SOLUTIONS MANUAL For Essentials of Understanding Psychology 2024 Release by Robert Feldman by ACADEMIAMILL

SOLUTIONS MANUAL For Essentials of Solution Manual For Understanding Psychology 2024 Release by Robert Feldman Essentials of Understanding Psychology 2024 Release By Robert Feldman Chapter 1-14

Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology MODULE 1: PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1-1

What is the science of psychology?

1-2

What are the major specialties in the field of psychology?

1-3

Where do psychologists work?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The phrase ―behavior and mental processes‖ encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning. THE SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY: PSYCHOLOGY‘S FAMILY TREE The subfields of psychology can be likened to an extended family, with assorted nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and cousins who, although they may not interact day to day, are related to one another because they share a common goal: understanding behavior. WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR? In the most fundamental sense, people are biological organisms. Behavioral neuroscience is the subfield of psychology that mainly examines how the brain and the nervous system—but other biological processes as well—determine behavior. HOW DO PEOPLE SENSE, PERCEIVE, LEARN, AND THINK ABOUT THE WORLD? Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. Several subspecialties of experimental psychology have become specialties in their own right. One is cognitive psychology, which focuses on higher mental processes, including thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language. IM – 4 | 1 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF CHANGE AND STABILITY IN BEHAVIOR ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN? Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people‘s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another. HOW DO PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECT PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH? Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. Like clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists deal with people‘s psychological problems, but the problems they deal with are more specific. Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. HOW DO OUR SOCIAL NETWORKS AFFECT BEHAVIOR? Social psychology is the study of how people‘s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists concentrate on such diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and conformity. Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. EXPANDING PSYCHOLOGY‘S FRONTIERS The boundaries of the science of psychology are constantly growing. Four new additions to the field of psychology are evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, clinical neuropsychology, and diversity science. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. The evolutionary approach suggests that the chemical coding of information in our cells not only determines traits such as hair color but also holds the key to understanding a broad variety of behaviors that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Behavioral genetics is another rapidly growing area in psychology. It focuses on the biological mechanisms, such as genes and chromosomes, that enable inherited behavior to unfold. Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits. CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY IM – 4 | 2 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology: It focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors. DIVERSITY SCIENCE Psychologists who study diversity science use scientific methods to focus on how society‘s diversity affects individual and group behavior. Diversity science takes a broad view of diversity, considering race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, people with disabilities, economic class, age, and other variables. WORKING AT PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings. Many doctoral-level psychologists are employed by institutions of higher learning or are self-employed, usually working as private practitioners treating clients. Other work sites include hospitals, clinics, mental health centers, counseling centers, government human-services organizations, businesses, schools, and even prisons. Psychologists are employed in the military, working with soldiers, veterans, and their families, and they work for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, fighting terrorism. Most psychologists, though, work in academic settings, allowing them to combine the three major roles played by psychologists in society: teacher, scientist, and clinical practitioner. PSYCHOLOGISTS: A STATISTICAL PORTRAIT There are close to 180,000 active psychologists working today in the United States, but they are outnumbered by psychologists in other countries. In the United States, women make up 70% of the psychology workforce. Those in the field are actively debating whether and how to seek balance in the proportion of men and women psychologists. CHALLENGES OF DIVERSITY IN PSYCHOLOGY Despite the higher proportion of women in the field, women still lag behind men when it comes to salaries, career advancement, and high-status positions within the field. Another challenge regarding diversity in psychology is that the majority of psychologists in the United States are White. Only around 16% of all professionally active psychologists are members of racial minority groups. Although the numbers of minority individuals entering the field are far greater than they were a decade ago and continue to grow, the numbers have not kept up with the dramatic growth of the minority population at large. The underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists is significant for several reasons. THE EDUCATION OF A PSYCHOLOGIST Most psychologists have a doctorate, either a PhD (doctor of philosophy) or, less frequently, a PsyD (doctor of psychology). The PhD is a research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation. The PsyD is obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the IM – 4 | 3 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

treatment of psychological disorders. About a third of people working in the field of psychology have a master‘s degree as their highest degree, which they earn after 2 or 3 years of graduate work. These psychologists teach, provide therapy, conduct research, or work in specialized programs dealing with drug abuse or crisis intervention. Some work in universities, government, and business, collecting and analyzing data. CAREERS FOR PSYCHOLOGY MAJORS An undergraduate major in psychology provides excellent preparation for a variety of occupations. Because undergraduates who specialize in psychology develop good analytical skills, are trained to think critically, and are able to synthesize and evaluate information well, employers in business, industry, and government value their preparation. The most common areas of employment for psychology majors are in the social services, including working as an administrator, serving as a counselor, and providing direct care. KEY TERMS Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. LECTURE IDEAS THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY What Is Psychology? Emphasize that psychologists attempt to describe, predict, and explain behavior. Many psychologists see their role as that of helping others change and improve their lives. All psychologists use scientific methods to find answers to questions about the causes of behavior. To answer the question ―What is psychology?‖ download and show as a slide an image from the APA website showing topics of current interest. Defining Psychology. Have the students write down their definitions of psychology. Then go around the room and have them tell you their definitions. Write the main aspects or words of their definitions on the board. You may want to make two columns, one for the science-based definitions and one for media-based definitions. The students will see how media have probably influenced what they think psychology is. You can explain that what the media portray is not necessarily wrong when it comes to psychology, but that there is so much more involved in the scientific aspect of psychology, given that it is based on facts and statistics. Psychology in the Real World. Ask students to find three instances from real life that demonstrate psychological concepts in their lives. This can be done individually or in groups. Have students share their ideas and discuss which major subdisciplines best explain the experience. Why Take Psychology? Ask students why they are enrolled in this course. Are they psychology majors? If so, what do they want to be when they graduate? Are they enrolled to meet a general IM – 4 | 4 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

education requirement? If so, why do they think that psychology is a general education requirement? WHERE PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK Go to the APA Workforce Studies website for the latest data on employment in psychology: https://www.apa.org/workforce/. Students are interested in learning where psychologists work. Students would most likely guess that the majority of psychologists are engaged in private practice but challenge them to think about the roles that psychologists serve in other settings, such as research, schools, businesses, and hospitals. Many students have been told that they cannot expect to find a job unless they go on to graduate school and earn a master‘s or doctoral degree. Yet your experience may be very different in that your students may have earned entry-level positions with only a bachelor‘s degree. If this is the case, students would be pleased to know that there are jobs for which they can qualify with a bachelor‘s degree in their majors. You also may wish to discuss the factors accounting for the success of these students in qualifying for these jobs, such as having participated in practicums, internships, or research. If your department has a Psi Chi honors chapter, find out if they would be willing to organize an alumni panel to talk about their experiences in graduate school and their careers. POPULAR MOVIE OR TELEVISION SHOW: PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK Show a movie or television show that illustrates the work of a psychologist from one or more of the disciplines. Most movies that depict psychologists show clinical psychologists, but there are some that go beyond to the broader range. For example, the television shows Law & Order, Law & Order: SVU, Luther, and Criminal Minds typically have forensic psychologists who determine competency or are involved in other aspects of solving crimes with psychology. These fictional accounts also give you the opportunity to dispel some popular myths about the field of psychology and the way it is practiced. Other examples can come from television news programs featuring the results of researchers in particular areas such as child development or behavioral neuroscience. Look out for possible programs to use via the Public Broadcasting System (PBS), the Discovery Channel (including Discovery Health), the History Channel, and network news shows (such as Dateline NBC, 20/20, Prime Time, and 60 Minutes). One-time use of these for educational purposes does not violate copyright law. The APA website often features psychological research that includes media links. The Psychology Today blogs also contains frequent updates on a wide range of topics from academic, applied, and media psychologists: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/brainstorm/200802/welcome

POPULAR MOVIE OR TELEVISION SHOW: PORTRAYAL OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN THE MEDIA Numerous movies and television shows portray psychologists. Choose one that is relatively recent and likely to be of interest to your students. You also might consider showing an episode from Dr. Phil‘s television show as a stimulus to discussion of the topic. Possible discussion questions would include: (1) Do you believe that the psychologist is portrayed in a realistic light? Why or why not? (2) How would each psychological perspective explain the main character‘s symptoms or issues? (3) What is the impression of psychotherapy that is conveyed in this scene? Again, you can bust some myths here and make the work of psychologists more interesting at the same time. CURRENT ISSUES FACING PSYCHOLOGISTS Describe current issues facing psychologists with regard to insurance, health maintenance organizations, and prescription privileges. Discuss the increased need for psychological services as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated quarantine and social distancing practices, also mentioned in the prologue. Ask whether students believe that psychologists should be allowed to prescribe medication or whether this role is best left to psychiatrists (and why). NEW TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY New trends in psychology can be readily accessed from the APA website, the APA Monitor, the APS Observer, PsycINFO, or the table of contents of any recent psychological journals. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Pictionary a Psychologist: Ask students to take out a sheet of paper and draw a picture of a psychologist. Use a document camera to show some of the pictures and ask students to note any generalities they see. Most often, students draw a picture of a therapist (namely Freud): a man with a beard and glasses, sitting next to a couch. Explain that most psychologists are not clinicians, but most are academics, and that the field has come a long way since Freud! Psychology Is...? Ask students to write down two or three things that come to their mind when they think of "psychology." Ask students to provide one of their terms out loud. Facts About Psychology: Have students complete Handout 1: Survey on Facts About Psychology. Why Psychology as a Major? Ask students to pretend that they are going into psychology (some may actually be psychology majors) and will be earning their PhD. What type of psychologist do they want to become, and why?

WHERE PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK Where Psychologists Work: Use Handout 2: Where Psychologists Work What Jobs Are There Out There? Use Handout 3: Jobs in Psychology as a way for students to think about the various jobs there are within the areas of psychology. Break the students into groups and assign each group a couple of the areas, and then have them complete the activity. When they are finished, write the areas on the board as headings, and have the students come up to the board to write the various jobs they came up with under the appropriate heading. Virtual Exploration of Psychology Careers: In class or as an outside activity, have students go to: https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/careers. Review the APA brochure for careers in Psychology and identify some of the subfields most interesting to you as well as the job outlook for such a subfield. Then, consider what you can do to help yourself be better prepared to go into such a subfield in the future (Getting ready to work in Psychology). Ask students to list some other job titles they think having a psychology degree in would be useful or required. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS In the directory for your school (or for another institution), look up the psychology faculty. Select several faculty members and determine their area of specialization (be careful, it may not be the same as the classes they teach). How do you think their areas of academic training might affect the way they teach their classes? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: The Meaning of Being a Psychologist Now that you have a better understanding of what is psychology and some familiarity with what psychologists do, imagine that you have completed all of your graduate work in an area of psychology and you are about to celebrate your graduation. As you are sitting in your favorite restaurant, the server overhears you talking about your accomplishments. He walks over to you and says, ―I bet you know what I am thinking. After all, you are a psychologist and can read people.‖ How do you react? Do you: (1) Agree with him just so you don‘t have to explain yourself? (2) Sit up straight and begin explaining what psychology really is and that you feel insulted that he would believe such a myth? (3) Ask him why he thinks psychologists read minds? or, (4) React in a different way other than what is listed? Be ready to explain why you chose what you did! SUGGESTED MEDIA Amadeus. (1984). This movie is a good example of how asylums were set up to treat the mentally ill.

All about psychology: A comprehensive website by David Webb. https://www.all-aboutpsychology.com/. All about forensic psychology: A comprehensive guide to forensic psychology. https://www.allabout-forensic-psychology.com/. Annenberg/CBS Project. (2001). Discovering psychology 1: Past, present, and promise, 30:00. This video introduces the field of psychology and what the entire field entails. It also discusses the relationship between psychology as a science and the other fields of science. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/past-present-and-promise/. Annenberg Learner Series Videos. (2001). Discovering psychology: Updated edition: Past, present, and promise. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/. Association for psychological science (APS). http://www.psychologicalscience.org/. Behavior genetics association. http://www.bga.org/. Career planning. http://careerplanning.about.com/od/occupations/p/psychologist.htm. This site is dedicated to exploring science and health-related careers and offers current trends and information about qualifications and income that may be of interest to students. Cognitive Science Society. http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/. CRM/McGraw-Hill. (1971). Aspects of behavior, 26:00. This video introduces the field of psychology. There are also taped interviews with noted historical psychology scholars such as Stanley Milgram and Abraham Maslow. Freud in pop culture. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0Xm6RdLakA. This brief clip from The Big Bang shows an example of penis envy in pop culture. Hidden brain: A conversation about life‘s unseen patterns. A podcast hosted by National Public Radio (NPR) that uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, and the biases that shape our choices. https://www.npr.org/series/423302056/hidden-brain. History of psychology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18KMa6RN3Ys. Insight Media. (2006). The history of psychology 1: Mind, self, soul, 30:00. This film chronicles the history of psychology from its scientific and philosophical roots. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGJwP_EAumA. Martin Seligman. (TED Talks) (2008). The new era of positive psychology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9FBxfd7DL3E.

Merlot. http://merlot.org/merlot/index.htm. This is a useful website for resources in learning and online teaching that houses engaging experiences, peer-reviewed activities, and personal collections of psychological materials.

Psi Beta. https://psibeta.org/. Psi Beta is a national honor society for students attending two-year colleges. Students who maintain a minimum GPA of 3.25 and who plan to major or minor in psychology or have an interest in psychology may apply for consideration; must have completed a college-level psychology course with a B or higher. Psi Chi. http://psichi.org Psi Chi is the largest undergraduate psychology student group in the United States; membership is based on meeting qualification standards; many grant programs and opportunities for student involvement exist through Psi Chi. Psychology and the movies. http://www.smccd.edu/accounts/merrill/PSYCHOLOGY%20AND%20MOVIES.htm Psychology today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ Psychology in 10 minutes. Podcast hosted by Dr. David Feldman. https://soundcloud.com/psychologyin10minutes Quills (2000). This movie offers a good example of asylums. Shrink Rap Radio: All the psychology you need to know and just enough to make you dangerous. Podcast hosted by Dr. David Van Nuys, Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Sonoma State University that includes interviews of fascinating practitioners who work in and around the field of psychology. https://shrinkrapradio.com/ Society for Neuroscience. https://www.sfn.org/. Teach Psych. http://www.teachpsych.org. This is the website for Division 2 of the American Psychological Association, which is the division for teachers of psychology. There are many helpful suggestions for teachers; sample syllabi, activities, and so on. New York Times: Psychology and psychologists. News about psychology and psychologists, including commentary and archival articles published in the New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/topic/subject/psychology-and-psychologists.

Two Guys on Your Head. Austin, Texas-based NPR production wherein psychologists, Dr. Art Markman and Dr. Bob Duke explore human behavior. https://www.kut.org/term/two-guys-yourhead. What is psychology? Dr. Chris Grace, YouTube.com, 2014: https://youtu.be/f69yXoKvntY. What is psychology? All fundamentals of psychology from the education channel. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvSbJiWfXcw. Other educational videos illustrating the work of psychologists can be obtained from the Discovery Health Channel, the History Channel, and PBS. ADDITIONAL READINGS James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. (Vols. I, II) New York, NY: Holt. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking Fast, and Slow (1st ed.). New York, NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Karanja, C. (2014). A critical review and analysis of the state, scope and direction of Africancentered psychology from 2000-2010. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 38(2), 98–107. Kuther, T. L. (2013). Careers in psychology: Opportunities in a changing world. Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. McRaney, D. (2011). You are not so smart: Why you have too many friends on Facebook, why your memory is mostly fiction, and 46 other ways you're deluding yourself. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Puente, A. E., Mathews, J. R., & Brewer, C. L. (Eds.). (1992). Teaching in psychology in America: A history. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Robins, R. W., Gosling, S. D., & Craik, K. H. (1999). An empirical analysis of trends in psychology. American Psychologist, 54, 117–128. Schure, M. B., Christopher, J., & Christopher, S. (2008). Mind-body medicine and the art of selfcare: Teaching mindfulness to counseling students through yoga, meditation, and Qigong. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(1), 47–56. MODULE 2: A SCIENCE EVOLVES: THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2-1

What are the origins of psychology?

2-2

2-3

What are psychology‘s key issues and controversies?

2-4

What is the future of psychology likely to hold?

THE ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY The formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline is generally considered to be in the late 19th century, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience. His perspective, which came to be known as structuralism, focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities. To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world, Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection, in which they presented people with a stimulus—such as a bright green object or a sentence printed on a card—and asked them to describe, in their own words and in as much detail as they could, what they were experiencing. Wundt argued that by analyzing people‘s reports, psychologists could come to a better understanding of the structure of the mind. Over time, psychologists challenged Wundt‘s approach. Introspection was not a truly scientific technique because there were few ways an outside observer could confirm the accuracy of others‘ introspections. The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as functionalism. Functionalism concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions. Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early 1900s, asked what role behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to their environments. Another important reaction to structuralism was the development of Gestalt psychology, which emphasizes how perception is organized. Gestalt psychologists proposed that ―The whole is different from the sum of its parts,‖ meaning that our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions. WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY: FOUNDING MOTHERS Women made notable contributions to psychology, although their impact on the field was largely overlooked until recently. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to receive a doctorate in psychology, and she did important work on animal behavior. Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) was one of the first psychologists to focus on child development and on women‘s issues. She collected data to refute the view, popular in the early 1900s, that women‘s abilities periodically declined during parts of the menstrual cycle. Mary Calkins (1863– 1930), who studied memory in the early part of the 20th century, became the first female president of the American Psychological Association, which at the time was the dominant association of psychologists. Karen Horney (1885–1952) focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality, and June Etta Downey (1875–1932) spearheaded the study of personality traits and became the first woman to head a psychology department at a state university. Anna Freud (1895–1982), the daughter of Sigmund Freud, also made notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior, and Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) IM – 4 | 11 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

carried out pioneering work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences. Clark conducted significant and influential research during the 1950s. PEOPLE OF COLOR AND THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY For much of its history, the field of psychology was dominated by White males. Furthermore, along with members of other disciplines, early psychologists reflected the prejudice and discrimination against people of color in society at large, which not only harmed people of color who sought entry to the field, but significantly impeded the development of psychology as a discipline. However, as the field developed, more people of color became psychologists. The Civil Rights movement influenced psychologists to address issues of prejudice and discrimination. The field began to embrace the centrality of issues involving diversity, equity, and inclusion. TODAY‘S FIVE MAJOR PERSPECTIVES The men and women who laid the foundations of psychology shared a common goal: to explain and understand behavior using scientific methods. Seeking to achieve the same goal, the tens of thousands of psychologists who followed those early pioneers embraced—and often rejected—a variety of broad perspectives. Today, the field of psychology includes five major perspectives. These broad perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes. THE NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE: BLOOD, SWEAT, AND FEARS The neuroscience perspective considers how people and nonhumans function biologically: how individual nerve cells are joined together, how the inheritance of certain characteristics from parents and other ancestors influences behavior, how the functioning of the body affects hopes and fears, which behaviors are instinctual, and so forth. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: UNDERSTANDING THE INNER PERSON Proponents of the psychodynamic perspective argue that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control. They view dreams and slips of the tongue as indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething cauldron of unconscious psychic activity. The origins of the psychodynamic view are linked to one person: Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician in the early 1900s, whose ideas about unconscious determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th-century thinking, not just in psychology but in related fields as well. THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE: OBSERVING THE OUTER PERSON The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology‘s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on external behavior that can be observed measured objectively. John B. Watson was the first major IM – 4 | 12 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

American psychologist to advocate this approach. The behavioral perspective was championed by B. F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field. Much of our understanding of how people learn new behaviors is based on the behavioral perspective. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: IDENTIFYING THE ROOTS OF UNDERSTANDING Evolving in part from structuralism and in part as a reaction to behaviorism, which focused so heavily on observable behavior and the environment, the cognitive perspective focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. The emphasis is on learning how we comprehend and represent the outside world within ourselves and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior. Many psychologists who adhere to the cognitive perspective compare human thinking to the workings of a computer, which takes in information and transforms, stores, and retrieves it. In their view, thinking is information processing. Psychologists who rely on the cognitive perspective ask questions on subjects ranging from how people make decisions to whether a person can watch television and study at the same time. THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE: THE UNIQUE QUALITIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES The humanistic perspective suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the capacity to seek and reach fulfillment. According to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who were central figures in the development of the humanistic perspective, people strive to reach their full potential if they are given the opportunity. The emphasis of the humanistic perspective is on free will, the ability to freely make decisions about one‘s own behavior and life. The notion of free will stands in contrast to determinism, which sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a person‘s control. The humanistic perspective assumes that people have the ability to make their own choices about their behavior rather than relying on societal standards. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS Psychology has considerable application to daily life. News headlines and current events can be traced to psychological roots, including understanding the causes the COVID-19 anti-vaccine response, impact of social media, the impact of climate change in people‘s interactions with the environment, causes of terrorism, and the underpinnings of what contributes to life satisfaction and overall well-being. PSYCHOLOGY‘S KEY ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES As you consider the many topics and perspectives that make up psychology, ranging from a narrow focus on minute biochemical influences on behavior to a broad focus on social behaviors, you might find yourself thinking that the discipline lacks cohesion. However, the field is more unified than a first glimpse might suggest. Psychologists also agree on what the key issues of the IM – 4 | 13 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

field are: nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment), conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior, observable behavior versus internal mental processes, free will versus determinism, and individual differences versus universal principles. PSYCHOLOGY‘S FUTURE As its knowledge base grows, psychology will become increasingly specialized, and new perspectives will evolve. The evolving sophistication of neuroscientific approaches is likely to have an increasing influence over other branches of psychology. Psychology‘s influence on issues of public interest also will grow. Psychologists will follow increasingly strict ethical and moral guidelines. The public‘s view of psychology will become more informed. As the population becomes more diverse, issues of diversity—embodied in the study of racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural factors—will become more important to psychologists providing services and doing research. KEY TERMS behavioral perspective The approach that suggests that observable, external behavior, which can be objectively measured, should be the focus of study. cognitive perspective The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. determinism The idea that people‘s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control. free will The idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual. functionalism An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does—the functions of mental activity—and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments. Gestalt psychology An approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a ―whole‖ sense rather than on the individual elements of perception. humanistic perspective The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. introspection A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which a person is asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus. neuroscience perspective The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. IM – 4 | 14 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

psychodynamic perspective The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control. structuralism Wundt‘s approach, which focuses on understanding the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities. LECTURE IDEAS HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY 5,000 BC: Trephining to allow the escape of evil spirits. Emphasize that this method is still used in some areas around the world, particularly in agricultural, developing societies. 430 BC: Hippocrates argues for four temperaments of personality. Current theories of personality propose that there are five basic temperaments; these are still very similar to those proposed by Hippocrates, and even though personality is not controlled by bodily ―fluids,‖ hormones and neurotransmitters are now known to have important influences on behavior. 1690: John Locke introduces idea of tabula rasa. Are we born as a ―blank slate?‖ Does our behavior reflect entirely our upbringing (related to the nature-nurture issue discussed below)? John Locke was an important early advocate of the behaviorist perspective. 1807: Franz Josef Gall proposes phrenology. The idea that bumps on the skull reflect personality was a fascinating, although inaccurate, attempt to explain variations in human behavior. Some students may have seen the ―Phrenology Head‖ by L. N. Fowler, a white china head with markings corresponding to the main areas of personality and intelligence. Illustrate this discussion with a picture of one (many are available on the Web). My joke about this is that in the days of phrenology, you could get your hair done and receive psychotherapy at the same time! 1879: Wilhelm Wundt inaugurates the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. This is a major event to highlight, as it is the beginnings of psychology as a formal science. Contrast structuralism with functionalism. See below for an activity involving introspection. 1895: Functionalism model is formulated. Emphasize this as the development of a model that challenged structuralism. Talk about the importance of William James in American psychology. See below for how to contrast structuralism with functionalism. 1920: Gestalt psychology is most influential. This perspective also contrasts with structuralism and functionalism. The text emphasizes these three perspectives. Also point to the development of psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanistic, and cognitive perspectives, but these can be discussed as separate perspectives in psychology (see below).

1905: Mary Calkins works on memory. Calkins also was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. She invented the paired-associate technique. Having been refused a PhD from Harvard (she was offered one from Radcliffe, which she declined), she became an ardent spokeswoman for women‘s rights, including the right to vote. 1928: Leta Stetter Hollingworth publishes work on adolescence. In addition to making contributions to the psychology of women in the early part of the 20th century, Hollingworth was known for her work on gifted children, children with ―mental defects,‖ and adolescents. Her text on adolescence replaced that of G. Stanley Hall and became the leading work in the field until the late 1940s. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Here are a few ways to help students remember names associated with historical achievements: ―F‖ (for functionalism) comes before ―S‖ (for structuralism), just as ―J‖ (for James) comes before ―W‖ (for Wundt). For Gestalt psychology, the ―whole is more than the sum of its parts‖ and the letters ―al‖ (for ―all‖) are in the term‘s name. IMPORTANCE OF PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY The five perspectives in psychology form a central theme of the course in that the course, and many topics within the course are organized around them. Alert students to the fact that if they understand these perspectives, they will be in very good shape to understand material presented throughout the course. It will be easier for students to grasp these concepts if after presenting these briefly and defining them, you show how they would apply to a fictional character (see below). ANALYSIS OF A FICTIONAL CHARACTER Show a brief segment from a movie or television show in which a character displays psychological symptoms. Ask students to discuss the character‘s symptoms from the five major perspectives. Bill Murray offers a comic illustration of different symptoms in What about Bob? (1991), a classic send-up of the profession. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DISCIPLINES, PERSPECTIVES, AND ISSUES By the time you reach this point in the lecture, students will possibly be confused about the differences among the disciplines in psychology, the workplaces in which psychologists are found, the historical perspectives, the contemporary perspectives, and the issues presented here. Review these distinctions, pointing out that the disciplines relate to the areas in which psychologists specialize, the workplaces are where they conduct their jobs, the perspectives IM – 4 | 16 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

(historical and current) are the theoretical positions that psychologists have, and the key issues are substantive ideas about which psychologists have different viewpoints. It is also important to point out the difference between ―conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior‖ and ―observable behavior versus internal mental processes.‖ Conscious versus unconscious refers to whether the forces that drive behavior are available to conscious awareness or whether they lie under the surface and are unavailable to the individual‘s thought processes (unconscious). Internal versus observable refers to what is considered acceptable data. Those who favor the observable side of the issue regard it as inappropriate to use any data other than those that can be objectively recorded. Those at the internal end of the pole believe that is acceptable and appropriate to find out what is going on inside the person (within the ―black box‖). You can then challenge students to decide, by the end of the course, where they fall on each of the key issues and therefore what perspective lies closest to their beliefs regarding human nature. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Historical Timeline of Psychology: Have students create a timeline of psychological trends and historical events. This is a good study tool in addition to helping them understand why different schools of thought might have evolved. Ask students to hypothesize why psychology might have emerged as a discipline in the 19th century. You can allude to the conflicting trends of the Victorian age: consumerism, labor in capitalism, enlightened ideas about the worth of the individual, strict moral codes and social conventions, limited self-governance in European monarchies. INTROSPECTION EXERCISE Read this to the class: Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, the date now considered to be the beginning of the science of psychology. A physician and physiologist, Wundt conducted experiments intended to identify the basic nature of human consciousness and experience. His main focus of research was on the senses of vision, touch, and the passage of time; other topics studied in his laboratory included attention, emotion, and memory. The approach associated with Wundt is structuralism, which seeks to describe the basic building blocks or ―structure‖ of consciousness. The main technique used by Wundt and his colleagues was introspection or ―inner sense.‖ In this method, trained subjects are given a stimulus. They then are asked to describe the sensations that made up their conscious experience of that stimulus. In Wundt‘s laboratory, you might be asked to reflect on your experience of this stimulus for several minutes or even several hours! Now you can try introspection yourself. Look at the stimulus that will appear on the screen. IM – 4 | 17 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Show a picture of an apple (or hold up any handy object). What is your experience of this apple? How would you describe the sensations of each of the parts of the apple—its colors, its roundness, its shading? Have students write a brief response to the prompt. Once students have done their own introspection, have them discuss their response with a partner. Were their experiences of the apple similar? Different? FUNCTIONALISM EXERCISE Read this to the class: William James opened a small psychology laboratory in 1870 that he used to demonstrate some of the basic processes he taught in his classes at Harvard University. However, the laboratory was for demonstration, not research. James identified himself as a philosopher, not a psychologist. James published The Principles of Psychology in 1890. This massive work (two volumes of almost 1,400 pages) contained his theoretical positions in psychology. Functionalism was the idea that mental processes were useful to living creatures as functional activities in their attempt to maintain and adapt themselves in the world of nature. James developed this position as a reaction against the view of the structuralists that the mind can be divided into units. James‘s focus on the mind‘s ability to adapt was derived from Darwin‘s evolutionary theory that all characteristics of a species must serve some adaptive purpose. According to James, psychology‘s goal should be to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. James used the concept of ―stream of consciousness‖ to describe the mind. Perhaps you are thinking about the instructor in front of you, but if you let your mind wander, you may start to think about where you are going later today, what you did yesterday, the feeling that you are getting hungry and would like something to eat, or perhaps your concern over whether your roommate is still asleep. According to James, these thoughts cannot be separated into component parts as proposed by the structuralists. Instead, they form a stream of the total flow of thoughts, and are not necessarily tied to direct experience. Present this instruction: What are the thoughts going through your mind right now? Take 5 min to write about whatever pops into your head. GESTALT EXERCISE Read this to the class:

Gestalt psychology is based on the observation that we perceive experiences in ways that cannot be reduced simply to a set of basic sensations. The word Gestalt comes from the German word for structure, or form. The Gestalt psychologists were represented by, among others, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Lewin, who developed their ideas in the 1920s, having begun their work in Germany and then moving to universities in the United States in the 1930s. They were noted for developing the ―laws‖ of Gestalt psychology, many of which were based on observations derived from studying how people perceived visual illusions. Present this instruction: Now try this experiment from Gestalt psychology. Show student the face/vase image. What do you see when you look at this picture? Perhaps you noticed two white profiles looking at each other against a black background. Or perhaps you saw a black vase against a white background. Whichever one you saw first, now try to find the other. Gestalt psychologists were interested in the patterns that people saw in stimulus objects and invented a number of illusions designed to learn more about the perceptual assumptions (and errors) that follow from the tendency to view ―the whole.‖ Psychologists now call this ―top-down‖ processing. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THE FIVE MAJOR PERSPECTIVES Focusing on one of the five major perspectives in use today (neuroscience, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic), can you describe the kinds of research questions and studies that researchers using that perspective might pursue? PSYCHOLOGY‘S KEY ISSUES 1. From the key issues discussed in this chapter, select the one that interests you most. Why is this issue of particular interest to you? What do you hope to learn about this issue over the course of the semester? 2. What ways do any of the scientific foundations upon which psychology was based still make sense today? How might the contemporary approaches still use some of the concepts of these foundations? 3. To what extent can psychologists really fully understand human behavior? We say that the basis of psychological research is to understand human behavior, but how is this possible considering that all human beings are separate individuals and no two people are alike? 4. Adopt Wilhelm Wundt‘s approach to understanding the human mind and behavior. Invite three friends to listen to a piece of music, and ask each to introspect on their experience. Examine what each says about various aspects of the music. What does this exercise tell you

about the subjectivity of introspection? In what ways do you think the method is worthwhile and in what ways is it limited? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Psychological Perspectives ―It is behavior that can be observed that should be studied, not the suspected inner workings of the mind.‖ This statement was most likely made by someone with which perspective? a. cognitive perspective b. neuroscience perspective c. humanistic perspective d. behavioral perspective Polling Question: Psychological Perspectives Which of the five perspectives do you think would be most useful in studying children‘s academic performance? a. neuroscience b. psychodynamic c. behavioral d. cognitive e. humanistic Have a discussion in which students explain why the choose a certain perspective. Make the point that each perspective has a different approach to a topic like this, but all are potentially useful. SUGGESTED MEDIA American Psychological Association. Videos about a variety of topics are available from the APA website. https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/index. Annenberg/CBS Project. (2001). Discovering psychology 1: Past, present, and promise, 30:00. This piece introduces the field of psychology and what this entire field entails. Talks about the relationship between psychology as a science and the other fields of science. CRM/McGraw-Hill. (1971). Aspects of Behavior, 26:00. This video introduces the field of psychology. There are also taped interviews with noted historical psychology scholars such as Stanley Milgrim and Abraham Maslow. Freud in pop culture. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0Xm6RdLakA This brief clip from The Big Bang shows an example of penis envy in pop culture. History of psychology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18KMa6RN3Ys

Insight Media. (2006). The history of psychology 1: Mind, self, soul, 30:00. This film chronicles the history of psychology from its scientific and philosophical roots. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGJwP_EAumA. Merlot: http://merlot.org/merlot/index.htm. This is a useful website for resources in learning and online teaching that houses engaging experiences, peer-reviewed activities, and personal collections of psychological materials. Timeline of psychology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CsxKcY94EB4 Other educational videos illustrating the work of psychologists can be obtained from the Discovery Health Channel, the History Channel, and PBS. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Baker, D. B. (2012). The Oxford handbook of the history of psychology: Global perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Benjamin, L. T. (2014). A brief history of modern psychology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Fancher, R. E. (1996). Pioneers of psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Norton. Goodwin, J. G. (Ed.) (2009). Annotated readings in the history of modern psychology. WileyBlackwell. O‘Boyle, C. G. (2006). History of psychology: A cultural perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pfister, R., & Schwarz, K. A. (2018). Should we pre-date the beginning of scientific psychology to 1787? Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2481. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02481]. MODULE 3: RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3-1

What is the scientific method?

3-2

What role do the theories and hypotheses play in psychological research?

3-3

What research methods do psychologists use?

3-4

How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies?

