Honoring and the
U.S. MILITARY
1914 - 1948
NAACP Armed Services & Veterans Affairs
IN THE BEGINNING... EXECUTIVE ORDER 9981 is President Harry S. Truman's directive to end Black America's fight to fight. Since before this nation declared its independence, Black Americans have unofficially participated, and indeed, led in the fight for America's independence...beginning with Crispus Attucks who was the first American to die for a free Nation, so stated by John Hancock. At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, "we" volunteered and fought in place of owners as enslaved persons. The first Rhode Island Regiment (majority Black, but integrated) was a principal force to help secure the Narragansett Bay from British encirclement of New York. In the War of 1812, we were the preponderance of the force that defeated the British at New Orleans in 1814 under the leadership of Andrew Jackson. In the Civil War, Frederick Douglass made direct requests to get African Americans in the fight as fighters. Forty-thousand African Americans died during the Civil War as soldiers. Following the Civil War, the "Buffalo Soldiers," four Black segregated units were created, 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments and 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments, for westward expansion. In addition to the Buffalo Soldiers, the Spanish American War, in 1898, saw college educated Black volunteers from historically Black colleges fight without the promise of freedom as a reward. By 1914, two notable Black officers had graduated from West Point. The first, Henry O. Flipper, and later, Charles Young, who would rise to the rank of Colonel---they would never be placed in charge of white troops. Since the end of the Civil War, people like Frederick Douglass and groups like the Niagara Movement, coupled with Black newspapers, like the "Chicago Defender" and "Pittsburgh Courier," were turning Black officership into a public and reported issue. In spite of numerous examples of heroism and bravery, going into World War I, the central issues of whether African Americans would fight, and could they lead a fight, prevented many, especially in the south, from allowing African Americans to be combat soldiers and more specifically from being in charge of white Americans. The Niagara Movement of 1905, and its leadership of W.E.B. Du Bois, pushed America for full integration. The National Defense Authorization Act of 1916 was a recognition of America's need to widen its door for more Black officers. When Vertner Tandy of Cornell University passed the newly created officer test, the intellectual capacity questions began the crumbling of objective questioning, which A. Philip Randolph and the Tuskegee Airmen would resolve "in spades."
Elder Edward DuBose Chairman, NAACP Armed Services & Veterans Affairs Brigadier General Arnold Gordon-Bray (retired) Member, NAACP Armed Services & Veterans Affairs
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IN THE BEGINNING... 75TH ANNIVERSARY WOMEN’S ARMED SERVICES INTEGRATION ACT OF JUNE 12, 1948 We commemorate a significant milestone in history - the 75th anniversary of women in service. It is an honor to celebrate the remarkable contributions, resilience, and achievements of these extraordinary women who have shaped the course of our nation. Throughout the annals of history, women have always been the backbone of progress - our courage, determination, and indomitable spirit have propelled movements, broken barriers, and paved the way for future generations. Unfortunately, our contributions to the armed forces have often been overlooked or unacknowledged. Today, we seek to rectify this and pay tribute to our tremendous legacy. On this momentous occasion, we pay homage to the pioneering Black women and other women of color who decided to answer the call of duty during a time of intense racial segregation and inequality. In 1943, the United States established the Women's Army Corps (WAC) as a means to bolster its forces during World War II. It was a crucial step towards breaking down barriers in the military and providing much-needed opportunities for women to serve their country. After the signing of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, the act that granted women the right to serve as permanent members of the armed forces, Black women and other women of color courageously stepped forward, embracing the challenge and the opportunity to defend a nation that did not always fully embrace or recognize their worth. Despite facing discrimination, prejudice, and countless obstacles, those remarkable women rose above adversity and shattered ceilings with their unwavering dedication and commitment. From World War II to the conflicts of today, Black women and other women of color have served with distinction and honor in every branch of our armed forces. We have been leaders on the front lines, providing vital support as nurses, doctors, and medics. We have been intelligence analysts, engineers, pilots, and everything in between. Our service has made an immeasurable impact on our military's success and overall readiness. But wait, our contributions do not stop there. Black women and other women in service have also been champions of change and social justice. We have advocated for equality within the military and have been catalysts for progress in our society. Through our courage and resilience, we have helped break down barriers and create opportunities for others who follow in our footsteps. Our legacy continues to unfold as we witness Black women and other women of color ascending to positions of leadership in the military, becoming role models, and demonstrating excellence in their service. Through our diverse roles, we displayed unparalleled strength and tenacity in the face of adversity, reminding us all that diversity is a strength to be embraced. NAACP ASVA
As we reflect on this momentous occasion, let us reaffirm our commitment to equality, justice, and inclusivity within our armed forces and society. We must strive to amplify the voices of those who have been marginalized, ensuring that their stories and contributions are not forgotten, but told. Let us recommit ourselves to supporting and uplifting Black women and other women of color in service and beyond. Let us work together to eliminate discrimination and prejudice in all forms, ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to serve and succeed. By doing so, we not only honor the legacy of these remarkable women but also strengthen our military and our nation as a whole. I, a disabled combat female veteran, who has served 18 years of honorable service in the United States Navy, I salute you. We, members of the NAACP, salute you. Your sacrifice and dedication has shaped the course of our history, and your bravery, resilience, and unwavering commitment to our country inspire us all. You are a trailblazer, who has not only forged a path for yourself but also paved a way for others. Thank you for your service, your sacrifice, and for being a shining example of excellence and hope for future generations to come. Cheers to 75 years of women in service! May we continue to honor and celebrate the magnificent achievements of Black women and other women of color in service, not just today, but every day, as we move forward towards a more equitable and just society.
