L ANDSCAPE
OF
G HATS
a study through the ghats of Varanasi and Mathura
Varanas
M
I
Dissertation by Aanchal Vidyasagar
athura
PREFACE Landscape is a place, landscapes make up places, and places may include diverse landscapes. (Cartier 2005: 4) A landscape is what adorns the land, air and water. Besides what is natural and man-made, the landscape also includes people and the precipitates of experience within them. The precipitate, of course is in the subconscious, often without a rhyme or a reason. the landscape seems to change with the changed perception of it.
Temporal and spatial boundaries dissolve as time stands still and space flows between earthly and heavenly realm, blurring their distinction. The illumination of monuments and artworks at night means creating orientation points that are visible from a distance and bringing history and culture to light.
Routine activities in such places yield constant delight, because of the ever changing scene of seasons, light, weather, people, sounds and smells. Character of spaces found in participatory landscapes possess a hierarchy, a fractal quality of subdivision into various sizes and proportions a varying sense of enclosure and openness, all defined by edges and zones of transition.
A completely new set of permutations emerge each time we try to unravel the folds of the past in a city, in an effort to give it a contemporary interpretation for maintaining its relevance in changed time. Designs provide structure, form, text, context and meaning to social and cultural life.
Natural materials (ghats of stone) age beautifully with time. Objects are static Their reflected images are dynamic Overlays of interpretations Ghats are metaphors of transcendence.
Imprint of culture on land. Inter-relationships between places, events, people and setting over time. Landscapes reveal social history and are thereby able to arouse associative values related to knowledge of past events, people and places over time.
(transcendence means going beyond)
Nature shaped humans and in turn humans shaped nature.
Experience A cacophony of sounds that included rhymes, the holy dips, songs of boatmen, wails full of sorrow, ringing bells, and crackling wood fire, patterns of movement which beat any logic and disturbed notions of scale, textures of surfaces-of the ghats and ripples of water, a fusion of smells- pleasant and unpleasant and so on……..
Over time the interaction of the sacred geography of faith and its secular supports – with the physical geography of place – binds people, place and culture faith to shape the unique Indian Cultural Landscape.
Chapter C
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ABSTRACT The landscape of this interface—Ghats (stepped embankments) lined by temples and other public buildings, pavilions, kunds (tanks), streets and plazas—is layered and kinetic, and is responsive to the river’s flow. River Yamuna flowing through the northern India figures prominently in the visual and performing arts of
M
athura
a cultural landscape associated
with the life of young Krishna, the Hindu god. This cultural heritage is sustained by ritual behaviors that commemorate her mythic role in bathing, worshipping, and circumambulating the land-water interface of steps known as ghats. The landscape of ghats includes temples and shrines facing the river. Built and rebuilt over centuries. Ghats facilitate bathing in and worshipping of Yamuna, are part of visual culture of Mathura. Their dilapidation in recent times and pollution of the river is resulting in a steady loss of heritage and weakening of ties that bind the community with the river.
Varanas
I
is the mosaic of Indian culture with respect to
representing the diversity and the distinctiveness of the regional cultures of India through superimposition in the passage of time. It dates back to the 14th century. Here the Ganga reverses its flow northwards; the Ghats describe a crescent sweep in a 6.8 km stretch. The riverfront and the long uninterrupted stretch of 84 ghats is the façade of the architectural zone being proposed for inscription in the World Heritage List of UNESCO. Chapter D
Figures clockwise from top left:
Painting depicting temple skyline of Varanasi, Evening Aarti on the Varanasi ghats, Ghat in Mathura Keywords: context, religious identity, architecture of Ghats, changes over time, management for preservation, open spaces, public response vi
ABSTRACT The riverfront at this bend consists of a number of structures called individually as ‘Ghat’(a plaza with steps leading to water) that act as urban edge linking water with the land. People traditionally use the ghats for Hindu religious rituals, socio-cultural performances and as recreational promenade.
The ambience, or character, of these landscapes depends both on the nature of their components and attributes and on relationships among elements how they are ordered or organized. Moreover, the processes whereby this organization occurs and landscapes arise are important in understanding of the landscapes of ghats. Scope: This dissertation demonstrates the architectural (interface – ghats), religious and sociocultural aspects of the landscapes of Mathura and Varanasi; making it an important ‘place’ in the world, with an end note of issues identified on these sites which need to be addressed. Objectives: Landscape of Ghats needs to be understood analytically in terms of: • when did they emerge • what they are • what their components are • what processes were used to translate their underlying scheme into landscape forms • why they are the way they are, • how and why landscapes are subject to change • how they can be conceptualized • how the actions of individuals add up
Meanings and Values
Evolution: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Scale and Functions: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements Understanding: Present Scenario
Role of Landscape Architect
Figure : “Ghatscapes”: Methodology adopted for the study design intentions Chapter D
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CONTENTS #
Particulars
A
Certificate
iii
B
Acknowledgement
iv
C
Preface
v
D
Abstract
F
List of Illustrations
Chap. 1
Introduction: Meanings and Values
10 - 11
1.1
Landscape of Ghats
12 - 13
1.2
Varanasi
14 – 16
1.3
Mathura
17 – 19
Chap. 2
Evolution: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
Page No.
vi - vii ix
20
2.1
Varanasi
21 – 26
2.2
Mathura
27 - 39
Chap. 3
Scale and Functions: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements
40
3.1
Varanasi
41 – 44
3.2
Mathura
45 – 48
Chap. 4
Understanding: Present Scenario
49 – 51
Chap. 5
Role of Landscape Architect
52 – 55
Chap. 6
“Ghatscapes”: design intentions
56 – 59
Chap. 7
Author’s Note
G
Bibliography
H
Appendix
Chapter E
60 xviii – xix xx - xxi viii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Painting depicting Temple skyline of Varanasi Evening Aarti on the Varanasi ghats Ghat in Mathura Methodology adopted for the study Interactive Phenomenon of Landscape Cultural Landscape Paradigm Map on India showing location of Mathura (in Braj region) and Varanasi The Ganga Basin Painting : Ghats in Benares by Aditi Swaminathan Map of Varanasi: UNESCO World Heritage Sites Assi Ghat, Varanasi Varanasi 1890 Painting : Along the Ghats i by Edwin Lord Weeks Vishram Ghat along River Yamuna, Mathura Map of Mathura Vishram Ghat, Mathura Table: Observations of the River Yamuna Manikarnika Ghat, 1869 – 2014 Varanasi – panorama between Assi Ghat and Panchganga Ghat Varanasi – panorama between Dasasswamedh Ghat and Ganesh Ghat Ganga River Pattern - Seasonal Variation Timeline showing historic images of ghats and existing vocabulary Important Sites in Mathura Map showing Vishram Ghat, Mathura Plan of Vishram Ghat, Mathura Syncretic Architecture Vishram Ghat, Mathura Masonry wells as foundation piles in Vrindavan Plan showing the Varanasi Ghat Stretch Cycle of festivals on Ghats in Varanasi Table: Numbers of Visitors to Asi Ghat Section across Dasashwamedh Ghat Riverfront Varanasi: Ahilyabad to Shitala Ghats Section across Assi Ghat
Chapter F
• Visual Sequences o Radhe Shyam Ashram Ghat o Dandi Swami Ghat o Bengali Ghat o Madan Mohan Ghat o Prayag Ghat o Shringar Ghat o Raja Ghat o Vishram Ghat o Sakarkunj Ghat o Asiakunda Ghat o Varahkshetra Ghat o Rani Ghat • Section across Anandma Ghat • Varanasi Ghat Stretch - Journey commences from the Assi Ghat • Section across Hanuman Ghat • Steps • Varanasi Ghat Stretch - Vegetation Cover • Vocabulary • Diagrammatic section on the river bed in Benares, not to scale • Open Space, Map of Mathura • Land - use pattern and density analysis • Activities • Rituals at Vishram Ghat, Mathura • Narrow Passages, Varanasi • Built Elements, Mathura • Sand belt on the Eastern bank of River Ganga, Varanasi • Cross-section at Lalita Ghat
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values 1.0
Cultural Traditions
Traditions are a continuing process. Ever changing, adopting and absorbing the new realities of time. Cultural traditions are function of space, time and mind. There are three layers of Cultural traditions. Eco - Culture
Modern Traditions Historic
invariably found as overlapping layers in all groups, societies, nations, regions and individual persons in different ways and mixes.