The scientific method is the approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. It consists of four main steps: (1) identifying questions of interest, (2) formulating an explanation, (3) carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation, and (4) communicating the findings. See Figure 1. THEORIES: SPECIFYING BROAD EXPLANATIONS In using the scientific method, psychologists start by identifying questions of interest. Once a question has been identified, the next step in the scientific method is to develop a theory to explain the observed phenomenon. Theories are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. They are established on the basis of a careful study of the psychological literature to identify earlier relevant research and previously formulated theories, as well as psychologists‘ general knowledge of the field. Psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley, responding to the failure of bystanders to intervene when Kitty Genovese was murdered in New York, developed what they called a theory of diffusion of responsibility. HYPOTHESES: CRAFTING TESTABLE PREDICTIONS Although the diffusion of responsibility theory seems to make sense, it represented only the beginning phase of Latané and Darley‘s investigative process. Their next step was to devise a way to test their theory. To do this, they needed to create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Hypotheses stem from theories; they help test the underlying soundness of theories. A hypothesis must be restated in a way that will allow it to be tested, which involves creating an operational definition. An operational definition is the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed in an experiment. Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons. Theories and hypotheses allow psychologists to move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena and develop ideas for future investigation. The scientific method, with its emphasis on theories and hypotheses, helps psychologists pose appropriate questions. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Research—systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge—is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories behind them) are accurate. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research is designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior. These methods include archival research, naturalistic observation, survey research, and case studies. ARCHIVAL RESEARCH In archival research, existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper articles, are examined to test a hypothesis. Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis because someone else has already collected the basic data. Of course, the use of existing data has several drawbacks. The data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION In naturalistic observation, the investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. Although the advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious—we get a sample of what people do in their ―natural habitat‖—there is also an important drawback: the inability to control any of the factors of interest. SURVEY RESEARCH In survey research, a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (a population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. Survey methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample researchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond. However, survey research has several potential pitfalls. For one thing, if the sample of people who are surveyed is not representative of the broader population of interest, the results of the survey will have little meaning. Consequently, researchers using surveys strive to obtain a random sample of the population in question in which every voter in the town has an equal chance of being included in the sample receiving the survey. In addition, survey respondents may not want to admit to holding socially undesirable attitudes or to engaging in behaviors that they feel are somehow abnormal. Finally, in some cases, people may not even be consciously aware of what their true attitudes are or why they hold them. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH One form of research that is particularly appropriate for studying behavior across and between cultures is known as ethnographic research. First developed by anthropologists, ethnographic research seeks to understand the attitudes and values of a culture using in-depth, extended examination of people in their own environment. Although an ethnographic study can provide a detailed look at behavior in a particular setting, such studies have several drawbacks. IM – 4 | 23 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Researchers may not understand or may misinterpret the meaning of behavior in cultures other than their own, thereby invalidating their observations. THE CASE STUDY In contrast to a survey, in which many people are studied, a case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group. Case studies often include psychological testing; a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group. The drawback to case studies is that, if the individuals examined are unique in certain ways, it is impossible to make valid generalizations to a larger population. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Variables are behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. In correlational research, two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or ―correlated.‖ The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables are represented by a mathematical statistic known as a correlation which can range from +1.0 to −1.0. A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. A negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases. The inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its use. See Figure 1 for an illustration of this last point. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (SEE FIGURE 2) In a formal experiment, the researcher investigates the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. The change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment is called the experimental manipulation. Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationships between different variables. Latané and Darley, in testing their theory of the diffusion of responsibility in bystander behavior, developed this hypothesis: The higher the number of people who witness an emergency situation is, the less likely it is that any of them will help the victim. They then designed an experiment to test this hypothesis. Their first step was to formulate an operational definition of the hypothesis by conceptualizing it in a way that could be tested. EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS AND CONTROL GROUPS Experimental research requires that the responses of at least two groups be compared. One group will receive some special treatment—the manipulation implemented by the experimenter—and another group will receive either no treatment or a different treatment. Any group that receives a IM – 4 | 24 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

treatment is called an experimental group; a group that receives no treatment is called a control group. Returning to Latané and Darley‘s experiment, we see that the researchers needed to translate their hypothesis into something testable. To do this, they decided to create a false emergency situation that would appear to require the aid of a bystander. As their experimental manipulation, they decided to vary the number of bystanders present. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES The independent variable is the condition that is manipulated by an experimenter. In the case of the Latané and Darley experiment, the independent variable was the number of people present, which was manipulated by the experimenters. Crucial to every experiment is the dependent variable, the variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter‘s manipulation of the independent variable. The dependent variable is dependent on the actions of the participants or subjects—the people taking part in the experiment. For Latané and Darley, the dependent variables were the measure of whether bystanders in each of the groups provided help and the amount of time it took them to do so. RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF PARTICIPANTS To make the experiment a valid test of the hypothesis, Latané and Darley needed to add a final step to the design: properly assigning participants to a particular experimental group. How can we ensure that participants in each experimental group will be equally intelligent, extroverted, cooperative, and so forth, when the list of characteristics—any one of which could be important—is potentially endless? The solution is a simple but elegant procedure called random assignment to condition: Participants are assigned to different experimental groups, or ―conditions,‖ on the basis of chance and chance alone. WERE LATANÉ AND DARLEY RIGHT? To test their hypothesis that increasing the number of bystanders in an emergency situation would lower the degree of helping behavior, Latané and Darley placed the participants in a room and told them that the purpose of the experiment was to talk about personal problems associated with college. The sizes of the discussion groups were two, three, and six people, which constituted the manipulation of the independent variable of group size. Participants were randomly assigned to these groups upon their arrival at the laboratory. Each group included a trained confederate, or employee, of the experimenters. In each two-person group, then, there was only one real ―bystander.‖ As the participants in each group were holding their discussion, they suddenly heard through the intercom one of the other participants—the confederate—having what sounded like an epileptic IM – 4 | 25 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

seizure and then calling for help. The participants‘ behavior was now what counted. The dependent variable was the time that elapsed from the start of the ―seizure‖ to the time a participant began trying to help the ―victim.‖ As predicted by the hypothesis, the size of the group had a significant effect on whether a participant provided help. The more people who were present, the less likely it was that someone would supply help (see Figure 4). Because these results are straightforward, it seems clear that the experiment confirmed the original hypothesis. However, Latané and Darley could not be sure that the results were truly meaningful until they determined whether the results represented a significant outcome. A significant outcome indicates that the findings of a research study are statistically meaningful, making it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses. MOVING BEYOND THE STUDY The Latané and Darley study contains all the elements of an experiment: an independent variable, a dependent variable, random assignment to conditions, and multiple experimental groups. Psychologists, like other scientists, require that findings be replicated, or repeated, sometimes using other procedures, in other settings, with other groups of participants, before full confidence can be placed in the results of any single experiment. A procedure called meta-analysis permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall conclusion. For example, follow-up research shows that college students aren‘t the only ones who show the bystander effect; young children do as well (see the Applying Psychology in the 21st Century box). Finally, the work on bystander intervention has led to further research, expanding investigations on how the presence of bystanders may affect social behavior. In short, replication is a critical activity, and many researchers believe that psychologists need to increase the number of studies that replicate earlier research in order to have greater confidence in their findings. In fact, some researchers claim that psychology (and other social sciences) are facing a replication crisis because many replication studies have failed to support the original findings.

KEY TERMS archival research Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis. case study An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people. control group A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment. IM – 4 | 26 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

correlational research Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or ―correlated.‖ dependent variable The variable that is measured in an experiment. It is expected to change as a result of the experimenter‘s manipulation of the independent variable. ethnographic research A type of research that seeks to understand the attitudes, values, and behavior of a culture using in-depth, extended examination of people in their own environment. experiment The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. experimental group Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment. experimental manipulation The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation. hypothesis A prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested. independent variable The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter. naturalistic observation Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. operational definition The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed in an experiment. random assignment to condition A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or ―conditions‖ on the basis of chance and chance alone. replicated research Research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings. scientific method The approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. significant outcome Meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses. survey research Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. theories Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. IM – 4 | 27 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

treatment The manipulation implemented by the experimenter. variables Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. LECTURE IDEAS ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Provide students with these examples of archival research: Searching high school records of people who later became criminals to see if there were early signs of misbehavior. Looking up marriage licenses to find out the average age difference between spouses. Finding out whether there are racial biases in jury decisions by examining court records. Studying speeches made in Congress by men and women to see whether there are differences in their use of particular words or phrases. Examining census records to determine whether there are relationships between education and death rates. Examining the use of online help manuals by people who buy printers to see whether those with more knowledge of computers are less likely to use manuals. Using cell phone signals to identify the behavioral patterns of people as they carry out their everyday activities. NATURALISTIC RESEARCH Provide students with these examples of naturalistic research: Watching the patients in a psychiatric ward during meals to see if they speak to each other. Having people of different races drop their books while walking on a campus sidewalk and counting the number of people who stop to help to see whether people are more likely to help those of the same race as themselves. Determining whether people are more or less likely to ride an elevator than to take the stairs in the morning versus the afternoon. Watching people in a computer lab and counting the number of times that they interrupt their studies to answer emails. Counting the length of time it takes people in a grocery store to decide on a cereal brand. Watching men and women in conversation to examine their nonverbal behavior. IM – 4 | 28 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Counting the number of times that students versus nonstudents make calls on their cell phones during basketball games. Watching children in a playgroup and recording the number of times they smile at other children. Recording the number of times that a teacher in a classroom calls on boys and girls to see whether boys are more likely to be called on to answer questions. Observing whether people are more likely to cross against the light on a suburban street or a street in the center of a city. Counting the number of times clients with various disorders cancel their psychotherapy appointments. SURVEY RESEARCH Provide students with these examples of survey research: Asking a random sample of people to complete an online questionnaire about political attitudes. Asking people to list their favorite foods to determine if there are geographic differences in food preferences. Interviewing people to ask them about their health practices. Asking people to rate their preferences for different yogurt flavors. Asking people to rate their attitudes toward new television technologies. Giving people a chance to rate their preferences for catalog shopping by phone or online. Having people describe whether or not they have experienced particular psychological symptoms throughout their lifetimes. Asking about people‘s experiences in elementary school with male versus female teachers. Asking a sample of 50 people to participate in an opinion poll. Finding out from airline passengers whether they would prefer to buy their meals on the airplane or in the airport terminal. CASE STUDY Provide students with these examples of case studies: Giving a troubled adolescent a set of lengthy questionnaires and interviews. Examining a group of substance-addicted adults with tests of biological functioning. IM – 4 | 29 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Asking a mother to talk in-depth about her experiences raising a child with autism. Asking a human resources manager to describe how she makes decisions about recommending applicants for employment. Studying intensively the work habits of a small group of successful CEOs. Conducting intensive neurological and neuropsychological testing of a group of children with a rare brain disorder. Documenting progress in psychotherapy with a victim of Hurricane Katrina. VARIABLES TO STUDY IN CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Provide students with these examples of variables to study in correlational studies: Depression and chocolate consumption. Self-esteem and height. Exercise and cancer risk. Depression and length of internet use. Time spent playing video games and grades. Attractiveness and popularity. Height and intelligence. Noise level of music and heart rate. Body image and weight. Achievement test scores and scholarship funding. Stress hormones and perceived stress level. Number of action movies seen in past 12 months and sensation-seeking as a personality variable. Intelligence and enjoyment of pop music. Marijuana smoking and high school grades. Time spent reading novels and depression scores. Alcohol consumption and problem-solving ability. Sex role attitudes and political conservatism. Weight gain and risk of poor self-rated health. IM – 4 | 30 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Anxiety and lack of concern over test performance. Behavior problems and popularity in schoolchildren. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Provide students with these examples of experimental research: Determining whether negatively worded advertisements cause people to buy more or less of a product. Testing people to determine whether memory is better for words or pictures. Having people take a memory test in a laboratory to determine which conditions are best for promoting short-term memory. Providing therapy to people with severe anxiety disorders and comparing them to a control group that did not receive therapy. Determining whether people are more likely to lie when they are put in a condition of thinking they need to impress the experimenter compared to a condition in which they do not think they need to impress the experimenter. Comparing people‘s anxiety levels when told to imagine a stressful job interview compared to when told to imagine listening to relaxing music. SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHODS Use this chart to summarize research methods used in descriptive research: Research Method Archival

Advantages Inexpensive

Naturalistic

Natural habitat

Surveys

Straightforward Accuracy with small samples

Case Study

In-depth and focused

Disadvantages Data can be in poor form. Incomplete information Haphazardly collected Records often don‘t exist. Inability to control factors Need perfect conditions Subjects may alter actions. Memory lapses in respondents Responses tailored to what researcher wants to hear Sample may not be representative of population. Generalizations must be made cautiously.

This could be used as a classroom activity in which students work together to fill in the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Operationally Define the Variables. In pairs or small groups, have students operationally define the following: integrity, generosity, love, maturity, liberal, conservative, exhaustion, stress, attractiveness. To facilitate discussion, have students share their results with the rest of the class. ―PSYCHIC EXPERIMENTS‖ To show the importance of the scientific method, particularly ruling out alternative, competing hypotheses, here are three demonstrations that are very simple to do. It just takes a bit of show-―person‖-ship. Experiment 1: This idea is loosely based on the ―magic‖ tricks of Daryl Bem, Cornell University psychologist. The idea is to lure students into thinking that you can read their minds by guessing which object in the classroom they will have chosen. You will use a trick called ―Black Magic.‖ After amazing them with your psychic powers, you then ask students to suggest alternative hypotheses to the possibility that you actually read their minds. The setup for this demonstration is reference to the Ganzfield procedure in which a ―receiver‖ attempts to read the mind of a ―sender.‖ The procedure involves the receiver trying to guess which of four objects the sender chose. The chance rate is 25% correct, but Bem‘s meta-analysis demonstrated a hit rate of 33–35%. Say that Bem was therefore able to prove the existence of psychic phenomena (also called the ―Psi‖ effect). If the class cooperates by concentrating their thoughts on an object in the room, you may be able to demonstrate the effect today. Follow these steps: Before the class, arrange to have a volunteer assist you. This volunteer will appear to have been randomly chosen during the class, but actually you will have preselected this person. You can honestly ask this person in front of the class whether you arranged ahead of time regarding which object was selected, and the honest answer will be no because you will not have arranged ahead of time which object was actually selected. You will arrange ahead of time which object the assistant will point to before whatever object the class selects. This will be a black object. Any object that the volunteer points to after the black one will be the object chosen by the class. As you can see, nothing is really left to chance at all, nor have you been dishonest. Tell the class that you will step out of the room and they will have up until the time you count to 30 to choose the object. The assistant will be in the room during this time. Return to the room and now tell the class that in order to replicate the Ganzfield procedure, you will need to have the volunteer point to several objects in the room. You will use your psychic powers (along with the class‘s cooperation) to determine which object they have chosen. During IM – 4 | 32 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

this time, the volunteer will point to three or four objects, then to an object that is black. The object after the black one should be what the class selected. Feel free to ham this up. For each object, carefully inspect it, put your hands on it, look as though you are concentrating, and then announce in a loud voice, ―No, this is definitely not the object.‖ For one or two of the objects, you can start to say yes, but then shake your head and say no. Chide the class and tell them to concentrate harder because you are getting confusing signals. For the object after the black one, first start to say no, then say very loudly, ―YES! THIS IS THE OBJECT.‖ Look at the class, and take a well-deserved bow. Now ask the class whether they now believe in ESP. With luck, no one will have seen this trick performed before. Encourage them to think of alternative hypotheses, and if necessary, lead them to think of the trick as involving not the object itself but the object after the black object. Experiment 2: Prepare three piles of cards: Pile 1 has three cards. Pile 2 has four 3s (from all four suits). Pile 3 is the third pile. Put them together at the top of a deck to create the illusion that you are going to be randomly taking them off the top, but they will have been prearranged. Now ask for a volunteer and state that you will predict which pile the volunteer will pick because your psychic powers are so strong. In fact, you will write down your prediction ahead of time! Without allowing the volunteer to see what you are doing, write down the number 3 on a large sheet of paper, fold it up, and then turn to the task at hand. Instruct the volunteer to think of a number and really concentrate. Close your eyes and pretend to be ―sensing‖ what the volunteer is thinking. Then instruct the volunteer to point at the pile she or he has chosen. After pointing to any of the piles, say, ―Yes, that is what I predicted! I have written down the number 3!!‖ Of course you will be right because in Pile #1, there are 3 cards, Pile #2 has all 3‘s, and the third pile is ―Pile #3.‖ After the applause dies down, ask the audience whether you have proven you are truly psychic. Of course they won‘t think you are, but now you can ask them to generate hypotheses about the secret of the trick. Through this process, you will be demonstrating the value of considering alternative hypotheses and being ready to critique a result even if it seems to be dramatically proving a point. CURRENT RESEARCH EXAMPLES Interesting research examples can be taped from news documentary programs and cable networks such as the History Channel (somewhat a misnomer as it now incorporates many scientific programs) and shown for educational purposes on a onetime basis without violating copyright laws. The purpose of showing one of these examples in connection with this module IM – 4 | 33 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

(compared to the others on research) would be to highlight the importance of using the scientific method to arrive at conclusions about human behavior. One excellent example comes from the Discovery Channel program Myth Busters in which the team debunks the notion of mind control (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ydxb1gN2Tag). Have students connect the experiment run on the show to concepts from this chapter (e.g., scientific method, theory, hypothesis). CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Naturalistic Observation: Have the students write down five places where naturalistic observation research could take place. Next, break the students into groups and have them discuss within their groups the five places they wrote down. Have the groups choose three of the places, describe the types of research variables a researcher would possibly be looking at in these settings, and explain why laboratory research could not be conducted in these settings. The students will get an idea of the differences between laboratory research and naturalistic observation and why certain variables cannot be manipulated in both settings. Correlations: Draw graphs on the board representing both positive and negative correlations. Put various correlation coefficients on the board under the graphs. Break the class into groups and ask them to identify each graph as either a positive or a negative correlation and say whether it represents a strong or a weak correlation. After the groups have finished, ask one member of each group to come to the board and write down what their group decided. This activity will give the students experience in identifying different types of correlations. Design an Experiment: Explain to students that they are going to study the influence of smiling on social behaviors. The experimental group will interact with a confederate who smiles a lot during the interaction. Ask students: What has to happen in the control group? Would a confederate keep a blank expression? Words That Are Alike: On the board or electronically, write the word correlation in one column and the word causation in another column. Either in groups or individually, ask students to identify as many words as possible that are synonyms to these column labels. Afterward, discuss recent media illustrations using or even misusing these terms. Lastly, was there a discrepancy in the number of synonyms in each column? Have student speculate as to why that may or may not be. PsycINFO: For a brief assignment, have students use PsycINFO (or Google Scholar) to find a current example of each type of research method (e.g., archival, case study). Briefly describe the method used in each study that students identify. Double-Blind Study: Have students write a short essay regarding their voluntary participation in a double-blind drug study. How would their participation influence its external validity?

Reality Television: Instruct students to design a reality television series that explores psychological processes. What ethical safeguards would be in place to protect participants? Media and Research: Have students find a report of research by a media outlet (e.g., TV news, online news source, or radio station) and report to the class what the essence of the report entailed and how the conclusions should be evaluated. Ask students what is missing or what more information they would need before determining the credibility and validity of the research being reported in their media selection. Professional Journal Articles: Have the students bring research articles (choose articles with Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion sections) from psychology journals to class. In class, in groups of two or three, have the students identify the different steps and tools of the scientific method. Have them determine whether the research is descriptive, correlational, or experimental. In addition, have them list the criteria in the article that led them to determine the type of research. Discuss these in class. Significantly Significant: Before class, find a few current articles and parse out the results sections. In groups, give students an example of research results and ask them to discuss whether or not the results were statistically significant and what that means to them. (Since this is often a difficult concept for students to understand, having them put this in their own words may help clarify the misunderstandings.) Subjective Well-Being: Have the students write down what their subjective well-being is, or what it is that makes them happy. What do they think happiness consists of? Break the class into groups and have them discuss each of their comments. Discuss as a class how happiness comes from within and is different for each person. Little Albert—Is It Ethical? Have students watch John Watson‘s experiment with Little Albert at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE. After watching the video clip, discuss the ethics of the experiment by using the APA ethical guidelines as a checklist. Ask the students whether they would be willing to allow their own baby to participate in a research experiment. Why or why not? HANDOUT 4: Common Sense or Fact: Use Handout 4: Common Sense or Fact as a way to help students realize that what they think they already know about common everyday occurrences may not actually be true. This activity involves students reading through a list of common occurrences or common information and stating whether the information is true or false. HANDOUT 5: Methods of Research: NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. Research, systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge, is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories behind them) are accurate. Just as we can apply different theories IM – 4 | 35 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

and hypotheses to explain the same phenomena, we can use a number of alternative methods to conduct research. In this exercise, students will learn more about several methods of research that psychologists use to gain new knowledge about human behavior. HANDOUT 6: Correlational Research: NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. In correlational research, the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or correlated. When we find that two variables are strongly correlated with one another, it is tempting to presume that one variable causes the other. The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes the other. It is impossible to determine which variable is the ―cause‖ and which is the ―result.‖ In addition, there may be a third variable not accounted for that is responsible for the correlation. This principle is known as ―correlation is not causation.‖ In this activity, students will have the chance to learn for yourself about the problems involved in making conclusions about causality in correlational research. HANDOUT 7: Experimental Design: NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. The only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships through research is by carrying out an experiment. In a formal experiment, the relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. In an experiment, then, the conditions required to study a question of interest are created by an experimenter, who deliberately makes a change in those conditions in order to observe the effects of that change. The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation is called the ―experimental manipulation.‖ Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationships between different variables. In this activity, you will have the chance to explore the factors involved in designing an experimental study. HANDOUT 8: Operational Definitions: Use Handout 8: Operational Definitions to have the students find operational definitions in an experiment. In the activity, the students are given various segments from actual journal articles and asked to identify the operational definition(s) in each of the articles. HANDOUT 9: Independent and Dependent Variables/Experimental and Control Groups: Use Handout 9: Independent and Dependent Variables/Experimental and Control Groups. This activity has different examples of hypotheses for research ideas. The students have to identify both the independent and dependent variables in the hypotheses. They also have to identify who makes up the experimental group and who makes up the control group.

HANDOUT 10: Populations and Samples: Use Handout 10: Populations and Samples to give the students experience in identifying the population and samples in various examples. The students should be able to differentiate between who the population is and who makes up the sample. SURVEY AND CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH To demonstrate both survey and correlational methods, conduct a brief study with your students as participants. Have students fill out a brief, simple survey with the following questions (or questions of your choosing): Favorite ice cream flavor: Height: Shoe size: Number of siblings: At the next class meeting, present students with the data from their classmates. First, display a figure illustrating the favorite ice cream flavors of students: this is an example of a simple survey question. Second, present the calculated correlation coefficient and display a scatterplot illustrating the correlation between height and shoe size: this is an example of a positive correlation. Finally, present the calculated correlation coefficient and display a scatter plot of the correlation between height and number of siblings: this is an example of a near-zero correlation. Correlations can be a difficult topic for students; giving them an example from their own lives can make it easier to understand. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Can psychologists really fully understand human behavior? We say that the mission of psychological research is to understand human behavior, but is this possible, considering that all human beings are separate individuals and no two people are exactly alike? Do you think self-help books are based on factual information that came from psychological research? What purpose do you think self-help books serve? What are the intentions of the authors? Can psychological researchers really control the third variable problem? How do you conduct research while knowing you cannot think of every possible variable that could confound your results? Can you think of a situation where correlation does equal causation? Can you describe how a researcher might use naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research to investigate gender differences in children‘s aggressive behavior at school?

First state a hypothesis, and then describe your research approaches. What positive and negative features does each method have? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Since I Can Use It, It Must Be Ok! Take a few minutes to review the critical controversy over deception in research. Let‘s share our own thoughts and ideas about this. How many think that using deception in research is acceptable under any condition? Who thinks that it is not all right to trade one‘s ethical responsibility such as informed consent for advancement in research through deception? How many people in the class have been deceived by someone they trusted? Polling Question: It’s All Over the News…Video Games Cause Children to Be Violent! Much controversy surrounds the culture of video gaming and its effect on our youth. Over the past several years, video games have become increasingly more graphic, dramatic, and some would say violent. As a result, how many of you have heard that video games cause children to be more violent or act aggressively? How many of you agree with the statement that ―The companies that make violent video games should be held responsible if children imitate and ultimately hurt others as a result of playing their games?‖ Who thinks people are misunderstanding what the word causation means when they are talking about explaining childhood aggression and video game playing? In this discussion, illustrating very clear points, students will have a more applicable understanding of the uses and misuses of causation and correlation terminology. SUGGESTED MEDIA American Psychological Association. http://www.apa.org/research/index.aspx. This is the official website of the APA. This website discusses the ethical regulations and codes of conduct that must be followed when conducting psychological research. Annenberg/CPB Collection. Against all odds: Inside statistics, samples, and surveys, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/against-all-odds-inside-statistics/. This piece describes the importance of sampling when administering and interpreting surveys. Annenberg/CPB Collection. Against all odds: Inside statistics, experimental design, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/against-all-odds-inside-statistics/. This film describes the differences between experimental and observational research. It covers the basic principles of experimental design. Annenberg/CBS Project. (2001). Discovering psychology 1: Past, present, and promise, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/past-present-and-promise/. This video introduces the field of psychology and what the entire field entails. It also discusses the relationship between psychology as a science and the other fields of science.

Annenberg/CBS Project. (2001). Discovering psychology 2: Understanding research, 30: 00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/understanding-research/. This covers the scientific method and the process of data collection in both the laboratory and in a natural setting. Association of Psychological Science. http://www.psychologicalscience.org. This is the official website of the Association of Psychological Science. Correlational research. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30g69EGghKQ. A brief video covering the correlational method. CRM/McGraw-Hill. (1971). Aspects of behavior, 26:00. This video introduces the field of psychology. There are also taped interviews with noted historical psychology scholars such as Stanley Milgram and Abraham Maslow. Hidden brain: A dramatic cure (2019). This podcast centers on the placebo effect and what they teach us about healing. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-dramaticcure/id1028908750?i=1000436846861. Insight Media. (2006). Endless questions: Critical thinking and research, 30:00. This film examines the various types of research methods in psychology. Independent variable practice worksheet. https://www.dvusd.org/cms/lib07/AZ01901092/Centricity/Domain/4763/variables_worksheet.pd f. Kenneth Pope website. http://kspope.com/. The site covers a broad range of subjects, including licensing laws, regulation, ethics, medication, military-related issues, suicide and sexual issues, and so on. A unique feature that deserves mention is that the website is designed for people with disabilities in accordance with W3C Accessibility Guidelines. Kinsey (2004) is a racy, but good, example of surveys and interviewing techniques. The opening sequence can be shown by going to https://youtu.be/e19GnyNdC48. McGraw-Hill psychology episode III—Insight into research methods. https://soundcloud.com/user-250403395/episode-iii-insight-into-research-methods. Merlot.org. https://www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm. This is a useful website for resources in learning and online teaching that houses learning experiences, peer-reviewed activities, and personal collections of psychological materials. Placebo effect. (2010). https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/placebos-workeven-when-you-know-10-12-23/. Psychological research: Crash course psychology #2. (2014). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I. Explores how to apply the scientific method IM – 4 | 39 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

to psychological research with a focus on case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys and interviews, and experimentation. Reenactment of Darley and Latane‘s research. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KE5YwN4NW5o. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching modules, no. 3: The placebo effect: mind/body relationship [Video file]. Video posted to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aO5JXOls7Nk&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82y x64Z&index=4&t=0s. Focuses upon the biological basis of behavior, experimental control, and the mind/body relationship. The placebo effect. (2016). From the placebo effect to drinking beer, Dan Ariely explores the placebo effect. https://www.chicagoideas.com/videos/the-placebo-effect. The psych files. http://www.thepsychfiles.com. This is a good website housing several free podcasts and videos on various topics related to psychology, including research methods and statistics. Ep 246: Why replications sometimes don’t agree with the original study available at https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/ep-246-why-replications-sometimes-dont-agreewith/id215516451?i=1000548685909 Insight Media. (2008). Research ethics, 21:00. https://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cvideo_work%7C3383123 . The video focuses upon ethical issues in conducting and reporting research. Insight Media. (2001). Research methods in psychology, 28 min. https://search.alexanderstreet.com. The film details the various research procedures of descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies. Research methods. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyOlUekJmUA. This clip, part of the ―Headless Professor‖ series, explains introspection, case studies, surveys, and experiments. Sybil (1976) is a great example of a case study. The Jane Goodall Institute. https://www.janegoodall.org/. This Scientific American Frontiers episode seven features the ways in which placebo effects can bias research on treatment effectiveness: http://www.chedd-angier.com/frontiers/season13.html. Speaking of Psychology: Big Data and Its Implications for Psychological Research with Alex Pentland (2018). Published by the American Psychological Association, this video shows how large-scale studies can be used to predict and shape a wide range of important common behaviors. https://youtu.be/zmu-JK-3kdU. ADDITIONAL READINGS IM – 4 | 40 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57(12). Anderson, C. A., Lindsay, J. L., & Bushman, B. J. (1999). Research in the psychological laboratory: Truth or triviality? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 3–9. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6796/a923bce7b141e1e4369a04bbbf561ffe6d4c.pdf. Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram‘s ―Behavioral study of obedience.‖ American Psychologist, 19, 421–423. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/196500210-001. Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Burkley, E., & Burkley, M. (2009). Mythbusters: A tool for teaching research methods in psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 179–184. Chastain, G. & Landrum, R. E. (1999). Protecting human subjects: Departmental subject pools and institutional review boards. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Guthrie, R. V. (2003). Even the rat was white (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn-Bacon. Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn't he help? Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Lillenfield, S. O. (2005). The 10 commandments for helping students distinguish science from pseudoscience in psychology. APS Observer, 18. http://people.ucalgary.ca/~mueller/P305/Science-Pseudo.pdf. Lillenfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Ruscio, J., & Beyerstein, B. L. (2010). 50 great myths of popular psychology: Shattering widespread misconceptions about human behavior. Hobeken, NJ: Wiley. Madson, L. (2005). Demonstrating the importance of question wording on surveys. Teaching of Psychology, 32, 40–43. Martin, D. W. (2000). Doing psychology experiments (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Mikulak, A. (2014). Using pseudoscience to shine light on good science. APA Observer, 27. Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259. Rosenthal, R. (1976). Experimenter effects in behavioral research. New York: Irvington Publishers. Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. (1989). Statistical procedures and the justification of knowledge in psychological science. American Psychologist, 44, 1276–1284.

Rosenzweig, S. (1933). The experimental situation as a psychological problem. Psychological Review, 40, 337–354. Shermer, M. (1997). Why people believe weird things: Pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time. New York: W.H. Freeman. Stanovich, K. E. (2019). How to think straight about psychology (11th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Publishing. Zimbardo, P. G. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House. MODULE 4: CRITICAL RESEARCH ISSUES LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4-1

What major issues confront psychologists conducting research?

THE ETHICS OF RESEARCH Because research has the potential to violate the rights of participants, psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict set of ethical guidelines aimed at protecting participants. Those guidelines involve the following safeguards:     

Protection of participants from physical and mental harm. The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior. The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary. The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their participation in the experiment. All experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being conducted.

One of psychologists‘ key ethical principles is informed consent. Before participating in an experiment, the participants must sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve, what risks the experiment may hold, and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary and they may terminate it at any time. Furthermore, after participation in a study, participants must be given a debriefing in which they receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved. CHOOSING PARTICIPANTS WHO REPRESENT ALL HUMANS When Latané and Darley, both college professors, decided who would participate in their experiment, they turned to the people at hand: college students. Using college students as participants has both advantages and drawbacks. The big benefit is that because most research IM – 4 | 42 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

occurs in university settings, college students are readily available. The problem is that college students may not represent the general population adequately. In fact, undergraduate research participants are typically a special group of people: relative to the general population, college students tend to be from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic cultures (WEIRD). Because psychology is a science whose goal is to explain all human behavior generally, its studies must use participants who are fully representative of the general population in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and educational level. See Neuroscience in Your Life: The Importance of Using Representative Participants in the text for an example. SHOULD ANIMALS BE USED IN RESEARCH? Researchers who use nonhuman animals in experiments have their own set of exacting guidelines to ensure that the animals do not suffer. Specifically, researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain. Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and when the research is justified by its prospective value. Psychological research that employs nonhumans is designed to answer questions different from those posed in research with humans. THREATS TO EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY: AVOIDING EXPERIMENTAL BIAS Even the best-laid experimental plans are susceptible to experimental bias—factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment. One of the most common forms of experimental bias is experimenter expectations, when an experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about the way the experimenter expects them to behave. A related problem is participant expectations about appropriate behavior. If participants form their own hypotheses and then act on their hunches, it may be their expectations, rather than the experimental manipulation, that produce the results. To guard against participant expectations biasing the results of an experiment, the experimenter may try to disguise the true purpose of the experiment. Sometimes it is impossible to hide the actual purpose of research. To solve this problem, psychologists typically use a procedure in which all the participants receive a treatment, but those in the control group receive only a placebo—a false treatment, such as a pill, ―drug,‖ or other substance that has no significant chemical properties or active ingredient. To overcome the possibility that experimenter expectations will affect the participant, the researcher can use the double-blind procedure. By keeping both the participant and the experimenter who interacts with the participant ―blind‖ to the nature of the treatment that is being administered, researchers can more accurately assess the effects of the treatment. IM – 4 | 43 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT RESEARCH Because the field of psychology is based on an accumulated body of research, we must scrutinize thoroughly the methods, results, and claims of researchers. Several basic questions can help us sort through what is valid and what is not. Among the most important questions to ask are these:  What was the purpose of the research?  How well was the study conducted?  Are the results presented fairly? KEY TERMS experimental bias Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment. informed consent A document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve. placebo A false treatment, such as a pill, ―drug,‖ or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient. LECTURE IDEAS ETHICAL CONCERNS Enhance this part of the lecture by presenting a brief history and synopsis of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/). Be sure to differentiate clearly between the need to protect participants from undue risk, the need to inform participants in advance regarding what will take place when they complete the research, and the need to maintain the scientific integrity of the research. For example, if Bibb Latané and John Darley (1970) had informed participants of exactly what would transpire in the study on diffusion of responsibility and the bystander effect, their results would not necessarily have provided them with valid results because participants would have known that they were expected to help (this issue relates also to participant expectations). Another topic of interest to students is that of withholding psychological services in the interests of maintaining the integrity of the experimental design. EXPERIMENTAL BIAS Cite specific problems associated with experimental bias in psychological research, distinguishing between bias due to experimenter expectations and bias due to participant expectations. Placebos can be used to minimize the effects of participant expectation, particularly IM – 4 | 44 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

when used in a double-blind procedure. However, placebos can sometimes lead to improvement due to the ―placebo effect‖ (see http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/opinion/04judson.html for an excellent discussion of this issue). Raise the issue of why deception is needed and how best to handle the balance between informed consent and the need to minimize bias. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS HANDOUT 11: Ethical Dilemmas: Use Handout 11: Ethical Dilemmas as a way for students to think about ethical considerations when conducting research. This activity gives students research scenarios that deal with ethical concerns. Questions regarding their own ethical considerations follow each scenario. Ethics on the Web: In class, use the APA website and review some of the ethical guidelines that are listed. Explore the guidelines and discuss why ethical conduct is so important in psychology and in research in general. EXPERIMENTAL BIAS Have students volunteer to be participants in a psychological experiment. After they have completed their participation, ask them to answer these questions:  Did you know what the hypothesis was in this study?  If so, how do you think your performance was affected by this knowledge? If not, how might your performance have been affected by this knowledge? ETHICAL PRINCIPLES Go to the APA website and look up the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct: http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/. Choose three of the principles and answer the following questions:  Why do you think this principle is important?  What difficulties might psychologists encounter when applying this principle?  Describe a real-life situation in which this principle might be used. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Do you think psychological research has really controlled for ethnic bias and overcome the problems of ethnicity in research? Why do you think some individuals are more comfortable with animal testing on rats but uncomfortable with animal tests on dogs? Ask students to stand up if they believe research on animals is unethical; have them move to stand on the left side of the room. If they believe that it is ethical, have them stand on the right side. If they are unsure, they can stay in the middle. Have the left and right sides discuss their IM – 4 | 45 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

perspectives, and then ask people to move to the part of the room that now represents their stance. Generally, many students will shift views after discussion, and this will illustrate attitude change. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Do you think it is ethical to use animals in psychological research? a) Yes b) No c) It depends. Polling Question: Clients as Friends, We’ll See? While many digital immigrants (i.e., older therapists) recoil at the thought of having clients as Facebook friends and too readily call it ―unethical,‖ is the answer really that simple? Knowing that the digital age is moving so fast and that access to therapy may have a technological counterpart, what do you think? How many would accept a former client as a friend on a social media site once therapy ended? How many think it would be acceptable for a therapist to have a professional social media site and accept friend requests there? Who has had an experience (either their own or that of someone they know) of crossing the boundary lines of ethical behavior with someone in a professional role? Lastly, how many people think it is all right for the therapist to text their clients? Let‘s discuss the implications of ethical behavior and its effects on others. SUGGESTED MEDIA American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/research/index. This is the official website of the APA. It discusses the ethical regulations and codes of conduct that must be followed when conducting psychological research. Annenberg/CPB Collection. Do Scientists Cheat? 60 min. Association of Psychological Science. http://www.psychologicalscience.org. This is the official website of the Association of Psychological Science. CRM/McGraw-Hill. (1971). Aspects of behavior, 26:00. This video introduces the field of psychology. There are also taped interviews with noted historical psychology scholars such as Stanley Milgram and Abraham Maslow. Episodes of the Discovery Channel‘s MythBusters, in which experiments are designed and run in an attempt to debunk common myths, can be found at: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0A5590CEE7F2EC3B. Insight Media. (2008). Research ethics, 21:00. The video focuses on ethical issues in conducting and reporting research. IM – 4 | 46 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

This Scientific American Frontiers episode features the ways in which placebo effects can bias research on treatment effectiveness: http://www.chedd-angier.com/frontiers/season13.html. Reenactment of Darley and Latane‘s research. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KE5YwN4NW5o. Articles, Research, and Resources in Psychology: http://kspope.com/. The site covers a broad range of subjects, including licensing laws, regulation, ethics, medication, military-related issues, suicide and sexual issues, and so on. A unique feature that deserves mention is that the website is designed for people with disabilities in accordance with W3C Accessibility Guidelines. ADDITIONAL READINGS American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57(12). Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram‘s ‗Behavioral study of obedience.‘ American Psychologist, 19, 421–423. Chastain, G., & Landrum, R. E. (1999). Protecting human subjects: departmental subject pools and institutional review boards. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Guthrie, R. V. (2003). Even the rat was white (2nd ed.). Allyn-Bacon. Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn't he help? Prentice Hall. Placebo effect. https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/placebos-work-even-whenyou-know-10-12-23. Rosenthal, R. (1976). Experimenter effects in behavioral research. New York: Irvington Publishers. Zimbardo, P. G. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz IM – 4 | 47 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.



Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS  The Scientific Method  Correlation  Independent and Dependent Variables VIDEOS  The Usefulness of Psychological Research  Naturalistic Observation in Psychology INTERACTIVITIES  Perspectives in Psychology  The Scientific Method  Naturalistic Observation  Understanding Correlations  Designing an Experiment: Dependent and Independent Variables  Research Ethics LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Structuralism and Functionalism COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: SURVEY ON FACTS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY Answer ―true‖ or ―false‖ to each of the following statements: NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Correct answers are indicated in parentheses. To view survey results, go to next page. Psychologists are interested in predicting and controlling behavior. (T) Electrical stimulation of the brain can act as a reward. (T) Children develop abstract thinking at about age 7. (F) Sometimes people can perceive motion even when there is none. (T) Sleep is a completely restful state of consciousness. (F) Negative reinforcement decreases behavior. (F) Most people can remember about 20 things for a short period of time. (F) Environmental influences alone determine intelligence in people. (F) Sexual motivation has a biological basis in humans. (T) People who are married more than 20 years often show a romantic love orientation. (F) Personality tests are usually effective in measuring personality. (T) Psychological and physical stress have similar effects on the body. (T) Schizophrenia is a disorder that results in a split personality. (F) Psychoanalysis is the most commonly used form of psychotherapy. (F) The probability of obtaining help in an emergency increases as the number of bystanders increases. (F)

HANDOUT 1 (CON‘T): SURVEY ON FACTS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY: SURVEY RESPONSES Student survey responses, based on 1,424 student entries: 1. Psychologists are interested in predicting and controlling behavior. The correct answer is TRUE. True 926 65% False 400 28% 2. Electrical stimulation of the brain can act as a reward. The correct answer is TRUE. True 900 63% False 421 29% 3. Children develop abstract thinking at about age 7. The correct answer is FALSE. True 658 46% False 667 46% 4. Sometimes people can perceive motion even when there is none. The correct answer is TRUE. True 1252 87% False 69 4% 5. Sleep is a completely restful state of consciousness. The correct answer is FALSE. True 303 21% False 1021 71% 6. Negative reinforcement decreases behavior. The correct answer is FALSE. True 551 38% False 775 54% 7. Most people can remember about 20 things for a short period of time. The correct answer is FALSE. True 652 45% False 668 46% 8. Environmental influences solely determine intelligence in people. The correct answer is FALSE. True 155 10% False 1163 81% 9. Sexual motivation has a biological basis in humans. The correct answer is TRUE. True 1180 82% IM – 4 | 50 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

False

139

10. People who are married more than 20 years often show a romantic love orientation. The correct answer is TRUE. True 666 46% False 648 45% 11. Personality tests are usually effective in measuring personality. The correct answer is TRUE. True 767 53% False 551 38% 12. Psychological and physical stress have similar effects on the body. The correct answer is TRUE. True 1119 78% False 192 13% 13. Schizophrenia is a disorder that results in a split personality. The correct answer is FALSE. True 672 47% False 646 45% 14. Psychoanalysis is the most commonly used form of psychotherapy. The correct answer is FALSE. True 810 56% False 510 35% 15. The probability of obtaining help in an emergency increases as the number of bystanders increases. The correct answer is FALSE. True 403 28% False 920 64%

HANDOUT 2: WHERE PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK For each of the settings below, indicate what type of work psychologists might perform: Setting

Type of Work Performed

Independent practice

Universities, colleges, and medical schools

Hospitals, clinics, and other human services

Government

Schools and other educational settings

Business

Beside each area of psychology below, list two to three jobs that a person in that area could have. Physiological psychology and behavioral neuroscience: Developmental psychology: Sensation and perception: Cognitive psychology: Learning: Motivation and emotion: Personality psychology: Social psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology: Clinical and counseling psychology: Health psychology: Community psychology: School and educational psychology: Environmental psychology: Psychology of women and gender: Forensic psychology: Sport psychology: Cross-cultural psychology: HANDOUT 4: COMMON SENSE OR FACT?

Read the following statements and determine if they are true or false. Write the letter T in the space provided if you believe the statement is true and the letter F if you believe the statement is false. 1. _____

People dream on average around five or six times a night.

2. _____

Dogs dream.

3. _____

Psychiatrists attend the same medical school as did your family physician or a surgeon.

4. _____

Psychology originally stemmed from the area of biology.

5. _____

You are more likely to receive help if there are two people around than if there are 20 people around.

6. _____

You would value receiving US$10 for helping a neighbor clean out his garage more than getting US$10 for doing nothing.

7. _____

Adults in their 60s start to decline in their interest in sex.

8. _____

Psychology is all about making people feel better.

9. _____

Living together before marriage will result in a better marriage.

10. _____ Intelligence is inherited.

HANDOUT 5: METHODS OF RESEARCH NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. Research, systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge, is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories behind them) are accurate. Just as we can apply different theories and hypotheses to explain the same phenomena, we can use a number of alternative methods to conduct research. In this exercise, you will learn more about several methods of research that psychologists use to gain new knowledge about human behavior. 1. You are conducting research on gender differences in emails. Your hypothesis is that men use more declarative statements and women use more questions. Answer each of the following questions: What might be the advantages of using the archival method? [Answers: A large amount of available data; inexpensive.] What might be the disadvantages of using the archival method? [Answers: Difficulty of organizing the information; Not all emails contain punctuation.] 2. Now imagine that you are conducting research on the length of time it takes customers to select items in a grocery store. Assume that your hypothesis is that people will spend more time deciding on more expensive items than on cheaper items. What might be the advantages of using naturalistic observation? [Answers: People are completing the behavior in a naturalistic setting rather than a laboratory; The data will be easily scored.] What might be the disadvantages of using naturalistic observation? [Answers: People might act differently if they know they are being watched; It is not possible to control the choices that people make.] 3. You have decided to conduct a survey on whether a political candidate will be popular with Latino voters. What is an advantage of the survey method? [Answers: Those who are surveyed can be followed up with more detailed questions if necessary; Can use a small sample to predict how a population would respond.] What is a disadvantage of the survey method? IM – 4 | 56 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

[Answers: People may alter their answers to provide responses that they think the experimenter wishes to get; Question wording is very important to avoid bias.] 4. You have decided to use the case study method to investigate a mother‘s experience in raising a child with autism. What is an advantage of the case study method? [Answers: In-depth understanding of a few unusual or important instances; Gain insights into complex human problems.] What is a disadvantage of the case study method? [Answers: Possibility of collecting data that cannot be analyzed; Inability to draw cause-andeffect conclusions.]

HANDOUT 6: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. Correlation and Causation In correlational research, the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or correlated. When we find that two variables are strongly correlated with one another, it is tempting to presume that one variable causes the other. The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes the other. It is impossible to determine which variable is the ―cause‖ and which is the ―result.‖ In addition, there may be a third variable not accounted for that is responsible for the correlation. This principle is known as ―correlation is not causation.‖ In this activity, you will have the chance to learn for yourself about the problems involved in making conclusions about causality in correlational research. Part 1 GRAPH A: Here is the correlation between amount of stress hormones in the blood and the ratings by participants of how much stress they are feeling.

x axis= Stress hormones y axis= Perceived stress levels Is this correlation positive, negative, or zero? [Answer: Positive]

GRAPH B: Here is the correlation between number of action movies seen in the last 12 months and a personality trait called ―fear of arousal.‖

x axis: Number of action movies y axis: Arousal personality trait Is this correlation positive, negative, or zero? [Answer: Negative.]

GRAPH C: Here is the correlation between intelligence and enjoyment of popular music.

x axis: Intelligence y axis: Enjoyment of pop music Is this correlation positive, negative, or zero? [Answer: Zero.] Out of the three graphs you just saw, which one showed the STRONGEST (closest to 1) relationship? IM – 4 | 59 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

[Answer: Graph A] Part 2 Now that you have learned the basics of correlational studies, let‘s go on to examine ways of interpreting the results of this type of research. Dr. Hassan Abadi is conducting a study examining the relationship between Internet surfing and self-esteem by using a telephone survey of 50 people selected randomly from all over the country. He hypothesizes that internet surfing can harm a person‘s self-esteem. Each participant completed a survey involving 10 questions on self-esteem, a question asking for the number of hours per week spent surfing the internet, and other questions asking for age, occupation, education, salary, and attitudes toward a variety of current issues. He finds that internet surfing is negatively correlated with self-esteem. Dr. Abadi is excited about his findings and contacts his colleague, Dr. Gilligan, to let him know. Here‘s what he writes: Dear Dr. Gilligan, As you can see from the attached file of my data, I have shown that people who spend many hours on the internet each day are more likely to have low self-esteem than those who spend a little time on the internet. This study proves that, as we have long suspected, the internet is psychologically harmful. People should try not to use it because if they do, they will have lower self-esteem. I expect to publish these findings very soon in the Journal of the Society of Scientists (J-SOS). Thank you for your attention. Sincerely, Dr. Hassan Abadi Dr. Gilligan writes back: Dear Dr. Abadi, I have looked over your data, but unfortunately, I see that there is a serious problem with your conclusions. It would be best if you would take a more careful look at your findings before you try to publish them, especially in such a well-respected journal as the J-SOS. Best regards, Dr. William Gilligan Clearly, Dr. Abadi has made a serious error that caused Dr. Gilligan to warn him not to try to publish the findings. What was that error? [Answer: Trying to show any type of cause and effect.] IM – 4 | 60 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Dr. Abadi made the classic error of failing to realize that correlation does not equal causation. His study cannot show cause and effect. Check off below all the possible interpretations of Dr. Abadi‘s findings: [Answers: Each is a possible interpretation.] _____ Internet surfing caused low self-esteem (Dr. Abadi‘s conclusion). _____ Low self-esteem caused Internet surfing. _____ A third factor caused people to engage in Internet surfing and to have low self-esteem. _____ Men were more likely to engage in Internet surfing and have lower self-esteem. _____ Women were more likely to engage in Internet surfing and have lower self-esteem. _____ People without jobs were more likely to have low self-esteem and engage in Internet surfing. _____ People with few friends are likely to have low self-esteem and spend time surfing the Internet because they have fewer social activities. _____ Being ill could lead people to have low self-esteem due to feeling unwell and to have more time to surf the internet. _____ Living alone could cause people to have low self-esteem because they are lonely and to spend more time on the internet. _____ People who spend a great deal of time on the internet may be working very hard and also feel stressed, leading them to have low self-esteem. _____ Spending many hours on the internet could lead people to realize that they are not as successful as other people and therefore to have low self-esteem. _____ People looking for better housing may spend many hours on the Internet and become frustrated that they cannot afford it, lowering their self-esteem. _____ People with lower income have lower self-esteem and are also less able to afford going out, so they spend more time on the Internet.

* As you can see, there are many possible interpretations of the findings from Dr. Abadi‘s study. Fortunately, he had many other variables to explore, allowing him to eventually eliminate factors such as health, education, employment status, and lifestyle.

HANDOUT 7: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Edit out the correct answers before distributing to students. The only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships through research is by carrying out an experiment. In a formal experiment, the relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. In an experiment, then, the conditions required to study a question of interest are created by an experimenter, who deliberately makes a change in those conditions in order to observe the effects of that change. The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation is called the ―experimental manipulation.‖ Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationships between different variables. In this activity, you will have the chance to explore the factors involved in designing an experimental study. You are the manager of MassChips, a manufacturing plant that produces computer chips. Your department‘s production has been down lately, and you want to find out how to improve it. You hire Dr. H. Thorne, a noted industrial/organizational psychologist, to help you solve this problem. Here is what he has to say: ―After looking over the situation, I can see that, obviously, you need to improve the conditions in this place! First, you have to improve the lighting. I am now going to do research that will test the hypothesis that better lighting will lead to higher productivity among your workers.‖ If Dr. Thorne is going to test his hypothesis that better lighting will lead to higher productivity, what should he do next? [Answer: Design an experimental study.] Now that he has decided to do an experiment, Dr. Thorne has to define the independent and dependent variables. If Dr. Thorne wants to improve productivity by turning up the lights, then: What is the independent variable? [Answer: Level of light] What is the dependent variable? [Answer: Productivity] Dr. Thorne then moves on to the next phase of the experiment. He hands out cards to the workers. Half of the cards say, ―Go to Room 108.‖ The other half of the cards say, ―Go to Room 109.‖ Room 108 is brightly lit, and Room 109 has the same lighting the whole factory had before. Over the next 2 weeks, Dr. Thorne‘s research assistants will sit in both rooms and count the number of computer chips that each group of workers produces. What is the name for the group that will be working in Room 108? IM – 4 | 62 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

[Answer: Experimental group] What is the name of the group that will be working in Room 109? [Answer: Control group] The next day, Dr. Thorne‘s research assistants are sitting in each room, counting the chips as they come off the production line. Two weeks later, the workers are now all working in a brightly lit environment. Dr. Thorne is holding a thick report, and he is looking pleased. Here‘s what he has to say: ―Well, the experiment worked! My statistics show that the experimental group (those in Room 108) were more productive than the control group (those in Room 109). However, I noticed that the control group‘s productivity went up as well! At least MassChips will be making a profit now. I guess I can move on to my next assignment, which I hope will be as successful as this one was!‖ What can Dr. Thorne conclude about lighting and productivity? [Answer: That lighting contributed to productivity but that there was another cause as well because the control group‘s productivity also went up.] What step was important for Dr. Thorne to take in order to ensure that there were no preexisting differences between the experimental and control groups that would have influenced the results of the experiment? [Answer: Random assignment to conditions] What Dr. H. Thorne did not know is that simply by observing the workers, their productivity would improve, as was seen by the improved performance of workers in Room 109 (the control room). In fact, the ―Hawthorne effect,‖ named after the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric, was demonstrated in a series of studies conducted by researchers from Harvard Business School. Production increased not as a consequence of actual changes in working conditions introduced by the plant‘s management but because management demonstrated interest in the improvements. In the case of this experiment, having observers watch both groups of workers also added to the effect. The Hawthorne effect is now one of the known risks of research involving live observations to obtain measures. However, this study also was considered the first in the rapidly growing field of industrial-organizational psychology. HANDOUT 8: OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS Read the abstracts below from various journal articles, and then state in the space provided the study‘s operational definition. 1. The present study examined the relationships of masculinity and femininity with concession in an experimental collaborative eyewitness testimony task, using the MORI technique. IM – 4 | 63 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Participants formed same-sex or mixed-sex pairs and watched a videotaped event. Their eyewitness memories were assessed 3 times: immediately after watching, after discussing the event together, and individually 1 week later. The participants‘ self-confidence in their recalled memories and percentages of concessions were also examined. The MasculinityHumanity-Femininity Scale was administered to the participants at the end of the experiment. The results showed that masculinity negatively correlated with concession and that both masculinity and femininity were associated with inaccuracy in collaborative memory recall. Operational Definition: 2. The present study examined the extent to which the achievement strategies deployed by adolescents and those used by their peers would predict adolescents‘ school adjustment, academic achievement, and problem behavior. The participants were 286 14- to 15-year-old comprehensive school students (121 boys and 165 girls) from a middle-sized town in central Sweden. The results showed that not only the maladaptive strategies used by adolescents but also those reported by their peers predicted adolescents‘ norm-breaking behavior, low school adjustment, and low level of achievement; high levels of failure expectations and task avoidance among adolescents‘ peers were positively associated with the adolescents‘ own norm-breaking behavior and, indirectly via this, also with their maladjustment at school and their low grades. These associations were found after controlling for the impact of the adolescents‘ own achievement strategies. Operational Definition: 3. An ability to match faces with corresponding names was studied under various conditions involving encoding and retrieval. Twenty photographs of undergraduates were randomly paired with 20 common names. Experiment 1 presented photographs of 10 faces, followed by either presentation of the names alone with an instruction to write facial characteristics from memory or presentation of the photographs again with instructions to write from memory the names and anything unusual about the names themselves. Later retrieval, which was best for the former condition, proved that showing names could prime image representations of faces. Experiment 2 was a partial replication of Experiment 1, with retrieval measured over 7 weeks. These results showed that memories for face-name matches lasted several weeks. Also, consistent with Experiment 1, the number of reported initial facial characteristics was highly predictive of matches between faces and names. These studies show the importance for later retrieval of forming and maintaining vivid images of faces even when the faces have no outstanding characteristics. Operational Definition: 4. This study examined whether certain personality characteristics are associated with susceptibility to false memories. Participants first answered questions from the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator in order to measure various personality characteristics. They then watched a video excerpt, the simulated eyewitness event. They were next encouraged to lie about the videotaped event during an interview. A week later, some participants recognized IM – 4 | 64 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

confabulated events as being from the video. Two personality characteristics in particular— the introversion–extroversion and thinking–feeling dimensions—were associated with susceptibility to false memories. Operational Definition: 5. In the present study, three alternative causal models concerning the relationships between implicit theories of intelligence, perceived academic competence, and school achievement were tested. The direction of changes in implicit theories and perceived competence during early adolescence was also examined. A total of 187 fifth and sixth graders were tested and then retested a year later, when they were sixth and seventh graders. Cross-lagged regression analyses indicated that school achievement determined the adoption of a particular implicit theory through the mediation of perceived competence. Implicit theories were found to change toward the adoption of more incremental beliefs, and perceived academic competence declined; however, high achievers, as compared with their low- and middle-level classmates, adopted more incremental beliefs and had significantly higher perceived competence. Operational Definition:

HANDOUT 9: INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES/ EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Read the statements below and then identify what the independent and dependent variable is, and determine who the experimental group is and who the control group is. 1. Participants taking part in a sleep study to determine whether the number of hours of sleep a person gets determines how well they will do on an exam were randomly assigned to either the group that was woken up at various times throughout the night or the group that was allowed to sleep throughout the night. Independent variable: Dependent variable: Experimental group: Control group: 2. Participants took part in a study to determine the number of consumed beers it would take to affect their ability to walk in a straight line. Independent variable: Dependent variable: Experimental group: Control group: 3. Pharmaceutical Company X conducted an experiment to determine whether its new migraine headache pill would alleviate migraine headaches. Independent variable: Dependent variable: Experimental group: Control group: 4. College Y conducted an experiment to determine whether freshmen who had their schedules made for them did better in their freshman year than freshmen who made up their own schedules. Independent variable: Dependent variable: IM – 4 | 66 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Experimental group: Control group:

HANDOUT 10: POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES Read the statements below. In the space provided, identify who the population is and who the sample could be. (None of the examples is factual.) In each case, it is hypothesized that: IM – 4 | 67 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

1. There is a higher rate of teenage pregnancy in single-parent households than in two-parent households. Population: Sample:

2. There is more school violence in inner-city schools than in suburban schools. Population: Sample:

3. Infants born prematurely make better grades in high school than infants not born prematurely. Population: Sample:

4. College freshmen drink more alcoholic beverages than do college seniors. Population: Sample:

5. Students who started their education at a community college are more likely to graduate than students who started their education at a 4-year college. Population: Sample:

HANDOUT 11: ETHICAL DILEMMAS Read the following scenarios and answer the reflection questions that follow. 1. Martina and Bethany have both recently declared psychology as their majors. One evening as they are looking over their required courses, they start talking.

Martina: ―I don't see why we have to learn statistics and research methods! I am never going to use them anyway. I want to be a counselor, and I am just going to deal with each person as an individual. Science treats everyone as if they are interchangeable and totally predictable. In fact, I think people would be better counselors and teachers and social workers if they didn't take research classes at all because then they would treat everyone as individuals, not clones.‖ Bethany: ―People are a lot more predictable than you think. Psychologists have learned so much about human behavior in the last hundred years or so using the scientific method. I really believe that if you can figure out all of the factors that are affecting someone‘s behavior, you can be pretty accurate in figuring out what they are going to do. I've decided that I want to be a researcher because I think I can help more people in the long run than you will as a therapist. As a researcher, I can develop programs that will help a lot of people who suffer from the same problem. A therapist can only help one person at a time, and sometimes it takes years for a person to get better.‖ Reflection questions: a. How do Martina and Bethany differ in their understanding of what people are like? Who do you agree with more and why? b. What is ethically troubling about taking Martina's position to the extreme? What would happen if therapists received no training in the scientific study of human behavior? c. What is ethically troubling about taking Bethany's position to the extreme? What is the problem with assuming that if you can figure out all the variables (genes, environment, etc.) that you can perfectly predict people's behavior?

2. Dr. Gatwa designed a treatment for panic attacks, tried it with all of her clients who suffered from panic attacks, and had great success. Over a 10-year period, Dr. Gatwa treated over 100 clients, and the technique significantly reduced panic in all of her clients. The treatment consisted of the therapist (Dr. Gatwa) leading the patient through a series of relaxation exercises in her office. Dr. Gatwa was so excited about the success of this treatment that she decided to market it to therapists nationwide. For US$33 (which is pretty reasonable for a psychological measure or technique), she sent the therapist a script of everything she said to the patient during the relaxation exercises. A lot of therapists purchased the treatment because they were very impressed with the success rate that Dr. Gatwa reported. However, 6 months later, Dr. Gatwa started to receive calls, letters, and emails from therapists all over the country who complained that the treatment was completely useless for their clients. Reflection questions:

a. How would you explain the fact that Dr. Gatwa had so much success and the other therapists experienced such failure? How would reliability analyses have helped this problem? b. From an ethical point of view, why should Dr. Gatwa have done reliability analyses before marketing her treatment program? c. Keeping in mind that she never gave any false information to anyone who purchased her treatment program, do you think Dr. Gatwa should give them a refund of their money? Why or why not?

3. Stella has been working with Dr. Tarner on a research study for the past 2 years. They have collected data on flavor preferences in rats and found some very impressive results. They presented their research at a conference and submitted a paper about the project to an academic journal. When the reviews of their manuscript come back from the journal, the reviewers have several questions about the data. Dr. Tarner asks Stella to look over the data and the SPSS output from the study and double-check that they did everything correctly. When Stella reviews the data, she realizes that she made a mistake in entering the data. Inadvertently, she had repeated some of the same data values twice in the data file, so it appeared there were 270 observations when there were actually 240. Reflection questions: a. Why might Stella decide not to tell Dr. Tarner about the error? b. What are some possible negative consequences that might result if Stella tells Dr. Tarner and they both report it to the journal editors? c. What are some possible negative consequences that might result if Stella tells Dr. Tarner but they agree not to report the mistake to the journal editor?

Saturday based on the data she collected the rest of the week. She knows that Dr. Miserendino would never have to find out what happened. Reflection questions: a. Assuming Dr. Miserendino never does find out about the made-up data, what are some possible negative ethical consequences of Beverly's decision to falsify the data? b. Why is it risky for Beverly to make up the data? c. What would you choose to do if you were in Beverly's place? Explain.

5. As part of their class requirements, the students in Dr. Taylor's Research Design and Analysis class are sent over to Trumbull Mall to observe interactions between mothers and their toddler-aged children. They are told not to interact with the moms at all but to just record certain behaviors, such as the number of times they speak harshly to their child and the number of times the child whines or cries. One of the mothers notices that the students are watching people and she complains to mall security. The manager of the mall asks the students where they are from, then writes a letter of complaint to Dr. Taylor. Here is an excerpt: ―I am requesting that you do not engage in any more observational research at Trumbull Mall. I don't think it is right to allow students to observe people's behavior without getting their permission first. It is a violation of privacy, and it's wrong even if they don't realize they are being watched. People come to the mall to shop, not to be watched.‖ Reflection questions: a. What are some good reasons for the manager's concerns? Explain. b. What are some good reasons why the students should be able to do this type of research? Explain. c. If you were in Dr. Taylor's position, how would you handle the situation?

6. A mock drill with a person trying to commit suicide is held on a busy Brooklyn street. A psychologist is observing the passersby from a distance. He wants to observe the number of people who try to stop the suicide and the people who just pass by. Which of the following issues does the scenario represent? a. Informed consent b. Confidentiality c. Debriefing IM – 4 | 71 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

d. Deception Reflection question: a. Had the psychologist told people it was a mock drill and no one was committing suicide, would the result still have been the same?

7. Merriam Grey, a leading psychologist on child care and upbringing, has appointed Martha, a junior researcher, to observe 10 infants in the incubators. Martha is expected to find one common characteristic trait among the infants by observing them for a specific period and on every alternate day for 2 weeks. Due to a prior commitment, Martha observes the infants only for a week and makes a report about her observations. However, Martha‘s observations are not based on the given guidelines and she does not inform Grey about it. Reflection questions: a. What would be the consequences of Martha‘s action? b. What are the ethical issues involved when Martha fabricates the report? c. How would you act if you were in Martha‘s place?

8. Give reasons in support of or against the following arguments: a. Is it ethical for a boss to get her employee to pick up coffee for her every day? b. Is it ethical for a student to provide sexual favors to a professor for better grades? c. Is it ethical for a medical practitioner to not tell a dying patient about his condition?

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 8: OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS ANSWER KEY Read the below abstracts from various journal articles and then state in the space provided what the operational definition is. 1. The present study examined the relationships of masculinity and femininity with concession in an experimental collaborative eyewitness testimony task, using the MORI technique. Participants formed same-sex or mixed-sex pairs and watched a videotaped event. Their eyewitness memories were assessed three times: immediately after watching, after discussing the event together, and individually one week later. The participants' self-confidence in their recalled memories and percentages of concessions were also examined. The MasculinityHumanity-Femininity Scale was administered to the participants at the end of the experiment. The results showed that masculinity negatively correlated with concession, and that both masculinity and femininity were associated with inaccuracy in collaborative memory recall. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: score on the Masculinity-Humanity-Femininity scale 2. The present study examined the extent to which the achievement strategies deployed by adolescents and those used by their peers would predict adolescents' school adjustment, academic achievement, and problem behavior. The participants were 287 14- to 15-year-old comprehensive school students (121 boys and 165 girls) from a middle-sized town in central Sweden. The results showed that not only the maladaptive strategies used by adolescents, but also those reported by their peers, predicted adolescents' norm-breaking behavior, low school adjustment, and low level of achievement; high levels of failure expectations and task avoidance among adolescents' peers were positively associated with adolescents' own normbreaking behavior, and indirectly via this, also with their maladjustment at school and low grades. These associations were found after controlling for the impact of adolescents' own achievement strategies. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: grades in school 3. The ability to match faces with corresponding names was studied under various conditions involving encoding and retrieval. Twenty photographs of undergraduates were randomly paired with 20 common names. Experiment 1 presented the photographs for 10 each, followed by either presentation of the names alone with the instruction to write facial characteristics from memory or presentation of the photographs again with instructions to write from memory the names and anything unusual about the names themselves. Later retrieval was best for the former condition and was interpreted as showing that names could prime image representations of faces. Experiment 2 was a partial replication of Experiment 1 with retrieval measured over seven weeks. These results showed that memories for facename matches lasted several weeks. Also, consistent with Experiment 1, the number of reported initial face characteristics was highly predictive of matches between faces and IM – 4 | 73 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

names. These studies show the importance for later retrieval of forming and maintaining vivid images of faces even when the faces have no outstanding characteristics. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: name retrieval 4. This study examined whether certain personality characteristics are associated with susceptibility to false memories. Participants first answered questions from the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator in order to measure various personality characteristics. They then watched a video excerpt, the simulated eyewitness event. They were next encouraged to lie about the videotaped event during an interview. A week later, some participants recognized confabulated events as being from the video. Two personality characteristics in particular— the introversion/extroversion and thinking/feeling dimensions—were associated with susceptibility to false memories. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: MBTI scores 5. In the present study, three alternative causal models concerning the relationships between implicit theories of intelligence, perceived academic competence, and school achievement were tested. The direction of changes in implicit theories and perceived competence during early adolescence was also examined. A total of 187 fifth and sixth graders were tested and retested a year later, when they were sixth and seventh graders, respectively. Cross-lagged regression analyses indicated that school achievement determined the adoption of a particular implicit theory through the mediation of perceived competence. Implicit theories were found to change toward the adoption of more incremental beliefs and perceived academic competence declined; however, high achievers, as compared with their low- and middle-level classmates, adopted more incremental beliefs, and had significantly higher perceived competence. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: Implicit theories of intelligence operationalized as incremental beliefs; other operationalizations not clear but presumably academic achievement was operationalized as grades or GPA.

HANDOUT 9: INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES/ EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ANSWER KEY Read the statements below and then identify the independent and dependent variables and the experimental and control groups. 1. Participants taking part in a sleep study to determine whether the number of hours of sleep a person gets determines how well they will do on an exam were randomly assigned to either the group that was woken up at various times throughout the night or the group that was allowed to sleep throughout the night. Independent variable: hours of sleep Dependent variable: exam performance Experimental group: group that was woken up Control group: group that was allowed to sleep through the night 2. Participants took part in a study to determine the number of consumed beers it would take to affect their ability to walk in a straight line. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a group that drank alcoholic beer or a group that drank nonalcoholic beer. Independent variable: number of alcoholic beers Dependent variable: walking in a straight line Experimental group: group given beers Control group: group given nonalcoholic beer 3. Pharmaceutical Company X conducted an experiment to determine if the new migraine headache pill would alleviate the number of migraine headaches. Subjects were randomly assigned to a group that was given the medication with the active ingredient or a group that was given a placebo pill. Independent variable: migraine medication Dependent variable: number of migraine headaches Experimental group: group given the new migraine pill Control group: group given placebo pill 4. College X conducted an experiment to determine if freshmen who had their schedules made for them achieved higher grades in their freshman year than freshmen who made their own schedules. Independent variable: type of schedule Dependent variable: school performance as measured by higher grades Experimental group: group that had schedules made for them IM – 4 | 75 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Control group: group that made their own schedules

HANDOUT 10: POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES ANSWER KEY Read the statements below. In the space provided, identify who the population is and who the sample could be. (None of the examples is factual.) In each case, it is hypothesized that: 1. There is a higher rate of teenage pregnancy in single-parent households than in two-parent households. Population: all female teenagers Sample: random sample of female teenagers

2. There is more school violence in inner-city schools than in suburban schools. Population: all inner-city and suburban schools Sample: random sample of inner-city and suburban schools

3. Infants born prematurely get better grades in high school than those infants not born prematurely. Population: all children Sample: random sample of high school students

4. College freshman drink more alcoholic beverages than college seniors. Population: all college students Sample: random sample of freshmen and seniors

5. Students who started their education at a community college are more likely to graduate than students who started their education at a 4-year college. Population: all college students Sample: Random sample of community college and 4-year college students

Read the following scenarios and answer the reflection questions that follow. 1. Martina and Bethany have both recently declared psychology as their majors. One evening as they are looking over their required courses, they start talking. Martina: ―I don't see why we have to learn statistics and research methods! I am never going to use them anyway. I want to be a counselor, and I am just going to deal with each person as an individual. Science treats everyone as if they are interchangeable and totally predictable. In fact, I think people would be better counselors and teachers and social workers if they didn't take research classes at all because then they would treat everyone as individuals, not clones.‖ Bethany: ―People are a lot more predictable than you think. Psychologists have learned so much about human behavior in the last hundred years or so using the scientific method. I really believe that if you can figure out all of the factors that are affecting someone‘s behavior, you can be pretty accurate in figuring out what they are going to do. I've decided that I want to be a researcher because I think I can help more people in the long run than you will as a therapist. As a researcher, I can develop programs that will help a lot of people who suffer from the same problem. A therapist can only help one person at a time, and sometimes it takes years for a person to get better.‖ Reflection questions: a. How do Martina and Bethany differ in their understanding of what people are like? Who do you agree with more and why? Martina does not understand that psychology is a science and requires the application of the scientific method. b. What is ethically troubling about taking Martina's position to the extreme? What would happen if therapists received no training in the scientific study of human behavior? By not understanding the research on the treatment methods that are most effective, Martina could use the wrong treatments. c. What is ethically troubling about taking Bethany's position to the extreme? What is the problem with assuming that if you can figure out all the variables (genes, environment, etc.) that you can perfectly predict people's behavior? Psychological research must eventually be taken back to the individual to ensure that it makes sense and is feasible. A researcher has control over many variables, whereas a counselor does not. 2. Dr. Gatwa designed a treatment for panic attacks, tried it with all of her clients who suffered from panic attacks, and had great success. Over a 10-year period, Dr. Gatwa treated over 100 clients, and the technique significantly reduced panic in all of her clients. The treatment consisted of the therapist (Dr. Gatwa) leading the patient through a series of relaxation exercises in her office. Dr. Gatwa was so excited about the success of this treatment that she IM – 4 | 78 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

decided to market it to therapists nationwide. For US$33 (which is pretty reasonable for a psychological measure or technique), she sent the therapist a script of everything she said to the patient during the relaxation exercises. A lot of therapists purchased the treatment because they were very impressed with the success rate that Dr. Gatwa reported. However, 6 months later, Dr. Gatwa started to receive calls, letters, and emails from therapists all over the country who complained that the treatment was completely useless for their clients. Reflection questions: a. How would you explain the fact that Dr. Gatwa had so much success and the other therapists experienced such failure? How would reliability analyses have helped this problem? Multiple therapists should administer the treatment before drawing conclusions. b. From an ethical point of view, why should Dr. Gatwa have done reliability analyses before marketing her treatment program? Conclusions were potentially misleading. c. Keeping in mind that she never gave any false information to anyone who purchased her treatment program, do you think Dr. Gatwa should give them a refund of their money? Why or why not? Answers vary. 3. Stella has been working with Dr. Tarner on a research study for the past 2 years. They have collected data on flavor preferences in rats and found some very impressive results. They presented their research at a conference and submitted a paper about the project to an academic journal. When the reviews of their manuscript come back from the journal, the reviewers have several questions about the data. Dr. Tarner asks Stella to look over the data and the SPSS output from the study and double-check that they did everything correctly. When Stella reviews the data, she realizes that she made a mistake in entering the data. Inadvertently, she had repeated some of the same data values twice in the data file, so it appeared there were 270 observations when there were actually 240. Reflection questions: a. Why might Stella decide not to tell Dr. Tarner about the error? Stella is afraid, or the results don’t change. b. What are some possible negative consequences that might result if Stella tells Dr. Tarner and they both report it to the journal editors? The paper might not be published. c. What are some possible negative consequences that might result if Stella tells Dr. Tarner but they agree not to report the mistake to the journal editor? The conclusions drawn from the data could be misleading and even false.

4. Beverly really wants to go to graduate school in psychology, and she has the grades to get in, but she knows that she needs to get some research experience. She begins working with Dr. Miserendino on a project in which she is observing white rats and measuring the amount of time it takes them to learn to navigate through a maze depending on whether the animal has been given a drug or a placebo. Beverly is supposed to collect data every day for 6 days in a row (Monday through Saturday) to see what happens as the drug gradually wears off. She collects the data Monday through Friday, but on Saturday, she isn't able to get to campus because of a family emergency. She knows from talking to Dr. Miserendino about the study that it is too expensive to repeat because both the rats themselves and the drugs are very costly. She also knows that if she tells Dr. Miserendino that she missed a day of data collection, Dr. Miserendino will be really upset. She considers making up the data just for Saturday based on the data she collected the rest of the week. She knows that Dr. Miserendino would never have to find out what happened. Reflection questions: a. Assuming Dr. Miserendino never does find out about the made-up data, what are some possible negative ethical consequences of Beverly's decision to falsify the data? Incorrect conclusions will be drawn from the data thereby compromising the scientific process. b. Why is it risky for Beverly to make up the data? Incorrect conclusions will be drawn from the data thereby compromising the scientific process. c. What would you choose to do if you were in Beverly's place? Explain. The only correct answer is to admit to the researcher your error. 5. As part of their class requirements, the students in Dr. Taylor's Research Design and Analysis class are sent over to Trumbull Mall to observe interactions between mothers and their toddler-aged children. They are told not to interact with the moms at all but to just record certain behaviors, such as the number of times they speak harshly to their child and the number of times the child whines or cries. One of the mothers notices that the students are watching people and she complains to mall security. The manager of the mall asks the students where they are from, then writes a letter of complaint to Dr. Taylor. Here is an excerpt: ―I am requesting that you do not engage in any more observational research at Trumbull Mall. I don't think it is right to allow students to observe people's behavior without getting their permission first. It is a violation of privacy and it's wrong even if they don't realize they are being watched. People come to the mall to shop, not to be watched.‖ Reflection questions: IM – 4 | 80 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

a. What are some good reasons for the manager's concerns? Explain. Participants did not give informed consent. b. What are some good reasons why the students should be able to do this type of research? Explain. Participants were in public; participants’ routine was not altered by the students; there were no risks. c. If you were in Dr. Taylor's position, how would you handle the situation? Researchers should seek permission from an owner/manager when they wish to collect data.

Chapter 2 Neuroscience and Behavior OPENING THEMES Many students have encountered the material in this unit before, either in biology or in high school psychology. The trick, then, is to make this material clear but also different enough in orientation from what they have learned earlier so that it will engage their interest. To the extent that you are comfortable, enhance your lectures with material that has clinical relevance, such as brain disorders, psychological disorders involving neurotransmitter abnormalities, and applications to areas such as child development, aging, or gender differences. Begin by pointing out that the early lectures in the course focus on biology, including human anatomy and physiology of the nervous and related systems. Unlike a biology course, however, this course will emphasize the connections between biology and behavior. MODULE 5: NEURONS: THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF BEHAVIOR LEARNING OBJECTIVES 5-1

Why do psychologists study the brain and nervous system?

5-2

What are the basic elements of the nervous system?

5-3

How does the nervous system communicate electrical and chemical messages from one part to another?

Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior are known as behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON (SEE FIGURE 1) Messages that enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. Neurons have a cell body that contains a nucleus. The nucleus incorporates the hereditary material that determines how a cell will function. Neurons are physically held in place by glial cells. The cell body of a neuron has a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end. Those fibers, which look like the twisted branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite side of IM – 4 | 82 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axon. The axon carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. Axons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons. The messages that travel through a neuron are electrical in nature. Although there are exceptions, those electrical messages, or impulses, generally move across neurons in one direction only. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated in some fashion. Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. The myelin sheath also serves to increase the velocity with which electrical impulses travel through axons. HOW NEURONS FIRE (SEE FIGURES 2 AND 3) Neurons either fire—that is, transmit an electrical impulse along the axon—or do not fire. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law: They are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in a resting state— it has a negative electrical charge of about −70 mV (a millivolt is 1⁄1,000 of a volt). When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. When the positive charge reaches a critical level, the ―trigger‖ is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels along the axon of the neuron. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. SPEED OF TRANSMISSION These complex events can occur at dizzying speeds, although there is great variation among different neurons. The particular speed at which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by the axon‘s size and the thickness of its myelin sheath. Axons with small diameters carry impulses at about 2 miles per hour; longer and thicker ones can average speeds of more than 225 miles per hour. Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon but also in their potential rate of firing. Some neurons are capable of firing as many as 1,000 times per second; others fire at much slower rates. MIRROR NEURONS Mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior. IM – 4 | 83 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Mirror neurons may help explain how and why humans develop the capacity to understand others‘ intentions. They fire when someone is doing something that leads us to predict what their goals are and what they may do next. WHERE NEURONS MEET: BRIDGING THE GAP (SEE FIGURE 4) The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. An excitatory message is a chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire, and an action potential will travel down its axon. An inhibitory message, in contrast, does just the opposite; it provides chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons, and effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible. To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or—more commonly— reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. NEUROTRANSMITTERS: MULTITALENTED CHEMICAL COURIERS (SEE FIGURE 5) Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only they are important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, but a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. It transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. Glutamate plays a role in memory. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which is found in both the brain and the spinal cord, appears to be the nervous system‘s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. It moderates a variety of behaviors, ranging from eating to aggression. Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning. Serotonin is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain. Endorphins, another class of neurotransmitters, are a family of chemicals produced by the brain that are similar in structure to painkilling drugs such as morphine. Endorphins can also produce a euphoric feeling that runners can experience after long runs, which results in what we call ―runner‘s high.‖ KEY TERMS IM – 4 | 84 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron‘s axon when it is set off by a ―trigger,‖ changing the neuron‘s charge from negative to positive. all-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. axon The part of the neuron that carries messages to other neurons. behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior. dendrite A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages from other neurons. excitatory message A chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. inhibitory message A chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. mirror neurons Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior. myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. neurons Nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous system. neurotransmitters Chemicals that communicate messages from one neuron to another neuron across the synapse. resting state The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about –70 mV within a neuron. reuptake The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button. synapse The space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. terminal buttons The part of the axon that sends messages to other neurons. They look like a small bulge at the end of the axon. LECTURE IDEAS Importance of Biological Psychology: Students often do not initially understand why they have to learn so much biology. To introduce them to the topic of biological psychology, ask them why we need to study biology in a psychology course. Ask them how biology affects behavior and how biology affects cognition. PARTS OF THE NEURON IM – 4 | 85 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

The Neuron and the Synapse: Students should be able to identify the various parts of the neuron and the synapse, and be able to explain how information is communicated between neurons. All-or-None Law: Discuss the implications of the all-or-none law; intense stimuli do not result in higher peaks but more frequent impulses. It is especially important to point out the significance of the fact that the synapse is not a hardwired connection between neurons. This means that neurons can be more flexible, but it also means that more can ―go wrong‖ in the nervous system, such as if there is too much neurotransmitter present in the synapse (as is the case when cocaine stimulates dopamine receptors), too little (as is the case with dopamine in Parkinson‘s disease), or too much activity of reuptake enzymes (as is the case with serotonin and psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety). Emphasize the importance of the receptor sites on the postsynaptic surface. Talk about the variety of neurotransmitters and the functions they serve in the nervous system, and the fact that some neurotransmitters can have different effects (excitatory versus inhibitory), depending on the area of the nervous system in which they are acting. Resting Potential and Action Potential: Students should be able to describe how ions maintain a resting potential and how a change in the charge of the ion can cause action potential. Reuptake: Many drugs used to treat depression directly affect reuptake to allow some neurotransmitters that affect mood to stay in the synapse longer. Here is a great link to a description of how Zoloft/Sertraline works. It involves a simplified description of reuptake that students will respond to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=quBrrh5m17M. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Here are some ways to make it easier for students to remember the parts of the neuron. Students will groan, but these hints will come in handy!  

  

Dendrites: These structures resemble the branches of a tree (the word tree can be made out of dendrite). Axon: The length of this structure can vary greatly; although most are several millimeters in length, some can be as long as 3 feet (as a hint, tell students that an ―ax‖ can be used to cut a ―tree branch,‖ that is, dendrite). Cell body: This structure is similar to parts of all other cells in the body (cells in body). Terminal buttons: These are small bulges that actually look like buttons (buttons that are terminal). Myelin sheath: This is a protective coating of fat and protein (like a dress, which is also a sheath). The thicker it is the faster the speed of transmission down the axon.

Web-Based Learning Neuroscience: Go to http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html. At this site, you will find a variety of authentic activities such as games, mini-experiments, and creative ways to reinforce nervous system principles for your students. One easy idea from this site is Nervous System Hang-Man. NEURONS Designing a Neuron From Food: Go to the local grocery store and pick up the following items: Red Vines licorice (axon), large marshmallows (cell body or myelin), mini M&Ms (nucleus or neurotransmitters), mini-pretzel sticks (dendrites), and orange slices candy (terminal button). After lecturing on the various parts of the neuron, have the students design their own neuron with these candy and food items. Design the neurons on paper towels so once finished, students can move their neurons closer to each other without touching (simulating the synapse between neurons) and explain each part and its function. Afterward, students can eat their design and enjoy a kinesthetic approach to learning about neural structure and function. Note: Instructors can substitute any type of food items or candy produces the same concept (e.g., Runt‘s Candy, with its different shapes and colors, can be used for neurotransmitters to illustrate antagonists/agonists and the ―lock-and-key method‖ of binding onto receptor sites). Neural Transmission: Write the steps for neural transmission on the board. Ask for 12 volunteers. Assign a role to each of the students: electrical stimulus, dendrite, cell body, axon, myelin sheath (use four students for this one), positive ion, negative ion, terminal button, and neighboring neuron. Line the students up so that they are in the correct order. Go through the steps on the board with the students and have them act out their parts as you go through the steps. Do this a couple of times until you think they have understood it. Next, allow the students to run through the steps by themselves. The students should gain a hands-on idea of how electrical information is passed along an axon for neural transmission to occur. Neural Activity: One of the best ways for students to understand neural activity is to ―act like a neuron.‖ Have students form two lines of 10 students each in front of the class. For one line, have each student place their right arm on the right leg of the student in front of them. For the other line, have each student place their right arm on the right shoulder of the person in front of them. Instruct the students that when you say, ―go,‖ they are to squeeze the right leg of the person in front of them or the right shoulder. When each person feels the squeeze of the person behind him or her, they are to squeeze the person in front of him or her. Record the duration (seconds) it takes for the ―message‖ to travel from the rear of the line to the front of each line. Divide each value by 10 and ask the class to speculate on the difference between these average values. Reference: Rozin, P., & Jonides, J. (1977). Mass reaction time: Measurement of the speed of the nerve impulse and the duration of mental processes in class. Teaching of Psychology, 4, 91–94. IM – 4 | 87 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS Parts of the Nervous System: Have students complete Handout 1: Parts of the Nervous System. Neurotransmitters: Use Handout 2: Neurotransmitters as a way for students to understand the needs and functions of the various neurotransmitters. The students will have to find, on their own, the purpose for each of the neurotransmitters and determine what could possibly occur if there were a decrease or excess of neurotransmitters. Drugs and Neurotransmitters: Use Handout 3: What’s in Your Medicine Cabinet? This activity will have students examine their own medications to find out if any of them are agonists or antagonists. Nervous System: Break the class into groups and tell them to imagine themselves walking down a dark street late at night. All of a sudden they think they hear someone following them. Ask them to discuss and write down what would be happening to them physiologically as the information they are hearing is going through the nervous system. After they are finished, write the six nervous systems on the board and have one member of each group come to the front of the room and explain the physiological characteristics their group decided on. Electrochemical Transmission: Have the students search on the internet for a website that talks about epileptic seizures. After the students find and read the page, have them write a one- to twopage paper on how electrical charges are disrupted during a seizure and how this affects information being passed from one area of the brain to the other. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THE STUDY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN PSYCHOLOGY Why does a course on psychology begin by examining the structures and function of the nervous system? Use Google to search the web for cases of famous people who suffered from nervous system disorders. Describe the nature of their disorder and how it affected their behavior when alive as well as whether it caused them to die prematurely. What is your interpretation of the quote ―The brain is wider than the sky?‖ THE NEURON AND THE SYNAPSE Are medications for psychological disorders overprescribed? (This also can be used as a discussion question in class.) What are the implications of the fact that neurons communicate across synapses rather than being directly hardwired? IM – 4 | 88 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

What are the advantages in the nervous system of having neurons fire according to the all-ornone law? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Speed of Transmission True or False: All neurons transmit impulses at the same speed. SUGGESTED MEDIA Mirror neurons (2006). NOVA ScienceNOW [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmx1qPyo8Ks. A 14-min video that addresses mirror neurons. Neuron Synapse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LT3VKAr4roo. Resting Potential: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YP_P6bYvEjE. ADDITIONAL READINGS Richmond, A. S., Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2011). Got neurons? Teaching neuroscience mnemonically promotes retention and higher-order thinking. PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING AND TEACHING, 10, 40–45. Rodriguez, V. (2013). The human nervous system: A framework for teaching and the teaching brain. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7, 2–12.

MODULE 6: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: COMMUNICATING WITHIN THE BODY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6-1

How are the structures of the nervous system linked?

6-2

How does the endocrine system affect behavior?

In light of the complexity of individual neurons and the neurotransmission process, it should come as no surprise that the connections and structures formed by the neurons are complicated. Neurons can be connected to 80,000 other neurons. Connections among neurons are not only a means of communication within the body, as the endocrine system secretes chemical messages that circulate throughout the blood, influencing the behavior and many aspects of biological functioning. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: LINKING NEURONS (SEE FIGURES 1 AND 2) CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back. The spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It also controls some simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the brain. A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. Several kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. The importance of the spinal cord and reflexes is illustrated by the outcome of accidents in which the cord is injured or severed. The peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major divisions: the somatic division and the autonomic division. The somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements—such as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to scroll down a page—and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. The autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive: the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness.

ACTIVATING THE DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SEE FIGURE 3) The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. The sympathetic division prepares the body for action in stressful situations by engaging all the organism‘s resources to run away or to confront the threat. This is often called the ―fight-or-flight‖ response. In contrast, the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions also are involved in a number of disorders. THE EVOLUTIONARY FOUNDATIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The forerunner of the human nervous system is found in the earliest simple organisms to have a spinal cord. Over millions of years, the spinal cord became more specialized, and organisms became capable of distinguishing between different kinds of stimuli and responding appropriately to them. Ultimately, a portion of the spinal cord evolved into what we would consider a primitive brain. Today, the nervous system is hierarchically organized, meaning that relatively newer (from an evolutionary point of view) and more sophisticated regions of the brain regulate the older, and more primitive, parts of the nervous system. Evolutionary psychology is the branch of psychology that seeks to identify how behavior is influenced and produced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Evolutionary psychologists argue that the course of evolution is reflected in the structure and functioning of the nervous system and that evolutionary factors consequently have a significant influence on our everyday behavior. Behavioral genetics is the study of the effects of heredity on behavior. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: OF CHEMICALS AND GLANDS (SEE FIGURE 4) The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. As chemical messengers, hormones are like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different. Whereas neural messages are measured in thousandths of a second, hormonal communications may take minutes to reach their destination. A key component of the endocrine system is the tiny pituitary gland, which is found near—and regulated by—the hypothalamus in the brain. The pituitary gland plays a significant role because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. Although hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, the ingestion of artificial hormones has proved to be both beneficial and potentially dangerous. The use of steroids has become increasingly common for athletes and others who want to bulk up, but this can lead to stunted growth, shrinking of testicles, heart attacks, strikes, and cancer, which make them very dangerous.

KEY TERMS autonomic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs. behavioral genetics The study of the effects of heredity on behavior. central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. endocrine system A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. evolutionary psychology The branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. hormones Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the brain and nervous system to muscles and glands. parasympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency has ended. peripheral nervous system The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or ―master gland,‖ that secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system. reflex An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. sensory (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the nervous system and brain. somatic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. spinal cord A bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body. sympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism‘s resources to respond to a threat.

LECTURE IDEAS DNA and the Brain: Glutamate doesn‘t function properly in people with schizophrenia, and so they become confused. Restoring glutamate function is the focus of new treatments for schizophrenia. Discussion: James Watson, of DNA discovery fame, discusses brain disorders such as schizophrenia, Alzheimer‘s, and depression in the DNA and the Brain interview: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6ZfrXHgiVY (1:15). Note that the sound does not start until the seventh minute. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems: The major divisions of the human nervous system, the central and peripheral are to be indicated with a pictorial depiction that also describes the bodily functions that each part controls. The students could be asked to identify each part of both the nervous systems. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Here are some hints to give students to help them remember the terms:  

 

Autonomic nervous system: Think of ―automatic.‖ This part of the nervous system controls actions that we do not think about and that happen without our control. Sympathetic nervous system: Think of ―sympathetic.‖ When we get emotional (―sympathetic‖), we experience arousal and stimulation, exactly the actions of this part of the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic nervous system: Think of ―pear.‖ When your parasympathetic nervous system is aroused, you can eat food, such as a pear. Somatic nervous system: Soma means ―body.‖ The somatic nervous system is the ―bodily‖ nervous system, meaning that it translates information received through the bodily senses and gives instructions to the muscles and glands (a long explanation, but if they remember ―body,‖ it will help them to remember the term).

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Describe the process of hormone secretion in terms of a negative feedback loop. The hypothalamus–pituitary axis regulates hormone production in the other glands in the endocrine system when blood levels of a hormone become too low or when the hypothalamus is triggered to release a hormone that in turn will increase the production of hormones by other glands. The pancreas operates on a separate dimension that regulates glucose metabolism. HORMONAL SUPPLEMENTS Ask students what they think of hormonal supplements such as steroids for body builders and athletes (many recent examples of this, unfortunately!) and estrogen for women going through IM – 4 | 93 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

the menopause. Some aging baby boomers are turning to growth hormones as the key to maintaining their youthful vitality. However, all of these strategies carry risks. Are the dangers of steroid replacement and supplement worth possible harmful effects? CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine System: Have students complete Handout 4: Parts of the Endocrine System. Hormones: Have the students do a search on the internet and find a website that discusses hormonal changes in animals. Ask the students to discuss in a one- to two-page paper how animal hormonal changes differ from human hormonal changes. Exploring the Connections Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems: As a class discussion, explore why and how the endocrine and nervous systems are interconnected. What is the reason for studying the endocrine system in a psychology class? For reference, use the following link to aid in discussion: http://endocrineexplanation.weebly.com/endocrineexplanation.html. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS HOW THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS What is meant by ―negative feedback?‖ How does the endocrine system ensure that hormones do not reach too high a level in our bodies? What do you think the significance is that the hypothalamus is a structure in both the nervous and endocrine systems? In times of stress, how do the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems work together? SUGGESTED MEDIA Crash course. The nervous system, part 2: Action! potential! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZG8M_ldA1M. Discovery Channel. Neurons and how they work. http://www.dnatube.com/video/1298/Neurons-and-How-They-Work. Kraves, S. (2016, October). The era of personal DNA testing is here. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DzNN_4rcIjs. This 13-min video concentrates on personal DNA testing. NOVA. (2001). Cracking the code of life [Video file]. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/programs/2809_genome.html. Sixteen video clips (105 min) that focus on the human genome. IM – 4 | 94 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

The Nervous System, Part 1: Crash Course. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPix_X-9t7E. ADDITIONAL READINGS Kalat, J. W. (2015). Biological psychology. Boston, MA: Cengage. Shors, T. J. (2014). The adult brain makes new neurons and effortful learning keeps them alive. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 311–318. MODULE 7: THE BRAIN LEARNING OBJECTIVES 7-1

How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain?

7-2

What are the major parts of the brain, and for what behaviors is each responsible?

7-3

How do the halves of the brain operate independently?

7-4 How can an understanding of the nervous system help us find ways to alleviate disease and pain? The brain ranks as the greatest natural marvel that we know and has a beauty and sophistication all its own. The brain is responsible for our loftiest thoughts and our most primitive urges. Many billions of neurons make up a structure weighing just 3 pounds in the average adult. STUDYING THE BRAIN‘S STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS: SPYING ON THE BRAIN (SEE FIGURE 1) The brain has posed a continual challenge to those who would study it. For most of history, its examination was possible only after an individual had died. Today, however, brain-scanning techniques provide a window into the living brain. The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity (a ―virtual lesion‖). Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The enormous advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual cut is only temporary. The emerging field of optogenetics involves genetic engineering and the use of special types of light to view individual circuits of neurons. Researchers are developing hydrogel-embedding methods, which allow observation of individual brain cells and the wiring of brain circuitry. Finally, using IM – 4 | 95 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

nonhumans, researchers have developed Neuropixels, miniaturized implanted probes that can be inserted into the brain that allow neuroscientists to read activity in hundreds of neurons in multiple parts of the brain simultaneously. THE CENTRAL CORE: OUR ―OLD BRAIN‖ (SEE FIGURES 2 AND 3) A portion of the brain known as the central core is quite similar in all vertebrates (species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the ―old brain,‖ because its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primitive structures found in nonhuman species. The first part of the central core of the brain is the hindbrain, which contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. The medulla controls a number of critical body functions, the most important of which are breathing and heartbeat. The pons is a bridge in the hindbrain, involved in coordinating muscles and integrating the right and left halves of the body. The cerebellum extends from the rear of the hindbrain. Without the help of the cerebellum, we would be unable to walk a straight line without staggering and lurching forward, for it is the job of the cerebellum to control bodily balance. The reticular formation extends from the medulla through the pons, passing through the middle section of the brain—or midbrain—and into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Hidden within the forebrain, the thalamus acts primarily as a relay station for information about the senses. The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus. One of its major functions is to maintain homeostasis, a steady internal environment for the body. The hypothalamus helps provide a constant body temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the cells. THE LIMBIC SYSTEM: BEYOND THE CENTRAL CORE (SEE FIGURE 4) The brain has pleasure centers in several areas, including some in the limbic system. Consisting of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdala and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex. The limbic system is involved in several important functions, including self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. Injury to the limbic system can produce striking changes in behavior. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX: OUR ―NEW BRAIN‖ (SEE FIGURE 5) The cerebral cortex is the ―new brain‖ responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain. The cortex has four major sections called lobes. If we take a side view of the brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower-center portion of the cortex, with the occipital IM – 4 | 96 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci. Three major areas are known: the motor areas, the sensory areas, and the association areas. Although we will discuss these areas as though they were separate and independent, keep in mind that this is an oversimplification. In most instances, behavior is influenced simultaneously by several structures and areas within the brain, operating interdependently. MOTOR AREA OF THE CORTEX The motor area is the part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body‘s voluntary movement. The motor area of the cortex provides a guide to the degree of complexity and the importance of the motor capabilities of specific parts of the body. In fact, it may do even more: Increasing evidence shows that not only does the motor cortex control different parts of the body, but it may also direct body parts into complex postures. The neurons that produce movement are linked in elaborate ways and work closely together. SENSORY AREA OF THE CORTEX The sensory area of the cortex includes three regions: one that corresponds primarily to body sensations (including touch and pressure), one relating to sight, and a third relating to sound. The somatosensory area in the parietal lobe encompasses specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in a particular area of the body. As with the motor area, the amount of brain tissue related to a particular location on the body determines the degree of sensitivity of that location: The greater the area devoted to a specific area of the body within the cortex, the more sensitive is that area of the body (see Figure 6). The senses of sound and sight are also represented in specific areas of the cerebral cortex. An auditory area located in the temporal lobe is responsible for the sense of hearing. If the auditory area is stimulated electrically, a person will hear sounds such as clicks or hums. The visual area in the cortex, located in the occipital lobe, responds in the same way to electrical stimulation. Stimulation by electrodes produces the experience of flashes of light or colors, suggesting that the raw sensory input of images from the eyes is received in this area of the brain and transformed into meaningful stimuli. ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX The association areas generally are considered to be the site of higher mental processes such as thinking, language, memory, and speech. Injuries to the association areas of the brain can produce aphasia, problems with language. In Broca‘s aphasia, speech becomes halting, laborious, and often ungrammatical, and a speaker is unable to find the right words. In contrast, Wernicke‘s aphasia produces difficulties both in understanding others‘ speech and in the production of language.

NEUROPLASTICITY AND THE BRAIN Neuroplasticity refers to changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas. The understanding of neuroplasticity has changed the earlier view that no new brain cells are created after childhood. Not only do the interconnections between neurons become more complex throughout life, but it now appears that new neurons are also created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood—a process called neurogenesis. The ability of neurons to renew themselves during adulthood has significant implications for the potential treatment of disorders of the nervous system. Specific experiences can modify the way information is processed. The future also holds promise for people who suffer from the tremors and loss of motor control produced by Parkinson‘s disease. Parkinson‘s disease is caused by a gradual loss of cells that stimulate the production of dopamine in the brain, so many investigators have looked toward a procedure that increases the supply of dopamine. When stem cells—immature cells from human fetuses that have the potential to develop into a variety of specialized cell types, depending on where they are implanted—are injected directly into the brains of Parkinson‘s sufferers, they take root and stimulate dopamine production. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: THE CULTURAL BRAIN The interdisciplinary field of cultural neuroscience examines how cultural values, beliefs, and practices shape the brain and how the brain in turn affects the ways in which cultural traits develop and spread from person to person. Western cultures tend to hold an individualistic orientation that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of individuals, while Asian countries are more likely to hold a collectivistic orientation. THE SPECIALIZATION OF THE HEMISPHERES: TWO BRAINS OR ONE? Because of the way nerves in the brain are connected to the rest of the body, the two symmetrical left and right mirror-image halves of the brain, called hemispheres, control motion in—and receive sensation from—the side of the body opposite their location. The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language, is known as lateralization. People who suffer injury to the left side of the brain and lose linguistic capabilities often recover the ability to speak: The right side of the brain often takes over some of the functions of the left side, especially in young children; the extent of recovery increases the earlier the injury occurs. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: HUMAN DIVERSITY AND THE BRAIN The interplay of biology and environment in behavior is especially clear when we consider evidence suggesting that even in brain structure and function there are both sex and cultural differences. With regard to sex differences, young girls show earlier development in the frontal IM – 4 | 98 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

lobes, which control aggressiveness and language development. On the other hand, boys‘ brains develop faster in the visual region that facilitates visual and spatial tasks such as geometry. Most males tend to show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere. For them, language is clearly relegated largely to the left side of the brain. In contrast, women display less lateralization, with language abilities apt to be more evenly divided between the two hemispheres. Culture also gives rise to differences in brain lateralization. Native speakers of Japanese seem to process information regarding vowel sounds primarily in the brain‘s left hemisphere. In contrast, North and South Americans, Europeans, and individuals of Japanese ancestry who learn Japanese later in life handle vowel sounds principally in the right hemisphere. THE SPLIT BRAIN: EXPLORING THE TWO HEMISPHERES It is clear from experiments that the right and left hemispheres of the brain specialize in handling different sorts of information. At the same time, it is important to realize that both hemispheres are capable of understanding, knowing, and being aware of the world, in somewhat different ways. The two hemispheres, then, should be regarded as different in terms of the efficiency with which they process certain kinds of information, rather than as two entirely separate brains. The hemispheres work interdependently to allow the full range and richness of thought of which humans are capable. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 S T CENTURY The adult brain contains around 100 billion neurons, and these neurons are interconnected by about 100 trillion synapses. Neuroscientist William Graziano suggests that in the future, a supercomputer will be able to scan your brain and copy the pattern of neurons and synapses, making a virtual replica of it that can be preserved after you physically die. It is called mind uploading. Scientists have developed devices that can help people who have prosthetic limbs move them by merely thinking about movement. The next challenge is integrating touch feedback with BMI. Motor responses are fine-tuned by feedback from your somatosensory receptors. We know that certain kinds of brain implants can successfully end seizures due to Parkinson‘s disease. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: LEARNING TO CONTROL YOUR HEART—AND MIND—THROUGH BIOFEEDBACK Biofeedback is a procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles. KEY TERMS

association areas One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech. biofeedback A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles. central core The ―old brain,‖ which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates. cerebellum (ser-uh-BELL-um) The part of the brain that controls bodily balance. cerebral cortex The ―new brain,‖ responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes. hemispheres Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location. hypothalamus A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains homeostasis and produces and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. lateralization The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language. limbic system The part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction. lobes The four major sections of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. motor area The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body‘s voluntary movement. neuroplasticity The brain's ability to change throughout the life span through the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of informationprocessing areas. reticular formation The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons; it is related to changes in the level of arousal of the body. sensory area The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue. thalamus The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses. LECTURE IDEAS H. M. and the Role of the Hippocampus: Psychologists learned how essential the hippocampus is in memory and learning through a case study of Henry Molaison (H. M.) who had this structure surgically removed on both sides of the brain. IM – 4 | 100 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Discussion: A National Public Radio broadcast of the story of H. M. and the history of memory: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7584970. STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN The following table provides a succinct description of each key brain structure discussed in the chapter: Medulla

Controls critical body functions, including breathing and heartbeat.

Pons

Transmits motor information. Coordinates muscles and integrates movement between the right and left halves of the body. Involved in the control of sleep.

Cerebellum

Helps maintain balance by monitoring feedback from the muscles to coordinate their placement, movement, and tension. Also involved in some cognitive functions.

Reticular formation

Activates other parts of the brain to produce general bodily arousal. During sleep, filters out background stimuli.

Thalamus

Relay station for information concerning the senses. Integrates information from higher parts of the brain to send to the cerebellum and medulla.

Hypothalamus

Maintains a steady internal environment for the body. Produces and regulates behavior critical to the survival of the species, such as eating, self-protection, and sex.

Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, fornix)

Serves basic functions relating to emotions and self-preservation, such as eating, aggression, and reproduction. Plays an important role in learning and memory.

Visual cortex

Raw sensory input of images from the eyes is received in this area of the brain and transformed into meaningful stimuli.

Primary auditory cortex

Responsible for the sense of hearing. Stimulation of this area results in the experience of sounds such as clicks or hums.

Primary somatic

Specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch IM – 4 | 101

sensory cortex

and pressure in a particular area of the body.

Primary motor cortex

Responsible for the body‘s voluntary movement.

Broca‘s area

Responsible for production of speech.

Wernicke‘s area

Responsible for comprehension of speech.

Frontal lobe

Responsible for planning and judgment.

HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Here are some hints to give students to help them remember the terms (Spoiler alert: the puns here are really bad—but effective!):          

Medulla: Without breathing, you would be very ―dull.‖ Pons: Ponds hand cream is something you put on your hands and it could help your muscles move. Cerebellum: You need this for balance—cere-bal (ance)-um. Reticular formation: Like a military formation, it sends messages up and down within the brain. Thalamus: You would throw a ball during a relay race. The thalamus is a relay station. Hypothalamus: Sounds like homeostasis, the state of stability in the body‘s internal environment. Limbic system: When you dance the limbo, you feel happy (emotion function), and later you remember having a good time (memory function). Hippocampus: You would remember if you saw a hippo while you were camping out in the woods. Broca’s area: Think of Tom Brokaw, the newscaster. Without speech, he would not be able to announce the news. Wernicke’s area: Not Broca‘s area.

BIOGRAPHY OF ROGER SPERRY Roger Sperry was born on August 20, 1913, in Hartford, Connecticut. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981 for his more than 40 years of research on the brain. The prize was given specifically for his work on the ―split brain,‖ in which he discovered that the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain had distinct functions. The left, usually the dominant side, is involved in reasoning, language, writing, and reading, whereas the right, or less dominant side, is more involved in nonverbal processes, such as art, music, and creative behavior. IM – 4 | 102 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

In one of his most important studies, Sperry asked subjects who had undergone split-brain surgery to focus on the center of a divided display screen. The word key was flashed on the left side of the screen, while the word ring was projected on the right side. When asked what they saw, the split-brain patients answered ring but denied that any other word was also projected onto the screen. Only the word ring went to the speech center in the left hemisphere. Although the right hemisphere cannot verbalize the information (the word key) that was projected on the left side of the screen, subjects are able to identify the information nonverbally. Sperry asked subjects to pick up the object just named without looking at it. If subjects were told to use their left hand, they could easily identify a key. However, if asked what they had just touched, they would respond ring. Sperry received his PhD from the University of Chicago in 1941. He did his early research at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology and the National Institute of Health before joining the staff of the California Institute of Technology in 1954 as Hixon Professor of Psychobiology. He originally studied cats and found that the corpus callosum, or nerve bundle connecting the two cerebral hemispheres, was necessary for the transfer of information from one side of the brain to the other. Sperry next began to study epileptic patients whose corpus callosum had been severed to prevent seizures. His research on the ―syndrome of hemisphere deconnection‖ has contributed valuable information to the treatment of various brain disorders. Sperry continued to be an active researcher until his death in 1994. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. BACKGROUND ON SPLIT BRAIN Go to https://youtu.be/8lxmJKFy4iE. A panel at the NYU Center for Mind, Brain and Consciousness discusses the question of whether split-brain patients have two minds (2 hr). THE BRAIN‘S EEG RESPONSE TO LANGUAGE Learning a language is an important milestone for a baby. It can change the baby's world and the baby's brain. Psychologists have learned that people who do not hear certain sounds when they are young have problems learning to tell the difference between them. For example, many Japanese speakers cannot tell apart the American English R and L, which are not used in the Japanese language. Buchwald et al. (1994) decided to see if there was a physical difference in the way that the brains of native Japanese and Americans react to the sounds of R and L. The researchers took electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings from English-speaking Japanese and American adults. The subjects listened to pairs of similar words beginning with R and L, such as rip and lip, and pairs of sounds that began with other letters, such as ba and pa. The Americans showed a strong increase in brain electrical activity 250 milliseconds after they heard all words; IM – 4 | 103 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

the Japanese did too, but not for R and L words. Otherwise, the EEGs looked the same. In spite of years of exposure to English, the Japanese speakers' brains still did not react to sounds that do not occur in Japanese. THE STORY OF PHINEAS GAGE In a freak accident in 1848, an explosion drove a 3-foot-long iron bar completely through the skull of railroad worker Phineas Gage, where it remained after the accident. Amazingly, Gage survived and, despite the rod being lodged through his head, a few minutes later seemed to be fine. But he wasn‘t. Before the accident, Gage was hardworking and cautious. Afterward, he became irresponsible, drank heavily, and drifted from one wild scheme to another. In the words of one of his physicians, ―he was ‗no longer Gage.‘‖ Students are often fascinated by the story of Phineas Gage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yXbAMHzYGJ0. KEY CONCEPTS Limbic System: The limbic system is instrumental in emotional functioning. What happens when it is damaged? The text outlines the famous case of Phineas Gage but there are more recent, and scientific, outlines of this issue. For example, Bauman et al. (2004) lesioned different portions of the limbic system in rhesus monkeys and found that specific parts of the limbic system are involved in specific emotional and social behaviors (e.g., the amygdala is linked with avoiding potential danger). See https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/0898929042304741 for more information. Epigenetics: What a pregnant mother does and is exposed to can change which genes get turned off in the body of her baby. This is the link to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention‘s site on fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/index.html. You may also want to discuss with students how smoking, drinking, and doing drugs are ill advised. You may want to a representative from your school‘s student health center come by at some point in the semester to talk to students about safe sex and things they or their partner can do if they are pregnant to minimize negative effects on fetal development, such as quitting smoking. You may also want to stress to students that today the general advice in the field is to avoid anything that may be teratogenic as there is no data supporting what a safe level is for many of these stimuli. Brain Plasticity and Neurogenesis: If a person is not exposed to language much before mid- to late childhood, the ability to speak is limited because the brain loses some of its plasticity as we age. Discussion: You may want to take this opportunity to preview what‘s to come and talk about feral children. For example, the case of Genie, a 13-year-old California girl who was severely neglected and raised with minimal human contact, often holds students‘ attention. Despite the efforts of the best linguists in the field at that time, she was never able to learn to speak and had moderately developed cognitive abilities. IM – 4 | 104 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS PARTS OF THE BRAIN Parts of the Brain: Handouts 5 and 6 contain assignments, Parts of the Brain. Left and Right Brain Hemispheres: Use Handout 7: Which Hemisphere Is It? Have students identify the hemisphere responsible for different activities. The students will gain an idea of hemispheric differences. BRAIN PLASTICITY AND REPAIR Brain Damage Repair: Have the students go on the internet and find cases where neurogenesis has been successful. Have them discuss how the research was conducted and what concerns there are about conducting this type of research in humans. Brain Grafts and Stem Cell Research: Break the class into two groups and have them make a pro and con list for the use of stem cells in research and the possible use of stem cells in helping humans. The students will probably get an active debate going, and they should see how much of a controversial issue this really is. Split Brains: Have the students go on the internet and find a website that discusses split-brain surgery. Next, have them write a one- to two-page paper summarizing what they read and their feelings on the ethics of conducting split-brain surgery. Stem Cell Research: This is a good place to discuss the controversial issue of stem cell research and human cloning. You may want to outline the issues for those who are unfamiliar with current controversies. https://kera.pbslearningmedia.org/asset/nsn08_vid_stemcell2/. Stem Cells: Ask students to write an essay regarding the following topic: ―Do you oppose the use of stem cells in research? Why?‖ To further the idea of research, require two valid research articles to support the student‘s opinion. NFL and TBI: Ask students to think about sports and brain injury. In particular ask them to think about football and brain injury. You may want them to read the following article: NFL needs to aid brain, concussion research. San Francisco Chronicle. September 6, 2009. Ask them if sports should be made safer. Ask them who should be held accountable for players who develop dementia early in life. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Human Genome Project: Have the students go to the following link to read about the Human Genome Project: http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/index.shtml. Have them locate and describe three genes related to psychological functioning. Next, ask them to go to the following website: http://www.genome.gov/19516567. Here they will read about genes and IM – 4 | 105 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

testing for various diseases. Finally, have students write a one- to two-page paper summarizing what they have read. In addition, have students write about their thoughts on the Human Genome Project. The students will gain knowledge about the human genome project and how knowing about genes will help researchers in conducting research on various diseases and disorders. Heritability of IQ: Genetics influence about 50% of the differences in performance on intelligence tests, leaving about the same amount to be explained by nongenetic influences. The following link is to the Bouchard et al. (1990) study on heritability of IQ: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/250/4978/223.short. See the suggested reading for the full citation. Phenotype and Genotype: Have students look in the mirror and describe what they see (hair color, eye color, hair texture [straight, curly, etc.], and so on). Have them report the same information for their mother and father. Have them discuss genotypes and phenotypes, and outline which of their phenotypic features are dominant and which are recessive. If they want their child to look like them, what phenotype will their partner need to display? Evolution: You may want to avoid asking students if they believe in evolution but rather focus on the theory and their understanding of how natural selection works. For example, recent media reports indicated that blondes are going extinct (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab1EixVFKZE). This seems odd, but remember, blonde is a recessive trait. However, red hair is an even more recessive trait and has yet to go extinct. You may also want to point out that other traits are passed on via natural selection as well (e.g., preference for novelty). The point here is that there is an ebb and flow to all traits as environment (and culture) selects what traits are ―in‖ and what traits are ―out.‖ DISCUSSION QUESTIONS GENERAL QUESTIONS ABOUT THE BRAIN Can machines ever be designed that would ―read our minds?‖ Why or why not? What might be the importance of the fact that the amygdala and the hippocampus, the centers for emotion and memory, are located close together and are both part of the ―old brain?‖ How might the findings on neuroplasticity be applied to issues such as retraining older workers or helping brain-injured individuals recover lost functions? Imagine your favorite food. Now, imagine taking a bite of that food. What parts of the brain became activated as you ate your favorite food? What is the importance of considering genetics and the brain when analyzing behavior and mental processes? What behaviors have been passed on in your family, and how far back can they be traced? IM – 4 | 106 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Ask students what they know about the nature–nurture debate. Do they know the current consensus (that genes and environment interact to influence many traits)? Ask students if they understand the concept of a nature and nurture interaction. How much do they believe is nature? How much do they believe is environment? What types of things constitute nature? What types of things constitute environment? If you talk about Alzheimer‘s disease in your class, you may want to ask students the following: pretend that someone close to you is diagnosed with Alzheimer‘s disease. In what ways will that impact your life? What will you do to try to help this person? What will you do to try to cope with your relative‘s or friend‘s illness? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Selective Breeding Is BIG Business Merging science and business, selective breeding has had a long history. With the advances of modern science, selective breeding animals has generated some controversy. Many of our food products are created by animals selectively bred for specific traits or characteristics. That being said, how many of you are aware that much of the food you eat comes from selectively bred animals? Who thinks breeding animals based on chosen characteristics is acceptable? Polling Question: Speaking From a Matter of Difference For quite some time, researchers have been uncovering various differences in structure and function between female and male brains. Cosgrove, Mazure, and Staley (2007, ―Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry,‖ Biological Psychiatry) conclude: ―…there are important differences that distinguish the male from the female brain. Overall brain volume is greater in men than women, yet, when controlling for total volume, women have a higher percentage of gray matter and men a higher percentage of white matter. Regional volume differences are less consistent. Global cerebral blood flow is higher in women than in men. Sex-specific differences in dopaminergic, serotonergic, and GABAergic markers indicate that male and female brains are neurochemically distinct.‖ How many of you agree that male and female brains are different? Who thinks this explanation accounts for all of the reasons people have considered males and females different? Who thinks this type of research and conclusion can create more bias and promote stereotyping behavior? Polling Question: The Billon Dollar Quest to Build a Super Computer Researchers are in the process of mapping brain structures, functions, and analyzing data to produce the Human Brain Project, a computer that supersedes our brain power and capacity. Who thinks this project can actually happen? How many would agree that it is possible to make a computer function better than your own brain? If a supercomputer is built, how many of you think that would be bad for humans? SUGGESTED MEDIA

BBC. Science: Human body. http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/. This site has archived data and useful activities, but is no longer updated. CBS. Harnessing the power of the brain, 60 minutes, 25:00. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/harnessing-the-power-of-the-brain/ This is a great story on harnessing the power of the brain and illustrates the connection between mind, brain, and our cognitive abilities. CDC—Traumatic brain injury. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/. Clive Wearing. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y. Clive Wearing, who suffered a severe form of amnesia, is shown in this brief clip. You may want to use this when discussing the hippocampus or memory. NOVA. (2001). Cracking the code of life [Video file]. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/programs/2809_genome.html. Sixteen video clips (105 min) that focus on the human genome. Epigenetics (2012). A look at the power of epigenetics. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kp1bZEUgqVI. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2008). The Brain, , 90:00. Using simple analogies, real-life case studies, and computer-generated images, this program shows how the brain works, explains the frequent battle between instinct and reason, and unravels the mysteries of memory and decision making. Focus Productions. (2006). Brainman, 60:00. The brain of British savant Daniel Tammet is explored. Tammet has amazing brain capabilities that go beyond memory. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kf3-el-dJAw. Insight Media. (2006). The most amazing machine: Neuroscience and behavior, 30:00. This film focuses on the connection between biology and behavior. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzyxSgLtyRM. Living with traumatic brain injury. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyyTX3UqmXQ. A brief clip on life with TBI. McGraw-Hill Psychology Episode IV—Biology of behavior. https://soundcloud.com/user-250403395/episode-iv-biology-of-behavior. NOVA scienceNOW. (2008). Stems cells breakthrough [Video file]. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/0305/03.html. This 13-min video shows creating stem cells without harming human embryos. Nurture. (2018). What‘s it like for kids with tourette‘s growing up? 46:10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PiOx01HQL9E. Stories of children who are dealing with Tourette‘s are presented. IM – 4 | 108 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

NOVA scienceNOW. (2008). Brain trauma [Video file]. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/0306/02.html. This 11-min video discusses brain trauma. PBS Distribution (2002). Secret life of the brain, five-part series, 56 min each. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3592580/. PBS. (1997). Pieces of mind, 60:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6ryKGiQh3w. Alan Alda, host of Scientific American Frontiers, explores how the brain plays a role in storing and retrieving memories. Split-brain patients are also discussed. PBS NewsHour. Bringing new life to ―Patient H.M,‖ the man who couldn‘t make memories. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_7akPs8ptg4. Author Luke Dittrich discusses his book, ―Patient H. M.: A Story of Memory, Madness, and Family Secrets.‖ Resting potential: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YP_P6bYvEjE. Terranoa. (2009). Epigenetics: The hidden life of our genes, 52:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQbvKHivXFo. This program presents evidence that DNA is not necessarily destiny and that diet, stress, and environmental exposures can all modify gene expression. The adult brain: To think by feeling. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5-HTuRGMmk. The aging brain: Through many lives. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-8NmkSfM-8. The baby’s brain: Wider than the sky. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U0L0mYi_ftc. The Big Idea: Epigenetics. A brief video exploring the epigenetic question: Can our experiences be passed down biologically to our children and grandchildren? https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p066wkwv. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #1: Organization and evaluation of brain function [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/organization-and-evaluation-ofbrain-function/. Brain structures and functions are described. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #2: The effects of hormones and the environment on brain development [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/the-effectsof-hormones-and-the-environment-on-brain-development/. Research on the differences between the male and female brain is discussed. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #5: The divided brain [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/the-divided-brain/. Hemispheric functions and the split brain are explored.

