LA 652 Graduate Seminar Susan Mulley Fall 2010
s D e esign p a c s d n ed La AR ev iew b
wi th C hildren in Mind
y A bb y Jones
Linda Santa Children’s Center 2010
Landscapes Designed with Children in Mind In order to design a playscape, a landscape which encourages children to play, one must first recognize the importance of children playing in nature. Mostly due to diseases associated with a sedentary lifestyle, this generation of children is the first predicted to have shorter life spans than their parents (Louv 2005). Additionally, the number of children prescribed medication for mental health issues like depression and attention deficit disorder are soaring as acres of undeveloped land are diminishing (Louv 2005). Many believe there is a direct correlation between lack of playing in nature and the prevalence of these mental and physical health problems in children, and there is significant research beginning to support this hypothesis (Moore and Marcus 2008, White and Stoecklin 2008, Louv 2005). Playscapes are one step in the right direction to reconnecting children with natural processes, personal wellbeing, and a functional society. According to Moore and Marcus (2008) “We are reaching a turning point in history where opportunities for children to explore the natural world, until recently taken for granted, must now be intentionally created.� Because of this lack of existing natural places, designers should use every opportunity available, from parks to school grounds to church yards, to infuse nature into children’s play.
Jenny 2010
Play Before a designer can create a playscape, a few fundamental aspects of play must be understood. Play takes many forms, and any object can become a toy to a child’s imagination. In fact, play can be defined as any “activities which children choose to undertake when not being told what to do by others” (Cole-Hamilton, Harrop and Street 2002). In other words, play is a child’s default mode of operation. Children learn about and experience the world primarily through play (ColeHamilton et al. 2002). Play is necessary for cognitive development throughout childhood (Moore, Goltsman, and Iacofano 1987). Play is how children practice new skills, consolidate previous experiences, and learn through exploration (Fjortoft 2004, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). Children can learn through play without the stress or stigmas associated with formal education in schools (Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002, Moore et al. 1987). Play-acting out experiences and others’ actions allows children to mentally process and understand these actions (Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). This guide is primarily focused on outdoor play and play spaces. Outdoor play is less restricting than indoor play– children are allowed more noise, rougher play, more mess, and materials like plants and dirt can be manipulated easily and usually with fewer consequences compared to indoor furniture and spaces (Chancellor 2007, Louv 2005, Moore et al. 1987). In addition, outdoor play is necessary for children to learn about nature, the larger world, and humanity’s connection to it all (Stephens 2007, Louv 2005).
Importance Outdoor play has many positive effects on children’s health, both short and long term. Physical benefits include better balance, coordination, and blood pressure (Louv 2005, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). Play is a source of physical activity which has been shown to positively influence alertness, grades, and behavior (University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center 2007, Louv 2005, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). Additionally, children who play outdoors are more likely to engage in physical activity when older which can help prevent obesity, alleviate stress and depression, and decrease risk-taking behaviors such as drug use (Louv 2005, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). Independent play also promotes self-esteem, self-awareness, and responsibility for actions (Chancellor 2007, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). Furthermore, children who play more usually have greater flexibility and creativity in problem-solving (Louv 2005, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). In contrast, play deprivation can seriously stunt children physically, mentally, and socially (Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002). In general, children who are play deprived do not perform motor tasks as well as children who are allowed to play more (Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002, Fjortoft 2000). Some hypothesize that the recent rise in ADD and ADHD stems from children having less access to optimal outdoor play environments (Severin 2007, Louv 2005). Children’s ability to deal with stress, manage risks, and interact socially without conflict decreases when they are deprived of play in nature (Louv 2005, Cole-Hamilton et al. 2002).