Landscape as Cultural Construct Way of seeing Association of Ideas Meanings
This layered imprint of the cultural traditions is the under lying force for all designers, development planners and architects towards creative, healthy man made environment.
Physical Components
Activities
Spatial Phenomenon
Political Phenomenon
IDENTITY Figure : Interactive Phenomenon of Landscape Chapter 1.0
Ideological Values
Symbols/ Meanings 8
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values 1.1
Landscape of Ghats
One of our deepest needs is for a sense of identity and belonging. A common denominator in this is human attachment to landscape and how we find identity in landscape and place. Landscape therefore is not simply what we see, but a way of seeing: we see it with our eye but interpret it with our mind and ascribe values to landscape for intangible – spiritual – reasons. Landscape can therefore be seen as a cultural construct in which our sense of place and memories inhere. The past lives on in art and memory, but it is not static: it shifts and changes as the present throws its shadow backwards. The landscape also changes ,but far more slowly; it is a living link between what we were and what we have become a continuity between the shifting phases of our life. landscapes are at the interface of culture and nature, tangible and intangible heritage, biological and cultural diversity – they represent a closely woven net of relationships, the essence of culture and people’s identity … they are a symbol of the growing recognition of the fundamental links between local communities and their heritage, humankind and its natural environment. (Rössler 2006). Landscapes are a part of a nation’s heritage and are narratives of the by-gone era Cultural Landscapes Chapter 1.1
Figure : Cultural Landscape Paradigm 9
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values
Varanasi
Figure : The Ganga Basin Varanasi is clearly an ancient and powerful religious place. Varanasi sits between the Varana (Averter) and Assi (sword) rivers, both rivers perpendicular to the Ganges, the Varana running into the Ganges on the north and the Assi joining it to the South. The City of Light claims to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world. India’s holiest Hindu pilgrimage site, it is home of some famous ghats (stepped embankments) along the Ganges where pilgrims bathe.
Figure : Map on India showing location of Mathura (in Braj region) and Varanasi Chapter 1.1
The Yamuna originates from the Yamnotri glacier in the Lower Himalaya at an elevation of about 6380 m above sea level. The river with its total flow length of 1376 km travels through a number of historical, religious and large cities, viz. Delhi, Fariadabad, Vrindaban, Mathura, Agra, Kalpi and Allahabad where it merges into the Ganga. 10
Varanas Painting : Ghats in Benares by Aditi Swaminathan
I
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values 1.2
Varanasi
Most of the present architectural buildings of were constructed during the 17th century. What brings hoards of people to this place is the anonymous collection of buildings in a row and the Ghats which are stepped terraces on the banks of the Ganga River that weave a religious spell. The banks of a river are considered sacred and terraces or steps are built there. These steps that lead into the river are called Ghats. Ghats (stairways to the riverbank), the crescent-shaped 6.8km bank of the Ganga river (Ganges), from the confluence of Asi drain in the south to the confluence of the Varana river in the north, where lies eighty-four ghats which are marked by lofty palatial buildings built mostly by kings and lords from different parts of India between eighteenth and twentieth centuries.
The river Ganga at Kashi reflects the entire panorama of life and death. The 6.5 km (4 miles) long riverfront of the Ganga, along the eastern edge of the city, possesses a unique history, with a view of magnificent architectural row of lofty buildings and holy sites. The steps of the Ghats lead to narrow lanes like labyrinths, which are tightly packed with houses, shops, temples.
Layers of time and traditions are superimposed one upon the other but the essence of the life has maintained its continuity. That is how the city is known as the ‘cultural capital of India’, or microcosmic India. Figure : Map of Varanasi: UNESCO World Heritage SItes
Chapter 1.2
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INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values Sherring says, “For picturesqueness and grandeur, no sight in all the world can well surpass that of Benaras as from the river Ganges”. Varanasi where the drama and the interplay of the river and ghats leading into an ancient city, is a rare and unique living expression of the religious and cultural importance of the Ganges. A maze of lanes and byelanes flanking enormous dark mansions and standing check and jowl with innumerable houses of worship that probably dates back to centuries. The dark lanes dramatically open on to ghats which resemble a majestic podium stepping down to meet the rippling water. On the other end, the podiums hit the gigantic edifices which are the ghat structures visible from a long distance and characterized by its distinctive architectural style. Figure: Assi Ghat, Varanasi
Illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time under the influence of the physical constraint or opportunity presented by the natural environment and of successive social, economic social and cultural forces.
“Landscape architecture deals with time and focus on process, transformation and duration.
Combined works of nature and mankind, they express a long and intimate relationship between people and their environment.
Landscape architecture contributes to shape the world in constant flux and evolution.”
The ephemeral responsive nature of reflection effect challenges people’s visual perception, generates curiosity, invites touch and promotes people-place relationship. Figure: Varanasi 1890 Chapter 1.2
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Painting : Along the Ghats i by Edwin Lord Weeks
M athura
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values 1.3
Mathura
A densely populated, medieval city that hosts most of the Braj pilgrimage and thus suffers many of the effects of that pilgrimage traffic. Hinduism, with its unique religious association with rivers, has engandered numerous sacred waterfronts in various parts of India. In Mathura, there is Vishram Ghat (Vishram= rest, ghat= steps along a river), a site of high cultural and religious significance that is among the most visited sites by pilgrims and visitors from all over India. The water of Yamuna is supposed to be both pure and purifying, and hence, this site also is important for ritualistic bathing and offerings. The Mathura ‘parikrama’ or circumambulation begins at Vishram Ghat and moves northwards The ‘Vishram Ghat’, a sacred riverfront in India on the banks of river Yamuna at Mathura that is considered to be the birth place of the Hindu God Krishna. Every year it attracts millions of visitors, a large number of whom are domestic pilgrims from Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Gujarat. Presently, this site is in a dilapidated state and the tourism pressure on it is ever increasing, with serious impacts on the health of the sacred river Yamuna. It is a prime religious destination, with the religious practices themselves contributing to environmental pollution. To resolve the conflict between usage and conservation, this site requires immediate attention.
