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NEW YORK PG 3 | Welcome to New york
Designed by: Acacia Thalmann Art 576 Advanced Typography Professor: Matthew Gaynor Kansas State University Spring 2018
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Cultural Capital of the World pg: 6–7
abstract experssionism pg: 28–29
Marshall plan pg: 58–59
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Cultural Capital of the World by: Acacia Thalmann
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United Nations PG 8 | Welcome to New york
UNITEd nations building
New York City began gaining it’s reputation through the people who were from the great city. For example, if someone was looking for entertainment they would find it in New York. The city was rapidly rising to become a very large city and after World War II it was even more so. New York City, more specifically Manhattan, was selected as the location for the headquarters of the United Nations. The Museum of Modern Art was showing many European art works but the local artists were starting an art movement of their own in SoHo. The city was also becoming known as the place to go to get the most current style of Jazz music. All of these factors led New York City to one of the greatest cities in the world and earn its name as the cultural capitol of the world.
After World War II there was a need for a city that was going to become the new location of the United Nations. The United Nations Headquarters Committee knew they wanted it to be located in the United States so that the United States would stay involved in this international organization. Many cities were considered, such as Chicago, San Francisco and Philadelphia. Also, Detroit and even the Black Hills of South Dakota were considered. But all of these places were rejected. That’s where New York City came in. The headquarters committee felt that if the building was in the heart of Manhattan, it would really make an impact. New York City was starting to be seen
as the financial, cultural and communications capitol of the world after World War II. The city was multicultural, with over 60 different ethnic groups that lived together in the same city, living somewhat peacefully. While waiting for a decision on the location to be made, the United Nations set up temporary headquarters in many hotels across Manhattan. Buildings on the Bronx campus of Hunter College became the place for the United Nations to hold the first meeting of the Security Council of the United Nations on March 21, 1946. Delegates wanted the new building for the United Nations to be located in Midtown, but real estate in that area was already filled and the city in general had little money to buy property there.
By November of that year, New York was close to being dropped because they just could not find the space for a building that was needed to house this organization. At that time, Harry Truman was the president and he favored San Francisco as the new location and even offered up the Presidio, but the Russians blocked any move to the west coast. The secretary-general told the city officials of New York that PG 9 | Welcome to New york
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John d. rockefeller
if they didn’t get an offer together in five days, then they would settle in Philadelphia. Nelson A. Rockefeller wasn’t going to let that happen. He knew the new headquarters had to be in New York City so that the United Nations could succeed. The committee was desperate not to lose New York City as the new location and finally offered the whole of Flushing Meadow, a park area in Queens, rent-free. But it wasn’t enough. The Mayor, William O’Dwyer, and the committee needed a better offer. With only a day left before they would settle in Philadelphia, Robert Moses and one of the Rockefeller brothers suggested a four-block tract of land called Turtle Bay because he wanted to get rid of the factories that were built along the East River in Midtown. It was also known as Blood Alley. That is when William Zeckendorf, a real estate developer, contacted Mayor O’Dwyer because Zeckendorf had been secretly buying land in Turtle
Bay. He wanted to build a futuristic complex called X-City but was having trouble finding financing for the expensive project. He agreed to sell it to the United Nations for $8.5 million. However, the United Nations did not have any money nor did the city. (Burns, 2011) So that night, Nelson Rockefeller and his brother David went to their father and convinced him to donate the $8.5 million to the United Nations to be used to purchase the land from Zeckendorf. Now only 12 hours left before the deal closed, the brothers had to convince Zeckendorf to accept the deal. At that time he was celebrating his wedding anniversary in a nightclub
called the Monte Carlo located on Madison Avenue. They sent architect Wallace Harrison to corner Zeckendorf at his table and he took out a map of the location and asked him straight up to sell the property to the United Nations. Of course, Zeckendorf agreed. (Burns, 2011) The brothers got the site but did not have much time left to work out all the details of such a deal. Robert Moses finished it all. With his total mastery of the public development process, he solved every problem that came about. He called Albany to get permission to close down interior streets and called in a secretary and dictated a long memorandum to the city that they had to give up their waterfront rights. At 10:30 the next morning, Nelson called
Zeckendorg and told him the great news, that the plan was going to work. Minutes later, the headquarters committee announced officially that the site in New York City had been chosen and the decision was formally accepted three days later. (Burns, 2011) All of this was done in such an urgent manner and it makes sense because the Rockefeller brothers really saw the future of New York City and saw that it had potential to become such a great city. It’s no wonder they pushed so hard to make it the location for the United Nations headquarters. The next step was to find the perfect architect for the job. Instead of holding a competition, they decided to invite many well-known architects of the time to work on it together. This team consisted of N.D. Bassov, Gaston Brunfaut, Ernest Cormier, Le Corbusier, Liang Ssu-cheng, Sven Markelius, Anne-Claus Messager, PG 11 | Welcome to New york
united nations building
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roof and the tower shows a monolithic and powerful stance with its functions all on the inside. This style elicits a heavy, masked quality in its architecture. (Kroll, 2011)
Oscar Niemeyer, Howard Robertson, G.A. Soilleux, Garrett Gruber and Julio Villamajo. (Kroll, 2011) In 1947, the United Nations commissioned Wallace K. Harrison to lead this international design team. The entire team came to New York to give their insight on the design process that consisted of many different iterations done by the group and also some parts that were done individually. In the end, they chose Oscar Niemeyer’s design that included two large towers with a commons ground in the middle. But Le Corbusier kept urging his design that got second because he felt that
it helped create a sense of hierarchy between the Secretariat building and the General Assembly. Niemeyer allowed this change because, “I felt he would like to do his project, and he was the master,” he said. “I do not regret my decision.” (Kroll, 2011) The group of architects chose the International style because it gave off a sense of newness for this newfound assembly and showed how the nations could work together to create a great new thing. The shorter building has an iconic dome