Barbara Hayo 2008
Locations Children play in nearly any setting, including homes, sidewalks, streets, schools, and public parks. The closer outdoor playspaces are to children’s homes the more likely children will visit them (Dyment and Bell 2008). Public play areas are important especially in urban areas where children may not have outdoor spaces to play at home. Although playing in and beside streets was fairly common in the past, as the automobile has proliferated, fewer streets are safe or agreeable places to play (Staempfli 2009, Chancellor 2007). Therefore, playgrounds in public parks are even more important. Additionally, public playgrounds allow children to meet and play with other children or observe others of various ages playing (Dyment and Bell 2008, Woolley and Johns 2001) Another prime candidate for natural playscapes is schools. School age children spend the majority of their awake time at school. At some schools, children spend up to 25% of their school day on the playground (Dyment and Bell 2008). School playgrounds typically have ball areas and play equipment which cater to physically active play, but less often have props, toys, materials and spaces for fantasy or construction play (Dyment and Bell 2008, Woolley and Johns 2001) Many children are not interested in or not able to play in common school games that demand high levels of physical activity, and therefore many children are left out of play opportunities at recess on traditional playgrounds (Dyment and Bell 2008, Chancellor 2007). Natural playgrounds would provide children with more diverse types of play and a diversity of physical challenges from easy to difficult (Janssen 2010, Dyment and Bell 2008, Fjortoft 2000). In addition, natural playgrounds can incorporate spaces for ball games and more traditional play equipment (Janssen 2010, Dyment and Bell 2008, Chancellor 2007).
Furthermore, playscapes at schools can be used for environmental education. Studies show that students who receive hands-on environmental education that uses the environment as context for learning (EIC) have higher test scores on standardized tests versus students subjected to normal school curricula (University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center 2007). Additionally, according to teachers, children are better behaved and report having more motivation to participate in school work (University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center 2007).
Types Children play in many different ways, but there are three main recognizable categories: fantasy, construction, and functional (Fjortoft 2004). Toddlers’ and babies’ play is not easily categorized, but older children exhibit all three types of play (Chancellor 2007, Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). None of the play types are entirely exclusive and are often used in combination.
Fantasy Children are often credited for their active imaginations. This is likely due to fantasy play being one of the main types of play (Chancellor 2007, Stephens 2007). Fantasy play includes well-known games and activities like playing house, cops and robbers, and pirates. Most situations in which children are pretending that they, their surroundings, or the objects they use are something else is categorized as fantasy play. Different genders often prefer different imaginary roles and situations (Fjortoft 2004).
MK Metz 2010
Fantasy play allows children to develop mentally and socially (Moore et al. 1987). Children exercise their mental faculties of imagination, creativity, story development and telling, and problem solving while fantasy playing (Chancellor 2007). Children often fantasy play in small groups which stimulates communication, leadership, collaboration, and other social skill development (Stephens 2007, Fjortoft 2004). Certain characteristics of the environment promote fantasy play (Moore et al. 1987). Fantasy play is possible in areas with dense vegetation, tight spacing, broken terrain, or other physical barriers where activities like running are not (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Spaces of limited sizes are also conducive to fantasy play because it is easier to fantasy play with a smaller number of children (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000).
Construction Another common play type is construction play. Like its name suggests, during construction play, children engage in building. Fjortoft and Sageie (2000) found that children were motivated more by the process of building rather than the resulting structure and would move on to a new project once the first was completed. Construction play exercises multiple cognitive and social processes including mentally manipulating three-dimensional images, planning, collaboration, and conflict resolution (Fjortoft 2004). Construction play also practices gross motor skills such as lifting and hammering, and fine motor skills like weaving and carving (Chancellor 2007). Construction also provides children with a practical experience of physics, geometry, and engineering (Louv 2005). Furthermore, children often experience a sense of accomplishment, ownership, and belonging in the landscape as a result of construction projects (Louv 2005).