Dr. Antwanisha Williamson-Berlus Member, NAACP Armed Services & Veterans Affairs
Left: At the 44th NAACP Image Awards, the NAACP presented its prestigious Chairman’s Award to the U.S. Navy’s first female African American three-star admiral, Vice Adm. Michelle Howard, deputy commander of U.S. Fleet Forces. (February 2013) Right: NAACP ASVA Chairman Edward DuBose with Tanya J. Bradsher, sworn in to the position of Deputy Secretary of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, the 2nd highest leadership position in the Department, the first woman, and woman of color, to serve in the position. (September 19, 2023)
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merican history associates the terms honor, prestige and patriotism with performing service in defense of our country. While early historians depicted military service as an honorable and noble profession, racial and ethnic minority groups viewed military service as a means of securing full citizenship.
1914
Early on, the NAACP recognized the disparities in the military. In 1914, Private Samuel Anderson of Honolulu, a Black soldier, was wrongfully convicted of burglary, by court martial, and sentenced to five years in prison. NAACP founder Oswald Garrison Villard intervened with the Army's Judge Advocate General on behalf of the soldier and was able to gain his freedom.
1916
In 1916, West Point graduate, Major Charles Young, U.S. Army, was awarded the Spingarn medal for services in organizing the Liberian Constabulary and roads in the Republic of Liberia.
1917
Major Charles Young, Spingarn Medalist.
Following widespread rioting in Houston, Texas in which members of the all Black 24th Infantry were involved, the NAACP sent journalist and suffragette Martha Gruening to conduct an investigation. In her report, published in the November 1917 issue of The Crisis, she found that soldiers had been provoked into violence by widespread racial prejudice. Thirteen of the soldiers were summarily hanged on December 11. The NAACP continued its defense of the other 41 soldiers. When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Negroes in military services at home were entirely segregated, however, white soldiers commanded Negro troops. In the Navy, Negroes could serve only as cooks or messmen and were not allowed in the Marines or aviation units. In fact, the Army was the main branch of the military that utilized Negroes.
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With American participation in the war, no training provisions were made for Negro soldiers. The NAACP, along with students from Howard, Fisk, and Atlanta Universities, headed by NAACP Chairman Joel Spingarn along with W.E.B. Du Bois, editor of the NAACP’s publication, The Crisis, went to Washington, DC to lobby the War Depart-ment to organize a camp to train Black officers. Spingarn was told that if 200 Negroes of college grade could be secured, a training center would be established for them. Fifteen hundred names were collected. Although opposed to segregation in principle and In 1917, this poster was used by Howard University to recruit Negro soldiers. feeling that such a camp would only perpetuate segregation and validate theories of Black inferiority, the NAACP approved a proposal for a separate officers’ school on the grounds that such a school was in reality, "intended to fight segregation, not encourage it." In April, the NAACP was notified that this facility would open in June 17 in Des Moines, Iowa. When established, about 1,250 Black men enrolled to become officers. By October 1918, 639 Black officers were commissioned. During that period, over 1,300 were commissioned and 700,000 Black registered for the draft.
