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and numerous politicians were still severely outnumbered and lacking in foreign support. They were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics and ultimately failed to win any major military victories. Afterwards no major uprising was witnessed in the Russian controlled Congress Poland and Poles resorted instead to fostering economic and cultural self-improvement.

Despite the political unrest experienced during the partitions, Poland did benefit from large scale industrialisation and modernisation programs, instituted by the occupying powers, which helped it develop into a more economically coherent and viable entity. This was particularly true in the Greater Poland, Pomerania and Warmia annexed by Prussia (later becoming a part of the German Empire); an area which eventually, thanks largely to the Greater Poland Uprising, was reconstituted as a part of the Second Polish Republic and became one of its most productive regions.

World War I and World War II World War I and the political turbulence that was sweeping Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining independence. On the outbreak of war the Poles found themselves conscripted into the armies of Germany, Austria and Russia, and forced to fight each other in a war that was not theirs. In the Act of 5th November 1916, the Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Regencyjne) was recreated by Germany and Austria on the formerly Russian-controlled territory. This puppet, but increasingly autonomous state existed until November 1918, when it was replaced by the newly established Republic of Poland. Józef Piłsudski was a Polish statesman and "First Marshal" (from 1920), and leader (1926–35) of the Second Polish Republic.

On September 1, 1939 Hitler ordered his troops into Poland and World War II began. Poland had signed a pact with Britain (as recently as August 25) and France and the two western powers soon declared a war on Germany, but remained rather inactive and extended no aid to the attacked country. On September 17, the Soviet troops moved in and took control of most of the areas of eastern Poland with heavy Ukrainian and Belarusian populations under the terms of the German-Soviet agreement. In regard to actual military campaigns, some Polish historians have argued that fighting the initial "September Campaign" was the greatest Polish contribution in the war, despite its defeat. The Poles formed an

underground resistance movement and a Polish government in exile, first in Paris and later in London.

Poles provided crucial help to the Allies throughout the war, fighting on land, on the seas and in the air. Notable was the service of the Polish Air Force, not only in the Allied victory in the Battle of Britain but also the subsequent war in the air. Polish ground troops were present in the North Africa Campaign (siege of Tobruk); the Italian campaign (including the capture of the monastery hill at the Battle of Monte Cassino); and in battles following the invasion of France (the battle of the Falaise pocket; an airborne brigade parachute drop during Operation Market Garden and one division in the Western Allied invasion of Germany).

Postwar communist Poland At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new Polish provisional and pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London; a move which angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place; however, upon achieving victory in 1945, the occupying Soviet authorities organised an election which constituted nothing more than a sham and was ultimately used to claim the 'legitimacy' of Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe the Soviet occupation of Poland met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the fifties.

Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland[46] (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lw贸w) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory.

Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture and in the European scene came to

characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.

The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956 after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Soviet Bloc.

Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Communist Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.

Present-day Poland Poland joined NATO in 1999 and since 2004 has been a member of the European Union.

A shock therapy programme, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market economy. As with all other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels, which it achieved by 1995 largely thanks to its booming economy.

Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in human rights, such as the freedom of speech, civil liberties (1st class) and political rights (1st class), according to Freedom House. In 1991, Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004. Subsequently Poland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union have been dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the EU. In contrast to this, the section of Poland's eastern border now comprising the external EU border with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, has become increasingly well protected, and has led in part to the coining of the phrase 'Fortress Europe', in reference to the seeming 'impossibility' of gaining entry to the EU for citizens of the former Soviet Union. In 1995-2005, the presidency included Aleksander

Kwaśniewski. In the years 2005-2010 the president was Lech Kaczynski. Since 2010, the president is Bronisław Komorowski.

On 10 April 2010, the President of the Republic of Poland, Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia. The president's party were on their way to attend an annual service of commemoration for the victims of the Katyń massacre when the tragedy took place.

