Mars Outpost

MARS OUTPOST The First Step Of Mars Colonization

Yukuang Hu M. Arch Student Research University of Virginia

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Acknowledgments I dedicate this research to everyone who eyes one the future.

I want to express my deepest appreciation to my instructor, Matthew Jull, course teaching assistants, Jonah Pruitt and Sihan Lai and my research group members, Changji Chen, Evan Sparkman, Yanbo Chen and Ye Tao. Without their help. I couldn’t finish this research.

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Abstract “Surviving on Mars could teach us how to live more sustainably on earth”, said the Moving to Mars exhibition’s curator, London’s Design Museum chief curator and writer Justin McGuirk Humans have always looked up into the night sky and dreamed about space. It has been sixty-three years after the Soviets launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into space in April, 1957. At the same time, there are many serious problems facing humanity, such as climate change, population explosion, nuclear war, resource depletion and etc. With the rapid development of science and technology, human being increase the speed of aerospace exploration. Space colonization is no longer a fantasy.

Now, human being has entered a new stage. There are numerous resources and space on other planets. After the earth, Mars is the most habitable planet in our solar system. There are many similarity between Earth and Mars. However, there are also many large differences between Earth and Mars. Therefore, in this research, I want to discuss how to design a building on Mars and what should we do as an architect during the period of Mars colonization. In essence this thesis is an exploration of building architecture on Mars.

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Contents

Introduction 4-5 Chapter 1: Mars Basic Information 6-9 Chapter 2: Precedent Study Research 10-29 Chapter 3: Martian Building Site Analysis 30-37 Chapter 4: Mars Outpost 38-51 Bibliography 52-56

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Introduction After the earth, Mars is the most habitable planet in our solar system. There are many similarity between Earth and Mars. However, there are also many large differences between Earth and Mars. Therefore, in this research, I want to discuss how to design a building on Mars and what should we do as an architect during the period of Mars colonization. In essence this thesis is an exploration of building architecture on Mars. It could be a small outpost but there is no doubt that this outpost has great significance for humanity space exploration. Moreover, we also can rethink how to build a better architecture on Earth from a Mars architecture research.

What is space architecture?

At the World Space Congress in Houston in 2002, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) technical Aerospace Architecture Subcommittee stated the definition of space architecture. (Duerk, 2004) Space Architecture is the theory and practice of designing and building inhabited environments in outer space, responding to the deep human drive to explore and occupy new places. Architecture organizes and integrates the creation and enrichment of built environments.

Designing for space requires specialized knowledge of orbital mechanics, propulsion, weightlessness, hard vacuum, psychology of hermetic environments, and other topics.

Space Architecture has complementary relationships with diverse fields such as aerospace engineering, terrestrial architecture, transportation design, medicine, human factors, space science, law, and art. (Osburg, 2003)

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Why space colonization is important?

Famed British cosmologist Stephen Hawking said, “ Humanity Must Colonize Space to Survive.”

According to Stephen Hawking’s prediction, humanity would likely not survive another 1,000 years “without escaping beyond our fragile planet.” Humanity would keep living at risk if we only can survive on a single planet. (Tariq, 2013) Why Mars, and not another planet?

In our solar system, Mars is the most suitable planet for living after the earth. There are several reasons as follows: • Mars soil contains water • Compare to the other planets, Mars temperature is agreeable • There enough sunlight to use solar panels • Gravity on Mars is 38% that of out Earth’s, which is believed to be sufficient for the human body to adapt to • There is an atmosphere that could protect humanity from cosmic radiation • The day/night rhythm is very similar to ours on Earth Humans are still very difficult to survive on Mars. However, comparing to other planets, Mars is paradise! (Mars One) What do space architects do?

The simplest definition of space architects is the persons who design architectures in outer space. In the initial stage of space exploration, architects were not involved. The reason of that is survivability is primary consideration. With the science and technology development, the time length of astronauts spend on outer space increases dramatically. Therefore, the human experience within the environments becomes more and more important. The humanity’s longer term aim is space settlement. For achieving it, architects must participate.

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Chapter 1: Mars Basic Information

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The Red Planet -Physical characteristics of Mars

Figure 1:Size comparison of Earth and Mars, 2015, NASA and ESA.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second smallest planet in the Solar System. Mars is often called “Red Planet”.

Reason for this is that iron oxide is prevalent on Mars surface. To the naked eye, iron oxide’s color is reddish.

Because rotational period and the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane are very similar to Earth’s, the days and seasons are nearly coincident.