1918
In 1918, following the summary execution of 13 members of the 24th Infantry who had been accused of participating in the Houston riots, 16 more were condemned to die. Consequently, the NAACP collected 12,000 signatures on a petition which was presented to President Woodrow Wilson on February 19. An additional six soldiers were executed, making a total of 19 who perished as a result of this incident. During World War I, the NAACP created the Veterans Assistance Program to aid Black veterans in their demands for benefits.
1921
In 1921, the NAACP presented a petition signed by 50,000 persons to President Warren Harding requesting the pardon of soldiers from the 24th Infantry who had been imprisoned at Fort Leavenworth on charges arising from the Houston 1917 riots.
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We are returning from war! The Crisis and tens of thousands of black men were drafted into a great struggle. For bleeding France and what she means and has meant and will mean to us and humanity and against the threat of German race arrogance, we fought gladly and to the last drop of blood; for America and her highest ideals, we fought in far-off hope; for the dominant southern oligarchy entrenched in Washington, we fought in bitter resignation. For the America that represents and gloats in lynching, disfranchisement, caste, brutality and devilish insult—for this, in the hateful upturning and mixing of things, we were forced by vindictive fate to fight also. But today we return! We return from the slavery of uniform which the world’s madness demanded us to don to the freedom of civil garb. We stand again to look America squarely in the face and call a spade a spade. We sing: This country of ours, despite all its better souls have done and dreamed, is yet a shameful land. W.E.B DU BOIS, “RETURNING SOLDIERS,” THE CRISIS, MAY 1919
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1923
Five hundred fifty-eight delegates attending the September 1923 14th NAACP annual convention in Kansas City, Missouri, journeyed to Leavenworth Federal Prison in Kansas to visit 54 members of the 24th Infantry who had been convicted of rioting in the 1917 Houston riots. Led by NAACP Executive Secretary James Weldon Johnson, the delegates sought widespread support and November 11th was designated "Houston Martyrs' Day."
1924
The next year, 1924, President Calvin Coolidge received a delegation of 14 Negroes headed by James Weldon Johnson at the White House and presented him with a petition of 125,000 signatures requesting the release of the 24th Infantry soldiers from the Leavenworth prison. As a result of this long campaign started in 1917, the sentences of the men remaining in prison were reduced. Twenty of these men were released during the year. The NAACP won reductions for 55 soldiers.
1925
In 1925, 13 more members of the 24th Infantry were released; three of these soldiers had been sentenced to die and the others to life imprisonment. Twentytwo soldiers remained in prison.
1926-1937
During this period, the NAACP continued working with Negro veterans and active military addressing
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issues of discrimination surrounding recruitment, treatment on bases, treatment in medical facilities and benefits were frequently addressed. The NAACP lobbied for more benefits and participation for Negroes in the armed services. The NAACP addressed the ongoing indignities and brutalities against Negro soldiers of the 24th Infantry regiment at Fort Benning, Georgia, requesting that they be moved to a different base. The NAACP was asked to assist in making sure the 24th Infantry band would perform at NAACP Attorney Charles Hamilton Houston. the 1933 World’s Fair in Chicago, Illinois. The prize-winning band played at past World’s Fairs and brought a great deal of credit not only to the Negro soldier, but to the race. NAACP attorney Charles Hamilton Houston handled many of the issues confronting servicemen and veterans. He worked to ensure that soldiers of long service have the advantage of retiring in the highest enlisted grade if their service warranted.
1938
Thirteen years later, 1938, the last two Houston martyrs were freed from Leavenworth on April 18 after 21 years of imprisonment.
1940-1946
The Negro press continually headlined stories of racial insult and violence against the Negro soldier. As a result, the Department of Justice considered bringing charges of “sedition” against the newspapers. The NAACP called a conference of the editors of 24 of the largest Negro papers. The conference reached an agreement on procedures for presenting effective criticism, while at the same time reducing the likelihood of suppression by the government. The NAACP was also instrumental in securing needed quotas of newsprint for some of these papers.
1940
As the nation became more involved in World War II, the NAACP found it necessary to step up its efforts to end discrimination in the Armed Services and win justice for the
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Black servicemen. NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White, along with A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, and T. Arnold Hill, an executive officer with the National Youth Administration, led a series of nationwide demonstrations to publicize their opposition to segregation in the military. In response to such protests, the Roosevelt Administration promoted Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. of the 36th New York Infantry to Brigadier General, the first such office ever held by a Black man in the Army. William H. Hastie, dean of the Howard University Law School, was named a civilian aide to the Secretary of War. Major Campbell C. Johnson, an Army Reserve officer and former head of the Black YMCA branches in Washington, DC area, was named Administrative Assistant to the Selective Service Director. In July, the NAACP wrote 75 senators urging them to amend the Selective Service Act before its passage to provide for the drafting of Negroes into the Army and Navy without consideration of race. The Association, later in the year, urged its branches to seek the appointment of Negroes to local draft boards. Consequently, a greater number of Black people were appointed to draft boards than during World War I.
