Reliving History Winter 2018

From Foolstide

to

The Battle

of

Trenton

Reliving History

Vol I Issue IV Winter 2018

Reliving History Magazine Winter 2018 $6.oo ISSN 2578-3386

9

772578

338007

03

the average & extraordinary of the 18th century

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Dey Mansion Museum Washington’s headquarters

D

1780

ey Mansion is dedicated to preserving and interpreting the history of the Dey Family and the important role that their home played as General George Washington’s Headquarters during the summer and fall of 1780. Through tours, lectures, and special events the Dey Mansion promotes the exploration of life in Colonial America, the events and people of the American Revolution and the need for Historic Preservation.

Visit our website for more information about our site; including daily tours, on-going projects and a full list of public programs and events.

www.deymansion.org

The Dey Mansion Museum 199 Totowa Rd Wayne, NJ 07470 973-706-6640

Reliving History EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

From the Desk of the

ABBIE SAMSON

EDITOR MATT GRILLS DESIGNER

CASEY SAMSON

Editor

Email

Dear Readers,

Website

We did it! This Winter issue marks the closing of the first year of Reliving History Magazine. Since our release in March we have continually achieved our readership goals and that is all thanks to you.

Submissions

We appreciate all of the constructive criticisms and encouragement. One of the true joys has been meeting many of you out at different shows and reenactments and getting to share your thoughts in person. It has been gratifying to know that our research is helping others learn about the lesser known parts of the 18th century.

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I hope that every issue brings you new knowledge and a renewed excitement regarding history. For me, I am constantly surprised at the things we find. The credit for that goes to our wonderful writers who spend countless hours researching and perfecting the stories we share with you here.

This issue has fallen into place to uniquely show many different viewpoints of the holidays and winter in the 18th century. My personal favorite articles are from the perspective of the Hessians captured at Trenton, and of John Adams defending the British soldiers who participated in the Boston Massacre. While history is written by the winner, there are so many more sides and lives involved.

One common question we continually get asked is if we will run out of topics. The answer is most definitely not. There are so many different items, events, and people whose daily lives each built the foundation of our country. Their lives were more complicated than most of us realize.

Thank you for a great first year and we are ready to get to work on Volume 2!

Thank you for sharing in this adventure with us,

Abbie Samson

Editor-in-Chief

Winter

2018

Contents John Adams’ Defense of British Soldiers Chimney Sweeps Falconry Winter Food Preservation Hot Chocolate Violins From Foolstide to Trenton Artisan Highlight First American Novel Benjamin Lay Pluckemin Cantonment A Very Hessian Christmas A Walk in Snowshoes

6 14 20 28 36 40 46 56 62 70 76 78 84

6

While many cite the Boston Massacre as the first event of the American Revolution, the United States actually owes more to the trials of the British captain and soldiers involved in the putative bloody massacres of October and December 1770.

36

All of the sources and primary documentation for the articles in our publication are listed in appearance order on pages 90. If you have any questions about these sources or accessing them, please contact us directly at: 317.688.1038

As a staple of daily life, the drinking of chocolate became a public and private affair. One of the earliest records of houses serving drinks containing chocolate or coffee was in 1670, in New England.

On The Cover

“The Governor’s Party” - Chuck Pinson “The Governor’s Party” is a painting drawn from the historic governor’s mansion of colonial williamsburg in Virginia. Williamsburg was once the capital of Virginia and this scene imagines what it might have been like to be invited to the governor’s party.

Copies of the print are available at www.FineArtAmerica.com 4

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Soaring high above the coastal cliff, the peregrine falcon circled its prey.

Unaware of its impending fate, the bird -- perhaps, a seagull, a pigeon, a duck, or even a crane -- coasts along, all the while being monitored from far above.

40

The violin is widely considered to be a beautifully expressive instrument. It is indeed a mode of expression for just about every emotion on the human spectrum for modern audiences.

70

In a rising crescendo of emotion, the prophet thundered his judgment: “Thus shall God shed the blood of those persons who enslave their fellow creatures.” He pulled out the sword, raised the book above his head, and plunged the sword through it.

84

Snowshoes owned by Colonel Arent de Peyster of the King’s 8th Regiment of Foot, Native of New York City, were an important piece of gear for the winter.

Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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One of the best pieces of service I ever rendered to my country.

Time Capsules in Print: Almanacs in Colonial America

Q

-

by Kathryn Morgan

6

Reliving History | Winter 2018

Portrait of John Adams by John Trumbull, c. 1793

J ohn A dams ’ defense of eight B ritish soldiers involved in the B oston M assacre in D ecember 1770

by Rachel Basinger

f I asked you when the first battle of the American Revolution occurred, I you’d likely mention the Boston Massacre, picturing British soldiers firing indiscriminately into a crowd of innocent colonists. What you might not know is that Paul Revere, who is more commonly known for his “midnight ride” or career as a silversmith, actually popularized this picture as a kind of propaganda against the British influence in the colonies.

While many cite the Boston Massacre as the first event of the American Revolution, the United States actually owes more to the trials of the British captain and soldiers involved in the putative bloody massacres of October and December 1770.

In 1767, Parliament enacted a collection of laws that would later become known as the Townshend Acts, which imposed duties on glass, lead, paper, tea, and other products. This was an effort to recoup losses from the Seven Years’ War fought against France. Since they were detached from the European community, colonists in America were loath to pay the duties, and in the summer of 1768, Boston importers refused to pay the customs dues.

As a result, the royal governor of Massachusetts Francis Bernard petitioned assistance from the crown in restoring order and respect for British law. In October 1768, two regiments of British soldiers -- the 14th and the 29th Regiments -arrived in Boston to ensure that the taxes were collected. The population of Boston rapidly grew with the arrival of the roughly 4,000 British soldiers.

During the late 1700s, Boston was a hotbed of radical, revolutionary activity. Due largely in part to Samuel Adams’ efforts, the colonists of Boston began to resist and resent England’s influence on the colonies, as exemplified by the taxes without their consent. With the arrival of troops, the composition of the community radically changed, as “one man in three was a soldier,” and tensions between the colonists and the British soldiers and loyalists began to rise .

The anger peaked in late February 1770 when a British sympathizer fired onto an angry crowd of protesters after a protestor struck his wife, killing 11-year-old Christopher Seider. Four days later, an enormous funeral for Seider -- likely encouraged

by Samuel Adams -- drew nearly 2,000 mourners, or one-seventh of Boston’s population.

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The colonists who called themselves patriots found new resolve to not let themselves be bullied by the British. Such a volatile environment in Boston meant that even a small disagreement between an American patriot and a British loyalist or soldier could turn fractious quickly.

T he B loody M assacre On the cold, icy morning of March 5, 1770, just after 9 o’clock on King Street, a single British soldier, Private Hugh White, guarded the sentry outside the Boston Custom House. A passing remark turned into a contentious affair. White overheard a Bostonian wigmaker’s apprentice mention that Captain John Goldfinch had not paid a bill to the local wigmaker -- later it was discovered that he had paid -- and stood up for the British officer, saying he was a gentleman and would pay. Edward Garrick, the apprentice, retorted that there were no gentlemen left in the regiment. Private White bayonets on their muskets accompanied by their and Garrick briefly exchanged words before White captain with a drawn sword. hit Garrick with the butt of his musket, causing Garrick to fall to the ground.

The crowd continued to taunt the British soldiers, calling them “lobsters” and “bloody backs,” and This commotion drew the attention from passersby, hurling chunks of ice, oyster shells, snowballs, and a small crowd of roughly 50 men and boys came sticks, and stones. Evidence suggests that one of over to taunt White, who retreated to the steps of the soldiers, likely Hugh Montgomery, was pushed the Custom House. White suddenly found himself to the ground and received a club to the head. It surrounded by an assembly of Boston colonists. appears that, in response to getting hit, Montgomery Then, from far away, church bells began to ring, opened fire on the crowd and encouraged the other trying to draw people to the crowd at the customs soldiers to follow suit, although it is unclear if it house, and people poured into the streets. The was closer to 30 seconds later or two minutes later. insignificant group of boys and men had turned Three men were killed instantly, and two died of into a substantial crowd of 300 to 400 people. wounds later. In addition, six more were wounded.

The officer for the day, Captain Thomas Preston, paced back and forth in the Main Guard for 30 minutes, trying to decide if he should order additional soldiers to turn out to aid White if needed. Eventually, he decided yes, so seven British soldiers from the 29th Regiment -- a corporal and six other privates -- came to join White with fixed 8

Reliving History | Winter 2018

The event, which lasted less than an hour, claimed five victims: Crispus Attucks, James Caldwell, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, and Samuel Maverick.

Crispus Attucks was a free sailor of African and Native American descent and later was seen as the first martyr of the American Revolution.

The crowd declaimed the event as foul but dispersed when the Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry and urged the crowd to calm down: “Let the law have its course. I will live and die by the law.” Within two days, the eight soldiers and their captain, Thomas Preston -- along with four civilians -- were arrested and charged with murder. Although sworn depositions were received soon after what would come to be known as the “bloody massacre,” Hutchinson postponed the trials until later in the year to allow tensions to cool down.

There are more than 200 eyewitness accounts for this event that would become a symbol of the American war for independence, and they vary widely. The colonists, however, did not want the British to retaliate, so they agreed to a fair trial.

Originally, three trials were scheduled -- one for Captain Preston who was tried separately as an officer and a gentleman, one for the soldiers, and one for the customs officers who supposedly shot from the windows -- but the evidence for the latter was found to be fallacious and quickly dropped.

Captain Preston submitted a letter to the Boston Gazette on March 12, 1770, early on in his imprisonment, which lasted seven months. He thanked the Bostonians for choosing a fair trial and justice over mob rule: “Permit me thro’ the Channel of your Paper to return my Thanks in the most Publick Manner to all the Inhabitants in general of this Town -- who, throwing aside all Party and Prejudice, have with the utmost Humanity and Freedom, stept forth Advocates for Truth, in defence of my injured Innocence, in the late unhappy Affair that happened on Monday Night last: And to assure them, that I shall ever have the highest Sense of the Justice they have done me, which will be ever gratefully remembered by their much obliged and most obedient humble servant, Thomas Preston.”

While some of the colonists, predominantly the patriots, may have abjured the right to a fair trial

for the British, Preston definitely understood the foundation the colonists were establishing and honored them for it.

A later letter written in the summer that Preston had sent to London expressed frustration that the colonists seemed to be trying to conjure up any lie in order to convict the British soldiers and himself.

When this ended up in the paper in June 1770, it surely did not have the same reception as the first letter he penned.

The British troops were recalled from Boston, but the damage had already been done. Boston, as a whole, and patriots like Samuel Adams in particular, had never liked the British troops, but the event on March 5, 1770 intensified anti-British sentiment, as can be seen in Paul Revere’s picture.

Many lawyers were loath to represent the British, as they knew they would be risking their careers, but John Adams, then a young lawyer of 35, agreed to defend the Redcoats. Even though Hutchinson wisely waited more than six months until the trials, tensions were still high, as the two trials, Rex v. Preston and Rex v. Wemms et al., began in late fall 1770.

T he T rial

of

C aptain P reston

The trial of Captain Thomas Preston ran from October 24 to October 29, 1770 -- quite long for a criminal trial in the colonial world. In addition, the jury were sequestered from family and friends, another unusual occurrence in the 1700s. John Adams was joined by Josiah Quincy and Robert Auchmuty to defend Preston against the charge of murder. Even though Preston had only drawn a sword, he was charged with murder because he was the officer in charge and responsible for the men under him.

Because English legal custom prohibited defendants from defending themselves in criminal cases based on the supposition that they would perjure Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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themselves, Preston -- and later his soldiers at their the eight men to be acquitted. trial -- did not testify at the trial itself.

Adams began his closing speech with a quote by In his eyewitness account, Preston insisted that Marchese di Beccaria, an Italian penologist: “If, by he did not order the men to fire and instead told supporting the rights of mankind, and of invincible them to stop firing and to hold their fire. After truth, I shall contribute to save from the agonies the case went to jury at 5 p.m. October 29, they of death one unfortunate victim of tyranny, or of reached a decision three hours later but did not ignorance, equally fatal, his blessings and years announce the decision until October 30. Preston of transport will be sufficient consolation to me was found not guilty because it could not be proven for the contempt of all mankind.” In other words, that he had given the order to fire. No transcript Adams indicated that he believed it was essential to of Preston’s trial survives -- if there was one even protect innocence. Even if he as a lawyer suffered made -- although there are three extant personal because of it and even if a guilty man (or men) accounts of the trial from three different observers. went free, Adams felt it was better to have protected an innocent man or innocent men.

Although defending Preston was challenging in its own right, Adams faced an even more insurmountable Adams found through a close examination of the task as he prepared for his defense of the eight facts and statements of witnesses that the soldiers soldiers a month later. The trial of the soldiers were not at fault. If anyone was to blame, it was ran from November 27, 1770, until a decision was the British government that stationed the troops in reached on December 5. As in the case of Rex v. Boston, not the soldiers themselves. Moreover, the Preston, such a lengthy duration was unusual for a tragedy came from the colonial mob. The colonists trial at this time. were upset that the British government had sent troops to Boston to keep the peace and then compelled the colonists to provide spaces to quarter T he T rial of the E ight S oldiers the troops. Adams and the other founding fathers Faced with the task of defending the accused surely had the Boston Massacre in mind as they soldiers -- Corporal William Wemms, James drafted the Third Amendment to the Constitution: Hartigan, William McCauley, Hugh White, “No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in Matthew Kilroy, William Warren, John Carol, and any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor Hugh Montgomery -- Adams was joined again by in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed Josiah Quincy and a new lawyer, Sampson Blowers. by law.”

Similar to the trial of Captain Preston, the jury was sequestered, and there was not a single Boston Adams then moved on to the issue at hand: the firing of the weapons. He stressed that the soldiers resident on the jury. were acting in self-defense. They were mistrusted, During the trial, 80 witnesses testified, and John so Adams queried the jury, asking how the soldiers Adams gave a rousing defense -- although this is could be expected to remain stoic? In this way, seen more from hindsight. Because the trial of Adams emphasized the responsibility of the crowd.

Preston had found that the captain had not given It was evident from witness accounts that the crowd the order to fire, Adams, Quincy, and Blowers had had taunted the soldiers with nasty names and a more challenging task. They had to prove that the pelted them with all sorts of missiles. According soldiers were acting out of self-defense in order for to Adams, the soldiers only resorted to firing in an 10

Reliving History | Winter 2018

effort to defend themselves. In particular, Adams noted that one man -- Private Montgomery -- had been knocked down. In that case, of course, he would want and need to defend himself.

Both Montgomery and White opted for the benefit of the clergy, which allowed first-time offenders to have an “M” branded on the part of the hand nearest the thumb instead of imprisonment. It ensured that everyone would know that they had been found guilty Through his speech, Adams stressed that the if they ever took an oath in court again. evidence of all the witnesses was not sufficient to convict any of the eight soldiers of murder. Even if the case of the two who were supposed to have been proved to have killed, the evidence demanded that the charge be reduced to manslaughter since there had not been “malice aforethought.”

In the midst of this eloquent speech, John Adams delivered one of his now famous quotations: “Facts are stubborn things, and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictums of our passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence.” As someone sympathetic to the patriot cause, Adams acknowledged that the wishes of a patriot might be for the British soldiers to suffer, but he believed that the facts indicated that the eight soldiers were innocent.

The trial of the soldiers was unique in that it accepted hearsay evidence, as one of the five victims -- Patrick Carr -- testified on his deathbed that he believed the soldiers were acting in self-defense. In the 1700s, it was customary to believe that words spoken on one’s deathbed were truthful, so his physician was allowed to speak on the deceased Carr’s behalf.

Like Rex v. Preston, the jury deliberated for several hours -- two and a half in the case of the soldiers -- and decided to acquit six of the soldiers. It found two of the soldiers -- Hugh Montgomery and the soldier originally stationed at the sentry, Hugh White -- guilty of manslaughter, which was a lesser charge than murder. As in the case of Captain Preston, it was essential to prove “malice aforethought” in order for any of the eight defendants to be charged with murder.

According to the jury, sufficient evidence had shown that Montgomery and White had definitely fired their weapons, but there was not enough evidence to prove which of the other soldiers had or had not fired. In the case of at least one man -Montgomery -- it seemed that the jury was correct, as he later told his lawyer that he had been the one to yell “Fire!” after getting hit by a stick thrown by a member of the crowd.

After the decision of the jury, there were a variety of angry responses in the newspapers, and the Boston Gazette in particular railed against John Adams. In addition, Adams said later that he lost half of his practice due to his defense of the British captain and soldiers, and it is clear from less biased sources that Adams’s practice definitely did suffer . But the venom remained words only, as there were no riots after the October and December trials.

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John Adams stated, “(I)t’s of more importance to the community that innocence should be protected than it is that guilt should be punished.” Adams led the way as the lawyer who willingly defended the unpopular side, asserting that no unfortunate individuals should die due to tyranny, and he was willing to risk the contempt of his fellow patriots and his law practice to live by this value.

Moreover, the December 1770 trial upheld self-defense, a canon in the law of nature, and was the first time the phrase “reasonable doubt” was used. Many courtroom and legal procedures, T he I mportance of the D ec 1770 T rials customs, and values we take for granted in the modern world have a basis in or are affirmed in The December 1770 trial of the eight British soldiers John Adams’ defense of the British redcoats. of the 29th Regiment in which John Adams gave a rousing defense of protecting innocence should be Adams affirmed the importance of the law over even more iconic of life during the winter months in emotion throughout his defense: “The law, in all the American colonies. vicissitudes of government, fluctuations of the passions, or flights of enthusiasm, will preserve a The December 1770 trial has a deep significance to steady, undeviating course; it will not bend to the our legal system today and is a testament of the uncertain wishes, imaginations and wanton tempers colonial legal system. Through the trials of the of men.” In other words, it was essential to hold hated British redcoats even amidst a city that largely maintaining the law above human beings because believed Paul Revere’s inaccurate picture, Boston and that is the only way that anyone would receive a the Massachusetts Bay Colony showed that it desired fair trial. the colonies to be a nation of laws, rather than of arbitrary power. Even if that meant that the extremely On the third anniversary of the Boston Massacre disliked British troops received a fair trial and even in -- March 5, 1773 -- before the infamous Boston Tea a town where mob rule had seized the day on March Party in December 1773, Adams reflected on his 5, it did not have to seize the day on December 5. decision to accept the responsibility of defending In addition, the December 1770 trial established the British soldiers and the risk that he, along with the custom of innocent until proven guilty. As his family, faced: “I devoted myself to endless labor 12

Reliving History | Winter 2018

“I f ,

by supporting the rights of mankind , and of invincible truth , I shall contribute to save from the agonies of death one unfortunate victim of t yranny , or of ignorance , equally fatal , his blessings and years of transport will be sufficient consol ation to me for the contempt of all mankind .”

and Anxiety if not to infamy and death, and that for nothing, except, what was indeed was and ought to be in all, a sense of duty. In the Evening expressed to Mrs. Adams all my Apprehensions: the excellent Lady, who has always encouraged me, burst into a flood of Tears, but said she was very sensible of all the Danger to her and to our Children as well as to me, but she thought I had done as I ought, she was very willing to share in all that was to come and place her trust in Providence.” Just like John, Abigail believed firmly that the right thing to do was to defend the British soldiers in a fair trial, even if the Adams family suffered as a result.

guilty, and of the right to self-defense, no matter how liked or hated the defendant was. Everyone was going to be equal before the law.

After December 1770 and the conclusion of the two trials, Boston was relatively calm until the Tea Act of 1773 that prompted the Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773. Adams reflected fondly on his decision to defend the British captain and soldiers:

It was one of the most gallant, generous, manly and disinterested actions of my whole life, and one of the best pieces of service I ever rendered to my country.

X

While Adams was glad to serve his town (and later country) in this way of defending the right to a fair trial, he did not take specific pride in the fact that he was the one to do it. In fact, he suggested that any man should have done it due to a sense of duty and that “(j)]udgment of Death against those Soldiers would have been as foul a Stain upon this Country as the Executions of the Quakers or Witches, anciently. As the Evidence was, the Verdict of the Jury was exactly right”.

In sum, the December 1770 trial was an important test in the rule of law. Certainly, the Boston Massacre itself is much more memorable and invoked the patriotic feelings and desire to overthrow British rule that we associate with the American war for independence. However, the December 1770 trial of the British captain and soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre established that America was going to be a nation of laws, of innocence until proven

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Reliving History | Winter 2018

Cheap Sweeps

7 The Chimney Sweep’s Role in Society

by Tavis Taylor

f all the professions in the 18th century, one of the most tragic may have been O the chimney sweep. Although films such as Walt Disney’s “Mary Poppins” romanticize the role, portraying chimney sweeps as happy and lively, the woes of the job cannot be overlooked.

The split between the two parts is not unintentional, and the purpose of each is evident in the difference between their tone and language. The poem’s first part emphasizes the naivete in young chimney sweeps and how they were manipulated and exploited for potentially harmful work:

If

he ’ d be a good boy

In fact, the dreadful life of a chimney sweeper and H e ’ d have G od for his father the utilization of youth in the profession dates and never want joy . to the beginning of the 17th century. Shakespeare highlights the brevity of a chimney sweep’s life in The last line underscores their gullible innocence: his play “Cymbeline,” when the legendary King Guiderius chants, “Golden lads and girls all must S o if all do their dut y , /As chimney-sweepers turn to dust.” The English they need not fear harm . poet William Blake drew public attention to the grueling life of a chimney sweep through his work, Jonas Hanway’s 1773 article on the subject of too. chimney sweep boys, published in “The Making of the Modern World,” elaborates on the “duty” In his revolutionary collection “Songs of Innocence to which Blake refers. He writes, “… we shall and Songs of Experience,” Blake sheds light on find their misery very great, as they are not only many of the injustices that accompanied the dawn deprived of the common comforts of life, but their of the industrial revolution -- most notably in his wretchedness is aggravated by their masters, very two-part poem called “The Chimney Sweeper,” half few of these boys being instructed in any religious of which is located in “Songs of Innocence” and or moral duty. Having as good a title to be taught the latter half in “Songs of Experience.” what is essential to their welfare, as the first of Winter 2018 | Reliving History

15

The D-ss purchasing a brush. Uknown 1794.

for longer use than something lighter. However, it was also common for a sweep to wear nothing but underwear and a stocking cap with eye slits to cover the head.