The Brain (1997). Teaching module #7: Brain anomaly and plasticity: Hydrocephalus [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/brain-anomaly-and-plasticityhydrocephalus/. Brain plasticity is described. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #30: Understanding the brain through epilepsy [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/understanding-the-brain-throughepilepsy/. The effects of neurotransmitters and epilepsy are investigated. Brain transplants as a treatment for Parkinson‘s disease is presented. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #32: Neurorehabilitation [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/neurorehabilitation/. Case studies of brain injuries and their treatments are discussed. The child’s brain: From syllable to sound. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8qc8Aa3weE. The Mind (1999). 2nd ed.. Teaching module #7: The frontal lobes: Cognition and awareness [Video file]. https://youtu.be/rIX5YTPtKCs. The brain‘s frontal lobes and function are the topics of discussion. The Mind (1999). 2nd ed.. Teaching module #26: The bilingual brain [Video file]. https://youtu.be/cA3QPivxe2U?list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx64Z. The use of fMRI studies is used to examine brain function. The teenage brain: A world of their own. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGaz_fHLHNU. Visual Prosopagnosia. Prosopagnosia: Primetime medical mysteries—Part 6. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwCrxomPbtY. Warner Home Video. (2003). The forgetting: A portrait of Alzheimer’s, 60:00 (plus 30:00 Q & A). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YUfZP3vcEK4. A PBS special spotlighting Alzheimer‘s research and several families dealing with Alzheimer‘s. POPULAR MOVIES Limbic System: Students will enjoy the very funny medulla oblongata scene from the movie The Waterboy (1998), in which the protagonist argues with his professor about the role of the brain in behavior. This short scene will definitely lighten the lecture. It is also a good scene to show because it is incorrect: When they discuss the medulla oblongata as having a role in aggression and happiness, they are actually referring to the amygdala! Coping With Brain Damage: Older movies illustrating people who must cope with brain damage are Regarding Henry (1991) and Rocky V (1990).

Still Alice (2014). This feature film portrays the life of a linguistics professor faced with earlyonset Alzheimer's. Twins: Parent Trap (1998 or the 1961 original) discusses twins. Adaptation (2002) is another film on twins. Three Identical Strangers (2018). A documentary telling the story of identical triplet boys separated at birth and raised by three different families who are reunited through astonishing coincidence. Ten-minute documentary preview. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWSY4K8BQc ADDITIONAL READINGS Aggleton J. P., & Passingham R. E. (1981). Syndrome produced by lesions of the amygdala in monkeys. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 95, 961–977. Albom, M. (1997). Tuesdays with Morrie: An old man, a young man, and life’s greatest lessons. New York, NY: Doubleday. Baird A. A., Gruber S. A., & Fein D. A. (1999). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of facial affect recognition in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(2), 195–199. Blodgett, B. (2010). Remembering smell: A memoir of losing—and discovering—the primal sense. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Bouchard, T. J., Lykken, D. T., McGue, M., Segal, N. L., & Tellegen, A. (1990). Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science, 250, 223–228. Burton, R. (2014). A skeptics guide to the mind: What neuroscience can and cannot tell us about ourselves. New York, NY: St. Martin‘s Press. Cohen, B. (2005). Front of the class: My life with Tourette’s. Vanderwyk & Burnham. Doidge, N. (2007). The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science. New York, NY: Viking. Draper, B. (2013). Understanding Alzheimer's and other dementias. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Giedd J. N., Blumenthal J., & Jeffries N. O. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863.

Heinz, S., Baron, G., & Frahm, H. (1998). Comparative size of brains and brain components. Neurosciences: Comparative Primate Biology, 4, 223–228. Mason, M. P. (2009). Head cases: Stories of brain injury and its aftermath. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. MCCABE, J. A. (2015). LEARNING THE BRAIN IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY: EXAMINING THE GENERATION EFFECT FOR MNEMONICS AND EXAMPLES. TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY, 42, 203–210. Ramachandran, V. S. (2012). The tell-tale brain: A neuroscientist’s quest for what makes us human. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Rowe, D. C. (1994). The limits of family influence: Genes, experience, and behavior. New York: NY: Guilford. Sacks, O. (1998). The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales. New York, NY: Touchstone. Sacks, O. (2008). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York, NY: Vintage. Satel, S., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013). Brainwashed: The seductive appeal of mindless neuroscience. New York, NY: Basic. Savoy, R. L. (2012). Evolution and current challenges in the teaching of functional MRI and functional brain imaging. NeuroImage, 62, 1201–1207. Sperry, R. W. (1968). Hemisphere disconnection and unity in conscious awareness. American Psychologist, 23, 723–733. Sowell E. R., Thompson P. M., & Holmes C. J. (1999). In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 859–861. Thompson, P. M., Giedd, J. N., & Woods R. P. (2000). Growth patterns in the developing brain detected by using continuum mechanical tensor maps. Nature, 404 (6774), 190–193. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test IM – 4 | 112 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

CONCEPT CLIPS  The Structure of Neurons  How Neurons Work?  Mirror Neurons  Nervous System  Brain Structures and Functions  The Four Lobes  The Hindbrain  The Midbrain  The Forebrain VIDEOS  Neuroscience of Language INTERACTIVITIES  Structure of Neurons  Brain Activity and Communication LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System  The Synapse  Structures of the Human Brain  Cerebral Cortex Lobes and Association Areas COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Identify each part of the nervous system: (Correct answers are given in parentheses.) Exerts control over all parts of the body (nervous system) Controls all voluntary movements, thoughts, and registration of incoming information (CNS) The site where processing of all central nervous system activity takes place (brain) Main carrier of messages between the brain and the body (spinal cord) Registers information and controls movements outside of the central nervous system (peripheral nervous system) Takes charge over the body‘s involuntary functions outside conscious awareness (autonomic nervous system) Coordinates incoming information from the senses and sends instructions to the muscles and glands (somatic nervous system) Increases heart rate in an emergency situation (sympathetic nervous system) Stimulates digestion of food when the body is in a state of rest (parasympathetic nervous system)

HANDOUT 2: NEUROTRANSMITTERS Identify the purpose of each of the neurotransmitters listed below. Also, describe for each what might happen to a person if they have an excess amount or a lesser amount of the neurotransmitters. Acetylcholine

GABA

Glutamate

Norepinephrine

Dopamine

Serotonin

Endorphin

Oxytocin

HANDOUT 3: WHAT‘S IN YOUR MEDICINE CABINET? Go home and take a look in your medicine cabinet. Take out all the prescription medications. Go on the internet and search for each of the medications. Find out what warnings there are for the medications and how they might influence brain activity.

HANDOUT 4: PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Identify each part of the endocrine system: (Correct answers are given in parentheses.) Major chemical in the endocrine system (hormone) Regulates the pituitary gland (hypothalamus) The body‘s ―master gland‖ (pituitary) Hormones involved in sugar metabolism (insulin and glucagon) Female reproductive organ (ovary) Organ that produces hormones involved in sugar metabolism (pancreas) Gland that controls metabolic rate (thyroid) Nervous system organ that is also in the endocrine system (hypothalamus) Male reproductive organ (testis) Type of regulation in the endocrine system (negative feedback) Gland involved in controlling bodily size (pituitary) Involved in regulating body‘s reaction to stress (adrenal gland)

HANDOUT 5: PARTS OF THE BRAIN Describe one daily routine that you do that uses each of these parts of the brain (you can use one example or five separate examples). 1. Cerebellum

2. Hypothalamus

3. Reticular formation

4. Limbic system

5. Frontal lobe

HANDOUT 6: ACTIVITIES IN THE PARTS OF THE BRAIN Identify each part of the nervous system associated with each of the following activities: (Correct answers are given in parentheses.) Balancing on a tight rope (cerebellum) Clapping your hands (pons) Waking up when the alarm goes off (reticular formation) Feeling hungry (hypothalamus) Understanding your psychology professor‘s lecture (Wernicke‘s area) Planning your route to drive home (frontal lobe) Becoming enraged when someone cuts you in line (limbic system) Talking on your cell phone (Broca‘s area) Hearing your favorite music group on your smartphone (auditory area) Feeling drops of rain on your face (somatosensory area) Seeing a traffic light change color (visual cortex) Breathing while you sleep (medulla) Pushing the ―open‖ button on the computer when a page has downloaded (thalamus)

HANDOUT 7: WHICH HEMISPHERE IS IT? Read each of the below activities and then circle which hemisphere (the left or the right) controls that behavior. Explain why. 1. Writing lecture notes while in class: LEFT or RIGHT

2. Watching your favorite TV show: LEFT or RIGHT

3. Catching a ball in left field: LEFT or RIGHT

4. Doing math problems for a homework assignment: LEFT or RIGHT

5. Doing a crossword puzzle: LEFT or RIGHT

6. Running a marathon: LEFT or RIGHT

7. Listening to a love song with your significant other: LEFT or RIGHT

8. Putting together a desk you bought at the office superstore: LEFT or RIGHT

9. Taking a spelling test: LEFT or RIGHT

10. Doing your yearly taxes: LEFT or RIGHT

Sensation and Perception OPENING THEMES Sensation allows the outside world to enter the nervous system and provide us with the information we need to be able to plan our actions. The sense organs are designed to be maximally receptive to particular types of stimuli in the environment. There must be a match between a stimulus (such as a light wave) and a receptor (such as a visual receptor) in order for a stimulus to be registered. Perception is an active, constructive process in which we interpret information from all the stimuli available to us in all senses and reach integrated decisions about what we think exists in the world. MODULE 8: SENSING THE WORLD AROUND US LEARNING OBJECTIVES 8-1

What is sensation, and how do psychologists study it?

8-2

What is the relationship between a physical stimulus and the kinds of sensory responses that result from it?

Sensation is the activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy. Perception is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli carried out by the sense organs and brain. A stimulus is any passing source of physical energy that produces a response in a sense organ. Psychophysics is the study of the relationship between the actual physical aspects of a stimulus and our psychological experience of that stimulus. Psychophysics played a central role in the development of the field of psychology. ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS: DETECTING WHAT‘S OUT THERE An absolute threshold is the lowest intensity of a stimulus that an organism can detect. It often takes a very small stimulus to produce a response in our senses. In fact, our senses are so finetuned that we might have problems if they were any more sensitive. Normally, our senses cannot detect stimulation quite as well because of the presence of noise. Noise, as defined by psychophysicists, is background stimulation that interferes with the perception of other stimuli. Hence, noise refers not just to auditory stimuli, as the word suggests, but also to unwanted stimuli that interfere with other senses. DIFFERENCE THRESHOLDS: NOTICING DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN STIMULI

The difference threshold is the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred. Thus, the difference threshold is the minimum change in stimulation required to detect the difference between two stimuli, and so it also is called a just noticeable difference. Weber’s law is a basic law of psychophysics stating that a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus (rather than a constant amount). Weber‘s law holds for every type of sensory stimuli: vision, sound, taste and so on. Weber‘s law helps explain why a person in a quiet room is more startled by the ringing of a cell phone than is a person in an already noisy room. SENSORY ADAPTATION: TURNING DOWN OUR RESPONSES Adaptation is an adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli. Adaptation occurs as people become accustomed to a stimulus and change their frame of reference. One example of adaptation is the decrease in sensitivity that occurs after repeated exposure to a strong stimulus. This apparent decline in sensitivity to sensory stimuli is due to the inability of the sensory nerve receptors to fire off messages to the brain indefinitely. Judgments of sensory stimuli are also affected by the context in which the judgments are made. KEY TERMS absolute threshold The smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for the stimulus to be detected. adaptation An adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli. difference threshold (just noticeable difference) The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred. perception The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense organs and brain. psychophysics The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them. sensation The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy. stimulus Energy that produces a response in a sense organ. Weber’s law A basic law of psychophysics stating that a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus (rather than a constant amount). LECTURE IDEAS IM – 4 | 122 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

CLASS DEMONSTRATION: ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD Ask for a volunteer. Using a 2-gallon pitcher of water, add 1/8 teaspoon of sugar and continue to add more until the volunteer can taste the sugar. No more than 1 teaspoon should be required. CLASS DEMONSTRATION: DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD Have students touch their own arms with one finger. They should take a second finger and touch a point close to the first finger. When they can feel two distinct touches on their arm, this is the difference threshold for touch. This is more effective if students can do this to each other rather than to themselves. CLASS DEMONSTRATION: WEBER‘S LAW Select a volunteer and ask them to say something in a normal voice (such as ―I love psychology‖). Ask the class if they could hear the volunteer, which they should be able to do very clearly. Then, say that you will have the volunteer repeat this phrase but this time while the rest of the class is talking to each other. Then, instruct the class to stop talking. Ask if they could hear the volunteer. They should not have been able to hear. Alternatively, ask the volunteer to speak louder and louder over the class‘s talking until the class can clearly hear their voice. Then, ask the volunteer whether they had to talk louder than when the room was silent. The answer should definitely be yes. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Difference Thresholds: To demonstrate difference thresholds and the just noticeable difference, bring a pile of books, a blindfold, and some CDs to class and ask for a strong volunteer. Place the blindfold on them and the stack of books in their arms. Tell them to report when they think you have added another book. Then, slowly add CDs to the pile until they say something. Even though weight is constantly being added, they won‘t notice it until there is a 3% change. You can tell them that when they ask friends to help them move, they can maximize this. Their buddy picks up a box, and they add a few more things on top, saying, ―You won‘t even notice the extra weight,‖ and, in some cases, they‘ll be right! DISCUSSION QUESTIONS PSYCHOPHYSICS Ask students to provide examples from their daily lives of Weber‘s law and sensory adaptation. From an evolutionary standpoint, why might the eye have evolved so that the rods, which we rely on in low light, do not provide sharp images? Are there any advantages to this system? ADDITIONAL READINGS IM – 4 | 123 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Kreiner, D. S. (2009). Problem-based group activities for teaching sensation and perception. TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY, 4, 253–256. Matlin, M. W., & Foley, H. (1997). Sensation and perception (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. MODULE 9: VISION: SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE EYE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 9-1

What basic processes underlie the sense of vision?

9-2

How do we see colors?

Vision starts with light, the physical energy that stimulates the eye. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation waves. The sizes of wavelengths correspond to different types of energy. The visual spectrum—the range of wavelengths that is visible to the human eye—is relatively small (see Figure 1). Light waves coming from some object outside the body are sensed by the only organ that is capable of responding to the visible spectrum: the eye. Our eyes convert light to a form that can be used by the neurons that serve as messengers to the brain. ILLUMINATING THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE (SEE FIGURES 2 AND 3) The cornea is a transparent, protective window at the front of the eye. The cornea, because of its curvature, bends (or refracts) light as it passes through, playing a primary role in focusing the light more sharply. After moving through the cornea, the light traverses the pupil. The pupil is a dark hole in the center of the iris, the colored part of the eye, which in humans ranges from a light blue to a dark brown. The size of the pupil opening depends on the amount of light in the environment. Once light passes through the pupil, it enters the lens, which is directly behind the pupil. The lens acts to bend the rays of light so that they are properly focused on the rear of the eye. The lens focuses light by changing its own thickness, a process called accommodation: It becomes flatter when viewing distant objects and rounder when looking at closer objects. REACHING THE RETINA The retina is the part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain. There are two kinds of light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina. The names they have been given describe their shapes: rods and cones. Rods are thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light. Cones are cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light. Cones are concentrated on the part of the retina called the fovea. The fovea is a particularly sensitive region of the retina. The rods play a key role in peripheral vision—seeing objects that are outside the main center of focus—and in night vision. Dark IM – 4 | 124 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

adaptation is the phenomenon of adjusting to dim light after being in brighter light. Light adaptation is the process of adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim light. SENDING THE MESSAGE FROM THE EYE TO THE BRAIN Rods contain rhodopsin, a complex, reddish-purple protein whose composition changes chemically when energized by light. The substance in cone receptors is different, but the principles are similar. Stimulation of the nerve cells in the eye triggers a neural response that is transmitted to other nerve cells in the retina called bipolar cells and ganglion cells. The optic nerve is a bundle of ganglion axons that carry visual information to the brain. PROCESSING THE VISUAL MESSAGE By the time a visual message reaches the brain, it has passed through several stages of processing. One of the initial sites is the ganglion cells. Each ganglion cell gathers information from a group of rods and cones in a particular area of the eye and compares the amount of light entering the center of that area with the amount of light in the area around it. The ultimate processing of visual images takes place in the visual cortex of the brain, and it is here that the most complex kinds of processing occur. Feature detection is the activation of neurons in the cortex by visual stimuli of specific shapes or patterns. More recent work has added to our knowledge of the complex ways in which visual information coming from individual neurons is combined and processed. Different parts of the brain process nerve impulses simultaneously according to the attributes of the image. COLOR VISION AND COLOR BLINDNESS: THE 7-MILLION-COLOR SPECTRUM Although the range of wavelengths to which humans are sensitive is relatively narrow, at least in comparison with the entire electromagnetic spectrum, the portion to which we are capable of responding allows us great flexibility in sensing the world. A person with normal color vision is capable of distinguishing as many as 10 million colors. Although the variety of colors that people are generally able to distinguish is vast, there are certain individuals whose ability to perceive color is quite limited—the color-blind. Approximately 7% of men and 0.4% of women are colorblind. EXPLAINING COLOR VISION The trichromatic theory of color vision suggests that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths. One is most responsive to blue-violet colors, one to green, and the third to yellow-red. According to trichromatic theory, perception of color is influenced by the relative strength with which each of the three kinds of cones is activated. The trichromatic theory does not explain color vision completely. IM – 4 | 125 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

According to the opponent-process theory of color vision, first proposed by German physiologist Ewald Hering in the 19th century, receptor cells are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other. The theory provides a good explanation for afterimages (see Figure 7). Both opponent processes and trichromatic mechanisms are at work in producing the perception of color vision but in different parts of the visual sensing system. Trichromatic processes work within the retina itself, whereas opponent mechanisms operate both in the retina and at later stages of neuronal processing. KEY TERMS cones Cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light. feature detectors Specialized neurons that are activated only by visual stimuli having specific features, such as a particular shape or pattern. opponent-process theory of color vision The theory that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other. optic nerve A bundle of ganglion axons that carry visual information to the brain. retina The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain. rods Thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light. trichromatic theory of color vision The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths. LECTURE IDEAS THE JOY OF VISUAL PERCEPTION This website contains several useful visual images and material for preparing your lecture: http://www.yorku.ca/eye/thejoy.htm. VISUAL PATHWAYS Parts of the Eye and Visual Pathways: Students should be able to identify and describe the structures of the eye. They should also be able to describe the visual pathway for the left and right visual fields. Point out that light reflected off objects is projected onto the retina, traveling first through the structures of the eye, where it is refracted and reversed. Make sure that students understand that

the eye is not like a camera in that it does not record exact replicas of objects. Describe the pathway from the retina to the brain showing the crossover at the optic chiasm. The Eye and Its Structures: Show an illustration of the eye and its structures, highlighting the parts as follows: After the image leaves the retina in the form of neural transmission, the processing of the image in the brain becomes increasingly complex and sophisticated. Information from the image passes from the rods and cones to the bipolar and ganglion cells and from there travels to the visual cortex of the brain. However, the path taken by these neural signals is not a direct one. As the optic nerves leave each eyeball, they meet at a point roughly between the two eyes—called the optic chiasm—where each optic nerve then splits. (POINT TO THE OPTIC CHIASM.) In order to understand what happens at the optic chiasm, we have to go back to what is happening within the eye. (POINT TO THE RIGHT AND LEFT VISUAL FIELDS AT THE TOP.) Our eyes see the world in terms of a ―right visual field‖ and a ―left visual field.‖ These correspond to the two halves of all objects, images, and scenes that we look at. Each eye can be divided into a right and left retina. (POINT TO THE RIGHT AND LEFT RETINAS.) Images on the right half of the visual field cross and are projected onto the left half of each retina. (POINT TO THIS PATHWAY.) Similarly, images on the left half of the visual field cross and are projected onto the right half of each retina. (POINT TO THIS PATHWAY.) As you can see here, all information from each right half of the retina goes to the right visual cortex. All information from each left half of the retina goes to the left visual cortex. In other words, all information from the right visual field ends up being projected onto the left visual cortex. All information from the left visual field ends up being projected onto the right visual cortex. (REVIEW BOTH PATHWAYS.) CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS PROCESSING OF VISUAL INFORMATION Processing of Visual Information: Handout 3: Processing of Visual Information reviews the processing of visual information. IM – 4 | 127 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: Use Handout 4: Is It Top-Down or Bottom-Up? This activity has students look at examples and then identify the examples as either top-down processing or bottom-up processing. The students will gain knowledge and experience in recognizing the difference between the two types of processing. Hands Free: As you drive, there are many signs reminding you not to text or talk on the phone while driving. Companies have come up with hands-free alternatives. Break the class into groups and have them recall what has been discussed about inattentional blindness, then debate whether or not hand-free devices resolve the concern about distracted driving. Each student or group should then write a summary paper of its findings. COLOR VISION AND COLOR BLINDNESS Fading Dot: Direct students to this website: http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/fading_dot/fading_dot.html. Monocular Cues: Break the class into groups and have the groups give examples of the monocular cues discussed in the chapter, such as familiar size, height in the field of view, linear perspective, overlap, shading, and texture gradient. In their examples, the groups should also include pictures. Afterimages: Go to http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/after.html for an interactive afterimage activity. FM 100 Hue Test: Have students go to http://www.xrite.com/online-color-test-challenge for an online test of color (hue) discrimination. They are presented with rows of colors that they are asked to place in order by dragging and dropping each color. Responses are then scored and compared to one‘s peer group (by age and gender). This can be used for discussion on thresholds or the visual system. Facial Recognition: This is a good link that lets students actively participate in facial recognition with a focus on faces that appear upside down: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/faces.html. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Have students look at the green, black, and yellow flag in the text (Figure 7) and then at a blank wall. Ask them the following questions:   

What colors did you see when viewing the afterimage of the green, black, and yellow flag? Why is this afterimage used as support for the opponent-process theory? How can the opponent process theory be combined with the trichromatic theory into one unified theory of color perception? IM – 4 | 128



What are some practical problems faced by people who are color-blind? How could people who are color-blind be trained to overcome these problems?

SUGGESTED MEDIA Afterimages. http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/after.html. Annenberg/CPB Collection. (1990). The Brain, Part 2: Vision and Movement, 60:00. This video demonstrates how people coordinate vision and movement. BBC. (2011). Do you see what I see: The science of color perception, 50:00. Part I: https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xl7cgh; Part 4: https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xl7eh1. This program explores the ways in which individuals see color. BBC Earth Lab. (2019). Do we all see the same colors? . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIO7CV4nYfg. Color in film: Show a brightly colored film or video segment such as a cartoon or travel program. Have students watch this while thinking about the sensation of color. Then, show a black-and-white movie (such as Casablanca or, more recently, Good Night, and Good Luck or Schindler’s List). Ask the students how the color photography enhanced or detracted from their visual experience. Ask why filmmakers might prefer to film their work in black-and-white rather than in color. Color vision testing. http://www.colorvisiontesting.com/online-test. This site has detailed explanations of all types of color blindness and various color-blind tests. Depth cues. http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/art/cues.html. Insight Media. (2008). Sight, 60:00. This program explores how the brain perceives and the eyes work. National Eye Institute. https://nei.nih.gov. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #8: Visual information processing: Elementary concepts [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/visual-informationprocessing-elementary-concepts/?jwsource=cl. This video covers visual processing and discusses feature detectors. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #9: Visual information processing: Perception [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/visual-information-processingperception/?jwsource=cl. This video centers on when visual stimuli becomes perception and discusses face recognition. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #10: Perception: Inverted vision [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/perception-invertedIM – 4 | 129 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

vision/?jwsource=cl. Adaptation of the visual system is the focus of this video. Visual information processing. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lcv8g-0VdMI. This video segment uses animations to illustrate visual processes from the retina to the brain. Students learn that the eye is not like a camera but that the majority of visual information processing takes place in the cortex. Wayne’s World (1992): In the scene in this movie in which Wayne (Mike Myers) is with his girlfriend and is alternating covering his right and left eyes, the camera angle adjusts to show his perspective. This is a good example of binocular disparity. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cuskley, C., Dingemanse, M., Kirby, S., & van Leeuwen, T. M. (2019). Cross-modal associations and synesthesia: Categorical perception and structure in vowel-color mappings in a large online sample. Behavior Research Methods, pp 1–25. https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2Fs13428-019-01203-7. Duffy, P. L. (2001). Blue cats and chartreuse kittens: How synesthetes color their worlds. New York, NY: Times Books. Gilbert, C. D., & Li, W. (2013). Top-down influences on visual processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 350–363. MODULE 10: HEARING AND THE OTHER SENSES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 10-1

What role does the ear play in the senses of sound, motion, and balance?

10-2

How do smell and taste function?

10-3

What are the skin senses, and how do they relate to the experience of pain?

SENSING SOUND (SEE FIGURE 1) Sound localization is the process by which we identify the direction from which a sound is coming. Sound is the movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration. Sounds travel through the air in wave patterns. The eardrum is aptly named because it operates as a miniature drum, vibrating when sound waves hit it. The more intense the sound, the more the eardrum vibrates. These vibrations are then transferred into the middle ear, a tiny chamber containing three bones (the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup) that transmit vibrations to the oval window, a thin membrane leading to the inner ear.

The inner ear is the portion of the ear that changes the sound vibrations into a form in which they can be transmitted to the brain. When sound enters the inner ear through the oval window, it moves into the cochlea, a coiled tube that looks something like a snail and is filled with fluid that vibrates in response to sound. Inside the cochlea is the basilar membrane, a structure that runs through the center of the cochlea, dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber. The basilar membrane is covered with hair cells. When the hair cells are bent by the vibrations entering the cochlea, the cells send a neural message to the brain. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: THE NEUROSCIENCE OF MUSIC The fundamental components of music, melody, harmony, and rhythm, involve overlapping but distinct networks in the brain that interact to create the unified perception you experience as a song. According to the predictive coding of music (PCM) model, the experience of music stems from the brain‘s capacity for prediction. When we listen to music, we form expectations of what comes next in the song based on prior experience. Listening to, creating, and dancing to music with other people involves interpersonal synchronization, improvisation, and communication. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOUND Frequency is the number of wave cycles that occur in a second (see Figure 2). At very low frequencies, there are relatively few wave cycles per second. Pitch is the characteristic that makes sound seem ―high‖ or ―low.‖ Low frequencies are translated into a sound that is very low in pitch. Higher frequencies are heard as sounds of higher pitch. Amplitude is a feature of wave patterns that allows us to distinguish between loud and soft sounds. Waves with small peaks and valleys produce soft sounds; those with relatively large peaks and valleys produce loud sounds. The strongest sounds we are capable of hearing are over a trillion times as intense as the very weakest sound we can hear. This range is measured in decibels. When sounds get higher than 120 dB, they become painful to the human ear. Our sensitivity to different frequencies changes as we age. A rare disorder called hyperacusis is when a person is acutely sensitive to sounds that others find tolerable. EXPLAINING HEARING: LISTEN TO THE THEORIES OF SOUND The place theory of hearing states that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies. The frequency theory of hearing suggests that the entire basilar membrane acts as a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to a sound. Neither place theory nor frequency theory provides the full explanation for hearing. Echolocation is the use of sound waves and echoes to determine where objects are. It is a technique that bats and some people with visual impairment use for navigation. BALANCE: THE UPS AND DOWNS OF LIFE Several structures of the ear are related more to our sense of balance than to our hearing. Collectively, these structures are known as the vestibular system, which responds to the pull of IM – 4 | 131 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

gravity and allows us to maintain our balance. The main structure of the vestibular system is formed by the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which consist of three tubes containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain. SMELL AND TASTE SMELL Although many animals have keener abilities to detect odors than we do, the human sense of smell (olfaction) permits us to detect more than 10,000 separate smells. The sense of smell is sparked when the molecules of a substance enter the nasal passages and meet olfactory cells, the receptor neurons of the nose, which are spread across the nasal cavity. More than 1,000 separate types of receptors have been identified on those cells so far. Each of these receptors is so specialized that it responds only to a small band of different odors. The responses of the separate olfactory cells are then transmitted to the brain, where they are combined into recognition of a particular smell. Olfactory cells are exposed and vulnerable to a variety of pollutants, viruses, and bacteria that float through the air and can regenerate when they are damaged. By the age of 50, most people‘s smell declines, and by our 80s, three quarters of people have a significant decline in the sense of smell. Smell can act as a hidden communication for humans as well. Some psychologists believe that human pheromones affect emotional responses. Nonhumans clearly have far more sensitivity to smells than humans. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTURY: WHAT YOUR SMELL TELLS OTHERS ABOUT WHO YOU ARE Each of us has an odor, and that odor conveys a great deal of information: about a person‘s age, emotional state, health, and even who they might be likely to marry. Our bodies constantly emit three levels of information about us via the way we smell. First, our skin emits odors from soaps and things we use. The middle level comes from things that we eat, while the third level comes from a baseline odor based on major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Evidence indicates that heterosexuals are attracted to partners whose MHC complex of genes differ from, and complement, their own MHC genes. TASTE The sense of taste (gustation) involves receptor cells that respond to four basic stimulus qualities: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. A fifth category also exists, a flavor called umami (a meaty or savory taste), although there is controversy about whether it qualifies as a fundamental taste. The receptor cells for taste are located in roughly 10,000 taste buds, which are distributed across the tongue and other parts of the mouth and throat. The taste buds wear out and are replaced every 10 days or so. THE SKIN SENSES: TOUCH, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND PAIN IM – 4 | 132 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Complex regional pain syndrome, or CRPS is a disease characterized by constant, intense pain that is out of proportion to any injury. Something as mild as a gentle breeze can cause agony for people with CRPS. All our skin senses—touch, pressure, temperature, and pain—play a critical role in survival, making us aware of potential danger to our bodies. Most of these senses operate through nerve receptor cells located at various depths throughout the skin, distributed unevenly throughout the body (see Figure 5). The most extensively researched skin sense is pain. Chronic pain is the presence of pain on most days or every day during the last six months. It affects more than 50 million American adults. One explanation for pain is that it is an outcome of cell injury; when a cell is damaged, regardless of the source of damage, it releases a chemical called substance P that transmits pain messages to the brain. According to the gate-control theory of pain, particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain. When these receptors are activated because of an injury or problem with a part of the body, a ―gate‖ to the brain is opened, allowing us to experience the sensation of pain. However, another set of neural receptors can, when stimulated, close the ―gate‖ to the brain, thereby reducing the experience of pain. Gate-control theory also may explain the effectiveness of acupuncture, an ancient Chinese technique in which sharp needles are inserted into various parts of the body. The sensation from the needles may close the gateway to the brain, reducing the experience of pain. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: MANAGING PAIN Psychologists and medical specialists have devised several strategies to fight pain. Among the most important approaches are medication, nerve and brain stimulation, acupuncture, light therapy, hypnosis, biofeedback and relaxation techniques, surgery, cognitive restructuring, mirror pain therapy and virtual reality therapy. Increasing evidence also indicates that medical cannabis (marijuana) can be an effective painkiller. And in one of the newest treatments, pain sufferers in a virtual reality environment experienced such rich brain stimulation that the brain had no capacity to process pain sensations at the same time. HOW OUR SENSES INTERACT Certain people have an unusual condition known as synesthesia, in which exposure to one sensation (such as sound) evokes an additional one (such as vision). See the Neuroscience in Your Life: Synesthesia and the Overconnected Brain in the text for more details. Some research suggests that it is genetically inherited, and that people with this condition have unusually dense neural linkages between the sensory areas of the brain. Another hypothesis is that they lack the neural controls that usually inhibit connections between sensory areas. IM – 4 | 133 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Brain imaging studies show that the senses work in tandem to build our understanding of the world around us. We engage in multimodal perception, in which the brain collects the information from the individual sensory systems and integrates and coordinates it. KEY TERMS basilar membrane A vibrating structure that runs through the center of the cochlea, dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber and containing sense receptors for sound. cochlea (KOKE-lee-uh) A coiled tube in the ear filled with fluid that vibrates in response to sound. eardrum The part of the ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it. frequency theory of hearing The theory that the entire basilar membrane acts like a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to a sound. gate-control theory of pain The theory that particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain. hair cells Tiny cells covering the basilar membrane that, when bent by vibrations entering the cochlea, transmit neural messages to the brain. place theory of hearing The theory that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies. semicircular canals Three tubelike structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain. skin senses The senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. sound The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration. LECTURE IDEAS AUDITORY STRUCTURES Describe each of the organs in the ear, from the outer ear to the cochlea. Contrast the place and frequency theories of hearing by showing the parts of the cochlea that react to different frequencies (the place theory). HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Help students to remember the auditory structures by giving them these hints:



 

Hammer, anvil, and stirrups: These are the middle ear structures involved in conduction of the sound wave. Paul Revere rode a horse (using the stirrups) to ―conduct‖ information. Basilar membrane: Like the strings of a ―double bass,‖ this membrane vibrates in response to sound waves. Cochlea: This literally means ―snail shell,‖ and that is what it looks like. Think of drinking a Coca-Cola on the beach.