Walter White, activist and Secretary of NAACP, inspects information center at Kintzingen with General Lewis Beebe, Kitzingen, Germany, October 29, 1948.
NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White and Asa Philip Randolph, Founder, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters.
On September 9, the NAACP Board of Directors passed a resolution offering the NAACP’s legal services to any American who found it difficult to enlist in the Army or Navy because of race or color. (Left) Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. (Right) NAACP attorney William H. Hastie. The Negro in National Defense— NAACP Conference, Houston, Texas, June 24–29, 1941]—Fight Now for Action. Poster. NAACP ASVA
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1941
During World War II, President Roosevelt responded to complaints about dis-crimination at home against African Americans. NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White assisted labor leader A. Philip Randolph in pressing for a Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC). Randolph threatened to organize a large march on Washington, D.C. Roosevelt recognized that the presence of possibly 100,000 or more protesters in the capital could be embarrassing and would distract attention from more pressing matters. President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 in June 1941 prohibiting government contractors from engaging in employment discrimination based on race, color, or natural origin. Executive Order 8802, the first presidential action ever taken to prevent employment discrimination by private employers holding government contracts, directed that African Americans in the military be accepted into job-training programs in defense plants, forbidding discrimination by defense contractors, and established a FEPC. While the order applied to all defense contactors, it contained no enforcement authority. President Roosevelt signed the Executive Order to prevent any strikes or demonstrations from disrupting the manufacture of military supplies. At Fort Benning, Georgia, the body of a Black soldier was found hanging from a tree in a wooded area. Four months later, in August, Black soldiers riding a bus to Fort Bragg were stoned and one was shot. After the Fort Bragg incident, 40 members of the 94th Engineers Division went AWOL from Camp Robinson, Arkansas in protest over insults and threats by state troopers. The NAACP protested the War Department about these acts of violence and many other forms of discrimination that Black soldiers experienced. The Navy continued to refuse to enlist Negroes in any category other than messmen. In the spring of 1941, NAACP attorneys met in Washington, DC to plan legal action against the various racial restrictions in both civilian and military phases of the NAACP ASVA
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defense program. The bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii by the Japanese on December 7th interrupted the call to action. The NAACP called for the support of all Negroes to fight for victory. The NAACP called for the support of all Negro citizens to fight for victory. Doris "Dorie" Miller, a Black Navy mess attendant who, with no training, manned a 50 caliber Browning anti-aircraft machine gun and shot down several Japanese planes during the Pearl Harbor attack, after pressure, was commended by the Secretary of the Navy for his bravery and awarded the Navy Cross. He was the first American hero of World War II. Miller stated, “It wasn’t hard. I just pulled the trigger and she worked fine. I had watched the others with these guns.” By a 2011 Resolution, the NAACP led the call for Miller to be awarded the Medal of Honor. This effort was revived late 2022 by Linda Thomas, former president of the NAACP Virginia State Conference.
Doris Miller, the first Black winner of the Navy Cross and the first American hero of WWII.
1942
The NAACP repeated to U.S. Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall its proposal that the Army establish a volunteer division that was free of segregation and discrimination. Other protests against segregation continued. The Navy modified its practice of restricting Black enlisted men to the mess hall. The NAACP still protested the new policy as racially restrictive since they were generally barred from serving on ships as sailors, gunners and technicians. Although Negroes were accepted in the Navy for general service, a separate compound for their training was established and named Camp Robert Smalls (after the Negro hero of the civil war) at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station in Illinois. This same year, the Marines began training Negroes and had accepted 16,000 by the war’s end. They were confined to construction work or menial jobs. With the establishment of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WACs) and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), the NAACP demanded that
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enlistments and assignments should not be based on color. The WACs and WAVES accepted limited numbers of Negro women. Harriet Pickens, daughter of William Pickens, NAACP Director of Branches, became the Navy’s first Negro woman Lieutenant.
(Left) April 1945 cover of The Crisis featuring Navy WAVES. (Right) WAVES Harriet Pickens, daughter of NAACP official William Pickens (left) and Francis Wills were Navy's only two Black female officers.