Another iconic element of a chimney sweep’s appearance is what he used to sweep the chimneys.

Tools varied from region to region. In northern and southern colonial America, climbing boys used scrapers as they climbed up the shafts, to loosen and dislodge residual soot and ash. They then crawled back down to the bottom and collect the debris. Many sweeps pared off soot on the flue’s insides with a hand-held brush and scraper. Large flat brushes were used as well, especially upon first entering the shaft of the chimney diagonally.

Sometimes sweeps used circular brushes on the ends of flexible poles. These could be screwed together and thrust up a chimney to help break apart caked-on soot and debris.

mankind, their ignorance is the effect of a manifest As chimneys evolved, they became quite dangerous for young sweeps in the 18th century. Due to a violation of their civil and religious rights.” revolution in architecture in the late 17th century, Chimney sweepers received little to no help in chimney construction abandoned the wide hearth their lives from their employers but were assured for smaller, more efficient models that became the that their title as chimney sweep was indication main source of heat and illumination in a house’s that they were living well. Masters taught their main space. These smaller chimneys had dimensions apprentices that scars, burns, and lacerations came that averaged 9 by 14 inches, with some as small with the trade and even presented some of these as 6 to 8 inches square. Due to the size of some smaller flues, it was necessary that younger and maimed children in triumph. smaller children be used for cleaning; children as The second part of Blake’s poem explores how a boy young as 4 years old were observed climbing into became a chimney sweep: “They clothed me in the flues to scrub the chimney walls. The vents through clothes of death / And taught me to sing the notes which sweeps had to climb also bent and twisted of woe.” The language of suffering is apparent here, their way to the rooftops, sometimes flattening but Blake points out other commonalities to the off at right angles in Georgian homes. Not long trade. Clothes of death, although used figuratively, after this occurred in English architecture, America is a nod to the recognizable black coat and top hat quickly followed suit. Though not as elaborate as of a chimney sweep, seen in 18th-century images. their English forerunners, they were commonplace Quite literally, they were dressed in clothes of none the less. death, acquired as cast-offs and donations from funeral directors. The outfit’s dark color allowed Due to the new dimensions and design of the 16

Reliving History | Winter 2018

common household fireplace, sweeps were more tormented life of the sweep. According to a 2011 necessary than ever. While wider, older chimneys article published by the BBC, many chimney sweeps could be swept by an adult standing on the roof, in the colonies and newly formed United States simply passing a brush were of African descent. down through the flue, Oftentimes, these sweeps A common misconception is that all these narrower and more were subject to higher windy replacements could chimney sweeps were boys , but many levels of scrutiny, and not be reached so easily. girls undertook apprenticeships in many in New York City The slender designs trades and endured the hardships claimed they did not do allowed soot and tar to as good a job as chimney of climbing chimneys daily . cake on and clog the flue sweeps in London. more often, requiring a higher frequency of cleaning to eliminate risks of Chimney sweep apprenticeships, like all trades, fire. By the end of the 18th century, this was took years and sometimes up to a decade. Young crucial in a city as compact as New York, where boys and girls were either homeless or sold to fires could spread quickly and easily from rooftop master sweeps by their parents. They started as to rooftop with devastating effects. early as 4 years old and remained apprentices until around the age of 14, by which time most were A common misconception is that all chimney too large to climb the flues. Continuously working sweeps were boys, but many girls undertook in harsh conditions for long periods often left apprenticeships in trades and endured the hardships chimney sweeps very weak. Many were crippled by of climbing chimneys daily. Some even went on to the end of their apprenticeships due to falls, burns become journeymen. In the case of young boys, and other hazards. Consumption and tuberculosis many started their careers when their parents sold were common, too, ,due to the constant inhalation them off to master sweeps for small amounts of of soot. These maladies along with poor housing money. Young girls most often began through the and malnourishment, added to their inability to employment of their own parents, who happened to develop correctly. Distortion of the arms, legs, be master sweeps themselves. and spine were common marks of the trade, due to carrying large sacks of soot long distances.

Older chimney sweeps who had young boys and girls as apprentices were not always male, either. Sweeps were uneducated for the most part as well.

Chimney sweep mistresses collected preadolescent Because of restrictions on their physical ability boys and girls to work the flues of households. and education, teenage boys and girls were hard In his article on chimney-sweepers’ signboards, pressed to find work in another occupation. This George Lewis Phillips writes, “In the eighteenth led them to become journeymen within their current century the master or, in some instances, the trade. As such, they could work under a master or mistress chimney-sweeper, limned in the top panel mistress sweep of their own choosing until they of a signboard would be sending apprentices to became masters themselves and gain young sweeps climb flues to remove soot or extinguish fire or and journeymen to their own employ clean smoky coppers ….”

The plight of the chimney sweep was well known While youth were particularly exploited for chimney but rarely publicly addressed, and after decades cleaning, other groups were subjected to the of their use in England and its colonies, a bill Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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finally passed the House of Commons to abolish the use of children the cleaning and cleansing of chimneys. Unfortunately, it was thrown out by the House of Lords in 1817. Evidence given before the House of Commons found in On the Employment of Children Sweeping Chimneys includes firsthand accounts of the ailments that came with the trade, one of the most common being “chimney sweepers’ cancer.” Asked about the nature of chimney sweep diseases, English surgeon Richard Wright testified that “chimney sweepers’ cancer is always lectured upon separately, as a distinct disease.”

The committee asked Wright if physicians thought the disease of such common occurrence that it was necessary to make it a part of surgical education, to which he responded, “Most, assuredly.”

In support of the bill in the House of Commons, descriptions of chimney sweepers’ cancer either were never given or omitted from the record after the fact.

There are, however, plenty of other reports from the 18th and 19th centuries describing the disease.

Percival Pott, an English surgeon and early founder of orthopedics, was the first to connect cancer with the occupation of chimney sweeping. In fact, it was the first disease recognized as an occupational disease, in which a particular chronic ailment or illness is the result of specific occupational work or activity. . Although Pott was the first to connect the disease to the occupation, he was not the first to identify it. Most historians believe the disease was first discovered in 1731 by a physician named Bassius, in which he described the growth that was assumed to be and defined as scrotal cancer.

Disease from soot and tar wasn’t the only risk to a sweep’s well-being. He or she often suffered burns from being forced up chimneys that were still lit or just recently lit with fire. They also could fall down chimneys after their climb and injure themselves gravely.

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The Chimney Sweeper A little black thing among the snow, Crying “weep! ‘weep!” in notes of woe!

Where are thy father and mother? say?

They are both gone up to the church to pray.

Because I was happy upon the heath, And smil’d among the winter’s snow, They clothed me in the clothes of death, And taught me to sing the notes of woe.

And because I am happy and dance and sing, They think they have done me no injury, And are gone to praise God and his Priest and King, Who make up a heaven of our misery.

-William Blake 1793-

In 1817, a letter from the Committee of Domestic Economy to the Pennsylvania committee pleads the case for young climbing boys, detailing how sympathies for the young workers’ situation arose decades earlier and that inquiries on the subject were instituted as early as 1773.

proposes that Charles II was seen as good luck due to his reinstitution of May Day revels in England after they were banned by the Protectorate. King Charles II was assigned the nickname “Black Boy,” due to his swarthy complexion, and Brown suggests the similar look of chimney sweeps may have granted them the same luck King Charles was said This letter also proposed the use of a newly developed to possess. machine that would take over the job of a sweep, an idea met with skepticism and resistance in both Brown’s theory about the origin of black luck isn’t England and the United States. A version of the the only one. George L. Phillips proposes a few machine in England was described balls attached to more in his essay “Toss a Kiss to the Sweep for cords from the roof opening of chimneys. Brushes Good Luck from the Journal of American Folklore,” were then attached to the bottom, and the machine suggesting good luck might have been attributed to ran the brushes through the chimney. The machine the old pagan belief of magical properties in soot was used in England even though master sweeps and ash, or maybe the European folk custom of were claimed boys were more efficient and effective. sweeping all the ash and soot from the fireplace News of the machine reached the United States at the beginning of every new year to grant the but was never pursued due to similar claims by household luck for the next 12 months. Regardless, master sweeps and the heavy reliance on labor it is clear that the symbol of the chimney sweep from minority populations, most notably those of was believed to aid in prosperity, though in 18thAfrican descent. century England and America, a sweep’s day-to-day life suggested exactly the opposite.

Cities in colonial America implemented legislation to define the prices for chimney sweeping within The hazards of being a chimney sweep throughout the city limits. Boston’s local governing body, the 18th and 19th century were perilous. Many the Boston Board of Selectmen, decreed prices people observed the injustices forced upon youth, dependent on the height of the chimney. By order and some even tried to take action, but government of Town Clerk Ezekiel Goldthwait and the Boston and the industry often stood in the way of change. board, the meeting of Select-men on February 7, At the turn of the century, pushes toward banning 1759, defined the prices as “five Stories high, One the use of chimney sweep boys marked a pivotal Shilling and Four Pence,/Four Stories High, One point in which people more fervently supported child Shilling and two Pence,/three Stories high, One labor laws. Still today, some of the superstition Shilling,/Other common Chimnies, Eight Pence.” from previous centuries remains attached to the Contrary to the reality of their position in life, chimney sweep, a figure cemented in our culture chimney sweeps were often associated with good and history. luck -- a superstition predating the 18th century.

However, the origin of this belief is unknown. One thing that is agreed upon, however, is that the belief was prevalent in both American and European culture throughout the 1700s. Philip Brown’s essay “Black Luck” suggests it began King Charles II and his influence on May Day celebrations. He

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A Hawking Party (1690) - Jan Wyck

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of

The Lure the Falcon

Hawking and Its Impact

by Christopher Elmore

Soaring high above the coastal cliff, the peregrine falcon circled its prey. Unaware of its impending fate, the bird -- perhaps, a seagull, a pigeon, a duck, or even a crane -coasts along, all the while being monitored from far above. With its target selected,

the falcon flaps its wings several times and nosedives, reaching a speed of up to 185 miles an hour. Striking its prey with enough force to kill, the falcon continues its rapid descent and clutches its victim mid-air with its razor-sharp talons.

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The spectacle is both thrilling and terrifying, and illustrates why falconry (also called hawking by some practitioners) has fascinated humans for millennia. Some scholars trace the use of falcons and hawks for hunting as far back as 14,000 years ago, predating the first known uses of agriculture.

Falcons and hawks are geographically distributed across the globe, which helps explain why falconry seems to have developed independently in numerous places, including central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, northern Africa, Europe, Japan, and Central America.

colonial America. Another reason is that North American ecology offered a number of advantages.

European observers noted its plentiful stock of falcons. Sebastian Cabot, son of Giovanni Cabot (the “other” great Italian explorer who first laid claim to North American territory for the English in 1497), produced one of the first maps of the new world in 1544, on which he noted the abundance of “falcons, so black in color that they wonderfully represented ravens.”

Thomas Morton provides one of the few firsthand accounts from an experienced falconer in colonial America. According to Morton, New England hawks were “farre better kinde, then any that have bin used in England.” Captain George Cartwright, an avid falconer who meticulously chronicled his travels through Newfoundland and surrounding regions, included numerous descriptions of his encounters with falcons and hawks in the late 18th century. Nineteeth-century naturalist Charles Turner declared that of all the countries in which the sport of falconry could be indulged in to perfection, “none exceeds in all essentials the United States; it has clear air, bright sunshine, open space; it has the hawk … and of game and wild birds enough ….”

When the English colonization of the new world began in earnest in the 17th century, falconry was perhaps the most popular sport in Europe.

The Tudors -- particularly Henry VII, VIII, and Elizabeth I, along with the Stuarts, particularly Mary Queen of Scots and her son James I -- were all avid falconers. By custom, the English monarch is presented with a falcon upon coronation, and diplomats across the European world knew that an ideal way to curry favor with the English crown was to bestow upon it a gift of prized and highly valued falcons. Falconry was so popular among the British in early modern Europe that “one could rarely walk down the streets of medieval England without seeing someone with his or her falcon perched on Evidence of falconry in the Americas predates the hand on wrist,” Shawn Carroll writes.

Columbian Exchange. Some scholars believe that the Vikings, who made extensive use of falcons for The popularity of falconry in Europe is one reason hunting and navigation, were so impressed with the to expect evidence of falconry to be ubiquitous in quality of falcons in Greenland that they transported

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A Dutch settler in the Hudson Bay region, Jan Baptist van Renssellaer, describes his experience hawking with a falcon that he had sent over home.

A 1747 grant of land to John Harrison, signed

by Virginia Lieutenant Governor William Gooch included “the privileges of Hunting Hawking Fishing Fowling and all,” suggesting that falconry was practiced to some degree in the North American colonies.

North American falcons back to Europe as early as the 12th or 13th centuries.

A 13th-century educational primer for Norwegian princes, Kongsspegelen (“The King’s Mirror”), includes a passage in which the king tells his son that “there are plenty of falcons that people of foreign countries would value highly. The falcons are white and there are more of them on Greenland, than anywhere else, but the people there cannot make any use of them.” Norwegian royalty often gave these prized falcons as gifts to other European monarchs, including a gift of several to King Henry III of England, meaning it is entirely possible that the Vikings were already engaged in a trans-Atlantic falcon trade hundreds of years before the voyages of Columbus or Cabot.

Some European accounts of the interactions between Cortez and the Aztecs describe the use of falcons both by Cortez’s men and the Aztec leadership.

While the eagle was the most honored bird of prey to the Aztecs, falcons were also important symbols in both Mayan and Aztec mythology.

Nevertheless, other than the accounts of Cabot, Morton, and Cartwright, references to hawking are relatively rare. Englishmen Izaak Walton notes the high quality of falcons imported from Virginia in his 1635 monograph “Compleat Angler” (Fuertes).

“Of all those early Europeans in North America, falconry might most logically have been found among the Spanish in Mexico,” wrote Frank Bond in his review of the historical evidence of hawking in the New World. For a variety of reasons, this is not surprising. A higher proportion of Spanish migrants came from noble or military backgrounds.

From a geographic and cultural perspective, the Spanish were also more directly linked with the Arab and Muslim societies that had reinvigorated the practice of falconry in Europe during the Crusades.

Furthermore, the Spanish colonial nobility were less preoccupied with manual labor since they made greater use of indigenous and imported slave labor than other colonial powers. According to Bond, the first viceroy of New Spain was an avid falconer, and his son “employed a royal falconer to look after his birds.” The Spanish even taught natives to use falcons and hawks for hunting “in order to not be lazy and slothful.”

Other than occasional reports of individuals engaged in hawking, the most widely available evidence of falconry in the Americas is the presence of hawk’s bells found in archaeological sites of indigenous peoples. These tiny bells, usually made of iron, were attached to the foot of a falcon or hawk to help its keeper when tracking it down after a hunt.

Hawk’s bells were easy to produce and readily available considering the popularity of falconry in Europe. And the natives of the Americas, lacking ironworks, were fascinated with the shiny metallic objects.

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falcons that without the king’s permission, one could not even fly a hawk bred in England. Those wanting one had to import them from abroad. The entrepreneurial spirit driving much of the colonial settlement of the new world would have surely leant itself to capitalizing on this lucrative opportunity.

But there is little evidence of a brisk trans-Atlantic trade in falcons.

With the popularity of falconry in England, it is surprising, at first glance, that the sport failed to take root among the English migrants to North America. Not only would these settlers have been familiar with its practice, North America had a more With desirable hawks and falcons plentiful in North favorable climate for hawking than the motherland.

America and high demand for falcons in Europe, the entrepreneurial spirit driving so many other Yet there are good reasons why falconry did not colonial ventures might have produced a lucrative take root. The relative absence of falconry among trans-Atlantic falcon trade. Given the English the settlers in North America tells us much about monarchy’s love of falconry and reports from Cabot the lives of colonists. First, it provides insight into and others documenting the abundance of quality how those who traversed the Atlantic to settle in birds for hawking in the Americas, there has been the new world were different from those who stayed speculation that acquiring falcons was a part of in Europe. We can also learn something about how the motivation for the Tudors’ support of colonial life was changing both in Europe and the Americas exploration. In his History of Newfoundland, across the 17th and 18th centuries.

D.W. Prowse cites a grant of land given

by Henry VIII “to the one who brought Historians speculate that falconry originally hawkes from thence.” developed in arid regions like the Arabian desert and the Central Asian steppes. Farming The high value of falcons in England was difficult and food was in short supply. would have surely provided a powerful Capturing and training a falcon to hunt financial incentive to acquire allowed humans access to food that they American birds. One scholar would not have been able to acquire estimates that a single trained otherwise. Over time, falconry became peregrine falcon or a nest of peregrine useful for supplementing food supplies falcon eggs was as valuable as 120 acres of land. but was also a form of sport and leisure.

Another medieval anecdote reports an exchange of a falcon for two healthy oxen, a trade that was As the world became more interconnected through “not a bad deal in monetary terms,” Kimberly Ann the Columbian Exchange, however, the utility of Thompson writes. falconry as a food source declined. Falcons could not be bred in captivity, so they had to be captured By the 16th century, the English crown had placed and trained individually. And they did not yield so many restrictions on the sale of and use of much food relative to other sources. As populations 24

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grew, most societies focused on agriculture and domesticated livestock. Falconry was relegated to a form of entertainment for those who needed not worry how they would acquire their next meal.

forced off the land by the enclosure movement, and a host of others who were down on their luck and seeking a fresh start. These would not have been the sorts who would have neither the means nor the motive to transplant hawking to the new world.

For the most part, these were not the kinds of people that migrated to the Americas. In Europe, most social classes hunted with hawks and falcons to some degree, but it was considerably more popular among the nobility than the lower classes.

Except for the Spanish, a small percentage of total migrants to the new world came from the upper classes. Not coincidentally, it is in the Spanish colonies that we find the most evidence of hunting with falcons and hawks.

Puritan disapproval of falconry does not by itself explain the failure of the sport to take root in the English colonies of North America. After all, the Puritans were a minority of English settlers in the new world, even in New England. Yet the Puritans did share a general antipathy toward nobility felt even by those colonists who did not share their religious views. In addition to religious dissidents, the migrants leaving England for the Americas included debtors, indentured servants, peasants Winter 2018 | Reliving History

Portrait of Clemens August as a falconer (c. 1732) - Peter Jacob Horemans

Although falconry was not confined to the nobility in Europe, it was nevertheless often seen as a sign of social status. Many nobles maintained an interest in it at least in part because it conferred upon them recognition of their privileged position. As Robin Oggins writes, “The sport of falconry … implied the possession of wealth and status by those who pursued it.” Yet life in the colonies, partially due to the backgrounds of the settlers and partially due to the demands of survival in the new world, Furthermore, in the English colonies, the settler offered neither the time nor the predisposition for populations consisted disproportionately of people people to concern themselves with the pursuits of who were hostile to the sport on principle. In the nobility. general, the Puritans “despised the ‘traditional rural pastimes’ of England,” Amanda Giracca and Brendan Bullock write in the Virginia Quarterly Review. More specifically, the Puritans did not like the Tudors, who by the 17th century had become strongly identified with falconry . The Puritan animosity toward falconry could not have been helped by the fact that one of the few hawking enthusiasts amongst them was Thomas Morton. He and the leadership of the Massachusetts colony waged a war of antagonisms for decades, with Morton twice being expelled from the colony only to return.

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Since falcons and Bullock, could not be bred “the propertied in captivity, a could choose supply of trained between many falconers were diverse options for This ivory falconer’s horn produces a limited range needed to break leisure, including of sounds used to call the bird from long distances. in new falcons. foreign travel, This was not have gambling and the been a challenge in Europe, where the children of accumulation and display of goods.” nobility would have been routinely introduced to falconry during their formative years. Yet those However, to focus on the demise of falconry in with the skills needed to provide this instruction Europe and its failure to take root in the North were not among those migrating to the Americas. American colonies risks minimizing its considerable As Charles Turner noted, if the skills needed effect on the evolution of contemporary society. to sustain falconry were lost, “the effect would Language is one area in which the importance of probably be permanent, as in fact, it was.” falconry is particularly noticeable. Linguists have traced the origins of many commonly used words According to Frank Bond, “the nature of those early and phrases specifically to terminology used by American settlers, and their struggles to establish falconers. themselves, certainly militated against the practice of falconry.” The labor-intensive nature of work in William Shakespeare, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth the colonies also worked against the practice of I, was an amateur falconer. His plays include leisure activities like falconry. The lives of most more than 50 references to falconry. For example, settlers were consumed with the basics of providing “hoodwinked” refers to the hood placed over a food, clothing, and shelter. falcon’s head to calm it while in captivity. The word “haggard,” a favorite of Shakespeare, was Perhaps the most significant factor in the demise of used to describe a wild falcon that is not amenable falconry was the evolution of the gun. This trend was to training. When a falcon has gorged itself to the not unique to the American colonies, as the sport’s point that it will no longer hunt for its master, it popularity was diminished sharply throughout the is said to be “fed up.”

17th and 18th centuries. According to Giracca Some phrases have murkier origins but are undoubtedly linked to falconry. A “lure” is the name of the cord used to train a hawk to return to its handler. Jesses are short leashes that are attached to the leg of a falcon and tied around the finger of its handler. From this, we get the phrases “under his thumb” and “wrapped around his little finger.”

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LEFT: Hood used to keep the falcon calm and still while on the falconer’s glove. This piece is adorned with gold tooling and silver threads.

In some ways, falconry is more interesting to the modern historian for its minimal part in the development of colonial America. But it would be inaccurate to say it had no effect at all. The historical record suggests that not only did falconry affect the development of language, but it also may have been a primary motivation for the English interest in exploring the Americas. By all accounts, falconry had largely fallen out of favor everywhere in the Atlantic world by the late 18th century and was not revived until the 20th century. The plethora of falconer associations across the globe, however, testify to the enduring fascination with the spectacle of the falcon hunt. The scene has captivated the human imagination for longer than people have recorded history and continues to this day.

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Apple Cart Creations Linsey Woolsey Fabric Handwoven Towels Handspun Woolen Clothing & Accessories www.AppleCartCreations.com Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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Preservation of Food: Frigid Winters

by Charles C. Rickards

Still Life with Games and Vegetables (1648) - Adriaen van Utrecht

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Still Life with Bread, Ham, Cheese, and Vegetables (c.1772) - Luis Egidio MelĂŠndez

hen one imagines a larder of a colonial American, its shelves surely are filled W with glass jars, preserved fruits, and canned vegetables stacked neatly atop each other. Below them are dried meats, hung neatly above barrels of salted pork. The whole closet smells a lot like a barn, as the walls and ceiling are insulated with hay. It is cold outside; frost covers the grass, and the trees are bare, shivering in their nakedness.

