Cultural Fortress

CULTURAL FORTRESS

Ashley Bigham

CONTENTS

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04 INTRODUCTION + a note about EUROMAIDAN 13 01: HISTORY OF DEFENSE ARCHITECTURE 22 DEVELOPMENT OF FORTIFICATIONS + TERRITORIAL FORMS 35 02: CATALOG OF CASTLES 66 INTERVIEWS 77 03: LOOKING IN/LOOKING OUT 82 ESSAY Territorial Architecture: Medieval Strategies in a Globalized World 100 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Belarus

Poland

Kyiv Lviv

Slovakia

Hungary Moldova

Romania

Ode

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Russia

Kharkiv

Dnipropetrovsk

essa

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Introduction

As a cultural artifact and architectural typology, the fortress embodies more than the physical aspects of strength, stability, and security; it is a symbol of cultural history. These enduring structures are scattered across the globe today in variations of their traditional forms altered by time, technology, and culture. As these structures lost their effectiveness as physical defense systems, some adopted new uses such as museums, cultural centers, community meeting spaces, and tourist attractions while others remain privately owned. The need for these structures has never faded; it has evolved.

During the Middle Ages, Western Ukraine saw a building explosion of fortified cities, castles, and forts.

An evolution of society and technology, medieval structures reflected advancement in construction techniques and cultural shifts. These fortifications of Western Ukraine are a unique historical phenomenon.

As a territory located on a major trade route, Ukraine has always been a region coveted by adjacent, as well as, distant civilizations. Its turbulent history, marked by numerous wars, is reflected in the extent of its defense infrastructure. Each city developed distinct fortification systems related to geographical features and local building practices. These memorials of defense are part of Ukraine’s rich historical and architectural heritage. There has been little need for actual defense fortifications for hundreds of years,

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yet these structures remain because they are embedded with meaning. The significance of these structures does not need to be limited to defense fortifications. Perhaps, we can begin to see them as cultural fortifications.

These structures provide an opportunity for Ukraine as places for cultural interaction and preservation. As architects, we should consider how the preserved might stay alive and evolve not through physical architectural changes, but through cultural influences. Identity can come not only from how we use a space, but from understanding how that use has evolved.

The first goal of this project was to connect the Ukrainian people to their history, to view that history as evolving with the potential to grow, and to share that knowledge with the world.

The significance of these structures does not need to be limited to defense fortifications, but instead, we can begin to see architecture as an evolving force that can influence the lives of Ukrainians and Americans today.

The second goal of this project was to connect broader themes of defense architecture to the global political structures of today.

In addition to their cultural value, architects

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4 1. Prospect Svobody, Lviv 2. Vokzalny Bazar, Lviv 3. Prospect Svobody, Lviv 4. Christmas Market in Market Square, Lviv 5. Ivan Franko Park, Lviv 6. Lychakiv Cemetery, Lviv 7. Maidan demonstration, Prospect Svobody, Lviv 8. Stryisky Park, Lviv 9. Election day, Prospect Svobody, Lviv 10. Sunbathing on a public beach, Odessa 11. Chess game at the beach, Odessa 12. Seven Kilometer Bazaar, Odessa. Photos by author.

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can gain formal and typological knowledge from the study of fortresses. Territorial architecture is still being constructed all around the world by a host of authorities. From embassies to border crossings, defense is still a consideration for many new buildings. How can we use the past to inform the future of defense 10

architecture?

The information in this book is divided into three parts: history of defense architecture (past), catalog of castles (present), and looking in/looking out (future).

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Acknowledgments This project was completed in 2014 as an independent research project while I was a Fulbright Fellow in Lviv, Ukraine. First, I would like to thank the U.S. Fulbright Program for their commitment to international education.

Most importantly, I would like to thank the Center for Urban History in Lviv for hosting me during my study. Special thanks to Sofia Dyak and Iryna Matsevko for their invitation to work and teach at the Center. In addition, all my colleagues at the Center showed me generos12

ity and friendship which will be greatly missed.

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EuroMaidan

In the fall of 2013 Ukraine suddenly became the fascination of the world. Peaceful protests dominated Maidan Nezalezhnosti, a central square in Kyiv, while millions watched from afar. The first protesters were students soon followed by veterans and citizens from all walks of life protesting the regime of President Viktor Yanukovych. The people who followed in the days and weeks to come represented vastly diverse backgrounds. People of all faiths, ages, backgrounds, and ethnicity joined together to protest a government that was increasingly dictatorial. On January 16, 2014 a series of laws passed by the government stripped citizens of basic free speech and assem-

“Nothing ever becomes real until you experience it—Even a proverb is no proverb to you till your life has illustrated it.�

John Keats, 1819

bly rights. By February violence by riot police was spiraling out of control. The worst violence against protesters occurred during a three-day period in late February. It concluded on February 20th, a day when over 50 protesters were killed mostly by sniper fire.

The final death toll for the Maidan movement was more than 100 people. These events were a national tragedy for the entire country of Ukraine.

Less than twenty-five years have passed since Ukrainian independence, and there have been many hurdles to its growth as an independent nation.

The ongoing need for reflection and forward action propels us to take a deeper look at the history of the Ukrainian territory. Ukraine suffers from the same challenges that plague many Post-Soviet states.

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February 01, 2014. Kyiv, Ukraine.

February 16, 2014. Lviv, Ukraine.

The government is fighting years of corruption and misguidance. However, embedded in the Maidan movement was a deep sense of optimism. Thousands

February 22, 2014. Lviv, Ukraine.

Maidan barricades, public gatherings and spontaneous memorials in Kyiv and Lviv.

Photos by author.

flooded the square with dreams: a dream that things will change, for a corruption free society, for educational reforms, for a greater relationship with Western Europe, and for international human rights. Maidan events, along with their ideals, will continue to influence the future of Ukraine for years to come.

It was through this lens of the Maidan revolution that this research was produced. The timing of such events was unpredictable, yet enlightening. While studying historic defense building techniques, modern-day barricades were being built all over Maidan.

The parallels were apparent, yet distant. It was always a goal of this project to connect Ukrainians to their past through an architectural future and these events made this connection even more important.

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As with all revolutions, there is a unique opportunity for change after the dust settles. This is the moment to rethink the architectural future of public spaces in Ukraine. In the coming years, Ukraine will need to make many physical alterations to its cities and infrastructure. Along with these improvements, there is a new opportunity to examine buildings of historical value as well. As Ukrainians search for their identity going forward, connecting to their past becomes even more important.

Public space is key to a person’s sense of culture, community, and citizenship. Public spaces are not only designated plazas, squares or parks of a city. Meaningful public places can also be local spaces of daily interaction such as bazaars, sidewalks, churches, schools yards, or even castles.

Ukrainians have a special relationship to their fortresses and castles. Some Ukrainians are simply fascinated citizens who have taken a personal interest in learning the history of Ukrainian castles. Others interact daily with a fortress in their village or city. On weekends, a family might picnic near the ruins of a palace. As with America, the Ukrainian experience is diverse and varied. When speaking about their hometown or village Ukrainians will often speak about their castle and its unique characteristics. In Ukraine, castles are symbols of pride, history, and tradition. It is important to keep that pride and historical tradition alive.

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01 History of Defense Architecture

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

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Evolution of Defense Architecture

Roman rectangular fort divided by major streets with axial gates.

Slavic grod with concentric walls made of wood and landform works.

Classical Antiquity

Motte and bailey castle with a mound surrounded by a ditch and palisade.

Middle Ages 500-1500

Ancient Rome 509 BC-467 AD

Early Middle Ages 500-1000

Iron Age Hill Forts First Millennium

Slavic Grody 6th-10th Century

The hill fort is a mound or earthwork used for protection. The fortification structure follows the topography for the hill with small walls or ditches. The elevated position gave a defensive advantage to its inhabitants.

A grod was a concentric fortification that typically included earthen ramparts, wooden walls interspersed with towers and a gate, and was surrounded by a moat. Grody were unique in their style and construction to the Slavic regions of present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Russia.

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Roman Rectangular Forts 27 BC- 476 AD

Motte and Bailey Castles 10th-13th Century

Early Roman forts were constructed with strict geometries and included two major streets: the north-south Cardo and the eastwest Decumanus. These forts or planned cities contained a central public space and buildings to house soldiers. Roman forts were surrounded by wooden or stone wall and simple ditch.

Motte and bailey castles comprised a wooden or stone keep (tower) raised on a motte (hill). The keep was located in a bailey (enclosed courtyard) and surrounded by a protective ditch and wall.

Concentric castle with multiple layers of walls surrounding a tower.

Fortified residence with pentagonal exterior and circular courtyard as exemplified by Villa Farnese.

Star fort design with nested geometries for Manheim, Germany.

Early Modern Period 1450-1750 High Middle Ages 1000-1300

Renaissance 1300-1600

Classicism 1500-1700

Stone Keep Castles 11th-14th Century

Star Fort 16th Century-17th Century

Stone keep towers improved upon Motte and bailey castles by enlarging the keep with thicker walls, storage and living quarters, turrets, and a chapel.

New weapons such as the cannonball called for changes in defense architecture.

Influenced by complex Renaissance geometries, star forts used earthworks and complex angles to defend against cannons.

Concentric Castles 13th-14th Century

Fortified Residence 14th-18th Century

A concentric castle is similar to a stone keep castle with an inner courtyard surrounded by one or more outer walls.

This arrangement was more difficult to attack and made it easy to capture attackers between the two walls. Gates between layers of walls could be offset to delay invaders.

As fewer new castles were built, older castles were converted into estate houses that were larger and more comfortable for residents. New residential construction also incorporated fortification aesthetics without defensive purposes. These structures were often more about impressing visitors than defending attackers.

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Motte and Bailey Castle Cardiff Castle was built in Cardiff, Wales as a motte and bailey castle during the late 11th century.

Hill Fort Maiden Castle, England is an example of an Iron Age hill fort. Photo by Major George Allen, 1935.

Concentric Castle Aerial view of Dover Castle, construction began on the stone castle around 1160.

Roman Fort Housesteads Roman fort which lies along Hadrian’s Wall is one of the best preserved Roman forts. Built in the 2nd century, it housed 800 men and included barracks, officer’s housing, granaries, and a hospital.

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Star Fort Fort Bourtange in the Netherlands is one of the best examples of a star fort design. The last battle at Fort Bourtange was fought in 1672.

Stone Keep Lubart Castle in Lutsk, Ukraine.

The tall keep is one of the defining features of this castle. Photo

by Modulo.

Slavic Grod Biskupin, Poland is now the site of archaeological open air museum featuring a reconstructed early Iron Age fortified settlement. In the Slavic grod tradition, wood is the main building material.

Fortified Residence Villa Farnese, Caprarola, Italy.

Completed 1573. Designed by architect Jacopo da Vignola, the residence is one of the best examples of High Renaissance and Mannerist architecture.