Although this period saw an increase in the number of Negroes serving on local draft boards and in civilian advisory capacities in Washington, DC, the NAACP was called upon again and again regarding discrimination in recruitment, mistreatment during military training because of race and failure to promote Negro servicemen because of color. While whites needed only score 15 on the Army qualification test, a score of 39 was required of Negroes. The NAACP protested the Secretary of War but the ruling was not changed. As families and friends were informed of the injustices faced by Negro soldiers, anger was stirring. To some whites, the thought of a Negro in uniform was infuriating. Emotions escalated into rioting and the worst took place in Detroit where the NAACP branch was the largest in the country with nearly 12,000 members. The second day of rioting, NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White asked Governor Van Wagoner of Michigan to call in troops and also called the War Department. The calls led to the patrolling of 6,000 federal and state troopers. Trouble mounted again when city officers and state troopers invaded the Negro St.
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Antoine YMCA, lined everyone against the wall, beat some and shot one man who they charged “reached for his pocket.” The NAACP Detroit Branch, aided by NAACP national staff Thurgood Marshall, Lucille Black and Daisy Lampkin, set up a relief and counseling headquarters in the basement of the Negro YMCA. Walter White described the streams of bruised, battered and angry Negroes as looking like “bombed out victims of Nazi terror in Europe.” As attorney Marshall sought to have the local police punished for their brutality and hostility toward Negroes, no Detroit policeman was ever so much as reprimanded. Riots erupted one month later in Harlem where Walter White was almost mobbed because of his light skin. The cause of the riot was a rumor that a white policeman had killed a Negro soldier in the Braddock Hotel. In an attempt to solve some of the racial problems here, the citywide Citizens Committee on Harlem was formed. Algernon Black, head of the New York Society of Ethical Culture and who served as NAACP vice president from 1950-1966 and Walter White were co-chairmen. The group functioned for several years with the NAACP and National Urban League and was able to bring about vitally needed improvements.
Executive Secretary Walter White on war tour playing with children.
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During 1942, the NAACP maintained strong opposition to the creation of a Jim Crow blood bank by the American Red Cross and fought the creation of segregated service clubs by the Red Cross.
1943
Job opportunities and racial discrimination in the Armed Services were the principal concerns this year. The NAACP repeated its demands that the War Department establish a mixed voluntary unit. Other actions included protesting the exclusion of Negroes from Army and Navy specialized programs that were being offered in colleges and defending several soldiers convicted on various charges. The first liberty ship named for an African American, the George Washington Carver, was launched from a New Jersey shipyard to begin its career carrying war cargo to Europe during World War II. The USS Harmon became the first fighting ship to be named for a Black man. In 1943, William Hastie, who worked with Thurgood Marshall and others to craft the Brown v. Board of Education case, resigned as civilian aide to the Secretary of War in protest to the continuing discrimination. The NAACP published his carefully documented charges and criticisms of official policy in a pamphlet. His charges were helpful in eventually effecting reforms in postwar years.
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1944
NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White spent three months touring the European and Mediterranean Theatres to observe the U.S. war machine in operation. Upon his return to the United States, he submitted to the War Department, a 14-point memorandum in which he made recommendations for improving opportunities for Black soldiers. Two of his recommendations were that the services create nonsegregated bomber crews and a special court martial review board. He left in December for a similar tour in the Pacific Theatre. On Christmas Eve of 1944, a group of Negro sailors on liberty passes were driven out of a recreation area by gunfire by whites. On Christmas day, a Negro was killed and another wounded. Only Negroes were arrested as military theory dictated that when racial trouble developed, the Negroes were always at fault. MP’s made mass arrests at Negro barracks. The NAACP secured the freedom of these soldiers by appealing to President Roosevelt and the War Department. Appeals for help from the NAACP were coming from Negro soldiers from the Avare France combat area. NAACP representatives went to Europe, Pacific, and African Theatres of War to investigate, talk with military commanders and discuss how to ameliorate the racial situations.
