PLANTING DESIGN by Abdullah0hh

PLANTING DESIGN

PLANTING DESIGN ADVANCE LA458 20 20 22 21

LA.Abdullah H. AlHibshi Supervisors: Dr.Mohammad AlHarthi

CONTENT

01 | INTRODUCTION

02 | FLOW

03 | PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

04 | PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

05 | PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

06 | PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

07 | LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

08 | LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE

09 | REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

The content of this research discusses the aspect of planting design in terms of its identification, its importance, and its principles. The methodologies used in the field of planting design and then the sequential steps for planting design, Also discussed, in addition to the construction aspects, And aspects of maintenance.

FLOW

INTRODUCTION

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

FLOW

INTRODUCTION

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

REFERENCES

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

What is the purpose of planting design? Plants grow in great quantity and diversity in all sorts of places without, and often in spite of, our attentions, so it is quite reasonable to question the role of planting design in landscape architecture. The answer is, I believe, threefold. 16

First, the design of planting helps us to make the best use of our environment. A landscape that is truly functional is one that provides for breadth of use and human involvement, and planting design is an essential element in making and managing this kind of people–place relationship. Liveliness, complexity, subtlety, resilience, flexibility, and sustainability are some of the desirable qualities with well-designed planting.

Second, planting design is an important part of restoring and maintaining a sustainable relationship between people and their environment in a context of change, both local and global. It does this by helping to conserve ecosystems and by enriching, creating, or reconstructing habitats. It also helps simply by introducing living green space where before there was only a grey place. Third, planting design offers aesthetic pleasures as complex and intense as those we might encounter in galleries or concert halls. Its impact can be thought-provoking, spiritually restoring, emotionally soothing, and stimulate our senses.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

TIME

The design of planting helps us to make the best use of our environment.

planting design is an important part of restoring and maintaining a sustainable relationship between people and their environment in a context of change.

Planting design offers aesthetic pleasures.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The principles refer to standards by which designs can be created, measured, discussed, and evaluated. Because design is at times very personal,

it can be difficult to evaluate objectively. Whether someone likes or dislikes a certain plant selection or paving pattern does not necessarily credit or discredit the design. Only when the design can be shown to be in compliance with or in violation of the principles that guide all design can it be judged as good, bad, or in between. Only when a judgment can be offered that the design is good or bad because it applies or fails to apply one or more of the principles of design does it become a judgment or critique that is understandable or justifiable to the designer.

Here then are six principles that artists have been using in the fine and applied arts for centuries. •Balance. •Focalization of Interest. •Simplicity. •Rhythm and Line. •Proportion. •Unity. Whether the art form is oil painting or flower arranging, the same principles of design can be applied during the creation of the work and can be used to describe a viewer’s reaction to the work. The reassuring thing about these principles is that they were not created centuries ago by artists. Rather, they stem from an inherent visual sense possessed by most people, whether they regard themselves as creative or not.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Focalization of Interest

Balance

Unity

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Proportion

Simplicity

Rhythm & Line

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES BALANCE Balance is a state of being as well as seeing. We are physically uncomfortable when we are off balance. Whether while held hostage on top of the see-saw by a heavier playmate when we were children, or tipping over in a canoe when the contents shifted unexpectedly, we experience a lack of balance at various times in our lives, and we do not like it. It follows that we are most appreciative of and comfortable in landscape settings that are visually balanced. There are three types of balance:

• SYMMETRIC BALANCE

• ASYMMETRIC BALANCE

• PROXIMAL/DISTAL BALANCE

is the balance of formal gardens. One side of the composition is a reflective mirror image of the opposite side. Though it can be somewhat stiff, especially if the plants used are geometric or sheared forms, symmetric balance is acceptable to a great many people because it is comfortable and easily understood. It is not necessary that landscape composition be stiff, though, in order to be symmetric. The combination of materials used may be loose and casual, yet as long as the shapes, colors, and specific materials match on both sides of center, the balance will be symmetric.

is informal balance. The visual weight on opposite sides of the composition is the same, but the materials used and their placement may vary. Asymmetric balance has the potential to be more visually interesting to the viewer because there are two sides to observe and explore. With symmetric balance that is not true.

is asymmetric but carries it further by dealing with depth in the field of vision. In addition to balancing the left/right relationship in the composition of the landscape, there is a need to balance the near/far. This becomes a concern more frequently than might appear at first. The landscape designer is seldom able to design without concern for off-site features. Those features may be pleasant and desirable to include within the composition, but once included they must be factored into the balance of the setting.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Symmetric Balance

Asymmetric Balance

Proximal / Distal Balance

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

FOCALIZATION OF INTEREST

Anything that is designed well has a focal point, one place within the composition where the viewer’s eye is first attracted. there will be something placed by the designer to command the attention of the viewer. Everything else in the composition will serve to complement that feature. Focalization of interest is the principle of design that selects and positions visually strong items into the landscape composition. Focal points can be created using plants, hardscape items, architectural elements, color, movement, texture, or a combination of these and other features. Some focal points are predestined.

For example, in the public area of most residential landscapes, the entry to the home is understood to be the most important focus of attention. All of the design decisions made in that area serve to support that focal point. In other areas of the landscape, the designer usually has more opportunity to select those areas to be highlighted as focal points. Beginning designers often must learn restraint in applying the principle of focalization of interest. There is often a tendency to overuse focal points, which creates complexity and visual confusion within the landscape composition.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Focalization of Interest

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

SIMPLICITY As with the principle of balance, simplicity seeks to make the viewer feel comfortable within the landscape. 24

Few people are happy when exposed for any length of time to settings that are cluttered or fussy. Complexity is not always the opposite of simplicity, at least where landscape design is concerned. Landscapes may involve buildings with complex and intricate architecture. Other projects may be technically complex,

with extensive lighting, water features, sound systems, circulation patterns, or security systems. If such things are present, they are probably important to the client or to the site; but the landscape into which they are placed can still be simple and comfortable for the user. Simplicity does not imply simplistic, boring, or lack of imagination. It does avoid the use of too many species, too many colors, textures, shapes, curves, and angles within an area or within a project.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Simplicity

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Rhythm & Line

Rhythm is readily understood if discussing music. Familiar songs that are fun to sing or easily danced to remain with us for life, largely because their rhythm is easy to recognize and remember. Lines are also easy to understand when thinking two-dimensionally as with lines in a drawing. Curving lines, straight lines, erratic lines, weak lines, bold lines are easily recognized as the creation of pencil or pen. A landscape designer must somehow transfer and interpret those two concepts as a single threedimensional principle of outdoor design. A rhythm is something that repeats after being separated by some standardized interval of space or time.