With the new headquarters in place everyone began to see the big picture of New York City. It had become the capitol of the world, and the location of a very important political union. This is the time that an international community began to build up in the corporate world. Companies began to push boundaries of where their goods were made and where they could be sold. This community of companies also created their headquarters in New York City. This led to New York City being a very big trading capitol also. PG 13 | Welcome to New york
Art capitol PG 14 | Welcome to New york
In the 1930s, European painters fled to America to escape the fascist regimes in Europe and much Europe was left in ruins after the war. These artists and the ones already in New York combined made New York City the center of the art world. Many different art styles were going on in New York City. Artists in Greenwich village had a realist style that they used with subject matters such as tenements, saloons, and the crowded working-class street life of East Side and the Village. These artists included John Sloan, Robert Henri, and George Bellows, who all were a part of the so-called Ashcan School. The Fourteenth Street School continued a tradition of figurative American Scene painting, and were documenting history. They made art pieces that were a realist record of a city routine, and also showed how much women got involved in society. (Burns, 2011)
After the war in 1945 a movement called Abstract Expressionism began. These painters focused on spontaneous techniques and expressing the conceptual thinking of the artist. Many of these artists painted while listening to jazz, which sparked their rejection of representational art and pushed them more into nonrepresentational art. Many of these new art movements and artist’s studios were in the low rent area from 8th to 12th street on the East Side, between First and Sixth Avenues. This area was the center of this new movement. But as rents rose in the 1950s many artists moved to the SoHo district and took
control of loft spaces without permission. This was because the space was abandoned and the government ignored the illegal use because the buildings would of been abandoned anyway. (Wikipedia, 2018) This area was abandoned because Robert Moses wanted to build an expressway from the Manhattan Bridge to the Williamsburg Bridge, but the local civic and cultural leaders refused to let him destroy any historical buildings as they had just watched the much loved original Penn Station be destroyed. So the project was derailed and the artists moved in. These buildings were not usable by industrial businesses but the artists loved the large areas and the wonderful sunlight that came in through the large windows. The large spaces also benefited the artists because they
p o l i c e g a z e t t e b y w i l l e m d e ko o n i n g
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were creating bigger works and needed more space to do so. In as little as a decade the SoHo district became the home of artists and their experimental galleries. Within two decades New York became the place with the best local art market and became a big factor in western art. (Homberger, 2016) In 1973, as many as 40 galleries opened up in the area and three years later there were 70, making it the greatest traditional art gallery district in New York. (Burns, 2011) This just shows how people can come together to reinvent a neighborhood, even after it was about to be demolished, for something new. In my opinion the SoHo PG 16 | Welcome to New york
art district became popular because there was art there that was made in America by new and upcoming artists. The Metropolitan Art Museum and other galleries along fifty-seventh street were mostly interested in Europeans and in artists in their sixties or older. (Burns, 2011) Many people most likely wanted to see newer works of art that were being completed by the younger generation of artists who were embracing the new Abstract Expressionist movement. The SoHo district is now a historic district and would not be that way had they not derailed the plans for the expressway and had the artists never moved in. The SoHo district then became a very chic and stylish community, which led to many artists being pushed out because they could not
afford the rising rent. (Burns, 2011) Instead of many artists living in the area, SoHo became popular among stockbrokers, lawyers, and advertising executives. Loft living become a popular way to live in the high-rise city of New York. I can see how it became so popular because many people want to be apart of or at least live in the newest, up and coming place which was SoHo. Loft living in general seems very aesthetically pleasing as well as the culture that surrounds the art in the area. I’m sure the richer people who were moving in wanted to be at the top of society, which includes having the most desirable and new art work, and there is no better place for that than the SoHo district which became the capital of art of the world.
gallery in soho, new york
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free form by jackson pollock
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Within 30 years it went from one of the worst slums to the most prosperous and productive parts of New York and also considered one of the most Modern places on earth. (Burns, 2011) The abstract Expressionists were the first artists to really capture how diverse the population of New York really was. One artist who really thrived in the Abstract Expressionist movement was Jackson Pollock. At first Pollock was a very symbolic painter, but he wanted to look into different ways of expression through his work. (Art Story Contributors, 2018) The abstract Expressionist style he created really showed how artists in New York evolved from creating non representational art in this new movement. There was no subject to the art but only an idea, an expression that was created through this movement. These really added a modern and new way for art-
ists to make art which in turn helped turn SoHo district into the new and iconic place we know today. Abstract expressionism art also gave viewers of art something new and edgy to admire compared to the traditional work displayed at other museums such as the Museum of Modern Art, which only had very traditional paintings from Europe. This new art form really helped New York become known for it’s art and culture and proved that it too could be the home of a historical art movement. “It doesn’t make a difference how the paint is put on as long as something has been said. Technique is just means of arriving at a statement.” — Jackson Pollock (Art Story Contributors, 2018)
“It doesn’t make a difference how the paint is put on as long as something has been said. Technique is just means of arriving at a statement.” -Jackson Pollock
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Jazz capitol PG 20 | Welcome to New york
Artists such as Jackson Pollock, of the Abstract Expressionism movement were inspired by Jazz music that was in New York City at the time. Jazz did not have it’s beginnings in New York City. Jazz began in New Orleans, then Chicago became the central hub for this new music and then finally, in the 1930s, New York City began enjoying Jazz music. Kansas City almost became a place of interest for Jazz before New York but it couldn’t hold on to it’s musicians. (Gioia, 2017) This is interesting because Chicago seems to have everything that New York has. Big City, fancy downtowns, but New York City’s new nightlife really took off and became a great setting for new music. In the same way it became the art capitol, it was now the capitol for new musicians to make it big. Many people see New York City as a place for opportunity because of this. This shows that people believed that if they moved to New York City they really could do anything. It is the land of opportunities, where anything is possible.