Functional Physically active play, also known as functional play, exercises gross motor abilities and basic skills such as running, jumping, throwing, climbing, crawling, rolling, swinging, and sliding (Moore et al. 1987). Functional play builds strength, endurance, balance, coordination and body control (Fjortoft 2004.) Games which involve basic movements like these are considered functional play. Functional play can also be combined with the previous types of play. Larger spaces with smoother topography and less dense obstacles are conducive to active play like running and tumbling (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). In the U.S., older children and adolescents, possibly due to cultural customs, tend to engage less and less in fantasy and construction play as they age, whereas physical activity play is predominant and well encouraged (Shackell, Butler, Doyle, and Ball 2008). Traditional and contemporary playgrounds in the U.S. are most often designed for functional play (Klingensmith 2008). Structures for climbing, swinging, and sliding are common in public playgrounds. In addition, many school and professional sports feature functional play, and the players are highly esteemed and idolized by children and peers in American culture. However, in this same time in history that the greatest number of children is involved in organized sports, obesity in children is also at the highest percentage it has ever been (Louv 2005). Thus, sports are not the answer to all children’s heath problems (Louv 2005).
Jae C. Hong 2009
Age Specific Play For the most part, children do not need to be separated by age or ability on playgrounds (Moore et al. 1987). Equipment of varying degrees of challenge can be located side by side. However, infants and toddlers need separation from older children, and design for teens may also require special attention (Klingensmith 2008, Pardee et al. 2005). The design guidelines presented later in this document, which promote the three major types of play, are primarily oriented toward the play and development of the middle group of children, ages 3-11, but many of the design principles can be applied toward any age group.
Infants and Toddlers, ages 6mo-2yr Infants and toddlers need to play outdoors as well as indoors because they need opportunities to use senses and interact with the world as they develop cognition and motor skills at this age (Pardee, Gillman, and Larson 2005, Wortham 1989). Sunshine, breezes, a variety of smells, seasonal change, and other sensory experiences provided by the outdoors are not usually present with indoor play. Between 6 months and two years, all of the basic locomotor skills that include sitting, crawling, standing, walking, and running are beginning to develop (Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989). Other emerging physical skills include climbing, maneuvering up and down stairs, and jumping (Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989). In social development, children this age are gradually beginning to notice the language, feelings, and ideas of others (Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989). Children of this
Jenny 2010
age need to interact with others as well as play alone and explore different sensations; however, this age group should be separated from older children and have specialized equipment (Klingensmith 2008, Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989). Several elements can be used to help promote toddlers’ play and development. Toys and sand are popular and are used by toddlers wherever they are playing (Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989). Small hills, tunnels, steps, movable vehicles, slides and playhouses are play elements conducive to toddler development (Pardee et al. 2005). The maximum platform height for this age group is 2 feet (Pardee et al. 2005). Because it is important for toddlers to use their senses to learn, sensory elements like wind chimes, running water, scented foliage, different textures, and colorful flowers are integral to development at this age (Beunderman, Hannon, and Bradwell 2007, Pardee et al. 2005, Wortham 1989).
Childhood, ages 3-11 Children reach their highest level of activity of any age in the human life span between 3 and 7 years of age (Pardee et al. 2005). This age group is increasingly more adventurous, is generally physically competent and able to climb well (Pardee et al. 2005). Most children by the age of 7 can throw and catch balls, ride tricycles and bikes, hop, jump, climb stairs, somersault, push and pull large toys, skip, and run back and forth (Beunderman et al. 2007, Pardee et al. 2005). Throughout this age group children are also becoming more socially collaborative and developing interpersonal skills (Stephens 2007).
Children at the higher end of this age bracket should become increasingly independent and should be allowed to play and manipulate their environment without constant adult supervision (Beunderman et al. 2007, Chancellor 2007, Moore et al. 1987). Rough and tumble play, fantasy play, collaborative play, and climbing are essential for development in middle school children (Beunderman et al. 2007, Chancellor 2007). The main difference in designing for children at either end of this age group is gradation of challenge, meaning features that test a child’s balance should have different levels of challenge which children can accomplish as they learn and grow (Moore et al. 1987). For example, several balance beams of differing widths provide a gradation of challenge. Children in this age group are sometimes separated in traditional and contemporary playgrounds, but they will learn and socialize more rigorously if not separated (Moore et al. 1987). While contact with nature is important for people of all ages, it is especially important during childhood (Dyment and Bell 2008). Exploring the nearby world should be the primary objective for children in this stage of environmental education rather than teaching about distant locations like the rain forest (White and Stoecklin 2008, Louv 2005). Connections to nature are best fostered through natural playgrounds and relationships with animals (White and Stoecklin 2008, Louv 2005). Appropriate environmental interactions for children this age include gardening and taking care of animals (White and Stoecklin 2008).