The first space craft to visit Mars is Mariner 4. Mariner 4 launched

by NASA on November 28, 1964. After that , Mars has been explored by numerous spacecrafts.

The Mars’ diameter is almost half of Earth’s, and Mars’ surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth’s dry land.

The density of Mars is less than Earth, having about 15% of Earth’s volume and 11% of Earth’s mass. Because of that, the gravity of Mars is 38% of Earth’s. (Wikipedia,2020)

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Figure 2:Mars Facts, NASA.

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Chapter 2: Precedent Study Research

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Precedent Study Research Human always imagines building styles on other planets. People could easily see them in movies and TV series. In people’s imagination, buildings in outer space are strange and varied. At the same time, as professional practitioners, architects never stop designing space architecture. With the development of science and technology, construct a building on Mars is no longer a fantasy.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and many other organizations hold a lot of aerospace architectural competition. At the same time, there are also many researchers who are interested in space architecture. Therefore, in this chapter, I will choose four different styles precedents. By analyzing these precedents’ advantages and disadvantages, preparing for my final Mars outpost design.

Figure 3:2001: A Space OdysseyďźˆFilm) Directed by Stanley Kubrick

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1. Marsha - 3D Printed Mars Habitat AI Spacefactory

2. Mars Ice Home Clouds Architecture Office

3. Mars City Fรกtima Olivieri, Efrie Friedlander, and Rolando Lopez, National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), NASA, and the Total Learning Research Institute (TLRI)

4. Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Research Station International Polar Foundation

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1. Marsha AI SpaceFactory https://www.aispacefactory.com/marsha

Figure 4: Overall Apperance of Marsha

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In recent years, more and more aerospace architects design their buildings using 3D printed technology. In January 2018, AI SpaceFactory joined NASA’s 3D Printed Habitat Challenge which needed to construct a prototype of martian habitat. AI SpaceFactory thought there were two main design emphases. First, the structure of Martian habitat must be resilient and interior layout must be meet NASA’s demands. Second, because of astronauts would live in Martian habitat for a long time, it must be designed to be useful and interesting to sustain social and mental health.

3D Printing In-Site Resource Utilization AI SpaceFactory though the utilization of materials found on Mars plays a key role in martian settlement. The reason of that is every ten pounds of rocket needs roughly ninety pounds of propellant. If we can’t use resources on Mars, outer space settlement is impossible. So, sending machines in advance of human is the first step of the project. These machines would help people to harvest the raw Martian materials and process them into forms that can be used.

Thus, AI SpaceFactory wanted to test this technologies on Earth first.

Figure 5: Construction Process of Marsha

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Figure 6: Typology Study of Marsha

Improved Structure AI SpaceFactory rethink the structure of Marian habitat (Figure 6). The structures on Earth are designed primarily for gravity and wind. Martian habitat require a structure to handle internal atmospheric pressure and thermal stresses. According to these requirements, Marsha is designed to vertically oriented, egg-like shape.

The tall, narrow structure reduces the need for a construction machine to move on the surface.

Dual Shell Designers adopt a unique dual shell (Figure 7) in Marsha. This method isolates the habitable spaces from structural stresses brought on by Mars’s extreme temperature swings. The outer layer retains simple and effective form to achieve the structural requirement, and the inner layer (Figure 8) is designed for the daily needs of people.

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Figure 7: Dual Shell

Figure 8: Floor Plans of Marsha

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2. Mars Ice House Clouds Architecture Office https://cloudsao.com/MARS-ICE-HOUSE

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Figure 9: Mars Ice Home overall apperance, Clouds AO, 2015.

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Water is the basis for life.

According to NASA recent Marian researches, more than five million cubic kilometers of water ice exists on Mars. The Mars Ice House project utilize this vast supply of water ice to build a Marian habitat for four explorers. Compare to the dark and claustrophobic habitats, the facade of Mars Ice House a translucent fin shaped double shell structure contained within a transparent ETFE film. The designers said the form is driven by a humanist approach with crew comfort and well-being as key design factors.

Figure 10: Mars Ice Home Plans and Section.

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Intermediate Zone There is a “front yard” between inner shell and outer, and this “front yard” is a intermediate zone (Figure 11). Personally speaking, I think the prominent characteristic of this project is the intermediate zone. First, under the outer shell protection, astronauts could experience “outside” without space suits. Second, the intermediate zone works as a natural thermal isolation that protect interior rooms form Marian extreme climate. Finally, the intermediate zone leaves the possibility open for the future. There isn’t a specific using function of the intermediate zone. It means anything could happen in this space according to missions or astronauts’ requirements.