Charlie Parker, one of the greatest artists to come out of Kansas City also moved to New York City to prove himself as a jazz artist. It was obvious that if you wanted to be famous in the jazz industry you had to go to New York and make it there. (Gioia, 2017) Parker wanted to prove to himself and to the world that he was a great musician. After the war there was a movement towards classical music instead of jazz, but Charlie Parker didn’t want to conform to public. Instead, he kept with his work and devoted himself to creation and performance and not to the type of music that would sell the best. His music style
was geared toward his own preferences and towards the people who liked it the most. With this approach he had an artististic freedom that not many other jazz musicians got to enjoy. (Crawford, 2001) The audience of this music finally began to relish in the jazz improvisation and the performances became a show. The people of New York City enjoyed jazz music and the musicians shaped their shows to be even more entertaining. (Crawford, 2001) His nickname was Charlie ‘Bird’ Parker because he was as free as a bird. (Biography, 2014) This backs up why he stuck with his music rather than getting tied up in what the people wanted. In 1945, Parker joined Dizzy Gillespie and did a six week tour of Hollywood and created a new form of Jazz called bebop. (Biography, 2014) Bebop
Charlie parker
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was mainly played by smaller bands and was highly focused on improvisation. (Crawford, 2001) Jazz was already a very spunky and spontaneous type of music but bebop focused more on the individual spontaniety of a solo by one musician rather than the entire band. This is why Charlie Parker was the leader of his band at one point. He was a very good improviser and could make any boring song liven up with a quick spontaneous solo. Albert Murray saw this music as a great thing it was saying that Parker was, “ adding a new dimension of elegance to the Kansas City drive, which is to say to the velocity of the celebration.” (Crawford, 2011) Parker recorded a blues number for the Savoy label called Parker’s Mood. It really showed off his artistry on the saxophone. Charlie Parker was an amazing artist who reinvented Jazz into a new type of music that really caught on after the war ended. Which seems right since after the war New York was all about change. The new city really inspired him to create this amazing music. It caught on with some people and the people who enjoyed his music were very passionate about it. PG 22 | Welcome to New york
Years after the war, the New York’s Jazz scene grew and it was in uptown Harlem, downtown Greenwich Village, and most of all the heart of midtown, 52nd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, which many jazz musicians referred to as “The Street”, where all of the best jazz clubs were located. Dexter Gordan described it as, “the most exciting half a block in the world. Everything was going on—music, chicks, connections . . . so many musicians working down there, side by side.” (Crawford, 2001) After the war people wanted to celebrate and with upbeat music like this it is the perfect way to enjoy being back from the war and it finally ending. At one point West Coast California gave New York City a run for there money in the Jazz business, but just like Kansas City they couldn’t hold on. California also really blossomed in the film industry and many people there would pick seeing a movie
nat king cole trio
over watching an actual live show. Nothing compares to the culture that blossomed in New York City. Because of the amount of people that live in such a small space it’s hard to compete with all the different cultures from just the people that live there, let alone the culture New York City has created by itself. The musicians, like Charlie Parker, never gave up on their musical ways just like the Abstract Expressionists embraced their new art form and the Rockefeller brothers never gave up on New York as the location for the United Nations Headquarters. If they had all given up and not fought for what they new was right, New York City may not be the headquarters of the world that we know today. New York City is known for being the city that never
sleeps and I feel like that also has to do with the fact that the city is always changing. New York City is always going to evolve to the newest and greatest invention, whether it is music, art, or historical significance. All of these historical events made New York a very culturally diverse place that is not seen anywhere else in the world.
charlie parker and band
The city of New York is a place like no other. The diversity and culture there does not compare to any other city in the world. This is why the aspect of all the new cultures became such an integral part of New York City and it’s path towards being the most amazing headquarters city in the world. PG 23 | Welcome to New york
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Abstract ExpressionisT movement By: Mary Carnes
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Overview Overview Abstract Expressionism is one of the most important movements in the art world, yet many only understand it as a style, time period, or handful of artists. This paper sets out to explore what made abstract expressionism different, what cultural ideas the movement arose from and who lead the movement through innovation within their own art careers. For the purpose of this essay, I will divide the movement by the three major themes recognized within the paintings; Abstraction, Action, and Color. Although every artist associated with the Abstract Expressionist movement abstracts their subject, there is a level of representation that some artists like Pollock and Rothko did not explore.
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define, and somehow encompasses both artists who attacked the canvas with gestural freedom, as well Arshile Gorky and Willem as those who gently filled De Kooning, took figutheir fields with color and rative subjects and absimple, deep expression. stracted them, sometimes This art movement took subliminally. Action painting place primarily in New York arose during the Avant-GarCity during the 1940’s and de period and it’s understood 50’s. It was somehow meant as the technique of painting to encompass not only with extreme action, in which the work of painters who paint is randomly splashed, filled their canvases with thrown, or poured onto the fields of color and abstract canvas. Jackson Pollock and forms, but also those who Franz Kline were some of the attacked their canvases first artists to try action paintwith a vigorous gesturing although they adopted very al expressionism. There different styles of action painting. is no manifesto, as with Color Field artists, such as Mark Dadaism, or overarching Rothko and Barnett Newman create structure, rules or leader. a sense of being enveloped by color In fact there is little coheand surrounded by the painting. siveness throughout the The subject is the color itself, and it movement or between unlocks a transcendent expression for the artists themselves. color field artists. The commonality able to bind these artists into What is Abstract Expressionism? The art movement is extremely hard to
ONE: NUMBER 31 BY JACKSON POLLOCK
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one movement is the underlying primal themes and mystic overtones that the artists tended to adopt. The physical connections between artists during their careers were often random; some had close bonds, others minor rapport, and many desired isolation, as Abstract Expressionism was born into a cultural landscape of independence and differentiation. The artists of the movement explored an existentialism and individuality with confidence and extremism. There arose an open-minded attitude toward the process of painting, accepting the uncalculated results of the process as the final outcome. (Hobbs, Carleton, and Levin 1981, 25). It opened a space for artists to have freedom with their canvases and start to make art for the expe-
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9TH STREET SHOW
rience and expression of the process itself. Abstract Expressionism emerged in New York City just after WWII ended. Many European Surrealist artists had moved to the United States in the 30’s and Abstract Expressionism supplanted the Surrealist focus on archetypal, and often disturbing subject matter with a balance of self-expression and the chaos of the subliminal conscious. Because Abstract Expressionism arose from a climate of post-war and cold war paranoia, the mood of the art produced was riddled with trauma and anxiety. To escape from these feelings, artists pursued freedom of expression. To many, abstract expressionism represented freedom, “the freedom to create controversial works of art, the freedom symbolized by action painting, by the unbridled expressionism of artists completely without fetters”(MOMA). All artists
in the movement were committed to their art as expressions of the self, born out of profound emotion and universal themes, and most were shaped by the legacy of Surrealism, a movement that they translated into a new style fitted to the post-war mood of anxiety and trauma. In their success, these New York painters robbed Paris of its mantle as leader of modern art and set the stage for America’s dominance of the international art world.
ticed a unique, recognizable style and was deeply influential in the movement. This paper seeks to explain who each artist is and what he invented within the movement in the context of the certain theme that he is representing—abstraction, The following artists action or color—and are only six of the the legacy that he left. many artists within It should be mentioned the movement, each that there are many one incredibly indiincredible women artists vidual in how they’ve throughout the Abstract attacked their art. Expressionist movement: Each artist repreLee Krasner, Joan Mitchsented here pracell, Mary Abbott, and Elaine de Kooning are just a few of the many. The freedom the painters established in abstract expressionism opened the door for many new art movements to come.