FREQUENCY AND HIGH-PITCHED RINGTONES Our sensitivity to different frequencies changes as we age. For instance, as we get older, the range of frequencies we can detect declines, particularly for high-pitched sounds. This is why high school students sometimes choose high-pitched ring tones for their cell phones in settings in which cell phone use is forbidden: The ringing sound goes undetected by their aging teachers. To demonstrate this to your class, go to the following website and test their hearing: http://www.freemosquitoringtones.org. DEMONSTRATION OF SMELL PREFERENCE TEST Bring in scented cards sprayed with various colognes for men and women, obtained from a local drug or department store. Ask for two volunteers to come to the front of the room and describe each of the scents on a sheet of paper, rating the pleasantness of each one (in between scents, they should sniff coffee beans). When they have finished, compare their responses. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING Have students complete Handout 5: Auditory Information Processing. Nature of Sound: Bring in a CD with various sounds on it. These sounds should represent the various natures of sound, such as frequency, pitch, amplitude, and loudness. Play the sounds for the students and ask them to identify what nature of sound they are hearing. Decibel Levels of Various Noises: Direct students to complete their own hearing survey using Handout 6: Decibel Levels of Various Noises. HEARING DAMAGE Have students work in groups to design and present an ad campaign intended to urge people in your age group to protect their ears from noise damage. SEMICIRCULAR CANALS AND BALANCE

To learn about the role of the semicircular canal in balance, have students complete this assignment: Have a friend spin you around on a chair seven or eight times. Then, have that friend help you stand up on the chair on one leg. How well were you able to stand up on one leg? How did you feel when you were being spun around? (Note: This also can be used as a class demonstration.) ADA and Your Job: The Americans with Disability Act protects those citizens with documented disabilities from discrimination and requires the employers make accommodations to allow these individuals to adequately perform in a job. Think about what you have learned on visual and auditory processing. Go to your employer and look for documentation on ADA compliance and interview a coworker from human resources on their experience with those who need accommodations. What have you found and how can these findings help you develop empathy toward others. For more information, go to https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/disability/ada. SENSE OF SMELL Have students complete Handout 7: Smell Rating Activity. You can tally the results and show them which scents they chose and how they rated them. SENSE OF TASTE Have students complete Handout 8: Taste Rating Activity. As with the smell ratings, tally the results and give students feedback on their data. SUPERTASTER TEST Direct students to this website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jExqPBLgf-o. Then, ask these questions: Were you a ―supertaster?‖ What are advantages to being a supertaster? What are the disadvantages? Alternatively, you can test for supertasters in class using PTC test strips (small pieces of paper coated in a chemical that is extremely bitter to supertasters). SENSES CHALLENGE

Direct students to the PBS video, Five Senses. https://www.pbs.org/video/science-trek-fivesenses/. Exploring Touch: Ask for three volunteers and send them to the hallway. While the volunteers are in the hallway, set up the classroom with the desks arranged to form a maze. Throughout the maze, place various objects on the desks. These objects should represent various aspects of touch, such as something sharp for pain and something hot and something cold for temperature. Blindfold the volunteers and then have them come back into the classroom and work their way through the maze. After they have completed the maze, ask them to explain the senses they experienced as they went through the maze. Taste: For this activity, you will need orange juice and food coloring. You could also use mashed potatoes or rice and food coloring. Paper cups are also necessary. Pour three glasses of orange juice. Color two with food coloring. Varying shades of red work nicely. Any food color will deepen and change the color. Have students taste the drinks and rate how they taste. You may want to ask them which drink is sweeter. Which drink is more bitter? Which has more orange-juice flavor? Students typically rate them differently. After the demo, you may want to put food coloring in water and have them notice that it doesn‘t change the taste. Source: Hoegg, J., & Alba, J. W. (2007). Taste perception: More than meets the tongue. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 301–314. Taste: For this activity, bring Juicy Fruit Gems (candy) to class for all your students. Pass out the candy. Ask students to hold their noses shut. Have them take a bite of the fruit gem, chew, swallow, and then rate the sweetness. If their noses are shut, they should not get any flavor. Have students unplug their noses. They should perceive a burst of flavor. Ask them to rate the flavor and the sweetness. Students should notice a flavor burst caused by movement of air into their mouths that allows the odorants to enter the back of the nose (retronasal olfaction). Did the sweet taste change when they unplugged their noses? Source: Bartoshuk, L. (2014). From supertasters to better tomatoes: What modern taste psychophysics can do. Presentation at the National Institute for Teaching Psychology, St. Petersburg, FL. Taste: An activity for taste can be found at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bringscience-home-sour-preference-age/. Smell: Use Handout 10: Emotional Smells as a way for the students to realize and think about how smells set up emotional memories for them. Smell and Taste: Ask for a class volunteer who has no food allergies. Blindfold the student and plug their noise with a swimming nose plug or something similar. Offer them an apple or onion and ask them what they taste. This can lead to a discussion of the interaction of taste IM – 4 | 137 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

and smell. You may also bring in that as people age, their sense of smell declines. How does this influence their taste sensations? Source: Diekhoff, G. M. (1990). Sensory interdependencies. In V. P. Makosky, et al. (Eds.). Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: American Psychology Association. Researching New Technology: Have students search for one journal article or magazine article that explains the impact new technology (e.g., iPods, iPads, ear buds, Kindles, and ereaders) is having on the health of our senses. Ask them to write a one- to two-page critique of that article and reflect on what changes they can personally make when using such devices to help protect their senses from damage. Using Your Senses: Ask students to write down their favorite food. Next, ask them to list and describe how they used their senses in determining their favorite food. Then, ask students to write a short essay describing how the favorite food relates to their self-identity. Finally, ask them if they lost a particular sense, would it change their identity? Which Sense? Tell students they have to give up one sense. No choice; ask them which sense they would give up, why, and how would they cope. This can be an essay, group activity, or short essay. Sensory Abilities Survey: Have students complete the simple true-and-false survey in Handout 1: Sensory Abilities Survey. Comparison data are available to share with students. Sensory Adaptation: Use Handout 2: What Sensory Adaptation Did You Experience Already Today? The goal of this assignment is to have students realize that they experience sensory adaptation every day, and it often happens without them even being aware of it. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS HEARING DAMAGE If hearing damage results from exposure to noises, such as loud music and iPods, why do people continue to put themselves at risk? BIOLOGY AND CULTURE IN SMELL AND TASTE PREFERENCES It has been said that we taste with our eyes ﬁrst. Professional chefs give great thought to the presentation of foods. Think about your favorite food and focus not on how it tastes but on how it looks. Now, think about how it smells. How do vision, smell, and taste work together to produce the experience of your favorite dish? Would your favorite beef stew be just as appetizing if it were served in a dog food dish?

Imagine a person standing at a corner. As she starts to cross the street, she hears a car slamming on its brakes and turns her head to see a car hitting a tree. Explain what is occurring both in vision and audition as this person sees and hears the accident. Ask students what smells trigger strong childhood memories. Explain why smells create such strong memory cues. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Have You Lost Your…? Having lost one of your senses can be a very challenging period of time. Of the five senses we talked about in this chapter, which one of the five do you think you could give up? Cast your vote. Who knows someone who has lost one of their five senses? How many people think that individuals who are deaf or blind perceive life just as someone who has all their senses intact? Polling Question: Sense or No Sense? Ask students which sense, if they had to choose, they would be most willing to go without for the rest of their lives (you can use the CPS clickers to poll the class). Then, ask them why. Polling Question: Sensory Adaptation Ask students if they are wearing a watch, ring, or necklace (you may use CPS to poll the class on this). Now, ask them how many of them can feel that piece of jewelry. Most people can‘t. They might when they first put it on that day, but after a little (very little) time has passed, they may no longer feel it. The same thing happens at pool parties. Some people are in the pool saying the water‘s ―not that bad.‖ Then, you jump in and think its freezing! Were they lying? No, they had just already undergone sensory adaptation to the temperature. In a few minutes, you do the same thing to the next person thinking of coming in the pool. Polling Question: Touch Me, Hold Me, and Squeeze Me Tight Often, the focus on our sensory systems is largely dedicated to seeing and hearing. However, there is very strong evidence that suggests touch may be the most important sense we have. Developmental research has shown that touching creates a bond that fosters emotional and physical connections. How many students think that touching is one of the most important parts of developing a relationship with someone? Who would say they are considered ―touchy-feely‖ people by their friends or family? Polling Question: Spice It Up! Culture can influence the experiences of taste. Think about the last time you were out at a restaurant with your friends and you disagreed on whether or not a particular food item was spicy or not. For some, the experience of spicy foods is introduced slowly into their diet as children so they can learn ―what is delicious‖ at an early age. How many of you like spicy foods and the hotter the better? Which culture do you think has the spiciest foods? (Instructor note: Search Google for ―cultures with the spiciest foods‖ for the most updated list of options for polling.) Discuss how cultural influences inform our perceptions of ―delicious‖ or umami. IM – 4 | 139 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

SUGGESTED MEDIA CBC Television. (2008). Hearing: Science of the Senses, 45:00. This program provides information on how individuals hear and interpret sounds. How music shapes the way people think and feel is also discussed. Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology. (2015). Hearing and balance. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0DYP-u1rNM. Dr. Katz discussing the ear. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQXK4BN-ORE. Hearing Health Foundation. http://hearinghealthfoundation.org. Insight Media. (2003). Human Senses: Smell, 30:00. The sense of smell is examined in this program. NASA clip on the ear. https://youtu.be/_ovMh2A3P5k. Olfactory system. A great site on the olfactory system as well as such things as body odor and smell in space is at http://timsmell.blogspot.com. It includes new as well as past research. SciShow. (2017, May 19). Your sense of smell is better than you think [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzIxeTWX120. Supertasters. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hd_mxyMAJJY. This clip is from Scientific America with host Alan Alda. Taste & smell: Crash course anatomy & physiology. (2015). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFm3yA1nslE. TED talk on synesthesia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkRbebvoYqI. The Brain (1997): Teaching module #11: Sensory-motor integration [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/sensory-motorintegration/?jwsource=cl. An example of the human body in motion is used to illustrate the combination of the various senses in motor function. ADDITIONAL READINGS Blodgett, B. (2010). Remembering smell: A memoir of losing—and discovering—the primal sense. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Cytowic, R. E. (1993). The man who tasted shapes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Duffy, P. L. (2001). Blue cats and chartreuse kittens: How synesthetes color their worlds. New York, NY: Times Book.

Haws, L., & Oppey, B. J. (2002). Classroom demonstrations of auditory perceptions. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 147–150. Konnikova, M. (2012). Smells like old times. Scientific American Mind, 23(1), 59–63. This article reports that sense of smell has connection with one‘s memory and thought. In 2000, psychologist Simon Chu found that odor-related memories could be from as early as ages 6 to 10, unlike the notion of memories from teenage years. Richard L. Doty, director of the Smell and Taste Center at the University of Pennsylvania, mentions that odors have connection with memories as they are rare as compared to visual stimuli. Li, W., Moallem, I., Paller, K. A., & Gottfried, J. A. (2007). Subliminal smells can guide social preferences. Psychological science, 18(12), 1044–1049. Moore, B. C. (2003). An introduction to the psychology of hearing (Vol. 4). San Diego: Academic Press. Rutgers University. (2017, May 11). The human sense of smell: It‘s stronger than we think. ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/05/170511142020.htm. Spector, F., & Maurer, D. (2009). Synesthesia: A new approach to understanding the development of perception. Developmental Psychology, 45, 175–189. Strayer, D. L., & Watson, J. M. (2012). Supertaskers and the multitasking brain. Scientific American Mind, 23(1), 22–29. This article focuses on multitasking, which compromises on performance. It states that studies conducted by researchers reveal that performance deteriorates drastically when a person tries to focus on more than one task at a time. According to a study, accident risk is greater when a driver is using a cell phone while driving than when intoxicated. A study conducted by Clifford Nass of the Stanford University reveals that people took more time to switch tasks while multitasking. Wapner, J. (2017, May 11). Science sniffs out our hidden superpower: Sense of smell. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/human-sense-smell-better-thought-607677.

MODULE 11: PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION: CONSTRUCTING OUR VIEW OF THE WORLD LEARNING OBJECTIVES 11-1

What principles underlie our organization of the visual world and allow us to make sense of our environment?

11-2

How are we able to perceive the world in three dimensions when our retinas are capable of sensing only two-dimensional images?

11-3

What clues do visual illusions give us about our understanding of general perceptual mechanisms?

THE GESTALT LAWS OF ORGANIZATION (SEE FIGURES 1 AND 2) The Gestalt laws of organization are a series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes. We usually group elements to form enclosed or complete figures and ignore the breaks. We perceive elements that are closer together as grouped together. Although Gestalt psychology no longer plays a prominent role in contemporary psychology, one fundamental Gestalt principle that remains influential is that two objects considered together form a whole that differs from the simple combination of individual elements we sense. Generally, the organizational principles that drive perception seem to be universal. TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING (SEE FIGURES 3 AND 4) In top-down processing, perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations. Bottom-up processing consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole. Top-down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously, and interact with each other, in our perception of the world around us. Bottom-up processing permits us to process the fundamental characteristics of stimuli, whereas top-down processing allows us to bring our experience to bear on perception. DEPTH PERCEPTION: TRANSLATING 2-D TO 3-D The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance—a skill known as depth perception—is due largely to the fact that we have two eyes. Because there is a certain distance between the eyes, a slightly different image reaches each retina. The brain integrates the two images into one view, but it also recognizes the difference in images and uses this difference to estimate the distance of an object from us. The difference in the images seen by the left eye and the right eye is known as binocular disparity. In some cases, certain cues permit us to obtain a sense of depth and distance with just one eye. These cues are known as monocular cues. One monocular cue—motion parallax—is the change in position of an object on the retina caused by movement of your body relative to the object. Similarly, the monocular cue of relative size reflects the assumption that if two objects are the same size, the object that makes a smaller image on the retina is farther away than the one that makes a larger image. The monocular cue of texture gradient provides information about distance, because the details of things that are far away are less distinct. Finally, people use linear perspective (in which objects in the distance appear to converge) as a monocular cue in IM – 4 | 142 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

estimating distance, allowing the two-dimensional image on the retina to record the threedimensional world. PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY Perceptual constancy is the recognition that physical objects are unvarying and consistent, even though our sensory input about them varies. Perceptual constancy leads us to view objects as having an unvarying size, shape, color, and brightness, even if the image on our retina varies. MOTION PERCEPTION: AS THE WORLD TURNS With regard to the perception of motion, the movement of an object across the retina is typically perceived relative to some stable, unmoving background. If a stimulus is heading toward us, the image on the retina expands in size, filling more and more of the visual field. In such cases, we assume that the stimulus is approaching—not that it is an expanding stimulus viewed at a constant distance. It is not just the movement of images across the retina that brings about the perception of motion. If it were, we would perceive the world as moving every time we moved our heads. Instead, one of the critical things we learn about perception is to factor in information about our own head and eye movements along with information about changes in the retinal image. Sometimes we perceive motion when it doesn‘t occur. Apparent movement is the perception that a stationary object is moving. It occurs when different areas of the retina are quickly stimulated, leading us to interpret motion. PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS: THE DECEPTIONS OF PERCEPTIONS (SEE FIGURES 5 AND 6) Visual illusions are physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception. The reason for this is that an illusion that makes right angles placed above a line appear as if they were bent. The Müller-Lyer illusion has fascinated psychologists for decades. Although the two lines are the same length, the one with the arrow tips pointing outward, away from the vertical line, appears to be shorter than the one with the arrow tips pointing inward. Most suggestions of visual illusions concentrate either on the physical operation of the eye or on our misinterpretation of the visual stimulus.

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: CULTURE AND PERCEPTION (SEE FIGURES 7 AND 8) Cultural differences are also reflected in depth perception. A Western viewer of Figure 8 would most likely interpret the hunter in the drawing as aiming for the antelope in the foreground, while IM – 4 | 143 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

an elephant stands under the tree in the background. A member of certain isolated Bantu African tribes, however, is more apt to perceive the scene very differently and assume the hunter is aiming at the elephant. Do basic perceptual processes differ among people of different cultures? No. Variations in learning and experience produce cross-cultural differences in perception, and the underlying psychological processes involved in perception are similar. Although visual illusions may seem like mere psychological curiosities, they actually illustrate something fundamental about perception. There is a basic connection between our prior knowledge, needs, motivations, and expectations about how the world is put together and the way we perceive it. Our view of the world is very much an outcome, then, of fundamental psychological factors. Furthermore, each person perceives the environment in a way that is unique and special. SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION Subliminal perception refers to the perception of messages about which we have no awareness. The stimulus could be a written word, a sound, or even a smell that activates the sensory system but is not intense enough for a person to report having experienced it. Although subliminal messages (which social psychologists refer to as priming) can influence behavior in subtle ways, there is little evidence that they can lead to major changes in attitudes or behavior. Psychologists are particularly skeptical of reports of extrasensory perception, or ESP— perception that does not involve our known senses. Most psychologists reject the existence of ESP, asserting that there is no sound documentation of the phenomenon. According to proponents of ESP, reliable evidence existed for an ―anomalous process of information transfer,‖ or psi. Their conclusion was challenged and largely discredited for several reasons. For example, critics suggested that the research methodology was inadequate and that the experiments supporting psi are flawed. Because of the lack of any credible theoretical explanation for how extrasensory perception might take place, almost no reputable psychologists view it as having any reliable scientific support. KEY TERMS bottom-up processing Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole. depth perception The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance. Gestalt (geh-SHTALLT) laws of organization A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes. perceptual constancy Our understanding that physical objects are consistent and do not vary, even though sensory input about them may vary.

top-down processing Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations. visual illusions Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception. LECTURE IDEAS MOON ILLUSION DEMONSTRATION For the moon illusion, conduct the following demonstration: Ask students to write down their answer to this question: You are watching the moon just after it has risen above the horizon. If you were to hold out your hand at arm‘s length, what object would completely cover the moon from view? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Pea Quarter Golf ball Baseball Dinner plate

Ask for a show of hands for each choice. Most students will choose answer 2 or 3 when 1 is the correct answer. Background information on the moon illusion can be found on this website: http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/16jun_moonillusion/. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS: NAMES OF ILLUSIONS To help students remember the names of the illusions, give them these hints:   

Müller-Lyer (two-headed arrows): Müller was a ―liar‖ when he said that two arrows were the same length. Ponzo (train tracks): You can take the train to Ponzo, a lovely Italian town. Poggendorf (discontinuous line; example is air traffic controller‘s radar screen): Mr. Poggendorf, an air traffic controller, lost his job when he almost caused a crash.

OTHER VISUAL ILLUSIONS Have students explore the following website and discuss the illusions in terms of the visual system: https://www.verywell.com/cool-optical-illusions-2795841. DEMONSTRATION: TOP-DOWN PROCESSING To illustrate top-down processing, show students this paragraph: IM – 4 | 145 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. To help students remember the difference between top-down and bottom-up, explain that they refer to the direction of processing. Top-down means from the cortex down, and bottom-up means from the senses up to the brain. SPATIAL PERCEPTION IN INDONESIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS Spatial Perception in Indonesian Hunter-Gatherers: You suddenly hear your name broadcast on an airport loudspeaker; a worker smells the faint odor of gasoline; a man spots his wife in a crowd of thousands of people. Important information leaps out at our senses. How do we know what is important and what we can ignore? In Indonesia, Pontius (1993) found evidence that the way people live from day to day can have a strong impact on how they perceive visual details. Pontius studied two groups of male teenagers. One set of subjects lived in coastal cities near harbors and attended schools. The other group lived in isolated villages and had little schooling. Instead, they lived as hunter-gatherers, catching and collecting their food from the land. The subjects used colored blocks to copy geometric patterns written on sheets of paper. When the hunter-gatherers made mistakes, they tended to copy the overall shape of the design, neglecting the small details. The city dwellers, however, made more inconsistent errors. These differences correspond to the teenagers' daily lives. The hunter-gatherers need good spatial perception to be able to spot prey and kill it quickly but can ignore fine details. For city-dwellers, though, spatial relations are not as important as visual details, such as words on signs. Subliminal Perception: Have students go to the internet for an example of subliminal perception. The majority of the cases will most likely be in advertising. After finding an example of subliminal perception, they should write a one- to two-page paper reviewing the information they found. Then, in class, ask for volunteers to come forward and explain the situation of subliminal perception they found in their search. Selective Attention: Break the class into groups, and have each group come up with five examples of selective attention. At various points in time while the students are working on the assignment, call out one of the students‘ names and ask him or her a question. After the assignment is completed, explain to the students how they all just experienced selective attention when you called out their names because they stopped what they were doing and focused their attention on you. The students will be reviewing the concept of selective attention as well as forming their own examples. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS

THE MOON ILLUSION Assign Handout 9: The Moon Illusion. DISCUSSION AND POLLING QUESTIONS Ask students to explain how their own perceptual sets might create stereotypes, prejudice, or discrimination. Polling Question: Subliminal Perception Do you believe in subliminal perception? Polling Question: ESP Do you believe in ESP? Polling Question: You Already Know What I Am Going to Say Next Extrasensory perception (ESP) is a term often scoffed at in psychology and wider science—an alleged paranormal or supernatural phenomenon that many believe is best suited to science fiction films. Yet, to the surprise of many academics, a significant body of scientific evidence exists that may suggest otherwise. How many of you believe that ESP is a legitimate experience? Who agrees that because science can‘t prove that ―the sixth sense‖ exists, then it must not be true? Who has experienced a situation similar to ESP? Who thinks people like the character Patrick Jane in the TV series The Mentalist is a phony, fake, and scam artist? Polling Question: It’s Everyone Else’s Fault But My Own Texting, talking, and driving have become one of the hottest topics in the media. Most of us would say that we are good drivers and that often the other person is at fault for an accident, a near miss, or even road rage. Who has caught themselves yelling at someone because the other person was texting or talking and wasn‘t paying attention while driving and almost hit you? Let‘s be honest: How many of you have been the one texting or talking on the phone and almost got into an accident, near miss, or braked hard because you weren‘t paying attention? Who thinks they can actually multitask without sacrificing quality or concentration on all the tasks at hand? How many people think that the media is making too big of a deal about talking on the phone or texting while driving? SUGGESTED MEDIA Ames room (Errol and Ricky). https://youtu.be/5ic7QGjGEX8. Ames room. http://oceanswebsite.com/Amesroom1.html. CBS News. (2018, April 25). Pay attention: How sensory deprivation and floating impact the mind https://www.cbsnews.com/news/pay-attention-sensory-deprivation-impact-on-brain/. Gestalt laws of perceptual psychology. http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws.htm. IM – 4 | 147 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Khan Academy—Processing the environment: https://www.khanacademy.org/testprep/mcat/processing-the-environment. Khan Academy—Bottom-up versus top-down processing. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensoryinfor/sensory-perception-2014-03-27T18:45:20.451Z/v/bottom-up-versus-top-down-processing. Optical illusions: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_in33BsKOE&feature=related. Optical illusions: https://michaelbach.de/ot/ and http://www.illusions.org. Sensation and perception tutorials and demonstrations. http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/sen_tut.html. The invisible gorilla. http://www.theinvisiblegorilla.com/videos.html. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cuskley, C., Dingemanse, M., Kirby, S., and van Leeuwen, T. M. (2019). Cross-modal associations and synesthesia: Categorical perception and structure in vowel-color mappings in a large online sample. Behavior Research Methods, pp 1–25. https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-019-01203-7. Gallagher, S. P., & Hoefling, C. L. (2013). A laboratory exercise demonstrating the relationship of projected size to distance. Teaching of Psychology, 40, 212–216. Gibson, E. (1970). Development of perception as a process of adaptation. American Scientist, 58, 98–107. Lehrer, J. (2009, April 20). Magic and the brain: Teller reveals the neuroscience of illusion. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2009/04/ff-neuroscienceofmagic/. Macknik, S. L., Martinez-Conde, S., & Blakeslee, S. (2010). Sleights of mind: What the neuroscience of magic reveals about our everyday deceptions. New York, NY: Henry Holt. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS  Thresholds  Sensory Adaptation  Sensation and Perception of Touch  Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing VIDEOS  Inattentional Blindness

INTERACTIVITIES  Weber‘s Law  Top-Down Versus Bottom-Up Processing  Depth Perception  Visual Illusions LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Functions of the Eye  Functions of the Ear COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: SENSORY ABILITIES SURVEY Answer True or False to each item: I have trouble seeing at night. I am color-blind. I wear glasses for nearsightedness. I wear glasses for farsightedness. I wear a hearing aid for a hearing deficit. I constantly experience ringing in my ears. I am often the first person in a group to detect a new odor in a room. I can usually detect even a tiny amount of seasoning in food. I often get motion sickness when riding in airplanes, ships, or on amusement rides. I am often the first person in a group to notice a room temperature change.

HANDOUT 1 (CON‘T): SENSORY ABILITIES SURVEY: SURVEY RESPONSES Current survey results for 658 entries. Percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. 1. I have trouble seeing at night. True 259 39% False 372 56% 2. I am color-blind. True 29 4% False 601 91% 3. I wear glasses for nearsightedness. True 290 44% False 339 51% 4. I wear glasses for farsightedness. True 122 18% False 504 76% 5. I wear a hearing aid for a hearing deficit. True 21 3% False 606 92% 6. I constantly experience ringing in my ears. True 70 10% False 558 84% 7. I am often the first person in a group to detect a new odor in a room. True 327 49% False 304 46% 8. I can usually detect even a tiny amount of seasoning in food. True 339 51% False 292 44% 9. I often get motion sickness when riding in airplanes, ships, or on amusement rides. True 187 28% False 442 67% 10. I am often the first person in a group to notice a room temperature change. True 345 52% IM – 4 | 151 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

False

283

43%

HANDOUT 2: WHAT SENSORY ADAPTATION DID YOU EXPERIENCE ALREADY TODAY? Think about the chapter description of sensory adaptations. Make a list of the various sensory adaptations you have already experienced today. Explain how they are sensory adaptations. IM – 4 | 152 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

HANDOUT 3: VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING This figure illustrates the pathway from both retinas to the brain: (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Remove answers before using.) Answer the following questions: Where in the cortex does an image on the right half of the visual field show up? The right visual cortex. The left visual cortex. (Answer: Left visual cortex) Where in the cortex does an image on the left half of the visual field show up? The right visual cortex. The left visual cortex. (Answer: Right visual cortex) Where does the information from the two halves of the visual field cross before reaching the brain? (Answer: Optic chiasm) Where does information from the right retina show up in the cortex? (Answer: The right retina projects to both the right and left visual cortices.)

HANDOUT 4: IS IT TOP-DOWN OR BOTTOM-UP? Circle the correct answer: 1. Susie used the DVR to record her favorite television show. TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM-UP 2. Maria‘s mom is showing Roberto how to make the family‘s favorite molasses cookies. She walks Rebecca through the recipe step-by-step. TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM-UP 3. Abdul decides he is going to start a business of putting bicycles together. He reads the instructions carefully and follows them very closely. TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM-UP 4. It‘s been 2 years and Abdul‘s bicycle business is doing very well. He can now go through five to eight bicycles a day without looking at any instructions. TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM-UP 5. Jeremy is in his first year of algebra and finds the algebra problems very confusing. He finds that he needs to keep going back to the textbook and seeing what steps are next. TOP-DOWN or BOTTOM-UP

HANDOUT 5: AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING Identify each part of the auditory system: (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Correct answers are written in parentheses.) Tubelike passage that leads to the eardrum (auditory canal) Operates like a miniature drum, vibrating when sound waves hit it (eardrum) Thin membrane leading to the inner ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it (oval window) Structures in the middle ear that transmit vibrations and increase their strength (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) Coiled tube filled with fluid that can vibrates in response to sound (cochlea) Structure in the cochlea that contains hair cells (basilar membrane) Involved in the sensation of balance (semicircular canals)

HANDOUT 6: DECIBEL LEVELS OF VARIOUS NOISES Indicate the decibel levels of 10 noises in your environment by using the following scale as a rough guide: Leaves rustling: 10 dB Whispering: 25 dB Normal conversation: 60 dB Car: 70 dB Alarm clock: 80 dB Crying child: 90 dB Level at which sustained exposure causes damage: 95 dB Subway train: 100 dB Power tools: 110 dB Auto horn: 120 dB Pain at exposure to noise: 125 dB Amplified rock music at 4–ft.:120 dB Rock music peak: 150 dB Jet engine close up: 155 dB Rocket launching: 180 dB Death of hearing tissue: 180 dB Noise

Decibel Level

HANDOUT 7: SMELL RATING ACTIVITY

Looking around you, find 10 substances or ordinary objects that you think will have a distinct odor. These could include, for example: Stick of gum Rollerball pen or highlighter Coffee or a soft drink Bottle of cologne Bar of soap Bottle of shampoo Piece of food (candy, fruit, and bagel) Leaf from an indoor plant Blade of grass Stuffed animal Pillow Wool sweater Candle Shaving cream

You will smell each one. As you pick it up, close your eyes and take a deep whiff. Next, indicate the name of the object and words to describe its smell. Then, rate the pleasantness of the smell. In between scents, breathe in some clean air or, if it is available, some unroasted coffee. Source

Describe the Smell in Words.

Rate the Smell: 1 = Not pleasant; 5 = Very pleasant.

HANDOUT 8: TASTE RATING ACTIVIT Y Looking around you, find 10 substances or ordinary objects that you think will have a distinct taste. These could include, for example: Salty—potato chip or pretzel Sweet—candy or fruit Bitter—coffee (unsweetened) Sour—lemon (unsweetened) Umami—meat or cheese In between tastes, eat something bland so that you can fully savor the next bite. Record your taste ratings here: Food

What Is the Primary Taste?

How Pleasant Is This Taste? 1 = Not Pleasant; 5 = Very Pleasant.

Now, randomly choose one of these foods, except this time hold your nose while you‘re taking a bite. Close your eyes while you chew. Can you identify the food by flavor? (Answer should be no.)

HANDOUT 9: THE MOON ILLUSION The actual cause of the moon illusion is not known, but the theory of perceptual constancy states that when the moon is near the horizon, the perceptual cues of intervening terrain and objects such as trees on the horizon make us think that it is farther away than it is when it is high in the sky, where we have no distance cues. Adding to this is the perception of the sky over our heads as closer than the sky at the horizon. If the moon is farther away at the horizon but still reflects the same image onto our retina (about a 5% visual angle), it must be larger than the moon overhead. In either case, the explanation rests on the case that the brain perceives the horizon moon as farther away and adjusts the viewer‘s perception to emphasize the fact that it must be an enormous object to be so far away and still take up so much of the sky. Interestingly enough, although perceivers may say that the horizon moon appears closer (not farther away), experiments measuring the perception of the horizon moon‘s apparent distance validate that people place the horizon moon farther away than the overhead moon (https://www.space.com/18135-how-big-is-the-moon.html). Here‘s a demonstration: https://youtu.be/49RztN4Bqu0. The moon illusion is a misapplication of size constancy in which we adjust our perception of an object to take into account its distance. Here‘s another example: When we see a friend 200 feet away, that person will look small to our retinas. However, our brains ―know‖ that the person is actually 5 or 6 ft. tall, not 1 or 2 in. tall. We automatically adjust our perception to ―see‖ our friend as having normal height, not being the size of a tiny doll.

HANDOUT 10: EMOTIONAL SMELLS Think of two emotional experiences in your life. The experiences do not necessarily have to be sad ones; they can be something that brings about good memories. Explain the situations, and then think about what scent reminds you of each of them. Explain why.

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 2: WHAT SENSORY ADAPTATION DID YOU EXPERIENCE ALREADY TODAY? ANSWER KEY Think about the chapter description of sensory adaptations. Make a list of the various sensory adaptations you have already experienced today. Explain how they are sensory adaptations. Possible answers: eyes adjusting to a darkened room adjusting to extreme water temperatures bad smells annoying noises etc. HANDOUT 4: IS IT TOP-DOWN OR BOTTOM-UP? ANSWER KEY 1. Susie used the DVR to record her favorite television show. TOP-DOWN 2. Maria‘s mom is showing Roberto how to make the family‘s favorite molasses cookies. She walks Rebecca through the recipe step-by-step. BOTTOM-UP 3. Abdul decides he is going to start a business of putting bicycles together. He reads the instructions carefully and follows them very closely. BOTTOM-UP 4. It‘s been 2 years and Abdul‘s bicycle business is doing very well. He can now go through five to eight bicycles a day without looking at any instructions. TOP-DOWN 5. Jeremy is in his first year of algebra and finds the algebra problems very confusing. He finds that he needs to keep going back to the textbook and seeing what steps are next. BOTTOM-UP

HANDOUT 10: EMOTIONAL SMELLS ANSWER KEY Think of two emotional experiences in your life. The experiences do not necessarily have to be sad ones; they can be something that brings about good memories. Explain the situations, and then think about what scent reminds you of that situation. Explain why. Students should grasp that the olfactory system is connected to the limbic system, which is involved in emotion and memory.

Chapter 4 States of Consciousness OPENING THEMES Consciousness is the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment. Consciousness is our subjective understanding of both the environment around us and our private internal world, unobservable to outsiders. In this unit, you will be covering topics of natural interest to students. You will have the opportunity to integrate the physiological material covered up to this point with areas of application that are closely related to their daily lives. Sleep, dreaming, and hypnosis are topics that provide fascinating insights into understanding human consciousness. Drug use is the other significant topic in this unit relevant to their daily lives. You have the opportunity to present facts on such topics relevant to their experiences in college as drug use and abuse and binge drinking. MODULE 12: SLEEP AND DREAMS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 12-1

What are the states of consciousness?

12-2

What happens when we sleep, and what are the meaning and function of dreams?

12-3

What are the major sleep disorders, and how can they be treated?

12-4

How much do we daydream?