World War I Forts Fort Douaumont was constructed in the late 1880s near the city of Verdun, France. The fort suffered heavy damage in 1916 during the First World War.

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Evolution of Fortified Walls High Walls with Breastwork High walls made of stone Watchtowers Addition of watchtowers and high merlons

9th-11th Century Early Middle Ages 11th-13th Century Middle Ages Fortress wall From the 9th century to the 16th century the castle wall changed in its structure and function to adapt 9-11th Century to modern warfare practices. The most significant 11-13th Century changes came during the Renaissance in a response to cannons and other advanced weaponry systems.

Evolution of FortiďŹ ed Wall 18

13-15th Cen

Bastions Projecting tower with glacis or basic earthworks

Angled Bastions Angled bastions and multiple glacis become more geometrically complex

13th-15th Century High Middle Ages/ Renaissance

13-15th Century

15th-16th Century Renaissance 15-16th Century

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Topographical Fortifications

Parade Parade A A place place for for troops troops to to assemble assemblefor for inspection. inspection of

display.

Terreplein An enlarged banquette behind the rampart, Terreplein formed for the reception An enlarged behind of artillery tobanquette fire over the the rampart, formed for the parapet. reception of artillery to fire over the parapet.

Parapet A bank of earth over which a soldier may fire. In permaParapet nent works it crowns the A bank ofAlso earthknown over which a rampart. as soldier may fire. In permanent breastwork. works it crowns the rampart.

Banquette

Banquette A platform behind the A parapet platformon behind whichthe theparapet soldier on which thetosoldier stands to stands fire, so that he fire, may so that hedown may step step after down firing after firing and be completely and be completely protectprotected by the parapet.

ed by the parapet.

Superior SuperiorSlope Slope The Thecrest crestofofthe theparapet, facing outwards. parapet, facing

outwards.

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Glacis An elevated mound of earth on the country side of a ditch, sloping outward so that an enemy attacking the Glacis ditch must move up it and An elevated mound of earth on the country side of a thus be exposed to ďŹ re from ditch, sloping outward so that an enemy attacking the the parapet. ditch must move up it and this be exposed to fire from the parapet.

Abattis An obstacle formed of felled trees, with their trimmed and sharpened Abatis branches facing the enemy. They An obstacle formed of felled trees, with their may be place in the ditch, where the trimmed and sharpened branches facing the escarp is a gentle slope, or on the enemy. They may be placed in the ditch, where country side of the glacis. the escarp is a gentle slope, or on the country side of the glacis.

Advanced Glacis

Rampart A bank of earth behind the ditch, on top of which is formed the parapet.

Ditch Ditch AnAn excavation excavationininfront frontof a of rampart. a rampart.

Advanced Glacis A secondary glacis outside A secondary glacis outside the the primary, usually in primary, usually in conjunction with conjunction with abattis and abatis and trous-de-loup.

trous-de-loup.

Trous-de-loup Trous-de-loup Holes, Holes,6-8 6-8feet feetdeep deepand and of of similar diameter, with similar diameter, with sharpened sharpened stakes stakesat atthe the bottom, dug to form obsta obstacles. bottom, dug to form

cles.

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Development of Fortifications

Roman Town Viollet-le-Duc, Military Architecture, 1860.

Roman Walls of Carcassonne Viollet-le-Duc, Military Architecture, 1860.

European Development The history of defense fortifications is one steeped in tradition, culture, ambition, and war. From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance castles when through great transition both culturally and architecturally.

However, the term “castle� typically conjures a specific image in our minds of stone towers, gatehouses, and moats. In reality, these images represent only a small period of time in the lengthy history of defense architecture. Typically, we remember a single stage of construction and not the evolution over time. We tend to view the world as static, owing its image only

Tower Viollet-le-Duc, Military Architecture, 1860.

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to our specific memory at a particular time and not the larger narrative.

What we think of today as European castles and fortresses, began as hill forts or Roman rectangular forts. The hill fort was popular in Europe during the Bronze and Early Iron Age. The hill fort integrated the defense strategies with the landscape, siting the fort on a hill with winding paths to the top.

The location of wooden walls, ditches and mounds were based on natural topography but were adapted to meet the needs of the inhabitants.

Following the natural landscape, these forts were often circular or concentric in plan. Depending on their size, hill forts may have sustained a single family or an entire tribe of people.

Over the years, many hill forts were conquered by Romans and adapted into more structured Roman forts which were rectilinear in plan and were planned with major avenues that lead to a central space. Later, the motte and bailey castle developed combining aspects of the Roman and Hill Fort. It was during the Middle Ages (5th-15th century) when great innovation in weapons, military tactics, and building technologies led to the evolution of castles and fortresses. Fortresses remained in a constant state of repair and renovation to combat the changing attack strategies.

As wall types improved so did the siege techniques to breach the walls.

Although it was much more common to actually surround the castle and starve out the inhabitants, armies employed many methods to enter the castle including building siege towers, tunneling, and battering rams. The defenders were constantly developing new ways to defend against these different attack methods. For example, wooden walkways, also known as hoardings, were designed so defenders could shoot arrows from the top of the wall or drop hot oil onto the people below through so-called “murder holes.� Both attackers and defenders were resourceful using natural resources such as trees and water to create the most effective defenses.

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Abatis US Army Chief of Engineers.

Military Engineering: Field Defenses, 1908.

Grod Wall Types Kaufmann, J.E. The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages, 2004.

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In the fifteenth century the perfection of the cannonball changed castle design drastically.

A cannonball could easily puncture through the typical curtain wall, so bastions and ravelins were invented. The triangulated shape of a bastion provided better shooting angles and more protection using rammed earth for added structure.

Slavic Development Slavic fortifications followed similar logic to the western development of fortifications with a few major differences. The traditional Slavic fortress was a grod, a fortified settlement made of wood and earth. A grod was typically built in a circular or semi-circular shape with concentric walls.

They were often located on a hill or near a river or lake that would provide a natural defensive barrier. During the 7th and 8th centuries BC, these structures were prevalent in present-day Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Grod Plans Kaufmann, J.E. The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages, 2004.

and eastern Germany. Typical grod construction used wooden walls that were also combined with rubble or clay infill to strengthen the walls and prevent destruction by attack or fire. The fault of this wood system was both flammability and its need to be replaced periodically as the wood would rot. Grod walls also took a great amount of wood to construct. For these reasons they were eventually replaced with stone construction.

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Khotyn, Ukraine Map of the fortress using hatching, color, and tone to describe surrounding landscape. Author unknown.

Landscape A castle’s relationship to the landscape is as varied as castle typologies themselves. Beyond defensive analysis, castles should be viewed as centers of daily life, commerce, law, and agricultural production. Traditional analysis of castle landscapes includes topography and natural water features such as lakes or rivers, but should also include a wider view of the surrounding built environment including the relationship to a village, town, or city.

Including the surrounding built environment into the category of landscape creates a broader, more cohesive view of a castle’s legacy and historical significance.

In the realm of traditional landscape analysis, topography and water are the two dominant features for most castle designs. Both are intrinsically tied to survival, yet they have far-reaching social and symbolic effects.

Natural hills, rock formations, and other geological features often played a major role in the siting of a castle. Finding a natural land formation that

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The Castle on the Mountain Johann Wolfgang von Goethe There stands an ancient castle On yonder mountain height, Where, fenced with door and portal, Once tarried steed and knight.

But gone are door and portal, And all is hushed and still; O’er ruined wall and rafter I clamber as I will. ...

And when, as eve descended, The hush grew deep and still, And the setting sun looked upward On that great castled hill; Then far and wide, like lord and bride, In the radiant light we shone -It sank; and again the ruins Stood desolate and alone.

John Cobb’s translation published in Goethe: Poetical Works, 1902.

would create unique defensive structures was desired. However, this type of siting also resulted in another outcome—that of icon.

Historic drawings, maps, and written descriptions of these fortresses often emphasized the view from afar or below the structure looking up in a heroic manner. This vantage point increased the mythic quality of these structures for future generations. It can be assumed (and is supported by evidence in drawings) that the original designers of these fortresses also understood the mythic quality they were creating and designed to enhance the striking quality of the castles.

Landscape features are often as important to document as the castle walls themselves.

Attacking troops would need an understanding of terrain conditions and access to water as much as information about the walls, towers, and gates. Water was a critical resource during an attack either in cutting off access to water for a castle during a siege or in its hindrance as a landscape feature that must be crossed to physically reach a fortress.

Brody, Ukraine Map of the fortifications showing the earthwork defense system, 1780. From the archive of R. Mohytycha.

As a result, historical maps and drawings found ways of documenting the landscape with informative and beautiful techniques.

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Pidhirtsi Palace Illustration showing landscape framing the palace. Orda, Napoleon (1807-1883).

As castles changed functions over time to reflect a more aristocratic societal shift, so did their landscapes. With the many renovations and additions that were made to medieval fortresses, an important component of a renaissance fortified palace was the garden. Landscape designs were imported from France and Italy along with the architectural styles of the palaces themselves. A formalized garden is one of the most striking ways a fortified palace reached its influence into the landscape. Gardens often softened the appearance of the palaces and provided spaces for agricultural production as well as leisure opportunities for the inhabitants.

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Sometimes the designs of formalized gardens reflected the defensive forms of the architecture. Especially in eighteenth-century England, the design of formalized gardens attempted to portray and reflect the territorial ambitions of its owner. Estates such as Blenheim Palace near Oxford designed by Sir John Vanbrugh show defense themes in both the design of the palace and in its vast garden landscape.

Whether landscape was used explicitly for defense purposes or only for the illusion Fortification of Huningue Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre.

EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica, 1771.

of defense, landscape design has always been an important component of defense architecture.

It is also important to remember the laborers and servants who were required to maintain such estates. These palaces needed to be surrounded by villages or create them in order to acquire the human resources needed to main such extravagance. The effects on the built environment did not stop at the properties boundaries. The gardens were an important component of the overall design of a fortified palace, but unfortunately, often the gardens, that need constant care, did not survive

Blenheim Palace Illustration from Vitruvius Britannicus, 1717.

centuries of conflict.

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Territorial Forms

The perfection of cannonball artillery in the mid-fifteenth century brought about specific changes in the form of castles. Fortresses were modified quickly, even during battles, to try and accommodate new weapons. Towers were increasingly susceptible to collapse under the power of fire. In his treatise on military architecture, Viollet-le-Duc identifies three major changes that were made in fortress architecture during the Middle Ages.