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Arshile Arshile GorkyGorky Arshile Gorky, born 1904 in the Ottoman Empire, emigrated to the United States in 1920 as a refugee. Gorky was a senior art caree, but poured member of the American the foundation for the avant-garde but did not abstract expressionist receive the kind of repainters to come. sponse that many believe his work merited. Although Gorky should technically the Museum of Modern be labeled a precursor Art acquired one of his to the Abstract Exprespaintings quite early in the sionists. He seamlessly movement in 1941, in the combined the Expresseven years until his death sionist and Surrealist aesGorky had not a single thetics and exposed the painting bought by a museNew York artists to ways um or awarded a prize. He of integrating the innovafound a cold reception at his tive ways that European first one-man show at Julien modernists were painting Levy’s gallery in 1945 and at the time. Ultimately, many friends and art critics Gorky was a driving force urged him to move to Europe in establishing New York where they believed his work as an important arts center would be more appreciated and, as a byproduct, the (Gorky’s Life). Gorky tragically died in 1948 at the peak of his PG 30 | Welcome to New york
AGONY BY ARSHILE GORKY
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United States as a culturnition. Like all other Abstract Expressitions. Somehow his smooth al capital. Gorky’s form sionists, for Gorky there’s an emphasis paintings are injected with of abstraction in his art is on art as a process however, Gorky’s explosive energy. Gorky was incredibly lyrical. He comprocess was much more methodical not only influential in his ideas bines styles from surrealand structured, compared to many of and paintings but also within ism, Dadaism and cubism his contemporaries. Gorky’s emphahis relationships. He became to create this style of lyrical sis on the process of painting—as a close friend of De Koonings abstraction. His paintings he put it himself, “always to keep and it is widely believed that are titled for their subject starting to paint, never finishing Gorky was the first to introduce matter, “The Liver is the painting”— also greatly impacted him to the idea of composing Cock’s Comb”, “Water of Pollock and the Abstract Expresabstract paintings by including the Flowery Mill” and “The sionists. (Perl 2014) relevant personal images. The Black Monk” are all exambody of work that Gorky left ples of how he takes a physGorky’s contributions to the founbehind was incredibly impactful ical idea or place, and then dation of Abstract Expressionism on American Art and he secured gently abstracts them, often and to the art world are difficult a position as one of the last great featuring flowing shapes and to overestimate. He brought surrealists and one of the first pleasant compositions. There’s abstraction to a point beyond Abstract Expressionists. a biomorphic resemblance to cubism and began to expersomething living, or what was iment with organic forms, the original subject, but Gorky automatism and abstracted has abstracted it beyond recoglandscapes in lyrical compo-
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“always to keep starting to paint, never finishing painting� -Arshile Gorky
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Willem de Koon Willem de Kooning Willem De Kooning, born versions of seated figures, in 1904, had been considwhich he “juxtaposed forms ered a “painter’s painter” clearly defined by his strong since the thirties. He lived curving lines, with forms that a life of total honesty, and were blurred almost to extincchose the uncomfortable tion” (Perl 2014). The forms in rather than conform to the paintings were mysterianyone else’s idea of what ous, grotesque, intriguing and a painter’s life should be. most of all, expressive. De Both de Kooning and Gorky Kooning was quite adamant chose a life of poverty rather that his images were created than to compromise their to be allusive and ambigwork. De Kooning was born uous. He said to art critic in Rotterdam and moved to Selden Rodman, “Whatever the United States in 1926, he I see becomes my shapes died in 1997. and my condition. The recognizable forms people De Kooning is possibly most sometimes see in the picwell-known for his paintings tures after they’re painted, of women which he created I see myself, but whether between 1943 and 1946. The they got there accidenpaintings were a series of many tally or not, who knows?
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ning
WOMAN I BY WILLEM DE KOONING PG 35 | Welcome to New york
“Whatever I see becomes my shapes and my condition. The recognizable forms people sometimes see in the pictures after they’re painted, I see myself, but whether they got there accidentally or not, who knows? In that phase, I was painting the woman in me.” WILLEM DE KOONING
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In that phase, I was painting and incredibly spiritually the woman in me.” (Rodman, engaged in his painting. Selden, and Eliot 1957, 102). He viewed his process as a Although he claimed to have form of survival. In 1951 at no physical subject matter, a museum of modern art de Kooning’s preference for symposium he said, Spirusing the figure of women itually, I am wherever my as the starting points for his spirit allows me to be, and paintings, distinguishes his that is not necessarily in the work as an important innova- future. Art never seems to tion in the abstraction of the make me peaceful or pure. I movement. De Kooning’s always seem to be wrapped work presents his subjecin the melodrama of vulgartive experience of physical ity. I do not think of outside things and beings which or inside or of art in general affect his experience, truly — as a situation of comfort… earning him the title of an Rather, abstract expression“Abstract Expressionist”. ist painters have found that (Belgrad 2007, 109). painting, any style of painting De Kooning was seri— to be painting at all, in fact ous, intense, honest is a way of living today, a style of living, so to speak, That is where the form of it lies. It is exactly in its uselessness that it is free. Those artists do not want to conform. They only want to be inspired.