Although sleeping is a state that we all experience, many unanswered questions about sleep still remain, along with a considerable number of myths. THE STAGES OF SLEEP (SEE FIGURES 2 AND 3) IM – 5 | 6 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Most of us consider sleep a time of tranquility when we set aside the tensions of the day and spend the night in uneventful slumber. However, a closer look at sleep shows that a good deal of activity occurs throughout the night. Measures of electrical activity show that the brain is quite active during the night. It produces electrical discharges with systematic, wavelike patterns that change in height (or amplitude) and speed (or frequency) in regular sequences. There is also significant physical activity in the muscle and eyes. People progress through a series of distinct stages of sleep during a night‘s rest—known as stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, and REM sleep—moving through the stages in cycles lasting about 90 min. Each of these sleep stages is associated with a unique pattern of brain waves. When people first go to sleep, they move from a waking state in which they are relaxed with their eyes closed into stage 1 sleep, which is characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. As sleep becomes deeper, people enter stage 2 sleep, which makes up about half of the total sleep of those in their early 20s and is characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern. As people drift into stage 3 sleep, the brain waves become slower, with higher peaks and lower valleys in the wave pattern. During stage 3, people are least responsive to outside stimulation. REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP Several times a night, when sleepers have cycled back to a shallower state of sleep, their heart rate increases and becomes irregular, their blood pressure rises, and their breathing rate increases. Most characteristic of this period is the back-and-forth movement of their eyes, as if they were watching an action-filled movie. This period of sleep is called rapid eye movement, or REM sleep, and it contrasts with stages 1 through 3, which are collectively labeled non-REM (or NREM) sleep. Paradoxically, while all this activity is occurring, the major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed. In addition, and most important, REM sleep is usually accompanied by dreams, which—whether or not people remember them—are experienced by everyone during some part of their night‘s sleep. Although the stages of sleep appear to occur universally, in all humans, we know very little about racial, ethnic, or cross-cultural differences in the amount of time spent in the various sleep stages. As in many other areas of investigation, the vast majority of research on the physiology of sleep has been carried out on white research participants living in Western cultures. WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY? There are four explanations to why we sleep. One explanation is that sleep conserves energy for essential daytime function; based on an evolutionary perspective, it suggests that sleep permitted our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when food was relatively hard to come by. Consequently, they were better able to forage for food when the sun was up. A second explanation for why we sleep is that sleep restores and replenishes our brains and bodies. For instance, the reduced activity of the brain during non-REM sleep may give neurons in the brain a chance to repair themselves. A third explanation is sleep helps forgetting, another primary purpose that allows our brain to eliminate unnecessary information. Finally, sleep may be IM – 5 | 7 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

essential because it assists physical growth and brain development in children. For example, the release of growth hormones is associated with deep sleep (Peterfi et al., 2010). Although we have the explanations, we do not have a definitive answer as to why sleep is essential. Most people sleep between 7 and 8 hours each night, which is 3 hours a night less than people slept a hundred years ago. Men and women sleep differently. Women typically fall asleep more quickly, sleep for longer periods and more deeply than men, and get up fewer times in the night. On the other hand, men typically have fewer concerns about the amount of sleep they get than women do, even though they get less sleep. COVID-19 changed sleep patterns as well because the stress of work disruptions, the home-schooling of children, and changes in living arrangements meant they got less sleep. INEQUITIES IN SLEEP DURATION AND DEPTH Although sleep experts believe that 7 to 9 hours of sleep each night is optimal for adults, many people are unable to get that much sleep because of work and family responsibilities, housing issues, and other environmental factors. People of color take more time to fall asleep, they wake up more frequently during the night, and they spend less time in deep sleep stages, whereas white people on average get extreme levels of sleep. Sleep deprivation is a worldwide phenomenon. Extreme levels of sleep matter because, as mentioned earlier, they are associated with negative health and psychological outcomes. Most people suffer no permanent consequences of such temporary sleep deprivation. But—and this is an important but—a lack of sleep can make us feel edgy, slow our reaction time, and lower our performance on academic and physical tasks. THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING (SEE FIGURE 6) Although dreams tend to be subjective to the person having them, common elements frequently occur in everyone‘s dreams. They typically encompass everyday events such as going to the supermarket, working at the office, and preparing a meal. Students dream about going to class; professors dream about lecturing. Dental patients dream of getting their teeth drilled; dentists dream of drilling the wrong tooth. Nightmares are unusually frightening dreams. Perhaps surprisingly, they occur fairly often. Nightmares often are associated with negative experiences during the day, including worry and anxiety. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, people reported more frequent nightmares. During the COVID-19 pandemic, some people had more emotional dreams, and the topics of their dreams reflected pandemic-related themes. PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DO THEY REPRESENT UNCONSCIOUS WISH FULFILLMENT? Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious (Freud, 1900). In his unconscious wish fulfillment theory, he proposed that dreams represent IM – 5 | 8 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled (see Figure 7). To Freud, the manifest content of the dream is what we remember and report about the dream—its storyline. The manifest content, however, disguises the latent content, which includes the actual, underlying wishes that the dream represents. Because the underlying wishes (the latent content) are threatening to the dreamer, they are hidden in the dream‘s storyline (the manifest content). Many psychologists reject Freud‘s view that dreams typically represent unconscious wishes and that particular objects and events in a dream are symbolic. Rather, they believe that the direct, overt action of a dream is the focal point of its meaning. EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DREAMS-FOR-SURVIVAL THEORY According to the dreams-for-survival theory, which is based in the evolutionary perspective, dreams permit us to reconsider and reprocess during sleep information that is critical for our daily survival. In the dreams-for-survival theory, dreams represent concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires. Dreams are seen, then, as consistent with everyday living. Rather than being disguised wishes, as Freud suggested, they represent key concerns growing out of our daily experiences (Winson, 1990; Ross, 2006; Horton, 2011). Research supports the dreams-for-survival theory, suggesting that certain dreams permit people to focus on and to consolidate memories, particularly dreams that pertain to ―how-to-doit‖ memories related to motor skills. Dreams seem to allow the brain to erase erroneous connections between various pieces of information and establish accurate connections. NEUROSCIENCE EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY The activation-synthesis theory focuses on the random electrical energy that the brain produces during REM sleep, possibly as a result of changes in the production of particular neurotransmitters. This electrical energy randomly stimulates memories stored in the brain. Activation-synthesis theory has been refined by the activation in formation modulation (AIM) theory. According to AIM, dreams are initiated in the brain‘s pons, which sends random signals to the cortex. Areas of the cortex that are involved in particular waking behaviors are related to the content of dreams. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: BRAIN MICROSTATES DURING DREAMING Neuroscientists can now measure the brain‘s electrical activity on the scale of milliseconds; they are learning a great deal about our mental states. One perhaps surprising discovery is that human consciousness consists of a series of mental states, each one lasting only fractions of seconds— some less than 200 milliseconds—called microstates. Sleep, hypnosis, meditation, and other altered states of consciousness can influence how these microstates fluctuate over time. The prefrontal cortex plays important roles in cognitive and emotional functioning, the increased prefrontal activity during dreams may explain why some dreams are so vivid. IM – 5 | 9 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS Insomnia is a condition in which people experience difficulty in sleeping. Insomnia is a problem that afflicts as many as one third of all people. Women and older adults are more likely to suffer from insomnia, as well as people who are unusually thin or are depressed. There are racial disparities in insomnia in that racial minorities seem to face higher rates of insomnia. Sleep apnea is a condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping. The result is disturbed, fitful sleep, and a significant loss of REM sleep, as the person is constantly reawakened when the lack of oxygen becomes great enough to trigger a waking response. Sleep apnea also may play a role in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)—now sometimes called sudden unexpected infant death (SUID)—in which, without any obvious cause, seemingly normal infants die while sleeping. Night terrors are sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. Usually occurring in stage 3 sleep, night terrors may be so frightening that a sleeper awakens with a shriek. They are far less frequent than nightmares and typically occur during stage 3, non-REM sleep among 3- to 8-year-olds. Narcolepsy is uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake. No matter what the activity—holding a heated conversation, exercising, or driving—a narcoleptic will suddenly fall asleep. People with narcolepsy go directly from wakefulness to REM sleep, skipping the other stages. We know relatively little about sleep talking and sleepwalking, two sleep disturbances that are usually harmless. Both occur during stage 3 sleep and are more common in children than in adults. CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES Circadian rhythms (from the Latin circa diem, or ―about a day‖) are biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hr cycle. Sleeping and waking, for instance, occur naturally to the beat of an internal pacemaker that works on a cycle of about 24 hr. Sleepiness occurs not just in the evening but throughout the day in regular patterns, with most of us getting drowsy in the mid-afternoon—regardless of whether or not we have eaten a heavy lunch. The phenomenon of afternoon naps is called a siesta in Hispanic cultures, and siesta is a term that is sometimes employed by English-speakers to label their afternoon nap. Japan has a practice of inemuri (literally, ―sleeping while present‖). The brain‘s suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) controls circadian rhythms. However, the relative amount of light and darkness, which varies with the seasons of the year, also plays a role in regulating circadian rhythms. In fact, some people experience seasonal affective disorder, a form of severe depression in which feelings of despair and hopelessness increase during the winter and lift during the rest of the year. People‘s moods also follow regular patterns. By examining more than 500 million tweets using publicly available Twitter records, a team of psychologists found that words with positive associations (fantastic and super) and negative associations (afraid and mad) followed regular patterns. Health issues are more apt to appear at certain times of the day. Heart attacks and strokes occur more often and severely between 6:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m. Some researchers believe that medicine for illnesses might be most effective if delivered according to a given person‘s circadian rhythms. IM – 5 | 10 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP Daydreams are fantasies that people construct while awake. Unlike dreaming that occurs during sleep, daydreams are more under people‘s control. Therefore, their content is often more closely related to immediate events in the environment than is the content of the dreams that occur during sleep. Some scientists see a link between daydreaming and dreams during sleep. The content of daydreams and dreams show many parallels, and the brain areas and processes involved in daydreaming and dreams during sleep are related (Domhoff, 2011). The brain is surprisingly active during daydreaming. For example, several areas of the brain that are associated with complex problem-solving become activated during daydreaming. Scientists and writers find that creative ideas routinely arise during periods in which the mind wanders. Daydreaming is also thought to contain elements of inner speech, in which people talk to themselves in their heads. This type of inner dialogue can help us to plan, be creative, and regulate emotions (Alderson-Day et al., 2017; Fernyhough, 2017; Ren, Wang, & Jarrold, 2016). BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: SLEEPING BETTER 70 million people in the United States have sleep problems. Half of Americans aged 19 to 29 report they rarely or never get a good night‘s sleep on weekdays, and nearly a third of working adults say they get less than 6 hours of sleep a night.  Don‘t desperately chase sleep.  Exercise during the day (at least 6 hours before bedtime).  Avoid long naps—but consider taking short ones.  Avoid screen time before bed.  Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch.  Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime.  Avoid sleeping pills.  Try not to sleep. KEY TERMS activation-synthesis theory Hobson‘s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain. circadian rhythms Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle. consciousness The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment. daydreams Fantasies that people construct while awake. dreams-for-survival theory The theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep. IM – 5 | 11 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep Sleep occupying 20% of an adult‘s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming. stage 1 sleep The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. stage 2 sleep A sleep deeper than that of Stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of ―sleep spindles.‖ stage 3 sleep The deepest stage of sleep, characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in Stage 2 sleep. unconscious wish fulfillment theory Sigmund Freud‘s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled. LECTURE IDEAS FREUDIAN SYMBOLS IN DREAMS Show students the following list of Freudian symbols. Do they agree that these symbols have hidden, unconscious meanings? Male Symbols Bullets Snakes Sticks Fire Umbrellas Hoses Knives Guns Trains and planes

Female Symbols Ovens Boxes Tunnels Caves Bottles Ships Apples Peaches Grapefruits

Symbols of Intercourse Climbing stairs Crossing a bridge Riding an elevator Flying in an airplane Walking down a hallway Entering a room Traveling through a tunnel

DREAM THEORY EXAMPLE Describe one of your recent dreams (one that does not have any obvious sexual or embarrassing content!). Use it to contrast the dream theories. COMMON DREAM THEMES Take a poll of the class to find out what the most common dreams are. Assuming that most would have had dreams about common, everyday experiences, ask them what the implications are for the theories of dreaming (i.e., these probably will support the activation-synthesis theory). IM – 5 | 12 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

JUNGIAN DREAM INTERPRETATION AND SYNCHRONICITY Present additional information not in the text on Jungian dream interpretation and the concept of ―synchronicity‖ (that dreams can warn us of future dangers). Jung has some interesting examples in his book Man and His Symbols. In one dream, a woman who is very prim and proper in her waking life reported shocking dreams reminding her of ―unsavory things.‖ She refused to accept Jung‘s interpretations. Increasingly, her dreams took on references to walks in the woods she took by herself in which she engaged in ―soulful fantasies.‖ Jung became concerned about her, but she refused to acknowledge any danger. Shortly afterward, she was sexually assaulted in one of these walks in the woods. Her screams were answered, and she was rescued. According to Jung, her dreams told her that she had a secret longing for adventure. This may sound like a good ghost story, but even if you are not a Jungian, it actually fits with activation-synthesis theory in that the woman was dreaming about concerns in her daily life. SLEEP DEPRIVATION AND SLEEP DEBT Talk about sleep deprivation and sleep debt. Present the results of the National Sleep Foundation study, Sleep in America (see https://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-polls). GUIDELINES FOR A BETTER NIGHT‘S SLEEP In addition to (or instead of) the guidelines provided in the book for getting a better night‘s sleep, consider this list, from the National Sleep Foundation (see https://sleepfoundation.org/sleeptools-tips).       

Consume less or no caffeine and avoid alcohol. Drink less fluids before going to sleep. Avoid heavy meals close to bedtime. Avoid nicotine. Exercise regularly but do so in the daytime, preferably after noon. Try a relaxing routine, such as soaking in hot water (a hot tub or bath) before bedtime. Establish a regular bedtime and wake time schedule.

NEW YORK TIMES ARTICLE: BACKGROUND ON SLEEP AND DREAMS See the following for an extensive discussion of the functions of sleep and dreams: Angier, N. (2007, October 23). In the dreamscape of nightmares, clues to why we dream at all. The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/23/science/23angi.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS IM – 5 | 13 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Stream of Consciousness: Take 20 min and document your stream of consciousness. Just write whatever comes into your mind for this period. When you have finished, take a close look at what your stream of consciousness reveals. What topics came up that surprised you? Are the thoughts and feelings you wrote down reflective of your daily life? Your important goals and values? What is not mentioned in your stream of consciousness that is surprising to you? CONTENT OF DREAMS What Do You Dream? Have students complete Handout 1: What Do You Dream? which asks them to indicate the nature of their dreams. You can tally up the results and summarize them to the class on a later occasion. Dream Diary: Keep a dream diary for a few days. When you wake up in the morning, immediately write down all that you can remember about your dreams. Have you had many bizarre or unusual dreams? Are there themes in your dreams that reflect the concerns of your daily life? Compare the content of your dream diary with the stream-of-consciousness document you produced for the stream-of-consciousness exercise, above. Are there similarities in the content of your relaxed waking mind and your dreams? THEORIES OF DREAMING: MELATONIN Comparing Theories of Dreams: Have students complete Handout 2: Comparing Theories of Dreams. Melatonin: Have students complete an internet search for articles and other websites that concern melatonin. Next, have students decide why melatonin would be particularly helpful for eastward travel but not westward. Finally, have them determine the health safety of taking melatonin for jet lag. SLEEP DEBT QUESTIONNAIRE AND THE LIFE OF SLEEP INTERVIEW Sleep Debt: Have students complete Handout 3: Measure Your Sleep Debt, which contains the sleep debt questionnaire. The Life of Sleep: Interview one to two people about changes in how much they sleep and the quality of sleep as they have gotten older. Also ask some questions about any experiences they had with children growing up and their sleep patterns. See if you can take the information learned from the interview and create your own image of sleep across the life span. SLEEP IQ QUIZ AND SLEEP DISORDERS Sleep IQ Quiz: Have students complete Handout 4: What’s Your Sleep IQ? which contains the sleep IQ quiz.

Sleep Disorders: Use Handout 5: Which Sleep Disorder Is It? The goal of the activity is to have students identify the various sleep disorders. They will read various examples and have to identify which sleep disorder is occurring. CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS Circadian Rhythms: Have students complete Handout 6: Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THEORIES OF DREAMS Why do you think that most people forget their dreams? Which theory of dreaming do you find most convincing? Why? SLEEP Ask students to consider the differences between your family or friends in regard to the number of hours of sleep they require. Is the number of hours different from yours? To what do you attribute the difference? How do you think daily activities such as school, work, and family obligations affect your ability to get a good night‘s sleep? Sleep is very important in learning. Adolescents often do not get enough sleep. Why does high school start so early? Ask students if it would be better to start later. Why or why not? What sorts of problems do they see in trying to change the start times in high schools? In many cultures, infants sleep with their parents, and some cultures encourage a family bed in which everyone sleeps together. Ask students whether they think this is a good practice and if they would implement this practice in their home. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: What Do Dogs Dream About? Ever wondered what your dog or pet was dreaming about? An article in Psychology Today by Stanley Coren (2010) suggested that at a structural level, the brains of dogs are similar to those of humans. ―Also, during sleep the brain wave patterns of dogs are similar to that of people and go through the same stages of electrical activity observed in humans, all of which is consistent with the idea that dogs are dreaming.‖ So, who has wondered what dogs or other animals dream about? How many of you think the purpose of dreaming in animals is similar to the reasons why humans

dream? How many of you think that animals other than dogs dream? Of those who have pets, how many of you let your dog or cat sleep in bed with you? Polling Question: Sleep Based on what you have learned about sleep, do you believe that schools should have later start times? SUGGESTED MEDIA Adolescent Brains Are a Work in Progress. Frontline, PBS: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/work/adolescent.html. American Academy of Sleep Medicine: https://aasm.org/. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #13: Sleep and circadian rhythms [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/sleep-and-circadian-rhythms/. Sleep cycles, circadian rhythms, and what happens to a researcher who spends 7 months in a deep cave is examined. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #14: Sleep: Brain functions [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/sleep-brain-functions/. The five stages of sleep and sleeping disorders are discussed. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #15: REM sleep and dreaming [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/rem-sleep-and-dreaming/. REM sleep and dreaming are discussed. Carter, M. (TEDxTalks). (2018, March 22). The science of sleep (and the art of productivity) [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=894jQkeewiU. Caffeine and skin health. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wac7EAem6TA. CDC—Sleep and sleep disorders. https://www.cdc.gov/sleep/index.html. Annenberg Learner. Discovering psychology: The mind awake and asleep.: https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/the-mind-awake-and-asleep/. Annenberg Learner. Discovering psychology: The mind hidden and divided.: https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/the-mind-hidden-and-divided/. Dopamine: Natural ways to increase dopamine levels. http://www.integrativepsychiatry.net/dopamine.html. Dream interpretation: http://www.dreammoods.com/dreambank/. Insight Media. (2005). Freud‘s interpretation of dreams., 26:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lig53eW2ptg and IM – 5 | 16 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbmgcUtup1A. This program presents a discussion of Freud‘s theories. Insomnia and its treatment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFUrw7g6Dw4. PBS. Inside the teen brain.https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/from/. Frontline program that discusses sleep and the teen brain. Marcu, S. (TED-Ed). (2015, January 5). The benefits of a good night’s sleep. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gedoSfZvBgE. National Institute of Health. https://www.nih.gov/. This site provides an overview of meditation including benefits. National Library of Medicine. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/sleep-disorders-in-depth. This site has links to sources of information on the causes, types, and cures for sleep disorders. Sleep Foundation. http://www.sleepfoundation.org/. Insight Media. (2012). Sleepiness: When your brain has a mind of its own., 53:00. This program examines the brain and sleep and the importance of sleep. Stages of sleep. https://youtu.be/qEWbu37fH9k. Show this to the class to provide a brief demonstration with animation of the stages of sleep as measured by EEG. Crash Course Psychology #9. (2014, March 31). To sleep, perchance to dream. [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMHus-0wFSo. Why do we have to sleep? (It‘s Okay to Be Smart). (2015, September 28). [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mufsteNrTI.

POPULAR MOVIES Sleep and Dreams: Show a scene from a movie in which altered states of consciousness in sleep and dreams are shown, such as Vanilla Sky (2001; lucid dreams) or Minority Report (2002; precognitions). Your students will most likely be able to give you other suggestions as well if this is not your favorite movie genre. You could also show a scene from the movie Insomnia (2002), in which the main character suffers from this disturbance. In addition to showing this sleep disturbance, the movie also shows the effects of sleep deprivation on behavior. Inception (2010). Leonardo DiCaprio plays a thief with the ability to enter people‘s dreams and steal their secrets from their subconscious. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3A3-zSOBT4. Requiem for a Dream (2000); warning, rated R.

The science of sleep (2014, July 8). A playful romantic fantasy about an eccentric young man whose dreams invade his waking life. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dHtE0szIip0. ADDITIONAL READINGS Burton, R. (2014). A skeptics guide to the mind: What neuroscience can and cannot tell us about ourselves. St. Martin‘s Press. Chabris, C., & Simons, D. (2010). The invisible gorilla (and other ways our institutions deceive us). Crown. Erlacher, D., & Schredl, M. (2008). Cardiovascular responses to dreamed physical exercise during REM lucid dreaming. Dreaming, 18(2), 112–121. Freud, S. (1900/1953). The interpretation of dreams. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vols. 4 & 5). London: Hogarth Press. Golden, C., Golden, C. J., & Schneider, B. (2003). Cell phone use and visual attention. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97(2), 385–389. Jung, C. G. (1968). Man and his symbols. Dell. Lucidi, F., Devoto, A., Bertini, M., Braibanti, P., & Violani, C. (2002). The effects of sleep debt on vigilance in young drivers: An education/research project in high schools. Journal of Adolescence, 25(4), 405–414. Most, S. B., & Astur, R. S. (2007). Feature-based attentional set as a cause of traffic accidents. Visual Cognition, 15(2), 125–132. Ramachandran, V. S. (2012). The tell-tale brain: A neuroscientist’s quest for what makes us human. New York: W. W. Norton. Schenck, C. (2007). Sleep: The mysteries, the problems, and the solutions. Penguin. Taber, K. H., & Hurley, R. A. (2006). Functional neuroanatomy of sleep and sleep deprivation. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18(1), 1–5. Wurtman, J. J. (2018, July 25). When the body wants to sleep, but the mind is still awake. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-antidepressantdiet/201807/when-the-body-wants-sleep-the-mind-is-still-awake. MODULE 13: HYPNOSIS AND MEDITATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 13-1

What is hypnosis, and are hypnotized people in a different state of consciousness? IM – 5 | 18

13-2

What are the effects of meditation?

HYPNOSIS: A TRANCE-FORMING EXPERIENCE? Hypnosis is a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. In some respects, it appears that they are asleep. Yet other aspects of their behavior contradict this notion, for people are attentive to the hypnotist‘s suggestions and may carry out bizarre or silly suggestions. Despite their compliance when hypnotized, people do not lose all will of their own. They will not perform antisocial behaviors, and they will not carry out self-destructive acts. People will not reveal hidden truths about themselves, and they are capable of lying. Moreover, people cannot be hypnotized against their will—despite popular misconceptions (Gwynn & Spanos, 1996; Raz, 2007). There are wide variations in people‘s susceptibility to hypnosis. About 5% to 20% of the population cannot be hypnotized at all, and some 15% are very easily hypnotized. Most people fall somewhere in between. A DIFFERENT STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS? Some psychologists believe that hypnosis represents a state of consciousness that differs significantly from other states. Changes in electrical activity in the brain are associated with hypnosis, supporting the position that hypnosis is a state of consciousness different from normal waking (Hilgard, 1992; Kallio & Revonsuo, 2003; Fingelkurts, Fingelkurts, & Kallio, 2007; Hinterberger, Schöner, & Halsband, 2011). In this view, hypnosis represents a state of divided consciousness. According to famed hypnosis researcher Ernest Hilgard, hypnosis brings about a dissociation, or division, of consciousness into two simultaneous components. In one stream of consciousness, hypnotized people are following the commands of the hypnotist. Yet on another level of consciousness, they are acting as ―hidden observers,‖ aware of what is happening to them. On the other side of the controversy are psychologists who reject the notion that hypnosis is a state significantly different from normal waking consciousness. They argue that altered brainwave patterns are not sufficient to demonstrate a qualitative difference because no other specific physiological changes occur when people are in trances. THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS Hypnosis has been used successfully to solve practical human problems. In fact, psychologists working in many different areas have found hypnosis to be a reliable, effective tool. It has been applied to a number of areas, including the following:    

Controlling pain Reducing smoking Treating psychological disorders Assisting in law enforcement IM – 5 | 19



Improving athletic performance

MEDITATION: REGULATING OUR OWN STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS Meditation is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. Meditation typically consists of the repetition of a mantra—a sound, word, or syllable—over and over. In some forms of meditation, the focus is on a picture, flame, or specific part of the body. Regardless of the nature of the particular initial stimulus, the key to the procedure is concentrating on it so thoroughly that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness. Meditation is a means of altering consciousness that is practiced in many different cultures, though it can take different forms and serve different purposes across cultures. Practiced regularly, meditation is effective in bringing about greater relaxation not only during meditation but afterward. Evidence even supports long-term positive effects of some kinds of meditation, such as in the reduction of heart disease. Between 200 and 500 million people meditate worldwide. In the United States, involvement in meditation practices tripled between 2012 and 2017, especially among women, and the use of meditation seems to have increased even more during the pandemic. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: CROSS-CULTURAL ROUTES TO ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS People from different cultures perform various rituals to attain an altered state of consciousness. These rituals have a common goal: suspension from the bonds of everyday awareness and access to an altered state of consciousness. Although they may seem exotic from the vantage point of many Western cultures, these rituals represent an apparently universal effort to alter consciousness (Bartocci, 2004; Irwin, 2006). Some scholars suggest that the quest to alter consciousness represents a basic human desire (Siegel, 1989). One is an alteration in thinking, which may become shallow, illogical, or otherwise different from normal. In addition, people‘s sense of time can become disturbed, and their perceptions of the physical world and of themselves may change. Researchers find similarities and differences in the ways that people experience both typical consciousness and altered states of consciousness across cultures. But seeking alterations in consciousness seems to be a pervasive human goal. KEY TERMS hypnosis A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. meditation A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. LECTURE IDEAS DEFINITION OF HYPNOSIS IM – 5 | 20 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Hypnosis is a procedure in which a person designated as hypnotist suggests changes in sensations, perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or actions to a person designated as the subject. CONTINUUM OF DISSOCIATION As mentioned in the text, there is a continuum of dissociation that includes dissociative disorders (e.g., dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalization) and may include mundane phenomena such as dreams, daydreams, and what is called ―highway hypnosis.‖ HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HYPNOSIS Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815): Mesmer is considered the father of hypnosis. The term mesmerism is named after him. It refers to a process of inducing trance through a series of passes he made with his hands or magnets over people. He worked with what he called a person‘s ―animal magnetism‖ (psychic and electromagnetic energies). He was discredited by the medical community even though he appeared to have success in treating a variety of ailments. James Braid (1795–1860): An English physician originally opposed to mesmerism who suggested that Mesmer‘s ―cures‖ were due to suggestion rather than animal magnetism. He developed the eye fixation technique (also known as Braidism) of inducing relaxation and called it hypnosis (after Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep) as he thought the phenomenon was a form of sleep. Jean Marie Charcot (1825–1893): A French neurologist who contended that hypnosis was simply a manifestation of hysteria. He identified the three stages of trance as lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism. Pierre Janet (1859–1947): A French neurologist and psychologist initially opposed to hypnosis until he discovered its beneficial effects. Having proposed the concept of dissociation, Janet believed that split-off parts of the personality exist and are capable of independent functioning. He treated a woman‘s hysterical blindness by using hypnotic suggestions to alter the woman‘s memory of how she became blind in her left eye. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Freud studied hypnosis with Charcot and others but was not a successful hypnotist. Instead, he developed the method of free association as a way to reach the unconscious minds of his patients. See also http://hypnoticworld.com/facts/history_of_hypnosis.asp. CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON HYPNOSIS Nicholas Spanos (1942–1994): A social psychologist who viewed hypnosis as an enactment of roles by the hypnotist and the subject. He believed that they each learn what is expected of their roles and are then reinforced by each other in their performances. The hypnotist provides the IM – 5 | 21 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

suggestions, and the subject responds to the suggestions. The rest of the behavior—the hypnotist‘s repetition of sounds or gestures, their soft, relaxing voice, and so on, and the trancelike pose or sleeplike repose of the subject, and so on—are just window dressing, part of the drama that makes hypnosis seem mysterious. When one strips away these dramatic dressings, what is left is something quite ordinary, even if extraordinarily useful: a self-induced, ―psychedup‖ state of suggestibility (see http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html). Milton Erickson (1932–1974): A psychiatrist who pioneered the art of indirect suggestion in hypnosis. His methods bypassed the conscious mind through the use of both verbal and nonverbal pacing techniques, including metaphor, confusion, and paradox. Rather than instruct the subject to become hypnotized, Erickson would offer a choice. Sometimes the choice is an illusion, such as ―You can begin relaxing from the top of your head to the soles of your head, or you may wish to jump into relaxation feet first.‖ In using metaphors, he would tell the client a story about himself or ―someone just like you who had a similar concern‖ and then tell them the story of how it was resolved. The story was not always ―logically‖ related to the client‘s problems; Erickson relied on what he felt was the unconscious mind‘s ability to make the needed connections and extract the necessary meanings. Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001): Stanford University psychologist who developed the neodissociation theory. According to this theory, hypnotic suggestions cause dissociation between the executive and monitoring functions of consciousness that were otherwise integrated. Hypnosis represents a division of the monitoring function of consciousness into two or more parts, separated by an amnesic-like barrier. The hypnotist‘s suggestion allows the hypnotist to be in the driver‘s seat, as it were, of the subject‘s actions. If the hypnotized person can be placed in such a relaxed and sleeplike state that their self-talk is reduced or perhaps confused so that they do not clearly integrate the verbal messages that they hear, the person is ready for clear statements from the hypnotist, such as ―Your outstretched hands are slowly moving together, moving, moving . . .‖ (Hilgard, 1986, p. 122). Hilgard introduced the metaphor of the hidden observer to describe a hypnotic phenomenon analogous to a situation in which an observer stands in the wings watching a center stage performance (from Kirsch, I., & Lynn, S. J. [1998]. Dissociation theories of hypnosis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 100–115). HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY There are individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility. The most common hypnotic susceptibility tests are the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, and the Stanford Profile Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility. The scales on these tests measure susceptibility by determining whether a trance induction successfully causes the subject to exhibit the desired behavior. The SHSS contains the following trance inductions:   

Moving hands together Lowering hands Eye closure IM – 5 | 22

        

Postural sway Finger lock Eye catalepsy Arm immobilization Verbal inhibition Arm rigidity Posthypnotic suggestion Posthypnotic amnesia Fly hallucination

Although it is not possible to replicate the trance-inducing instructions in class due to time limitations, samples of these scales can be read to show students how the test works. Paradoxically, even though you may tell the students that they will definitely not be hypnotized in this situation, some of them will show the effects of the trance induction, thus proving the point! Another source can be found in the following: Nash, M. R. (2001). The truth and hype of hypnosis. Scientific American, 285(1), 47–55. For more information: https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/hypnosis_research.htm. STAGE HYPNOSIS Ask students if they have seen a stage hypnotist and, if so, whether they thought the behavior of participants was real or faked. Even better, if you have a chance to attend such a presentation, take advantage of the opportunity. (Philip Zimbardo has been known to perform at APA conventions, and this would be an excellent example!) Read about one widely acclaimed stage hypnotist, Ormond McGill: http://ormondmcgill.com/. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS EVERYDAY TRANCE STATES Everyday Trance States: Give students Handout 7: ―Trance‖ Diary, which asks them to indicate which everyday trance states they have experienced. HYPNOSIS MYTHS Hypnosis Myths Versus Reality: Have students complete Handout 8: Hypnosis Myths Versus Reality on the myths versus the reality of hypnosis. MEDITATION

Meditation Awareness: Invite a guest from the local community to lead a guided meditation session for your class (check out local yoga studios for potential guests). After the meditation session, discuss how the students‘ experience relates to what they have learned about consciousness. Mindful Meditation: Try out mindful meditation. Meditate once a day for a week, keeping track of your mood, health, and behaviors over the course of the week. How did mindful meditation work for you? Guided Imagery Exercise: In class, have the students get into a physical location of the room where they can be more relaxed. Turn down the lights, turn on some soft, calming music, and begin in a quiet manner helping the students to relax. Have them close their eyes, stretch their limbs, and begin focusing on a particular image (a river, an ocean, and a beach). Guide the students through the image: What are they doing there? What does it smell like? Who are they with, and what are they hearing? Using questions like this helps students create their own individualized relaxation experience. This exercise could take up to 20 min to complete. Have students reflect on this experience either in writing or orally. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THE EXPERIENCE OF HYPNOSIS Ask students the following questions: Do you think that hypnosis is real, or is it fake? Have you ever been hypnotized? If so, what did that feel like? If not, what do you think it would feel like? What have the critics said about the use of hypnosis? In your answer, you should discuss viewpoints of those people who favor the use of hypnosis and of those who don‘t support the use of hypnosis. MEDITATION AND HEALTH Consider the recent emphasis on living a healthier lifestyle. Dieting, eating right, exercising, and decreasing stress are all very common conversations. How important is meditation and having a cognitive space for personal reflection and growth in living a healthy lifestyle? Or, is meditation a trendier thing to do? What evidence do you base your thinking on? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Hypnotism Is Just an Act, Really? According to the American Psychological Association, ―Hypnosis is a therapeutic technique in which clinicians make suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure designed to IM – 5 | 24 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

relax them and focus their minds. Although hypnosis has been controversial, most clinicians now agree it can be a powerful, effective therapeutic technique for a wide range of conditions, including pain, anxiety, and mood disorders. Hypnosis can also help people change their habits, such as quitting smoking.‖ What do you think? How many think hypnosis is real and can help people? Who is skeptical that hypnosis really works? How many of you can see an advantage of using hypnosis for treatments related to pain, smoking, and other mental health concerns? Who would want to be hypnotized? Polling Question: Meditation Do you practice any form of meditation? SUGGESTED MEDIA Brain Scans and Meditation: http://www.livescience.com/health/070629_naming_emotions.html. Center for Consciousness Studies at the University of Arizona: http://www.consciousness.arizona.edu/. Cocaine Anonymous: http://www.ca.org. Consciousness: Crash Course Psychology #8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jReX7qKU2yc. Insight Media. (2007). Consciousness and its implications, 30:00 segments. Focuses on the implications of consciousness. Chalmers, D. (TED Talks). (2014, March). How do you explain consciousness? https://www.ted.com/talks/david_chalmers_how_do_you_explain_consciousness. Hypnosis.com. http://www.hypnosis.com/. Hypnosis: Another Way to Manage Pain and Kick Bad Habits. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hypnosis/SA00084. Hypnosis—Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/hypnosis. International Society for Hypnosis. https://www.ishhypnosis.org/. Is Hypnosis Fake? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RA2Zy_IZfQ. Hypnotist stuns TEDx crowd. M & M Films. (2012). Just Trial and Error: Conversations on Consciousness., 13:10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ijssxGunh8. Cognitive neuroscientist Brian Butterworth, perceptual neuroscientist Beau Lotto, sculptor Antony Gormley, and others explore the meaning of consciousness as it is understood in their respective fields. IM – 5 | 25 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Open University. (2008). Meditation, 60:00. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/bodymind/health/health-studies/consider-meditation. This program explores what takes place in the brain and body during mediation. Discovering Psychology video series. The Mind: Hidden and Divided.: https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/the-mind-hidden-anddivided/?jwsource=cl. An excellent example of the effects of hypnosis on pain perception is provided in the original episode of Philip Zimbardo‘s series. Self-hypnosis. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0v-sBPki0Ys. Transcendental Mediation Program. http://www.tm.org/. POPULAR MOVIES Hypnosis: Show a segment from a movie in which hypnosis is featured, such as The Manchurian Candidate (1962), Dead Again (1991), The Sixth Sense (1999), or Mesmer (1994). Ask the class if they feel that hypnosis was accurately depicted in the movie—and if not, why not? ADDITIONAL READINGS Blackmore, S. (2011). Consciousness: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper. Fawcett, K. (2015, April 29). Three common misconceptions about medical hypnosis. U.S. News & World Report. http://health.usnews.com/health-news/healthwellness/articles/2015/04/29/3-common-misconceptions-about-medical-hypnosis. Nash, M. R., & Barnier, A. J. (2008). The Oxford handbook of hypnosis: Theory, research, and practice. Oxford University Press. Ramachandran, V. S. (2004). A brief tour of human consciousness: From imposter poodles to purple numbers. Pi Press. Wenner, M. (2007). Brain scans reveal why meditation works. Live Science: http://www.livescience.com/7306-brain-scans-reveal-meditation-works.html. Yapko, M. (2011). Mindfulness and hypnosis. The power of suggestion to transform experience. Norton. MODULE 14: DRUG USE: THE HIGHS AND LOWS OF CONSCIOUSNESS LEARNING OBJECTIVES IM – 5 | 26 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

14-1: What are the major classifications of drugs, and what are their effects? Pharmaceutical drugs of one sort or another are a part of almost everyone‘s life. From infancy on, most people take vitamins, aspirin, or cold-relief medicine at some point. However, these drugs rarely produce an altered state of consciousness. In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive drugs, lead to an altered state of consciousness. Psychoactive drugs influence a person‘s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. Yet even this category of drugs is common in most of our lives. A cup of coffee or a bottle of beer are examples of psychoactive drugs. Addictive drugs produce a biological or psychological dependence (or both) in the user, and withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible. In biological dependence, the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it. In psychological dependence, people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living. STIMULANTS: DRUG HIGHS (SEE FIGURES 1, 2, AND 4) Stimulants are drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension. Caffeine (Figure 3) and nicotine are two of the many stimulants known. Caffeine produces several reactions. The major behavioral effects are an increase in attentiveness and a decrease in reaction time. Caffeine can also bring about an improvement in mood, most likely by mimicking the effects of a natural brain chemical, adenosine. Too much caffeine, however, can result in nervousness and insomnia. Nicotine, found in cigarettes, is another common stimulant. The soothing effects of nicotine help explain why cigarette smoking is addictive. Smokers develop a dependence on nicotine, and those who suddenly stop smoking develop a strong craving for the drug. AMPHETAMINES Amphetamines such as dexedrine and benzedrine, popularly known as speed, are strong stimulants. In small quantities, amphetamines—which stimulate the central nervous system— bring about a sense of energy and alertness, talkativeness, heightened confidence, and a mood ―high.‖ They increase concentration and reduce fatigue. Amphetamines also cause a loss of appetite, increased anxiety, and irritability. Methamphetamine is a white, crystalline drug that U.S. police now say is the most dangerous street drug. ―Meth‖ is highly addictive and relatively cheap, and it produces a strong, lingering high. Adderall is an amphetamine college students often abuse. It was developed to help those who suffer from ADHD, or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, though many college students use it illegally to increase their focus and ability to study for long hours. COCAINE