Figure : Vishram Ghat along River Yamuna, Mathura
Chapter 1.3
15
INTRODUCTION: Meanings and Values 1.3
Mathura
An associative landscape – a stage for early and childhood years of Krishna’s life.
Figure : Map of Mathura
Figure : Vishram Ghat, Mathura Chapter 1.3
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Chapter 2
EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale In the Indian ethos, geography has always been more than just a setting of hills, rivers and forests. It can be better perceived through its cultural understanding shared by communities. The geography formed the canvas against which the Indian traditional perspectives and knowledge are conceptualized, practiced and celebrated. It also forms the context where man interacts with his surrounds based on a holistic knowledge of nature with both sacred and secular underpinnings.
Each ghat has its own story. The act of experiencing or connecting with the sacred entity is called ‘darshan.’ It is a mutual gaze between the deity and the devotee. This concept can be extrapolated to define the experiential quality of the ghat landscape. Most of the rituals involve orientation, focus and viewing. The unique crescent shaped arc of the Ganga river has attracted people from various parts of India to come, settled and make their own distinct block along the 7km bank of the river as clearly visualized in the architectural grandeur and the cultural landscapes.
Symbolism:
Over time the ghats become witnesses and narrators of events and rituals. The ghats also symbolize the end of a journey. There is no further to go. This is where time and space dissolve, into an abyss of universality. The ghat architecture responds to the changing water levels of the Ganga. The lower floors of palaces are opaque and built solid with octagonal or circular towers to resist the thrust of the rising waters. These are aligned with square, rectangular, octagonal, and circular platforms built over well foundations that divide the steps into bays and protect them from erosion. The riverfront becomes greener towards the north with unbuilt embankments and greater tree cover.
The existence of 84 ghats (stairways) along the Ganga river symbolises archetypal connotations, e.g. 12 division of time x 7 cakra (sheaths), or layers in the atmosphere; like the number 84 refers to 84 lacs (hundred thousands) or the organic species as described in Hindu mythologies. This development records sequential growth during the last twothousand years. Figure : Manikarnika Ghat, 1869 Chapter 2.1
Figure : Manikarnika Ghat, 2014 18
EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
The landscape is always in flux, its temporality a function of the Ganga’s seasonal flow and calendar of rituals and festivals determined by planetary motion. The ghats on the west bank of the Ganga are the altar to worship of the sun rising in the east every morning bringing light and life, an end to actual and metaphoric darkness. The phenomenal form of the Goddess Ganga is worshipped through an immersive engagement with the river. Chapter 2.1
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Not a single towering Shikhara structure which characterizes North Indian temples, is visible. Instead there are domes framing the skyline.
Figure: Varanasi – panorama between Assi Ghat and Panchganga Ghat; Published by Joseph Tieffenthaler in Berlin 1786 (visited Varanasi in 1765)
Figure : Varanasi – panorama between Dasasswamedh Ghat and Ganesh Ghat; Displayed at the Great Globe at Leicester Square in London in 1860s (Source: Joachim Bautze)
Chapter 2.1
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
FIgure: Ganga River Pattern - Seasonal Variation
Chapter 2.1
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
The physiography of the Ganga’s banks is mapped in site hydrology--Ganga and Varana flow in summer and monsoon, flood and drought conditions, inland water bodies; terrain of ridge, hills, floodplain; and soils and vegetation. Ganga, the archetypal river of purity washing away physical dirt and moral sins, is now polluted because of the large amount of waste generated at the ghats and by the city. Ritual worship and bathing, cremation, and sewage cause the Ganga water to be contaminated and a health hazard. The water level of Ganga fluctuates through the year affecting the ghats; however the normal water level is 65.37 meters, allowing the various rituals and other activities to occur. In drought the water level is around 60 meters above the mean sea level that results in exposing the silt bed. Figure: River Pattern - Hydrology
Chapter 2.1
The highest level of flood recorded as 73.90 meters is well above the 71.26 meters considered to be the danger level completely submerging the ghats. The 100 year flood will cover all parts of the ghats, including temples and historic buildings. 22
EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Climate: The city enjoys sub-tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varying between 5C – 45C in a year. The relative humidity is high during monsoon reaching up to 82-85%. Annual rainfall in Varanasi is around 1000 mm. Although the ghats are richly imageable, they are not legible in The Ganga is flooding more often because of deforestation upstream that they are confusing and disorienting, especially to the first and constriction in its flow locally caused by silt deposition on the east time visitor. Legibility is defined as the attribute of the landscape bank. that allows for comprehension of its structure, i.e. easy Frequent flooding negatively impacts the ghats and the city above them. recognition of its parts and their organization into a coherent Their resiliency, i.e. their ability to recover rapidly from disaster and pattern. prepare for as well as prevent future catastrophes from recurring, is The ghats are envisaged as a legible and interpretive landscape increased through site planning and design. By reclaiming inland water by developing the following visitor facilities: bodies, and restoring Varana River and Assi Nala watersheds as • way finding map to the ghats, greenways, resiliency of the urban landscape to cope with flood events is • heritage trails, improved. • informational and directional signage, This shifting fluvial landscape is reclaimed as public space that can be • ghat lighting, used intensively in the dry season for recreational activities thus • boat parking, alleviating the stress on the ghats. Building wetlands that act as bio • vending kiosks. filtration basins and planting memorial groves that recycle cremation ashes as fertilizer in sediment fills in upland areas stabilizes the Consolidating the dispersed vending and combining it with landscape. provision of essential goods will reduce the congestion and visual clutter of the ghats. The proposed heritage trails with directional and informational signage aid in way finding and understanding their spatial structure. Poorly lit areas lanes in the old city and stretches of ghats are Figure: illuminated to increase safety and encourage movement along River Pattern - Hydrology the river. Visual aids such as maps, logos, and narrative walls depicting myths and legends, interpret the history and mythology of the ghats, reinforcing their role as sites of cultural memory. Chapter 2.1
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale FIgure: Timeline showing historic images of ghats and existing vocabulary
Located near Dwarkadhish temple and on the bank of holy river yamuna, there are a total of 25 ghats in Mathura today, of which the most important is the Vishram Ghat, where according to legend, Shri Krishna took his rest after killing Kansa. It is at Vishram Ghat that the traditional parikrama (circumambulation of all the important religious and cultural spots of the city) starts and ends. The steps are transformed into corners and private bathing areas. Public ghats are intercepted by zenana ghats made especially for women. More often than the zenana ghats, they are intercepted by burjes that have shaded verandah-like sitting areas. The top of the burjes are accessible from the street level.
Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
Picture: Important Sites in Mathura N
On the importance of the Yamuna at Mathura The river Yamuna has been acclaimed as a holy river (next to Ganga) in Indian mythology. Yamuna aachaman (rinsing the mouth with holy water) at Vishram ghat (bathing platform) is considered the surest way of salvation, and pilgrims from as far off a place as Gujrat carry its holy water in sealed vessels for religious functions. Yamuna poojan (worship) is considered a must for candidates contesting elections in Mathura. On all auspicious festivals, pilgrims first take a ritualistic dip at ghats before paying obeisance to the deities in temples.
Picture: Map of Mathura
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Radhe Shyam Ashram Ghat
Bengali Ghat
To Buddhism and Jains it became a centre of religious and artistic activity as early as the 3rd or 2nd century B.C. To Hindus, Mathura is the birthplace of Krishna and it remains a great centre of Krishna worship and pilgrimage today.
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Prayag Ghat
Shringar Ghat
The repeated episodes of plunder and destruction explain the absence of intact ancient architecture and the mutilation of many surviving statues at Mathura.
N Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Dandi Swami Ghat
Madan Mohan Ghat
N Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Raja Ghat
Vishram Ghat
N Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Sakarkunj Ghat
Asiakunda Ghat As a consequence, the city has changed very little in the last centuries. A boat ride on the Yamuna reveals a skyline still marked by myriad Hindu shrines and towering minarets of Alamgir’s mosque.
N Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Varahkshetra Ghat
Rani Ghat
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale
Zenana Ghat
N Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Vishram Ghat extends a mile to the north and south . A narrow circulation spine (in yellow) defines this city edge, along which many privately owned residences, small commercial developments like shops and dharamshalas (guest houses) have developed. The movement pattern is currently restricted due to the unplanned growth and encroachments. The site circumambulation that begins at Vishram Ghat is usually carried along this spine.
Picture: Map showing Vishram Ghat, Mathura
Belief is fostered by its landscape, toponymy, architecture, rituals, festivals, flow of pilgrims and faith of resident devotees ďƒ culture of Braj, which makes immersion in the perceived flow of divine love possible. (Toponymy is the study of place names, their origins, meanings, use)
Picture: Plan of Vishram Ghat, Mathura
Symbolism:
Water is a central part of the collection of memories . The memory of water is deep, extending back to the origins of life itself. Dark water was present before the dawn of life on our planet, and today water provides a bridge to those beginnings. At dawn on the ghats of the as pilgrims dip into the sacred rivers, they move back in time, symbolically die to the world and then are reborn into the light of the rising sun which is itself reborn every morning. Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Landscape Vocabulary Growse (1973) mentions that despite of plundering and destruction of the city, Mathura remained a land of pilgrimage. The architectural character of the landscape even today is strongly reminiscent of the amalgamations; yet in the minds of its visitors it simply represents a coherent Hindu belief system. The paradox here is that this is an originally self- evolving landscape that grew organically, rather than an integrated design or representation. On glancing across the landscape, we not only find shrines and temples but also mosques and Islamic style domes, arches and pavilions that are mostly used for Hindu rituals .
The cultural impacts have constantly oriented and rearranged the fabric for a mutual coexistence as well as led them to depict a synthetic reconciliatory style. Exploring the interaction patterns between the users and the landscape as a whole and how everyday interaction between users and their environment get internalized is important to the project. The aesthetics of a landscape should also evolve as a function of the ecological change through design (Nassauer, 1997). It is important that we care for a landscape. And, it is important to bring a landscape to the attention of the people who are using it to be able to demand care from them.
The intangible heritage is supported by the tangible heritage at Mathura. In the absence of either, the heritage as a whole is rendered incomplete. At problems level, the mutated ecology of the river feeds into the ritual behavior which is slowly, yet steadily mutating and may eventually vanish. Intangible heritage has become a legitimate concern for preservationists since the declaration of ENAME charter and UNESCO’s convention on intangible heritage. Every year millions of pilgrims make their way to this holy city and the landscape is immensely pressurized.
Picture: Syncretic Architecture Vishram Ghat, Mathura
Interestingly, this site is a palimpsest of mythological beliefs, rituals and forms that got sustained through the landscape despite the political and cultural hegemony of Islam in the region until the 19th century (Sharma, 1983). Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale There are possibilities of stimulating awareness through the design of Vishram Ghat so that it is automatically cared for by its everyday as well as less frequent users. Vishram Ghat can be treated as a community infrastructure that caters to the community who in turn, will act as stewards of the landscape. The landscape design should also stem from traditional ways of using a space and views of nature. The relationship between the landscape’s heritage and the nature are important to understand the sacred landscape aesthetics of Hinduism. Since religion is so closely related to nature in Hinduism, the evolving landscapes are often an oscillation between natural archetypes and cultural narratives (Sinha, 2006). Natural and spatial archetypes in the visual representation of Braj should be an integral part of the conservation scheme. Braj has age old traditions and the conservation should of the embedded design vocabularies. Symbolism The pastoral image of the Braj landscape was not only an image of Krishna’s pastimes, but also a symbol of the harmony in nature i.e. ecological balance.
In popular art too, along with Krishna, Yamuna’s banks are depicted to be soft, verdant and full of fauna. These images tell us a lot about the way Yamuna is internalized in the minds of people even today.
Yamuna banks in Braj are characterized by two kinds of landscapes 1. hard urban edge of ghats 2. softer pastoral settings of groves The two –urban and pastoral—are archetypal forms or ideal landscape types of land-water interface. The landscape vocabulary is fairly loose and pliable, as we try to understand the pastoral landscape of the Braj territory. The mythology indicates natural archetypical bodies of water with prolific fauna and clearing in the forests as settings of Krishna’s play. Krishna’s lilas are also set on verdant ghats of Yamuna.
Conversely, when they are in the water or on the opposite bank, they use the river as a setting that facilitates the darshan of shrines on the Vishram Ghat that become the subject. Movement within the landscape of Braj is primarily associated with the act of circumambulation or parikrama. The movement allows the pilgrims to experience the landscape completely as the lines of vision or darshan are continuously redefined. It allows the body to associate with the landscape dynamically. This experience is essential to the physical design vocabulary as the linearity of the ghats is objectively defined by this ritual.
The perception of touch is crucial to the ghats of Mathura as people descend the steps bare-foot and submerge their bodies in the holy water. This ritual needs to be taken into account as the physical design can effectively alter this experience with the use of different materials. Chapter 2.2
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EVOLUTION: Form and Pattern: Setting, Symbolism – Vocabulary (language), Scale Techniques Of Construction The foundations of these palaces and ghats are rarely visible as they are covered by the river and extend way below ground surface. One has to depend on different sources to have an idea about the forms and the materials used for their execution. For example, documentation on foundations of hydraulic constructions exist - forts, bridges and sluices, built in the same period as the ghats and palaces of the 18th and 19th century.
Foundations cylinders of brick masonry – 3’ to 12’ in diameter, sunk to firm stratum and safe from river erosions. A sufficient number of wells are designed to carry the super-incumbent weight whether it be a house or the pier of a bridge, and the whole series being sunk to the required level, and as close together as possible; the tops of the wells are arched over, the arches are all connected together by slabs of stones or other arches, and on this artificial platform the superstructure is raised.