First, artillery machinery was moved from the top of towers to lower within curtain walls. If the towers collapsed the weapons could still be used against oncoming forces. Constant shaking of the towers also made the weapons

Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707) Vauban was a French military engineer who was instrumental in revolutionizing siege and architectural fortifications. His career spanned many decades while he worked for the French military under Louis XIV. Among his innovations were formulas for parallel ditches surrounding forts. Vauban also invented the socket bayonet which allowed soldiers to use their guns without first removing their bayonet. By the end of his career, Vauban was involved in the design of 160 fortresses. Illustration by Charles Le Brun. Collection of Bibliothèque de GÊnie, Paris.

difficult to secure. To move the weapons from top to bottom, staircases and circulation zones were often widened.

Second, the shape and position of tower construction changed. New tower construction focused on nearly disengaging the towers from the wall so forces were better able to flank the opposing forces by shooting horizontally. The strategic preference during this period was to either take out the enemy through long distance shooting or to horizontally strike from adjacent towers. These

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strikes were the most effective way to use the weapons. Towers became shorter and wider to accommodate horizontal shooting and to prevent the towers from collapsing.

Upper levels were still used for long-range projectiles from crossbows and archers. Lower levels were fortified against ground attacks after the enemy had crossed the surrounding earthworks.

Third, there were changes in the circulation paths within fort complexes. The early medieval castles were built with small narrow Cannon warfare Illustration showing cannon warfare and wooden gabion walls. Viollet-le-Duc, Military Architecture, 1860.

staircases and were accessed through a series of offset bridges, entries, and doorways.

Access into a fort often required several shifts in the circulation path. To move large equipment, formal geometries provided more direct circulation paths. The shift to more formal geometries was also useful as it allowed wide, shallow steps that were easier for the movement of heavy artillery weapons.

By the end of the fifteenth century, many medieval castles had been renovated to reflect these new strategies. Even after it was

Bastions Illustration showing obtuse and acute angled bastions and casemate batteries. Viollet-leDuc, Military Architecture, 1860.

clear that curtain wall towers were no longer useful, architects were slow to let them go because of tradition and the desire to control

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the battle through views. Eventually, these towers were replaced by bastions, earthworks and external ditches as the most important pieces of the modern fortification. Although the form of these fortifications had changed, there was little or no change in their construction methods. The standard medieval wall was built of two walls of cut stone or brick and inEugene-Emmanuel Viollet-leDuc (1814– 1879) Viollet-le-Duc was a French architect, theorist, and writer.

He was a scholar of medieval architecture and restored many French medieval buildings.

His theories on preservation dominated the 19th century. His essay Military Architecture was published in 1860 and outlined the major developments in military architecture during the Middle Ages. Photo by Nadar.

filled with rubble or concrete. Later, it became common to infill walls and entire lower levels with earth to better protect its structural integrity. It was also found that building a wooden rampart outside the stone walls could be more successful at repelling sudden artillery attacks and could delay destruction of the stone walls for several days.

By the sixteenth century, Italian architects had developed superior designs to those of the French. Italian architects experimented with disengaged and angled bastions. Several developments in embrasures and crenelations tried to account for the new cannon systems by incorporating them into the curtain wall poche. The formal evolution of bastions changed both the actions of the attackers and the defenders. Both sides scrambled to out pace one another in adapting to new military forms.

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Ditch and bastion section Mathematical formulas for defense. Illustration by Chevalier Antoine De Ville, 1640 from Military Architecture, Viollet-le-Duc, 1860.

As Renaissance architecture developed in the seventeenth century there was a general interest in incorporating mathematical formulas in both art and design. Trial and error during wars of the sixteenth century led to various theories and geometric formulas for fort design.

Architects and engineers searched for the perfect formula that would render a fort impregnable. They focused on developing the sections of bastions more than the plans. Slight variations in profile were meant to enhance the defensive properties of the structures. In the end, architects were continually faced with new problems. It seemed at the time that the attacking forces would always have the upper hand over the defenders. Improved artillery systems were overpowering any new designs. Technology was winning the war.

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02 Catalog of Castles Architectural defense remnants in Ukraine

Soon after castle technology was perfected, modern warfare changed significantly. Castles became an outdated architectural typology.

Therefore, Ukraine and other European countries were left with the remains of this history. Each of these castles is significant and unique. The question remains, “What should we do with it now?” In the case of castles,

people have been confronting this issue for almost 200 years. However,

given recent changes in social structures, political borders, and collective memory there is an opportunity to revisit these sites in the 21st century.

Architects, designers, local governments and citizens can come together to envision a new future for these sites that is as culturally relevant and important as their past lives.

The rush to memorialize the site by prohibiting any further manipulations to the structure is one approach to the conservation of these structures.

However, this approach often ignores a significant component of their identity—that they have evolved. This evolution is not simply one characteristic of fortresses, it is the common characteristic that binds seemingly disparate buildings together. Although many of the structures featured in this study are called “fortresses” or “castles” for many, the term “residence” would have also applied for many years. While many of these structures such as Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilsky found their glory through battles, others led lives more integrated with everyday life than with large-scale destruction. In the past these structures contained a multitude of programs: residences, markets, customs crossings, churches, mosques, training fields, warehouses and kitchens. The revitalization process for these structures should attempt to recreate the rich combination of programs that once enriched daily life. These structures can be inhabited by different groups and organizations to create an overlap of programs. It is unrepresentative PAST PRESENT FUTURE of the cultural history of defense sites to view them as only sites of battle and to take away all programs and replace with only a museum.

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Typology

The architectural sites chosen for comparison on the following pages are all within the borders of presentday Ukraine. It was typical for control of medieval fortresses to go back and forth between authorities especially in Eastern Europe and the regions of present-day Ukraine. Western Ukraine, in particular, has a dense concentration of fortifications because of its distinct history. Historically the borderland between Europe and Asia, the location of these sites were ideal for defense. This region was frequently the site of interactions between Polish, Austrian-Hungarian, Cossack and Turkish forces and all of these groups contributed to the layered history of these structures.

International trade and interaction in the region resulted in a highly diverse population.

This analysis focuses on castles in this region in order to focus on the future of these sites as they can be used to understand the strength and richness of Ukraine’s history and future potential. Within this small region there is a range of styles and forms. Each castle is different and diverse, but their origins are global architectural typologies. The following pages explore the relationship between these castles and their global typologies.

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Belarus

Lutsk Dubno

Poland Olesko Pidhirtsi

Lviv

Zolochiv

Ternopil Tustan

Slovakia

IvanoFrankivsk

Uzhhorod Mukachevo

Kamianets-Podilsky Khotyn

Chernivtsi

Hungary

Moldova Romania

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Khotyn 1325 Lutsk 1340

Castles by Scale 100 m

Olesko 1390

Dubno 1492 Olesko 1390

N

Tustan 1340

Svirzh 15th century

Zolochiv 1636

Lutsk 1340

Pidhirtsi 1635

Brody 1630

Uzhgorod 13/16th centuries

Svirzh 15th cen

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Dubno1492 Kamianets-Podilsky 1494

Palanok 14th century

Zhovka 1606

Uzhhorod 13th/16th century

Kamianets-Podilsky 1494

Khotyn 1325 100m

Zoochiv

Tustan

Pidhirtsi 1635

Dates are approximate or specify significant architectural 1634developments.

Palanok

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Typology Durand, Jean-Nicolas-Louis.

PrĂŠcis of the Lectures on Architecture, 1802.

The organization of castles and fortresses into architectural typologies is an exercise which highlights the unique attributes of this collection of structures.

On one hand they reflect some of the most primitive forms, geometries and architectural traditions. On the other hand, each is a nuanced mixture of various forces. From the beginning typology, defense architecture is easily transformed by landscape, program, geometry, or warfare technologies. The spread and development of new typologies shows the effects of globalization during the Middle Ages. As tactics and weapons were standardized, architecture reflected those trends through typologies that responded to different architectural problems.

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The original defense typologies were designed to fulfll specific defense needs. Courtyard and concentric plans allowed for a central space that was highly protected and could be used for gathering; radial plans were developed to defend against advanced weaponry from any angle; the topographic object capitalized on existing extreme landscapes; and thickened wall enclosures could house large armies with minimal footprint. As each fortress was adapted to its particular site and time period, each design branched further from the original ideal form.

The diagram on the next page explores defining characteristics that dictate fortress design: architectural or urban typologies and natural or artificial landscapes. The relationship between these forces is complex. Fortresses do not draw from one typology alone, instead they are frequently a complex combination of forms. The overlap of origins is exhibited by the diagram on the following page. As much as taxonomy diagram (left) provides a clear history of transformations, the layered creation of the fortress is represented by the typology matrix (right).

Taxonomy and Typology The diagram on the following page shows the typological origins for the fortified sites. As each force (geometry, landscape, program) plays against the original typology, manipulations in form result.

These are only a few of the many factors that create fortresses; however, this taxonomic approach allows us to focus on the moments of split or difference as well as recognizing similar origins.

41

ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY

GEOMETRY

LANDSCAPE

PRIMARY USE

residence regular Zhovka

river irregular hill / river

fortress Svirzh

COURTYARD

residence flat regular Zolochiv irregular hill fortress Palanok

CONCENTRIC

residence

Pidhirtsi flat regular fortress flat / river irregular

Brody

fortress

RADIAL Dubno

residence Olesko

irregular hill rock fortress

TOPOGRAPHIC OBJECT

Tustan flat

fortress Uzhhorod

regular valley fortress

Khotyn

irregular

THICKNED WALL ENCLOSURE

hill fortress rock Lutsk fortress

Kamyanets-Podilsky

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Zhovka

HILL

COURTYARD Svirzh

Zolochiv

RIVER/LAKE

Palanok

VALLEY Pidhirtsi

RADIAL

Brody

TOPOGRAPHIC OBJECT

NATURAL LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY

CONCENTRIC

ROCK

Dubno

FLAT

Olesko

THICKNED WALL ENCLOSURE

PENINSULA Tustan

MOAT

Khotyn

GLACIS

CITY-FORTRESS

Lutsk

LANDSCAPE OBJECT

ARTIFICIAL LANDSCAPE

URBAN TYPOLOGY

Uzhhorod

WALLED CITY

RAMPARTS Kamyanets-Podilsky

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Kamianets-Podilsky

44

45

Kamianets-Podilsky Castle View from the river valley looking up. Orda, Napoleon (1807-1883).

Kamianets-Podilsky Map French map from 1691 showing the connection of fortress and the city.

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Kamianets-Podilsky is a unique example of a city-fortress due to its extreme topological, historical, and cultural influences. The most striking characteristic of the castle is its siting within the natural landscape. The path of the Smotrych River creates a natural peninsula which provides a fortified area for the city and the castle.

Connected to the city by a bridge, the castle sits high on a natural rock formation that was critical to its success as a fortified structure. The separation of the city and the castle provided an extra layer of defense if either was attacked.

Situated at a crucial location in the region, this fortress protected its citizens for many centuries. Although the origins of the fortress began in the second century as a Roman settlement, it was during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that Kamianets was converted into the medieval fortress that remains today. Today the fortress is one of the most visited castles in Western Ukraine, and is host to many festivals and concerts throughout the year. The medieval style Old Castle and the seventeenth century New Castle show side by side the stark contrast between the design characteristics of medieval and renaissance fortresses.