Adolescents, ages 12-17 During adolescence, children begin to develop and define their sense of self (White and Stoecklin 2008). There is strong desire in this age group to form connections with each other and with the rest of the world. White and Stoecklin (2008) believe adolescents are “naturally inclined toward wanting to save the world” and would be interested in forming or joining environmental clubs and volunteering in local environmental activism. Most teens express a desire to have a place to “hang out” and claim as their own. Teens are a major demographic of shopping malls and city centers because these are some of the only free places for this age group to go to socialize (Woolley and Johns 2001). However, many people consider the presence of teen threatening, and store owners and security guards often displace these youths (White and Stoecklin 2008, Woolley and Johns 2001). Getting adolescents involved in designing and building park spaces of their own where they can congregate can help relieve some of the tension between teens and business owners (Beunderman et al. 2007, Klingensmith 2008). Because teens are beginning to set themselves apart from younger children socially, physically, and psychologically, designing for this age group is more successful when the teens are directly involved in planning, design, and construction of spaces meant for them. Although ball parks and skate parks are targeted toward this age group, these attract boys more than girls and offer very limited types of play (Beunderman et al. 2007). Spaces which are not as prescriptive allow a greater diversity of uses and can attract genders equally (Fisman 2001, Wardle 1990).
Samwingkit 2006
of equipment joined usually by platforms and ramps (Jansson 2010). Usually these conglomerates are made of plastic and metal and colored bright primary colors (Jansson 2010). Typically, contemporary structures serve a limited age range and abilities and are primarily for physical play. They can be made handicap accessible with ramps, but often the adjoining slides and climbing bars are still accessible only to the able bodied (Jansson 2010, Shackell et al. 2008).
Adventure playgrounds
Playground types
After WWII, adventure playgrounds were first created in Europe to provide children from urban neighborhoods with outdoor play opportunities which would otherwise be inaccessible (Staempfli 2009). Bartram Creations, L.P. 2008 Adventure playgrounds are usually funded by membership fees, business donations, or community groups. These playgrounds are staffed with adults who supervise and guide children on ventures such as construction, gardening, nature interpretation, and others (Jansson 2010). These playgrounds are typically not found in the U.S. due to perceived safety, liability, and funding issues. However, several of the key aspects of adventure playgrounds have been separated into youth programming in places like nature centers, community gardens, and community centers (Jansson 2010).
Traditional and Contemporary
Playground design has evolved over the years from traditional, single use structures to more complex and design-based play spaces. Traditional playgrounds in this paper are defined as having multiple single use structures separated from each other. Examples of common equipment in traditional playgrounds are slides, swings, jungle gyms, and seesaws, most of which are composed of a single material—metal (Fjortoft 2004). Traditional playgrounds offer limited types of play to limited age and ability groups (Fjortoft 2004). These playgrounds are typically flat, asphalt covered, and are not challenging for many children or conducive to fantasy or construction play (Fjortoft 2004). Contemporary playgrounds have become a mainstay for public parks and some school playgrounds. A contemporary playground usually has one major structure that is a fusion of several traditional pieces
Natural Playgrounds, Playscapes Much as modern architecture and city design resulted in monolithic, barren, denaturalized urban spaces, standardization of playground equipment in the U.S. has led to sterile, monotonous playgrounds chosen from catalogues with no regard to design or environmental surroundings (Jansson 2010). Playscapes and playgrounds using natural design principles have arisen as a response to the growing issues of obesity, nature deficit disorder, learning deficiencies, and behavioral problems that children now face (Jansson 2010, Jost 2010, Shackell et al. 2008). Playscapes can be places that occur in natural settings like woodlands where children are encouraged to play, or they can be designed playgrounds which incorporate topography, plants, trees, sand, stumps, stone, water, wind, fire, and other natural
Merrylee Primary School Parent Council 2008
elements as playground structures and spaces (White and Stoecklin 2008, Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Playgrounds which use natural design principles but do not emphasize natural materials are also becoming popular (Jost 2010). While these playgrounds offer benefits that traditional and contemporary playgrounds do not, such as movable parts for construction and fantasy play, biophilia, ecology, and the complexity of natural materials are not utilized or emphasized. In the case of the new Imagination Playground in New York City, children can play with large blue building blocks, but the blocks are all one color and one texture, and therefore less diverse and complex than stones or branches of trees or bushes (Jost 2010). However, this playground is a step in the right direction in terms of allowing a variety of play styles to occur and bringing two of childrens’ favorite elements, water and sand, together (Jost 2010).