Preserving food in the 13 colonies was a necessity, but people found a way to make it fun. The process became personalized and hugely successful. The main methods included pickling and fermentation, smoking or salting, and dehydration. The regular practice of canning goods -- such as fruit, vegetables, and meats – became popular in the 19th century.

The system was discovered, likely by accident, by 30

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Frenchman Nicholas Appert in 1791 using cylindrical glass jars. He declined to share his discovery until 1809, when the Emperor Napoleon awarded him the Food Preservation Prize. The French government subsidized Appert with large amounts of money and began implementing canned goods into its military rations.

In the 18th century, colonists stored food stuffs without canning. They utilized a broad spectrum of preservation methods with meat and vegetables to survive the long, snowy winters. Although crops and livestock varied by region, preservation methods were widely standardized throughout the colonies.

At the time, meat was such a critical source of protein and iron that it had to be preserved for regular consumption. Hunting game was a mainstay for many people, but in a small farm setting, one

would be hard-pressed to finish off 30 pounds of venison in a single sitting; butchering a cow or pig would yield far more meat than could be immediately consumed, even among neighbors and slaves.

Smoking meat is one of the oldest methods of food preservation practiced by humans, and is evidenced up to 14,000 years ago. The colonists fully utilized the ancient technique via smokehouses, small buildings built of wood or bricks where large slabs of meat were hung. A small fire was kept smoldering, and the smoke leaked out around the meat, inhibiting the growth of bacteria and giving it a rich, smoky flavor. Pork would be hung for at least a week, but could linger there for up to two years if desired. The meat would first be rubbed down with salt and other seasonings before being smoked. This helped to draw out moisture, slightly speeding up the process as well as leaving more lingering flavor. Salt on its own could preserve food through dehydration, but food was far more delicious when combined with another method.

Alternatively, people could brine their beef to create a jerky. This method became increasingly popular in more rural areas as the technique was learned from Native Americans, and passed between communities. One would cut domestic meats into long, thin strips, submerging them in brine. At its base, brine is a solution of heavily salted water, but it can be flavored with any number of spices.

They would be placed over a low fire, in full view of the sun, to quickly dry. Such processes could be repeated with fish just as well, and often was depending on availability.

The best recipes come from a combination of marinade, brine, and smoking. Two distinct recipes from Harriott Horry’s invaluable A Colonial Plantation Cookbook, originally published in 1770 are listed to the right.

Both recipes rely heavily on salt, including several varieties. Salt peter refers to processed salt, usually in the form of fine grains. The unprocessed crystalline form was known as peter salt. Half bay salt referred to larger salt chunks from evaporated

T o P ickle H ams , T ongues , D utch B eef

or

Take a gallon of water and make a brine with half bay salt and half common salt strong enough to bear an egg, add to it one pound of course sugar, a quarter of a pound of salt peter, and two ozs. salt prunella, boil all these together and skim it clean.

Than, take it off the fire and when ‘tis cold put your meat and let it lie in well cover’d with pickle. Hams should be in a month or five weeks, beef tongues a week less. Then take them out and smoke them.

T o P ott B eef

like

V enison

Cut eight pound of lean beef out of the buttock or any other lean piece into pound pieces, take six ozs. salt peter, half a pint of peter salt, and as much common salt, and rub the meat well with it and let it lie three or four days, then put it onto a stone jarr and cover it with some of its own brine and pump water and bake it, then pick all the fatt and skins from it and pound it very fine in a marble mortar; as you pound it pour in melted butter enough to make it very moist, like paste. Add pepper and salt to your tast[e], and season it high with spices. Then press it down in your pot and cover it with clarified butter or mutton suet.

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coastal regions, and salt prunella was just salt peter in a different shape. Clearly, salt had tremendous value for both the preservation and flavoring of food. Notably, one recipe calls for pepper. Due to the proclivity of colonial trade, spices came in healthy amounts from all over the globe, with a large market from India. Many spices like nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger were readily available for purchase to colonists.

Ensuring that meat did not decay was only half the battle, and many settlers relied heavily on the preservation of fruits and vegetables to supplement their winter diets. Farmers could grow a smattering of winter crops, such as cabbage, carrots, or even a few potatoes -- although the latter were generally scarce in the New England area. These could not be relied upon to sustain a family for the entirety of the winter. Winter harvests were few and far between, and the cold weather was unreliable. The small selection of root vegetables made for a fairly bland diet, making storage of meats and fruits important.

Fruit was a blast of flavor in the winter months, and was often served in the form of jam with an incredibly long shelf life. It was common for colonial farmers to keep a small fruit orchard on their property, largely for the purpose of creating fruit preserves. Sugar rich fruits, such as apples, cherries, pears, and peaches, became regional favorites in the winter. The higher the natural sugar

P each P reserve Take half a peck of peaches, wipe them with a flannel cloth, put them into an earthen pot sufficient to contain them, fill it up with brandy, let them stand for two days covered, then pour off the brandy, to which add half a pint of the same liquor and four pound sugar; cut two oranges very fine, which all to the sirrup, and when boiling hot pour over the peaches : the next day set them into a hot oven, let them stand half an hour, then set them away into a cool place.

If the weather should be warm, the sirrup must be scalded again in six or eight days, adding thereto another half pint of brandy and one pound sugar, pouring it boiling hot upon the peaches, then set them again in a cool place. This method of procedure will give them a more fresh and agreeable flavor, than any mode yet discovered. content of a fruit, the easier it was to preserve it using a sugar-based method. Many colonial recipes for fruit preserves survive today; Amelia Simmons’ American Cookery, originally published in 1796, includes many recipes that have been adapted for life in the Americas.

Just as preserving meat calls for heavy salt use, this fruit method involves a massive amount of sugar. Although colonists may not have understand the science behind the process – the microbial relationship was not discovered until 1861 -- they realized that sugar, too, had the ability to preserve food through winter months. Like the salt, sugar works to prevent microbial growth, therefore prolonging the shelf life of the food. Sugar must have a 65 percent presence

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in the food to prevent fermentation or molding, T o P ickle K idney B eans while salt only requires 15 percent. One notable exception to this rule is butter, another common Take the beans and string them very well, food item among colonists and early Americans. lay them in ellegar with a good handful Butter only requires a salt presence of 5 percent, of salt and let them lay covered over in since so much is used in its creation. In an extra ellegar or vinegar 10 days. Then take effort to preserve a time-consuming product, it was them out and set a kettle of water on the common for people to roll their butter slabs thick fire, and make it scalding hot. Then put with salt before storing them in the larder. Prior in the beans, covering them close with a to use, the butter would be brought out and washed clean course cloth and when you discern free of excess salt. Cheese, another dairy and salt them to be green and tender, take them heavy food item, was hailed for its long shelf life. up, and when they be cold, pickle them With such a reduced water content, cheese was in white wine vinegar and salt, laying a less susceptible to microbial growth. To further clean course rag upon the pickle which safeguard cheese against spoilage, wheels were often will keep them from caneing, and wash sealed in a thick coating of either bee’s wax or the cloth when it canes, with salt and mold. water, and if you carefully take up the

cloth all the canes will stick to it.

Other produce, such as beans, were extremely important to the winter diet. They were mainly pickled, dried, or salted. Pickling also provided a largest farms were in Pennsylvania and New York. strong juice that could be used in other cooking for Roughly 85 percent of the population in the area further flavor. The following recipe for kidney beans was involved with agriculture, creating an intensely agrarian economy. is from Martha Washington’s 18th-century

Book of Cookery and Sweetmeats.

Wheat was produced on a huge Ellegar refers to a malt vinegar, scale in the north. Rye and and cane likely references the barley were also grown, but stalk and shell of the beans not on the same scale as removed at the end of the wheat and corn. Corn process. was massively efficient and easy to grow, and Regionally, colonists could feed both people relied on vastly and livestock. Hogs, different crops. The particularly, were a further north one favorite of early New traveled, the shorter England settlers, the growing seasons but as time passed and the smaller the cattle, too, became farms. This did not a mainstay. Many stop the northern farmers would parcel colonies from growing out much of their field an abundance of melons, for the production of nectarines, peaches, and hay, which in turn they fed plums. In New England, to their livestock. This led farms averaged in size to the stacking of hay in large between 50 and 100 acres, quantities, and farmers displaying with some of the largest about patterns unique to their fields. All 300 acres. Notably, some of the Jar of Apricots (1758) - Jean-SimĂŠon Chardin

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told, the average northern farmer could rely on a diet of corn, wheat, pork, beef, and fruit, all of which they could easily prepare for winter storage.

Southern farms operated differently, due to the sprawling plantation system and institution of slavery. The typical plantation spanned roughly 75 to 125 acres. The focus on cash crops drove the economy, specifically tobacco and cotton. The amount of wealth and food generated by these plantation systems far outmatched that of the typical northern farmer, and as such there was much less of an emphasis on growing enough food for winter.

The growing season was also much longer in the south, allowing more time for the production of food than their northern counterparts. Southern farm owners also had access to more land, allowing them to sow perhaps 10 percent of their fields with barley and the rest with tobacco.

It was common on plantations to grow food in between cash crop cycles. Following a tobacco harvest, colonists could fallow the land and then sow it with wheat for a winter harvest. In a 20-year cycle, 12 crops of wheat to three crops of tobacco may be grown on a southern plantation, although tobacco out-valued wheat six to one. Still able to generate an excess of grain, much of the wheat was shipped to southern Europe and the West Indies.

Larders, or a pantry, were often constructed separate from the home. The amount of food required to survive an entire winter was large, especially for an average colonial family of eight or nine. Smaller families, or just smaller farms, might build the larder beneath the house. In either case, the walls were often insulated with hay to regulate the temperature.

Cold storage, almost always underground, was also insulated with hay, and hosted any short-term dairy needs. Milk and eggs could still regularly be collected in the winter, and would be promptly consumed. Fresh, unwashed eggs are layered with a coating, known as a “bloom,” and are naturally resistant to bacteria. This made them a staple, safe element of the colonial diet, in winter or summer.

The preservation of food was inherently important to the colonists. They spent large quantities of 34

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T o P ickle A sparagus

Take the largest asparagus you can get, cut off the white ends, and wash the green ends in spring-water, then put them in another clean water, and let them lie two or three hours in it; then have a large broad flewpan full of spring water, with a good large handful of salt; set it on the fire, and it boils put in the [asparagus], not tied up but loose, and not too many at a time, for fear you break the heads. Just scale them, and no more, take them out with a broad skimmer, and lay them on a cloth to cool. Then for your pickle: to a gallon of vinegar put one quart of spring-water, and a handful of bay-salt; let them boil, and put your asparagus in your jar; to a gallon of pickle, two nutmegs, a quarter of an ounce of mace, the same of whole white pepper, and pour the pickle hot over them. Cover them with a linen cloth three or four times double, let them stand a week, and boil the pickle. Let them stand a week longer, and boil the pickle again, and pour it on hot as before. When they are cold, cover them up close with a bladder and leather. time preparing the winter stores, repeating a endless seeming cycle of smoking, salting, brining, boiling, drying and pickling. Originally published in 1774, Hannah Glasse’s The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy, Which Far Exceeds Any Thing of the Kind yet Published reveals the finest method of pickling asparagus of the time.

From smoke houses full of pork sides to preserved peaches and melons, those who prepared for winter properly enjoyed a varied diet of delightful flavors.

Dairy came in the form of fresh milk, butter, and cream. Vegetables were pickled, fermented, and dried, while meats were smoked and salted. It took tremendous effort to fully supply one’s larder for the winter months in colonial America, but it was well worth it. The recipes remaining from that time reflect a people fully capable of not only surviving the winter, but enjoying it as well.

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Drinking Chocolate:

Morning, Noon & Night

The Headless Horseman Pursuing Ichabod Crane (1858) - John Quidor Still Life with a Chocolate Service (1770) - Luis Egidio MelĂŠndez 36

Reliving History | Winter 2018

by Juliet Clare Warren Today we often associate a cup of hot chocolate with a day of fun out in the snow -- a sweet way to end an afternoon of sledding down hills, throwing snowballs, and building snow forts. Back indoors, we curl up on the sofa under a blanket, hands clasped around a mug of hot chocolate.

Do you ever wonder whether our forefathers enjoyed hot chocolate on a cold winter’s day, too? It turns out chocolate has been enjoyed in this country from its beginning and around for the world for millennia, the recipe carefully refined over the centuries with its varied uses.

First, some context for hot chocolate’s arrival in America. Cacao trees were first cultivated between 3,000 and 4,000 years ago by the Olmec, in southern Mexico. They collected the` beans when ripe, removed the husks, ground the cacao nibs into a paste, and mixed it with water. The drink was flavored with flowers and spices -- seasoned or sweetened with ingredients such as chili pepper and vanilla with honey -- and poured back and forth between vessels until it was frothy and ready to drink. The Olmec called this drink “xocolatl.” It was believed

to have mystical properties, and to provide energy and long-lasting sustenance; xocolatl was reserved for medicinal and ceremonial purposes. The “recipe” was passed down from the Olmec to the Maya and finally to the Aztecs.

Hernan Cortes, one of the most famous Spanish conquistadors, brought the drink to Europe in the mid-1500s. It did not, however, become a popular staple of colonial life by way of England, as might be assumed. By the early 1700s, ports in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Newport were receiving large cocoa bean shipments directly from plantations in the West Indies and the Caribbean. Since these were the main ports of delivery and engaged in much of the cocoa trade, many of America’s chocolate makers were located in these four cities, eventually including New Haven, Connecticut. About 81 percent of cocoa brought to New England was from nonBritish sources, with the south receiving its shipments from the north. Boston was the largest chocolate making city in the colonies, followed by Philadelphia.

Chocolate sold in America was almost exclusively manufactured there. Only a small percentage came directly from Europe.

In Europe, chocolate was originally a drink for the rich and royals alike. However, since its point of origin was much closer to the colonies than Europe, and Caribbean sugar was relatively inexpensive, and there were no exclusive manufacturing agreements Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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unlike in Europe, North American producers were able to keep costs down, making the drink available for people from all walks of life. For context, in pre-Revolutionary Williamsburg, chocolate imported from New England sold for 2 shillings and 6 pence per pound. Coffee, by contrast, was less expensive at 1 shilling and 6 pence. Tea was much more expensive than both, at about 12 to 15 shillings per pound. This, however, meant that the quality of the chocolate was Ingredients: reflective of the cost.

mills, which could produce thousands of pounds a day. The work involved in producing cocoa was tedious and included roasting and shelling hundreds of pounds of cocoa, and running the mills whether by walking, horse power, or water.

On top of the long days needed to produce cocoa, production could only occur in late fall, winter, and early spring, as the summer heat prevented the chocolate from hardening.

Early American Hot Choclate

As a staple of daily life, the drinking of chocolate became a - 4 squares unsweetened baking chocolate, cut into quarters public and private - 1/2 teaspoon of cinnamon American chocolate affair. One of the - 1/8 teaspoon of cayenne pepper manufacturing was earliest records - 1/4 teaspoon of ground ginger open to anyone of houses serving - 3 to 4 teaspoons sugar who wished to drinks containing - 2 cups boiling water - 2 cups boiling whole milk participate. There chocolate or coffee were no patents was in 1670, in - 1/2 teaspoon vanilla extract on chocolate, nor New England. By monopolies that the end of the 17th Instructions: could edge people century, chocolate Use a food processor to grind the baking chocolate. out. If you could and coffee houses Chop until the chocolate is broken down into fine grains. afford the equipment became more Place the chocolate in a large saucepan on top of the used to shell cocoa widespread, often stove. Add the cayenne, cinnamon, ginger, and sugar. beans, you could catering to lawyers, Pour the boiling water over the ground chocolate mix enter the trade. tradespeople and and whisk to dissolve.

Add milk and vanilla.

Whisk again Baker’s chocolate financiers; a pot of over low heat.

Whisk further for a frothier consistency. was one of the hot chocolate could Pour into a mug and enjoy. biggest producers be enjoyed while of chocolate in discussing matters America then and of business. In the eRecipe courtesy American Food Rootsd continues to be a comfort of one’s major supplier to the own home, people U.S. market today. might have a cup In fact, many chocolate makers in the 1700s advertised in of chocolate in bed upon waking up in the morning.

Benjamin Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette.

However, some simply wanted the stimulant effects of

cocoa, so they would steep the cocoa shells in hot water.

Chocolate manufacturing was done through a variety of It produced a taste similar to the bitterness of coffee. For means, depending on finances -- from foot-powered mills, this reason, chocolate makers advertised the sale of cocoa which could produce small quantities of cocoa, to water shells alongside the cocoa itself. George Washington’s 38

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wife, Martha, was said to enjoy mixing her cocoa beans with hot water for breakfast Chocolate pots used for serving hot chocolate were usually imported from Europe. They were made mostly of silver or porcelain, tall and slender with a hole in the top for a molinet, which was used for whipping the chocolate into a froth. A molinet was a long handle with paddles on the end that vaguely resemble a fan. The handle went through the lid of the pot and was turned, raised, and lowered to add air into the mixture and create a nicely blended drink with a lasting froth. For the less affluent, hot chocolate was enjoyed out of a simple metal, copper or ceramic chocolate pot. These ranged from silver to porcelain style with a wooden handle fixed to the lower portion of the body by three brass rivets.

With the addition of milk to hot chocolate in the late 17th century, the molinet became even more important, as it was easier to make hot chocolate frothier. This distinguished the design of a chocolate pot from a coffee pot, which was similarly slender but did not usually have a wooden handle affixed to the side.

The recipe of drinking chocolate has changed in several ways since the Olmec’s creation. In mid-17th century England, the recipe called for sugar, red pepper, almonds, nuts, cloves, aniseed, orange flower water, and cocoa. By the time hot chocolate reached the United States, the recipe had changed again. As it became popular among colonists, hot chocolate consisted of grated chocolate and sugar mixed into a cup of hot milk, water, or brandy. For more flavor, chili, vanilla, and all-spice were added.

Not only was hot chocolate a delicious addition to the colonial diet, it also was advertised as having healing properties and could be purchased in apothecary shops.

It was said to aid digestion and promote longevity, cure lung ailments, and suppress coughs. During the American Revolution, medics believed hot chocolate accelerated the rate at which soldiers could recover from wounds, illness, or exhaustion. It was supplied as an easily transportable food that provided high energy. Each soldier was given a

The Chocolate Girl (1743) - Jean-Étienne Liotard Chocolate pots used for serving hot chocolate were made mostly of silver and were usually imported from Europe. ration of chocolate in their packs to make hot chocolate for themselves.

Chocolate was especially valued in colonial America because of its “wholesome” nature. In Protestant, Quaker, and Jewish communities across the land, chocolate was nonalcoholic, stimulating, provided nourishment and appreciated for its healing properties.

In a letter to John Adams in 1785, Thomas Jefferson predicted that someday hot chocolate would overtake the consumption of coffee and tea in America. While that didn’t happen, it was, and still is, a delicious drink in popular demand.

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Violin

noun vi·​o·​lin | \ˌvī-ə-ˈlin

by Robyn Pliuta

- a bowed stringed instrument having four strings

7B7

he violin is widely considered to be a beautifully expressive instrument. It is T indeed a mode of expression for just about every emotion on the human spectrum for modern audiences. Along with its great beauty, the violin has much to share with respect to American history. It tells the story of various cultures who made their home in the colonies, of political unrest, and of revolution. Songs of victory, defeat, broken hearts, romance, and seasonal celebrations resonated in the taverns, homes, and streets of early America. Thankfully, the act of printing annotated music for dispersion along with lyrics and/or dance steps became popular in the 18th century, and enough have been preserved to provide a glimpse into colonial life.

Renaissance composer of religious music, Philibert Jambe de Fer, described the instrument’s features and value in musical expression. As the violin gained popularity, more individuals wished to learn to play it. Adjustments were made to the design between the 16th and 19th centuries.

The fingerboard was lengthened to play very high notes, and tilted to produce greater volume as orchestras grew larger and more commonplace in European and American culture. Violin-makers were known as luthiers. A luthier had to be aware of musicians’ needs, and the constant change in use of the violin. As the assembly process also evolved, so did the need for musicians’ comfort while playing. It wasn’t until the 1800s that the chin rest was produced. Musical styles changed from the 1500s through the 1700s, and European violin-makers eventually brought While the violin has ancient origins, its present form their craft to colonial America. can be traced to 16th-century Italy. The first stringed instruments resembling a violin were bowed instruments The European origins of the violin played a vital role popular in 9th-century Byzantine culture, such as the lira in the formation of early American music and national -- a pear-shaped, three- to five-stringed instrument still identity. The violin grew in popularity in America as popular in the Balkans today. As trading and cultural travelers between the new and old worlds exchanged exchanges between Europe and western Asia increased, use ideas and current trends in music. English culture still of such instruments spread and gained popularity. The had an influence on American life in the 18th century. idea of a wooden sound box with strings and a bow to An important part of the social scene at this time were make tonal vibrations was modified by various individuals, country dances. Not only performed in the country, these adjusting the tonal quality and physical method of playing. community events were a place to hear the latest news and The modern violin’s design is thought to have been discover the latest music and dance trends. Songbooks adopted as the common style in the 1530s. In paintings by were becoming more available by the late 18th century with Gaudenzion Ferrari, the violin, or lira da braccio, is depicted the arrival of European publishers, allowing musicians for the first time. Further development into the instrument to play commonly known songs. They were also able to we so easily recognize today came about in 1556 through look at individual copies of music; for a small group of the Academie Musicale. A musical treatise by the French string musicians, this was quite valuable. Songbooks were 40

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Portrait of Gentleman with Violin (1787) - Guillaume Voiriot

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first developed in 1651 by John Playford. A London printer began publishing the “Dancing Master,” a work which was printed in many editions during Playford’s life. His styles of dances became known as “Playford” dances and continued in their popularity even through the Regency period. Such song and dance scenes were integral parts of period writing, such as works by Jane Austen. One great contribution of the songbook was the blend of musical notation and instructions regarding the steps for country dances that accompanied the tunes. Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, imitators of Playford produced a wider selection of song and dance numbers that enlivened the American cultural and social scene after the age of Puritanism. Dances such as the Allemande, minuets, and hornpipes were enjoyed during leisure time, which was also a relatively new idea in the 18th century. With more leisure time at colonial Americans’ disposal, they required more and more new music, and more fiddlers to delight them with their tunes.