Figure 11: Intermediate Zone of Mars Ice Home

3D Printing with Ice Compare to the other projects, the volume 3D printed machine of Mars Ice Home is very small. The machine doesn’t a huge frame to move. It moves along the wall that it builds.

Figure 12: Making & Climbing the Ice Wall

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11 Steps to build a Mars Ice House At this part, the designers use a series of figures to explain the construction process of a Mars Ice House. By using these pictures, readers could have a better understanding.

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Figure 13: Screen Captures, Construction Process of Mars Ice House

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3. Mars City Fรกtima Olivieri, Efrie Friedlander, and Rolando Lopez, National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), NASA, and the Total Learning Research Institute (TLRI) https://www.autodesk.com/redshift/designing-mars-virtual-reality/ In this project, Kerry Joels (TLRI president and former NASA physicist) and the architects hope to build a Mars city - like space camp on Earth. Moreover, someday, they hope their deep research and design could become an actual Mars base from plans. Joels and architects want to create a self-sustaining habitat for 100 people. In the layout of Mars City (Figure 14), readers could see the functional parts clearly. Personally speaking, I want to divide the layout to four main parts. The first is habitation and recreation.

This part is designed for astronauts daily activities. The second part is working area. Then, the working area connect a solar power plant directly. The whole city power is provided by the solar power plant. Therefore, the power plant must be easy to access for the convenience of daily check. The last part is transportation area. It would be the origin that the Mars City connecting outside.

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Figure 13: Overall Apperance of Mars City

Figure 14: Layout of Mars City

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4. Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Research Station International Polar Foundation http://www.antarcticstation.org/

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Figure 14: Layout of Mars City

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Antarctica Research Station VS Mars Habitat If I must choose an earth architecture that most like a Mars habitat, the answer must be Antarctica research station. There are three reasons for it. First, the temperature of Antarctica is similar to Mars. Second, the building function of Antarctica research station and Mars habitat is almost the same. They both need to hold several persons, and they are both served as a scientific and explore base. Third, transportation of building materials is a difficulty that need to be solved. Personally speaking, I want to say Mats habitat is a “ Antarctic research station” that is located in a much more extreme environment. Therefore, by learning how to build a Antarctica research station could help researchers designing a Mars habitat.

There are two reasons that I choose Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Research Station as a case study. The first is PEA is designed as a integrated internal structural system, making it more compact than any other station on the continent. By using this method, minimizing the need for materials. Second, PEA is a “zero emission” station. Solar and wind energy is the station’s primary source of power.

Building the Station The Princess Elisabeth Station was established after elaborate planing. The first step is topographic survey. Because of Utsteinen Nunatak could offer to anchor the station on a granite ridge that would naturally prevent snow accumulation, Utsteinen Nunatak was selected as the building site. At the same time, on this site, the station could rely solely on wind and solar energy for electricity.

Then , the team installed an Automatic Weather Station(AWS) with a satellite link to collect precise meteorological data on the selected area.

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All building materials, tools and machinery need to be shipped to Antarctica. Therefore, a safe transport route is very important. The team marked the route with a series of bamboo beacons. Then, the team would follow the same route to the building site. The final step is assembly. After building the anchoring structure and shipping all architectural material to the building site, workers went the site to finish the final assembled work.

Figure 15: Topographic Survey

Figure 16: Main Construction Phase

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Chapter 3: Martian Building Site Analysis

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Site Location So far I have know the basic geography and environmental knowledge of Mars, and I have analysis four cases that related to Marian habitat design. Now, I will start to design my Mars Outpost. The first thing I want to do is to select a building site. There are several requirements that the building site should have.

Relatively Mild Climate We all know that the Mars’ surface temperature is much lower than Earth. Therefore, selecting a relatively warmer area plays a key role for Mars habitat. Building a habitat at a warmer area means saving a lot of energy.

These images (Figure 17) shows the daytime and nighttime temperature of the Martian surface as measured by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) instrument on the Mars Global Surveyor.

In the daytime, the warmest areas between 10 N to 45 N. In the night time, the average temperature of Mars’ northern hemisphere is much higher than the southern hemisphere. The area closer to the Mars’ North Pole has a higher temperature in general. Then, I try to consider the temperature of daytime and nighttime together.

I stack the daytime and nighttime temperature maps together to find which areas have acceptable temperature whether daytime or nighttime. I use red lines to mark these areas (Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology).