Benefits of Playscapes Biophilia is the theory that, because human beings evolved in and adapted to the natural environment over thousands of years, people
have an innate affinity towards nature, and they experience greater stress levels when outside of natural settings, i.e. in highly urbanized, plant-less, hard-edged, constructed environments (Grind and Greete 2009, White and Stoecklin 2008, Chancellor 2007). In support of this theory, many studies indicate that children prefer playing in nature than in traditional playgrounds and associate being outdoors with adventure and challenge (Dyment and Bell 2008, Fisman 2001). However, if children are not exposed to nature at young ages they may become fearful of nature or regard it as only a resource to be exploited (White and Stoecklin 2008). Designing playgrounds that contain and reference nature are beneficial to the health and development of children. In a study by Fjortoft and Sageie (2000), children who played in a natural environment had better motor abilities, balance and coordination compared to children who played on traditional playground equipment. Since natural playgrounds have more diverse textures, materials, and spaces than typical playgrounds, they are more inclusive to different types of play and play abilities. The malleability and adaptability of natural materials is conducive to fantasy and construction play which is lacking in most contemporary and traditional playgrounds (Chancellor 2007, Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Consequently, because more children of different skill and ability levels can play in a greater diversity of ways, fewer behavioral problems are found on natural playgrounds and also fewer injuries result (Dyment and Bell 2008, Klingensmith 2008, Shackell et al. 2008, Chancellor 2007).
Studio G Architects 2010
Exposure to natural materials and processes can help children learn about and develop stewardship and connection to the environment (White and Stoecklin 2008). This can be achieved in part with playscapes. Playscapes can provide ecological function and habitat and educate children about the value of these natural systems (Stephens 2007). Playscapes can be integrated into school playgrounds as well as public parks to optimize the time that children get to spend in nature-like environments (Shackell et al. 2008). Several studies have shown that schools with natural school yards where the environment is used as an integrating context (EIC) for educational programming produce students with higher academic test scores, greater motivation for school work, and better behavior in the classroom (University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center 2007). Another benefit of playscapes is the lower expense than other playground types. If proper materials are chosen, they either outlive traditional play structures or are naturally renewed by the landscape (Dyment and Bell 2008, Klingensmith 2008). In natural playgrounds, children are left to devise their own play and use their imaginations rather than having specific activities (Fjortoft 2004). Like traditional and contemporary playgrounds, parents and care takers are the main form of adult supervision in playscapes. Since natural playgrounds do not require the high amounts of worker supervision and adult led
activities that adventure playgrounds do, there are fewer labor costs (Jannson 2008). One disadvantage of contemporary and traditional playgrounds is their lack of change. Colors may bleach and metal may rust, but otherwise, unless structures are replaced, they are static (Dyment and Bell 2008). With a natural playground, trees and other plants grow and change with the seasons. Flowers and fruits provide various colors throughout the year. Trees grow taller so that a playground with young trees may dramatically change within 5-10 years as those trees grow, and if they are deciduous, trees will drop and re-grow their leaves every year. Plants provide loose parts like leaves, pine cones, seed pods, branches and thatch material for kids to play with, collect, and build with (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000).