These structures rested on piles of brick masonry, a tradition probably brought to India by the Mughals and used for the foundations of the ghats and palaces of Benares. Another current way to imagine old ghat foundations are by comparing them to those found in other cities.
Today, many of the new ghats being constructed or the old ones getting repaired use 5m high RCC (reinforced cement concrete) piles placed every two meters. To further protect these piles from the water currents, huge boulders are heaped up in front. On the other side, a mixture of sand, broken stone and cement cover the surface of the bank on which stone steps are arranged.
In Vrindavan, where the water of the river has reduced to a considerable length, ghat steps do not descend to the water’s edge and foundation piles are exposed , enabling one to have an idea about the dimensions and forms of the ones in Benares.
Stone steps are used only for important ghats, for others steep retaining walls are built which are broken up into terraces. Done to reduce expenses while at the same time insuring the protection of the ghats. Instead of stone, brick (much cheaper in cost and execution) is used on the surface. It will be important to calculate how effective the new structures are and compare them to the old ones. Secondly, their permeability will be questioned in relation to the river and to the drainage and sewerage systems, especially in relation to the overflow of sewage.
Figure: Masonry wells as foundation piles in Vrindavan Chapter 2.2
36
Chapter 3
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements Figure: Plan showing the Varanasi Ghat Stretch
The urban fabric of each city is held together by the wrap of its historic spaces and the overlay of modern development. This dichotomy of past and present is unavoidable – be it in terms of architecture, open spaces or the landscapes. Pattern of Devotees around the year
Figure: Cycle of festivals on Ghats in Varanasi Table : Numbers of Visitors to Asi Ghat
Rituals & Festivals
Month
Makara Samkranti (January)
45,293 ppl
Maha Shivaratri (Phalguna )
23,268
Karttika Purnima (Karttika)
37,382
Margasira Purnima (Margasira)
22,090
Surya Shasthi (Karttika)
38,265
Mauni Amavasya (Magha)
10,569
Magha Purnima (Magha)
5,246
Prabodhini Ekadashi (Karttika)
8,649
Vasant Panchami (Magha)
2,196
Figure: Section across Dasashwamedh Ghat Chapter 3.1
38
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements Natural Elements: City and Water
• Rivers Ganga, Varuna and Asi - constitutes distinct natural heritage, melting pot of culture and traditions • Unique direction of flow – South to North (symbolic of death to life) – led to growth of ancient city Kashi on west bank, facing rising sun; thus, Ghats – sacred for all Hindu rituals – most holy city of Hinduism • A labyrinth of narrow lanes leading from the Ghats unravel into the dense built fabric of the old city – the city begins at Ganga and Ghats • Ancient association - River Ganga with religious, traditional, cultural fabric; immense influence on evolution of economic, social life of the city and related tangible and intangible cultural expressions • Flood plains - instrumental in preserving natural ecosystem
Figure:
Figure: Section across Anandma Ghat
Figure: Section across Assi Ghat Chapter 3.1
39
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements It was rebuilt with stone slabs during 1780 – 1807. At the top of lofty stone steps he established four temples chief and four auxiliary shrines. It was constructed by a monastery in 1788. The ghat has shrines and sacred sites. In late 16th century a monastery attached to the Kedaresvara, temple was built. It is one of the two cremation ghats. In 1740 this ghat was renovated and made partly pucca.
Named after the Hanuman temple constructed in the 18th century. The neighborhood is dominated by South Indian residents.
Figure: Section across Hanuman Ghat
There is no significant cultural activities here. Only some of pilgrims and local inhabitants take bath.
A series of thin stairs from ghat lead to a palatial building where two temples are situated. Ghat is pucca but the place is of lesser importance. Subdivided from Vaccharaja ghat in 1931 and made pucca. On the southern end Jain communities take bath and perform their regular activities, and on the northern end the boatmen families reside.
Figure: Steps
Named after the great poet Tulsidas, this ghat is associated with a number of important activities ďƒ great conventional rites, music concerts, wrestling, and spiritual discourses. In 1941 the ghat was made pucca. Situated at the confluence of Ganga and Assi rivers, Assi Ghat is where people bathe before paying their homage to Lord Shiva in the form of huge lingam situated under a peepal tree. It constitutes the southern end of conventional city.
Figure: Varanasi Ghat Stretch Journey commences from the Assi Ghat Chapter 3.1
The sense of enclosure, darkness,and heaviness in the narrow lanes of the old city contrasts with openness and expansiveness of the ghats. Panoramic views of the eighty four ghats as seen from the river and the east bank contrast with focused vistas on the west bank. 40
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements
Figure: Vocabulary
The farmland across the river is located on higher ground. Seasonal farming is done on the northern part of the west bank and towards the southern part of the east bank where the flood plain soils can support vegetables and fruits.
Figure: Varanasi Ghat Stretch Vegetation Cover Chapter 3.1
Soils and vegetation mapping of east and west banks of the Ganga: The soil is mostly sandy or a sandy loam and not an ideal medium for vegetation growth. It is not appropriate for building, as it does not have much support. The west bank of the Ganga is densely built up with the ghats and has only a sparse number of trees struggling for survival. In the northern section of the ghats, there is denser vegetation due to the Varana River and far fewer building structures. Many trees found in this section such as banyan and peepal trees have sacred associations. 41
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements Drainage and Sewerage System in Relation to the Geographical Context According to Singh, ÂŤ just as the banks would most probably have been protected in the past thanks to the forest that covered this site, so today the stability of the bank is maintained by the construction of ghats and palaces Âť (Singh, 1955). Along the river Ganges a high ridge can be seen, extending almost continuously from one end of the city to the other interrupted only at Dasaswamedh ghat by the Godaulia nala2. This high ridge, made of clay and kankar (lime concentration) acts as a solid natural barrier protecting the city from the river. Figure: Diagrammatic section on the river bed in Benares, not to scale
The palaces and ghats of Benares have been constructed on this high ridge further consolidating the banks . They form the extremity of the city and are mainly designed in relation to the river water and are thus very different from the rest of the buildings found in the city. This river front seems to be constructed independent to the city that spreads out behind. In Prinsep’s map of 1828, the level of land on the other side of the ridge slopes down slightly and a series of ponds and tanks are found all along the ridge. Initially, these tanks were supposed to collect the drainage and direct it either through the Varuna river or through the Godaulia nala into the river Ganges. However, with the densification of the city, most of these ponds and nalas have been filled up.
Figure: Open Space, Map of Mathura Chapter 3.2
42
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements
12 KM long historical route frequented by devotees who tread this path to access temples, ghats and kunds of Mathura. Parikrama is done on foot But pedestrian environment is very unfavorable for spiritual experience.
N
Figure: Land - use pattern and density analysis
All commercial activity in the zone under observation exists along the main pedestrian streets and in a mixed land use pattern. Residential activity I high density and organic development pattern. Religious activity is evenly spread all across the residential fabric.