WOMAN V BY WILLEM DE KOONING
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Jackson Jackson Pollock Pollock
JACKSON POLLOCK
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ck
Jackson Pollock is probably the most well-known abstract expressionist painter today as a result of “popular” style, and eventualhis unique and innovative ly died in 1956 in an automostyle of painting as well as bile accident, under the the consumerist way that influence of alcohol. Pollock, he sold his paintings and like Gorky was able to create allowed himself to become a new style by combining the a public figure. Pollock was subject matter that many surborn in Wyoming in 1912, realist artists adopted, with and moved to New York an innovative improvisationwith his brother in 1930 to al technique and bold study painting under Thomstyle of attack. Pollock’s as Hart Benton at the Art experience of painting was Students League. Pollock innately action oriented. He rose to fame quickly after said of his process, “When he began his drip period, I am in my painting, I’m not between 1947 and 1950, aware of what I’m doing. It in which he violently dripped is only after a sort of “get paint onto an un-stretched acquainted” period that canvas. He immediately was I see what I have been recognized world-wide after about. I have no fears an August 8, 1949 article in about making changes, Life magazine was published, destroying the image, etc. titled “Is he the greatest because my painting has living painter in the United a life of its own. I try to let States?”. In response, Pollock it come through... there immediately deserted his drip is a pure harmony, an style and proceeded to pour easy give and take and paint, often in darker colors. He the painting comes out was far less successful in the art well.” (Perl 2014, 2). world when he abandoned his PG 39 | Welcome to New york
Pollock’s inventive drip technique was incredibly original to the art world. He opened (The New minds around the world about York School, 166). the way paintings should be Many who followed made. He was firmly against after him adopted the idea of easel painting, his view of painting and Pollock wrote a grant in as a process. Pollock early 1947 to the Guggenwrote of his experiheim, that “he intended to ence of the process of paint ‘large, movable picaction painting, “I feel tures that will function benearer, more a part of tween the easel and mural, the painting… I can ‘and added: ‘I believe easel walk around it, work painting to be a dying from the four sides and form, and the tendency of literally be in the paintmodern feeling is toward ing.” (Perl 2014, 1). the wall picture or mural”
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“I feel nearer, more a part of the painting… I can walk around it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting.”
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Franz Franz KlineKline existence.” (MOMA). From this 105). Kline was spiritually Franz Kline was born in point on, Kline’s action painting oriented to his process Pennsylvania in 1910. was born. of painting and to his exKline’s recognizable style pressive subject matter. of large, black, active strokes of paint on a white, Kline was incredibly expressive with the limitation that Kline is recognized as one canvas, are now known he gave himself of house of the most important around the world. He paint, and black and white. artists of the Abstract began by sketching figures He would paint, scrape, reExpressionist movement. and structures in a slightly paint images over and over Kline is declared to be an abstract way, but when de again until he found that action painter because Kooning took a Kline sketch his emotion was visible in of his spontaneous style, and projected it on the wall the resulting image. Kline and abandonment of of his studio to show Kline wrote, “The final test of figurative subjects and that his works could be taken painting, theirs, mine, imagery. His focus on the farther at a large scale, Kline any other, is: does the brushstrokes, process of came into his style. He said painter’s emotion come painting and the maof the initial projection and across?” He also said terials as the subject of inspiration, “A four by fivethe painting was a new inch black drawing of a rocking of his subject matter, “I paint not the things concept even for some of chair… loomed in giant black I see but the feelings the abstract expressionstrokes which eradicate any they arouse in me.” ist painters. Unlike the image, the strokes expanding as Pollock, Kline’s paintings entities in themselves, unrelated (Rodman, Selden, are nuanced, subtle and to any entity but that of their own and Eliot 1967,
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he very heavily meditated on his works. His paintings were almost made to look like they were done with no thought, just a flash of inspiration, but instead, they were extensively studied before his brush even met the canvas. (Anfam, 2003). Many critics even attribute Kline to the beginning of the minimalist movement which replaced Abstract Expressionism in the 1960s, because of his denial toward assigning meaning to his work. The objective emotion and frankness was extremely avant-garde for the time.
BLACK REFLECKTIONS BY FRANZ KLINE
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Mark Rothko Mark Rothko
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NO. 13 BY MARK ROTHKO
letting the emotion beam Mark Rothko was born in Russia in and envelope the viewer. 1903, and although Rothko refused Thomas B. Hess wrote of to be labeled by any art moveRothko’s style, “In deprivment, his color field paintings are ing the painting of most of generally identified as part of the its traditional prerogatives abstract expressionist and wiles, in reducing it- not movement. Rothko and his family to the skeleton, but to the immigrated to the United States skin- Rothko also enriches it in 1913. In 1923, Rothko found with a directness of art, he enrolled at Parsons New emotional statement” York School for Design and was educated under Arshile Gorky Contrary to what many beand Max Weber. Under the inlieve, Rothko’s paintings were fluence of the two great paintnot about color theory or the ers, Rothko began to view art nuances of the paints he used. as a “tool of emotional and His paintings mean so much religious expression.” From more. Rothko himself claims this understanding of art, he’s not an abstractionist, “I’m Rothko began to paint his not interested in relationships of recognizable compositions color or form or anything else. consisting of rectangles I’m interested only in expressing and squares flooding the basic human emotions- tragedy, canvas with color. His style ecstasy, doom, and so on- the fact is incredibly minimalist, that lots of people break down and cry when confronted with my
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“We assert that the subject
is crucial and only that subject matter is valid which is tragic and timeless.� -Mark Rothko
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NO. 10 BY MARK ROTHKO
pictures shows that I communicate those basic human emotions. The people who weep before my pictures are having the same religious experience I had when Ipainted them. And if you, as you say are moved only by their color relationships, then you miss the point!” Rothko was so committed to the emotional core of his paintings, that he even wished that his work would be viewed only by the untrained eye, with no understanding of theory. (Perl 2014, 3)
subject matter is valid which is tragic and timeless.” He also said of his subject matter, “I think of my pictures as dramas; the shapes in the pictures are the performers. They have been created from the need for a group of actors who are able to move dramatically without embarrassment and execute gestures without shame… I do not believe that there was ever a question of being abstract or representational. It is really a Rothko said of Abstract Expresmatter of ending this sionism Painters “We assert that silence and solitude, of the subject is crucial and only that breaching and stretching one’s arms again” (Perl 2014, 3)