Lech Wałęsa

Aleksander Kwaśniewski

Lech Kaczyński

Bronisław Komorowski

History of Lubaczów

The beginnings of Lubaczów, one of the oldest settlements at the Polish and Russian borderland are associated with the period of the tribal Poland. By virtue of the agreement between the Duke Leszek Biały and the Hungarian King Andrzej, the settlement of Lubaczów together with the subordinated district was separated from the Przemyśl land and Lubaczowski and given to Pakosław the magnate from the circle of Leszk Biały (1214).

After incorporation into the monarchy of the king Kazimierz Wielki (1340), Lubaczów become a poviat. It obtained the Magdeburg civic rights in 1376. The villages have an old history. Few towns were established by the end of the 16th and 17th centuries: Oleszyce -1576, Cieszanow- 1590, Narol-1592, Lipsko-1613, Płazow-1614

and Wielkie Oczy-1671. Nearly all the towns with fortifications of Horyniec, Basznia, Dachnów and Nowe Sioło created the district of Lubaczów. The destructive Tatar units reached the region in the 16th and 17th centuries. After the first partition, Lubaczow became the part of Galicia.

Between 1783 and 1788 German colonies were established here. In 1867 a poviat was created with a seat in Cieszanow.

Large scale investments by the end of 19th century brought economic revival. During the First World War, the Russian invasion considerably damaged the city as well as Cieszanow, Narol, Wielkie Oczy and Oleszyce.

HISTORY

OF ESTONIA

A BRIEF HISTORY Owing strategic position, Estonia has had an eventual and tradic history,and has suffered dramatic population losses over the centuries due to famine, plague,war, deportation, and flight.The country had had a long history of succesive invasions, occupations, and fragmentation.

Estonia Stone Age

The oldest known traces of human settlement in the Estonian territory date back to 9000 BC. This era, which started about five hundred years after the Ice Age, when ancestral hunters-fishers-gatherers inhabited the area, is called the Mesolithic Era (9000–4200 BC). About fifty Mesolithic settlement sites and four burial sites have been found in Estonia. Most of the settlements were located near bodies of water; by rivers and lakes in the first half of the Mesolithic era, and by the seaside during the later period.

Numerous sites have been discovered on the shores of Võrtsjärv, Kahala, Peipsi and other lakes, and by the banks of the Navesti, Pärnu, Reiu, Suur Emajõgi, Õhne and other rivers, as well as in various places on the coast and on the islands of Saaremaa, Hiiumaa and Ruhnu.

Food was secured by hunting, fishing and gathering, and the only domestic animal was the dog. According to the animal bones found at the settlement sites, a wide range of wild animals were hunted at that time, mainly elk and in some places beavers as well. The reason why coastal areas and islands were colonised during the second period was the development of seal hunting. The oldest seal hunters’ settlements on the coast date back to 7100 BC, and on the islands to 5800 BC. People probably lived in small communities of no more than a few dozen members, hunting and gathering in areas big enough to provide food for everybody. At the beginning of the era, whole communities probably changed their places of habitation after the hunting, fishing and gathering seasons. In the Late Mesolithic, however, villages

were established where people lived all year round, and only part of the community left for seasonal work elsewhere. Tools were made of stone, horn, bone and wood. The first earthenware was made in the Estonian territory in ca 5500 BC. At the beginning of the Mesolithic Era, the local inhabitants established a contact network mostly with peoples living in the eastern and northern European forest zone. Large amounts of valuable quality material for making tools – flint – was brought to Estonia from the central parts of western Russia, about 500 km away, and from Lithuania and Belarus. With the growing population, these contacts probably disappeared and new, smaller social and economic networks developed instead.

Around 4200 BC, people in the Estonian territory acquired the skills of grain farming. The Stone Age, when besides hunting and fishing, people were also involved in farming, is treated as a separate subperiod – theNeolithic Era (4200–1800 BC). So far, about one hundred Neolithic settlement sites and over twenty burial sites have been found in Estonia.