Associated activities: 1. Water is carried from here for ablutions and for religious practices 2. All the important prayers and ritual offerings with flowers and rice are made to the river 3. Places to meditate 4. Dead bodies are bathed here before they are taken to the cremation grounds 5. Regular bathing and washing purposes by the inhabitants of the nearby areas. 6. Silted beds are used by the dhobi community
Figure: Activities Chapter 3.2
43
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements
Figure: Narrow Passages, Varanasi Picture: Rituals at Vishram Ghat, Mathura Natural Elements: 1. Trees of religious significance have been planted near the ghat area for example, Azadirachta indica (Neem), Ficus religiosa (Peepal) and Neolamarckia cadamba (Kadam). 2. Middle storeys of vegetation are absent. 3. Small Peepal trees have been observed sprouting out between building structures causing further damage to the building. Local people have cut short the foliage that disturbed the narrow pedestrian path below. Chapter 3.2
44
SCALE AND FUNCTIONS: Activities and Spatial Organization: Built Elements and Natural Elements Built elements:
Burj: A burj is an octagonal pier that is usually at the corner of forts. They also allude to tall tower. However, in context of Mathura’s ghats, these are stylized, functional projections into the water that is accessible from the street level and the last step of the ghat. The sides of Burj are usually in the form of shaded areas where women or widows sought shelter traditionally. Sati Burj is an important historic structure and the only element in the form of a tower in the landscape. Zenana ghats: A prototypical ghat (here) that allows women to access the river in a private way. Flanked by Burj on two sides usually, a stairway from street level leads into a shaded area open to the river, but secluded visually. Chhatris: Syncretic style domes- may be hemispherical or onion shaped; may be ribbed. They are usually used as roofing element on pavilions and temple shrines .
Access through the Burj
Division of space
Private area below Street level Chapter 3.2
45
Chapter 4
UNDERSTANDING: Present Scenario
UNDERSTANDING: Present Scenario Varanasi
Issues: 1. Lack of public awareness, participation - hindering proper implementation of plans and maintenance of heritage properties 2. Exceeded carrying capacity - indiscriminate disposal of solid waste; lack of public amenities, facilities 3. Degradation of Rivers and Ghats due to sewage disposal; public neglect and ignorance 4. Unorganized informal activities 5. Limited accessibility by motorized means – not friendly to the differently -abled; no signages 6. The Riverfront City – proposal to be enlisted in UNESCO’s Heritage List ‘mixed cultural landscape’– rejected due to management issues
In order to understand the Nepali appropriation of place, it is worthwhile to take a closer look at the sacred topography of the site. The nepali temple is in fact situated on top of a densely packed sacred site comprising various important shrines built on different levels. On the lowest level, submerged in the river during the rainy season, is the shrine of Ganga devi. This shrine, housing a coloured idol, is part of the embankment architecture not much older than the Nepali temple. Slightly above the path along the ghat there is the much older shrine chamber built into the hillock on which the Nepali andir stands.
Figure: Sand belt on the Eastern bank of River Ganga, Varanasi Figure: Cross-section at Lalita Ghat by Niels Guschow Chapter 4.0
47
UNDERSTANDING: Present Scenario Mathura Despite such importance, most ghats however are ruined or near extinction.
The landscape of Vishram Ghat in reality is remote from mythical descriptions. The river water is befouled; the ghat has no signs of shady trees. This landscape was home to numerous birds and wildlife. The exotic leatherback turtle is on the verge of extinction (YAP). The ecology is severely altered and in the past two decades flood events have increased. The sensory perception of water is a matter of concern in design as the water presently is heavily polluted and solid waste particles can be felt under the bare feet if one descends the steps. Impact of river on ghats: 1. Structural defects of the ghats 2. Due to the change in the river course, the tangential movement of the water mass causes development of shear force at the North-eastern end of the structure causing tilts in the steps 3. At the junction of the Keshi and Pandavala ghat there is a built-inshift in the alignment of the Pandavala ghat by 11 degrees – rendering the ghat vulnerable to erosion. 4. Silt deposition on the steps resluts in growth of Peepal saplings sprouting at the junction between two consecutive steps and thereby developing wide horizontal cracks. 5. The acid and chemical content of the river water acts on the foundation rendering them weak and at the same time staining the stone panels, thus deafcing the ghats. Chapter 4.0
Impact of river on flood plains: 1. The quality of the soil due to alluvial deposits and the occurrence of he seasonal flooding allows for seasonal crops to be grown on the flood plains. 2. The receding levels of the river after flooding shows a distinct pattern in the naturally occurring Vachellia nilotica (Kikar) tree which are found in rows parallel to the river bank. 3. Due to frequent water logging the Tamarix dioica (Jhau) trees remain as low-lying shrubs. 4. Ground water is easily polluted, as the water table is low. Chemical and organic impurities from alluvial deposits enter the ground water. Thus the ground water is saline and has been declared as ‘polluted water’. 5. The back flow and stagnant water bodies provide an excellent habitat for microscopic organisms and macro fauna like turtles, fish and birds. Tamarix dioica (Jhau): A small evergreen tree, often gregarious shrub, up to 6 m tall, with green drooping branchlets and minute scale leaves. Found along the river banks throughout the country
48
Chapter 5
ROLE of Landscape Architect
ROLE of Landscape Architect Natural Heritage
The Ganges considered the most holy river for the Hindus, is especially sacred in Varanasi where its course towards the Bay of Bengal suddenly turns to the north. From its source in the Himalaya to its mouth in the Bay of Bengal, covering a course of about 2525km, only in Varanasi does the Ganga river flow in a crescent shape meandering from south to north (length 6.5km). This peculiar shape is the result of fluvial process through which the coarser sediments get deposited on its western bank between Raj Ghat in the north and Samne Ghat in the south. The portion between these two points a hillock-like geologic feature, called natural levée, consists of nearly 60m bed of clay with coarse grained sand, limestone concretion (kankar) and gravel. Another similar ridge like formation exists on the other side at Ramanagar where there is the fort. This peculiar geological formation changes the flow of the Ganga in a half-circular shape. This sharpbend meander is only observed in Varanasi throughout its course. This unique geological formation has provided the base for the growth of the city in a crescent shape, symbolically described as crescent moon on the forehead of Lord Shiva. In terms of river ecology, this characteristic is also considered as the unique aspect of energy quantum and direction of the energy flow. In fact, this whole bed of the Ganga River is an example of natural heritage. The area along the right side is a flood plain, preserving the natural ecosystem. Thus the natural heritage of the city, in the form of the river, predominates and strongly influences the nature and characteristics of the religious and sacred importance of the city. In temporal frame we have to give respect to the past, search solutions in the present, and make directions for the future. Moreover the issue of urban sprawl and interlinks with the surrounding areas (peri-urban) also taken together in the CDP. Chapter 5.0
Remember, a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the site as living organism. In order that this heritage become a resource for development, it needs to be first documented, then protected, maintained and finally utilised according to specific heritage guidelines and legislations. Only then, combined with an increased stakeholder awareness and participation, will policy efforts and interventions become sustainable – environmentally, socially and culturally. Mahatma Gandhi rightly warned us that “nature has enough for everybody’s need, but not for everybody’s greed”. 50
ROLE of Landscape Architect Planting Policy A planting plan aims to challenge design attitudes to make people look and think, to demonstrate land rich opportunities for food and timber production, education, wild life and public enjoyment besides visual delight, seasonal variety and plant diversity. The planting needs to be sustainable and symbolically ordered to address ecological an spiritual forces.