In music it is recognized as the beat or keeping time. In landscape design, it can be the repetition of an angle, or an arc, or an object or shape. A line creates shapes and spaces on paper. Further, it divides and separates spaces. In the landscape, where two dissimilar materials come together, such as turf and pavement, a line is created. If one or both of the materials is strongly vertical, such as a fence, then the line that is created is very imposing. It follows that the repetition of lines in the landscape can establish a rhythm, and that is a desirable component of good design.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Rhythm & Line

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES PROPORTION

Proportion is concerned with the size relationships between all of the features of the landscape. That includes both vertical and horizontal relationships as well as spatial relationships. Much of our perception of vertical proportion is influenced by the height of the viewer and in particular by the viewer’s eye level, which varies between standing, seated, and reclining. Shorter people perceive the vertical space of some landscapes differently than do taller people. Children have needs for certain types of landscapes that are vastly different from those of their parents if they are to feel comfortable within the space. The concern for proper proportion extends to building size, lot size, plant size, the relationship between the areas of mass and void, and the human users of the landscape.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Proportion

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Unity

As a principle of design, unity is the easiest to measure if the other five principles have been applied properly and comprehensively to the design. A unified design is one in which all of the separate parts contribute to the creation of the total design. The color schemes and textural choices support each other rather than demanding individual attention. In a painting, the background details match the foreground features. In a flower arrangement, a suggestion of each color is distributed evenly throughout the design.

In a fabric pattern, the same shapes and colors repeat at regular intervals throughout the cloth. In each case, though individual components are valued and appreciated, they collectively create a single overall design. The same principle applies to landscape designing. Each component of the design, whether it is the plant materials, the shape of the planting beds, the choice and use of paving materials, the color selections, the lighting plan, or any other component of the outdoor rooms within a project, is obligated to be a part of the whole.

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Unity

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

The appearance of an individual plant or a plant group can be analysed in terms of the visual properties of form, line, texture and colour. Although they are more abstract than the special effects of flower, fruit and autumn colour, these characteristics are fundamental to composition, and it is essential to understand their effects if we are to combine plants to form a visually effective whole. In the following sections I will describe these characteristics of form, line, pattern, texture and colour and with each, I will make some comment on how they can be used in design.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

Form

Line & Pattern

Form PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

Visual Energy

Texture

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •FORM

Form is an important aesthetic criterion for plant selection. Florence Robinson considered form, along with other visual properties, in considerable depth, in her book Planting Design (1940). She reminded us that ‘form is built upon line or direction, and both are bounded by line or silhouette. Thus mass and form, line and silhouette must be considered together.’ Although plant form is wonderfully varied, it is possible to describe major types, and each of these can have a particular visual and ecological role in planting assemblages. Some forms are common amongst trees, some amongst shrubs and some are found mostly in herbaceous plants; others can be found in all life-forms. These forms will be described with a view to their design potential rather than as a scientific horticultural classification.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

Round

Columnar

Pryramidal

Oval

Conical

irregular

Vase

Fan

Fastigate

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

FORM

Prostrate, Mat & Carpeting Forms

Form & Habit

Arching Form

Hummock, Mounded & Dome Forms

Erect or Upright Form & Veil Planting

Tussock, Tufted or Caespitose Form

Succulents & Sculptural Form

Palm Form

Conical, Columnar & Fastigiate Forms

Oval Upright Form

Open Irregular Form

Tabulate & Level-spreading Form

Trained Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

• FORM & HABIT While landscape architect authors such as Florence Robinson (1940) and Theodore Walker (1998) have often treated form primarily as a visual property, we need to remember that its ecological aspect is at least as important to the success of plant combinations. Form and habit are related to the ecology of a species, and an understanding of this can inform design ideas and species selection. For example, the compact, dome-shaped mediumheight shrub form that is so effective for low-cost, large-scale vegetation cover in urban areas is, in fact, an adaptation to a quite different natural habitat. To find this form in nature we must go to the windiest places such as coastal cliffs or

Here we find shrubs like Hebe, Cistus, Olearia, Cotoneaster microphyllus and Coprosma repens coping admirably with the inhospitable environment. This is why urban shrublands sometimes fail to impress – the character of the plants changes in topsoiled, sheltered, lowland, city streets, losing much of the charm they have in their natural habitat. A low compact dome-shape is not the only way that plants cope with persistent high winds. The long, linear and extremely tough leaves of harakeke (Phormium tenax), ti kouka (Cordyline australis), nikau (Rhopalostylis sapida) and many grasses are all highly resilient and remain undamaged in strongest winds.

This natural strength is reflected in the use of harakeke and ti kouka as a source of fibre. Another example of form as a response to habitat is given by species of the New Zealand mat daisies (Raoulia), which are typically found spreading across the loose stone of exposed riverbeds and mountain screes. Their root systems and foliage form a network over the surface of the stones and thus help to stabilize them and protect the plant from the instability of the habitat. They are typical of mountain habitats that experience extreme wind (Dawson, 1988).

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS PROSTRATE, MAT AND CARPETING FORMS Prostrate means lying flat. A number of plants have a distinctly flat spreading form because their stems lie on the ground rather than ascending.