Among the sites, there are short-term stopover places, the remains of hunting camps and villages.

Some are located in the previous settlement sites, but there are also new locations where no ancient settlement traces had been found. Tools were still made of stone, horn, bone and wood, and people used earthenware.

At the beginning of the Neolithic Era, people mainly continued to live by the rivers, lakes and seaside. It is estimated that the year-round villages each contained a few dozen to fifty inhabitants. The main sources of subsistence were hunting, fishing and gathering. The most hunted animals were aurochs, elk and wild boar, and on the coast naturally seals, although beavers, wild horses and other beasts were hunted as well.

Besides internal bodies of water and coastal waters, fishermen worked on the open sea. The oldest pollen grains of various crops found in the sediments of Estonian bogs

and lakes indicate the growing of grains – barley and wheat. Compared with hunting, fishing and gathering, cultivating the land still remained a marginal activity, and did not cause any changes in settlement habits or material culture, as cultivating land did not offer a sufficient alternative to the main source of subsistence – hunting. Considering the development of the farming economy in neighbouring countries, grain and agricultural knowledge might have been obtained from the southern regions.

During the Neolithic Era, wide networks were again developed, through which Estonia received amber from the coasts of Latvia and Lithuania, flint from western Russia, Lithuania-Belarus and metatuff from Karelia; some items, e.g. specific axes and wedge-axes, arrow- and spearheads and jewellery, were brought here as finished goods.

In the second half of the Neolithic Era, beginning in 2900 BC, people inhabiting the Estonian territory began breeding livestock – oxen, goats, sheep and pigs.

Barley and wheat continued to be the most popular grains, and the share of the hunting economy was still large.

The role of the farming economy increased so much that it altered the settlement pattern of many local communities. In choosing their habitats, people now relied on different principles. It was no longer essential to live near bodies of water. Several old settlement sites in coastal areas and on the islands were again inhabited; at that time they were already over a kilometre away from the sea. Settlement units became smaller as well, mostly low-density farms.

Only a few antiquities have been found from the end of the Stone Age, primarily stone axes with an eye. We can assume that settlement in the Estonian territory was getting denser, and people were also moving to upland locations. The pollen found in bog peat and lake sediments indicates intensifying land cultivation. In the late Neolithic Era, the existing eastern and southern contacts were supplemented by relations with southern Scandinavia.

ca 1200–1558. Estonian middle ages Since the Northern Crusades Estonia became a battleground for centuries where Denmark, Germany, Russia, Sweden and Poland fought their many wars over controlling the important geographical position of the country as a gateway between East and West. In Ancient War of Freedom in 1208–1224 Estonians were defeated.

One of the most intriguing issues of older Estonian history, the background of which is largely unexplained even today, is the 1343–1345 uprising of Estonians against alien rule, known under the name of the St. George’s Night uprising. It started in the Danish area of North Estonia on St. George’s Day on 23 April 1343.

According to the Younger Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, attributed to Bartholomeus Hoeneke, chaplain of the Master of the Order, Estonians pillaged the Padise Cistercian monastery and killed the monks and numerous German vassals. Estonians elected four leaders whom they called kings. The peasant army surrounded Tallinn and the bishop’s residence Haapsalu in West Estonia. In addition, Estonians turned to the Swedish landlord across the Gulf of Finland, the bailiffs of Turku (Åbo) and Viipuri (Viborg), with a plea for assistance, and indeed received a promise from Finland to send reinforcements.

Spread of Christianity and religious orders Estonians were baptised by the German and Danish priests mostly during the second and third decades of the 13th century. The sacrament of baptism was often administered in a hurry, and within the formal baptising ritual, the essence of Christian teaching probably remained

quite obscure. But it seems logical, though, that it was not altogether abandoned after baptism. The more so that the tradition of preaching in West Europe was rapidly spreading at that time and new orders of mendicant friars emerged.