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The restriction of Black seamen to shore duty was ended as was the excluding of Blacks from the Coast Guard and Marine Corps. The War Department officially ended segregation in all Army posts but the order was widely ignored. Grateful service men and women acknowledged their appreciation for the NAACP’s work through contributions to the NAACP. NAACP co-founder, journalist and suffragist Mary White Ovington wrote, “it was then that the NAACP became an international organization.” An October 9, 1944 memo from NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White requested support to add a Secretary of Veterans Affairs to the NAACP staff. The position would be located in the Washington Bureau since the Veterans Administration was located in Washington, DC. He stated that "Negro soldiers have sent $50, 814.04 since Pearl Harbor" to the NAACP. White stated that this department will assure soldiers' justice and opportunity after the war. And this act would be an "adequate and appropriate return for the generosity of soldiers." On October 11, 1944, the NAACP "VOTED, That the N.A.A.C.P. add to its Staff as soon as possible a Secretary of Veterans' Affairs. The duties of such a Secretary would be to handle all matters which might be referred to the Association to assure Negro veterans their full rights under the G. I. Bill of Rights and any other legislative and administrative machinery which may be established." The NAACP Veterans Affairs Department was established in 1944 with Captain Jesse Dedmon, Jr, Trial Judge Advocated, Camp Claiborne, serving as the first Secretary of Veterans Affairs. Because of his experience as, a soldier and officer, fortified by his legal training, receiving his law degree from Howard University, Dedmon was recommended for the position and hired December 21, 194. In an April 1945 memo, Dedmon outlined the functions of the newly established department: Specialize in legislation and laws affecting veterans directly or indirectly relative to employment, housing, hospitalizing, education and benefits. Secure and examine immediately upon introduction in Congress all bills and resolutions which may effect the NAACP ASVA
Captain Jesse Dedmon, Jr., first NAACP director of Veterans Affairs.
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welfare of Negro Veterans and refer same to director or Washington Bureau for action. Prepare, check and document written memoranda briefs to support legislation which will improve the lot of Negro veterans and oppose legislation which will injure the Negro veteran and present same when to Congressional committees in public hearings. See that branches organize veterans committees to familiarize veterans with procedure to be followed to get loans, benefits, jobs and hospitalization in local communities. Prepare and distribute at such periods as may be deemed most effective, mimeographed or printed material advising branches in change in laws affecting veterans. Bureau of Information for veterans. Make personal contacts with heads of departments having to do with heads of departments having to do with administering of veterans benefits. Keep a complete file on laws affecting veterans. To cooperate with, as far as possible, other agencies interested in same objective. To handle only matters pertaining to veterans, unless directed to do otherwise by Secretary. In addition to the above described functions, the Veterans Bureau will serve the general public: As a center of information on material issues affecting Negro veterans. As a source of information to veterans and their families seeking information on government in the solution of their problems. Receive and act on complaints relative to denial of benefits in local areas which can be remedied by federal action.
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1945
A quote from Walter White’s book, A Rising Wind read: “Negro soldiers proved what his people back home knew all along – that he could fight with all the weapons against the best the enemy had to offer. He flew fighter planes escorting bombers, and fighter bombers against enemy communications; he fought light, medium and heavy artillery, one unit winning a Presidential citation; he fought tanks and tank destroyers; he fought antiaircraft guns; he fought mortars, machine guns, bazookas, carbines, automatic rifles. In the closing weeks of the war in Germany, he was finally given the chance for which he had been begging, to fight side by side with his white fellow Americans in the same units…it is to be hoped that the performance of our soldiers in Europe will move the War Department to abolish the color line in the Army.” Continuing its attack on discrimination against Black soldiers, the NAACP demanded that the Veterans Administration end hospital segregation and other forms of racial bias. The NAACP fought to free 50 seamen who had been convicted of mutiny at Port Chicago, California, and had the convictions reversed of 52 soldiers who had also been convicted of munity in Hawaii where they were stationed. From 1945-1946, Battalion 6888 operated. The 6888th was a multi-ethnic female unit that was predominantly Black with at least one Puerto Rican and one Mexican woman. It is recognized that during that time, the Army, not President Franklin D. Roosevelt, designated the unit as "Colored" or "Negro," the more acceptable term for our race at the time. The unit consisted of 855 women under the Command of Major Charity Adams, Captains Mary F. Kearney and Bernice G. Henderson. The battalion’s mission was to sort and clear the two-plus year back log of mail in the European
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Theatre of Operations (ETO) in Birmingham, England, Rouen, and Paris. They worked in cold, dirty, dark and rat infested aircraft hangars with broken windows. Their nickname was “Six-Triple Eight" and their motto was “No Mail, Low Morale.”