These include ground-hugging, creeping species that spread by the layering or rooting of their prostrate stems at intervals where they also produce new buds, leaves, and flowers. There are also a number of shrubs that produce procumbent (mostly non-rooting) woody stems above ground level and build up low, spreading masses of foliage. With age, prostrate plants can often develop foliage gaps in the middle, because their main growing points are distributed around the perimeter of the canopy. For this reason, they may need cutting back or replanting after a number of years.

Prostrate, Mat and Carpeting Forms

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •HUMMOCK, MOUNDED AND DOME FORMS A large number of clump-forming perennial herbaceous plants are hummock or mounded in shape, that is they are spreading but also grow upwards, often mounding up upon themselves with their softer weak stems, or using nearby plants for support. They can be somewhat formless and it is as if they flow into the space left by other plants. For this reason they are good fillers in herbaceous and meadow plantings and among small shrubs, occupying space effectively and economically and providing a bulk of foliage which can offset stronger and more dramatic planting forms. A dome is a larger version of the shape of the hummock plants and usually used to refer to refer to shrub and tree species. Perhaps the classic dome shrub is the Hebe or New Zealand shrubby veronica.

Hummock, Mounded and Dome Forms

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•ARCHING FORM

Many shrubs make vigorous erect stems that, after their initial burst of growth, produce lateral branches and arch over under their own weight. The overall shape is like a sheaf of wheat with the stems gathered in at the base but sprayed out towards the top. The initial vigour of the stems helps the plant ‘forage’ for light, then arching and lateral branching produce a broad, elevated canopy to exploit this light. This habit is very common among shrubs. murielae and shrub roses such as Rosa ‘Nevada’ and R. ‘Canary Bird’. The arching form is also common at a smaller scale among herbaceous plants where the stems or linear leaves adopt this configuration.

Arching Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

• TUSSOCK, TUFTED OR CAESPITOSE FORM Tussock form is effectively a smaller version of arching, and is used to refer to herbaceous plants including many grasses. It is scientifically known as a caespitose habit, meaning that all stems arise from a single compact root crown. It is common among monocotyledonous plants including grasses, such as fescues (Festuca ovina, F. glauca, F. coxii), Stipa tenuissima, toetoe (Cortaderia sp.), snow tussocks (Chionochloa sp.), rainbow tussock (Anemanthele lessoniana), among sedges (especially Carex spp. such as C. testacea and C. buchananii) and ferns (for example, Asplenium bulbiferum, Blechnum chambers, Dryopteris species).

Tussock, Tufted or Caespitose Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•ERECT OR UPRIGHT FORM AND VEIL PLANTING Whereas domed trees and shrubs produce a high proportion of spreading branches, erect, ascending form is characterized by vertical or steeply ascending main stems and branches. 44

Erect shrubs are often multi-stemmed with side branches being comparatively short. This habit gives the plant an overall shape that is upright with a strong component of ascending line. The appearance can be rather stiff with the main canopy held aloft at maturity.

Erect or Upright Form and Veil Planting

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•PALM FORM This form is, in some ways, similar to the arching habit described above but distinguished by the clear stem that can rise up as far as 20 metres or more. It is found almost exclusively among the members of the palm family and tree ferns. It consists of a tall straight main stem or stems with all leaves arising in a rosette from the single growing point at the stem tip. This gives various umbrella-type shapes that can be boldly sculptural and are usually striking. Some of the best known palms for landscape work in warm temperate areas include Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island palm), Syagrus romanzoffiana (queen palm) and Rhopalostylis sapida (nikau or shuttlecock palm).

Palm Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •SUCCULENTS AND SCULPTURAL FORM

Rather like palms and tree ferns, many succulents form a group of plants that have a very distinctive range of form. This could perhaps be described as ‘sculptural form’ because the plants have a singular strength of three-dimensional shape that immediately makes them the focus of attention. Some of the most striking are species like the fan aloe, Aloe plicatilis, the spiral aloe A. polyphylla, the dragon tree Dracaena draco and Agave attenuata. Occasionally the habit of other types of plants is so striking that it is also best described in this way. . Used singly and in small groups, they should be handled like sculpture. Planted in large numbers, they create a landscape quite distinct from the everyday human surroundings, and that brings an exhilarating atmosphere of the arid, often hostile, environments from which they originate.

Succulents and Sculptural Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS • OVAL UPRIGHT FORM A number of trees and shrubs have a generally upright habit of growth but a crown that also spreads laterally and, unlike erect and arching forms, is consistently furnished with side branches and foliage to near ground level. The form that results is oval or eggshaped. It is seen more often in selected cultivars than in wild species, largely because an oval upright form is convenient in many urban and garden locations where lateral space is restricted. This shape is less common among shrubs than trees mainly because shrubs, being generally multi-stemmed, tend to take on a broader habit. Oval form brings a rising element to composition. It has some of the qualities of erect form but, because of its more rounded outline, it is more contained, and less straining and soaring than the spires and columns of fastigiate forms.

Erect or Upright Form and Veil Planting

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•CONICAL, COLUMNAR AND FASTIGIATE FORMS

A pointed, conical form is frequent among conifers but also found in some broadleaf species. The crown is generally tall and tapers from the base to a more or less sharp apex formed by the leading stem. It is the product of a regular branching habit in which a single straight bole gives rise to a comparatively large number of first order branches (those arising directly from the bole) and these are regularly arranged in whorls or in a spiral with regular vertical intervals between the nodes. In many cases, the branches are near horizontal and thus the cone is made up of horizontal tiers of diminishing diameter towards the top of the crown.

Conical, Columnar and Fastigiate Forms

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•TABULATE AND LEVEL-SPREADING FORM Many trees and shrubs have habits of branching in which foliage is held in horizontal layers. In some species and cultivars this is particularly well developed and creates distinctive horizontal ‘tables’ of foliage. Such trees include Cedrus libani and Acer japonicum ‘Aureum’. The effect may be accentuated by a display of eye-catching flowers on the tabulate layers of shrubs such as Cornus kousa and Viburnum plicatum ‘Mariesii’. Some trees and shrubs have noticeably spreading branching patterns and a flattened silhouette without the separate layering of foliage. The silk tree, Albizia julibrissin, and a number of the tropical Acacia and other leguminous trees are examples of this spreading, umbrageous form.