Compared with various other countries around the Baltic Sea, Christianity arrived in Estonia relatively late. In circumstances where state administration with a central government was not yet fully developed, Christianity was mostly imported by an independently functioning foreign mission. The area’s late Christian invasion could partly have been the result of the fact that the country was not economically attractive. This area acquired a significant position between the Eastern and Western trade transit comparable to the Viking era eastern route (Austrvegr — waterway connecting Scandinavia with Byzantium and Islamic Central Asia along the great Russian rivers) only after the conquest, Christianisation and the emergence of towns. Before the 13th century, the main transit route between Russia and West Europe was the Daugava River.

Considering the level of navigation at the time, its geographical position was much more suitable and natural for this purpose than the Northern and Western Estonian coastal areas. Another reason might have been the numerous political problems in the neighbouring countries which needed constant attention — the countries were centralising around the royal power in Denmark and Sweden, and the primary concern of the German Eastern colonisation was to break the opposition of West Slavic tribes.

Estonian national awekening The development of Estonia in the second half of the 19th century is characterised by general modernisation; the reorganising of a static agrarian society into a modern European society, industrialisation, urbanisation and the success of the newly emerged nationalist awareness.

The liberal politics of Tsar Alexander II (1855–1881) and the emancipation of the Russian peasants (1861) gave a new impetus to the reforms carried out in the Baltic provinces. The new passport regulation (1863) which gave the peasants their first identification documents, increased their freedom of movement and encouraged emigration to Russia.

The 1866 peasant township law freed the peasants’ local government councils from the landlords’ authority and granted them extensive rights to decide their own economic and social affairs.

Engraving of Estonian country folk in the early 19th century.

In the 1860s, Estonian peasants began buying farmsteads from the estates, at free market prices. Due to the shortage of land and the large number of buyers, the prices were much higher than in Russia. The peasants made use of longterm bank credits, which they later paid back from income received from growing flax and potatoes (the flax prices went up because of the American Civil War and the consequent drop in cotton imported to Europe).

By the end of the 19th century, the peasants in South Estonia (Livonian province) possessed over 80 and in North Estonia (Estonian province) 50% of the available farmland.

Influenced by the French Revolution, the ideas of Romanticism and the newly emerging German national consciousness.

The leading force in the Estonian national movement was the new elite — primarily the emerging intellectuals aspiring to better their social position, the middle layer consisting of civil servants, merchants and artisans, and, increasingly, the ethnic Estonian clergy.

The low social status and the lack of the right to make any decisions, a result of the Russian central power and the Baltic German-dominated cultural situation, motivated the elite of the ‘awakened peasants’ to build up their own independent nation and national society. This was to be separate from the existing German and Russian ones.

In 1857, the founder of the first Estonian-language newspaper Perno Postimees, Johann Voldemar Jannsen (1819–1890), replaced the term ‘country people’ with the word ‘Estonians’. Patriotic intellectuals encouraged Estonians to participate in public life, determined the legal and cultural requirements of the emerging nation, and organised the extensive sending of petitions to the Russian authorities (1864, 1881). The leaders of the movement considered the most significant guarantee for the ethnic survival and national development of Estonians to be the establishment of a European-style Estonian-language high culture.

First issue of the newspaper „Perno Postimees“ Pastor and linguist Jakob Hurt (1839–1906), founder of the Estonian national ideology, was convinced that the mission of a small nation can only be of a cultural and not of a political nature; what counts is national identity, not statehood as such. The movement’s radical wing was headed by Carl Robert Jakobson (1841–1882), a pedagogue, writer and journalist, founder of Sakala, the first political newspaper in Estonian (published 1878–1882). Jakobson formulated the economic and political programme of the Estonian national movement, demanding equal political rights for Germans and Estonians (representation of peasants and urban dwellers at diets, abolishment of the Baltic Landesstaat and the privileges of the Baltic German nobility). He regarded the Russian central government as the main anti-German ally.