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Daytime Surface Temperature 60 N

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-125 C

20 C

180 W

Nighttime Surface Temperature 60 N

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60 S 180 W

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-120 C

-65 C

Overlap Map 60 N

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60 S 180 W

180 W

Figure 17: After editing, Mars Surface Temperature

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Water Resource Water is the source of life. This sentence can also be said on Mars.

NASA plans to return astronauts to the Moon in 2024, it is a stepping stone on the path to sending humans to Mars. So, NASA should select a proper landing site, and water ice will play a key role in any potential landing site. Because the spacecraft’s carrying capacity is limited, Mars Colonization Mission will have to harvest water on Mars as drinking water and rocket fuel. This concept is called “in situ resource utilization”, and it’s an important factor in selecting human landing sites on Mars (Tony Greicius, 2019).

The first image (Figure 18) is a map that portray the distribution of water in the subsurface of Mars. Mars Odyssey’s neutron spectrometer detected the amount and speed of neutrons emitted from Mars’ surface from February 2002 to April 2003 to prduce this map. (Los Alamos National laboratory) The second map (Figure 19) shows the depth of water ice on Mars. After scientists knew the distribution of water on Mars, they started to think how to harvest this precious water resource.

Because rocket’s carrying capacity is limited, astronauts wouldn’t have large machineries to help them dig water ice. Therefore, the landing site should be a place that astronauts could easily harvest water ice. For finding ice that astronauts could easily dig up, the map’s authors relied on two heat-sensitive instruments: MRO’s Mars Climate Sounder and the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) camera on Mars Odyssey. The outlined box represents the ideal region as the landing site. It is a choice after considering sunlight, temperature, water resource and many other factors (Tony Greicius, 2019).

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Water Distribution on Mars 60 N

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Water Equivalent Hydrogen Abundance 2%

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18% Figure 18: Distribution of Subsurface Water on Mars

Underground Water Ice on Mars 60 N

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60 S 180 W

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Water Ice Depth (m) 0.8

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Figure 19: Underground Water Ice On Mars

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Final Site Selection

Whether on Mars or Earth, site selection plays a key role in architecture. In previo In this part, I will consider these factors together and choose a final site location. T abundant and accessible. I use red line to highlight the area that satisfies all require

180 W

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ous parts, we have discuss many factors that will affect the building site selection.

The ideal site location will be a place where climate is warm, and water resource is ements. This area is near east longitude 87 degree north latitude 60 degree.

60 N

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180 W Figure 20: Final Building Site,NASA/JPL-Caltech

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Chapter 4: Mars Outpost

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Mars Outpost Design Goals In my research, I want to create a outpost that would be the first step of Mars Colonization. Therefore, the outpost should satisfy several requirements.

First, the Mars outpost should be a shelter that could hold several astronauts. Except for the daily needs of life, the Mars outpost should satisfy astronauts’ research requirements. At the same time, how to keep astronauts’ mental health is very important. Because of astronauts would live in the outpost for a long time, a enjoyable outpost is necessary.

Second, the outpost must be a self-sustainable system. Because of the rocket carrying ability, it is impossible that a colonization relies on Earth resources. Therefore, without Earth’s supply, the outpost must use resources on Mars to maintain astronauts’ daily lives.

Third, the Mars outpost should be repeatable. A Mars outpost isn’t our final destination, and it is the starting point of Mars colonization. So, the Mars outpost should leave the door open for future opportunities. The outpost would be a basic unit of future Mars city. The outpost is not only a Mars research station, but also a test of Mars architecture.

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Strategies My first strategy is the Mars outpost’s shape should be a simple geometry. I have two reasons to adopt a geometry shape. First, a geometry shape is conductive to future expansion. As I mentioned above, the Mars Outpost should be a starting point of a Mars city.

In the future, numerous Mars buildings would connect together to form a Mars city. So, a geometry shape building makes this connection easier. Second, the components of a geometry building are relatively simple. No one could predict what would be happened on Mars. Therefore, we need to design a building that astronauts could repair and replace damaged components easily. Now, the question is what kind of geometry should be used? Because of the extreme environment of Mars, I want to choose a geometry that couldn’t produce gaps between each unit when the buildings connect to each other. There are three shapes that could satisfy this requirement, equilateral triangles, squares and hexagons. It is a mathematical truth, only these three geometrical figures can fit together on a flat surface without leaving gaps (Charles Darwin, 2013).

Equilateral Triangle

Square

Hexagon

Figure 21: Three geometrical figures

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Figure 22: Beehive, Matthew, 2018.