Timeline The diagram on the following page depicts the history of Kamianets-Podilsky castle and tracks its architectural transformation over time. As shown in the diagram, the city-fortress fell under the rule of several different authorities during the height of its use. With each transfer of power, architectural projects were undertaken and the form of the castle was transformed.

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1600

1500

1400

1300

Kamianets-Podilsky

1648: Castle besieged

by Cossacks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising

2nd-5th century: Early Roman military settlement 6th-10th century: Slavic tribe era

1362: Lithuanian annexation 1374: Magdeburg rights received 1394-1434: Lithuania and Poland struggle to control the region

1240: Captured by Mongolian Empire

1621: New Fortress completed

1494: Old fortress construction begins

1509-1528: Various unsuccessful Tatar attacks 1541: Old fortress completed

1448-1451: Various unsuccessful Tatar attacks

Periods of major architectural changes

1350

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1350-80: Fortress expanded to defend against firearms

1500-1600s: Fortress is developed according to new Italian fortification standards

1380

1544

2000

1900

1800

1700

1915: Occupied by Austria-Hungary during WWI 1921: Part of Soviet Union Treaty of Riga

1672: Turkish forces attack and conquer 1687: Major renovations to bridge and city

1793: Russian Empire annexation

1699: Re-taken by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

1700s: Fortress loses position of importance as regional stronghold

1800s: Converted to a prison

1928: Fortress proclaimed a historical preserve 1941: Execution of Jews by Nazis 1940: Restoration work begins 1989: Nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

1800s: Castle converted into a military prison for Russian Empire

1940-2010: Major restoration work

Early Roman or Slavic Mongolian Turkish Polish Lithuanian Russian Empire Austrian-Hungarian Soviet Union Nazi Germany Independent Ukraine 1621

Architectural Transformations Political Events Architectural Events

49

Khotyn

50

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From the 5th to the 10th century, a wooden defense structure existed on the site of Khotyn Fortress on the banks of the Dnister River. In the eleventh century, during the rein of King Danylo Halytskyi, the earlier structure was replaced with a more secure stone structure. Construction continued into the fourteenth century with several phases of development after it became an important stronghold on the northern border of the Moldovan Principality under King Stephan III. In 1538 the Khotyn Fortress was captured by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with significant damage to the fortress walls, tower, and gate tower. Between 1540 and 1544 major reconstruction occurred and the fortress was expanded. During this period, the fortress became an area of increased conflict between Polish and Cossack troops against Turkish forces. The fortress saw two major battles—one in 1621 and another in 1673. The first of these battles saw the alliance between Polish forces of Cossacks who defended the fortress against Turkish troops. The current site includes a monument to Hetman Petro Sahaidachny who led Cossack troops during this battle.

The siting of the fortress in a valley of hilly terrain and beside the river provided natural landscape defenses in addition to the earthen defenses constructed in the early eighteenth century. The castle has one of the largest footprints in the region because of its expansive outer bailey.

In 1711 Turkish forces employed French military engineers to update the fortress with new architectural forms to protect it from cannon fire.

They expanded the fortress by adding ramparts, a dry moat, bastions, storehouses and a mosque. The fortress lost its strategic relevance and was closed in 1856. In 2000 Ukraine established the Khotyn Fortress State Historical and Architectural Preserve. Today the site is open to the public, and several restoration projects are underway.

52

Battle of Khotyn Engraving depicting the 1673 Battle of Khotyn.

Collective Memory Postcard from Khotyn Fortress, 1918.

53

Pidhirtsi

54

55

Plan and Elevation S. Odrzywolski, Renaissance in Poland, 1899.

Pidhirtsi Palace is known as one of the most beautiful fortified sites in Ukraine. Although there was a structure on the site before the palace, construction began on the current palace in 1635. The fortifications were designed by Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan (1600-1673) and the palace was designed by Andrea del Aqua (1584-1656). The palace grounds also originally included a large Italian style garden. In this case, the military forms as well as the Italian landscape show the universal forms that pervaded during the Renaissance. These forms were imported with little change and adapted to the region easily. The palace had a distinct connection to the landscape with formal siting, a deep moat with drawbridge, elevated terraces and a formal garden. Architecturally, Pidhirtsi is an excellent example of a fortified palace where the defensive elements are an integral part of the design hierarchy. After WWII the palace was converted into a hospital for tuberculosis patients which has since closed.

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Today the palace itself is closed to the public because the building needs major renovations.

However, the site around the palace is well visited. The surrounding landscape and remaining facades of the palace are beautiful and its location near Lviv makes it an optimal space for new interventions. Historians and preservation architects can advise on the restoration of the palace itself. These projects take time, money, and should be undertaken with care.

In the meantime, there is an opportunity for a different kind of revitalization.

The real opportunity for change lies not with the palace itself, but with the site. The bastions, earthworks, and landscape of the site define a zone that can be easily “hacked� by citizens.

It is not difficult to imagine events such as rock climbing, swimming, or skateboarding happening on the site. If we see the landscape forms simply as they exist today, it is possible to imagine new uses and programs for the site that leave the palace untouched but bring much needed cultural relevance and energy to the site.

Future Transformation Possible site transformations for Pidhirtsi Palace that focus on programs that capitalize on the existing form. Images by author.

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Tustan

58

Tustan fortress is a unique case for the study of castles in Western Ukraine. The site of the Tustan fortress is a rare natural rock formation that sits in a valley of the Carpathian Mountains. The special geology of this site immediately sets this site apart from the more common hill fortresses of the region. Today there are only a few remains of what was once the dramatic cliff-hanging wooden fortress of Tustan. The wooden fortress that once used the rock formations as integral building blocks has now almost disappeared. Despite the fortress’ lack of physical presence, Tustan remains one of the most active, engaging, and educational historic sites in the region.

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The fortress was in use from the 9th to the 13th century. It underwent five major phases of construction some resulting from several major fires. The fortress was located on an important trade route through the Carpathian Mountains and was used for defense and customs purposes. Tustan is also unique in that its creators were ethnically Ruthenian (early Ukrainians) belonging to the Halch-Volyn Rus’ Principate.

In contrast, most of the remaining castles or fortresses in Western Ukraine were largely controlled by Poles, Hungarians, or other groups. Although wooden fortresses were popular throughout Eastern Europe, there are no existing original architectural models of its kind left in Europe.

Tustan is now under the direction of a State Historical and Cultural Preserve. Through the archeological work of researcher Mykhailo Rozhko, the Preserve now has a clear idea of the original construction methods used to create Tustan. Using the chiseled rocks as a guide, Rozhko was able to reconstruct the design of the fortress. His research used the indentations, scars, and holes in the rocks as a Modern Representation Reconstruction designs by archaeologist Mykhailo Rozhko (1939-2004).

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guide to understand the various phases of the Tustan fortress.

Historical Perspective Etching of rock formation and surrounding landscape.

Aerial View Contemporary aerial view of the site and surrounding landscape.

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Digital Representation Still images from a 3-dimensional reconstruction video created by the Tustan Preserve to provide viewers with a better understanding of the scale and architectural value of the Tustan fortress. The video can be viewed at www.tustan.ua.

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Unlike other fortresses, Tustan faces specific challenges to engaging and educating the public. Without the physical remains of fortress walls and towers, the Tustan Preserve has found other ways to connect visitors with the medieval life of Tustan fortress. Many visitors find it difficult to imagine exactly how big the fortress was and how its innovative structure logistically worked. The Preserve has pushed forward with several innovative techniques to bring this architectural history to life. Their latest developments have included a three-dimensional reconstruction video and light projections onto the rocks that outline the full-scale fortress walls. The video shows the siting of the fortress, its structural connection to the rocks, and details such as the movement of the gate system. It is surprising that a site where the physical building did not survive is so vibrant.

Because the fortress no longer exists in its complete form, the Preserve has been forced to use innovative representational techniques, and Tustan has been successful in engaging visitors in a deep and meaningful way.

63

Tustan festival August 2, 2014. Photos by author.

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Each year Tustan becomes the center of medieval cultural and Ukrainian traditions at its annual festival attended by over 4,000 participants. The three-day festival incorporates the music, arts, crafts, history, and fashion of the Carpathian region where Tustan is located.

The success of the festival is in its inclusion of various user groups with diverse interests. For children there are games relating to medieval life including sparring with wooden swords and painting shields. Teenagers and young adults often camp at the site overnight to enjoy campfires, songs and shared meals. Lectures during the day cover religion, history, and medieval daily life for those who are interested in historical aspects of the region. For example, in 2014 lectures included the topics of religion in Kyivan Rus’ society, traditional soap-making techniques, and musicians sharing their experiences of traveling to Eastern Ukraine during Maidan. At night men and women dress in medieval clothing and reenact a “storming of the castle.� The overall value of such a festival is difficult to assess; however, it is clear that the participants enjoy and take pride in the events and have many opportunities to reflect on Ukrainian history and identity.

65

Interview with Sofia Dyak

Sofia Dyak is the Director of the Center for Ur-

Ashley Bigham: How do you see the

ban History of East Central Europe. She holds

Center for Urban History? What is the

a PhD in Sociology from the Institute of Sociology and Philosophy of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Warsaw), an MA in History from the

mission and function of the Center in a city like Lviv?

Central European University (Budapest) and a BA in History from Lviv University. She was a Visiting Fellow at the Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies in Amsterdam in 2008 and

Sofia Dyak: The Center is a relatively new place and an institution focusing

a Junior Fellow at the Institute for Human Sci-

on history which is privately funded.

ences in Vienna in 2008. Most recently, Sofia

Such practice is a rather rare case

was a Shklar Fellow at the Ukrainian Research

in Ukraine. While for us it is important

Institute at Harvard University and a partici-

to cooperate with universities and

pant of the program on Historical Dialogue and Accountability at Columbia University.

state-funded research institutions, we are independent from the state.

Our mission from the very beginning was to explore new approaches and topics of research. Thus our research was influenced by an agenda to look

“History can offer a potential for silencing and downplaying as well as for participation and inclusion.

I see in history the latter.�

66

below and beyond nation into the city.