The violin is a notoriously versatile instrument. It was adaptable to the emerging classical and folk styles of the 18th century, which meant that it was equally pleasing to audiences of vastly different socioeconomic backgrounds. It is necessary, however, to clarify that violin is synonymous with fiddle. The name only changes depending on the style of music played: violin for classical, and fiddle for folk. Violin playing grew quickly among the lower, middle, and upper class due to several shifts in the landscape of American life. First, there was the development of city life as a cultural center earlier in the period. This allowed for the rapid spread of new musical styles and trends. At the same time, city life was developing economically, resulting in an increase in leisure time, particularly for higher classes. Americans enjoyed this freedom to pursue hobbies and were encouraged to take up those that fostered special skills or aesthetic values. Naturally, learning an instrument like the violin was a fitting choice amongst upper class circles, as it was considered a respectable use of 42

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ABOVE: Violin - Anonymous, ca 1705 - ca 1710 - This violin of pottery cannot be played. It is a decorative delft pottery piece. The images on the front depict a several men and women dancing as well as musicians on the stage and a pair playing cards on the right hand side.

THROUGHOUT: These images of are of an 18th century violin. Todays instruments look nearly identical to those of the 1700’s.

time and also provided entertainment for others. While the violin was initially seen as a man’s instrument, there was a later shift in women also becoming proficient. European music was a crowd-pleaser for 18th-century Americans in the baroque style. Better yet was the fact that the rise in amateur violin playing resulted in an increased demand, and thus production of printed music. As violin players grew, so did the opportunity to play in groups.

Chamber groups and eventually orchestras began to form, and the violin was a classical icon in the united states by the mid-1700s.

Private teachers and published scores with musical notation were in demand and set the stage for further success of the violin in young America. Thus, domestic music making grew at American publishing firms, which began to issue songbooks, method books, and manuscripts of chamber music tailored to amateur violinists.

The violin became known in the upper class as a “delightful recreation,” and was an encouraged mode of constructive enjoyment. Among the first past-time violinists were Thomas Jefferson, his wife Martha, and his brother, Patrick. Francis Hopkinson was another statesman with a love for chamber music; he even composed some of his own. Professional musicians began playing public performances and the proficiency of amateur musicians flourished. Just at a time when musical institutions in Europe were not in a state of growth, America was budding with orchestral and solo violin playing.

As orchestral music grew, so did the folk music scene. Without much infrastructure to facilitate widespread sharing of ideas, early Americans were apt to have unique regional songs and styles of playing. Although this

caused local culture to develop, the young nation lacked a commonly known repertoire of songs. Music plays a strong role in national identity, of which young America was in need. An initiative to foster solidarity in the colonies began with the creation of broadsies. A collection of songs covering history, politics, and daily life was printed for wide dispersion. Americans were encouraged to memorize the selected songs as a way of forming a uniquely American songbook. These songs were enjoyed in homes, on the streets, in taverns, and most certainly accompanied by a fiddle if possible. Common songs reflected growing dissatisfaction with British involvement in the young nation’s endeavors.

Lower middle-class Americans enjoyed hearing their favorite fiddle tunes in pubs and more casual social gatherings. While the song choices were not classical, they were not lacking in aesthetic appeal or wit.

Common songs for the working class in the 1700s provide an in-depth look at everyday life in America.

The songs were often humorous, nostalgic, and informative. The plethora of ballads, odes, dance tunes, and work songs was dotted here and there with occasional political commentary. Music of this scene was commonly heard in taverns, and much of the structural and tonal style can be credited to Scottish and Irish traditions woven into the fabric of early America. The humorous balladstyle political commentaries were an 18th- century equivalent of modern political satire television programs. They provided news to the audience along with a more or less accurate analysis of current events. Popular songs covered the revolutionary war, such as “The World Turned Upside Down.”

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in popularity. One such song, “Black is the Color of My True Love’s Hair,” was popularized in America in the 1700s and remains a popular folk song today. In fact, Scottish music was considered vogue in London during the 1700s, and its popularity spread to America. Many of these pub and folk style songs were passed around by ear and not written down until the 19th century. Another common practice of bar etiquette in Britain, Scotland and Ireland found its way to American shores -- that is, ladies’ bar accommodations. As taverns and pubs were such a central part of daily life, many women wanted to frequent them to enjoy conversation, a drink, and of course, lively music. Ladies’ entrances were added to allow women dignity, some social discretion, and safety from potential brawls as they entered the establishment. No respectable woman wanted to be the subject of gossip for being seen at, or involved in, pub activities. The versatility of the violin was perfect for tavern settings, as it was quiet enough for a slow ballad during calm hours but loud enough to fill the room with music during more lively occasions.

had. Many had musical talent, including the fiddle. It is indeed sad that a source of such joy, liveliness, and hope was at times used as a way to identify and return individuals who only wanted freedom to live. One exceptional AfricanAmerican violinist was Solomon Northup, a free man from Saratoga, New York. He was kidnapped and forced into slavery as a young man who had previously made his living as a fiddler. His wife also worked, and in their free life, their combined income had allowed them to purchase land -- rare for African-Americans at the time.

They enjoyed their prosperity as Northup’s skill resulted in a growing positive reputation in nearby villages. He remained in captivity on a southern plantation for 12 years, during which his skill became renowned in surrounding plantations. He writes: “I met with other good fortune, for which I was indebted to my violin, my constant companion, the source of profit and soother of my sorrows during years of servitude. There was a grand party of whites assembled at Mr. Yarney’s in Centreville, a hamlet in the vicinity of Turners plantation. I was employed to play for them, and so well pleased were the merry-makers with my performance, that a contribution was The fiddle becomes a symbol of much more than beauty in taken for my benefit, which amounted to seventeen dollars. music when considered in the context of the marginalized With this sum in my possession, I was looked upon by in America in the 1700s. Unsurprisingly, my fellows as a millionaire .... 16 Alas! Had it Africans brought to North America as not been for my beloved violin, I scarcely can slaves were restricted in just about every conceive how I could have endured the long aspect of their lives, including music. years of bondage. It introduced me to great Drumming was forbidden due to slave houses-relieved me of many days’ laborin’ owners’ fears about potential messages the field-supplied me with conveniences for being exchanged through the beats -my cabin-with pipes and tobacco, and extra messages of plans to escape. In the pairs of shoes, and oftentimes led me away from absence of drumming, other instruments the presence of a hard master, to witness scenes of jollity were fashioned from common items, but and mirth.” the fiddle did have a most successful run The 18th century was a time of important in the first African-American communities of developments in the church in Europe, especially America. Music for the marginalized provided a in England’s Protestant traditions, where new means of self-expression in a world of oppression. hymns were being composed. These were a It was a way to escape the present dark realities, change in pace, perhaps a needed lightness of even if only for a moment of two. However, it could spirit following the Puritan chapter in British also be used as an identifier for slaves who attempted to and American church history. Isaac Watts is make an escape. Missing persons ads included names, credited with the writing of approximately occupation, and any special skills the missing person 750 hymns. As a theologian, he was 44

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inspired to write faith-based songs that made their way spurt in the 1700s. The influx of Jewish families arriving to colonial America. In 1719, he wrote the words to the in America were largely Sephardic -- that is, with roots still popular Christmas tune “Joy to the World.” Holiday in the Mediterranean basin unlike the music was fun and popular, offering some joy in a nation Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe. The facing uncertainty. Watts’ hymns and carols were popular first communities settled the northeast with all classes, including slaves. On Christmas Eve in in the mid-1600s, and had established 1775, Philip Fithian (minister and tutor in the Virginia thriving synagogues by the mid-1700s. area) wrote this in his journal: Coming from the Caribbean to Rhode “The Evening I spent at Mr. Guys--I sung for an Hour, at Island, the congregation Jeshuat Israel built the good Peoples Desire, Mr. Watts admirable HymnsTouro Synagogue in 1763; it is still standing -I myself was entertaind; I felt myself improvd; so much in Newport. In 1740, Philadelphia had its first Love to Jesus is set forth--So much divine Exercise.”

Jewish congregation: Mikveh Israel. It is still an active Sephardic congregation today. Coming from Spain, Carols and hymns created a sacred space in American Portugal, Brazil, and some form other parts of Latin life. During the bitter cold of winter months, an extra America, they brought their music. Sephardic music was portion of hope and enjoyment was much needed. strongly vocal and percussive, but other instrumentation Coming together to sing new carols was a brilliant was reminiscent of historical host cultures from Greece way to nurture the budding identity and unity of down through Morocco and extending all the the nation. Of course, a fiddle would be an ideal way to Turkey. Such instruments were the saz (a instrument in private holiday gatherings as well as Turkish instrument resembling the mandolin), in public festivities, such as dances. The company Middle Eastern lute, and, not surprisingly, the of other instruments -- pipes, whistles, flutes, violin. Their style added diversity to the musical and other string instruments, perhaps even a landscape of the colonies and further enhanced the chamber group -- could enhance the ambiance versatility of instruments like the violin. Much of an early American gathering. However, there to the convenience of travelers to America, the was a stretch of time in which Christmas was violin was not too cumbersome to store and not commonly celebrated in all colonies. New carry aboard ships. It even made the journey a England did not favor Christmas activities, bit more bearable to have a skilled violinist as as they were seen by the church as rooted a part of the long and arduous trip. in pagan tradition. For this reason, much of the caroling and Christmas music was The violin is a perfect vessel to carry American at its liveliness in the southern colonies. tradition. It is not unlike a microcosm of Plantations were lively sites of celebration America’s history itself. It came from Europe, with caroling and Christmas parties. It traveled across the Atlantic, and ventured out would be some time before some parts in discovery of new styles, which reflected the of New England even closed schools and diverse scene of a young nation. It was present businesses on Christmas day. in times of joy and fear, revolution, and peace.

The songs carried by the violin throughout the In addition to European-American musical past three centuries in America tell the story contributions, new populations arriving in of a nation with a zest for life, appreciation for America further contributed to the diversity of storytelling, and value of expressing truth through American music. The establishment of the first the beauty of music.

Jewish communities in America had a growth

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From Foolstide to The Battle of Trenton: Christmas in Colonial America

Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851) - Emanuel Leutze

by Christopher Elmore Our lives our very different in most ways than those of our ancestors. We are often surprised by what we find on our journeys of exploration into the past. Yet we also realize that our lives would be even more shocking to them. Of all of those things that would shock our Pilgrim and Puritan forebearers, few would do so more than our contemporary celebration of the Christmas holidays.

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The Pilgrim Separatists and Puritan Congregationalists that settled New England in the early 17th century flouted their hostility toward Christmas for all to see. These migrants came to the new world seeking refuge from a number of English customs, particularly those endorsed by the English Crown.

But Christmas was a tradition that invited particular scorn from these austere religious separatists. One could

even argue that part of the Puritan motivation for fleeing to the Americas was to escape Christmas.

Christmas was not anathema to all settlers in the Americas. Both the Spanish and French colonists transplanted European Christmas traditions to the new world.

Particularly in the case of the Spanish, Christmas traditions blended with native customs to create new festive

traditions. The Spanish and French were primarily Catholic, of course, and Catholics settling in the English colonies, although few in number, brought their holiday traditions with them as well.

a glimpse into 17th-and-18th century colonial Christmas customs, we have the opportunity to learn something both about the people of colonial times- and ourselves.

The Puritan hostility to Christmas was evident from the start. The Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth in mid-December of 1620. By December 23rd they had chosen a site to construct their settlement. December 24th was a Sunday so they rested so as to honor

along with them on their journey to the new world.

The following Christmas, Bradford recounted an encounter with some young men in Plymouth settlement who had excused themselves from work because it “wente against their consciences to work on yt day.” Having found them playing a ball game, he confiscated the ball, telling them that it “was against his conscience, that they should play & others worke.”

While perhaps less so than among the Catholics, Christmas celebrations were considerably more common among the Anglicans, Lutherans, Dutch Reformed, and other smaller sects than they were among Congregationalist New Englanders.

The former groups he uritans referred to hristmas Like Bradford, Jonathan settled primarily in Winthrop, another as oolstide because the mid-Atlantic and prominent Puritan only ungodly fools would southern colonies, leader, also refused to explaining why we celebrate such atanical ractices reference Christmas find more evidence in his diaries or of colonial Christmas celebrations in the Sabbath, even though they were public correspondences. According to places like New York, Philadelphia, and running out of food and lacked shelter. historian James Walsh, John Winthrop Williamsburg than in Boston.

The next day, December 25th, they built had also noted Christmas and other their first house. “So no man rested all English religious holidays in his diaries But neither were the Puritans the only that day,” noted William Bradford in and correspondence while he lived in settler groups that either opposed or his diary.

England. Yet reflecting his ideological ignored the celebration of Christmas. commitment to the Puritan cause, upon Quakers, Baptists, Methodists and As the 19th century historian George leaving for the American colonies, he Presbyterians all shared their general William Curtis noted in Harper’s New stopped referring to Christmas or any antipathy. The skepticism of these early Monthly Magazine, it was almost by other traditional English holiday. settlers likely surprises many Americans “the irony of fate they arrived at the today. very time…of the holiday, as if an The Puritans referred to Christmas opportunity were given them to begin as “Foolstide” because “only ungodly After all, Americans have played a their settlement by symbolic disregard fools would celebrate such ‘Satanical prominent role in the creation of the of the chief feast of the Church against Practices’” (“America’s War…”). extravagant Christmas festivities typical which their voluntary exile was the “Foolstide” was a multifaceted playof our contemporary society. With sternest of protests.” on-words. For one, it referenced the Christmas being a Christian holiday, it is Norse Yule Log custom that had been easy to assume that our pious Christian In his diary, Bradford meticulously incorporated into Christmas festivities founders shared the perspectives toward avoided any use of the word Christmas in much of northern Europe. “Foolstide” the holiday that most religiously devout or the customs associated with it. Yet also invoked a Christmas tradition Christians do today. Though when some of his entries suggest that the that the Puritans found particularly you look at the history, this was clearly some of his fellow travelers brought appalling, the “Lord of Misrule.” In not the case. Nevertheless, through memories of Christmas traditions this ritual, the poorest members of

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society would change roles with the wealthiest and wreak temporary havoc on the community. This sort of charade could scarcely appeal to a group like the Puritans whose theology was built around the doctrine of predestination.

looking for historical detail about colonial celebrations of Christmas for his book The Battle for Christmas.

Almanacs were essential news sources for the colonists who had them available, providing information about the weather and the calendar among By 1659, the Massachusetts Bay other items.

Colony had formally banned Christmas, ordering that anyone “found observing, These almanacs rarely make any by abstinence from labor, feasting, references to the Christmas holiday. or any other way, any such days as Given their importance in organizing Christmas day, shall pay for every such the lives of colonists, a holiday on with offense five shillings”.

December 25th would have certainly been noted if it was relevant to a Decades of Puritan propaganda had significant share of the population. undoubtedly shaped the minds of New If there was an entry, according to England’s inhabitants. As a result, we Nissenbaum, it “would contain a notice have very little historical evidence that that one of the county courts was due people in New England gave much to sit that day -an implicit reminder consideration to activities related to that in New England, December 25 was Christmas. For example, historian just another workday”.

Steven Nissenbaum conducted an exhaustive study of colonial almanac The Puritans opposed Christmas for

This is a recreation of the notices that were printed, posted, and enforced in many areas immediatly following the 1659 ban on Christmas.

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many reasons. First and foremost, the Pilgrims and Puritans, referred to more generally as Congregationalists, were motivated, in part, by the Protestant emphasis on scriptural texts. This had been a major point of contention between Protestants and Catholics during the Protestant Reformation.

They abhorred the church traditions they felt had been invented by the Roman Catholic Church with no basis in Christianity’s holy text, the bible. Of all the Protestant sects, the Puritans were characteristically the most puritanical in their rigorous adherence to this principle.

Their opposition to Christmas, from a theological perspective, was thus grounded in its lack of scriptural foundation. Increase Mather, the famed New England Congregationalist minister published a treatise in 1687 entitled A Testimony against Several Prophane

and Superstitious Customs, Now Practiced by Some in New England.

He explained his opposition to the celebration of the Christmas holiday this way: “In the pure Apostolical times there was no Christ-mass day observed in the Church of God. We ought to keep the primitive Pattern. That Book of Scripture which is called The Acts of Apostles saith nothing of their keeping Christ’s Nativity as an Holy-day.”

shaped the evolution of the holiday: the born in the spring or autumn. Mather Roman Christianization of European argued that the Roman Church chose the timing “because the Heathens Saturnalia was at the time kept in Rome, and they were willing to have those Pagan Holidays metamorphosed into Christian.”

The association of Christmas with paganism, and the Puritan rejection of Catholicism because of its adoption of pagan rituals, was a central principle of Puritan theology.

The Congregationalist commitment to this doctrine extended well into the 18th century. As late as 1778, Ezra Stiles, a minister who later served as Yale University’s President, put forth an argument than Protestants had been repeating for over two centuries. Stiles reasoned that “if it had been the will of Christ that the anniversary of his birth should have been celebrated, he would at least let us have known the day….”

Indirectly, Stiles raised another Puritan point of contention regarding the Christmas holiday. It was not just there was no basis in scripture for its customary time and the manner in which it was celebrated. The actual reason for the holiday’s timing was even more disturbing to them.

Christmas, particularly as it was celebrated in early modern Europe, developed as a practical accommodation to circumstances. Two in particular

pagans and the feudal system that grew out of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Educated people in the 17th and 18th centuries, both those who celebrated Christmas and those who did not, knew that Christmas had little grounding in biblical or early Christian tradition.

Rather it was a pragmatic tool, one used by proselytizers throughout history, to gain converts among non-believers. As Nissenbaum notes, “The Puritans knew what subsequent generations would forget; that when the Church, more than a millennium earlier, had placed Christmas Day in late December, the decision was part of what amounted to a compromise.”

Increase Mather explained this relationship in his 1687 treatise condemning English customs that he saw taking root in New England. He repeated the standard Puritan argument that Christmas was not a legitimate expression of the Christian faith since the holiday’s timing was certainly not the actual date of Jesus’ birth. Biblical evidence suggests that Jesus was likely

John Aubrey, a 17th century English diarist, also drew this connection, pointing out how “it was expedient to plough (as they say) with the heifer of the Gentiles…” by adapting Christian beliefs to pre-existing pagan traditions. “Had they donne otherwise, they could not have gain’d so many Proseltytes or established Doctrine so well, and in so short a time”.

Christmas, as Bruce Daniels notes in Puritans at Play, “occupied a special place in the ideological religious warfare of Reformation Europe.”

The association of Christmas with paganism, and the Puritan rejection of Catholicism because of its adoption of pagan rituals, was a central principle of Puritan theology. Puritans believed that Christmas represented nothing more than “residual Papist idolatry.” “For the Puritan there was nothing ‘prudent’ about such a mishmash of pagan and “popish” practices”.

As was true of other issues in colonial America, the battle over Christmas also involved tensions between the colonists and the motherland. “18th century New Englanders viewed Christmas as the Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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representation of royal officialdom” and “external interference in local affairs”. While the Puritans had always opposed celebrations of the holiday, they made no effort to formally ban it until after Oliver Cromwell, a fellow Puritan, came to power in England during its Civil War and did so there.

celebration. Realizing that this might, and perhaps hoping it would, provoke the colony’s leadership, he was accompanied by an armed security detail while attending the service.

Although not directly connected to this event, both James II in England and Edmund Andros in New England were overthrown by popular revolts Although they do not appear to have within a few years. made much effort to enforce the ban, the leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Yet the occasional Puritan colony steadfastly refused to repeal it participation in an effort to upend after the Restoration of King Charles the status quo does not mark it as a II. In 1665, the British Crown defining characteristic of the sect. In officially ordered the colony to remove spite of their radical religious views, the “penalty for keeping Christmas” the Puritans placed a high priority on for “being directly against the lawe of orderliness. And Christmas as it was England”. The law remained on the practiced in early modern Europe was books until 1681. anything but orderly.

In 1686, King James II, soon after succeeding his brother, moved against the Puritans in New England. As a closeted Catholic, James was bitter toward the Puritans for their persecution of Catholics.

More importantly, James likely wished to punish every Puritan in his realm for Oliver Cromwell’s execution of his father, Charles I, during the English Civil War. His assault on the New England Puritans included abolishing the charters of each of the New England colonies, combining them into a single Dominion of New England, and sending a royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, to establish royal authority over it.

According to Nissenbaum, Christmas typically involved “behavior that most of us would find offensive and even shocking today—rowdy public displays of excessive eating and drinking, the mockery of established authority, aggressive begging (often combined with the threat of doing harm), even the boisterous invasion of wealthy homes.”

Christmas in 16th and 17th Century England was particularly unruly, likely by design. Students of Shakespeare can identify with the merriment and revelry characteristic of many of his plays like Twelfth Night. That title relates to the twelve nights of Christmas, the customary time from the celebration As a sign of his ill intentions toward of the Christmas season in England at the Puritans, Andros marked his the time. As was the case in many of arrival with a mandatory Christmas Shakespeare’s plays, actual Christmas 50

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celebrations often got out of hand. To an extent, this was actually the point of them.

By occasionally and predictably disrupting the social order to relieve stress and frustration, people would more willingly accept and adapt to their assigned social role over the longterm. Along with the complimentary “Lord of Misrule” ritual, “wassailing” also gave lower-class people a chance to temporarily reverse the social hierarchy. When “wassailing,” a small band of marauders would forcibly break into the home of a social superior and demand food and drink in exchange for entertaining them with song and dance. As William Heath notes, this sort of “festivity could serve to reconcile people to their place in the great scheme of things. A period of misrule, which even allowed for mockery of those who ruled, reinforced established rule.”

The Puritans had no interest in the debauchery of these English Christmas customs. In a sermon in 1711, the Congregationalist Minister, Cotton Mather, son of Increase, described Christmas celebrations in a way that surely made clear to his congregation how they were to feel about them.

“The Feast of Christ’s Nativity,” he said, “is spent in Reveling, Dicing, Carding, Masking, and in all Licentious Liberty...by Mad Mirth, by long Eating, by hard Drinking, by lewd Gaming, by rude Reveling”.