Now, we have three options, triangle, square and hexagon. So, which to choose? In Rome period, Marcus Terentius Varro made a mathematical guess, he proposed that a structure built from hexagons is probably a wee bit more compact than a structure built from squares or triangles. Two thousand thirty-five years after Marcus Terentius Varro proposed his conjucture, Thomas Hales, a matehmatician at the University of Michigan, solved the riddle.

In conclusion, Varro was right. The hexagon is the most compact style, and the more compact your structure, the less building material you need to construct the building. Building materials are very precious on Mars, as a designer, I must propose a building style that don't waste materials. The honeycomb is a materpiece of engineering. I is a perfect building in economizing labor and building material. Therefore, in my Mars outpost deisng, I want to choose hexagon shape as a basic unit (Charles Darwin, 2013).

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Second, the Mars outpost would have many layers. The idea comes from the previous case studies (Marsha and Mars Ice House). I found multiple layers structure is reasonable in Mars architecture. It contributes to retain heat and create a buffer zone between indoor space and harsh exterior environment. Furthermore, these zone don’t have specific function, it means astronauts could decide what could be happened in this area according to their habits.

Third, the main building material must come from Mars. According to NASA data, every ten pounds of rocket needs ninety pounds of propellant. Therefore, Mars outpost is impossible if we can’t use resources on Mars. The next question is what kind of resources should be use? In my opinion, the best building material on Mars is ice. I have two powerful reasons to support my opinion. The first is there is large amount of water-ice resource on Mars. Furthermore, at some specific areas, water-ice is on Mars surface. Astronauts could harvest water-ice by a spade. Second, because of Mars environment, ice could be used as a building material. The temperature on Mars is much colder than, ice can remain stable for a long time. Moreover, Mars has less mass than Earth, the surface gravity on Mars is less than the surface gravity on Earth. So, ice could also support a Mars architecture.

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Figure 23: Mars Outpost Appearance .

The core of Mars Outpost comes form earth. Life support system is located in the core. It is the most important component of this building. Outside the core is the first layer of Mars Outpost. It is the major living and working area of astronauts. This layer is built by 3D printed machine, and the machine could utilize Mars surface earth as raw material. Compare to transport a large amount of building materials to Mars, I think to find a way to use Mars resource is a much easier method. The second layer is built by Ice. This layer not only protects the main part of Mars Outpost, but also works as a insulation layer to retain temperature of the main part. I don’t use ice in the building core area because of I think ice is a unreliable material on Mars. According to NASA’s climate data, the highest temperature of Mars is 86°F. Ice would melt at this temperature. If the main building material of Mars Outpost is ice, astronauts would lose their only shelter. Therefore, in my design, the ice is used at outermost layer.

In my opinion, the constructon of a Mars Outpost should have four steps.The first step is the building site survey. In this step, several robots would be sent to the buidling site to do field visit.

After confirming the building site conditions are agreeable, the next step starts. In the second step, machines and materials would be sent to the building site, and the construction of the Mars Outpost starts. Third, before astronuats arrive Mars, the outpost would run for a while. During this time, scientists would test this outpost on Earth. Finally, astronatus will arrive this outpost.

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The area between the inner layer and the outer layer is an intermediate area. In this area, astronauts could do some exercise without heavy space suits. Moreover, no one could predict what kind of things would happen on Mars. Therefore, this intermediate area is also designed for the future.

The Mars Outpost is the starting point of Mars Colonization.

The first Mars Outpost would be consisted of decades this kind of buildings. In this research, I try to propose a typology of Mars architecture.

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1. Entrance / Airlock 2. Kitchen / Dinning Room 3. Life support system 4. Laboratory 5. Green house 6. Bedroom 7. Intermediate area 8. Bathroom

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Figure 24: First Floor Plan.

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Figure 24: Second Floor Plan.

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1. Entrance / Airlock 2. Kitchen / Dinning Room 3. Life support system 4. Laboratory 5. Green house 6. Bedroom 7. Intermediate area 8. Observation deck

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Figure 25: Section.

Images Credits [Cover Page] NASA, JPL-Caltech, USGS, https://mars.nasa.gov/ resources/7808/global-color-views-of-mars/?site=msl.

[Figure 1] Earth: NASA/Apollo 17 crew, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg.

Mars: ESA/MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/RSSD/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OSIRIS_Mars_true_ color.jpg.

[Figure 2] NASA, ‘Mars Facts | All About Mars’, NASA’s Mars Exploration Program, https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts.