Nate Rosenthal 2010
Designing a Playscape
The following design guidelines are the most important aspects of design to consider when creating a natural playground. Other guidelines for playgrounds may apply but are general to all types of playgrounds, and therefore, are not a focus of this guide (Klingensmith 2008, Shakell et al. 2008, Moore et al. 1987). These guildlines will encourage the three major types of play, fantasy, construction, and functional, that children need for holistic development and growth (Moore et al. 1987).
Location and Context One of the most important considerations for playscapes or any playground is location. Janssen found that even though playgrounds with unique new equipment were considered more interesting than other
Angella Foret Diehl 2008
playgrounds, they were not visited as often as playgrounds closer to homes and schools (2010). The closer a playscape is to their homes, the more often children will play there (Janssen 2010). In addition, playscapes near schools, libraries, and other community facilities are usually well known and draw children and adults (Janssen 2010). One of the main reasons children and adults visit playgrounds is to interact with others; therefore, central, nearby, well-known, and easily visible playgrounds tend to be more visited (Janssen 2010). In larger open spaces and public parks, locating playscapes near cafes and restrooms brings people into the space to make it feel more populated and safer (Shackell et al. 2008). Playscapes also need to be located where children can feel free to be noisy and uninhibited (Chancellor 2007, Fjortoft 2004). In addition, location gives design cues for establishing a planting palette and materials. Natural playgrounds are most sustainable when they utilize microclimate appropriate plants that need fewer fertilizer and water inputs. Additionally, using local resources for materials will reduce the carbon footprint and ecological impact of the design, a factor that is becoming increasingly important as society realizes its unsustainable impact on the environment. One should first look to the existing elements and surroundings for design inspiration. Existing topography, trees, swales, and other
features on the site can be incorporated into playscapes to reduce the cost and blend with the contextual setting. Research shows that playscapes are more attractive to children and adults if they fit well within their context and reference surrounding features (Klingensmith 2008). Furthermore, including the surrounding community’s adults and children in the design process helps create a successful playscape (Shackell et al. 2008). Children, especially middle school and high school adolescents, will have more identity with and desire to use spaces that they help create (Shackell et al. 2008). Including children in the planting and building process is also a way to get children interested in a new playscape. The more children are involved in the early stages of creating a playscape, the more they will feel comfortable to explore and make the playscape their own (Klingensmith 2008, Shackell et al. 2008).
Design Principles Aesthetic principles of design for a natural playground are similar to those used in any type of landscape design: balance, rhythm, color, proportion, line, sequence, etc. (Shackell et al. 2008). In fact, one facet of biophilia is that humans’ idea of aesthetics is derived from the natural form (Grind and Greete 2009). The following principles are some of the most important to consider for natural playground design and are often lacking in other types of playgrounds. Cohesion, coherence, and legibility are important within a playscape since playscapes are more abstract than traditional and contemporary playgrounds (Dyment and Bell 2008). Because natural play-
scapes are designed to encourage creativity and diversity, some play opportunities may not be as readily noticed as obvious primary color structures in other playgrounds. In fact, playscapes are more successful when they include familiar playground equipment, such as slides embedded into slopes, so that children and adults know a space is intended for play (Janssen 2010, Fisman 2001). Signage can be included encouraging adults to allow certain kinds of play to occur, like playing in water, which is often discouraged in contemporary playgrounds and parks (Moore et al. 1987). To bring order to the large variety of materials, vegetation, and spaces within a playscape, a concept or theme can be developed to help guide design decisions and create a coherent narrative for the site (Moore et al. 1987). Permanent elements like paved, ADA accessible major circulation routes and fixed seating also help provide a clear image of place (Fisman 2001). Diversity is key to natural playground design (Wardle, 1990). Structures, colors, textures, materials, plants, topography, sizes, and shapes of places should all be diverse yet cohesive. Diversity is one principle of natural design that traditional playgrounds typically lack. In general, natural elements like trees, dirt, gravel, sand, shrubs, and grasses offer more complexity, diversity, and degrees of challenge than traditional playgrounds (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Diversity of spaces promote fantasy and construction play, not just physical play (Klingensmith 2008, Fisman 2001). A variety of play spaces with diverse topography and materials allow children of various ages and abilities to play together inclusively and challenge themselves gradually (Klingensmith 2008, Fisman 2001, Wardle 1990, Moore et al. 1987).