Puritan Christians, by contrast, were called to be “Visible Saints” wearing their moral purity as a badge of honor

Puritan Governor Interrupting The Christmas Sports (1883) - Howard Pyle This rendering is likely depicting the instance in Plymouth settlement where Bradford was disgruntled at the men playing ball when they had already excused themselves from work. for all to see. There was no place in this worldview for sanctioning the sort of behavior typical of these Christmas festivities.

A relaxation of order carries less risk when the world is orderly. But when creating and maintaining order are essential for survival, regular disruptions of it risk more serious social instability. The Puritans in New England were unusually insistent upon order and discipline, partially because of their religious beliefs and partially due to the environment in which they lived.

Their Calvinist theology predisposed them to an obsession with formality and structure. The chaotic nature of life in the new world further heightened these sensitivities. At times, the

Puritans appeared to dislike in equal days; and no Christmas porridge on measure the frivolous English customs Christmas Eve!” they had left behind and the untamed world they found in New England.

For many of the same reasons, neither the Methodists, nor the Baptists, nor the The Puritans were not alone in their Presbyterians approved of Christmas disdain for the Christmas holiday. much more than the Puritans. In While far apart in most aspects of 1784, the American Methodists, religious doctrine, the Puritans and for example, held their organizing Quakers shared a mutual loathing for conference in Baltimore on Christmas Christmas festivities. 18th Century Day, requiring representatives to leave Quakers in Philadelphia were said to their friends and family to travel and be “zealous in their testimony against attend what was essentially a business the holding up of such days”. Peter meeting.

Kalm, a Swede touring the colonies in 1749, described his observations of Numerous other accounts report the Quakers on Christmas Day in his a persistent apathy toward journal. “The Quakers did not regard commemorating the holiday. “I kept this day any more remarkable than Christmas at home this year, and did other days. Stores were open… There a good day’s work,” recorded Anna was no more baking of bread for Winslow, a Boston schoolgirl, in her the Christmas festival than for other diary in 1771. The Elizabeth Drinker Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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Twelfth-Night Feast (1662) - Jan Havicksz. Steen

Twelfth Night is a festival in some branches of Christianity marking the coming of the Epiphany.

Different traditions mark the date of Twelfth Night on either 5 January or 6 January; the Church of England, Mother Church of the Anglican Communion, celebrates Twelfth Night on the 5th and “refers to the night before Epiphany, the day when the nativity story tells us that the wise men visited the infant Jesus. In Western Church traditions, the Twelfth Night concludes the Twelve Days of Christmas; although, in others, the Twelfth Night may refer to the eve of the Twelfth Day.

Diary, which reflected the experiences of many Quakers in Philadelphia, reported similar Christmas experiences.

On Christmas Day in 1793, she commented that “Christmass, so call’d” was “keep’t by some pious well minded people religiously; by some others as a time of Frolicking.” In 1795 she noted, “We, as a people, make no more account of it than any other day.”

serve as President of the College of New Jersey, later renamed Princeton University. On Christmas Day in 1758, he echoed the complaints of the Puritans from more than 100 years before, complaining that Christmas had degenerated into “sinning, sexuality, luxury, and various forms of extravagance, as if men were not celebrating the birth of the holy Jesus, but of Venus, or Bacchus, whose most sacred rites were mysteries of iniquity Samuel Davies was a Presbyterian and debauchery”. minister in Virginia who would later Over time, however, as was the case 52

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with most other sects, the Presbyterians eventually yielded to the appeal of the Christmas holiday.

Following a pattern that should now be familiar to those attempting to impose a moral order from above, the laws of God eventually yield to the laws of supply and demand. Alarmed by the discovery that members of their congregations were attending Christmas services at neighboring Anglican churches, the Presbyterians began holding their own Christmas services.

While many in colonial America did not celebrate- or at times even tolerateChristmas, many others did. In fact, much of the evidence used to document the hostility of some to the holiday tradition suggests a different conclusion when examined from a different perspective.

Governments do not typically make laws, for example, unless someone is doing the thing that they wish to make illegal. Someone does not typically note that they did not do a particular thing unless there are others who are doing it. Even in those places where Christmas celebrations were discouraged, there were almost

certainly people engaging in them.

In some parts of the English colonies, Christmas celebrations were quite common. Unlike the Puritans, the Jamestown Charter Company, organizer of the Virginia settlement, expressed no public concerns about the Christmas holiday. William Strachey, the secretary of the Virginia colony recounted his stop in Bermuda while traveling to Jamestown in 1609. According to Strachey, “upon Christmas Eve, as also once before… our Minister preached a godly Sermon, which being ended, he celebrated a Communion”. By the 1620s, Virginia’s Statutes of Laws included multiple references to Christmas, demonstrating its relevance to the setters who lived there.

As colonists became more comfortable in their surroundings, these celebrations became more elaborate. Describing a stay in Williamsburg in December of 1773, Philip Fithian wrote of the community’s anticipation of its annual Christmas celebration.

“Nothing now is to be heard of in conversation but the balls, the fox hunts, the fine entertainments, and the good fellowship which are to be exhibited at the approaching Christmas...which are to continue til twelfth-day. Everyone is now speaking of the approaching Christmas----The young Ladies tell me we are to have a Ball, of selected Friends in this Family---But I, hard Lot, I have never learned to dance!””

Christmas in some capacity throughout his life. As Anglicans, his family would have participated in religious observations of the holiday.

In colonial Virginia where he lived for most of his life, mistletoe and wreaths made of evergreen, laurel, or holly were common Christmas decorations.

Among Washington’s personal papers were Christmas lists of items requested by his wife Martha’s young children.

Given the general apathy toward the holiday in many places in colonial America, it his perhaps fitting, however, that our strongest visual image of Washington at Christmas does not

Germans, the majority of whom were either Catholic or Lutheran, did usually celebrate Christmas. Washington likely thought the Germans would be surprised by a Christmas attack and might be debilitated by excessive celebration.

Indeed, Washington would have likely been celebrating himself if there had been something to celebrate at that point in the war.

Even after his surprise victory at the Battle of Trenton, his celebration was short-lived. Soon enough Washington and his troops found themselves encamped in the frigid and spartan conditions at Valley Forge. Not until

Due to innovations like the spread of popular Christmas carols, by the end of the 18th century many of the Christian denominations that had once been skeptical of Christmas celebrations came to see their value as way to bring people together. evoke mistletoe or a Yule log. Rather the most iconic Christmas image in all of colonial America is probably Emanuel Leutze’s painting Washington Crossing the Delaware. On Christmas night in 1777, Washington, his army depleted and weary, famously launched a surprise attack against the German mercenaries brought to the Americas by the British to finish off the ragtag colonial army.

In choosing to attack his adversary on Christmas, Washington was not The records of George Washington’s modeling Bradford’s puritanical life suggest that he likely celebrated commitment to ignoring the holiday.

he returned home to Mount Vernon on Christmas Eve in 1783, after the British surrender at Yorktown, would Washington again enjoy anything resembling a traditional Christmas.

Yet for the rest of his life, Washington appears to have celebrated Christmas in ways that, while muted by comparison, would nevertheless resonate with people today. Mount Vernon’ extensive logs record dinner parties with elaborate feasts, featuring many of the foods like ham, turkey, potatoes, and pies that we traditionally associate with American holiday meals.

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As the 18th century progressed, Christmas music played a central role in expanding its popularity.

Nissenbaum documents the evolution of colonial Christmas traditions by tracing the gradual addition of Christmas songs to church hymnals.

Fithian also highlighted importance of music to Christmas festivities in colonial Virginia. He described a Christmas Eve party that he attended in 1775. “While spending the evening with friends, he “sung for an Hour, at the good Peoples Desire, Mr. Watts admirable Hymns--I myself was entertaind”.

as way to bring people together. was then, a nation of immigrants.

Ironically, this had been the purpose American culture has evolved in of the holiday from its origins. response to the amalgamation of diverse traditions and customs as new In 1755, for example, Ebenezer groups of immigrants have arrived and Parkman, a Massachusetts assimilated. In Christmas: A Candid Congregational minister, although History, Bruce Forbes argues that our mindful to avoid the “Supersititions Christmas celebrations today are built and Excesses of this day” nevertheless on customs imported, not only by the chose to celebrate Christmas out of English and Dutch settlers in the 17th his “desire to be one with all of them and 18th century, but even more so that are one with Christ”. In a 1778 by the German and Irish settlers that diary entry, Stiles rationalized his came later. planned participation in the upcoming festivities. “Without superstition Catholics were a small minority of colonists in British American colonies during the 18th century, almost certainly less than 3% of the total population.

Most of them lived in Rhode Island and for the day I desire to unite with Pennsylvania due to those colonies’ all Christians in celebrating the laws safeguarding religious freedom. In incarnation of the divine Emmanuel.’’ cities like Philadelphia, the Catholic observance of Christmas was notable.

Not all were persuaded however, and many continued to resist Christmas for As he did with the Quakers, Peter decades to come. Henry Ward Beecher Kalm, the Swede who was visiting was a New England Congregationalist Philadelphia in 1749, recorded his minister and abolitionist, most observations of the Catholics there. famous as the father of Harriet In stark contrast to the Quakers, Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle “nowhere was Christmas Day Tom’s Cabin. Perhaps Beecher was celebrated with more solemnity than rankled by critics who questioned in the Roman Church. Three sermons his continued neglect of the holiday were preached there, and that which at a time when its popularity was contributed most to the splendor of ascendant. His response? “To me, it the ceremony was the beautiful music is foreign holiday”. heard to-day.” He also noticed that the entire church was adorned with laurel.

Beecher did indeed have a point. Other than the Catholics, perhaps the America is now, of course, as it most eager celebrants of Christmas

Other than the Catholics, perhaps the most eager celebrants of Christmas traditions in the North American colonies were migrants from the Dutch Reformed Church

The Mr. Watts to whom Fithian referred was Isaac Watts, known affectionately to some as the “Godfather of English Hymnody.”

An English Congregational minister, he revolutionized Christmas music by matching biblical quotations to easy and familiar melodies, making them easier to learn and sing. His songs became increasingly popular in colonial hymnals throughout the 18th century (Nissenbaum). Perhaps his most famous hymn, “Joy to the World” was reported to be the most popular Christmas song in colonial Virginia.

Due to innovations like the spread of popular Christmas carols, by the end of the 18th century many of the Christian denominations that had once been skeptical of Christmas celebrations came to see their value 54

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traditions in the North American colonies were migrants from the Dutch Reformed Church, known to some at the time as the “gay Dutch”. The Dutch role in importing European Christmas traditions to the new world is often overlooked.

Among other things the Dutch contributed the patron saint of their Christmas holiday, St. Nicholas, who brought candies to the good children by placing it in a stocking. This, of course, helped inspire the 19th century American creation of Santa Clause.

Ironically, the legendary author Washington Irving inadvertently spread Dutch traditions by writing a satirical story mocking their Christmas celebrations. In “Knickerbocker’s History of New York,” Irving embellished on customs that he had almost certainly not witnessed firsthand, including the Dutch patron saint.”

Even if Irving’s intention was to poke fun at the Dutch, the long-term effect was to inspire others to emulate them.

Irving’s description of “Sancte Claus” bears a striking resemblance to the Santa Claus who would appear in Clement Moore’s 1822 poem “Twas the Night Before Christmas.” Rather than recognizing the silliness of these customs as Irving likely expected, a growing number of Americans adopted them. Even Charles Dickens acknowledged his debt to Irving’s stories as inspiration for A Christmas Story.

Considering the Dutch contribution to holiday festivities, it is fitting that New

York City, once New Amsterdam, is the focal point for many Americans today as they welcome in the New Year. After all, for the Dutch, “New Year’s Day was devoted to the universal interchange of visits,” a tradition which they introduced and remains a holiday tradition for many.

Even as Christmas celebrations evolved through the 18th century, the Puritan attitude toward Christmas dominated American life until the middle of the 19th Century. Where Christmas was celebrated, it was treated as a minor, sectarian tradition that had little impact on the larger political, economic, and social world. Congress was regularly in session on Christmas Day from its first meeting in 1789 until the 1850s when it first began taking a formal Christmas recess.

By the middle of the 19th century, however, the holiday customs of the Irish, German, Dutch, and English

immigrants had begun to blend together with new traditions to create a holiday that can be fairly characterized as uniquely American. In this way, as different as our era might seem when compared to the colonial one, we do share at least one common characteristic: an awareness that, over time, unity is best- and likely onlyachieved through accommodation.

The religious dissenters who sought to stifle the freedom of others by outlawing a tradition that they did not like ultimately found more reward in acceptance of it, no matter how begrudging that acceptance might have been.

X

Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol popularized the modern visualiaztion of Christmas. In many ways, the 19th century “Dickens’s Christmas” forms our cultural perception of Christmas tradition. While it is easy to attribute the images of large feasts and decorations to our 18th century colonial predecessors, this would be inaccurate.

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Artisan Highlight Karen Hainlen

Apple Cart Creations

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K

aren and Mike Hainlen have operated Apple Cart Creations for 15 years in Central Indiana.

Running Apple Cart is a team effort, but the spinning and knit creations are all Karen. Apple Cart can be found traveling to many different events throughout the fall and spring. A lifelong passion for knitting expanded into a full time business when she let her curiosity lead the way and jumped in to the craft.

Karen can almost always be spotted at her spinning

wheel, teaching others about what she is doing. She is pictured here with her Great Wheel which dates back to the late 1700s. She claims it is her favorite because of the feeling she gets from making period items on a wheel that has itself, been spinning since the 18th century. Her knowledge of period wool shows in every one of her items. This award winning artisan does take on custom orders on top of the items she has ready made.

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How did you get started in spinning and with the wool?

I met Fred Jenkins at our county fair. I’d say at least 25 years ago. He was in a log cabin set up with the loom, a great wheel, a wrope bed and I walked in the door and it just felt so right, just like I could live that way.

It felt right and the great wheel really fascinated me and I talked to him for about an hour and then afterwards he kept inviting me to come to spinning club every month for spinning wheels. That was in fall and we had the apple orchard. So there was no way I could get around.

He called again to December and I turned to Mike and said “it is Fred again.” Mike said “You might as well go because he’s going to keep bugging you until you do.” I turned to Mike and said, “yeah, but you know what will happen if I go” and we talked for a little bit and he said “yeah, go ahead and go.”

I had my first wheel within a month. I sat down for my first lesson and he had me educate my hands and feet, put the two together and at the end of my lesson of an hour and 15 minutes, I had this nice, fine, and even thread. I didn’t have to work for it. It was just there. That’s just a talent I had and didn’t even know I had. So, I found my niche.

So you have been working on perfecting this for 20 years then?

Oh, yeah, at least 25 years now. Now what I had to learn to do was adjust the thickness of my yarn. Most people can only do one thickness.

I can sit down and do anything from a cobweb to a very heavy chunky weight. So that’s what I had to teach myself.

Two Needles One Toque Hand Knit & Hand Woven items are their speciality. They start with wool right from the sheep. They clean it then have it washed and carded, then hand spin the wool into yarn. left: Karen knitting her handspun yarn into a toque for a customer.

Hats are among Apple Cart Creations many items.

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Is that probably the hardest thing for someone new to learn?

Yes. First thing is to get it consistently even, which I just could just do I didn’t have to work at it. But the next thing is trying to keep it constantly one thickness over another thickness. Most people, you know, they just naturally tend to spend one thickness and that’s all they can do.

They can’t really change the thickness.

What kind of processes can you do yourself with the wool?

I get the wool raw from either the shepherd or the shearer, then Mike and I skirt it. Which means we lay it down on a rack and we pull off anything we don’t like.

Anything with burrs, or too much of vegetable matter or anything like that. We shake it. We pull it apart. We tease it. We get it ready to send to the processors.

They will wash it and then card it and then get it back to me.

What is your least favorite part of the process?

Skirting. It could be on Dirty Jobs. It is very dirty. Messy. You get lanolin all over you and then when you shake the fleece to take out the fiber, that gets stuck on top of the lanolin. So you always end up a big dirty greasy mess by the time you’re done.

Do you work with natural colors, or do you dye the wool?

Most of it is comes off the sheep that color. I do some dying like blues and greens and things like that. But most of it is straight off the sheep.

All of her clothing items made from her wool are hand finished.

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What made you decide that you wanted to work in the 18th century?

It’s just kind of like walking into that cabin. I just felt right. I even looked for places.

I would go down to Connor Prairie for their Sheep to Blanket workshops a couple of times and I would bring things I actually made. I ended up working at Conner Prairie for four years. While not 18th century, I just absolutely loved working in historical areas and trying to make it as period-correct as possible. I think working at Conner Prairie fed that and just made me realize the importance of trying to keep everything historically correct.

You make Linsey Woolsey. So that all comes from your wool that you’ve spun?

Yeah, it’s all hand spun and woven. The spinning is what takes the longest. It is all singles is not plied. It’s not ready to knit with it. If you tried to knit with it, it probably wouldn’t hold up just because it’s so fine and thin.

Tell me a little bit about that term “spinster” that is on your sign.

Spinster was an actual trade in 18th century. It would be basically a young lady from about 12 to however old who had developed the skills necessary to get those nice fine and even threads. Just like today, most people are not skilled in everything. There were some women that could spin well, but there’s a whole lot more that couldn’t and so she could actually sell her skills. They would give her the wool to spin and she would charge them for it. So she was actually providing an income for herself and her family. One of the main reasons getting married back then, besides love, was to have someone to help provide for you. Since she was already doing that, many times a spinster did not get married until she was a lot older. Hence society turned the term spinster from being a very self-sufficient, self providing, woman into meaning an old maid.

That meaning was put in place over a hundred years later, but that’s what sticks in people’s mind. Lots of times a girl would take her wheel with her and go from place to place and spin for families. That family’s wool would be turned into yarn and she would move on to the next. Once the lady got married, her spinning had to have dropped down considerably because she would have a family that she would have to take care of.

With everything that that entails, you know, the cooking, the cleaning, having house.

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Check Out Apple Cart Creations Facebook & their website

on

www.AppleCartCreations.com

So what item do you spend most of your time making?

Probably hats and after that the hand wear. I make well over a hundred hats a year. It’s a very popular. Though, I’d say the hand-wear comes in a very close second.

Have you ever made a project that did not turn out?

Well of course, that’s just the nature of anything. You’re always going to have something that doesn’t quite fit doesn’t quite work. That’s a prototype. Just make another one.

What is your favorite part of the your craft?

I think my most favorite is spinning. I still just love to spin, the next thing would be weaving.

Immerse yourself in the Regency world at the KershawCornwallis House and Gardens Enjoy afternoon teas, a soiree with port and Madeira wine, an 1815 market, Royal Navy encampment, speakers, a Grand Ball and Illumination, and so much more!

Tickets are on sale at www.historiccamden.org/treaty-of-ghent

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The

Fir<t American Novel and the Power of Novelty

by Renee Worthen here is an old adage of journalism T that says, roughly, scandal sells.

It is as true today as it was in the days, months, and years following the war of independence from Britain. During the late 18th century, America was in the afterglow of a successful campaign for independence, but the transition from colony to nation was anything but smooth.

Daniel Shay led a rebellion against what he saw as persistent economic and social inequality that had been previously blamed on Britain. He was not alone. Small rebellions and rumblings of dissatisfaction were rampant. The founding fathers eventually realized that the Articles of Confederation was inefficient at coalescing 62

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the former colony into a new nation, and they locked themselves behind closed doors at the Pennsylvania State House -- now called Independence Hall -- to hammer out the Constitution. Meanwhile, in 1788, Boston was rocked by the news that one of the city’s most prominent citizens was guilty of the crime of adultery and fornication. Revolutionary War hero Perez Morton stood accused of consorting with Frances “Fanny” Apthorp, his sister-in-law.

Fanny had only recently arrived in Boston to live with her sister, poet Sarah Morton, and Sarah’s husband, Perez. It was alleged that shortly after her arrival, Fanny began the affair with her sister’s husband, and those encounters resulted in the birth of a son.

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By the time that the scandal hit the papers, Morton was We are happy in being able to announce to the on the defensive, denying all charges, but James Apthorp, public, that the accusations brought against a his father-in-law, demanded Morton be held accountable. fellow citizen, in consequence of a late unhappy Apthorp wanted Fanny to publicly confront Morton about event, and which have been the cause of domestic the affair, but she refused, fearing even more damage to her calamity, and public speculation, have, at the reputation and possible criminal prosecution (adultery was mutual desires of the parties, been submitted to, a capital crime in Boston, and women often received the and fully inquired by their Excellencies James harsher punishment). However, under the Massachusetts Bowdoin and John Adams, Es’qrs, and that the Fornication Act, Fanny would have been able to publicly result of their inquiry is that the said accusations state her case in front of the justice of the peace and accept are not, in any degree, supported, and that therefore responsibility for her part without any fear of prosecution. there is just ground for the restoration of peace Fanny refused, and before her father could press the issue, and harmony between them, and in consequence she killed herself by taking a lethal dose of laudanum. thereof, they have recommended to them, with Before her death, she wrote a series of letters aimed at the spirit of candor and mutual condescension, her friends, family, and to Morton. Currently housed in the Massachusetts Historical Society, the letters offer again, to embrace in friendship and affection. apologies to her family and friends, and most specifically to her beloved sister, Sarah. To Morton, she says, With that, Morton hoped the scandal would fade from public consciousness, but he would be wrong. First, in early January 1789, Sarah and Fanny’s brother, Charles Who is so wretched as myself Innocent I am in Apthorp, challenged Morton to a duel in an attempt to this -- nothing but that would make me own my restore Fanny’s honor. While Morton managed to call in a guilt. Yet I have no proofs. I have no money to few favors and wiggle out of it, he could not stop the second make those who know the whole truth declare it. event that would remind Boston about the scandal. Among Before long, I shall be Condemned in a court of the milieu of religious treatises, American patriotism, and Justice. O my God knowest that my once lov. the lingering spirit of the Revolution, the nation’s “first Morton is the first and last man I ever knew.

American novel” would emerge. It fictionalized the Perez what is Justice, most redily do I resign my self Morton and Fanny Anthorp affair, using the scandal to into the hands of the true and only God who make a larger point about the relationship between private gave it … I wish I may die at the bar with the vice and public morality.

truth in my mouth, my guilty Innocence cannot save me…[to Morton] In the name of Heaven let not my sweet Infant suffer. take care of it unhappy Morton if ever you lov’d its mother …

Isaiah Thomas, a Boston printer and publisher, was a fierce advocate for American ideals, culture, and literature.