Estonian societies, founded all over the country after the example of German societies, played an important part in the national awakening; choirs and orchestras were established in parishes.

The Society of Estonian Literati (1872–1893), founded in Tartu and consisting of Estonian intellectuals, advanced the Estonian written language, organised the gathering of folklore and ethnographic material, and published literature in their native tongue. The song and drama societies (i.e. theatrical association) forming Vanemuine laid a foundation for an Estonian national theatre (the first performance took place in 1870) and, following the German example, organised the first song festival in 1869. One thousand singers-musicians and an audience of 12 000 participated in the event. The tradition, still maintained today, occupies the central part in shaping Estonian national consciousness.

Estonian national museum

The Estonian Age of Awakening is a period in history where Estonians came to acknowledge themselves as a nation deserving the right to govern themselves.

This period is considered to begin in 1850s with greater rights being granted to commoners and to end with the declaration of the Republic of Estonia in 1918.

The term is sometimes also applied to the period around 1987–1988. The Estonian Age of Awakening leaders were Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Carl Robert Jakobson and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald.

Johann Voldemar Jannsen

Carl Robert Jakobson

Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald

They helped us realize, that it was time we start promoting our culture and become one.

We started to appreciate education and knowledge. Johann Voldemar Jannsen started a newspaper called „Perno postimees” and Carl Robert Jakobson held speeches, there was „Three Patriotic Speeches” what consisted of three speeches, that really touched everyones heart. In Perno Postimees J.V. Jannsen first used the term Estonians. In 1918, Estonia became free. The first president was Konstantin Päts. 1918, 23th of February, the Declaration of Independence was read by Hugo Kuusner. The feeling of freedom was sweet.

Estonian history beginning of 20th century to 1940 World War I (1914) In 1914 the outbreak of the First World War Estonia was initially not directly affected. However the Russian army was mobilized tens of thousands of Estonians, throughout the war a period of about 100 000.

In 1915 the Germans however have already arrived in Riga and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Estonia became and important hinterland area.

Therefore many troops were brought ashore; in recent had an important role in 1917 revolutions.

In 1917, after the February Revolution, Germany started new attack on the eastern front and in the autumn of the same year Germans invaded the West Estonian islands.

In February 1918, the Germans started a new attack and at the beginning of March they occupied the whole territory of Estonia.

Road to the republic Estonia as a unifies political entity first emerged after the Russian February Revolution of 1917. With the collapse of the Russian Empire in World War I, Russia’s Provisional Government granted national autonomy to an unified Estonia in April. The Governorate of Estonia in the north was united with the northern part of the Governorate of Livonia. Elections for a provisional parliament, Maapäev was organized, with the Menshevik and Bolshevik factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party obtaining a part of the vote. On November 5, 1917, two days before the October Revolution in Saint Petersburg, Estonian Bolshevik leader Jaan Anvelt violently usurped power from the legally constitued Maapäev in a coup d’etat, forcing the Maapäev underground.

In February, after the collapse of the peace talks between Soviet Russia and the German Empire mainland Estonia eas occupied by the Germans. Bolshevik forces retreated to Russia. Between the Russian Red Army’s retreat and the arrival of advancing German troops, the Salvation Committee of the Estonian

National Council Maapäev issued the Estonian Cedlaration of Independence in Pärnu on February 23, 1918.

German Occupation (1918) After the collapse of the short-lived puppet government of the United Baltic Duchy and the withdrawal of German troops in November 1918, an Estonian Provisional Government retook office. A military invasion by the Red Army followed a few days later, however, marking the beginning of the Estonian War of Independence (1918-1920).

The Estonian army cleared the entire territory of Estonia of the Red Army by February 1919.

The Estonian Army High Command in 1920.