On the one hand urban focus means rethinking the ways of doing local history. On the other hand this allows for what is called transnational history, bringing into research and educational agendas various urban centers and regions across current state borders tracing how people, ideas, and

practices were circulating, transform-

society? What are our responsibilities?

ing, and adapting. In such a way we

What do we take, and what and how

are aim to combine locally focused

do we give back and to whom? What

and rich micro-level study with scopes

are the results and relevance of our

reaching beyond nation, asking what

research? How can you contribute to

are other frames to question the past

the society of which you think you are

rather than a nation-centered narra-

a part? This rather simple set of ques-

tive. This is very important for a city like

tions still remains a challenging set. We

Lviv, known also as Lw贸w, Lemberg,

try to revisit polarized opinions, there is

and Lvov, a place often described as

the situation of being disengaged and

a borderland. But also for a country

distanced from current discussions and

like Ukraine which exists in its current

issues academic, and a completely

state borders only very recently and for

opposite one of being so uncritically

centuries was a place inhabited and

engaged into the politics of the past

shaped by various people of different

on behalf of a party or state in general.

identifications. More generally, such an

This is crucial as these are the models

approach we think is very pertinent for

available from the time when Lviv and

the entire area of Eastern and Central

Ukraine were part of the Soviet Union.

Europe, and the urban focus is one of

In the twentieth century historians

the ways to see complexities of the

and humanitarians have had a very

past here.

complicated, strong and problematic corporation and involvement with

Then more generally we ask and reflect

ideology and the state. Here the ques-

on a very general question: What is

tion now is, how to be publically and

the role of the researchers working

socially engaged but not politically

in humanities, including historians, in

corrupt? Therefore it was crucial for us

67

from the very beginning to explore the

AB: In these discussions, many times

possibilities offered by public history

we have heard the question: Whose

and digital humanities. We learn to be

history? How do you answer the ques-

attentive to our audiences, to whom

tion, or is it an irrelevant question? What

and how to talk, how to be open to

does this question mean for this region?

ongoing reflections on what we have to say. How to discuss and not impose?

History is a field of exercising power.

How to shift our communications to

But there are different options there.

emphasize looking for answers and

History can offer a potential for silenc-

posing questions rather than having

ing and downplaying as well as for

ready-made answers? How do we

participation and inclusion. I see in

think about our multiple conversations

history the latter. I don’t think everyone

and engagement not in hierarchical

has to agree about the past, but one

but rather in partnership formats? In

has to try to keep their eyes open and

other words, we see humanities as

be ready for discussion and conversa-

much more integrated and involved

tion. An American historian Eric Foner,

in society, but also critically reflective,

author of the book Who Owns History?,

in terms of how we do, what we do,

wrote that everybody owns history and

why we do, and for whom we do. This

nobody. This is something that speaks

is the format where we draw many

to me. Especially in a city like Lviv. Of

inspirations from various institutions and

course there are various and even con-

projects. Yet, still remains the challenge

flicting perspectives on the past, but it

of how to combine research and

is very important not to keep them as

public formats in one institution. And of

enclosed boxes, but to see history as a

course place matters, especially when

forum of participation and exchange.

we are based in Lviv, a city which was a home for several communities before

AB: Moving to the subject of buildings

the war, which has a complex and

and more specifically castles, how do

contested history, and an open future

you see architectural landmarks and

to shape.

their role in the narrative of history?

68

This city is so special because it has a great many of them. And of course, it has a very positive impact. It creates atmosphere; many people feel connected to or at least appreciate the historic built environment. Many more visit the city throughout the year as tourists. Lviv has become probably the most successful touristic center in contemporary Ukraine, with all its ups

“I don’t think everyone has to agree about the past, but one has to try to keep their eyes open and be ready for discussion and conversation.�

and downs. Yet this also poses many problematic questions. One of them

here and were killed or expelled? How

is what is hidden behind the walls of

do we look at architectural landmarks

these landmarks. So many buildings

and not only see what they show but

in Lviv survived through the twentieth

what they hide? The second thing is

century with its violence, change of

that the beauty of material presence

political regimes and borders, social

can be overwhelming in a way that

experiments and mass killings.

it puts aside the importance of social processes, the social interactions

Today this is a city with many land-

and engagement with the buildings.

marks which survived two wars almost

In many ways this is still a legacy of

undestroyed, but in this way it hides so

looking at landmarks as mainly tangible

many stories of suffering and destruc-

and preservation of material fabric. Of

tion of human life. As people look at

course, restoration and maintaining the

the beauty of these landmarks for

material presence of buildings is very

many it is hard to see this dark and

important. But even more important

tragic story immediately. How do we

is to integrate them into the life of

bring this into public awareness? How

societies, especially the inhabitants of

do we see not only buildings but also

these landmarks and their surroundings.

the people who used to live their lives

It is crucial to build this connectivity

69

but also respectful way.

“I think the understanding of heritage as something precious, old, and elitist or heroic still prevails. This is something to open up and broaden simply to allow people to be proud of who they are, the possibility to articulate their stories, stories of their families.�

AB: What do you see as the biggest

for the very few people on the top, but

challenges going forward for under-

creating spaces and possibilities for

standing heritage in Ukraine? What

more and more people. In short, how

are the problems you are hoping to

do we build a more inclusive and thus

tackle in the future, as the Center for

also a more just society? Of course,

Urban History or for yourself in your own

with all the differences and all the

research?

diversity and even with all the inequal-

between people and the built environment. This is not only a challenge for the city of Lviv, but for many touristic cities. How do we make landmarks attractive for visitors but also have meaning for those who live there in their daily life? How do you go beyond an either/or position and try to find some points of connection? This I think is one of the larger issues now for Lviv and Ukraine in general—how you use buildings, how you adapt them, how you treat them, not in a museum-like way but actually in a usage-directed

ity, a society which works for more and Indeed rethinking the ways we con-

more people. Surely, there are many el-

ceptualize and practice heritage is

ements to that: politics, economy, law,

one of many challenges. One of the

plenty more. But, also, heritage could

biggest issues in the long run is how to

contribute. In this perspective it matters

build a society which is good not only

if we consider heritage as something

70

which is embedded in the present,

workers’ heritage and industrial sites.

contains visions for the future and, of

I think the understanding of heritage

course, offers engagement with the

as something precious, old, and elitist

past. Heritage can give voice, pres-

or heroic still prevails. This is something

ence and recognition to many people.

to open up and broaden simply to

To repeat, heritage can contribute to

allow people to be proud of who they

building an inclusive and open society.

are, the possibility to articulate their

Not only to people who are here right

stories, stories of their families. Since

now. Through heritage projects and by

you study castles one of the questions

rethinking what is heritage in Ukraine,

is what is the role of, I don’t know,

we can recognize the history of various

maids? Not only the owners of the

people who lived here, be they Poles,

castles, but the people who worked

Jews, Russians, Germans, so on and

there and whose voices are scarce

so on. This is what we usually call

or hidden. We don’t very often think

multicultural heritage. This is especially

about that as we repeat the names

pertinent for the cities on the territory

of owners and celebrities. Yet how to

of Ukraine. How do we bring up, tell

see a castle not only as a tangible

and honor the stories of people who

object made of stone, or a manifesta-

lived here before the Bolshevik revolu-

tion of power, status, and wealth, or

tion or the Second World War? In Lviv,

artistic articulation of an architect or

that is Polish and Jewish heritage. Not

the achievement in technology of

only for ethnic matters, social issues

an engineer, but also the place for

are as important. Let us think about

plenty of people who connected their life there, worked there, lived there.

“Heritage can give voice, presence and recognition to many people.“

To see heritage as something that is richer, but richer through participation and multiple, overlapping and even contradictory meanings.

71

Interview with Natalia Otrishchenko

Natalia Otrishchenko leads the “U

Ashley Bigham: Tell me about the castle your

Stories: Oral History and Urban Experi-

experiences with castles in Ukraine.

ence” project at the Center for Urban History of East Central Europe. She holds an MA in sociology, and is a graduate

Natalia Ortrishchenko: I am originally from

of the History Department at the Ivan

Zolochiv a town not far from Lviv and we

Franko National University in Lviv, as well

are part of the Golden Horseshoe—Zolochiv

as the MIHuS (Interinstitutional Individual

Castle, Pidhirtsi Castle, and Olesko Castle.

Studies in Humanities) Program. She is a post-graduate student at the Institute

During my childhood I visited this place a

of Sociology, the National Academy

lot, and I could actually see how this place

of Sciences of Ukraine in Methodology

changed during the past fifteen or even

and Methods of Social Research.

twenty years. When I reflect on my childhood

“You have a bedroom with your personal things, you have a kitchen, you have bathroom, but it is like a dining room which you present to other people.

Our castle is the dining room of Zolochiv.”

72

memories, I remember when Boris Voznitskiy was head of Lviv Picture Gallery during a long period of time and he was very interested in preservation and revitalization of these castles.

He did a lot for Olesko castle and he was also interested in Zolochiv castle. Well, in late or mid 90s it was in ruin because there was a big fire during Soviet times. The first destroyed the roof of the main building of the castle and it was in really bad condition. After Boris Voznitskiy became interested in the renovation of this castle, they looked for different financial aspects for this work and they had a group of volunteers who helped with revitalization and renovation of the castle.

“Lots of people were murdered there during the second World War and somehow this event demolished all the previous history of the castle.”

The castle for the city itself is very

The problem with this castle is actu-

important because it created a huge

ally that it was a prison during a long

infrastructure around it. It created

period of time and it is a very black

hotels, restaurants, and so on. People

picture in the history of this castle,

have places to work and lots of tourists,

and somehow it is also a white page.

especially in the summertime. We have

Because lots of people were murdered

tourists from Poland and from other

during the second World War and

parts of Ukraine and they come to this

somehow this event demolished all the

place because there are lots of adver-

previous history of the castle. For me, it

tisements for this “Golden Horseshoe”

is a problem. It is a castle per say. I do

and people who visit Lviv for a few

not connect it to the history of Poland

days take one day and visit these

or Galicia or the Austrian Empire

three castles. It is very good for the city

because of this event during the 20th

itself. As far as I know, the problem is

century somehow it has cancelled

the budget of the castle. It is on the

everything that it was before. They

balance of the state—I don’t know

wanted to renovate it, but thousands

all the bureaucracy behind it—but as

of people were murdered there and

I know all the funding they get from

it was a terrible thing. But definitely, it

tourism they have to send to Kyiv, and

was Polish. It was the home of Jacob

Kyiv doesn’t send anything back. So

Sobieski, father of Jan Sobieski, the

they have a problem with the roof on

famous Polish king, one of the key

the other building as well.

figures of history. They have a beautiful love story between Jacob Sobieski

Do you see the history of Zolochiv as

and Mariashenka, the mother of Jan.

Ukrainian or Polish history? Or is it a mix

All the guides tell this story. And defi-

of the two?

nitely because the history of Galicia

73

is the borderland of so many empires:

Do you consider this an important

Austrian empire, Russian empire, and

public space for the city or does it feel

Polish—that’s why it’s difficult. But now,

more like a private space?