Thomas had already developed a reputation for publishing many of the revolutionary tracts circulated during the war.

His patriotism was so well known it was rumored that he rode with Paul Revere to alert the countryside of the impending British invasion. Thomas was invested in finding and distributing American thought and culture, so when the opportunity presented itself to print and distribute the first American novel, he jumped at the chance.

The letters were eventually leaked to the press and, Apthorp -- incensed and grief-stricken over the death of his daughter -- demanded Morton be held accountable for Fanny’s death. An inquest was convened and Morton’s longtime friends, Massachusetts Governor James Bowdoin, and James Adams, a prominent lawyer and future president, found him not guilty. They defended their decision and their friend in the Massachusetts Centinel, writing, On January 16, 1789, Thomas sent a press release to the 64

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Herald of Freedom, announcing the arrival of the “first advantage. In fact, it was so obvious who the characters American novel”: Ophelia and Martin represented that Fanny Apthorp’s mother wrote to Brown’s mother asking why he would An American Novel “do such a thing when we were good friends?” Mrs. We learn that there is now in the Press in this Brown defended her son, saying the “names are fictitious,” town a Novel, dedicated to the young ladies, but Mrs. Apthorp retorted, “Everybody knows whom he which is intended to enforce attention to female means.” education, and to represent the fatal consequences

of Seduction. We are informed that one of the incidents upon which the novel is founded, is drawn from a late unhappy suicide. We hall probably soon be enabled to lay before our readers some account of so truly Novel a work, upon such interesting subjects.

The novel’s use of the scandal leads to the impression that the entire work is a retelling of the affair, but it is not. The text has a much bigger aim, one that, according to the preface, looks to alert females to the “dangerous Consequences of Seduction” and to promote the “Advantages of FEMALE EDUCATION.” The novel is actually a story about a young man, Harrington, who A week later, on January 21, he released another falls in love with a young woman, Harriot. The two are announcement in the Massachusetts Centinel: set to marry; on the eve of their wedding, however, they receive word that they should not marry because they First American Novel are, in fact, brother and sister. It turns out Harrington’s This day published, price 9S bound and lettered, father once had an affair resulting in the birth of Harriot, a child whom he abandoned. Fate would have it that the and 6s. 8d. stitched in blue paper, consequences of the elder Harrington’s actions ultimately THE POWER OF SYMPATHY: Or, the led to the death of his daughter Harriot, who died from TRIUMPH OF NATURE, A NOVEL founded shock, and his son, Harrington, who died from suicide. in truth. In two volumes 12 mo. The first volume

ornaments with a Copperplate Frontpiece.

Dedicated to the Young Ladies of America…

Printed at BOSTON, by I. Thomas and Co. and sold in their Bookstore, No. 45 Newburystreet.

A few days later, Bostonian William Hill Brown’s The Power of Sympathy hit stores. Thomas was so invested in the novel’s success that he employed famed engraver Samuel Hill to provide the frontispiece, or main illustration, capturing the significance of the work. Hill’s engraving, “THE STORY of OPHELIA,” showcased a young woman clearly in distress. Hill’s Ophelia would come from Brown’s rendering of the Morton/Anthorp affair.

In The Power of Sympathy, Fanny’s name is changed to Ophelia, and Perez Morton is represented by a character named Martin, barely masking his identity.

Through the novel, Brown and his publisher, Isaiah Thomas, make bold assertions about the role of women in the new republic. They also set out to specifically connect private vice to public integrity; that is, private actions can directly shape the public health of the community.

The novel uses the epistolary form -- a type of novel that written as a series of letters or correspondence -- to do three things:

1) to advocate for a society that understands that our judgment should be tempered by an awareness of our own prejudices; 2) education is the primary way for women & society to thrive; 3) “the value of a woman will be commensurate to the opinion she entertains of herself.” In Brown’s and Thomas’s view, the first American novel had the responsibility to Brown was 23 when the novel was published, and as the not only entertain but, more importantly, educate and neighbor of the Apthorps, he used that proximity to his contribute to the health of the republic.

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Year of Our Lord 2774 (1774), Thomas Atwood Digges’s The Adventures of Alonso: Containing Some Striking Anecdotes of the Present Prime Minister of Portugal (1775), the anonymously published The Golden Age; or, Future Glory of North America Discovered by an Angel to Celadon, in Several Entertaining Visions (1785), and Peter Markoe’s The Algerian Spy in Pennsylvania (1787).

For a variety of reasons, these works were not included in the idea of the first American novel, primarily because they are too short. However, at the time The Power of Sympathy was published, the genre form of the novel Samuel Hill’s engraving “The Story of Ophelia” commissioned for this was too new to have developed any book. The cover page on the right hand side notes the novel can be purchased at the book store of Isiah Thomas, who was instrumental in the conventions about what separates a book making it to print. full-length novel from any of the works mentioned above. Despite those The heroines of the work are Ophelia (Fanny) and Harriot, other works, Thomas’ insistence on calling Sympathy the and they are both victims of seduction. Yet their lives “first American novel” suggests that he was interested in should be used as lessons for a wider audience. Brown using its content to make a claim about what constitutes suggests that novels should be written methodically with an American work and what should constitute the American instruction to entertain for a purpose, and that they should novel. Yet, despite Thomas’ best efforts, the novel was an be read methodically for a purpose. One should not get abysmal failure. The Morton/Apthorp scandal might have so lost in the fanciful world of novels that one loses sold papers, but it could not sell books. It wasn’t that sight of reality, and one should not write such fanciful the papers condemned the novel into oblivion; they simply worlds without including a moralizing point. Women in ignored it altogether. One of the few reviews found of particular, according to Brown, should educate themselves the text belongs to a pseudonymous reviewer who called by reading carefully so that they are able to see through himself Civil Spy. the fancifulness of romantic delusion and the duplicitous nature of seduction. These are the primary ideas that Spy found the novel to be severely lacking in several Thomas wanted the “first American novel” to convey. respects. First, he expected a retelling, perhaps some inside However, the question of firsts is itself an issue. information, of the Morton/Apthorp affair, but the actual affair serves as a small aside, one that was anecdotal to Several works were published earlier than The Power of the main narrative of Harrington and Harriot. Second, Sympathy, including Charlotte Ramsey Lenox’s The Life and most notably, Spy took issue with the work’s claim of Harriot Stuart (1751), Hugh Henry Brackenridge and to be “founded in truth” writing, “in so young a town as Philip Freneau’s Father Bombo’s Pilgrimage to Mecca Boston, and so small … the most trivial circumstances will (1775), Francis Hopkin’s A Pretty Story: Written in the circulate through it in half a hour.” What Civil Spy took 66

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for truth was not Brown’s moralizing about the dangers of novels, including Charlotte Temple -- written by Britishseduction but the story of Harrington and Harriet. Those American author Susanna Rawson in 1791 and published two people and their story, according to Spy, were total in America in 1794 -- enjoyed runaway success, and it had fabrications. For Spy, the line between fiction and reality blurred.

The tincture made from opium and alcohol was easy to find at a local apothecary throughout the century. Several published pamphlets promote Laudnum as a cure for nearly any illness or ache. The drug was incredibly effective at masking pain but had highly addictive properties making overdoses not uncommon in regular users. While we are not lead to believe Fanny was an addict, she would be aware of the capabilities.

Brown’s aunt, Catharine Byles, wrote a retort under the pen name Antonia, saying she was “agreeably entertained with the delicate and pathetic Novel” and that Civil Spy had read “over striking beauties” found in the novel “in search of Blemishes, which not finding, he meanly objects to the names, and the title of the book, and would represent as an important error, the disguise of the scenes of those truly tragical catastrophes.” Civil Spy’s sarcastic reply soundly rejected Antonia’s objections. He writes, “(I) never did discover the numerous beauties in those little admired volumes until they were so particularly and elegantly represented by Madam Antonia … Thrice blessed, reputed author of the Power of Sympathy! -- admired -pathetick -- delicate -- elegant work! -- Alpha and Omega of Novelty!”

After the publication of Sympathy, Brown moved to North Carolina to study law. He continued to write and publish political essays and poems under the pen name Columbus.

He also wrote a lengthy article on education in an effort to defend and advocate the establishment of the University of North Carolina. He died at 27 from what may have been smallpox, and two plays were released and performed in 1793, just months after his death, titled The Tragedy of Major Andre and Margret Brown as Proprietor. His first novel, The Power of Sympathy, fell into obscurity, only to be revived almost a hundred years later.

similar themes to Brown’s work. Hannah Webster Foster’s The Coquette also dealt with similar themes, and her work was the best-selling novel of the time just eight years after publication of Brown’s novel.

Perhaps the inclusion of the Morton/Apthorp affair was inappropriate. Many newspapers of the day sided with Fanny, one even went so far as to write a poem in dedication of her titled “Elegy on a late Melancholy Event.” The poem begins,

“Ah, Fanny! shall no tear be shed for thee, No pitying sigh the pensive bosom heave: Shall no kind pen present the candid pleas, And generously thy inju’d fame retrieve?

A, no! the unfeeling crowd unmov’d relate— The unfeeling crowd mov’d the story hear, Forget each pang that urg’d thee to thy fate, Indignant smile, ‘and wink away a tear.”

Clearly this poem matches Brown’s sympathies, which lie with Fanny, but it may have been a stretch too far to paint Fanny as a wholly innocent character who was overcome by the evil Morton; after all, she did allegedly conduct an affair with her sister’s husband.

Why was the honor of being the first American novel not enough? The novel was released just two months before the introduction of constitutional rule in America, yet patriotism was not enough to save the work no matter how many times Thomas trumpeted the idea of the novel being America’s first. Further, novels that discussed seduction, The most persistent reason cited for the novel’s failure incest, and betrayal were popular during the era. Other is the rumor of efforts to suppress the novel by Morton Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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and his powerfully connected friends. According to one, upon publication, “an attempt was made to suppress it, by purchasing and destroying all the copies that could be found.” Scholars debate the veracity of these rumors.

Although Morton’s connections cultivated during his time as a Revolutionary War hero were deep and widespread (John Adams was a powerful ally to have), these rumors ignore the fact that Isaiah Thomas was also famous during the Revolution, and he was a tenacious champion of the freedom of the press,; it is doubtful that he would kowtow to pressure to suppress any work.

teaching rather than entertaining. During this era, political and religious tracts were widespread. Americans were debating what should be included in the Constitution, American evangelicalism began to push back against the secularism of Enlightenment doctrine, and the Second Great Awakening was underway. Debates on how America should be and who America should be were numerous.

Perhaps the American audience wanted something less didactic in their novels, and they simply wanted to be entertained. Despite Brown’s fervent wish, Americans did not trust the novel to be the medium for the debate It is likely that despite the salaciousness of Morton/ on American identity. Whatever the reason, this “first Apthorp affair and because of the pulpit-like tone of the American novel” was no match for the number of firsts novel, Americans focused on other concerns. One of the involved in the processes of new nationhood. main criticisms of the novel is that it is too interested in

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The Quaker Dwarf Who Became The First Revolutionary Abolitionist

6 Average & Extraordinary

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THE FEARLESS BENJAMIN LAY

by MARCUS REDIKER n September 19, 1738, Benjamin Lay strode into a large gathering of Quakers in the Burlington, New Jersey, meetinghouse for the biggest event of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Benjamin had journeyed almost thirty miles on foot, as was his way, arriving four days earlier and subsisting on “Acorns & peaches only.” Presiding over the gathering were John Kinsey, clerk of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, and Israel Pemberton Sr., assistant clerk, leaders of the Society of Friends in the Philadelphia region and the Quakerdominated legislature of Pennsylvania. Benjamin had a message for them and indeed for all of the assembled.

Benjamin surveyed the room and took a conspicuous location. He wore a great coat, which hid a military uniform and a sword from his fellow Quakers, who, back in 1660, had embraced the “peace testimony,” refusing all weapons and warfare. Beneath his coat Benjamin carried a hollowedout book with a secret compartment, into which he had tucked a tied-off animal bladder filled with bright red pokeberry juice. Because Quakers had no formal minister nor church ceremony, people spoke as the spirit moved

O

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them. Benjamin, a man of spirit pure and unruly, waited his turn.

He finally rose to address this gathering of “weighty Quakers,” many of whom owned African slaves. Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey had grown rich on Atlantic commerce and many bought human property. To them Benjamin delivered a chilling prophecy. He announced in a booming voice that God Almighty respects all peoples equally, rich and poor, men and women, white people and black alike. He explained that slave keeping was the greatest sin in the world and asked, How can a people who profess the Golden Rule keep slaves? He then threw off his great coat, revealing the military garb, the blade, and the book to his astonished co-religionists. A collective murmur filled the hall. In a rising crescendo of emotion, the prophet thundered his judgment: “Thus shall God shed the blood of those persons who enslave their fellow creatures.” He pulled out the sword, raised the book above his head, and plunged the sword through it. The people in the room gasped as the red liquid gushed down his arm; several women swooned at the sight. To the shock of all, he spattered “blood” on the heads and bodies of the

slave keepers. Benjamin prophesied a dark, violent future: Quakers who failed to heed the prophet’s call must expect physical, moral, and spiritual death.

The room exploded into chaos, but Benjamin stood quiet and still, “like a statue,” remarked Kinsey.

Several Quakers quickly surrounded the armed soldier of God, picked him up, and carried him from the building.

Benjamin did not resist. But he had made his point. As long as Quakers owned slaves, there would be no “business as usual” if Benjamin could help it. His brothers and sisters had made peace with the devil, so he used his body to disrupt their hypocritical, pious routines.

This spectacular prophetic performance was one moment of guerrilla theater among many. Benjamin repeatedly dramatized what was wrong in both the Society of Friends and the world at large. For a quarter century he railed against slavery in one Quaker meeting after another, in and around Philadelphia, confronting slave owners and slave traders with a savage, most unQuaker-like fury. Whenever he performed guerrilla theater, his fellow Quakers removed him by physical force as a “trouble-maker” or “disorderly person” as they had done in Burlington. He did not struggle against eviction, but back he came, again and again, undeterred, or rather more determined than ever. He began to stage his theater of apocalyptic outrage in public venues, including city streets and markets. He refused to be cowed by the rich and powerful as he freely spoke his mind. He practiced what the ancient Greeks called parrhesia—free, fearless speech, which required courage in the face of danger. He insisted on the utter depravity and sinfulness of “Man-stealers,” who were, in his view, the literal spawn of Satan. He considered it his Godly duty to expose and drive them out. His confrontational methods made people talk: about him, his ideas, the nature of Quakerism and Christianity, and, most of all, slavery. His first biographer, Benjamin Rush—physician, reformer, abolitionist, and signer of the Declaration of Independence—noted that “there was a time when the name of this celebrated Christian Philosopher . . . was familiar to every man, woman, and to nearly every child, in Pennsylvania.” For or against, everyone told stories about Benjamin Lay.

The zealot carried his activism into print,

publishing in 1738 one of the world’s first books to demand the abolition of slavery: All Slave-Keepers That Keep the Innocent in Bondage, Apostates. All enslaved people were innocent, Benjamin believed, so he called for all to be emancipated, immediately and unconditionally, with no compensation to slave owners. Slave keepers had transgressed the core beliefs of Quakerism in particular and Christianity in general: they should be cast out of the church. Benjamin wrote his book at a time when slavery seemed to many people around the world as natural and unchangeable as the sun, the moon, and the stars in the heavens. No one had ever taken such a militant, uncompromising, universal stand against slavery in print or in action. Benjamin demanded freedom now.

Perhaps because he had little education, Benjamin ignored the rules of convention in writing his book. It made for odd reading, then and since, but it is a veritable treasure trove for a historian: a mixture of autobiography; prophetic Biblical polemic against slavery; a commonplace book into which he dropped writings by others as well as his own thoughts on a variety of subjects; haunting, surreal descriptions of slavery in Barbados; an annotated bibliography of what he read; and a vivid, scathing account of his own struggles against slave owners within the Quaker community. It is a founding text of Atlantic antislavery.

Benjamin knew that Kinsey, Pemberton, and the other members of the Quaker Board of Overseers—who vetted all publications—would never approve the book. Most of them owned slaves. So he went directly to his friend, the printer Benjamin Franklin, and asked him to publish it.

When Franklin saw a confused jumble of pages in a box he expressed puzzlement about how to proceed. Lay answered, “Print any part thou pleaseth first”—assemble the materials in any order you like. As one exasperated reader later noted of the different parts of the book, “the head might serve for the tail, and the tail for the body, and the body for the head, either end for the middle, and the middle for either end; nay, if you could turn them inside out, like a glove, they would be no worse for the operation.” (Lay was one of the world’s first postmodernists.) Franklin agreed to publish the ringing rant against slavery, knowing full well that the wealthy Quakers assailed in it would howl in protest. He quietly left the printer’s name off the title page.

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Part of Benjamin’s guerrilla theater was his distinctive appearance. He was a dwarf or “little person,” standing a little over four feet tall. He was also called a “hunchback,” meaning that he suffered from over-curvature of the thoracic vertebrae, a medical condition called kyphosis. According to a fellow Quaker, His head was large in proportion to his body; the features of his face were remarkable, and boldly delineated, and his countenance was grave and benignant. He was hunch-backed, with a projecting chest, below which his body became much contracted. His legs were so slender, as to appear almost unequal to the purpose of supporting him, diminutive as his frame was, in comparison with the ordinary size of the human stature. A habit he had contracted, of standing in a twisted position, with one hand resting upon his left hip, added to the effect produced by a large white beard, that for many years had not been shaved, contributed to make his figure perfectly unique.

Benjamin’s wife, Sarah, was also a “little person,” which caused the enslaved Africans of Barbados to remark in delighted wonder, “That little backarar [white] man go all over world see for [to look for] that backarar woman for himself.” Yet Sarah was more than a help-meet; she was a principled abolitionist in her own right. Benjamin was by some definition “disabled,” or handicapped, but I have found no evidence that he thought himself in any way diminished, nor that his body kept him from doing anything he wanted to do. He called himself “little Benjamin” but he also likened himself to “little David” who slew Goliath.

He did not lack confidence in himself or his ideas.

Benjamin Lay is little known among historians. He appears occasionally in histories of abolition, usually as a minor, colorful figure of suspect sanity. By the nineteenth century he was regarded as “diseased” in his intellect and later as “cracked in the head.” To a large extent this image has persisted in modern histories. Indeed David Brion Davis, a leading historian of abolitionism, condescendingly 72

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called Benjamin a mentally deranged, obsessive “little hunchback.” Benjamin gets better treatment by amateur Quaker historians, who include him in their pantheon of antislavery saints, and by the many excellent professional historians of Quakerism. He is almost totally unknown to the general public.

Benjamin was better known among abolitionists than among their later historians. The French revolutionary Jacques Pierre Brissot de Warville gathered stories about him almost three decades after Benjamin’s death, during a visit to the United States in 1788. Brissot wrote that Benjamin was “simple in his dress and animated in his speech; he was all on fire when he spoke on slavery.” In this respect Benjamin anticipated by a century the abolitionist leader William Lloyd Garrison, who was also “all on fire” about human bondage. When Thomas Clarkson penned the history of the movement that abolished the slave trade in Britain, in 1808, a moment of triumph for that country, he credited Lay, who had “awakened the attention of many to the cause.” Lay possessed “strong understanding and great integrity,” but was “singular” and “eccentric.” He had, in Clarkson’s view, been “unhinged” by cruelties he observed in Barbados between 1718 and 1720. When Clarkson drew his famous graphic genealogy of the movement, a riverine map of abolition, he named a significant tributary “Benjamin Lay.” On the other side of the Atlantic, in the 1830s and 1840s, more than seventy years after Lay’s death, the American abolitionists Benjamin Lundy and Lydia Maria Child rediscovered him, republished his biography, reprinted an engraving of him, and renewed his memory within the movement.

Benjamin is not the usual elite subject of biography.

He came from a humble background and was poor most of his life, by occupation and by choice. He lived, he explained, by “the Labour of my Hands.” He was also considered a philosopher in his own day, much like the ancient Greek Diogenes, the former slave known for speaking truth to power. (He refused Greek nationality and insisted that he was, rather, “a citizen of the world.”) Benjamin lived a mobile, far-flung life, in England, Barbados, Pennsylvania, and on the high seas in-between, all of which shaped his cosmopolitan thinking. Unlike most poor people, he left an unmediated record of his ideas.

We are unusually fortunate to have three distinct bodies of evidence with which to write Benjamin’s intellectual history “from below.” The first is his own book, All Slave-Keepers . . . Apostates, a rich and remarkable body of evidence by any measure. The second set of sources is Quaker re-cords, generated in Colchester, London, Philadelphia, and Abington, the places where Benjamin lived and worshipped. In the aftermath of George Fox’s reforms in the 1660s and 1670s, Quaker congregations became careful record keepers, partly in order to discipline recalcitrant spirits such as Benjamin. The third collection of records grew from Benjamin’s guerrilla theater, which generated endless stories. Some of these were published in newspapers after Benjamin’s death. In the early nineteenth century Benjamin’s second biographer, Quaker philanthropist Roberts Vaux, interviewed elderly Quakers who knew Benjamin. Born in the early 1730s, they had encountered Benjamin as children, teenagers, and young adults. With this unusual combination of sources we can explore in detail the thoughts and actions of someone who, with clear and canny prescience, saw that slavery must be abolished.

Benjamin’s radicalism was a rope of five strands: he was a Quaker, philosopher, sailor, abolitionist, and commoner. As a free thinker he drew on a wide variety of books and intellectual traditions, combining them creatively to serve his own values and purposes. He was first and foremost an antinomian radical—someone who believed that salvation could be achieved by grace alone and that a direct connection to God placed the believer above manmade law. Taken from the Greek, meaning “against all authority,” antinomianism emerged in the heat of revolution and civil war in England. As heresiographer Ephraim Pagitt wrote of religious radicals such as the Diggers, Levellers, and Seekers, in 1647, “The Antinomians are so called . . . because they would have the Law abolished.” They offered a deep critique of power in all its forms in a “world turned upside down,” as Christopher Hill called the revolutionary era. Against institutions, the state, and all “outward forms,” conscience reigned supreme. Benjamin was, in short, a free spirit. Antinomianism was the foundation of his thought.