The War of Independence The Estonian War of Independence (Estonian: Vabadussõda, literally "Freedom War"), also known as the Estonian Liberation War, was a defensive campaign of the Estonian Army and its allies, most notably theWhite Russian Northwestern Army, Latvia, and the United Kingdom, against the Soviet Western Front offensive and the aggression of the Baltische Landeswehr. It was fought in connection with the Russian Civil War during 1918–1920. The campaign was the struggle of Estonia for its sovereignty in the aftermath of World War I. It resulted in a victory for the newly established state and was concluded in the Treaty of Tartu.

The first celebration of Estonian Independence Day in Tallinn on 24 February 1919

INDEPENDENT ESTONIA During the years 1905-1917, the unstabled period,Estonians dared to imagine that their country could become an independent state.Amid the chaos that followed the disintegration of the Russian empire, Russia`s provional government granted Estonia autonomy, but the path to independance was complicated by both Russian and German claims on territory.The Bolsheviks outlawed Estonia`s first popularly elected assembly,although this did not prevent it from proclaiming the Republic of Estonia on February 24,1918 – a date still celebrated as Independance Day.The following day German troops invaded.They withdraw in November,enabling the formation of a provincial Estonian government.Within days Soviet Russia invaded, beginning the War of Independance (1918-1920), with stretched Estonian troops receiving support from the British Navy and volunteers from Denmark,Finland,and Sweden. On New`s Eve,1919,Bolshevik Russia and the Republic of Estonia finallyagreed to a truce, resulting in the Tartu Peace Treaty of February 2,1920, according to which Russia renounced all claims to Estonia forever.The Republic of Estonia won international recognition and joined the League of Nations in 1921.

Democratic Estonia introduced a liberal constitution that proclaimed the supremacy of parliament, the Riigikogu.Land reforms ensured that the property of Baltic nobility was redistributed to Estonians, many of them workers and peasants.Tartu University was now Estonian University, with mainly Estonian students.Cultural and academic life thrived, and Estonia became the first country in Western Europe to guarantee cultural minority groups, including

Jews.The country found export markets, especially for agricultural products, in Western Europe and the USA,as well as the Soviet Union.

The country`s liberal political system was, however, shaken by the world economic crisis of 1929,which fueled both socialist and fascist extremism.Changes to the constitution in 1933restricted the power of parliament and considerably strenghtened the authority of the head of state, President Konstantin Päts. Estonia`s policy of neutrality was sabotaged by theNazi- Soviet Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, according to which Germany and the Soviet Union assign Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland to either Soviet or Nazi spheres of influance.The Soviet Union offered Estonia ultimatum: accept soviet military bases on Estonian territory, or be invaded.Päts complied, and by the end of June the following year, the Soviet occupation was secure.The Soviet Union demanded the formation of a proSoviet puppet government, followed by „elections“,for which only proCommunist candidates were alloed to run. The new „parliament „ proclaimed the Estonian Socialist Republic in 1940 and asked to become part of the USSR. The occupation and annexation of Estonia was considered illegal by the United States and other Western states, including Britain.

Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic

The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, often abbreviated as Estonian SSR or ESSR, was a republic of the Soviet Union, administered by and a subordinate of the Government of the Soviet Union. The ESSR was initially established on the territory of the Republic of Estonia on July 21, 1940, following the invasion of Soviet troops on June 17, 1940 and the installation of a puppet government backed by the Soviet Union, which declared Estonia a Soviet state.

On July 23, 1940, the Estonian SSR nationalized all land, banks and major industrial enterprises in Estonia. Peasants were only allotted small plots of land during the land reforms. Small businesses were also later nationalized. The occupation brought colonisation with it. According to some Western scholars, relations between the Soviet Union and Estonian SSR were those of internal colonialism. All banks and accounts were essentially nationalized; a lot of industrial machinery was disassembled and relocated to other Soviet territories. Before retreating in 1941, Red Army, following the scorched earth policies, burnt most industrial constructions, destroying power plants, vehicles and cattle. Millions of dollars worth of goods were also moved from Estonia to Russia during the evacuation of 1941.