I think they want to create a totally different narrative. You know when

Well, it’s a very important space for

you tell a story from the very beginning

tourists. But I don’t know how important

you cannot delete some pages. In the

it is for the city. Because the public

castle exhibition, I think they have two

space for the city is somehow away

rooms dedicated to the prison period.

from the castle. We have a place in

But still, for me somehow it was a very

the center where we have a stage for

traumatic experience for the city

different events; we have a stadium for

itself because they had a big Jewish

different festivals. The castle is a histori-

population. Which was completely

cal place and it is not so involved in

destroyed by the time of the Second

the celebrations of the city. It is very im-

World War, the Nazi regime and the

portant for showing us. It is public like,

Red Army who came. Oh, it’s difficult.

you know the first room in your house were your guest come. You want it to

Are people who live in Zolochiv aware

be very nice and show some of your

of this history?

things. It is like this room. So you can have a bedroom with your personal

I think, yes. But, I don’t know how

things, you have a kitchen, you have

people reflect on this multiculturalism

bathroom, but it is like a dining room

and this difficult history. In 1991 we had

which you present to other people. Our

the possibility to built a statehood and

castle is the dining room of Zolochiv.

lots of people said we could start a

As I said, when I have friends visiting it

new page. We know that something

is the first place I want to go with them.

was there before, but still, we look to

There is a very nice view of the city

the future and not to the past.

from there. It is somehow outside the city, but it is a very important part of the city to build its identity.

74

What are your experiences visiting

there. You have to start with children

other castles?

and through children you can start to work with parents. Maybe the children

It is a big problem for Ukrainian castles.

will grown up and they will feel this

No one cares, and they are ruined.

responsibility.

We had Boris Voznitskiy and it was great luck for us. I can’t imagine what

I recently visited Pidhirtsi. The interior

would have happened to the castle

is now closed to visitors, but I know

in Zolochiv if we didn’t have him. It’s a

you have been inside. What was it like

sad story. I love castles, but somehow

inside?

we do not even have them. We have only walls. Local communities are not

At Pidhirtsi palace, I love the path from

interested in renovations. The main

the chapel to the palace, because it’s

thing we have to do is to promote our

not a castle, it’s a palace for us. Inside

communities, to save these places or

there is actually nothing. I was there just

even to not destroy them. People in

before it closed. It was a very strange

Stare Selo used bricks to build their own

feeling because it was a completely

buildings around. It’s terrible. They do

empty space. It felt like nothing. Just

not have a historical consciousness,

walls and it was not clean. It was a very

historical responsibility to these places.

strange feeling like in a hospital. Maybe

I think the fist step is to create this

because just before it had been used

responsibility. And when we have it will

as a hospital, and so maybe that is

come much quicker and in the right

why I had this feeling like I am still in a

direction.

hospital. No patients. No doctors, but I am in a hospital... You can come and

How do you create responsibility?

see the view all the Rivne oblast to the horizon of Ukraine. It was May or early

Education is the only answer.

summer and everything was green. It

Education, promotion, communication

was beautiful.

with people. Everything starts from

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03 Looking in/ Looking out Architectural defense remnants in Ukraine

Soon after castle technology was perfected, modern warfare changed significantly. Castles became an outdated architectural typology.

Therefore, Ukraine and other European countries were left with the remains of this history. Each of these castles is significant and unique. The question remains, “What should we do with it now?” In the case of castles,

people have been confronting this issue for almost 200 years. However,

given recent changes in social structures, political borders, and collective memory there is an opportunity to revisit these sites in the 21st century.

Architects, designers, local governments and citizens can come together to envision a new future for these sites that is as culturally relevant and important as their past lives.

The rush to memorialize the site by prohibiting any further manipulations to the structure is one approach to the conservation of these structures.

However, this approach often ignores a significant component of their identity—that they have evolved. This evolution is not simply one characteristic of fortresses, it is the common characteristic that binds seemingly disparate buildings together. Although many of the structures featured in this study are called “fortresses” or “castles” for many, the term “residence” would have also applied for many years. While many of these structures such as Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilsky found their glory through battles, others led lives more integrated with everyday life than with large-scale destruction. In the past these structures contained a multitude of programs: residences, markets, customs crossings, churches, mosques, training fields, warehouses and kitchens. The revitalization process for these structures should attempt to recreate the rich combination of programs that once enriched daily life. These structures can be inhabited by different groups and organizations to create an overlap of programs. It is unrepresentative PAST PRESENT FUTURE of the cultural history of defense sites to view them as only sites of battle and to take away all programs and replace with only a museum.

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Preservation: Local/Global

Images from the exhibition CRONOCAOS, by OMA/AMO, 2010, 12th Venice Architecture Biennale.

The question of preservation is both local and global.

In the 2010 exhibition CRONOCAOS, architect and theorist Rem Koolhaas challenged architects to look seriously at preservation practices, to view architecture as evolving rather than preserved. For Koolhaas the problem is overwhelmingly global, noting that 12% of earth is now considered a “historical” zone where new construction cannot occur. The global “We are trying to find what the future of our memory will look like. Our obsession with heritage is creating an artificial, re-engineered version of our memory.” -OMA, CRONOCAOS

challenges of preservation have appeared all over the world from Venice, Italy to Venice-like cities in China complete with canals and European architecture. The global problem of preservation involves history and our interpretation of it as much as it involves our fear of the future. As the world becomes more globally connected in both the physical and

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digital sphere, the questions of preservation in Europe or China become relevant around the world. In regions with historically contested territory or shifting borders, such as regions of Eastern Europe including present-day Poland and Ukraine, questions of “whose history?” become a debate in the modern context. Here the future of historical sites may depend on a collaboration between actors including governments, NGOs, and private corporations from multiple countries.

The problem of preservation is also local. Since Ruskin and Viollet-le-Duc first debated their theories on preservation, the architecture community has disagreed about (or ignored) issues of preservation, restoration, and cultural heritage. Recent projects that have been successful at incorporating history into modern restoration projects include the Highline in New York City designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro and Field Operations or David Chipperfield’s work on the Neues Museum in Berlin, but these seem to be the exception. These projects incorporate both the actual history of the historic site and also the perceived imagery and legacy of the place.

The preservation of defense architecture is particularly complex. Questions about rebuilding or restoring a fortress to a specific point in time or style are common. In reality, most castles or fortresses from the Middle Ages became layered with multiple additions and transformations during the Renaissance. Yet, when deciding how to restore these sites usually one style is chosen. In addition, the landscape defenses which were paramount in the effectiveness of the fortress are often not maintained or seen as of equal importance to the stone walls. Defense architecture often conjures romantic narratives of battles, royalty, and peasant life in the collective memory which may or may not be based in reality. There is also the problem of war memory and how people today might identify with the side of the “winners” or “losers” of a particular battle.

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Unveiling ceremony for the V.I. Lenin Monument in Lviv, 1952. Collection of H.S. Pshenychnyi Central State Cinema.

Dismantling the Lenin Monument in Lviv, 1990.

The digital age has increased and shifted some of

“Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by everybody.”

-Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961

these questions. History is now presented through a variety of mediums including video games, interactive maps, and online databases. These new digital resources can bring us closer to understand the history of spaces, but can also separate us further from history. Why do we need to go to Paris if there is an Eiffel Tower in Las Vegas, or if we can simply Google it?

By choosing to remember the past at all, we must acknowledge our choice of which past to remember.

The repression of history, selective amnesia of past horrors, and the increasing memorization of all things “old” only strengthen our fear of loss. We deny that loss can be good. Why are we so willing to preserve what we have yet to discover?

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Brody Castle, Ukraine, 19101914. Collection of the Library of the Institute of Ethnology, Lviv.

The question in Ukraine remains: How can Ukrainians interpret and inhabit the remains of their defense architecture? This research began as an investigation of Ukrainian castles. The goal was to find out how Ukrainian castles were different. How did the specific influence of Ukrainian vernacular architectural traditions shaped castles in Ukraine? Instead, opposite is true. In the beginning, it was a disappointment that it had not been easy to pinpoint unique architectural forms. But I soon realized that more important than difference was the generic. With the discovery of “sameness” came a revelation: that even castles are not immune to the forces of globalization, and that the typology of castles can be viewed as a script or system for creating architecture. More powerful than the vernacular is the global— even if that is the global of the Middle Ages.

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Territorial Architecture: Medieval Strategies in a Globalized World Why Now? Architecture has always been political. Intentionally or unconsciously, architecture engages politics to create organizing principles, forms, and aesthetics. Architects often note the influence of art and technology on the physical manifestation of architecture; however, it is equally important to examine the political mechanisms that often lie just below the surface of design. As theorist and architect Keller Easterling stated, “More than any other profession I can think of, the work of architecture engages multiple realms from finance to logistics to the heights and depths of frivolity and fiction that ultimately rule the world.”1 The most recent period of globalization did not create a homogeneous world; globalization creates worlds within worlds and overlapping territorial spheres. From the fortresses of the Middle Ages to today’s global infrastructures, territorial forms remain a global trail that architects, urban designers and historians can exploit and employ.

To understand territorial influences on architecture, it is useful to examine the European Middle Ages. The Middle Ages have been defined as “a period of complex interactions among particular forms of territorial fixity, the absence of exclusive territorial authority, the existence of multiple crisscrossing jurisdictions, and the embedding of rights in classes of people rather than in territorially exclusive units.”2 There were three main forms of societal organization during the Middle Ages: feudalism, church, and empire. These three systems thrived on the their lack of territorial control and their ability to encompass one another or coexist simultaneously.3 As the historian Joseph Strayer explained “the basic characteristics of feudalism in Western Europe are a fragmentation of political authority, public power in private hands, and a military system in which an essential part of the armed forces is secured through private contracts.”4

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In 1977 Hedley Bull first used the phrase “new medievalism” to describe the current global world where political authority is shifted away from sovereign states and into an international system that resembles the medieval system.5 Like the Middle Ages, new medievalism is characterized by political authority that is exercised by a range of overlapping organizations including religious bodies, principalities, citystates, or empires. Today, those forces would also include the grasp of capitalism and entities such as transnational corporations. There are certainly many contemporary examples of private companies, terrorist organizations and extreme religious groups that exhibit this theory. In the current political context, wavering allegiances between nationalities, ethnic groups, and religions are eroding the most delicate sovereign. Scholars of international relations and sociology are now theorizing that because globalization has allowed societies to interact more freely with one another we are experiencing the decline of the nation-state.6 According to John Rapley, “the coexistence of local and transnational identities that typified the European Middle Ages has reappeared.”7 Since the rise of capitalism around the world and advances in technology that make global communication commonplace, scholars have rallied around the idea of a New Middle Ages.8 By examining the history of defense architecture, current architects and designers can understand their own territorial tactics. This research examines stories of architecture and territory from the Middle Ages to the twenty-first century. How is architecture responding to the current sociopolitical shift toward the organizational structures of the Middle Ages? What can we learn from medieval history that will help us face our today’s defense crises?