Tabulate and Level-spreading Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •TRAINED FORM

Not only do plants grow spontaneously into a wide range of forms, but many species lend themselves to the sculpting of quite unnatural shapes by training, trimming and clipping. The most common green sculpture is the clipped hedge. In addition to its functional purpose, a formal hedge brings an element of control and precision to visual composition that cannot otherwise be achieved with vegetation. The elementary form of the rectilinear slab can be clipped from a tree or shrub and can be elaborated with variations in height and width. The whole slab or clipped ‘box’ may be raised above the ground as in the traditional pleaching of trees such as lime (Tilia sp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). Other angles and shapes can be created, such as castellations or curves in profile or in plan. A memorable example is the serpentine beech hedges (Fagus sylvatica) at Chatsworth, Derbyshire, England.

Open Irregular Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

• TRAINED FORM Not only do plants grow spontaneously into a wide range of forms, but many species lend themselves to the sculpting of quite unnatural shapes by training, trimming and clipping. The most common green sculpture is the clipped hedge. In addition to its functional purpose, a formal hedge brings an element of control and precision to visual composition that cannot otherwise be achieved with vegetation. The elementary form of the rectilinear slab can be clipped from a tree or shrub and can be elaborated with variations in height and width. The whole slab or clipped ‘box’ may be raised above the ground as in the traditional pleaching of trees such as lime (Tilia sp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). Other angles and shapes can be created, such as castellations or curves in profile or in plan.

Trained Form

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •LINE AND PATTERN

Line is closely related to form, being the two-dimensional effect of edges. To this extent, line is an abstraction from three-dimensional form but is worth distinguishing from it because two plants with similar form might have quite different qualities and character of line. The edges that create line can be the edges of a whole plant mass (its silhouette), or of its branches, stems, leaves, or petals, or the edges between different materials or colours and between light and shadow falling on the surfaces of plants. In combination lines create pattern. Composite patterns are formed on the surfaces of things and, although these surfaces may be curved or bent, they can be perceived from one viewing point as if they were on a two-dimensional plane. A pattern of lines can, by means of perspective, convey information about the three-dimensional shape of objects

but this requires interpretation of the two-dimensional pattern based on experience of moving through space. The essence of line is direction, being the result of the movement of a point in space. In visual composition, the primary effect of line is to lead our eyes and direct our attention. Although we do not necessarily follow each line faithfully to its end, our vision will nevertheless tend to move backwards and forwards along the stronger lines and follow the compounded direction of weaker and shorter lines. Our attention will tend to rest at the places where lines converge. So, line can be used to direct the visual exploration of a scene. Different directions of line, as found in different patterns and in different plants, have intrinsic aesthetic qualities that can be deliberately exploited in planting composition.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

LINE AND PATTERN 53

Ascending Line

Pendulous Line

Horizontal Line

Diagonal Line

Quality of Line

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•ASCENDING LINE

Ascending or vertical line is expressed in the outlines of plants with columnar or fastigiate form (e.g. Juniperus ‘Skyrocket’ and Cupressus sempervirens), in the trunks of strong growing trees (e.g. Poplar and Betula species, Pseudopanax crassifolius and many palms), in the vigorous stems of shrubs and herbaceous plants (e.g. Perovskia atriplicifolia and coppiced Cornus alba and Rubus cockburnianus), in the shapes of flower spikes (e.g. Furcraea foetida, Puya alpestris, Verbascum nigrum and Stachys lanata) and in the sword-shaped leaves of some monocotyledons (e.g. Astelia chathamica, Typha australis and Crocosmia paniculata).

The character of ascending line is assertive and emphatic and can be stately or grand if of sufficient scale. Ascending line is prominent because it opposes the direction of gravity. Yet a vertical line by itself exists in a state of tenuous balance and the least movement in any lateral direction will offset its alignment and release its considerable potential energy. This sense of delicate balance gives an air of achievement to strongly expressed vertical line, but if it is used without discretion and order, it can be restless and overbearing.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •PENDULOUS LINE

Pendulous or descending line is found in the branches of weeping trees. Pendulous line is characteristically restful, bringing a peacefulness to the scene, perhaps because it suggests letting go of the struggle with gravity. Weeping branches hang in a position of minimum effort. Perhaps because there is less resistance, less vitality in their habit, pendulous plants can reflect a melancholy mood that might be particularly strongly felt if it is combined with sombre, dark colours. The atmosphere created by the delicate, sparkling foliage of Betula pendula ‘Tristis’ or the golden twigs and wispy foliage of Salix x sepulcralis chrysocoma is lively while still gentle. Picea breweriana can suggest very different moods; in grey mists it may have a mournful aspect, in sunlight it can glisten like a green cascade.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •HORIZONTAL LINE

Horizontal line is seen in spreading branches and foliage, along the tops of clipped hedges, in the browsing line that forms the base of tree canopies in grazed parkland pasture, and in level ground surfaces articulated by grass or groundcover. This direction line represents a state of stability. Its character is passive, like a reclining figure, and it contains little potential energy and so implies little movement or effort. Because of its visual stability, planting with strong horizontal line can act as a foundation that will support the more active elements of composition. Indeed, without these to lift it the planting can appear featureless and lifeless. This is why the stable simplicity of a clipped hedge is most effective when it acts as a foundation or background to exuberant planting or other features, but rather severe or dismal when only for the sake of its own geometry.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •DIAGONAL LINE