1946
The NAACP made some progress in its fight against discrimination in the Veterans Administration. These positive steps included the hiring of a Black assistant to the administrator, the certification of a veteran for educational benefits to attend Harvard University and the admitting of Negro patients by 11 to 22 veterans hospitals that had previously refused to do so. The NAACP condemned those voluntary and quasi-segregated veterans organizations that practiced Jim Crow in their organizational set-up and the activities of veterans organizations such as the American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars that discriminate, participate in or lend their support to undemocratic practices or legislation. The NAACP committed to obtaining educational rights for Negro veterans under the GI Bill of Rights on an integrated basis. This Bill included improved opportunities for the training and placement of Negro officers in each of the armed services. The NAACP supported the enactment of whatever legislation necessary and the establishment of new programs to ensure that all veterans, regardless of previous educational experience, would have the opportunity to obtain a college education, including whatever preparatory education necessary in this regard. The arrest, beating and blinding of African THE ARREST, BEATING, & BLINDING American veteran Isaac Woodard by OF SERGEANT ISAAC WOODARD Batesburg, South Carolina police on CHANGED THE COURSE OF February 12, 1946—hours after he was AMERICA’S CIVIL RIGHTS HISTORY honorably discharged from the United States Army, and while still in uniform— caused a national furor and helped inspire President Harry Truman's move to desegregate the military. Chief Lynwood Shull jammed the ends of his Blackjack into Mr. Woodard’s eyes, at one point striking him so violently that the stick broke. Under pressure from the NAACP, the federal
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government eventually charged Chief Shull for the attack on Mr. Woodard, but after deliberating for 30 minutes, the jury acquitted Shull of any wrongdoing. In December 1946, after meeting with NAACP Executive Secretary Walter White and other leaders of the NAACP, and a month after the jury acquitted the accused in the arrest, beating and blinding of Isaac Woodard, Truman established the Civil Rights Commission by Executive Order 9808; a fifteen-member, interracial group, including the President of General Electric, Charles E. Wilson; Sadie Tanner Alexander, a Black attorney for the city of Philadelphia and Channing Heggie Tobias, NAACP board member and later Chairman; and other activists.
1947
Three bodies appointed by the President Harry S. Truman: Commission on Higher Education; the Civil Rights committee; and the Advisory Commission on Military Training, further clarified the government’s policies on race. The Civil Rights Committee was particularly significant to the NAACP since it was the direct result of a meeting between President Truman and civil rights groups of which the NAACP was the leader. John Lee of Indianapolis, Indiana, became the first Black commissioned officer in the United States Navy. His assignment upon being commissioned was on the USS Kearsage. In 1947, the NAACP passed the following Resolutions: National and State Guards: That the Secretary of War immediately promulgate a war Department regulation to completely integrate Negroes in all federally recognized National Guard Units without regard to race or color. That the governors be urged to abolish segregated state guards in their states. U.S. Army: That the Gillem Report (a report which adopted integration as a long-term goal, recommended that qualified Black soldiers be included in special and overhead units and that Black officers be assigned the same tasks as white officers) be amended to effectuate full integration of all citizens on an individual basis in the United States Army, and that the announced policy of the War Department hereafter be one of unalterable opposition to segregation or discrimination in any of its units or branches. Veterans Administration: Condemnation of the present practice of the Veterans Administration in establishing segregated hospitals and applying a policy of segregation and discrimination in its relations with veterans in any of
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its facilities and in its personnel practices. Universal Military Training: Opposition to peace time military training. In June, President Truman, addressing the NAACP 38th Annual Conference in Washington, DC, declared, “We can no longer afford the luxury of a leisurely attack upon prejudice and discrimination.” Thereby focusing the Federal Government’s attention toward civil rights reforms.
1948 The NAACP succeeded in having President Harry S. Truman issue Executive Order No. 9980 prohibiting racial discrimination in federal service. Although the practice did not end, at least 18 agencies established procedures for handling complaints by the end of the year. On July 26, President Truman issued Executive Order No. 9981 which established the Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces. This Order did not meet the NAACP’s demand for an end to racial desegregation in the military but it was viewed as a step in the right direction.
EXECUTIVE ORDER 9981
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Chronological Account of the NAACP’s Fight For an Executive Order Against Discrimination in Federal Employment December 30, 1946 After describing cases of government discrimination handled during the year, the Annual Report of the NAACP Labor Secretary made the following statement: “Wherever our flag flies over a Federal establishment there also do we find job discrimination. From occupied Germany to Japan, the American pattern of discrimination is in full force and effect. A conference with the President on this problem is most essential. The White House must issue, and provide for the policing of, a stern order against discrimination because of race.”