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Barnett Newma Barnett Newman Barnett Newman, born in New York City in 1905, was a painter, critic and author. He happened upon the art scene something real and concrete. through his friendships His paintings were embraced with other painters and by the younger generation radical ideas that align with who were looking for someother abstract expressionthing beyond the overists, but a style that clearly whelming emotions of abdeviates. Newman is seen stract expressionists such as one of the major figures as de Kooning and Kline in abstract expressionism, (Perl 2014, 7). Newman’s especially innovative as ability to create concrete a color field painter. His messages about his art paintings are existential in and the art of others protone and content, explicitly pelled him to become an composed with the intention unofficial spokesman for of communicating a sense of the Abstract Expressionlocality, presence, and continist avant-garde. Stategency. (Wright and Gayford, ments Newman made, 2006). At a time when expressuch as, “Yet a lifelong sionist paint handling was the anarchism underlay rage, he worked with solid the assertion that planes of smoothly applied free human creativity, color, only occasionally interrupted by the vertical bands he called “zips”. He aimed for PG 48 | Welcome to New york
as manifest in the artistic act itself, was a primeval urge whereby human beings gained control over, and so redeemed, a tragic world” encapsulates the mood of the movement, the culture it arose from and force toward free will (Anfam 2016 ). Throughout his acclaimed paintings like “Onement I,” a cadmium red dark field with a glowing orange central vertical stripe, “Be I”, a red painting bisected by
man
CONCORD BY BARNETT NEWMAN
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an experience and deliver an emotion. In 1950 he stated that in each painting, there are, “specific, and VIR HEROICUS SUBLIMIS BY BARNETT NEWMAN separate embodiments of feeling, to be expea clean white line, “Abraham” rienced”. Newman also with a broad stripe asymmetstressed that experirically slicing the black color encing his work should, field, Newman was able to “induce an experience merge the stripe, a motif of time (and thus of which he named, ‘zip’ and self-reflexivity) even the color field into one balmore than of space” anced and whole composi(Anfam 2016). tion. The simplicity creates an ambiguous meaning and More than any other invites many different interAbstract Expressionist pretations. He cared little artist, Newman had a spirit for the aesthetic quality of of anarchy and change. his art work and was often He succinctly explains the quoted saying “Aesthetics abstract, sometimes grois for the artists as ornitesque and unique style thology is for the birds” of the Avant-Garde; “We (Rodman, Selden, and are creating images whose Eliot 1957). His purpose reality is self-evident and in painting was to create which are devoid of the
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props and crutches that evoke associations with outmoded images, both sublime and beautiful. We are freeing ourselves of the impediments of memory, association, nostalgia, legend, myth or what have you, that have been the devices of Western European painting. The image we produce is the self-evident one of revelation, real and concrete, that we can be understood by anyone who will look at it without the nostalgic glasses of history.” (Perl 2014).
“Aesthetics is for the artists as ornithology is for the birds” —Barnett Newman
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Conclusion Conclusion “The painter of the new movement clearly understands the separation between abstraction and the art of the abstract. He is therefore not concerned with geometric forms per se but in creating forms which by their abstract nature carry some abstract intellectual content.” (Hobbs, Carleton, and Levin 1981, 96).
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The Abstract Expressionist movement reoriented the itself. Kline said of way of thinking of art as an abstract expresobject towards creating art as sionism, “It’s free an experience. The ability to association from the move the viewer, and commustart to the finished nicate an emotion became state. Painters like the artist’s calling. Because Rothko, Pollock, Still of the way the artists of the perhaps, in reaction movement explored existento the tendency to tialism and individuality with analyze which has confidence and extremism, dominated painting they created a culture within from Seurat to Albers, the art world of process associate with very painting, ultimately aclittle analysis. A new cepting the uncalculated form of expressionism results of the process as inevitably followed. the final outcome. Abstract With de Kooning, the Expressionism opened a procedure is continual space for artists to have change, and the immefreedom with their candiacy of the change. vases and start to make With Pollock, it’s the art for the experience and confidence you feel from expression of the process the concentration of his energy in a given picture.” (Rodman, Selden, and Eliot 1957, 108).
THE IRASCIBLES
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The Marshall Plan By: Katherine Kistler
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“I need not tell you gentlemen that the world situation is very serious. That must be apparent to all intelligent people. I think one difficulty is that the problem is one of such enormous complexity that the very mass of facts presented to the public by press and radio make it exceedingly difficult for the man in the street to reach a clear appraisement of the situation. Furthermore, the people of this country are distant from the troubled areas of the earth and it is hard for them to comprehend the plight and consequent reaction of the long-suffering peoples, and the effect of those reactions on their governments in connection with our efforts to promote peace in the world.�
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America has not always
been considered the leader of the free world, in the year 1947 that changed for our country, we turned away from our traditional isolationism to step forward in a war stricken world to provide aid to the European nations that had been destroyed both physically and economically in World War II. Secretary of State George Marshall and State Department Russian specialist, George F. Kennan recommended to president Truman that America, since not being directly affected by the war as Europe had, help rebuild “the economic health and vigor of European society.” Marshall and Keenan’s ideas would become known as the Marshall Plan or officially as the European
Recovery Program (ERP). What at first is a plan to help Europe recover and would be called “the highest level of statesmanship” of Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill, later develops into a plan to help Europe by helping America. By bringing the Marshall Plan into Europe we were in turn allowing Europe to rebuild almost instantly. The catch was that America was providing the money so they also had the say in what was to be built and how. Because of the United States economic safety, America was further solidifying its grasp on the European economy to push the Soviets further back. Americas Relationship with Europe has always been a very different type of agreement. Europe paved
the way for America and helped make us into the super power we are today and were in the 40’s. Because of this unspoken agreement it was easy to see that by helping them with the Marshall Plan we would only be strengthening our bond. And with this increase in strength we were in turn prepping Europe for an easier transition into the consumption of American-made goods. America by helping Europe is helping itself by controlling the funds that it will take for Europe to rebuild, and by supplying those funds gaining allies in Europe for the upcoming Cold War.