Diagonal line is seen in sharply rising branches found occasionally in many trees and shrubs but more consistently in a few species and cultivars such as Prunus ‘Kanzan’ and Sorbus sargentiana. The stiff linear leaves of some monocotyledons are held at a strong diagonal although they are usually spread over a range of angles. Diagonal line is energetic, dynamic and exciting. It expresses tension and high potential energy. It is thrust out against gravity, moving upwards and forwards and this forceful quality makes it a powerful element in composition that is seen at its most effective when used in contrast to more stable elements. Too many strong diagonals would cause disintegration of the composition and a solid foundation is needed to support the dynamic nature and eye-catching qualities of diagonal line.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •QUALITY OF LINE

Because the medium of design that we work with is living vegetation, it is rare to find pure line direction except where the maintenance has imposed simple and geometrical form on planting. Geometric line that is quite straight or evenly curved is perceived as ‘formal’ and controlled. It demonstrates conscious intent rather than the forces of nature. The majority of form and line found in nature, although directional qualities are clearly discernible, is more varied and irregular in its character. A meandering or irregular line, whatever its overall direction, can have a spontaneous and playful quality and this is expressed in the darting, weaving growth of branches and twigs as they seek the light. Indeed, some cultivars have been selected specifically for their unusually twisted and picturesque branch habit (for example, Salix matsudana ‘Tortuosa’ and Corylus avellana ‘Contorta’).

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•TEXTURE

Plant texture can be defined as the visual roughness or smoothness of any part of the plant. It is akin to the texture of a painting, the grain of a photograph or the consistency of materials such as fabric, stone, brick or wood. Texture is a function of the scale of differentiation and division within a material. It may be the result of a pattern of lines but, if so, it is determined only by the scale of the pattern and not by the direction of the lines. A plant is commonly referred to as having coarse, fine or medium texture. Texture, like form, depends on viewing distance. When seen from a moderate distance a plant’s visual texture is the result of the size and shape of its leaves and twigs.

The larger the leaves and the more stout the twigs, the coarser the texture. The petiole also affects texture because a long and flexible petiole allows more movement of individual leaves in a breeze and this tends to break up the outlines of the leaves and give the foliage a softer appearance (such as the many species of poplar). If we move far enough away the visual effect of individual leaves and twigs will be lost and the canopy will appear to be made up of clusters or sprays of foliage. In this case it will be the size and arrangement of these clusters or branches that determines texture.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

TEXTURE 65

Coarse Texture

Medium Texure

Fine Texture

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•COARSE TEXTURE

The largest leaves and the thickest twigs have the coarsest, or boldest, visual texture. These include the huge rough leaves of Gunnera manicata which can be up to 2 metres across, the broad, lobed foliage of Rheum alexandre and Darmera peltata. In winter, the sturdy stems of Aralia elata or coppiced shoots of trees such as Catalpa and Paulownia tomentosa provide coarse texture among the deciduous plants.

Indeed the shapes of individual leaves tend to break up the outline of the plant and distract attention from overall form. In this case, the plant’s qualities of line arise from the edges of leaves and twigs rather than from the mass of the canopy. Plants with bold foliage and stems are primarily attention-grabbers, perhaps because the form and detail of their foliage is clearly visible from a distance, perhaps simply because of their size.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•MEDIUM TEXTURE

Between the textural extremes of plants such as Gunnera manicata and Erica arborea there are many that can be described as of medium texture. Even among these, noticeable contrast can be achieved between relatively fine and relatively coarse texture. The starkest contrasts are not always the most effective, and some linkage to bridge the gap between the coarsest and the finest foliage will generally help a composition. Such intermediate textures allow our eyes to absorb the range more easily by making a progression rather than too sudden a variation.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•FINE TEXTURE

The finest-textured plants are those with the smallest leaves or leaflets and the finest, most closely packed twigs. These include most species of Erica, the small-leafed Coprosma and Dracophyllum species, many Genista and Cytisus and many grasses, rushes and sedges. Fine-textured plants tend to be easy to look at, that is, relaxing rather than stimulating. They can give the impression of being at a greater distance than coarse-textured plants and are said to recede in the field of vision. As a result, a high proportion of fine-textured plants increases the sense of spaciousness within an enclosure, rather like the effect of fine-textured or small-patterned wallpaper in a room.

Their character is light and airy, expansive and soft. A further effect of fine-textured foliage is that the overall outline and form of the plant is strongly expressed and easily traced. The shape of the whole plant will usually dominate the shapes of individual leaves and stems. For this reason fine-textured plants are valuable in formal composition where strict control of pattern is the essence of design. Here, the outlines of planted areas, the planting of geometric patterns and the shaping of hedges and clipped specimens are all expressed with the greatest precision by finetextured species

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •COLOUR It is well known that colour is one of the first visual impressions to be made upon us by a scene. Perhaps this is why it is so important to many people in a landscape or garden and we must understand it well if we are to do successful planting. 72

Colour, of course, does not always mean intense colour: subtle colours and how to use them are equally important as are the colours of foliage and stems and of the plant at all times of the year. Colour theory began in a systematic way with Goethe’s Theory of Colours (1840). Certain scientific principles are generally accepted although some aspects of the perception of colour remain enigmatic.

We will not attempt a full explanation of colour theory but confine ourselves to principles of most practical use to the planting designer. As Michael Lancaster (1984) reminded us, ‘colour is light’. Differences in colour are differences in the properties of light, mainly wavelength, amplitude and energy. These differences are caused both by the nature of the light source and the reflection, refraction and absorption of the light before it reaches the eye. The colour of light can be described in terms of its three fundamental qualities: hue, value/tone and saturation.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

COLOUR 73

Hue

Value

Saturation

Colour Effects

Seasonal Colour

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •HUE

Hue is the quality that is popularly referred to as colour, that is, whether an object appears red, blue or yellow and so on, and is determined by the wavelength of the light. The natural spectrum is conventionally perceived to have seven hues: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, although on close inspection each is seen to grade continuously into its neighbours through intermediate hues. The hues of the spectrum are as pure as can be observed within the Earth’s atmosphere because they arise from the refraction of the sun’s light rather than from absorption by pigments. The colours of plants and other natural materials are the result of absorption by pigments contained in these materials. The wavelengths of light that are not absorbed are reflected back from the surface and nearly always contain a mixture of hues. Plant colours are also modified by the other two qualities of value and saturation.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•VALUE Value, often referred to as ‘tone’, is the quantity or ‘luminosity’ of the light reflected back from a coloured surface. This is most easily understood as the lightness or darkness of the colour. A black and white photograph shows the differences only of value and not of hue or saturation; it is therefore a study in ‘tone’. The brightest, most reflective surfaces have a high value or light ‘tone’ and the dimmest, or least reflective, have a low value or dark ‘tone’.