# Planting for Environmental Conservation Area
Objective
Plant Characteristics
Species
areas around river
1. Bank stabilization 2. Erosion protection along catchment areas 3. Shade along margins to reduce direct insolation 4. Scenic potential
1. Species with low transpiration rates to conserve water 2. Bank stabilizing grass to check erosion 3. Buffer from agricultural pollution due to fertilizers, thereby should be able to withstand pollution
• • • • • •
water – logged areas
1. To absorb moisture 2. Act as soil binder
1. Withstand water logging 2. Withstand salinity and alkalinity
• Salix babylonica • Acacia nilotica
Water body edges
1. To minimize evaporation 2. To bind soil and filter water
1. Soil binder 2. Evergreen 3. Withstand water logging and salinity
• Salix babylonica • Acacia nilotica • Anthocephalus cadamba
Tamarindus indica Mangifera indica Terminala arjuna Salix spp Azadirachta indica Cenchrus cilaris
In India, rivers such as the Ganga, the Yamuna are regarded sacrosanct and along their banks a number of temples and ghats are seen. Kadamba and Ashoka, the sacred trees of Krishna and Sita, if planted at these places of worship, will add colour and charm.
Chapter 5.0
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ROLE of Landscape Architect
# Planting for Religious Context Area
Objective
Plant Characteristics
Species
Temple complexes
1. 2. 3. 4.
Establish spatial relationships and alignments Restore circulation and linkages Recreate the lost visual effects Improve micro-environmental conditions within the complex
Plant religious, ornamental, historic and native flora to fulfil specific design considerations
• • • • • • • •
Tamarindus indica Mangifera indica Terminala arjuna Ficus religiosa Ficus krishnae Ficus bengalensis Azadirachta indica Anthocephalus cadamba
1. 2. 3. 4.
Segregate pedestrian and vehicular traffic Provide shade Provide visual relief Dust collector
1. Avenue plantation 2. Clusters for accentuation and framing of views 3. Religious, ornamental and native flora
• • • • •
Azadirachta indica Anthocephalus cadamba Tamarindus indica Cassia fistula Delonix regia
1. 2. 3. 4.
Provide shade Path articulation Visual relief Scale
1. Combination of evergreen and deciduous 2. Small medium sized 3. Seasonal flowering 4. Fruit bearing
• • • • •
Morus indica Aegle marmelos Butea monosperma Zizyphus jujuba Cassia fistula
Parikrama path • Paved stretch
• Unpaved stretch
Chapter 5.0
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Chapter 6
“GHATSCAPES”: design intentions
“GHATSCAPES�: design intentions
Stretches of the west bank with a hard slope between the ghats are currently unused or just being used for drying. The land in these areas can be terraced opening up new possibilities. Pocket parks with small areas for vegetable gardening and clean bathing tanks areproposed. Furthermore, drying areas for washermen can still be provided. This will help create a more sustainable community space and add more greenery along the ghats. It could potentially lessen congestion from the more dense areas as well. Additionally, green terracing will help with erosion problems on the unbuilt slopes caused by flooding. In the vegetated semi-hardscape local sandstone will be used to construct the terraces and native trees and grasses will be planted.
Chapter 6.0
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AUTHOR’S NOTE Nature a world of patterns. Relationships between all patterns of varied scales and types are symbiotic. In
Culture
the patterns are manmade.
Any Sustainable Development in landscape design is an attempt to integrate both natural and cultural patterns in a holistic way so as to come out with functional and aesthetic solutions that are in sync with natural processes. As the water flowed in the river over millenniums, the essence of the ghats has refused to change with the times and has taken refuge in the unshakable spiritual belief of the common man. It is the ghats along the river that represent the timelessness of Varanasi. The disarray of the buildings behind the ghats have failed to evolve into an order with centuries of the city’s evolution. The celebrated Ganges flows past all of them, accepting the contrast along its edges, not complaining even when the land that she gives life to treats her as a mere sewer, and at the same time looking at her with great reverence.
The sense of depth of time over which it has developed and the remains of previous phases of history still present which add further layers of meaning and aesthetic qualities. These places have incorporated nature within their spiritual and cultural composition and narratives. Land: rocks, highlands, lowlands, sloped lands; plants: upper, middle and lower stories; water: glaciers, freshwaters and sea water; life are the forms in which nature manifests itself. These places are directly linked to the people – spiritually, emotionally and physically and thus need to be restored and maintained.
In Mark Twain’s words, “For ages and ages the Hindus have had absolute faith that the water of the Ganges was absolutely pure, could not be defiled by any contact whatsoever, and infallibly made pure and clean whatsoever thing touched it. They still believe it, and that is why they bathe in it and drink it, caring nothing for its seeming filthiness and the floating corpses.”