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Why the world was in need of the Marshall Plan By the end of World War II a majority of Europe was destroyed. Aerial bombings and other factors in the war badly damaged most major cities and industrial facilities, slowing and in some countries stopping the production of any goods that were needed to rebuild the continent. The areas trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted and millions on the continent were living in refugee camps and supporting themselves off of aid from the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and several other agencies. Europe experienced an especially harsh winter in 1946- 47 so food shortages were
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severe and during that time the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat to them. Transportation in Europe was especially damaged, a majority of railways, bridges and docks had been targeted in air strikes, and many merchant ships had been sunk. Though a majority of the small towns and villages throughout Europe had not been damaged they were economically isolated because they were unable to reach the larger cities because of the lack of transportation. The large cities had been cut off from their resources or they no longer existed after the war so the small towns and villages
had no way to access the supplies and food they needed to carry on with everyday life. The United States began to realize that not only had Europe’s economy and trade shut down but a majority of theirs would too if they could not find a way to boost Europe’s economy. This discovery quickly leads to Marshall making a speech at Harvard that would bring the idea of the Marshall Plan to the United States government and put into motion.
Signing the Marshall Plan
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“In considering the requirements for the rehabilitation of Europe, the physical loss of life, the visible destruction of cities, factories, mines and railroads was correctly estimated but it has become obvious during recent months that this visible destruction was probably less serious than the dislocation of the entire fabric of European economy. For the past 10 years conditions have been highly abnormal. The feverish preparation for war and the more feverish maintenance of the war effort engulfed all aspects of national economies. Machinery has fallen into disrepair or is entirely obsolete. Under the arbitrary and destructive Nazi rule, virtually every possible enterprise was geared into the German war machine. Long-staning com-
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mercial ties, private institutions, banks, insurance companies, and shipping companies disappeared, through loss of capital, absorption through nationalization, or by simple destruction. In many countries, confidence in the local currency has been severely shaken. The breakdown of the business structure of Europe during the war was complete. Recovery has been seriously retarded by the fact that two years after the close of hostilities a peace settlement with Germany and Austria has not been agreed upon. But even given a more prompt solution of these difficult pro lems the rehabilitation of the economic structure of Europe quite evidently will require a much longer time and greater effort than had been foreseen.�
Development of the Marshall Plan
Marshall and Keenan argued a rebuilt Europe would benefit the American economy by once again being able to buy American factory and farm products, which would put the American people in factories and other businesses in an attempt to stave off another great depression. Several members of congress met the plan with immediate rebuttal saying that it would be a “wasteful operational rathole�, they felt it made no sense to oppose communism by supporting socialist’s governments in western Europe. Others incongress felt differently, they recognized that there was no certainty that the plan would succeed but it would have the opportunity to halt the economic crisis, sustain western civilization, and stop further Soviet expansion. In the end only 17 senators voted against the plan, the bill originally stated that congress would grant the
western European nations $5 billion but would end up spending several billion more before the Marshall Plan was completed. The American people also supported the plan, multiple interest groups, including business, labor, farming, philanthropy, ethnic groups, and religious groups, saw the Marshall Plan as an inexpensive solution to a massive problem, noting it would also help American exports and stimulate the American economy as well. The Solid Democratic South was highly supportive, the upper Midwest was dubious, but heavily outnumbered. The plan was opposed by conservatives in the rural Midwest, who opposed any major government spending program and were highly suspicious of Europeans. As the plan is put into place and the people of the United States see it in action less and less opposed it.
George Catlett Marshall PG 61 | Welcome to New york
What America stood to gain
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The Marshall Plan facilitated the rapid recovery of Europe’s national economies – but it also had obvious advantages for America. Not only was the Marshall Plan successful in stabilizing many European governments and blocking Soviet expansion, it built a ‘new Europe’ where political economy was based on free trade rather than protectionism and self-interest. This allowed American exporters to enter European markets more easily than before World War II. Soviet containment was an important aspect to what the United States wanted out of the Marshall Plan, they wanted the countries bordering areas under soviet
control to have a stable economy to better stop the advances on communism in Europe. The Plan also promoted the use and development of democratic systems in Europe’s government. Countries like Germany and Austria had no positive experience with a democratic system and the United States saw this as an opportunity to help shape how these countries develop their own governments. Profits for Americas companies was a large driving force of the Marshall Plan and is largely got the American peoples support to go through with it. A majority of all resources and goods purchased by the
Marshall Plan came from the United States, it benefited both American exporters and domestic industries. It allowed for America to recover from an economic slump after the war to make sure they would not go through another great depression. American corporations built trade links to Europe that still continue today. The Marshal Plan also encouraged free trade. Because most European nations prior to World War II had protectionist economic policies it was difficult for foreign traders and exporters to get products into European markets. The conditions of the plan incorporated free trade policies and practices, which contin-
ue to prove profitable for American businesses still today. Propaganda value was the last major footing the United States stood to gain with the Marshall Plan, it was cleverly marketed by the American government as a generous and visionary policy to allow the rebuilding of Europe. The conditions or funding proposed by the Plan were not publically advertised, the Americans made the offer of funding to the USSR and Soviet countries knowing that the conditions would make it impossible for them to accept.