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The Military Generic Long before capitalism and modern technological advances, the basic ideas of globalization were influencing territory and architecture. As Paul James explains in his book, globalism and globalization has existed "long before the driving force of capitalism sought to colonize every corner of the globe.”9 He argues that globalism was even a part of the Greek and Roman Empires going back to the fifth-century BCE. Throughout these historical periods one constant remained—the need for defense architecture that protected against the weapons of the age.

Architecture developed quickly alongside advances in weaponry, siege tactics, and warfare. Defense architecture did not develop independently; advances in infrastructure countered advances in weapon technology. When new defense forms were introduced—such as bastions, ravelins, and moats—they were copied, manipulated, and reproduced elsewhere. Because weapons and tactics were being exchanged between different civilizations during military conflicts, defense architecture began to conform across lands and civilizations. Methods proven to work against new weapons dominated; successful forms were contagious.

During the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance military architecture evolved along with weapons. New architectural strategies spread across nations and architectural developments from Italy and France were soon appearing as far east as present-day Ukraine and Russia, places which had independently developed a very distinct vernacular style influenced by early settlements and available resources. As quickly as technological advances were made in crossbows, cannons, and firearms architectural form changed to combat the advances.

Fortresses began to resemble one another in their underlying geometric principles.

Their organization was based on a series of geometric relationships that could be deployed at any location and be adapted to different topographies. The fortress typology as a generic gave preference to technology and self-preservation above all.

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Medieval Territories: Then and Now Feudal geography manifested itself through strategic outposts and strongholds associated with allegiances to nobles and control over people rather than territory. This is not to say that there was no connection or allegiance to territory itself. In contrast, this period saw the rise of strong city-states that were centers for local economies, nodes along larger trade routes for a multicultural world, and the initial groundwork for later formation of territorial authority.10 The focus on fortifying small territories as cities, trade centers, and customs crossings created a landscape dotted with fortresses and castles that often surrendered control to invading groups rather than see their structures and civilizations destroyed. It was typical for control of such fortresses to waver back and forth between authorities especially in Eastern Europe and the regions of present-day Ukraine which was seen as the borderland between Europe and Asia.

Medieval castle typology radically changed in the sixteenth century with the technological improvements of the cannonball and again later with the invention of the firearm. Most notable were: changes from stone wall construction to bastions backfilled with earth, changes in the formal relationships between towers and walls to allow better shooting angles, and the addition of wooden ramparts and earthworks outside the stone walls.11 These formal changes, all brought about by the incessant demand of warfare technologies, created entirely new typologies of castles and fortress towards the end of the Middle Ages. By the start of the Renaissance, fortresses were shorter, wider, and more geometric in their planning with earthen defenses that kept greater distance between the attackers and defenders. Older fortresses were adapted and changed as quickly as possible.

Not to do so would endanger the lives of their inhabitants.

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As fascinating as the evolution of political systems during the Middle Ages is, the focus of this research is on these influences as formalized through the physical environment, namely the architecture of castles, fortresses, and fortified cities.

A basic understanding of the political systems and organization of overlapping authorities creates a clearer picture of why medieval architecture developed as it did. Keeping in mind the history of medieval political systems, it is interesting to examine how defense architecture, a discipline rooted in ancient, physical, and fundamental architectural techniques, has adapted to the “slippery world” of today’s international global systems.

The Aesthetic Shift The aesthetic shift of the seventeenth and early eighteenth century took defensive forms and used them as ornament or otherwise manipulated their original purpose. After the immediate threat of invasion had somewhat subsided, wealthy landowners in England began quoting historic defensive architecture in their designs for estates, gardens, and houses. Many of these English landowners themselves had been involved in various military campaigns and included that imagery in their architecture. With an almost nostalgic overtone, British and French architecture and landscape designs began referencing what had once been used for solely defensive purposes. Architects of the time were able to draw from Europe’s military history to give their patrons a sense of expansive possession, pride and victory even if they had only managed to conquer the natural landscape. Architects like Capability Brown and John Vanbrugh attacked their sites as if they were at war, destroying, sculpting, and reclaiming the English landscape for themselves.

By the eighteenth century in England, estate and garden design was filled with remnants of defensive architecture. These elements were deployed with little concern for their original use and copies of copies even lessened in their original

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Fig 03 Castle Howard, England. Architect John Vanbrugh, 1712. The design includes military decoration, earthworks, and territorial landscape forms.

function. Animals were kept out of English gardens by use of a “ha ha� or militarystyle earthwork ditch. Crenelated walls can be seen at Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace estates designed by Sir John Vanbrugh. At both locations the crenelations could never be used for defensive purposes because they lacked the fundamental hoarding (suspended wooden walkway) that would have been necessary for archers to use the crenelations for defense purposes. Instead the purpose of these military quotations were to symbolize power over territory rather than physically defend that territory through military force.

There is a long history of architects drawing inspiration from military architecture and repurposing these traditions into residential architecture. In 1860 Violett-leDuc published a book entitled Military Architecture which included over 150 illustrations documenting all types of changes in military architecture during the Middle Ages. Even earlier in 1570, Palladio was also interested in military aesthetics and drew military formations that later resembled colonnades in his buildings.12 Much later in the 1990s, Paul Hirst and Paul Virilio examined the topics again and published several important texts concerning power, war, and architecture.13 Architects are uniquely qualified to understand both the history and the future of defense aesthetics; however, today it is typically anthropologists, sociologists, or historians who are particularly concerned with how militarization affects our built environment.

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Fig 01 Villa Farnese, Caprarola. Architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 1559-1573.

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Fig 02 The Pentagon, USA. Architect George Bergstrom, 1943.

"The systems point of view is not neutral. It will change your view of the world. It will lead you to realize that the most important characteristics of human individuals are products of their interactions with other people. It will lead you to realize that the life of nations—though these nations may seem self-sufficient—is produced by interactions in the whole world, and that they only get their strength from their position in this larger whole." Christopher Alexander, Systems Generating Systems, 1968 89

The second aesthetic shift in defense architecture resulted in the complete avoidance of any elements that appear to be defensive. Modernism prized transparency and openness above all. Modern architecture, therefore, hid its defensive mechanisms behind glass walls, mirrored reflections, underground bunkers, and garden landscapes. Bollards become sculptures; moats masquerade as rainwater retention ponds. A water feature may indeed serve to cool the air on a hot day, provide sound buffering, collect rainwater, but can be used to prohibit vehicular circulation near a building. The possibility of such solutions is what makes design a fascinating problem. However, it is the nature of modern architecture to fight against this defensive narrative. It overcompensates with more glass, more transparency, more “nature� to mask the true intentions of these solutions. Instead we could celebrate the defensive aesthetics that in reality must be incorporated into public architecture in the future. Castles and fortresses are revered because of their unapologetic defense aesthetics not in spite of them.

Warfare in the New Millennium Just as the cannonball and the firearm revolutionized warfare for previous generations, modern technology developed in the later half of the twentieth century has transformed our current system of defense. The cause for reflection at this moment is because the technologies of today are combined with larger issues of shifting global and political authorities. Today the US intelligence agencies are dealing with an information overload. In 1996 Eliot Cohen wrote that the current military revolution is in part an information revolution.14 He acknowledges the challenges of amassing and synthesizing large amounts of data gained through an overlapping network of satellites, networks, systems, and radars. These concerns remind us of the most overlooked weapon employed by terrorists today— mass media.

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As with so much of our lives, architecture lives in the shadow of September 11, 2001. Following the terrorist attacks, defense became a critical consideration for all public building designs not only for buildings with specific military programs.

The need for security against attacks is real, but also there is also an opportunity for a more physical type of diplomacy to combat America’s image abroad. The threat of terrorism is unique in its reliance on public opinion and media campaigns to recruit new followers. This “information war” can be swayed heavily by public opinion. From the Middle East to the current crisis at the Russian-Ukrainian border, information wars are fought alongside physical conflicts. Governments are struggling to combat these forces that often grow out of distrust and misunderstanding about outside cultures. Architecture is one of the most visible physical artifacts a culture can produce, and buildings are an opportunity to project and express cultural ideas. Some are beginning to realize the potential for architecture to promote democracy abroad.

Seeing this opportunity for a global expression of American values, the US Design Excellence Program has made American architecture overseas a high priority.

The use of architecture as a “soft power” makes this practice particularly interesting. Rather than design a generic embassy and enclose it with a daunting wall, the US Design Excellence Program employs architects to develop more creative solutions to the issues of security and image. Instead of a generic approach, more site-specific designs are becoming the norm in the recent designs for embassies in London and Mexico City. These designs aim to develop strategies for security while reflecting American ideals of inclusiveness and freedom.

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In the 1991 the Netherlands Foreign Ministry advanced a campaign to promote Dutch architecture around the world through the building of several new embassies that would embody the spirit of Dutch culture.15 Prominent Dutch architects were chosen to design several embassy buildings around the world. In the case of the Netherlands Embassy in Berlin designed by OMA the plan cuts the

Fig 04 US Embassy in London. Architect Kieran Timberlake, projected completion date 2017.

site using two distinct forms: a cube containing offices and a wall providing embassy residences. The separation of the wall from the cube creates four bridges that use the same type of separation as many medieval fortress-city plans. The separation allows an extra layer of security between the public zone of the embassy and the private zone of the residences.

The elevated entry to and from the private residences allows a quick and discrete circulation zone for the everyday users of the buildings. Bridging across the courtyard allows the ground level of the wall to be treated differently than that of the cube.

Even with the sophisticated technology of today, defense architecture projects are returning to the tried and true methods of landscape fortification that worked well for early castle typologies. Historically, the key to defense architecture has always been the landscape, and recent projects show a welcome return to a landscape approach to defense. One of the most impressive examples of this is

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the design for the new US Embassy in London designed by Kieran Timberlake. The design uses a sloped garden to separate the cube building from the surrounding context and to restrict circulation to the site. The overwhelming glass facade attempts to draw the attention away from what looks like a more typical “fortified” base. As described on the architects’ website: “In contrast to high perimeter walls and fences, security requirements are achieved through landscape design— such as the large pond, low garden walls with bench seating, and differences in elevation that create natural, unobtrusive barriers.”16 The aesthetic shift from stone fortress to glass tower reflects an evolution in symbolism. The first attempts to instill reverence in the viewer and the second extends an invitation for entry. Both, however, may be secure in their functions. The appearance of transparency and openness is the latest development in defensive architecture.

Hyper-Territorial The relationship between architecture and territory often manifests itself in seemingly mundane structures. Possibly no contemporary architect is more aware of architecture’s reach than Keller Easterling who has written extensively on the physical results of a globalizing economy. She stated: “Infrastructure has always been a technique of political organization, often even a tool of military theaters.

Using both networks of services as well as explicit repeatable spatial protocols is an ancient practice. One can jump forward through history from Roman military towns to the Laws of the Indies, etc.”17 To understand the world authorities that influence architecture, we might examine the seemingly simple element: the wall.