Arcady 2010
Malleability is also important to successful playscapes. Children should be able to build their own play to some extent (Shackell et al. 2008, Chancellor 2007). Having loose, moving parts and areas where children are allowed to dig, construct, and create their environment helps children develop physically and psychologically (Shackell et al. 2008). Interactive vegetation is one way in which playscapes can be malleable.
for adults and children to sit and rest. Seating areas should offer shade in warm microclimates and sun in cool locations. The playscape should also be at least partly shaded to protect children from UV exposure and sunburn (Shackell et al. 2008). Low activity areas provide for an increased social experience at playscapes (Klingensmith 2008).
Structures and Features
Common Elements General and Special Spaces Playscapes should have a variety of play areas. Space sizes, topography and other characteristics should match the play activities that are desirable for a particular area. For example, steep and broken topography is conducive to climbing and jumping (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Because size limits the number of children who can play together in one space, certain types of play are more likely to occur in different sized spaces (Fjortoft 2004). Physical play like ball games and running are more likely to occur in large, open, relatively flat spaces (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). In contrast, fantasy games are often played in small, partially enclosed nooks (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). Children like to have the opportunity to be enclosed in a small space yet still be able to see and be seen (Klingensmith 2008, Fjortoft 2004). As a guideline, child development experts recommend 100 square feet or more of space per child playing outdoors at any one time (Pardee et al. 2005). Other than providing places to play, playscapes should include areas
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Structures in natural playgrounds can have a similar form to those of traditional and modern playgrounds, but in combination with natural features, playscapes have a broader range of play opportunities. Slides, swings and climbing opportunities like boulders and ropes are currently popular (Klingensmith 2008, Beunderman et al. 2007). Climbers increase strength, balance and coordination as well as provide mental challenges, especially three dimensional spatial nets (Klingensmith 2008, Shackell et al. 2008). Trees can also be used for climbing if the branches are low enough to the ground and spaced well. Slides and swingsets can help delineate a playscape and indicate that the area is meant for play through artificial cues (Shackell et al. 2008, Fisman 2001). Swingsets require a large area of loose surfacing to accommodate the range of the swing and the distance a child could jump out from it (Klingensmith 2008). Slides can be built into topography to expand the uses of a hill (Dyment and Bell 2008, Klingensmith 2008). Raised sandboxes, ramps, and swings with high backs and armrests can provide accessibility to handicapped children (Klingensmith 2008). Rather than separating equipment or structures based on ability or age group, facilities should be grouped based on type of play, i.e. climbing, balance, imagination, building, etc. (Moore et al. 1987).
Vegetation should be chosen to augment the playscape and be used as a plaything itself. Plants can supply a variety of child-friendly textures, scents, colors, and sizes (Beunderman et al. 2007). Vegetation can provide loose parts like pine cones and seed pods for imaginary play, branches and stems for construction, and trunks for climbing (Fjortoft and Sageie 2000). When possible in a playscape, trees that are felled should be reincorporated into the playscape as a log (Klingensmith 2008, Shackell et al. 2008). Studies show tree trunks provide more play opportunities when some branches or stumps of branches are left on the trunk (Shackell et al. 2008). Having quick growing, hearty plants like bamboo which the children can use for building provides a renewable source of entertainment and play materials. Another benefit of appropriate vegetation is its constant change. Plants change seasonally throughout the year, and also grow and develop over longer periods of time.
Circulation and Placement
Some areas can have loose circulation, but establishing major pathways gives playscapes order and accessibility (Moore et al. 1987). Because loose materials like sand and gravel are not suitable for wheelchair access, major pathways should be concrete, rubber tiles, or another ADA acceptable material (Chalmers 2003). Additionally, climbing features should not be near water play spaces because of the potential for slippage (Klingensmith 2008). In general, a playscape should have soft boundaries around and within it, not rigid barriers, to allow easy ingress and egress and visibility (Janssen 2010, Beunderman et al. 2007, Moore et al. 1987).