If we consider the possible variation in tone of a single hue – say red – we notice that if the red pigment is diluted with white (that is, one reflecting all hues equally) the total quantity of light reflected is greater, the red is a paler tone and its value is higher. As more white pigment is added, the red pigment becomes less perceptible and the colour would eventually become almost pure white. Conversely, if the red pigment is mixed with black (one absorbing all hues equally) the total quantity of light reflected is less and the colour becomes a darker tone, its value is reduced.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •SATURATION

Given the same hue and a constant value, variation in colour could still be perceived. This would be a variation in the ‘saturation’ of the hue, that is, in the degree of redness or blueness of the colour. Saturation gives us a measure of relative colourfulness. A bright red and a dull red may have the same value but the bright red will be distinguished by its greater saturation. The spectral hues are pure, fully saturated colours, but the majority of colours we see in nature are more or less muted, or dull. In these colours, the pure hue is muted with a proportion of greyness of the same value as the pure hue. This reduction in saturation could be pictured as the red hue in a colour photograph gradually fading to the grey of identical value that would represent it in a black and white photograph.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•COLOUR PERCEPTION The actual colour observed, that is, the characteristics of the light reflected from an object, depends on the light source and, if this is the sun, on the weather. For example, in the soft bluish light of humid, cool temperate climates, pale and muted colours can be fully appreciated and intense, saturated, vibrant colour can appear garish. By contrast in the stronger sunlight of lower latitudes, especially where air quality is clear, subtleties of pastel shades are lost and it is the saturated, brilliant, colours that are seen at their best. Furthermore, no colour exists in isolation. The perception of colours is greatly influenced by their context.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •COLOUR EFFECTS

It is mostly accepted that colour hues produce reasonably predictable effects on the observer (Birren 1978). Indeed, the meaning of colour is reliable enough to have been used as an effective measure of exploring personality, as in the Lüscher colour test (Scott, trans. 1970). Thus, colour hues can be understood as aesthetic materials, rather like different sculptural media or different paving materials. What follows is a summary of some of their main characteristics. • Red is the hottest colour. • Orange is also warm and advancing. • Yellow is warm but without the passion of red.

• Indigo and violet contain both blue and red. • White is the equal combination of all the hues of the spectrum. • Brown results from a mixture of many pigments. • Black is not a colour, it is the absence of light. • Intermediate and mixed hues have combined qualities according to their composition and hues mixed with white to produce tints show a moderation or refinement of the qualities of the pure hue. • The effects of colour depend on value and saturation as well as hue.

• Green is a neutral colour in many ways. •Blue is the coolest hue and the most recessive in our field of vision.

• Warm, saturated colours, because of their intensity & energy, tend to distract attention from or texture & so dominate composition.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•SEASONAL COLOUR Colour is something we associate very much with the seasonal changes of the landscape. The fresh luminous greens of a temperate spring followed by dark matt foliage of late summer, the fiery hues of leaf fall and ripe fruits in autumn, the subtle unsaturated colours of winter that can be surprisingly intense, and the drama of the almost monochrome landscapes of snow – all these images are archetypal colour expressions of the seasons. In other regions where there is a warm temperate, Mediterranean or subtropical climate there are different colours associations that mark the passage of the year.

When selecting plants we should consider the colour of their foliage, stem, flower and fruit, not only at peak display times, but also during other seasons. Graham Stuart Thomas’ 1967 classic Colour in the Winter Garden remains an excellent general reference and for inspiration in winter colour and form of perennials, we can do no better than study the work of planting designer Piet Oudolf, who emphasizes the winter effects of perennial plants as much as their flower and summer foliage. A number of grasses, such as Molinia caerulea, Miscanthus sinensis and Panicum virgatum, are at least as attractive and, indeed, more colourful in autumn and winter than they are in summer.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS •VISUAL ENERGY

We have seen that the aesthetic characteristics of line, form, texture and colour are all capable of producing related effects. Diagonal line, fastigiate form, bold texture and bright colours all, to some extent, share properties of dynamism, drama and stimulation and can produce eye-catching, striking effects, whereas horizontal line, prostrate or dome form, fine texture and dull colours are all characterized by restful, less imposing qualities and so play a more recessive, quieter role in composition. The connections between these effects can be understood with the help of Nelson’s concept of visual energy (Nelson, 1985). Active characteristics have a higher visual energy than passive characteristics. The idea of visual energy also helps to explain why too many saturated colours in one place (as is often seen in perennial planting and cottage gardens) or too much bold texture and diagonal line

(as common in succulent and tropical-themed planting) creates a composition that can be chaotic and overbearing. These high-energy elements will all fight for attention and struggle among themselves for dominance. To gain the full impact from a specimen plant and to appreciate its unusual qualities, its visual energy needs to be complemented with areas of quieter, undemanding planting. The key to success is to consciously choose the energy level so that it fits the site and the use. Planting can be designed for high or low visual energy overall. For example, in a quiet meditative space, or in borders that complement fine architectural detail, much of the planting could be of low visual energy, whereas a display garden in a park, or a dreary urban setting, may need high energy to lift it above its ordinary context.

PLANTS CHARACTERISTICS

•COMBINING PLANTS A particular species may be of attractive appearance and reliable culture. However, when planted with others, these recommendations will come to little if it is placed where its beauty is eclipsed by conflicting demands on our attention, or it is quickly overgrown by invasive neighbours. The next two chapters will deal with two different aspects of plant combinations.In addition, all the principles of planting design that were previously explained directly and mainly affect the combining of plants that affect Visual Energy.

