MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS

All habitat characteristics that butterflies rely on, as well as landscape composition and diversity should be ensured at a large spatial scale and not only locally where butterfly populations occur (Ellis et al. 2012). This enables butterfly movements among patches of suitable habitat and thus the dispersal of reproductive individuals and gene flow among different subpopulations of a species. Corridors connecting patches of suitable habitats (connectivity) are crucial in order to facilitate the movements of adults, while they must also provide suitable habitat features such as nectar-rich flowers for the foraging adults.

Especially in Mediterranean ecosystems, it is very important to maintain traditional agricultural activities. Extensive livestock farming mainly of sheep, goats and small cattle is considered an agricultural activity of “High Nature Value”, as it is vital both for the health and richness of the grassland and for the butterflies.

These practices ensure the mosaic-like nature and diversity of landscape which are necessary for an area to support a large number of species. Each species or species group has unique (often very specialized) ecological requirements as regards their larval host-plants, the presence or absence of shrubs and hedgerows, vegetation height, and the existence of adjacent woodland and openings among other landscape elements.

Furthermore, any other human activity (e.g. road construction, installation of Renewable Energy Sources, settlements) should not damage, degrade, shrink and fragment natural and semi-natural agroforestry ecosystems and grasslands, as the conservation of butterflies, insects and biodiversity in general is beneficial both for the species themselves and for human well-being.

All these must be taken into consideration in the agricultural, environmental and energy policies that are currently being implemented in Europe and those that will be implemented in the future. Inadequate agricultural and farming practices so far have caused the decline of several butterfly populations, like for example the notable butterfly declines in the UK due to the high loss of flower-rich meadows and calcareous grasslands (>80%) and poor management of the native woodland (Warren et al. 2021).

The large-scale conservation of suitable habitats is also a good “shield” against climate change, which leads to further alteration and loss of the species habitats. With proper management, it is possible that species can gradually adapt to the new and anticipated environmental conditions. Finally, scientific research needs to continue, as it provides the evidence and data for understanding the species’ ecological requirements. In addition, long-term monitoring of species populations reveals their trends over time and their relationship to environmental changes and management practices. Cooperation between the scientific community, the authorities and the stake-holders involved in the management of the protected areas and agroforestry ecosystems and grasslands, such as farmers and citizens, is important for the success of any management plan.

Traditional extensive livestock farming supports the conservation of several butterfly species