Every word he said stands good even today, and probably will continue to hold good for centuries to come. Varanasi doesn’t just belong to the past; it is eternal. Chapter 7.0
Watermark: Painting of Munshi Ghat Ganga River by Dinesh Pandey
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Books: • Flowering Trees by M.S. Randhawa: National Book Trust , India • Visualizing Space in Banaras: Images, Maps and the Practice of Representation; edited by Martin Gaenszle and Jorg Gengnagel • Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Historic Places (Asia and Oceania) Volume II; edited by Paul E. Schellinger and Robert M. Salkin • Indian Maps and Plans: from earliest times to the advent of European survey by Susan Gole • The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism By James G. Lochtefeld • Landscapes in India; Forms and Meanings; chapter 5 – sacred of Braj Landscape by Amita Sinha; copyright 2006 University Press of Colorado. • Landscape pattern, perception and process by Simon Bell Journals and Articles: • Landscape and Memory: cultural landscapes, intangible values and some thoughts on Asia KEN TAYLOR Research School of Humanities The Australian National University • Margaret Drabble (1979, p.270) in A Writer’s Britain: Landscape in Literature • Rössler 2006 • Publications by Joseph Tieffenthaler in Berlin 1786 (visited Varanasi in 1765) • Understanding Holistic Dimensions of Culture and Meta-culture Places of Pilgrim – 'Teertha Sthala‘ Prof. H.D. Chhaya • A living entity and record of social history: interface of culture and nature. Landscape and Memory: cultural landscapes, intangible values and some thoughts on Asia KEN TAYLOR Research School of Humanities The Australian National University Canberra • Singh, Dar and Rana 2001, Varanasi as Heritage city – UNESCO WHL. NGH 46: 177-200 • Benaras: The Legacy of Temples and Steps by Prerana Chatterjee ; A journey through the environs of the Temple City of Benaras; Architecture - Time Space & People June 2010 • Dr. Nalini Thakur - Indian Cultural Landscapes: Religious pluralism, tolerance and ground reality • S.C. Malik, D (1957,1975) Understanding Indian Civilization: A framework for Enquiry, Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Studies • On Cultural Landscapes by Amos Rapoport • International Seminar on Banaras, the Heritage City of India: Culture, Tourism and Development • Ghats of Varanasi on River Ganges : A Case Study of Cultural Landscape with Environmental Flow by Shivashish Bose • The Varanasi Development Authority Varanasi (India) • Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission - Final Report • Cultural Landscapes - The Basis for Linking Biodiversity Conservation with the Sustainable Development , UNESCO, New Delhi, India Chapter G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Journals and Articles: • Journal of Landscape Architecture; issue 25; monsoon 2009; article Varanasi: Braced In Belief by Arun Bhat • Journal of Landscape Architecture; issue 25; monsoon 2009; article The Beyond-ness of Benaras by Narendra Dengle • Journal of Landscape Architecture; issue 28; summer 2010 • Landscape Journals - Designing of Pilgrimage Sites by Amita Sinha Volume One/ Issue Two Summer 2001 • The Braj Foundation IL&FS Infrastructure • Time and the Ganga River at Asi Ghat, Banaras: Pilgrimage and Ritual Landscape by Prof. John McKim Malville, Dept. of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado and Prof. Rana P. B. Singh Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi • Indian Heritage Cities Network; profile of Varanasi; heritage resources • Life & Death Along the Ghats of Varanasi, India By jessicajhill / 03 May 2013 • 8th World Wide Workshop for Young Environmental Scientists WWW-YES-2008: Urban waters: resource or risks? 13-16 May 2008 Unpublished Work cedits: • Varanasi plans courtesy Urban Planning Department, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi • Habitat of Varanasi by Kirti Pandey • Vishram Ghat, Mathura, India: A Conservation Model For Ghat Restoration In India By Annie Varma Master of Landscape Architecture in Landscape Architecture in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2011 Urbana, Illinois Adviser: Professor Amita Sinha • Sacred Landscape : Vrindavan Krishna’s playground an ecological approach designing and development in the sacred landscape 2001 Thesis by Parveen Kumar Dhamija; Department of Landscape Architecture; School of Planning and Architecture • Sacred Journeys and Profane Travellers: Representation and Spatial Practice in Varanasi (India) Cristiana Zara; Degree of Doctor of Philosophy , December 2011, Department Of Geography , Royal Holloway, University Of London • Ghats of Varanasi on the Ganga in India The Cultural Landscape Reclaimed; Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA • Documentation of Varanasi Ghats and Related Issue for Strategic Growth By Govind Srivastav Websites: • www.archinomy.com • Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia • www.intach.org Chapter G
• www.brajfoundation.org • landarch.illinois.edu • www. wordpress.com
• jnnurm.nic.in • www.brajdiscovery.org xix
APPENDIX UNESCO guidelines for Cultural Heritage and Cultural Landscape According to Operational Guidelines (2005) of the World Heritage Committee UNESCO, a property designated as cultural heritage nominated should: i. represent a masterpiece of human creative genius (monument, group of buildings or site); ii. exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town planning or landscape design; iii. bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared; iv. be an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; v. be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; and vi. be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance (the Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria). Additionally, it would be more plausible to have one more criterion from the natural heritage to be taken into consideration for identifying cultural heritage: vii. contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance. Chapter H
The “Riverfront cultural and heritage landscape and Old City Heritage of Varanasi” fully identify all the above criteria of WHC UNESCO 2005 (i to vi and vii). Heritage is not an inquiry into the past but a celebration of it, not an effort to know what actually happened but a profession of faith in a past tailored to present day purposes. (Lowenthal, 1998)
Yamuna’s Water Quality: In the Himalayan segment and in the segment after confluence with the Chambal river is relatively good. However, because of the removal of large volumes of water and discharge of pollutants into the river system the water quality in the Delhi segment and next highly eutrophicated segment is critical. At Delhi, heavy discharges of untreated domestic sewage and non-availability of dilution, has degraded the quality in the downstream stretch of the river. The Yamuna is used for surface water supply of Delhi, Mathura, Vrindavan and Agra. For Mathura (on the right bank of the Yamuna), the water is removed at Gokul barrage, some 8 km downstream of Mathura, where the water is highly polluted, while most of the city’s wastewater is discharged upstream of Mathura. It should be the other way round. One can only pity the Ganga Pollution Control Unit of Mathura and the Uttar Pradesh state’s Jal Nigam (an environmental engineering department) which is considered to be one of the world’s biggest departments of its kind. xx
APPENDIX Story: Walk along the ghats of Varanasi In my days of strolling here, I saw the neverending series of steps along the river being home to a myriad of spiritual activities. Mendicants half immersed in the water made offerings to the Sun God. Groups of pilgrims were lead by priests to perform shraddha karma and pray, so that the souls of their ancestors may make safe passage to heaven. Bearded babas assumed a spiritual significance as they sat together and chain-smoked in a corner. Men meditated sitting cross legged on pedestals. Women came around a ficus tree and tied a turmeric coated thread around its trunk. People of all ages descended into the water and took the holy dip, folding their hands and praying to Ganga Ma. Pandas performed rituals and blessed the pilgrims in good faith. In the evenings, the Ganga Aarti at Dasaswamedh Ghat enthralled the visitors with an elaborate choreography supported by devotional choirs. Life and death were treated with equal indifference in Manikarnika and Harischandra Ghats as the earthly remains of the departed soul were half burned and thrust into the river, even as the tourists and pilgrim alike walked past with an evasive glance at the ritual.
Life on the ghats spreads beyond appeasing the forces of the other world; it also makes space for the emotions of everyday life. Children played cricket in narrow spaces. Washermen brought dirty laundry from all over the town and permitted those clothes the good fortune of getting washed in the Ganga. The saris spread on the steps for drying made a riot of colours along the ghats. Chapter H
Smallshops invited strollers to step down and relax with a cup of sugary chai and a loaf of bread. Street dogs lurked besides these shops hoping to steal a biscuit or two, wagging their tails begging for a piece. Bank Mynas hopped around pilgrims looking for something to eat. Water buffaloes did what they are best atidling in the water. Healthy Landscape: The ghats in Varanasi are envisaged as a healthy landscape by reducing point source pollution in the Ganga and creating a clean land-water interface through public sanitation programs and design prototypes such as non-polluting bathing tanks, c ompost gardens, biofiltration basins, and ghat recycling center. Natural cleansing systems, such as wetlands and phytoremediation treat wastewater and increase biodiversity. Local composting and recycling are proposed to reduce the biodegradable waste. Bathing tanks are designed with biofiltration basins for decreasing contaminants in the water, thus promoting the health of the river and of those who engage with it. Dumping sites near the ghats are reclaimed as waste management facility in a landscape of marshy lagoons for phytoremediation. The urban sanitation and composting programs should aim to limit river BOD (biological oxygen demand) to a safe level by 2030. Education through the use of on-site murals and other media to promote proper waste disposal and recycling will positively engage the community in ensuring a clean environment.
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