Focalization of Interest

Balance

Unity

PLANTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Proportion

Simplicity

Rhythm & Line

PLANTS DESIGN METHODS

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•LAYERED STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

I believe that designing with layers is one of the most important techniques in planting design. Too much planting design is done on plan alone. No less attention should be given to the vertical, spatial arrangement of plants than to how we arrange them in the horizontal plane. After all, it is the elevations of plant groups that we see most often rather than the view from above. It is important for designers to understand the effect of layering of plant communities and this is equally true for all types and scales of planting, from forest through shrubland to meadow or herbfield. Only this understanding enables them to realize the full potential of their unique design medium.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

Canopy (Trees)

Sub-Canopy (Lagrge Shrubs) Shrubs UnderGround Groundcover (Creeper)

Herbacoeus

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS •CANOPY STRUCTURES

The main tree canopy, at its most vigorous growth stages, can be so dense that few plants can survive at all in the feeble light below. Where more light is able to penetrate, however, saplings quickly spring up, along with shade-tolerant shrubs, and ferns and nikau palms luxuriate in the dappled sunlight and moist shelter. Even where there is little understorey, the bush interior is a tangled mass of stems, lianes and fallen debris that make it both a visual and a physical barrier. So, if we possibly can, we will find our way round the perimeter or keep to well-trodden paths within it. If we do venture into the dim interior, we find ourselves in an unfamiliar world where we feel clumsy and easily disoriented. In the places where shafts of bright sunlight penetrate, the foliage of the shrubs and ferns is lit up and seems to glow, jewellike, in the darkness.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

CANOPY STRUCTURE

Three-layer Canopy Structures 87

Two-layer Canopy Structures

Single-layer Canopy Structures

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•THREE-LAYER CANOPY STRUCTURES

This kind of multiple layer woodland develops where the ground provides sufficient moisture, nutrients and root anchorage and where conditions of exposure and temperature allow. Little remains of the original great forest of Europe, but a related type is found in planted and managed woodlands and in spontaneous secondary growth. Small areas of woodland, copses and spinneys are much more common than extensive forest because they can occupy pieces of land not big enough to be put to more financially rewarding uses, or not suitable for development.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•THREE-LAYER CANOPY STRUCTURES (EDGE OR MARGIN)

Woodland edge and forest margin are more or less synonymous, and are often characterized by a gradation in canopy heights from high woodland canopy through smaller trees and shrubs, dense tall herbs with dwarf or prostrate shrubs, down to grassland, herbfield or open ground. This edge may be fixed by climate, topography or the management of adjacent land. The edge may advance as the woodland or forest colonizes open land, or it may recede as incursions are made by human activity or natural destructive events. In all cases, however, its canopy structure and constituent species respond to the higher light levels and the greater exposure at the edge than within.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•TWO-LAYER CANOPY STRUCTURES

Tree canopy / Shrubs thicket, This combination typically occurs where the tree canopy is sufficiently open to allow a dense and continuous shrub thicket to develop in the understorey. The shrub thicket often includes species that spread by vegetative means to form colonies of dense ‘undergrowth’ and prevent the establishment of a significant field layer.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•BUSHCANOPY LAYER STRUCTURES

Lowland secondary forest, in its early stages of development, goes through a thicket stage that is dense and impenetrable in places. It can be explored where trees and shrubs have developed raised canopies or are more widely spaced. Understorey and field layers may be present where sufficient light penetrates the tree canopy. This is similar in composition to the forest layer in the first type, but is often more dense. It may contain colonies of distinctive trees such as tree ferns and nikau palm that create a notable variation in form and spatial quality.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•SINGLE-LAYER CANOPY STRUCTURES

TREE CANOPY Tree growth without associated shrubs or herbs is unusual in nature, but not unknown. On thin, dry soils, xerophytic species may be the only ones capable of exploiting ground water at great depth. Under these conditions of extreme moisture stress, individuals are usually widely spaced, occupying the ground at a density determined by the quantity of water available. Another example can be found on screes and boulder falls where trees may be the first plants to colonize. Their rapid extension growth at the seedling stage allows the stem to extend into the sunlight from the deep crevices that retain the small amounts of soil and moisture needed for their seedlings to establish.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•SHRUB THICKET LAYER STRUCTURE

A shrub thicket is a shrub layer that is continuous and dense enough to suppress the growth of a significant field layer. This type of community is common, if not overused in landscape plantings, where it is cheap to establish and easy to maintain. Many supermarket and shopping mall plantings illustrate the danger of over-reliance on one type of plant assemblage.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•SHRUB THICKET LAYER STRUCTURE

100

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

101

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

•HERB LAYER/GROUND LAYER STRUCTURE

102

This type of vegetation structure would be very adaptable to gardens and indeed forms the basic configuration of much mixed herbaceous and meadow gardening. It can be used to demarcate space without visual obstruction in small- and medium-scale landscape; nature study and wildlife planting in school grounds and urban parks and reserves; roadside planting, margins of commercial forestry plantations; ornamental grassland and mixed grass and herbaceous planting in parks, gardens and civic spaces.

PLANTING DESIGN METHODS

103

PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

•LANDSCAPING AS PROCESS

106

A process is a sequence of steps, in the form of decisions or activities, that results in the accomplishment of a goal. A process may also be a sequence of stages during which something is created, modified, or transformed. Both interpretations of the term apply to the development of a landscape. The sequencing of decisions is what happens as a landscape architect or designer works to sort out the client’s needs and desires as well as the assorted characteristics of a specific site and somehow fit one to the other.

The sequencing of stages is what happens as a landscape project, beginning as the need or desire of a client, moves to the design stage, then to the construction stage, and finally into continuing maintenance and management. Unlike a manufacturing process, landscaping is frequently a cyclic process. When an automobile rolls off the assembly line, the process that led to its construction is completed.