Immediately following the June 1940 Estonian occupation by the Soviet Union and forcible incorporation as a result of a Soviet-supported Communist coup d'Êtat, the only foreign powers to recognize the Soviet annexation were Nazi Germany and Sweden. The United States, United Kingdom and several other countries considered the annexation of Estonia by the USSR illegal following the Stimson Doctrine—a stance that made the doctrine an established precedent of international law. Although the US, the UK, the other Allies of World War II recognized the occupation of the Baltic states by USSR at Yalta Conference in 1945 de facto, they retained diplomatic relations with the exiled representatives of the independent Republic of Estonia, and never formally

recognized the annexation of Estonia de jure. The Russian government and officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of Estonia was legitimate.

In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity.

By 1981, Russian was taught in the first grade of Estonian-language schools and was also introduced into Estonian pre-school teaching.

By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years but waned in the late 1980s. Other political movements, groupings and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was the Estonian Popular Front, established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership and broad constituency. The Greens and the dissident-led Estonian National Independence Party soon followed. By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily.

The republic's Supreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet that November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).

Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Sovietera immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.

The first freely elected parliament during the Soviet era in Estonia had passed Estonian Sovereignty Declaration on November 16, 1988, independence resolutions on May 8, 1990, and renamed the Estonian SSR the Republic of Estonia. On August 20, 1991 the Estonian parliament issued a Declaration of Independence from the Soviet Union. On September 6, 1991, Supreme Soviet of the USSR recognized the independence of Estonia., immediately followed by the international recognitions of the Republic of Estonia.

In 1992, Heinrich Mark, the Prime Minister of the Republic of Estonia in exile, presented his credentials to the newly elected President of Estonia Lennart Meri. On February 23, 1989 The flag of the Estonian SSR was lowered on Pikk Hermann, and replaced with the blueblack-white flag of Estonia on February 24, 1989. In 1991, August the 20th, we were free.

THE SINGING REVOLUTION The four-year-long peaceful transition to the restoration otive states to invest in, thanks to the famous flat-tax system and liberal business laws, independence in Estonia was named after the first mass, openly anti-occupation Song Festival in the summer 1988, when as many as 300,000 people gathered at the Song Bowl grounds between Pirita and Kadriorg to boldly and calmly sing songs banned during the Soviet occupation.This followed the signing in April of a declaration by Estonian intellectuals calling for genuine perestroika.

ESTONIA TODAY Today, Estonia is resolutely Westward –looking. International institutions have described Estonia as one of the most attractive states to invest in,thanks to the famous flat-tax system and liberal business laws.The country has made huge strides in building upa civil society, but there is some way to go in establishing truly open.minded and tolerant society where difference and disability are fully respected.

The election as President, in 2006, of a Westward-looking Estonian exile, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, who gave up his Us passport to join Estonian politics in 1990s, confirmed Estonia`s commitment to Europe. This irks Russia, which has always found it hard to accept that Estonia should be outside its sphere of influence. Relations with Russia are uneasy,with drawn-out border checks common, journalists denied access to international events in Russia, and the agreed upon border still not legally adopted by Russia. Most Estonians are deeply suspious of Big Brother next door, and are unimpressed,although not suprised, by President Vladimir Putin`s increasing authoritarianism and the way he seems to tolerate hard –line,xenophobic Russian nationalist movements while condemning Estonian „nationalism“. Now that Estonia has an official voice within the EU, however, Russia is finding it increasingly difficult to draw mileage out of the argument that Estonians dont respect the rights of Russians in Estonia.

Estonia in the world today is a member of NATO, The United Nations, The EU, the Western European Union,the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, The World Trade Organization,the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the World Customs Organisation, and is an observer member of the Organization of American States.

Estonian presidents

Estonia has only had 4 presidents, since it’s been a republic for little time.