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“It is already evident that, before the United States Government can proceed much further in its efforts to alleviate the situation and help start the European world on its way to recovery, there must be some agreement among the countries of Europe as to the requirements of the situation and the part those countries themselves will take in order to give proper effect to whatever action might be undertaken by this Government. It would be neither fitting nor efficacious for this Government to undertake to draw up unilaterally a program designed to place Europe on its feet economically. This is the business of the Europeans. The initiative, I think, must come from Europe. The role of this country should consist of friendly aid in the drafting of a European program so far as it may be practical for us to do so. The program should be a joit one, agreed to by a number, if not all European nations.�
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Enactment of Marshall Plan
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Taking the Marshall Plan to Europe Turning the plan into reality required negotiations among the participating nations. Sixteen nations met in Paris to determine what form the American aid would take, and how it would be divided. The negotiations were long and complex, with each nation having its own interests. France’s major concern was that Germany not be rebuilt to its previous threatening power. The Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg), despite also suffering under the Nazis, had long been closely linked to the German economy and felt their prosperity depended on its revival. The Scandinavian nations, especially Sweden, insisted that their long-standing trading relationships with the Eastern Bloc nations
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not be disrupted and that their neutrality not be infringed. The United Kingdom insisted on special status as a longstanding belligerent during the war, concerned that if it were treated equally with the devastated continental powers it would receive virtually no aid. The Americans were pushing the importance of free trade and European unity to form a bulwark against communism. The Truman administration, represented by William L. Clayton, promised the Europeans that they would be free to structure the plan themselves, but the administration also reminded the Europeans that implementation depended on the plan’s passage through Congress. A majority of Congress
members were committed to free trade and European integration, and were hesitant to spend too much of the money on Germany. However, before the Marshall Plan was in effect, France, Austria, and Italy needed immediate aid. On December 17, 1947, the United States agreed to give $40 million to France, Austria, China, and Italy. Agreement was eventually reached and the Europeans sent a reconstruction plan to Washington, which was formulated and agreed upon by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947. In the document, the Europeans asked for $22 billion in aid. Truman cut this to $17 billion in the bill he put to Congress. On March 17,
1948, Truman addressed European security and condemned the Soviet Union before a hastily convened Joint Session of Congress. Attempting to contain spreading Soviet influence in Eastern Bloc, Truman asked Congress to restore a peacetime military draft and to swiftly pass the Economic Cooperation Act, the name given to the Marshall Plan. Of the Soviet Union Truman said, “The situation in the world today is not primarily the result of the natural difficulties which follow a great war. It is chiefly due to the fact that one nation has not only refused to cooperate in the establishment of a just and honorable peace but has actively sought to prevent it.”
“The situation in the world today is not primarily the result of t he natural difficulties which follow a great war. It is chiefly due to the fact that one nation has not only refused to cooperate in the establishment of a just and honorable peace but has actively sought to prevent it.�
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Putting the plan into action
The first substantial aid went to Greece and Turkey in January 1947, which were seen as the front line of the battle against communist expansion, and were already receiving aid under the Truman Doctrine. Initially, Britain had supported the anti-communist factions in those countries, but due to its dire economic condition it decided to pull out and in February 1947 requested the US to continue its efforts. The ECA formally began operation in July 1948. The Marshall Plan money was transferred to the governments of the European nations. The funds were jointly administered by the local governments and the
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ECA. Each European capital had an ECA envoy, generally a prominent American businessman, who would advise on the process. The cooperative allocation of funds was encouraged, and panels of government, business, and labor leaders were convened to examine the economy and see where aid was needed. The Marshall Plan aid was mostly used for the purchase of goods from the United States. The European nations had all but exhausted their foreign exchange reserves during the war, and the Marshall Plan aid represented almost their sole means of importing goods from abroad. At the start of the plan,
these imports were mainly much-needed staples such as food and fuel, but later the purchases turned towards reconstruction needs as was originally intended. In the latter years, under pressure from the United States Congress and with the outbreak of the Korean War, an increasing amount of the aid was spent on rebuilding the militaries of Western Europe. Of the some $13 billion allotted by mid-1951, $3.4 billion had been spent on imports of raw materials and semi-manufactured products; $3.2 billion on food, feed, and fertilizer; $1.9 billion on machines, vehicles, and equipment; and $1.6 billion on fuel.
Also established were counterpart funds, which used Marshall Plan aid to establish funds in the local currency. According to ECA rules, recipients had to invest 60% of these funds in industry. This was prominent in Germany, where these government-administered funds played a crucial role in lending money to private enterprises which would spend the money rebuilding. These funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of Germany. In 1949–50, for instance, 40% of the investment in the German coal industry was by these funds.
ey therefore shopping more, traveling more and not only did the American economy grow more than ever in the history of the United states but Americans gained hope, confidence and pride in their home country. In today’s money, the Marshall Plan gave to Western Europe over a fourto-five-year period, from 1947 to 1953, more than $88 billion.
Spending money on the rebuilding of Europe means the American people making mon-
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Western Europe’s Expenditures
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The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. More aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, with less for those that had remained neutral.
Success of the Plan The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it “history’s most successful structural adjustment program.” The Marshall Plan did not cure all of Europe’s economic problems. Western Europe was still importing 40 percent of their goods from the United States.
The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan. The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War in the form of NATO.
The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration. Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration. In some ways this effort failed, as the OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation. Rather it was the separate European Coal and Steel Community, which notably excluded Britain, that would eventually grow into the European Union. However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures that would later be used by the European Economic Community. PG 71 | Welcome to New york
“Churchill’s words won the war, Marshall’s words won the peace.”
During the period leading up to World War II, Americans were highly isolationist. In fact, many called The Marshall Plan a “milestone” for American ideology. By looking at polling data overtime from pre-World War II to post-World War II, one would find that there was a change in public opinion in regards to ideology. American’s swapped their isolationist ideals for a much more global internationalists ideology after World War II. The United States, by investing in the future of Europe, cut the cycle of wars that had plagued that continent for centuries. In doing so, the United States turned away from its traditional isolationism to become the leader of the free world. Winston Churchill called Marshall’s decision to rebuild Europe the highest level of statesmanship. To British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, the
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Marshall Plan was “a lifeline to sinking men” that brought “hope where there was none” by giving recipients permission not only to overcome their present difficulties, but to imagine their future prosperity in cooperation with the United States. Paul-Henri Spaak, the prime minister of Belgium, called it “a striking demonstration of the advantages of cooperation between the United States and Europe, as well as among the countries of Europe themselves.” For this reason, French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said, “The noble initiative of the Government of the United States is for our peoples an appeal which we cannot ignore.” And Dutch Foreign Minister Dirk Stikker anticipated the plan’s far-reaching impact, saying, “Churchill’s words won the war, Marshall’s words won the peace.”
America: The Leader of the Free World Presidents still today refer back to the Marshall plan for many areas of politics from economic situations here at home or abroad to foreign policy. The United States saw the opportunity it had to become a major power in the world and also having the chance to make sure the American people did not have to suffer another great depression. As many historians look back on it today they see that often America was looking out for their own interests, they also look at all the prosperous outcomes from the Marshall plan and a vast majority agree that even if America may have had
its own best interest at heart some of the time they still shaped Western Europe into what it is today and gave them the ability to do so, in no way was the Marshall Plan just a way for America to gain money and trade but an opportunity but to rebuild the world with visons of the future.
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