Benjamin combined Quakerism with abolitionism and other radical ideas and practices that were uncommon

for his time and rarely thought to be related: vegetarianism, animal rights, opposition to the death penalty, environmentalism, and the politics of consumption. He lived in a cave for the last third of his life, cultivated his own food, and made his own clothes. For Benjamin these beliefs and practices were all part of a consistent, integrated, ethical worldview—one that could save a planet desperately in need of salvation. He showed that multiple forms and traditions of radicalism could all be part of the same consciousness. He believed that abolition must inform a revolutionary revaluation of all life, premised on a rejection of the capitalist values of the marketplace. Benjamin Lay was, in several ways, a curiously modern man whose story has never been fully or properly told. He is a radical for our time.

In the aftermath of numerous successful abolition movements, now that almost everyone agrees that slavery was, and remains to this day, morally wrong, it is not easy to recover the profound hostility Benjamin encountered for espousing antislavery beliefs in the early eighteenth century.

Benjamin himself noted how people flew into rages when they heard him speak against bondage. They ridiculed him; they heckled him; they laughed at him. Many dismissed him as mentally deficient and somehow deranged as he opposed the deep “common sense” of the era. The scorn was based in economic interest and racial prejudice but also in bias against him as a little person. Each reinforced the other in cruelty and rancor.

Efforts began after Benjamin’s death to remember the enmity he suffered. A New Jersey abolitionist who wrote under the pen name “Armintor” noted in 1774 how few were the number of advocates who, early on, dared to speak out on behalf of Africans, “this poor oppressed part of creation.” He singled out “the despised Benjamin Lay” as the “foremost” among them. Quaker Ann Emlen, wife of abolitionist Warner Mifflin, noted in 1785 that Benjamin’s confrontational ways in meetings met strong resistance from Friends, even though he spoke “the truth” about slavery.

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Benjamin a major theme of his biography, published in 1815. Indeed he wrote his memorial against the repression that had obscured and sullied the activist’s memory. As a philanthropist and abolitionist himself, Vaux sought to set the record straight among his fellow Quakers and the public at large. He used strong words to describe precisely what Benjamin encountered as he witnessed against the beast of bondage: opposition, antipathy, prejudice, ridicule, hostility, intolerance, persecution, oppression, and violence.

Vaux noted that Benjamin faced “vigorous opposition from every quarter” and found himself “an al-most solitary combatant in a field where prejudice and avarice . . . had marshalled their combined forces against him.” The response from his fellow Quakers in particular was “so general and so intense,” it was enough “to make a wise man mad.” Benjamin was, in 1738, the last Quaker disowned for protests against slavery. It would take another twenty years for Quakers to agree even to the possibility of disowning a member for slave-trading and an additional eighteen years to begin to excommunicate slave owners. It was not easy to be so far ahead of one’s time.

Prejudice ballooned into repression. Fellow Quakers not only denounced Benjamin’s book about slavery but also denied his right to speak on the subject in their gatherings.

As John Kinsey made clear in 1737, the leaders of the Philadelphia Monthly Meeting objected to how Benjamin was “presumeing to preach” in “publick Meetings.” Once known for their open-to-all “mechanick preaching,” Friends now decided that they “could not approve of his Ministry.”

They simply could not bear to hear what he was saying.

Campaigners against slavery who came before Benjamin could not al-ways take the pressure. According to Quaker John Forman, Benjamin’s fellow Essexman John Farmer made “a very powerful testimony against the oppression of the black people” in 1717–1718. After Farmer addressed a Quaker congregation in Philadelphia, “a great man, who kept negroes . . . got up and desired Friends to look on that man as an open enemy to the country.” Other Friends sided with the great man and together they forced Farmer to “make something like an acknowledgment” that he had been wrong. This event had a crippling effect: Farmer “sunk under it” and “declined in his gift” of ministry. He never returned to England. On 74

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his death-bed he declared himself “easy” about everything in his life except “flinching from his testimony at that time, and in that manner.”

Benjamin got greater pressure, over a longer period of time, and additional derision for being a little person, but he never sank, declined, flinched, or retreated. At the same time his determination and conviction made him an awkward and difficult person, to say the least. He was loving to his friends, but he could be a holy terror to those who did not agree with him. He was aggressive and disruptive. He was stubborn, never inclined to admit a mistake. His direct antinomian connection to God made him self-righteous and at times intolerant. The more resistance he encountered, or, as he understood it, the more God tested his faith, the more certain he was that he was right. He had reasons both sacred and self-serving for being the way he was. He was sure that these traits were essential to defeat the profound evil of slavery.

The ill will expressed toward Benjamin in Barbados and Pennsylvania came from both above and below—from political and religious leaders like Kinsey and from ordinary people, all of whom supported the institution of slavery in one way or another. To make this point, Vaux quoted Rome’s great lyric poet, Horace, of whom Benjamin would certainly have approved, as he loved the writers of antiquity: The just man who is resolute will not be turned from his purpose either by the rage of the crowd or by an imperious tyrant.

It took fortitude and courage to face the kind of opposition that con-fronted Benjamin over the last forty years of his life. Fortunately for him, and for posterity, those virtues were never in short supply. He demonstrated the power of saying no to slavery. His life is a story of fearlessness in that cause.

Excerpted from The Fearless Benjamin Lay: The Quaker Dwarf Who Became the First Revolutionary Abolitionist

by Marcus Rediker (Beacon Press, 2017).

Reprinted with permission from Beacon Press.

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Publishing Histories of Resistance

Portrait of Henry Knox (1784) - Gilbert Suart

Pluckemin Cantonment

by Jeff Williamson

skillful, though hasty, retreat from two years before.

After all, the French had signed a Treaty of Alliance at the beginning of the year. They had promised men and ships. The Spanish and Dutch, too, were seriously hen General Henry Knox arrived in Bedminster, considering war against the British. The time to strike New Jersey, on December 7, 1778, he was already appeared nigh.

W an established leader of the Continental Army.

The former bookseller from Boston had already saved Yet with the season fast changing, the focus was first put the cause on several occasions since absconding with Fort towards winter encampment. Also, for the first time in Ticonderoga’s cannons and literally dragging them back to two years, with an absence of major British forces west end the siege of Boston in 1776. Before the year was out of Manhattan, an opportunity presented itself for training. his successful deployment of artillery pieces at Trenton Even before Trenton, Washington and Knox recognized the helped convince the Hessian surrender. The victories at need for an academy to train general officers, and especially Trenton, and Princeton a week later, helped salvage the artillery officers. While more pressing matters kept the Army when enlistments were up at the end of the year. establishment of such an institution only in the recesses of These were but highlights of a long career supporting the generals’ minds, the new, frustrating yet comfortable General George Washington’s efforts to keep an army not stalemate offered a window of opportunity. only in the field but supplied from seemingly thin air.

The Continental Army entered into winter quarters starting The Battle of Monmouth in June 1778 was to be the end in November 1778 in the vicinity of Middle Brook, New of major fighting in the north. Washington and his men Jersey. The site was near Somerville and on the route from took up station in New Jersey as the British concluded New York to Philadelphia. It was also at the foothills of their withdrawal into New York City. Shortly thereafter the Highlands of New Jersey, offering a clear view to New British attention shifted to the south, with an invasion of Brunswick and even the city itself. The mountains also Georgia and then South Carolina. Meanwhile, Washington provided good cover and defensive potential should the spent the next two years watching across the Hudson River British make a concerted sortie. with covetous eyes, longing to retake the city and erase his 76

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A few miles to the northwest of the main encampment lay the village of Bedminster, today at the crossroads of interstate routes 78 and 287. Tucked into the west face of the Watchung Mountains, it provided the ideal location for what Knox and Washington had envisioned.

materialize in numbers sufficient to the task, and many in both the American and French commander corps knew an assault would likely prove fatal to the cause. The stalemate continued in the north, which meant that for the rest of the war, the Pluckemin Military Academy was free to produce officers for service who were ready when the call for an attack finally came. And came it did in 1781, not against New York but in a daring march south to cut off the British Army’s escape in Virginia. The French commitment not only finally materialized but was applied in a marvel of international cooperation.

Today nothing remains of the encampment itself, but it was the first version of what would become a United States military academy -- what West Point later became. The face of the mountain is now covered in modern townhouses, leaving only the imagination to offer a sense of what was begun here. The only witness structure of this period lies a mile or two to the north: the Jacobus Vanderveer House. The nation’s first martial academy was soon after disbanded at the end of the war. Though West Point became the It was at the Vanderveer House that Knox took up primary focus of military education after 1801, the residence in December 1778. Both he and his wife U.S. tendency to beat swords into ploughshares at Lucy were afforded the best in Dutch hospitality and the end of wars was literal as the area reverted back festival making during the holiday season - comforts to farmland. The barracks were torn down, the of home Mrs. Knox doubtless could appreciate, war material relocated if not simply abandoned. as she was pregnant with one of the couple’s 12 Surrounding homes were all replaced with the children. Their daughter Julia was born there three exception of the fortuitous salvation of the months later in March. Today, the museum at the Vanderveer home. residence puts on a colonial Christmas in honor of the generosity of the original hosts.

There is but one other token proof of the area’s ties to the war in general and the Knoxes personally.

The rest of that first month and the beginning In the Bedminster Reformed Cemetery along U.S. of the new year saw Knox and the Vanderveers Route 202/206, just south of the Vanderveer conclude an arrangement where a portion of House, is a memorial tablet marker to Julia Knox.

Jacobus’ property to the south of the home would One month after her father decamped with the be converted into barracks, classrooms, an artillery army to plan the impossible assault on New York, range, powder laboratories and storage magazines. Knox she died: all but one of the 12 Knox children failed to doubtless had hopes of creating an arsenal as well with reach adulthood. While the academy served its purpose local iron ore from the surrounding hills readily available. and left little trace, the Knoxes left behind one of their dearest hopes for the future.

By February, the new academy was set to open with a focus on military discipline, sciences and mathematics. For one Christmas season, however, with a blessed lull Washington was eager for the first crop of new officers in the hostilities and the British Army safely isolated on cultivated on this converted farmland.

Manhattan, both the Knoxes and the Continental Army could plan and build for a successful conclusion of the In June the Continental Army decamped and moved conflict, achieving a peace that is a sacred hallmark of the up to Pompton, the better for Washington to continue season. leering at Manhattan, considering any and all possible ways to carry out an assault. The French were slow to

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rinking, carousing, gambling and generally D making a nuisance of themselves upon the good citizens of Trenton -- that’s the legend of the Hessian garrison in Trenton during the Christmas holiday.

While the remnants of Washington’s army struggled through the effects of a nor’easter in a desperate attempt to wrestle the revolution from the jaws of defeat, the German mercenaries were warm and dry next to colonial hearths 78

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eating confiscated food. Only part of it is true. Yes, the Continental Army was struggling against ill weather with insufficient equipment in an attack that was every bit as fraught as it was brilliant. However, the Hessians were far from comfortable. In fact, they were every bit as exhausted as their enemy. The Battle of Trenton was the turning point of the revolution, or at least the first of many. Since August, Washington’s army had been cleared out of Long

A Very Hessian

Christmas

by Jeff Williamson

Caprture of the Hessians at Trenton Decembr 26,1777 (1828) - John Trumbull Island, Manhattan, Harlem, White Plains and northern New Jersey, and chased clear across the state across the Pennsylvania border. His army of some 15,000 to 20,000 had been reduced to approximately 3,000 and perhaps less -- not by casualties, but by desertion. The cause seemed lost, and those who remained were biding their time until their enlistments were up with the new year. The Americans gambled at Trenton, and it paid off. History also says it was because the Hessians were

unprepared. Actually, they were overprepared. By appearances, the Hessians fit the bill of any good mustachioed villain, literally.

They were foreign mercenaries -- neither American nor English, sent to fight a war they had no stake in. They spoke a foreign language and had strange customs. Because of (and despite) the fact that they were particularly brutal and disciplined in combat, they were vilified by both their enemies and their English allies.

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The Hessian troops themselves, while stylistically the caricatures of cartoon villains, were no less than victims of circumstances beyond their control. Hesse-Kessel, the primary source of most of these soldiers, was a principality that made soldiers its primary export. The prince provided soldiers culled from families and equipped by the state to fight for money in the numerous wars of the 18th century.

Sometimes Hessians even found themselves fighting against other Hessians in battle. These men had little control over their fates, and while well trained and equipped were only conscripts kept in place with threats and applications of severe penalties.

The other leader was Colonel Johan Rall, who had been in military service since he was about 15. He served in Scotland during the Rising of ’45 (and it is exciting to think that he may have crossed swords with a young yet to be Continental General Hugh Mercer, who was serving on the Jacobite side at Culloden; the two again shared battle at Trenton), as well as the Wars of Austrian Succession, the Fourth Russo-Turkish War and the Seven Years’ War. Rall was known to have had his own way of conducting affairs, and reports indicate he did not always show the sycophancy to his superiors that was often expected. This most certainly played into his professional relations.

There were two prominent leaders of the Hessians in this campaign. Colonel Count Carl von Donop was appointed by the landgrave, the aristocratic leader of Hesse-Kassel.

As such, he believed all Hessian forces should be under his command. The over-all British commanders disagreed.

This failed to sit well with Donop, a particularly ambitious officer who had served in the Seven Years’ War and had a reputation for not taking prisoners.

The leader of the British army in America was General William Howe. He was ordered to keep an eye towards reconciliation with the colonists once they saw the error of their ways. He was also reputedly self-motivated to keep an eye on Mrs. Elizabeth Loring. Both explain why he was content to let Washington’s army waste away on the Pennsylvania banks of the Delaware at the start of winter while he settled down in New York City. All the British commanders seemed to feel the same, seeing no real threat

Reliving History | Winter 2018

from a few militia holdouts while the Continental Army This increasing pressure led Rall to request reinforcements, was assumed to be disintegrating. A few garrisons, it was not from his fellow Hessian Colonel Donop, who was in decided, were adequate the area, but from British while the bulk of the General James Grant, his British Army found superior in the overall appropriate winter command structure. quarters in and around Donop interpreted that Manhattan. as another snub to his Yet the Americans were self-assumed authority. by no means idle during Grant, true to British this period leading up to opinion that the war was the end of the year. True, all but over but for a Washington’s forces had few last gasps of thieves, escaped across the river, was equally unhelpful. but that does not mean Grant’s response was to New Jersey was quiet. In tell Rall to relax and stop the days leading up to the worrying while Donop’s battle there was plenty to unsolicited advice was to keep those few garrisons build redoubts around busy.

Trenton.

On December 14 a unit Rall did neither. of British dragoons was ambushed by militia On December 22, outside of Flemington Donop had concerns of after conducting a his own when Continental raid (see CORONET Colonel Samuel Griffin FRANCIS GEARY in attacked outposts in Above: Bildnis Freiherr Emilius Ulrich von Donop (1765) Reliving History, Spring Slabtown (Jacksonville),

- Johann Heinrich Tischbein 2018). This resulted in encouraging Donop Left: A segment published on January 6th 1778 in the the British only sending to withdraw. While Salem newspaper recounting details of the battle of Trenton. out larger but fewer his junior officers patrols.

Continental suggested withdrawing to Major General Philemon Dickinson was also known to Bordentown so they would be closer to Rall, the count be roaming throughout Hunterdon County, with some chose Moorestown, further away from Rall. This was regulars and militia harassing wherever they could. possibly for a chance to be entertained by a young local widow, but his animosity to his fellow Hessian colonel did On December 16 and 17, Continental General James not help.

Ewing ordered attacks on outposts around Trenton. Four days later, on December 21, he led a concerted attack Rall, meanwhile, gave orders to his men to be under arms on Trenton’s Landing, where most of the buildings were starting on December 22. This meant that his men slept destroyed, denying the Hessians there any shelter. in their gear and were constantly called out on alerts.

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unpleasant at best, as a full-blown winter storm was in effect. times that day. It appears he too succumbed to the same assumptions of the British: the Americans were just While the Germans do have yuletide traditions, they breathing their last gasp and what little was left could not are typically solemn affairs, not the ribald merrymaking do much direct harm. In truth, no one can know why he many assumed. The bulk of their number were Reformed, did not take any new action.

Lutheran and maybe a few Catholics from the southern provinces of Germany. Far from an excuse to drink and When the Americans attacked, the Hessians were not hung go wenching, they typically spent the holiday in religious over; they were exhausted. Their equipment was in bad observance. Yet on Christmas 1776, they were prevented repair, as it had not been cleaned in days. Most of the even that: already on full alert for two days and engaged in powder in the barrels would not ignite due to the weather, battle for two days before that, called out to stand guard and they had been called out to arms so many times in the and catching what rest they could in their cold and wet past few days their enthusiasm must have initially stalled uniforms. Exactly what the Americans were experiencing until they actually heard the American guns. The result but, for lack of a better expression, the Americans were was a rout. used to it. By December 26, the Hessians were near their breaking point. Rall seemed to know it.

While only 22 Hessians were killed in the battle (including Rall), with another 80 or so wounded, approximately On the evening of Christmas Day, Rall was in the Hunt 900 were captured. The remainder managed to escape in or Pott’s House, indulging in a pastime, perhaps cards, small groups to the other surrounding garrisons while the when he received a warning that the Americans appeared Americans quickly gathered up their trophies and prisoners to be on the move. The weather had not much improved, to escape back across the Delaware. The stunning victory and both he and his men had been on alert for engaged – the Americans lost only two men, and them to exposure for more than a week. He had inspected his men three – inspired many of the remaining American soldiers to

Regiment Von Bose

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re-enlist, and others to sign up. The army was saved to received a worse Christmas gift than coal. But did they? fight another day, which in truth was perhaps Washingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest skill.

As prisoners of war, another characteristic German trait revealed itself: their work ethic. Hessian prisoners Of the Hessian prisoners, they were sent to Philadelphia attempted fewer escapes than their captured British allies. to be paraded as trophies themselves. Their villainous What awaited them if they returned? Potential punishment reputation tarnished in abject defeat. From there, a great as deserters for being captured? Being put back into service many were sent to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where there and combat? For what? Approximately half the Hessians was a large German colonial population. Some others who did not return to Europe at the end of the war had may have been sent to northern New Jersey, but not in died, from disease mostly instead of combat. The others large numbers, where the local Dutch population was able chose to remain. When surrounded by those whom they to interact and guard them. Wherever the Hessians were had much in common, especially language, they recognized sent, they were put to work either in the fields or in the a yuletide gift -- even if it was wrapped in Continental forges to replace local labor. On the surface, it seems they gunsmoke.

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Walking In Someone Elseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Snowshoes

by Tavis Taylor arly America contained vast amounts of E wilderness offering plenty of hazards to those who wished to travel. Mobility became even harder in the winter, especially in northern regions, prompting colonists to adapt with different forms of technology. Snowshoes took on a large role for colonists and early Americans when it came to traveling by foot, and although the invention was widely used, it was not initially of European origin . After the innovative footwear was adopted by early settlers, the use of the snowshoe spread to many facets of life for the colonists, especially for those living in the northern colonies and territories.

English colonists were not the only ones to have Winter Landscape (1811) - Caspar David Friedrich

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used them, and they were used by the French as well. However, both colonial superpowersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; use of the shoe was influenced by those who lived in the new world before them.

The first concept and early construction of the snowshoe was not of European innovation. Early colonists adopted them from indigenous tribes in the early 18th century. They not only implemented the cold weather apparatus in order to traverse long distances in snow but also to assist them in conflicts with surrounding tribes of Native Americans. The first tactical use of snowshoes by the English began after rising anxieties of Native American power and settlement vulnerability from long winters at

the end of the 1600â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. This led colonists in New England to institute the first snowshoe companies, and by the year 1703, hundreds of men in these companies were deployed by the royal governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, Joseph Dudley.

These patrols would reconnoiter surrounding Native American hunting grounds.

This practical form of winter footwear quickly grew in prominence within northern reconnaissance groups shortly after the adoption of the tool from Native Americans and the early success of the initial groups of patrols. Not long after snowshoes proved to be highly successful in winter warfare, snowshoes would be produced in larger quantities. The same

year that the patrols were created the general court of Massachusetts would then go on to order five hundred pairs for surrounding counties. (Turner.)

The first version of the shoe learned from Native Americans was created using bent wood from the ash tree for the frame with criss crossed strips of rawhide. The wide structure of the frame along with the leather strips created a distribution of weight over a wider area. This helped to keep someone more elevated while walking in deep snow.

Although snowshoe innovation spread shortly after European and Native American interaction, it was not believed to be first invented in North America. It is believed that the first snowshoes Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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originated in Central Asia and were either worn or carried over on the Bering Strait land bridge to cross to the new continent. Many tribes from the west coast to the east coast were known to be in possession and builders of the shoe and style differed from group to group as well.

Hurons were well known for their paddle-shaped shoe, while the Ojibwa model was pointed on the front. Tribes who relied the most on snowshoes were the Athabascans who resided on the west coast and lived as far north as Alaska. The Athabascan model of snowshoe had an upturned toe at the front. Other tribes that were known to use snowshoes were the Sioux and Blackfoot tribes as well.

Despite many variations from different groups of Natives, the Algonquins and other woodland tribes perfected the design of the snowshoe and their model was used from early colonization to the end of the 20th century.

Materials used by the Native Americans in constructing the snowshoe varied by tribe and region as well. Frames were consistently made from ash due to its firm yet flexible nature, but babiche, the particular type of leather string made by Native American tribes, was either done with deer, caribou, or moose hide. Despite some varying materials, lacing carried a consistent form throughout most tribes with light babiche at the toe and the tail of the shoe and heavy babiche in the center of the frame for carrying and suspending weight more efficiently.

The Ojibwa in particular were observed to wear their snowshoes for purposes other than solely overcoming the snow. They used them for the combined form of expression and spirituality. Every year after the first snow, they would don their snowshoes and collectively perform a dance.

The dance would celebrate the initial coming of snow for it was essential to the cycle of life that they lived. They would sing a song of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit for the snow as well. They wore the snowshoes to celebrate the purpose the shoes had in helping them in the winter hunt and they also danced in hope that their hunting endeavors would be successful. The snow shoe dance was done around a large poll with a pair of snowshoes hung at the top.

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Snowshoes were vital for 18th century colonists in traveling and surveying new land. They were especially used in northern regions of colonial North America as well as New France and other parts of modern day Canada. Many naturalists used them to discover and learn characteristics about the landscape that stretched far across the northern continent from their homes along the east coast. One notable English meteorologist, surveyor, and naturalist named Peter Fidler, travelled much of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Saskatchewan and many other parts of Canada. He took many notes on positions of astral bodies, landscape, and wildlife for the Hudsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bay Company in the late 1700â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. He surveyed and mapped 7,300 miles by canoe, horseback, and snowshoes.