Konstantin Päts (1874-1956) was the first president of Estonia. His reign as a president started in 1938 and ended in 1940. Päts’ political career started early.

He served as a municipal advisor in 1904 and had many political positions after that. With his speech during the War of Independence he put a basis to Estonian economy. Päts’ position as a president ended when Soviet Union occupied Estonia in 1940. Päts was forced to leave his office and was deported to Leningrad with his family. In 1941, he was arrested.

In time he ended up in psychiatric hospital, where he died in 1956.

Lennart Meri (1929-2006). His reign as the second president of Estonia started in 1992 and ended in 2001. He started out as a writer and filmmaker. Through his political activeness he got the position of Foreign minister in 1990. In 1992 he became the president of Estonia. In 1996 he was re-elected and stayed on his position as the president until election in 2001. He died in 2006 because of brain tumor. "In his nine years as head of state, Meri both restored the presidency and built up the Republic of Estonia in the widest sense," president R端端tel had said.

Arnold Rüütel (1928-). Before his position as president he was a teacher at the Tartu School of Mechanization of Agriculture from 1955 to 1957. In 1957, he was appointed as head expert in livestock and director of the experimental farm of the Estonian Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Institute, and in 1963 he was appointed as Director of theTartu Model Sovkhoz, a position he held until 1969. From 1969 to 1977, Arnold Rüütel was Rector of the Estonian Academy of Agriculture. In 2001 he was elected as president. While his reign.

Estonia joined the European Union. Rüütel lost his position as president in 2006, when Ilves won the election with 174 votes, while Rüütel got 162.

Toomas Hendrik Ilves (1953-) is the fourth president of Estonia. He was born in Sweden and moved to the United States when he was 5. In 1981 he moved to Canada. In 1996-1998 he was Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs. Ilves became a president candidate in 2006 and won the elections. In 2011 he was re-elected.

Pärnu history

Also, the Livonian Order was fond of the favourable port location at the mouth of Embekke (Estonian: Emajõgi) . Thus, in the 13th century, two settlements appeared on the shores of River Pärnu - Perona (Old Pärnu) on the right shore, at the mouth of River Sauga, and Embekke (New Pärnu) on the left shore. The history books mention the City of Pärnu for the first time in 1251. Pärnu's first period of prosperity was the time from the beginning of the 14th century up to the end of the 15th century while it was a port on the route to the Hanseatic City of Novgorod.

Perona (Estonian: Vana-Pärnu) was founded by the bishop of Henricus ca.

1251, suffered heavily under pressure of the concurrent town, and was finally destroyed ca. 1600.

Another town, Embeke (later German: Neu-Pernau, Estonian: Uus-Pärnu) was founded by the Livonian Order, who began building an Ordensburg nearby in 1265. The latter town, then known by the German name of Pernau, was a member of the Hanseatic League and an important ice-free harbor for Livonia.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took control of town between 1560– 1617; the Poles and Lithuanians fought the Swedes nearby in 1609. Sweden took control of the town during the 16th-century Livonian War, but it was subsequently taken by the Russian Empire in the 1710 Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia and the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, following the Great Northern War. It belonged to Imperial Russian Governorate of Livonia then.

The town became part of independent Estonia in 1918 following World War I.

During the Great Northern War, the University of Dorpat (Tartu) was relocated to Pärnu from 1699–1710.

The decisive factor contributing to the foundation of the City of Pärnu was the presence of rivers.

Created by: Mrs. Małgorzata Mendyk Jakub Bauman, Bartosz Tabaczek, Aleksander Bogusz, Szymon Antonik , Joachim Tworko, Maciej Meder, Piotr Parciak, Școala Gimnazială Vădeni, Mr. Rahim ÖZKAYA, Mrs. Fatma KORAŞ, Mr. Ahmet AYDIN, Mrs. Selcan BAĞCI, Mr. Hasan ÖZDİNÇ, Istituto Comprehsivo “Galileo Galilei”-Italy