The wall may be the most overlooked architectural device in its sheer possibility for invention, reinterpretation and adaptation. From formal analysis to

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Fig 05 Sunrise over the Arizona desert border wall between the US and Mexico. The fifteen-foot wall is specially engineered to work in the harsh desert climate. Photo by David McNew.

construction studies the wall as element has been thoroughly documented.

However, when used beyond the purely architectural realm as a political device, the wall can exhibit hyper-state extremes. Global walls are not new; on the contrary, the largest example is the ancient Great Wall of China. From the ninth to the sixteenth century fortified walls all across Europe went through a series of developments in construction methods and form to strengthen it against changing warfare. Similarly, the fortified wall of today takes many shapes and is symbolic as much as it is functional. With the fragility of the nation-state, the perceived need for global walls has increased in recent decades. The modern global wall is rich in its ingenuity, adaptability, and ability to go largely unnoticed as a piece of architecture.

In the centuries years since the construction of the first global walls, surprisingly little has changed in the motivations for such structures. Although they are no longer adorned with crenelations at the top, modern global walls serve a similar purpose as their ancient counterparts and are designed for specific landscapes.

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Global walls control the flow of goods and people and serve as a deterrent to attacks. Contemporary extreme examples of fortified walls include the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), the Israeli West Bank barrier, US-Mexico border and the former Berlin Wall. In the case of the US-Mexico border wall, such an extreme physical barrier was deemed necessary because of several global political changes including the increased reign of drug cartels in Mexico and South America, the threat of international terrorism, and the issue of illegal immigration to America. This particular wall has been specifically engineered to work within the desert landscape of the American Southwest. Sections of the wall and its buttress system can be lifted by a machine when desert sand dunes begin to bury it.18 These global zones take on a life of their own in the cultural imagination and collective memory of the world. The infamous Berlin Wall lives on as tourists buy small pieces of the wall as a physical artifact in what has become a kind of “war tourism.�19

There have even been calls for a new wall separating Ukraine and Russia based on the US-Mexico model. These massive walls are caught between the medieval tradition of walling off small territories (fortresses or cities) and the massive scale of the global world today. They are being employed at a scale that is almost impossible to contain, maintain, and oversee. There will always be failings of such large construction projects when they are designed to create the illusion of transparency and security at the same time. Unsurprisingly, these wall projects are controversial. They force society to examine the political, humanitarian, and social values around the subject of a physical, architectural object. The material, construction method, and even height of these walls is heavily debated since the image of the wall will ultimately be more powerful than its physical strength.

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Other Enemies In a broader sense, defense architecture is not always a question of separating humans from other humans. There are also massive constructions to protect societies against natural forces. For example flood levees and other coastal defense systems are used to combat rising sea levels and hurricanes. The need for these fortifications highlight another problem resulting from various overlapping world authorities. There has been little ability of global organizations to reverse or even halt the effects of climate change. As is often the problem, it is not that there is not enough attention, instead there are too many organizations, actors, and authorities to find an implementable solution. Each country, state, and organization is instead facing these crisis as they happen according to their own unique circumstances.

Far ahead of the US in costal defense, the Netherlands has had one of the most sophisticated water defense systems for decades. Centuries ago the Dutch had mastered the art of flooding so well, they were able to flood specific regions of their country for their own defense against invaders. Today they are continually improving their network of dams and storm surge barriers to protect against the next flood. Fascinatingly because of the culture of water in the Netherlands, these landscape defense strategies pervade all of Dutch culture including architecture.

It is an organizing strategy rather than an aesthetic afterthought. Strikingly, these water defense systems employ similar techniques as land fortresses in their form and manipulation of the landscape.

Landscape defenses are prominently featured in several other new works such as the design for a zoo in Givskud, Denmark by BIG architects. This proposal is not

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simply a landform building. This division between people and animals is subtle, but strong. The significance of this scheme is that it does so without the aesthetics of defense. There are no tall gates or walls like at a traditional zoo. Instead it uses the principals of defense architecture (directed views, earthen heaviness, variation in topography) to create aesthetics of a landform building that operates defensively. It does so without fences, bollards, or the appearance of totalitarianism. It employs medieval tactics to reach modern results.

Conclusion As is often the case, we have more in common with the past than we want to admit. There is much contemporary architects can learn from the territorial aims of medieval architecture. The reflection of medieval authority structures on today’s world allows for a new reading of previously unrelated architectural precedents. The genericism of defense architecture is prevalent in buildings all around the world. Architects can choose to embrace this shift or mask it. Within fortress typologies there is a rich history of innovative form; all we need to do is search for it.

It was an early form of globalism that spread medieval fortress architecture throughout Europe, and thus it may be a similar “new medieval� globalism that once again causes the need for new defensive architecture. The questions of defense and territory are at their core spatial problems. Territory, its physical presence and its symbolic image, has always been within the purview of architects.

It was only with the advent of twentieth century modernism that architects gave up the aesthetics of defense. It is now time for architects to reclaim stake in the territory of our own discipline.

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Endnotes 1. Keller Easterling, interview by Mason White, Archinect, August 2, 2006. http://archinect. com/features/article/41816/urban-slot-machine-a-conversation-with-keller-easterling.

2. Saskia Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006) 32.

Fig 06 Berlin Wall, 2008. Photo by author.

3. Ibid, 26.

4. Joseph Reese Strayer, Feudalism (Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 1965), 13.

5. Hedley Bull, in his book The Anarchical Society, used the term “new medievalism” to describe the erosion of state authorities due to the globalized world of the contemporary world.

Fig 07 US Embassy in London, site plan. Architect Kieran Timberlake.

6. For information on postnationalism and globalism see the writings of Yasemin Soysal and Saskia Sassen.

7. John Rapley, “The New Middle Ages,” Foreign Affairs 85 (2006).

8. See Stephen Kobrin, “Back to the Future: Neomedievalism and the Postmodern Digital World Economy,” The Journal of International Affairs (Spring 1998): 361-386. http://citeseerx.

Fig 08 Construction drawings for USMexico border wall.

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ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.13 1.6106&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

9. Paul James, Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In (London: Sage 2006), 22.

10. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages, 54.

11. Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Military Architecture, 2nd ed. (Oxford: James Parker and Co., 1907), 199-211.

12. See Guido Beltramini, ed. Andrea Palladio and the Architecture of Battle, (Venice: Marsilio, 2009).

13. See Paul Hirst, “The Defense of Places: Fortifications as Architecture,” AA Files, no. 33 (Summer 1997): 13-26 and Virilio, Paul. Bunker Archaeology (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994).

14. Eliot Cohen, “A Revolution in Warfare,” Foreign Affairs 75 (1996): 37-54.

15. Mission Statements: The Architecture Of Dutch Diplomacy, Film, directed by Jord Den Hollander, (2011, Netherlands).

16. “Embassy of the United States,” http://www.kierantimberlake.com/pages/ view/88/embassy-of-the-united-states-of-america/parent:3.

17. Keller Easterling, interview by Mason White, Archinect, August 2, 2006.

18. Alan Taylor, “On the Border,” The Atlantic, May 6, 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2013/05/on-the-border/100510/.

19. See Richard Scofidio and Elizabeth Diller, Back to the Front: Tourisms of War (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996).

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Selected Bibliography Alexander, Christopher. “Systems Generating Systems.” In Computational Design Thinking, edited by Achim Menges and Sean Ahlquist, 58-67. West Sussex: Wiley, 2011.

Beltramini, Guido, ed. Andrea Palladio and the Architecture of Battle.

Venice: Marsilio Editori, 2009.

Easterling, Keller. Enduring Innocence: Global Architecture and Its Political Masquerades. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.

Easterling, Keller. Extrastatecraft: The Power of Infrastructure Space. New York: Verso, 2014.

Graham, Stephen, ed. Cities, War, and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.

Hirst, Paul, “The Defense of Places: Fortifications as Architecture,” AA Files, no. 33 (Summer 1997): 13-26 Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage, 1961.

Kaufmann, J.E. and H.W. Kaufmann. The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2004.

Keats, John. John Keats to George and Georgiana Keats, Febuary 14, 1819. http://www.john-keats.com/briefe/140219.htm (accessed October 28, 2014).

Koolhaas, Rem. “CRONOCAOS.” Log 21 (Winter 2011): 119-123.

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Mukerji, Chandra. Territorial ambitions and the gardens of Versailles.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

New Museum. “New Museum to Present ‘Cronocaos,’ an Exhibition

by OMA/Rem Koolhaas.” New Museum press release, April 27, 2011. http://birmoldatudotcom.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/cronocaos_ pressrelease_v3.pdf, accessed October 28, 2014.

Sassen, Saskia. Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.

Tustan State Historical and Cultural Reserve. “Tustan City-Fortress” Accessed October 27, 2014. http://tustan.ua/.

Vechersky, Victor. Castles and Fortresses of Ukraine. Kyiv: Baltija Druk, 2005.

Virilio, Paul. Bunker Archaeology. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994.

Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel. Military Architecture. Oxford: James Parker, 1907.

Williams, Robert. “Fortified Gardens,” In Sir John Vanbrugh and Landscape Architecture in Baroque England 1690-1730, eds.

Christopher Ridgway & Robert Williams, 49-70. Воронцова, Юлія і Олег Бєліковб. [Castles, fortress, palaces of Ukraine.] Харків: Клуб Сімйного Дозвілля, 2012. (In Ukrainian and English). Пламеницька, Ольга. Фортеця Кам’янець: пізньоантичний ранньомодерний час. Кам’янець-Подільський: ФОП Сисин О.В. 2012. (In Ukrainian with English summary).

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© 2014 Ashley Bigham All Rights Reserved.

Text and book design by Ashley Bigham.

Photo and image credits are noted in the text.

This book contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. I believe this constitutes a ‘fair use’ of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, this book is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. For more information visit: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107.

Contact: abigham1@gmail.com www.ashleybigham.com

About the Author Ashley Bigham is a designer and recent Fulbright Fellow. While based at the Center for Urban History in Lviv, Ukraine, her research focused on defense architecture and its role in globalization. Prior to her Fulbright Fellowship, Ashley completed her Master of Architecture at the Yale University School of Architecture in 2013. Her work has appeared in Mark Magazine, Retrospecta and CLOG. Ashley earned her B. Arch from the University of Tennessee in 2009, where she was awarded the top thesis prize for her project on poetry and cultural memory in architecture. Ashley’s teaching experiences include teaching fellowships at Yale University and adjunct lecturer positions at the University of Tennessee and at the Center for Urban History in Lviv, Ukraine. Professionally, she has practiced most recently Gray Organschi Architecture in New Haven and at MOS, an interdisciplinary architecture firm based in New York.

Cultural Fortress is the story of Ukraine’s defensive architecture legacy. By considering themes of defense architecture at the local and global scales, the book explores Ukraine’s relationship with the world from both internal and external perspectives.

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