Another large use for the walking device was for communication. The distance between two colonial towns such as Boston and Charleston was more than twice the amount than the distance between the English towns London and Edinburgh.

Although during this time water was the main and most efficient form of transport, most Americans did not own water vessels or even live close to waterways. Because of factors such as distance and little access to water routes, colonists were more than willing to walk as a form of transport before forest and path clearing became more prominent for traveling by horseback. For these large distances of travel, whether it be for communication between towns or for relocation, snowshoes were heavily used especially in New England.

Much like patrolmen, colonies went on to also experiment with another form of reconnaissance with companies of rangers. Rangers were specialized type of snowshoe patrolmen that journeyed between forts and towns to fight off and prevent Native American attacks.

They were often employees of the state, colony or nation.

Although they rode horses most of the year, winter in New England made horseback riding very impractical. Because of the long distances travelled involving arduous treks through heavy snow, rangers heavily relied upon snowshoes. They were especially utilized in the second French and Indian

war called Queen Anne’s War that lasted from 1702 to 1713. During this war Rangers were heavily relied upon in Massachusetts.

By 1744, northern colony defense was mostly held by the rangers. Governor William Shirley of Massachusetts gave them more organization in March of that year. He deployed ten 50-man companies called “snowshoe men” throughout the surrounding areas of the town of Boston and the Massachusetts colony. He told the Duke of Newcastle that their purpose was “to hold themselves ready at the shortest warning to go in Pursuit of any Party of Indians, who frequently in time of War make sudden Incursions, whilst there is a deep Snow upon the Ground, and retreat as suddenly into the Woods after having done what Mischief they can.”

The Native American inventions proved to be highly successful when it came to trade in the northern territories.

Without the use of snowshoes, toboggans and canoes, the pursuit of continuing fur trade and travel along the northwest passage would have been fatal and nearly impossible during the 17th and 18th century. Snowshoes greatly helped hunters and trappers track wild game and without the use of such a tool it would have been difficult to gain close proximity without frightening the targeted animal.

The actual source of where the colonists learned how to make snowshoes from the Native Americans is unknown. However, there are instances that may point to the early bridge that allowed the invention to pass over into colonists hands. One of their largest influences over colonists may have come when early English-Americans fell prisoner to a tribe out in Native territories. Although the Native American’s were described as being very patient, they wasted no time to begin educating their captives.

They almost immediately replaced their hard footwear for shoes that were more versatile for the forest – moccasins.

Overall this new form of footwear was universally accepted and approved by prisoners who admitted that it allowed them to travel with more ease. In knee to waist deep snow in New England, Native Americans made snowshoes for their prisoners as well so that they could keep up pace for twenty-five to thirty miles a day.

Snowshoes were not the only form of footwear used to traverse harsh cold landscapes in early America.

Another invention, that was heavily relied upon during the

revolutionary war, was the lesser known ice creeper. This tool was constructed of hand forged iron. They consisted of flat platform in the middile with spikes on the bottom for better traction in ice and snow. They were tied on by a thongs or leather straps that ran along the top of the foot.

The flat part of the iron would be placed just before the instep in front of the heel. This early form of iron cleats were very valuable during a particularly harsh winter during the Revolutionary War in 1779-80 in which the Hudson River froze over and the East River filled with ice.

The colonists didn’t learn this invention from North America natives unlike their winter footwear counterpart, the snowshoe. It was actually believed to have been originated in northern Europe and more particularly , in Sweden. Current understanding of the ice traversing instruments believes they date back to around 800AD to 1100AD. Considering their European history it is no wonder that they were mostly found in old military camps from the Revolutionary War rather than in Native American Tribe outposts. The earliest ice creeper ever found was excavated in the town of Ode in Sweden.

This shoe accessory was used by both sides during the revolutionary war. The reason for this was that it provided a significant strategic advantage in allowing soldiers to travel across treacherous ice, frozen bodies of waters, and slippery compact snow. By wearing these, soldiers were able to gain ground on their opponents, occupy a particular area, and cross hazardous land features that normally wouldn’t be passable. Another tool that was used for the feet and lower body that was often wore by soldiers as well were gaiters.

Gaiters were worn around the ankles and protected shoes from ice, snow, and rain. They were made out of painted leather and some were large enough to even reach above the knee. Worn along with ice creepers, soldiers were well equipped to travel and fight in all types of perilous weather conditions.

Snowshoes were so prominent in warfare that two battles were even named after the invention. The first battle took place January 21, 1757. It was part of the French and Indian War that broke out in 1754 and one of the many skirmishes that broke out in disputed territory. Captain Rogers and several of his companies, collectively called Rogers’ Rangers, were stationed at Fort Edward in the province of New York. They left on a scouting expedition Winter 2018 | Reliving History

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stopping at Fort William Henry to collect provisions, snowshoes, and additional soldiers. By January 21 they were ambushed by the French near Lake Champlain.

They were reportedly outnumbered but forced the French forces into retreat. The French reported that they were at a disadvantage without snowshoes, trying to move about in snow that went up to their knees.

The second battle took place on March 13, 1758. Again it involved the party of Captain Rogers and his rangers in conflict with French troops and Native Americans. Rogers and his rangers left Fort Edward on March 10 for a reconnaissance expedition north towards Lake Champlain. During their travel, the rangers made slow pace wearing their ice creepers until they spotted signs of French and Indian forces, in which they promptly switched out their footwear for snowshoes and allowing them more mobility. The next day the second Battle on Snowshoes took place after Rogers and his rangers came into contact with companies of Frenchmen and Indians.

The conclusion of this battle didn’t end as well for the English in their advantageous snowshoes. Outnumbered, Captain Rogers and a small group of his rangers barely escaped their second Battle on Snowshoes alive.

Although the woven leather shoes were heavily utilized in warfare, trading, and exploration, they were also used for recreational purposes. Snowshoes have been used in racing for centuries. The tradition of using them in sport dates back to Native Americans in North America.

French explorer Samuel De Champlain observed this in his memoires. Recreational use of the footwear eventually spread throughout the Northeastern Colonies. Associations and clubs were set up in these regions by the end of the 18th century for snowshoe racing. Outings would take place in Montreal and many New England towns and sometimes they would be made into major events.

English combatants and scouts are shown by history to have utilized snowshoes often, however French colonists used them frequently as well. Like then English, the first colonists of New France had borrowed snowshoes from the Native Americans they came into contact with. Canadiens, or the French who were born in the Saint Lawrence valley, were known to have strong endurance and skill in walking long distances with snowshoes like the Native Americans that they adopted the invention from. They could walk 88

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multiple kilometers a day in deep snow and even further along the banks of rivers and lakes where obstacles were less frequent. Canadian and native militiamen that were led by the infamous brothers Le Moyne were known to have crossed considerable distances in snowshoes to strike British outposts and towns that ranged from New England and up the coast to Newfoundland. Snowshoes were also of great use for maintenance in New France, and snow removal on town roads within the colony was performed in snowshoes and a “snow-pusher” or roller that was drawn by horse in front. (Ferland)

Although early colonists brought over many tools to help them thrive in the new landscape of North America, they owe a lot of their success to the indigenous people who resided there first. By adopting the apparatus from Native Americans and by using the ice creepers of European origin, early Americans could overcome many forms of cold weather conditions that were consistent in the north. These tools could be found throughout many aspects of their lives such as leisure, warfare, and utility.

The invention of the snowshoe and ice creepers happened a long time ago, but forms of these walking instruments still exist today.

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DeSimone, David. “Another Look at Christmas in the Eighteenth Century.” Christmas Questions & Answers: The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site, The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Durston, Christopher. “Puritan Rule and the Failure of Cultural Revolution, 1645–1660.” The Culture of English Puritanism: 1560-1700, by Christopher Durston and Jacqueline Eales, Palgrave, 2003.

Egloff, Nancy. “Christmas Traditions in 17th-Century England and Virginia.” Jamestown Settlement & American

Revolution Museum at Yorktown , Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation Forbes, Bruce David. Christmas: A Candid History. University of California Press, 2015.

“George Washington at Christmas.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, Mount Vernon Ladies Association, Harms, Nicole. “Christmas in Colonial America.” My Merry Christmas, 30 May 2002, Hattem, Michael D. “The ‘War on Christmas’ in Early America.” The Junto: A Group Blog on Early American History, Heath, William “‘The Forgotten Art of Gayety’: The Puritans and Merry Old England.” Hawthorne In Salem, Mather, Increase. “A Testimony Against Several Prophane and Superstitious Customs.” Reformed Presbyterian Church (Covenanted) - “Steelite” Covenanters, 1687, Miles, Clement A. Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan. Bell and Cockburn, 1912.

Moran, Donald N. “Christmas in the 17th and 18th Centuries.” Revolutionary War Articles - Celebrating Christmas, Sons of Liberty Chapter: Sons of the American Revolution, Dec. 2001 Nissenbaum, Steven W. “Christmas in Early New England, 1620-1820: Puritanism, Popular Culture, and the Printed Word.” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, vol. 106, no. 1, ser. 79, 1 Jan. 1996, pp. 79–164. 79.

“Origin of Santa.” St. Nicholas Center Powers, Emma L. “Colonial Christmas Customs.” Colonial Christmas Customs : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site, Colonial Williamsburg, Santella, Andrew. “The War on Christmas, the Prequel.” Slate Magazine, Slate, 21 Dec. 2005, Shoemaker, Alfred Lewis, et al. Christmas in Pennsylvania: a Folk-Cultural Study. Stackpole Books, 2009.

Walsh, James P. “Holy Time and Sacred Space in Puritan New England.” American Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 1, 1980, pp.

Ward, Doug. “Cotton Mather’s Dilemma: Christmas in Puritan New England.” COTTON MATHER’S DILEMMA, Zuckerman, Michael. “Pilgrims in the Wilderness: Community, Modernity, and the Maypole at Merry Mount.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 2, June 1977, pp. 255–277

CHIMNEY SWEEPS

Bloom, Harold. William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987. Print Brown, Philip. “Black Luck.” Folklore, vol. 71, no. 3, 1960, pp. 188–193. JSTOR, JSTOR, Byrne, Eugene. “Was Britain the Only Country to Use Children to Sweep Chimneys?” History Extra, BBC, 13, Oct. 2011 Gilje, Paul A., and Howard B. Rock. “‘Sweep O! Sweep O!”: African-American Chimney Sweeps and Citizenship in the New Nation.” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 3, 1994, pp. 507–538 Goldthwait, Ezekiel. “Boston, Ss.” Received by At a Meting of Select Men, 7 Feb. 1759, Boston, Massachusetts.

Hanway, Jonas. The state of chimney-sweepers young apprentices, shewing the wretched condition of these distrest boys. [n.p.], 1773. The Making Of The Modern World. Web. 10 Oct. 2018.

Hindman, Hugh D., and Hugh Hindman. The World of Child Labor : An Historical and Regional Survey, Routledge, 2009. Iverson, Karla. “The Poor Life of An Apprentice Chimney Sweep - The History of Children at Work.” Owlcation, Owlcation, Kipling, M D, R Usherwood, and R Varley. “A Monstrous Growth: An Historical Note on Carcinoma of the Scrotum.”

British Journal of Industrial Medicine 27.4 (1970): 382–384. Print.

On the employment of children in sweeping chimneys : chiefly extracted from ‘The chimney-sweeper’s friend and climbing-boy’s album’. London, 1825. The Making Of The Modern World. Web. 10 Oct. 2018.

Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of Public Economy. Committee on Domestic Economy. Report of the committee on domestic economy ... read at its meeting on November 10, 1817. Philadelphia, 1817. The Making Of The Modern World. Phillips, George Lewis.

“Chimney-Sweepers’ Signboards and Symbols of the Nineteenth Century.” Folklore, vol. 73, no. 2, Phillips, George L. “Sweep for the Soot O! 1750-1850.” The Economic History Review, vol. 1, no. 2/3, 1949, pp. 151–154 Phillips, George L. “Toss a Kiss to the Sweep for Luck.” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 64, no. 252, 1951 Porter, David. Considerations on the present state of chimney sweepers, with some observations on the act of Parliament intended for their regulation and relief; with proposals for their further relief. London, [1792]. The Making Of The Modern World.

Print made by William Blake, 1757–1827. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, Plate 39, “London” (Bentley 46). 1794.

Shakespeare, William, and Roger Warren. Cymbeline. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Print.

Strange, Kathleen H. The Climbing Boys: A Study of Sweeps’ Apprentices 1875. London: Allison and Busby, 1982.ds Waldron, H. A. “A Brief History of Scrotal Cancer.” British Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 40, no. 4, 1983, pp. 390–401 Wilkins, William, chimney-sweep. An appeal to the public by the master chimney-sweepers residing in the City of Bristol, against the erroneous application to their practice and character, of the matter contained in a pamphlet entitled ‘Facts relative to the state of children employed as climbing-boys, &c.’ published to recommend the exclusive use of machines.

With a plate, descriptive of the various constructions of chimneys in which no machine can operate. Bristol, 1817. The Making Of The Modern World. Web. 10 Oct. 2018.

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FALCONRY

Almond, Richard. Medieval Hunting. Sutton, 2003.

Badini Confalonieri, Maria Alberta. (2009). The use and significance of animals in Aztec rituals. University of Marid Bildstein, Keith L., et al. Neotropical Raptors. Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 2007.

Bond, Frank. “THE STATUS OF FALCONRY IN NORTH AMERICA.” Edited by Gary Timbrell, Falconry, A World Heritage: A Symposium Supported by the Government of the United Arab Emirates, International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey & UNESCO, “A Brief History of Falconry in North America.” North American Falconers Association Carroll, Shawn E. “Ancient & Medieval Falconry: Origins & Functions in Medieval England.”

Cartwright, George. Captain Cartwright and His Labrador Journal. Edited by Charles Wendell Townsend, Dana Estes & Dobney, Keith. “Ancient Falconry.” Ancient Falconry, First Science, 2014, Evans, Andrew. “Travel - How Falconry Changed Language.” BBC, BBC, 19 Jan. 2017, Fuertes, Louis Agassiz. “Falconry, the Sport of Kings.” National Geographic Magazine, XXXVIII, no. 6, Dec. 1920, Giracca, Amanda, and Brendan Bullock. “The Lure of the Hunt.” The Lure of the Hunt | VQR Online, The Virginia Quarterly ReviewGooch, William. “Land Grant of 1747 As Granted to John Harrison For Lands Then Located in Augusta County On Smiths Creek, Now Shenandoah or Rockingham County.”

Gray, Philip Howard. “Thomas Morton as America’s First Behavioral Observer (in New England 1624-1646).” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, vol. 25, no. 1, 1987, pp. 69–72.

Heath, William. “Thomas Morton: From Merry Old England to New England.” Journal of American Studies, vol. 41, no. 01, 2007, p.

135., Henrick, Thomas S. “Sport and Social Hierarchy in Medieval England.” Journal of Sport History, vol. 9, no. 2, 1982, pp. 20–27.

Herman, Daniel Justin. American National Pastimes: a History. Edited by Mark Dyreson and Jaime Schultz, Routledge, 2015.

“‘A History of British Birds, Indigenous and Migratory: Including Their Organization, Habits, and Relations; Remarks on Classification and Nomenclature; an Account of the Principal Organs of Birds, and Observations Relative to Practi.” “History of Falconry .” The Falconry Centre, The Falconry Centre Ltd “The History of Falconry in Newfoundland.” Newfoundland and Labrador Falconers Association, “A History of Falconry.” International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey, International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey Jacobs, Jaap. The Colony of New Netherland: a Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America. Yale University Press, 2009.

Jeselsohn, Sura. “Falconry Is More a Part of Your Everyday Life than You Realize.” The Riverdale Press, 2 Sept. 2018 Kirby, Mary, and Elizabeth Kirby. Stories about Birds of Land and Water. American Pub. Co., 1874.

Lie, Ragnar Orten. “Falconry, Falcon-Catching and the Role of Birds of Prey in Trade and as Alliance Gifts in Norway (800–1800 AD) with an Emphasis on Norwegian and Later Foreign Participants in Falcon-Catching.” Raptor and Human - Falconry and Bird Symbolism throughout the Millennia on a Global Scale: Publication in Considerable Extension of the Workshop at the Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in Schleswig, March 5th to 7th 2014, edited by Karl-Heinz Gersmann and Oliver Grimm, Wachholtz, Maus, Jim. “Hawk or Clarksdale Bells.” Edited by Lloyd Schroder, Peach State Archaeological Society, Aug. 2018 Oggins, Robin S. The Kings and Their Hawks: Falconry in Medieval England. Yale University Publishing, 2004.

Prowse, D. W. A History of Newfoundland from the English, Colonial and Foreign Records. 2nd ed., Macmillan, 1896.

Strutt, Joseph. The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. Methuen, 1801.

Thompson, Kimberly Ann. “Money and the Man: Economics and Identity in Late Medieval English Literature.” The Ohio State University, 2007.

Timbrell , Gary. “Falconry,a World Heritage .” International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey, A Symposium Supported by the A Symposium Supported by the A Symposium Supported by the Government of the United Arab Emirates Govern

ment of the United Arab Emirates Government of the United Arab Emirates, 2005.

Turner, Charles Q. “The Revival of Falconry.” Outing : Sport, Adventure, Travel, Fiction. V.31 1897-1898 Oct-Mar., vol. 31, Feb. 1898 Warden, Donald E. “The Extent of Indigenous-Norse Contact and Trade Prior to Columbus.” Oglethorpe Journal of Undergraduate Williamson, Roland, and Ben Levick. “For What It’s Worth.” Regia Anglorum - Prices and Costs in Anglo-Saxon England and Viking Age Europe, Regia Anglorum Publications Zuckerman, Michael. “Pilgrims in the Wilderness: Community, Modernity, and the Maypole at Merry Mount.” The New England

Quarterly, vol. 50, no. 2, June 1977, pp. 255–277

FOOD PRESERVATION

Burns, William, Science and Technology in Colonial America, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005.

Cruess, William, Home and Farm Food Preservation, Applewood Books, 2010.

Glasse, Hannah, The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy: Which Far Exceeds Any Thing of the kind yet published, W. Strahan, J. and F. Rivington, J. Hinton, 1774.

Horry, Harriott, A colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pickney Horry, 1770, University of South Carolina Press Middleton, Richard; Lombard, Anne, Colonial America: A History to 1763, John Wiley & Sons, 2011.

Oliver, Sandra, Food in Colonial and Federal America, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005.

Rees, J.A.G., Bettison, J., Processing and Packaging Heat Preserved Foods, Spencer Science & Business Media, 1991 Simmons, Amelia, American Cookery 2nd Edition, Applewood Books, 1996 Washington, Martha, Martha Washington’s Booke of Cookery and Booke of Sweatmeats, Columbia University Press, 1996.

BEST PIECES OF SERVICE

Archer, Richard. As If an Enemy’s Country: The British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of

Revolution. Oxford University Press, 2010.

Corbly, Don. Letters, Journals, & Diaries of ye Colonial America. 2009.

Donald, Graeme. Loose Cannons: 101 Myths, Mishaps and Misadventurers of Military History.

Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011.

Gilder, Jeannette Leonard, and Joseph Benson Gilder, editors. The Critic, Volume 3; Volume 6.

Critic Printing and Publishing Company, 1885.

Hinderaker, Eric. “Rethinking the Boston Massacre.” American Heritage Magazine 63.2, 2018, Kidder, Frederic. History of the Boston Massacre, March 5, 1770: Consisting of the Narrative of the Town, the Trial of the Soldiers: and a Historical Introduction, Containing Unpublished Documents of John Adams, and Explanatory Notes. J. Munsell, 1870.

McCullough, David. John Adams. Simon and Schuster, 2008.

Wheeler, William Bruce, Susan Becker, and Lorri Glover, editors. “What Really Happened in the Boston Massacre? The Trial of Captain Thomas Preston.” Discovering the American Past: A Look at the Evidence, Volume I: To 1877, Cengage Learning, 2011, pp. 82-102.

VIOLIN “18th Century Music.” Music of Early America, Varsity Tutors.

“18th Century Song Book.” Revere Speaks, 2017.

DeSimone, David. “Traditions - Another Look at Christmas in the Eighteenth Century.” Colonial Williamsburg, 1996.

“Fiddle Tunes from the American Revoultion.” Singers of Early 1900s, 1920s, and 1930s Music.

Smith, Larry D. Music of the 1770’s, 2000, http.

Turner, John. “Christmas Music in Colonial Days.” Colonial Williamsburg, 2004.

THE FIRST AMERICAN NOVEL Barley, Arthur. “The Real Arthur of the Power of Sympathy,” Bostonian, 1 (1894), 232.

Davidson, Cathy N. Revolution and the Word : The Rise of the Novel in America. Expanded ed. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, “Sarah Wentworth Morton,” History of American Women Walser, Richard. “Boston’s Reception of the First American Novel.” Early American Literature, vol. 17 no. 1 (Spring 1982).

Brown, William Hill, Hannah Webster Coquette Foster, and Carla Mulford. The Power of Sympathy. New York: Penguin Books, 1996.

The Old Fort at Fort Wayne, Indiana 2019 Event Schedule

Jan 26-27: Nouvelle Annee

Jun 8-9: Siege of Ft Wayne: 1812

Feb 23-24: 1812 Winter Garrison

Jul 13-14: Napoleonic Days 1804-1814

Mar 2-3: Rev War Garrison

Jul 27-28: Colonial America on the Frontier

Mar 9-10: Civil War Garrison

Aug 24-25: Post Miamies 1754-1763

Apr 13-14: School of the Soldier 1755

Sep 8: Be a Tourist in your Hometown

May 3: Education Day

Oct 19: Fright Night Lanter Tours

May 4-5: Muster on the St. Maryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Timeline Event

Nov 30: Joyeux Noel - A French Christmas Openhouse

The grounds of the Old Fort are a city park, and you are welcome to explore them at any time.

During listed events, the buildings are also open to the public and tours are available.

For More Information: PO Box 12650 Fort Wayne, IN 46864 260-437-2836 events@oldfortwayne.org www.oldfortwayne.org Winter 2018 | Reliving History

91

PuRveyoR oF Fine 18tH CentuRy menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ClotHing, aCCoutRements & living HistoRy suPPlies

(765) 481-2662 WWW.samsonHistoRiCal.Com