Materials and Textures
Tactile sensations help kids learn and develop (Beunderman et al.
2007). Playscapes can introduce children to a variety of textures and materials. A variety of elements in playscapes can provide interesting texture. Grasses and other groundcovers can be fine textured and soft. Trees’ bark ranges from smooth to roughly ridged. Other plants range from fine to course textures with thin to thick leaves and stems. Stones can also be smooth or rough. Sand, mulch, and gravel provide interesting texture underfoot. The addition of water to playscapes adds another textural dimension as well and can be mixed with the other elements. Water features without standing water are very popular with both kids and adults (Klingensmith 2008). Placing water near sand allows children to experiment with mixtures of the two.
Programming
Playscapes that have the funding for programming can incorporate more diverse adult-led activities for children like gardening, natural arts and crafts, and environmental education (Johnson and Hurley 2002). Schools with playscapes can incorporate outdoor programming into their curriculum to help children learn about natural processes and life cycles (Dyment and Bell 2008, Klingensmith 2008). For example, collecting and composting leaf litter and green waste can demonstrate plants’ cyclic growth, senescence, decomposition, and return to the soil. Programming in which children are given the responsibility to plan, fund-raise, and maintain green spaces increases cooperation and good behavior (Beunderman et al. 2007, Chancellor 2007). However, playscapes should not be entirely programmed because children also need unsupervised play in order to gain independence, self-sufficiency, and problem solving abilities (Chancellor 2007, Stephens 2007, Wardle, 1990). Lessons learned through trial and error are often better appreciated and understood (Louv 2005).
Andreas Payker 2004
Parting Note
Playscapes are an essential form of playground design. Playscapes introduce a more natural setting to childrens’ daily lives which can ease stress, depression, and learning disabilities (Louv 2005). The life lessons and social connections that a playscape can provide are invaluable. In fact, children who play outdoors have been shown to have more friends than those who do not (Louv 2005.) Getting children involved in nature at an early age stimulates better physical health in the long term as well as encourages a deeper understanding of the environment (White and Stoecklin 2008). Because of the intrinsic connection people have with nature, natural playground design is the best fit for child learning and development and is a vital step toward providing children fulfilling, meaningful lives (Moore and Marcus 2008, White and Stoecklin 2008, Louv 2005).
Happy Trails Family Nature Club 2010
List of Photographs Children Playing in Leaves, Linda Santa Children’s Center 2010, Page 1 (Cover) Children in Trees, Jenny 2010, http://progressiveearlychildhoodeducation.blogspot.com, Page 2 Waterpark, Barbara Hayo 2008, Page 3 Hula Hooping, MK Metz 2010, Page 4 Left out of Play, Jae C. Hong 2009, Page 5 Balancing Logs, Jenny 2010, http://progressiveearlychildhoodeducation.blogspot.com, Page 6 Sports Courts, Samwingkit 2006, Page 7 Contemporary Playground, Bartram Creations, L.P. 2008, Page 8 Urban Natural Playground, Merrylee Primary School Parent Council 2008, Page 8 Playscape, Studio G Architects 2010, Page 9 Diverse Playscape, Nate Rosenthal 2010, Page 10 Water Jets, Angella Foret Diehl 2008, Page 11 The Haye Playground, Arcady 2010, http://playgrounddesigns.blogspot.com, Page 12 A Young Explorer, Evergreen 2010, Page 13 Pyramiden spielplatz, Andreas Payker 2004, Page 14 Connecting to Nature, Happy Trails Family Nature Club 2010, Page 15 Making Fairy Houses, Elizabeth 2009, http://activitymama.wordpress.com/2009/07, Page 16 Valbyparken, Helle Nebelong 2004, Page 17 Playing in the Rain, Jenny 2010, http://progressiveearlychildhoodeducation.blogspot.com, Page 18
Elizabeth 2009
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Helle Nebelong 2004
Jenny 2010
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