A Higher Level of Client Expectation

PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

Client's Initial Level of Wants and Needs

The Landscape Process

A New Environment

The First Level of Client Expectation

107

Client's Initial Level of Wants and Needs

The Landscape Process

The Recycling Continues...

Another New Environment

PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

•DESIGN AS A PROCESS

108

The design process occurs in two stages, which are ongoing simultaneously, but which are necessarily independent of each other for a while. The two phases, site analysis and program analysis, are diagrammed. During the site analysis, the designer seeks a compilation of the natural, man-made, cultural, physical, and visual characteristics of the site. The compilation should be a thorough inventory of the site’s attributes made without regard to whether they are positive or negative features. They will later be analyzed to determine what options and opportunities they offer for development.

At the same time, but separate from the site analysis, the program analysis begins with a detailed compilation of the client’s needs and desires. At this stage, the designer should make no attempt to judge the propriety, possibility, or logic of the client’s needs. It is first necessary to make the inventory. Once that is done, then the analysis of the needs can be undertaken and a program written. The program organizes the client’s disparate wish lists into related groupings, which will serve to guide the development of the design.

PLANTING DESIGN PROCESS

Inventory of the Program Requirements

Analysis of the Program Requirements

Synthesis

Functional Diagramming

Inventory of the Site

Analysis of the Site Inventory

Synthesis

Development of the Master Plan

109

110

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

111

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

The client is the person(s) or organization that owns and provides financing for a project. Funding may be from the client’s personal resources, or there may be another source. The contractor is a party in contract with the client or the client’s representatives. 112

The prime contractor or general contractor is the firm directly responsible to the client for construction of the project. Depending upon the project and the company’s capabilities, the prime contractor may build the entire project. More often, the prime contractor retains full responsibility for management control and supervision of the project,

but hires one or more specialty firms to construct portions of the project. Subcontractors are firms in contract with the prime contractor. They may do the electrical work, or the plumbing, or pool construction, or masonry, or countless other specialized construction tasks that the prime contractor is unable to do or could not do as economically as the subcontractor can do it. The subcontractor and prime contractor enter into a relationship known as a subcontract. The subcontractor is usually accountable to the general contractor, not the project owner. Responsibility for the satisfactory performance of the subcontractor on the owner’s project is assumed by the general contractor.

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

Client (The Owner)

Ajax Landscape Contractors

Bob's Grading Service

Al's Pool Construction

(The Prime Contract)

Mary's Electrical Service

113

(All Subcontractors)

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

114

The situation shown establishes the landscape architect as the prime contract holder on the project and usually empowers the landscape architect as the owner’s representative in all matters that involve the project and the subcontractors. As the principal professional on the project, the landscape architect has the responsibility for selecting the landscape contracting firm that will actually build the landscape. In addition to the drawings and renderings prepared by the landscape architect to help the client visualize the proposed design, the landscape architect must prepare detailed construction drawings and written specifications that cover every aspect of the project. Only in that way can subcontractors know exactly what is expected of them. Should questions or problems arise at any stage of the project, the subcontractor’s direct line of appeal is to the landscape contractor or to the landscape architect, depending upon with which party they share their contract.

Client

Sub-Contractor 1

Landscape Architect

(The Prime Contract)

Landscape Contractor

(Subcontract)

Sub-Contractor 2

Sub-Contractor 3

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

Client illustrates a situation typical of a larger landscape project in which the client contracts directly with both a landscape architect and a landscape contracting firm. The client may or may not have sought the assistance or advice of the landscape architect in selecting the landscape contractor. Often in this type of contractual relationship, the landscape architect may still be designated as the client’s representative in dealing with the landscape contractor when the client lacks the time or expertise to deal with technical matters. However, the direct responsibility of both professionals is to the client.

Landscape Contractor

Landscape Architect

(Prime ContractS) 115

Sub-Contractor 1

Sub-Contractor 2

(Subcontracts)

Sub-Contractor 3

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

116

One professional is usually designated as the overall coordinator of the project to ensure that the work progresses in a logical sequence with minimal confusion and congestion at the site. The general contractor may or may not be a landscape firm. On a large project, the general contractor is likely to be the coordinating overseer of the subcontractors, maintaining the schedule and quality standards established by the client’s professional team. It is the responsibility of the various construction specialists and their subcontracted firms and suppliers to move on and off the site, do their work, and depart in time for the next subcontractor to begin work. The need for communication and frequent consultation among all participants in the construction project is obvious.

LANDSCAPE CONTRACTING

Client

Engneering

Landscape Architect

Architect

117

General Contractor

Building Contractor Sub 1

Sub 2

Grading & Paving Sub 3

Landscape Contractor Sub 1

Sub 2

Sub 3

Sub 4

LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE

LANDSCAPE MAINTANANCE

120

As important as the design and proper installation of landscape plantings is their ongoing maintenance. Many gardens do not attain the appearance envisioned by the landscape designer until the plants have time to mature. Aiding those plants in their healthy maturation requires attentive and knowledgeable maintenance. Also, some designs require specific plant effects such as clipped formal hedges or espalier training to create the garden as envisioned. In both instances, the value of skillful landscape maintenance is apparent. A maintenance program generally will include the following tasks: watering, fertilizing, aerating, mulching, edging, pruning, pest control, and winterization. It may also include the replacement of damaged plants, patching of worn turf areas, or the seasonal change of flower plantings.

LANDSCAPE MAINTANANCE

Watering

Edging

Fertilization SUSTAINED CARE OF PLANTINGS

Mulching

121

Aeration

REFERENCES

• Ingels, J. E. (2009). Landscaping: Principles and practices. Delmar Cengage Learning. • ROBINSON, N. I. C. K. (2018). Planting design handbook. ROUTLEDGE.

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“IDEA OF TODAY, IS THE FUTURE OF TOMORROW” LA.Abdullah AlHibshi