January 31, 1947 The NAACP’s Labor Department requested that the Civil Service Commission, because of weaknesses in regulations then in effect, devise a plan for overall action against discrimination in government employment. The Commission stated that it would handle individual cases, but declined to plan any overall strategy.
February 24, 1947 The United Public Workers of the CIO agreed with an NAACP proposal that the problem of discrimination in government be attacked on an overall basis by as executive order against discrimination in Federal employment.
April 17, 1947 Walter White appeared before the President’s Committee on Civil Rights. He urged that the committee recommend to President Truman that there be established an FEPC for Federal employees. The Committee’s report issued on October 29, 1947 contained this recommendation.
April 21, 1947 In a letter to President Truman, Mr. White called for the issuance of an executive order to halt discrimination which he contended was forcing colored people back into prewar discriminatory patterns in government employment.
May 21, 1947 Roy Wilkins wrote to President Truman reminding him of the communication of April 21 from Mr. White and offered as one example of treatment accorded Negroes the following: “We have affidavits from fifteen honorably discharged veterans who charge that they were denied employment in the New Orleans Post Office solely because of their race. One had an examination average of 100.2. Others were in the high 90 and 80 brackets.”
October 31, 1947 The NAACP Labor Department released a report on complaints involving more than two hundred persons who were the victims of discrimination because of race in twelve major government agencies. In addition to citing instances showing refusal to employ persons, the report also stated that “in one agency, colored employees were forced to work on a floor below the subbasement where they had considerable trouble battling rats.” NAACP ASVA
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November 14, 1947 The NAACP Labor Secretary met with key government officials to draw up a proposed executive order which was circulated among friendly heads of departments to enlist their support in influencing the President.
January 14, 1948 Secretary Lewis B. Schwellenbach of the U.S. Department of Labor agreed in a meeting with NAACP representatives that he would urge the President to issue the executive order.
January 28, 1948 The President was asked by Walter White to include in his Civil Rights message to Congress a statement against discrimination in the Federal government itself. Mr. White recommended that the President issue a strong executive order on this subject.
February 2, 1948 The President in his message to the Congress on civil rights legislation promised that he would issue an executive order.
February 10, 1948 The NAACP Labor Secretary met with Dean George Johnson of the Howard University Law School, and members of the faculty to discuss a draft of the NAACP’s proposal on what a Federal executive order against discrimination should include.
March 24, 1948 The NAACP Labor Secretary testified before the Civil Service Commission that in one southern city 80% of the persons rejected by a Federal agency were colored. One Applicant had been rejected sixteen times by various agencies in that city and another twenty-one times, although both were among the top people on the registers and each had extensive qualifying experience.
April 1, 1948 The NAACP recommendations on the content of the executive order were submitted to the White House by the Labor Secretary during a conference.
April 7, 1948 Walter White, in a letter to President Truman, called upon him to issue a “ringing declaration prohibiting unfair practices in the Federal Government and underscore your determination to stand firm against those who are seeking to turn the fight for freedom into a retreat to reaction.”
April 9, 1948 Oscar Ewing, Federal Security Administrator, was asked by Walter White to support the NAACP’s effort to obtain the issuance of the executive order.
April 20, 1948 U.S. Attorney General Tom Clark was requested by Walter White to work for the immediate issuance of the order.
April 23, 1948 The NAACP Labor Secretary met with Julius A. Krug, Secretary of the Department of Interior, who pledged that he would urge the President to issue the order.
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May 10, 1948 The NAACP Labor Secretary met with Charles F. Brannan, who in a few days thereafter, assumed the post of Secretary of Agriculture. Mr. Brannan also pledged his support for the order.
May 18, 1948 A meeting was arranged by Walter White with Oscar Ewing, Federal Security Administrator, and close advisor of the President. Those present were Channing Tobias, Director of the Phelps-Stokes Fund; Mrs. Mary McLeod Bethune, President of the National Council of Negro Women; George L.P. Weaver, Director of the National CIO Committee to Abolish Discrimination; and Clarence Mitchell, NAACP Labor Secretary. Lester B. Granger, Executive Secretary of the National Urban League, was not present, but sent a letter urging issuance of the executive order. Mr. Ewing again stated his support of the order and assured the committee that it would be issued.
June 27, 1948 In the closing speech of the National Conference, Walter White called upon the President to take the first step to implement the civil rights report by issuing an executive order against discrimination in Federal employment.
Rev. 9/2023 NAACP.ORG
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