[Figure 3] Stanley Kubrick, 2001: A Space Odyssey (film), 1968.

[Figure 4,5,7,8] AI SpaceFactory, ‘Marsha’, https://www.aispacefactory.com.

[Figure 6] AI SpaceFactory, ‘Marsha’, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XnrVV0w2jrE [Figure 9] Clouds AO, “MARS ICE HOME.” Clouds Architecture Office, September 2015, https://cloudsao.com/MARS-ICEHOUSE. [Figure 10-13] Clouds AO, “MARS ICE HOME.” Clouds Architecture Office, September 2015, https://cloudsao.com/MARSICE-HOUSE.

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[Figure 14-16] International Polar Foundation, ‘Home - Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Research Station’,http://www.antarcticstation.org/.

[Figure 17] Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology, ‘Five Years of Monitoring Mars’ Daytime Surface Temperatures (Animation)’,https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/ spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA04298, ‘Temperature of the Martian Surface’,https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details. php?id=PIA02014.

[Figure 18] Los Alamos National laboratory, ‘Distribution of Subsurface Water on Mars from Odyssey’, https://www.planetary.org/ multimedia/space-images/mars/distribution-of-subsurface.html.

[Figure 19] Tony Greicius, ‘NASA’s Treasure Map for Water Ice on Mars’, NASA, 2019, http://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasastreasure-map-for-water-ice-on-mars.

[Figure 20] NASA/JPL-Caltech, ‘Map of NASA’s Mars Landing Sites’, https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details. php?id=PIA23518.

[Figure 22] Matthew T Rader on Unsplash, 2018, https://unsplash. com/photos/ohygdzgWbr4.

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Bibliography Duerk, Donna P. Curriculum for Aerospace Architecture with Emphasis on Lunar Base and Habitat Studies (NASA CR-2004212820), Sep. 2004.

Clouds AO, “MARS ICE HOME.” Clouds Architecture Office: Ostap Rudakevych, Masayuki Sono, Yuko Sono, Space Exploration Architecture: Christina Ciardullo, Kelsey Lents, Jeffrey Montes, Michael Morris, Melodie Yashar September 2015, https:// cloudsao.com/MARS-ICE-HOUSE. Osburg, Jan; Adams, Constance; and Sherwood, Brent: A Mission Statement for Space Architecture. SAE 2003-01-2431, 33rd ICES, 2003.

Tariq Malik April 13 and 2013, ‘Stephen Hawking: Humanity Must Colonize Space to Survive’, Space.Com,https://www.space. com/20657-stephen-hawking-humanity-survival-space.html.

Mars One, ‘Why Mars, and Not Another Planet? - A Mission to Mars’, https://www.mars-one.com/faq/mission-to-mars/whymars-and-not-another-planet.

Wikipedia, ‘Mars’, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Mars&oldid=948449066.

NASA, ‘Mars Facts | All About Mars’, NASA’s Mars Exploration Program, https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts.

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AI SpaceFactory, ‘Marsha’, https://www.aispacefactory.com.

AI SpaceFactory, ‘Marsha’, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XnrVV0w2jrE Clouds AO, ‘MARS ICE HOUSE’, MARS ICE HOUSE, http:// www.marsicehouse.com.

Fátima Olivieri, Efrie Friedlander, and Rolando Lopez, National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), NASA, and the Total Learning Research Institute (TLRI), ‘Designing Bases and Buildings on Mars With Virtual Reality’, Redshift EN, 2017, https:// www.autodesk.com/redshift/designing-mars-virtual-reality/.

International Polar Foundation, ‘Home - Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Research Station’, http://www.antarcticstation.org/.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology, ‘Five Years of Monitoring Mars’ Daytime Surface Temperatures (Animation)’,https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details. php?id=PIA04298.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology, ‘Temperature of the Martian Surface’,https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/ spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA02014.

Los Alamos National laboratory, ‘Distribution of Subsurface Water on Mars from Odyssey’, https://www.planetary.org/multimedia/space-images/mars/distribution-of-subsurface.html.

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Tony Greicius, ‘NASA’s Treasure Map for Water Ice on Mars’, NASA, 2019, http://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasas-treasuremap-for-water-ice-on-mars.

Charles Darwin,‘ What Is It About Bees And Hexagons?’, N P R . O r g , 2 0 1 3 , h t t p s : / / w w w. n p r. o r g / s e c t i o n s / k r u l wich/2013/05/13/183704091/what-is-it-about-bees-and-hexagons.

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