2. FOOD SECURITY

Goals 2.1 and 2.2 for Sustainable Development of the UN 2030 Agenda concern food security in order to provide food at a lower cost, so as not to create a food crisis in economically weaker households (Waldron et al., 2017). Monoculture has prevailed in the primary sector since the end of World War II and although it was characterized by a significant increase in productivity and a reduction in labor costs, it worsened food insecurity. According to the Hellenic Statistical Authority, the risk of poverty threatens 17.1% of the Greek population (ELSTAT, 2022). Agroforestry systems appear to be capable of directly and indirectly constituting an important factor for food security factor in many ways. Initially, the most evident element is the additional income for farmers, by integrating forest species into their production system and directly benefiting from food products and timber. In addition, agroforestry practices are able to protect and conserve relevant biodiversity, reduce soil erosion and improve soil characteristics, which can increase crop yields and food availability for households throughout the year (Félix et al., 2018), including those pressured by poverty in rural areas.

NWFPs that can be produced in agroforestry systems have been shown to be important sources of macro- and micronutrients. At this point, it is critical to note that it is also crucial to encourage business development and innovative actions to meet the growing market demand for these specific products. Furthermore, what is produced in agroforestry systems is related to the need for consumption, combined with the nutritional and market value of each species. As a result, agroforestry encourages the consumption of more nutritious and indigenous foods, reducing malnutrition within social groups which are most vulnerable (Palacios Bucheli and Bokelmann, 2017).

Altogether, in terms of food security, the role of agroforestry systems is twofold. Firstly, they reduce the risk of failure of one cropping season due to adverse conditions such as prolonged drought and other natural disasters that are increasingly observed as a consequence of climate change. Conserving resources and using them efficiently is the best way to increase the productivity of a system. In addition, agricultural production is also increased through various beneficial processes, such as biological nitrogen fixation, ecological recycling, improvement of soil physicochemical properties, control of weeds and insect enemies of a crop, and increased water availability (Sarvade and Singh, 2014).

3. EMPLOYMENT

Agroforestry systems can also become development factors, especially in less developed areas such as mountainous areas lacking tourism development to date. According to the latest data from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT, 2018), since 2013, in Greece, there has been a 4.1% drop in the family workforce of agricultural holdings. The same pattern is shown in seasonal workers, while an increase of 35.2% is shown in permanent workers (regularly employed) and other workers (mutual help and fixed-rate work). In 2013, during the Greek economic recession, there was an increase of 5.5% compared to the figures of 2009 regarding the family workforce and a decrease in all other categories (Figure 1). Especially, during the last three years the number of seasonal workers has been reduced and the need for a permanent workforce is more adamant than ever.

The gradual increase of monocultures, in addition to the degradation of environmental aspects also poses a threat to family farms. Thus, an increased dependence on wage labor is observed, which has disrupted the organization of family work, leading to an increase in production costs and production specialization. On the other hand, in most rural areas in many countries all over the world there is an increase in the outflow of labor force, mostly in younger aged groups seeking work and study opportunities in urban areas who often do not return to their ancestral lands. This is how urbanization intensifies, which in general amplifies the effects of climate change. Indigenous family labor in agroforestry systems has the potential to contribute to the livelihoods of affected households (Jha et al., 2021).

In the majority of them, agroforestry systems achieve, due to the lower requirements of external inputs, high rates of recycling and combination of crops-livestock. They are a viable option for smallholder farmers with limited resources (Amare and Darr, 2020). However, in many rural areas of Greece, agricultural and agro-livestock holdings are small and often farmers and herders are unwilling or unable to allocate land for the establishment of agroforestry systems. Also, it is likely that in areas where land holdings are leased, producers are reluctant to invest in the long-term effort of establishing agroforestry systems, namely trees, as they fear that they are likely to benefit the next tenant or landowner rather than themselves.

It is therefore understood from the above, that agroforestry systems through the increased income - due to the additional products produced - but also the sustainable development (possible agritourism opportunities) are likely to attract the lost workforce back to rural areas. Also, the possible partnership of multinational companies with the owners of agroforestry systems in Greece, as has happened successfully in foreign countries, would increase profits and result in the creation of new jobs. Successful examples of this action are the movement of the “Masterfoods” group, to support the diversification of cocoa farms into agroforestry systems, as well as the Daimler-Benz car manufacturer that has turned to small agroforestry farmers in Brazil for the production of raw materials for the Mercedes-Benz C-Class cars (Leakey et al., 2006).

In conclusion, the application of agroforestry seems to have beneficial effects in many areas. The increased value of produced products, the assurance of food security, and the increase of employment in disadvantaged areas confirm the role of this practice in mitigating and addressing the problems generated by the increasingly precarious linear production model.