Cocaine is inhaled or snorted through the nose, smoked, or injected directly into the bloodstream. It is rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately. When used in relatively small quantities, cocaine produces feelings of profound psychological wellbeing, increased confidence, and alertness. However, there is a steep price to be paid for the pleasurable effects of cocaine. The brain may become permanently rewired, triggering a psychological and biological addiction in which users grow obsessed with obtaining the drug. Over time, users deteriorate mentally and physically. DEPRESSANTS: DRUG LOWS Depressants impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly. Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of intoxication—drunkenness—along with a sense of euphoria and joy. When large amounts are taken, however, speech becomes slurred and muscle control becomes disjointed, making motion difficult. ALCOHOL Alcohol is the most common depressant. It is used by more people than is any other drug. One of the more disturbing trends is the high frequency of binge drinking among college students (five or more drinks for men; four or more for women). The highest percentage of binge drinkers are young adults. Women are more susceptible to the effects of alcohol, and alcohol abuse may harm the brains of women more than it harms the brains of men. There are also cultural and ethnic differences in alcohol consumption. In college settings, it turns out that even light drinkers are affected by the high rate of alcohol use by their classmates: Two-thirds of lighter drinkers say they had their studying or sleep disturbed by drunk students, and a quarter of women surveyed say they have been targets of unwanted sexual advances by drunk classmates. There are also cultural and ethnic differences in alcohol consumption. For example, teenagers in Europe drink more than teenagers in the United States do. Furthermore, people of East Asian backgrounds who live in the United States tend to drink significantly less than do white and black people, and their incidence of alcohol-related problems is lower. Although alcohol is a depressant, most people claim that it increases their sense of sociability and well-being. The discrepancy between the actual and the perceived effects of alcohol lies in the initial effects it produces in the majority of individuals who use it: release of tension and stress, feelings of happiness, and loss of inhibitions. However, as the dose of alcohol increases, the depressive effects become more pronounced (see Figure 6). Fourteen million people in the United States—1 in every 13 adults—have a drinking problem. It is not clear why certain people become alcoholics and develop a tolerance for alcohol, whereas others do not; but there may be a genetic component. BARBITURATES Barbiturates, which include such drugs as Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital, are a form of central nervous system depressant. Frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce IM – 5 | 28 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

stress, barbiturates produce a sense of relaxation. Barbiturates are psychologically and physically addictive. ROHYPNOL Rohypnol is sometimes called the ―date rape drug‖ because, when it is mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault. Sometimes people who are unknowingly given the drug are so incapacitated that they have no memory of the assault. NARCOTICS, OPIATES, AND OPIOIDS: RELIEVING PAIN AND ANXIETY Narcotics are drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Two of the most powerful narcotics, morphine and heroin, are derived from the poppy seed pod. These two drugs and codeine fall into the class of drugs called opiates, or narcotics derived from natural substances. Although morphine is used medically to control severe pain, heroin is illegal in the United States. This status has not prevented its widespread use. Conversely, opioids are synthetic forms of narcotics and include medications such as Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin. Both opiates and opioids are involved in the current ―opioid crisis,‖ and their use has reached epidemic proportions. The newest opioids are 100 times more potent than heroin: The number of overdose deaths rose to over 107,000 in 2021. This marked an increase of almost 15% over the prior year, which followed a rise of almost 30% in the previous year. The number of deaths in 2021 was the highest level ever recorded. Although the increased use of opioids has reached across racial lines, the rate of overdose deaths has been especially pronounced for black individuals. In one treatment that has shown some success, users are given alternative drugs that reduce dependence on heroin and other addictive opiates. There are three types of treatment: methadone, suboxone, and vivitrol. Methadone, Suboxone, and Vivitrol allow heroin users to function relatively normally and without the drug cravings. However, although such drugs remove the psychological dependence on heroin, they replace the biological dependence on heroin with a biological dependence on the alternative drugs. HALLUCINOGENS: PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS Hallucinogens are drugs that alter perceptual processes and are capable of producing hallucinations, or experiences that seem real but are not. The most common hallucinogen in widespread use today is marijuana (see Figure 7), whose active ingredient— tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—is found in a common weed, cannabis. MARIJUANA Marijuana is typically smoked in cigarettes or pipes, although it can be cooked and eaten. The effects of marijuana vary from person to person, but they typically consist of feelings of euphoria and general well-being. Sensory experiences seem more vivid and intense, and a person‘s sense of self-importance seems to grow. Memory may be impaired, causing users to feel pleasantly ―spaced out.‖ Marijuana does not seem to produce addiction except for a small number of heavy IM – 5 | 29 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

users. Furthermore, there is little scientific evidence for the popular belief that users ―graduate‖ from marijuana to more dangerous drugs. On the other hand, some research suggests that there are similarities in the way marijuana and drugs, such as cocaine and heroin, affect the brain, as well as evidence that heavy use may impact negatively on cognitive ability in the long run. Heavy marijuana use may also decrease male testosterone production, affect children who are exposed prenatally, weaken the immune system, and damage the lungs far more than regular smoking. MDMA (ECSTASY OR MOLLY) AND LSD MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD, or ―acid‖) fall into the category of hallucinogens. Both drugs affect the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception (Cloud, 2000; Buchert et al., 2004). MDMA produces feelings of increased energy and euphoria, and users report feeling increased empathy and connection with others. LSD, which is structurally similar to serotonin, produces vivid hallucinations. Although used illegally and recreationally, LSD and other hallucinogens such as psilocybin (a naturally occurring psychoactive ingredient found in some mushrooms) are increasingly being used as part of controlled, legal treatments for certain psychological disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: IDENTIFYING DRUGS AND ALCOHOL PROBLEMS Many people with drug and alcohol problems deny that they have them, and even close friends and family members may fail to realize when occasional social use of drugs or alcohol has turned into abuse. Certain signs, however, indicate when use becomes abuse (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2000). Among them are the following:              

Always getting high to have a good time Being high more often than not Getting high to get oneself going Going to work or class while high Missing or being unprepared for class or work because you were high Feeling badly later about something you said or did while high Driving a car while high Coming in conflict with the law because of drugs Doing something while high that you would not do otherwise Being high in nonsocial, solitary situations Being unable to stop getting high Feeling a need for a drink or a drug to get through the day Becoming physically unhealthy Failing at school or on the job IM – 5 | 30

 

Thinking about liquor or drugs all the time Avoiding family or friends while using liquor or drugs

Any combination of these symptoms should be sufficient to alert you to the potential of a serious drug problem. KEY TERMS addictive drugs Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible. depressants Drugs that slow down the nervous system. hallucinogens Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings. narcotics Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. psychoactive drugs Drugs that influence a person‘s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. stimulants Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension. LECTURE IDEAS CURRENT DRUG USE PATTERNS IN THE UNITED STATES Show students figures from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) website (http://www.samhsa.gov). These are easily downloadable and will provide updates to the information in the text. An interesting question to ask students is ―What is the most frequently used psychoactive drug?‖ The answer will surprise them: caffeine. ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS Invite a guest speaker from the local Alcoholics Anonymous (or similar) chapter to talk about the nature of self-help recovery programs. CURRENT INFORMATION ON ALCOHOL ABUSE More up-to-date information on alcohol abuse can be found on the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism website (http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/). There also are a number of useful handouts and graphics for lecture that can be downloaded from this site. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS

DRUG USE STATS Drug Use Stats: Have students go to the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration website (http://www.samhsa.gov) and find answers to the following questions: 1. Approximately what percentage of the U.S. population 12 years and older uses illicit drugs? 2. Who is more likely to abuse illicit drugs—people over 35 or people under 35? 3. What is the most commonly used illicit drug? BINGE DRINKING Binge Drinking on College Campuses: Give students Handout 9: Binge Drinking on College Campuses, which has an assignment on binge drinking. ALCOHOL ADVERTISEMENTS Alcohol Advertisements: Have students complete Handout 10: Alcohol Advertisements. ATTITUDES TOWARD DRUGS Attitudes Toward Drugs: Have students complete Handout 11: Attitudes Toward Drugs. Types of Drugs: Have students choose one depressant drug, one stimulant drug, and one hallucinogenic drug and discuss the neural pathway the drug takes in the brain, what neurotransmitters the drug affects, the physiological problems that take place, and the psychological problems that take place. You can have the students do this activity individually or as a group. Facts Above the Influence: Using Above the Influence website, http://abovetheinfluence.com/faqs/, create a ―fact or fiction‖ discussion about the various answers to some compelling questions that often get asked about drug use. This is a great time to reintroduce the importance of critical thinking skills and help students understand their own experience in context with psychological research. Marijuana and Other Drugs Debate: Make four large signs titled: (1) FOR; (2) AGAINST; (3) ON THE FENCE; and (4) THIS IS WHAT IT WOULD TAKE TO MAKE ME TO CHANGE MY POSITION. Tape a sign in each corner of the room. The topic to debate is: Should marijuana (or any psychoactive drug) be legal for medical purposes? Have students go to the corner that best describes their position. Next, ask each student to explain their position and instruct them to move to another corner. Should it change as more information is revealed? Usually a lively debate will ensue. Another idea is for students to research the topic before class and support their position with research and websites of interest. DRUG EDUCATION IM – 5 | 32 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Drug Education Programs: Research suggests that many common drug education programs are ineffective. Have students work in groups to create educational materials that they believe would effectively teach other students about drugs and alcohol. DRUGS Caffeine Caper: Go on a caffeine hunt. Check out the ingredient lists for the beverages, painkillers, and snacks you typically consume. Which contain caffeine? Are you surprised by how much caffeine you ingest regularly? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DRUG USE Why have drug education campaigns largely been ineffective in stemming the use of illegal drugs? Should the use of certain illegal drugs be made legal? Would it be more effective to stress reducing drug use rather than prohibiting it? Why do you feel people are so attracted to altered states of consciousness? In your answer, discuss both the physiological and psychological effects of drug use. Excessive drinking can shrink the brain, and, in the still-developing teen brain, these effects are even more dramatic. Ask students to have an honest discussion about their experiences with alcohol in high school or college. You may prefer to have them write about their experiences. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: It’s Legal! Several states have legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes. However, some have even legalized it for recreational use. What‘s your stance? How many think it is acceptable to legalize marijuana for recreational purposes? What about medicinal purposes? Who thinks that by legalizing marijuana, more and more people will become addicted to it? What about driving: Who thinks there will be a bigger problem with people driving while under the influence of marijuana if it is legalized for recreational purposes? How many think that legalizing marijuana for any purpose will increase the number of users of the drug? SUGGESTED MEDIA Alcoholics Anonymous. http://www.aa.org. Higher education: A look at drug use in American colleges. (2017, November 9). https://fherehab.com/news/higher-education/. IM – 5 | 33 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Marijuana Anonymous. http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org. Narcotics Anonymous. https://www.na.org. National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence. https://www.ncadd.org. National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse https://www.niaaa.nih.gov. National Institute of Drug Abuse. http://www.nida.nih.gov/. Quitting cigarettes and laser therapy. https://youtu.be/prYUrhqmqtI. Web of addictions. http://www.well.com/user/woa/. POPULAR MOVIES Grass is Greener (2019). A Netflix documentary about cannabis. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IET4K5npNOg CNN. Marijuana & the Brain [Video file]. Dr. Sanjay Gupta explains how marijuana affects the brain and how pot can be used to treat certain conditions. https://www.cnn.com/videos/health/2014/03/10/orig-brain-on-weed-sanjay-jr-jt.cnn. Trainspotting (1996) is a movie with a good deal of information on heroin usage. Be warned, though, there is some language and nudity. Requiem for a Dream (2000); warning, rated R. The Basketball Diaries (1995); warning, rated R. ADDITIONAL READINGS Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2008). Are there genetic influences on addiction: Evidence from family, adoption and twin studies. British Journal of Addiction, 103(7), 1069–1081. Dostis, M. (2013, October 2). For colleges, does drug testing really prevent drug use? USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/10/02/drug-testinguniversities/2910039/. Koob, G. F., Aarends, M. A., & Le Moal, M. (2014). Drugs, addiction, and the brain. Elsevier. Kunzmann, K. (2018, August 24). FDA approves landmark psilocybin trial for treatmentresistant depression. https://www.mdmag.com/medical-news/fda-approves-landmark-psilocybintrial-for-treatmentresistant-depression. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: IM – 5 | 34 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  The Meaning of Dreams INTERACTIVITIES  Stages of Sleep  Drug Effects NEWSFLASH  A key to consciousness could lie in ―perceptual diversity‖ COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: WHAT DO YOU DREAM? Check off each of the dreams that you have had: _____ Chased or pursued, not injured

_____ Earthquakes

_____ Physically attacked (beaten, stabbed, and raped)

_____ Insects or spiders _____ Being a member of the opposite sex

_____ Trying again and again to do something

_____ Being an object (tree or rock)

_____ Being frozen with fright

_____ Being killed

_____ Eating delicious foods

_____ Seeing yourself as dead

_____ Arriving too late (e.g., missing a class)

_____ Vividly sensing a presence in the room

_____ Swimming

_____ Being unable to find a toilet

_____ Being locked up

_____ School, teachers, studying

_____ Snakes

_____ Sexual experiences

_____ Finding money

_____ Losing control of a vehicle

_____ Flying or soaring through the air

_____ Fire

_____ Falling

_____ A person now dead as alive

_____ Being inappropriately dressed

_____ A person now alive as dead

_____ Being nude

_____ Being on the verge of falling

_____ Being tied, unable to move

_____ Failing an examination

_____ Having superior knowledge or mental ability

_____ Being smothered, unable to breathe

_____ Creatures, part animal, part human _____ Your teeth falling out _____ Seeing yourself in a mirror _____ Having magical powers

_____ Wild, violent beasts _____ Being at a movie _____ Killing someone _____ Lunatics or insane people

_____ Floods or tidal waves

_____ Being half awake and paralyzed in bed

_____ Tornadoes or strong winds

_____ Seeing a face very close to you _____ Seeing a UFO IM – 5 | 36

_____ Seeing extraterrestrials _____ Traveling to another planet or visiting another planet _____ Being an animal _____ Being a child again _____ Seeing an angel _____ Encountering God in some form _____ Discovering a new room at home _____ Seeing an airplane crash _____ Someone having an abortion _____ Encountering an evil force or demon

Do you notice a pattern in your dreams?

Which theory do you think best explains these dreams?

HANDOUT 2: COMPARING THEORIES OF DREAMS Describe a recent dream you had. Without revealing more than you would like to in this paper, answer the following questions about the dream: Analyze the dream based on Freudian psychoanalytic (wish-fulfillment) theory. Include relevant dream symbols in this analysis.

Analyze the dream based on activation-synthesis theory.

Which theory do you prefer in understanding this dream? Why?

HANDOUT 3: MEASURE YOUR SLEEP DEBT Rate each of the following situations using this scale: 1 = Would never doze 2 = Slight chance of dozing 3 = Moderate chance of dozing 4 = High chance of dozing Sitting and reading Watching TV Sitting, inactive in a public place (e.g., a theater or a meeting) As a passenger in a car for an hour without a break Lying down to rest in the afternoon when circumstances permit Sitting and talking to someone Sitting quietly after a lunch without alcohol In a car, while stopped for a few minutes in traffic

Interpretation: 0 = You have little or no sleep debt, or are taking the test at a time of peak alertness. 8 = You have a manageable amount of sleep debt, but you could feel some improvement by working it off. 16 = Definitely troublesome. You are likely to feel low energy during dips in the circadian rhythm or when you are driving or at rest. 24 = Severely sleep-deprived, quite possibly due to a sleep disorder such as apnea or insomnia. People with untreated narcolepsy score in this range.

HANDOUT 4: WHAT‘S YOUR SLEEP IQ? Indicate whether each statement is true or false about sleep:

During sleep, your brain rests. You cannot function normally with one or two fewer hours of sleep a night than you need. Boredom makes you feel sleepy, even if you have had enough sleep. Resting in bed with your eyes closed cannot satisfy your body‘s need for sleep. Snoring is not harmful as long as it doesn‘t disturb others or wake you up. Everyone dreams every night. The older you get, the fewer hours of sleep you need. Most people don‘t know when they are sleepy. Raising the volume of your radio will help you stay awake while driving. Sleep disorders are mainly due to worry or psychological problems. The human body never adjusts to night shift work. Most sleep disorders go away even without treatment.

Answers: F T F T F T F F T F F T F The average person gave fewer than six correct responses.

HANDOUT 5: WHICH SLEEP DISORDER IS IT? Read each of the scenarios below, and identify which sleep disorder is occurring in the situation. Jacob is asleep when all of the sudden, he sits up and screams at the top of his lungs. He then lays back down and goes back to sleep. The next morning, he doesn‘t remember anything. DISORDER: Aiko gets home from a night out with her friends and hears her roommate talking to someone. Aiko goes into her room and sees that no one is there. Aiko asks her who she is talking to, and she answers but continues talking. Aiko can carry on a conversation with her without her waking up. DISORDER: Tamara has a very important work project due in a couple of weeks, and she has been working on it nonstop since it was assigned. She is so worried because she knows her job depends on this project. She‘s finding lately that she cannot fall asleep until 2 or 3 o‘clock in the morning and then wakes up many times during the night. DISORDER: Abdul is working with his lab partner, Jack, on a lab report that is due next week in class. They are in the library studying and working on the report when all of the sudden in the middle of the conversation, Jack drops his head and falls asleep. After waking back up, he continues the conversation as though nothing happened. DISORDER: Janet‘s father has had a problem with obesity for the past year or so. Lately, Janet‘s mother has been noticing that Janet‘s father stops breathing briefly during the night. She is getting concerned because it seems to be occurring more frequently. DISORDER:

HANDOUT 6: MORNINGNESS–EVENINGNESS QUESTIONNAIRE 1. Considering only your own ―feeling best‖ rhythm, at what time would you get up if you were entirely free to plan your day?  5:00–6:30 a.m. (5 points)  6:30–7:45 a.m. (4 points)  7:45–9:45 a.m. (3 points)  9:45–11:00 a.m. (2 points)  11:00 a.m.–12:00 noon (1 point) 2. Considering only your own ―feeling best‖ rhythm, at what time would you go to bed if you were entirely free to plan your evening?  8:00–9:00 p.m. (5 points)  9:00–10:15 p.m. (4 points)  10:15 p.m.–12:30 a.m. (3 points)  12:30–1:45 a.m. (2 points)  1:45–3:00 a.m. (1 point) 3. Assuming normal circumstances, how easy do you find getting up in the morning?  Not at all easy (1 point)  Slightly easy (2 points)  Fairly easy (3 points)  Very easy (4 points) 4. How alert do you feel during the first half hour after having awakened in the morning?  Not at all alert (1 point)  Slightly alert (2 points)  Fairly alert (3 points)  Very alert (4 points) 5. During the first half-hour after having awakened in the morning, how tired do you feel?  Very tired (1 point)  Fairly tired (2 points)  Fairly refreshed (3 points)  Very refreshed (4 points) 6. You have decided to engage in some physical exercise. A friend suggests that you work out twice a week for an hour and the best time for him is 7:00–8:00 a.m. Bearing in mind nothing else but your own ―feeling best‖ rhythm, how do you think you would perform?  Would be in good form (4 points)  Would be in reasonable form (3 points)  Would find it difficult (2 points)  Would find it very difficult (1 point)

7. At what time in the evening do you feel tired and, as a result, in need of sleep?  8:00–9:00 p.m. (5 points)  9:00–10:15 p.m. (4 points)  10:15 p.m.–12:30 a.m. (3 points)  12:30–1:45 a.m. (2 points)  1:45–3:00 a.m. (1 point) 8. You wish to be at your peak performance for a test that you know is going to be mentally exhausting and lasting for 2 hours. You are entirely free to plan your day, and considering only your own ―feeling best‖ rhythm, which ONE of the four testing times would you choose?  8:00–10:00 a.m. (4 points)  11:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m. (3 points)  3:00–5:00 p.m. (2 points)  7:00–9:00 p.m. (1 point) 9. One hears about ―morning‖ and ―evening‖ types of people. Which ONE of these types do you consider yourself to be?  Definitely a morning type (4 points)  More a morning than an evening type (3 points)  More an evening than a morning type (2 points)  Definitely an evening type (1 point) 10. When would you prefer to rise (provided you have a full day‘s work—8 hours) if you were totally free to arrange your time?  Before 6:30 a.m. (4 points)  6:30–7:30 a.m. (3 points)  7:30–8:30 a.m. (2 points)  8:30 a.m. or later (1 point) 11. If you always had to rise at 6:00 a.m., what do you think it would be like?  Very difficult and unpleasant (1 point)  Rather difficult and unpleasant (2 points)  A little unpleasant but no great problem (3 points)  Easy and not unpleasant (4 points) 12. How long a time does it usually take before you ―recover your senses‖ in the morning after rising from a night‘s sleep?  0–10 min (4 points)  11–20 min (3 points)  21–40 min (2 points)  More than 40 min (1 point)

13. Please indicate to what extent you are a morning or evening active individual.  Pronounced morning active (morning alert and evening tired) (4 points)  To some extent, morning active (3 points)  To some extent, evening active (2 points)  Pronounced evening active (morning tired and evening alert) (1 point) Total the scores from the above questions and use this guide: 44 or more = extreme morning person 37–43 = moderate morning person 30–36 = no particular tendency 23–29 = moderate evening person 22 or less = extreme evening person Extreme morning person: True morning persons tend to get out of bed as early as 4 or 5 a.m. and go to bed by 9 or 10 p.m. Their periods of high alertness are about 2 hours earlier than those of people with standard profiles, and they do their best work of the day at around 8 or 9 a.m. Moderate morning person: Although you exhibit some of the tendencies of an extreme morning person (such as rising early and going to sleep in the mid-evening hours), you are within the ―standard‖ circadian range (waking between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m. and going to bed between 11 p.m. and midnight). In between, most people have periods of high alertness in the morning and early evening, and a period of low alertness in the early afternoon. Moderate morning persons may have more trouble than most people maintaining alertness through the overnight hours. No particular tendency: You have a standard circadian profile. The standard profile would find a person feeling comfortable waking up between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m. and going to bed between 11 p.m. and midnight. In between, most people have periods of high alertness in the morning and early evening, and a period of low alertness in the early afternoon. Moderate evening person: Although you may exhibit some of the tendencies of an extreme night person (such as loving to sleep late in the morning and staying awake past midnight) and your circadian rhythms are probably more flexible, you are within the ―standard‖ circadian range (waking between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m. and going to bed between 11 p.m. and midnight). In between, most people have periods of high alertness in the morning and early evening, and a period of low alertness in the early afternoon. Extreme evening person: True evening persons love to sleep into the late morning but have no trouble staying awake and alert past 2 or 3 a.m. Their periods of high alertness and sleepiness are about 2 hours later than those of people with standard circadian profiles. Evening persons have an easier time staying alert late at night. This is due, in part, because their times of alertness start out more closely aligned with being awake at night. In addition, evening persons‘ circadian rhythms tend to be more flexible than those of people with standard or morning profiles. Adapted from:

Horne, J. A., & Ostberg, O. (1976). A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningnesseveningness in human circadian rhythms. https://cet.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/Horne-1976-IJC.pdf?x41674.

HANDOUT 7: ―TRANCE‖ DIARY There are many variations in the trance state, ranging from ―highway hypnosis‖ to a full-blown dissociative episode. Thinking about the past week, check off which of the following you experienced. Trance State

About How Often This Past Week Did You Experience This?

Becoming absorbed in your reading Listening intently to a song Feeling as though you were in a movie you are watching Not hearing what was said in a conversation Eating a meal without realizing what you ate Forgetting whether you took a medication or not Crying during a sad movie Playing a sport without being aware of observers Playing a musical instrument without being aware of anyone around you listening Gardening or mowing the lawn Playing with a pet Being engrossed in a video game Others (list)

HANDOUT 8: HYPNOSIS MYTHS VERSUS REALITY Indicate whether each statement is true or false about hypnosis: (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Delete correct answers before assigning.) It‘s all a matter of having a good imagination. (F) Hypnosis has been induced during vigorous exercise. (T) Many highly motivated subjects fail to experience hypnosis. (T) Hypnosis is dangerous. (F) Responding to hypnosis is like responding to a placebo. (F) Hypnosis can enable people to ―relive‖ the past. (F) When hypnotized, people can remember more accurately. (F) Hypnotized subjects fully adhere to their usual moral standards. (T) Hypnotized people do not remember what happened during the session. (F) Performance following hypnotic suggestions for increased muscle strength, learning, and sensory acuity does not exceed what can be accomplished by motivated subjects outside hypnosis. (T) Adapted from: Nash, M. R. (2001). The truth and hype of hypnosis. Scientific American, 285(1), pp. 47–55.

HANDOUT 9: BINGE DRINKING ON COLLEGE CAMPUSES According to the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 120 million Americans aged 12 or older reported being current drinkers of alcohol in a 2002 survey (51.0%). About 54 million (22.9%) participated in binge drinking at least once in the 30 days before the survey, and 15.9 million (6.7%) were heavy drinkers. How much do college campus administrators try to prevent binge drinking? You can provide some insights in this assignment: 1. What is your campus‘s alcohol policy?

2. How are cases of alcohol abuse by students handled?

3. You have probably witnessed at least one case of binge drinking in a friend or acquaintance. What happened to the person involved? How did that person‘s friends react?

4. Do you think that there is any way that binge drinking can be controlled? If so, how would you suggest it be handled?

HANDOUT 10: ALCOHOL ADVERTISEMENTS For this assignment, you need to find five ads for alcoholic drinks, either in print or on television. Fill out the following chart based on these ads. Indicate your reaction to each ad in terms of how it might affect people of college age. Ad

Content

Target Audience

Presumed Effect

Your Reaction

HANDOUT 11: ATTITUDES TOWARD DRUGS Indicate whether you believe each statement to be true or false.

Alcohol is a dangerous drug. Nicotine should be regulated by the federal government. Caffeine helps keep me alert. Ritalin is too frequently prescribed for hyperactivity. Cocaine is no more dangerous than caffeine. Marijuana should be legalized. Hallucinogens such as LSD are useful to relieve boredom. Nicotine helps relax people who are stressed. There should be zero tolerance for drivers who are drunk. People should have complete access to any drug they medically need.

HANDOUT 11 (CONT‘D): ATTITUDES TOWARD DRUGS: SURVEY RESPONSES Based on 572 entries. 1. Alcohol is a dangerous drug. True 426 74% False 92 16% 2. Nicotine should be regulated by the federal government. True 342 59% False 175 30% 3. Caffeine helps keep me alert. True 323 56% False 193 33% 4. Ritalin is too frequently prescribed for hyperactivity. True 411 71% False 104 18% 5. Cocaine is no more dangerous than caffeine. True 142 24% False 386 67% 6. Marijuana should be legalized. True 285 49% False 262 45% 7. Hallucinogens such as LSD are useful to relieve boredom. True 120 20% False 403 70% 8. Nicotine helps relax people who are stressed. True 291 50% False 225 39% 9. There should be zero tolerance for drivers who are drunk. True 417 72% False 100 17% 10. People should have complete access to any drug they medically need.

True False

306 215

53% 37%

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 5: WHICH SLEEP DISORDER IS IT? ANSWER KEY

Read each of the scenarios below, and identify which sleep disorder is occurring in the situation. Jacob is asleep when all of the sudden, he sits up and screams at the top of his lungs. He then lays back down and goes back to sleep. The next morning, he doesn‘t remember anything. DISORDER: night terror Aiko gets home from a night out with her friends and hears her roommate talking to someone. Aiko goes into her room and sees that no one is there. Aiko asks her who she is talking to, and she answers, but continues talking. Aiko carries on a conversation with her without her waking up. DISORDER: sleep talking Tamara has a very important work project due in a couple of weeks, and she has been working on it nonstop since it was assigned. She is so worried because she knows her job depends on this project. She‘s finding lately that she cannot fall asleep until 2 or 3 o‘clock in the morning and then wakes up many times during the night. DISORDER: insomnia Abdul is working with his lab partner, Jack, on a lab report that is due next week in class. They are in the library studying and working on the report when all of the sudden in the middle of the conversation, Jack drops his head and falls asleep. After waking back up, he continues the conversation as though nothing happened. DISORDER: narcolepsy Janet‘s father has had a problem with obesity for the past year or so. Lately, Janet‘s mother has been noticing that Janet‘s father stops breathing briefly during the night. She is getting concerned because it seems to be occurring more frequently. DISORDER: sleep apnea

Chapter 5 Learning OPENING THEMES The topic of learning is a central one to psychology, incorporating the areas of classical and operant conditioning. These lectures will give students a basic understanding of the behaviorist perspective.

Later in the course, students will learn how methods derived from behaviorist techniques are applied to the treatment of psychological disorders. MODULE 15: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING OBJECTIVES 15-1

What is learning?

15-2

How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience. It is clear that we are primed for learning from the beginning of life. Infants exhibit a simple type of learning called habituation. Habituation is the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus. Most learning is considerably more complex than habituation, and the study of learning has been at the core of the field of psychology. THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (SEE FIGURE 1) Although philosophers since the time of Aristotle have speculated on the foundations of learning, the first systematic research on learning was done at the beginning of the 20th century, when Ivan Pavlov developed the framework for learning called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. The basic processes of classical conditioning that underlie Pavlov‘s discovery are straightforward, although the terminology he chose is not simple. Keeping in mind Pavlov‘s laboratory experiments with dogs, the basics of classical conditioning can be explained as follows: First, before conditioning, there are two unrelated stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. We know that normally the ringing of a bell does not lead to salivation but to some irrelevant response, such as pricking up the ears or perhaps a startle reaction. The bell is therefore called the neutral stimulus because it is a stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response in which we are interested. We also have meat, which naturally causes a dog to salivate—the response we are interested in conditioning. The meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because food placed in a dog‘s mouth automatically causes salivation to occur. The response that the meat elicits (salivation) is called an unconditioned response (UCR)—a natural, innate, reflexive response that is not associated with previous learning. Unconditioned responses are always brought about by the presence of unconditioned stimuli. After a number of pairings of the bell and meat, the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. When conditioning is complete, the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus (CS). At this time, salivation that occurs as a response to the conditioned stimulus (bell) is considered a conditioned response (CR). APPLYING CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Although the initial conditioning experiments were carried out with animals, classical conditioning principles were soon found to explain many aspects of everyday human behavior. Emotional responses are especially likely to be learned through classical conditioning processes. Learning by means of classical conditioning occurs during childhood as well as in adulthood. In more extreme cases, classical conditioning can lead to the development of phobias, which are intense, irrational fears. In the study, the experimenters sounded a loud noise whenever Little Albert touched a white, furry rat. The noise (the unconditioned stimulus) evoked fear (the unconditioned response). After just a few pairings of noise and rat, Albert began to show fear of the rat by itself, bursting into tears when he saw it. The rat, then, had become a CS that brought about the CR, fear. Furthermore, the effects of the conditioning lingered: Five days later, Albert reacted with some degree of fear not only when shown a rat but also when shown objects that looked similar to the white, furry rat, including a white rabbit, a white sealskin coat, and even a white Santa Claus mask. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suffered by some war veterans and others who have had traumatic experiences, can also be produced by classical conditioning. On the other hand, classical conditioning also relates to pleasant experiences. For instance, one might have a particular fondness for the smell of a certain perfume or aftershave lotion because thoughts of an early love come rushing back whenever one encounters it. Classical conditioning also explains why drug addictions are so difficult to treat. Drug addicts learn to associate certain stimuli—for example, drug paraphernalia such as a syringe or a room where they use drugs— with the pleasant feelings produced by the drugs. EXTINCTION (SEE FIGURE 2) Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. To produce extinction, one needs to end the association between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli. However, it is not necessary that once a conditioned response is extinguished that it vanishes forever. It is possible that the subject shows signs of spontaneous recovery, or the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time and with no further conditioning. GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization. The conditioned response elicited by the new stimulus is usually not as intense as the original conditioned response, although the more similar the new stimulus is to the old one, the more similar the new response will be. Stimulus discrimination, in contrast, occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other so that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. Stimulus discrimination provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli. For instance, our ability to discriminate between the behavior of a growling dog and that of one whose tail is wagging can lead to adaptive behavior—avoiding the growling dog and petting the friendly one.

BEYOND TRADITIONAL C LASSICAL CONDITIONING: CHALLENGING BASIC ASSUMPTIONS Pavlov hypothesized that all learning is nothing more than long strings of conditioned responses; this notion has not been supported by subsequent research. According to Pavlov, the process of linking stimuli and responses occurs in a mechanistic, unthinking way. In contrast to this perspective, learning theorists influenced by cognitive psychology have argued that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli. Traditional explanations of how classical conditioning operates have also been challenged by John Garcia, a learning psychologist. He found that some organisms—including humans—were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick. The surprising part of Garcia‘s discovery was his demonstration that conditioning could occur even when the interval between exposure to the conditioned stimulus of tainted food and the response of sickness was as long as 8 hours. Furthermore, the conditioning persisted over very long periods and sometimes occurred after just one exposure. KEY TERMS classical conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. conditioned response (CR) A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell). conditioned stimulus (CS) A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. extinction A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. learning A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. neutral stimulus A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. spontaneous recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. stimulus discrimination The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another, such that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli. stimulus generalization A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.

unconditioned response (UCR) A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food). unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. LECTURE IDEAS DESCRIBE LEARNING What Does It Mean to Learn? Engage your students in a healthy dialogue/debate on the meaning of learning. What does it mean to have learned something? Are students learning in your class? How do they know that they have learned something? Further your discussion about ―knowing information‖ versus ―learning information.‖ You can comment on the process of learning and how most learning takes time. What is the impact of technology on learning? How does the scheduling of accelerated courses benefit the student from a learning perspective? Basic Processes of Learning: Right now you are habituated to dozens of stimuli—including the feel of clothing on your skin. Now you are sensitized to it. How so? Discussion: Is habituation learning? Ask students to think about their job. How much of what they do is automatic? That is, are they demonstrating habituation (they are oriented to what they do and are exposed to repeatedly), or learning? PAVLOV‘S RESEARCH Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, never intended to do psychological research. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion, testimony to his contribution to that field. Yet Pavlov is remembered not for his physiological research but for his experiments on basic learning processes—work that he began quite accidentally. Pavlov had been studying the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in dogs in response to eating varying amounts and kinds of food. While doing his research, he observed a curious phenomenon: Sometimes salivation would begin in the dogs when they had not yet eaten any food. Just the sight of the experimenter who normally brought the food or even the sound of the experimenter‘s footsteps was enough to produce salivation in the dogs. Pavlov‘s genius lay in his ability to recognize the implications of this discovery. He saw that the dogs were responding not only on the basis of a biological need (hunger) but also as a result of learning—or, as it came to be called, classical conditioning. To demonstrate classical conditioning, Pavlov (1927) attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure precisely the dog‘s salivation. He then rang a bell and, just a few seconds later, presented the dog with meat. This pairing occurred repeatedly and was carefully planned so that, each time, exactly the same amount of time elapsed between the presentation of the bell and the meat. At first, the dog would salivate only when the meat was presented, but

soon it began to salivate at the sound of the bell. In fact, even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the dog still salivated after hearing the sound. The dog had been classically conditioned to salivate to the bell. For additional information about Pavlov: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1904/pavlov/biographical/. LITTLE ALBERT Discussion: In a now infamous case study, psychologists Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that classical conditioning was at the root of certain fears by conditioning an 11-month-old infant named Albert to be afraid of rats. ―Little Albert,‖ like most infants, was initially frightened by loud noises but had no fear of rats. In the study, the experimenters sounded a loud noise whenever Little Albert touched a white, furry rat. The noise (the unconditioned stimulus) evoked fear (the unconditioned response). After just a few pairings of noise and rat, Albert began to show fear of the rat by itself, bursting into tears when he saw it. The rat, then, had become a CS that brought about the CR, fear. Furthermore, the effects of the conditioning lingered: Five days later, Albert reacted with some degree of fear not only when shown a rat, but also when shown objects that looked similar to the white, furry rat, including a white rabbit, a white sealskin coat, and even a white Santa Claus mask. (By the way, we don‘t know for certain what happened to Little Albert, and his fate remains a source of considerable speculation. In any case, Watson, the experimenter, has been condemned for using ethically questionable procedures that could never be conducted today; Beck, Levinson, & Irons, 2009; Powell et al., 2014; Griggs, 2015.) Discuss the Little Albert experiment in connection to the principles of classical conditioning and as a reminder of ethical guidelines. Discussion: Watson, perhaps the father of the behavioral movement, is best known for the infamous quote: ―Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I‘ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, and merchant—chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors‖ (Watson, 1925, p. 82). Based on this quotation, what would this mean if you had an IQ of 100 and wanted to be a doctor? What if you lacked the ability for athleticism, as you were born small and weaker than most, but you wanted to be a professional football player? What would Watson say? Discussion: Students are generally interested in this story, and you may want to also talk about little Peter, a follow-up study done by Jones (1924) under Watson‘s supervision. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Present the following hints to help make the relationships between stimuli and responses easier to understand and remember:

Conditioned = learned; and unconditioned = not learned. An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response. Unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response pairings are unlearned and untrained. During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned stimulus–conditioned response pairing is a consequence of learning and training. An unconditioned response and a conditioned response are the same (such as salivation in the example described earlier). However, the unconditioned response occurs naturally, whereas the conditioned response is learned. Other phenomena related to classical conditioning are:    

Extinction—when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery—the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning Stimulus generalization—what takes place when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus Stimulus discrimination—the ability to differentiate between stimuli so that responses occur only to certain stimuli and not others

DEMONSTRATIONS: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning Demonstration: Collect these props: a small whistle and a squeezable ―puff‖ maker (as is sold in ear wax cleaner kits). Ask for a student volunteer. The person should be about your height, and should not be wearing contact lenses. Have the student stand squarely facing you, about 1 foot away. Set this up so that other students can see the volunteer‘s eyes. Announce that you will now show how classical conditioning is done. You will show that you can condition the volunteer to blink their eyes in response to the whistle. Put the volunteer at ease. Ask them where they are from, and then have the class applaud to that. Now show that they will not blink when you blow the whistle. Then, start conditioning—pair the whistle with the air puff about five or six times. On the next trial, just blow the whistle. Have the observers verify that the volunteer blinked, and then take your bows and applause!

This is a very uncontrolled situation, but what will help you have a successful result is to create the expectation that you will get a successful result—you are counting, in part, on the suggestibility of your subject. (While this is going on, you may want to have someone take a picture.) After completing the demonstration, use this overhead to have the students review the relevant concepts: The UCS was the:

__________________________ (air puff)

The CS was the: __________________________ (whistle) The UCR was the:

__________________________ (eye blink)

The CR was the: __________________________ (eye blink) Classical Conditioning Demonstration: Bring enough small paper cups with 1 tablespoon of powdered lemonade mix for each student in the class. Instruct each student not to drink anything and to remove gum before doing this activity. Tell students that every time you say ―Pavlov,‖ they are to lick their finger, dip it in the powdered lemonade, and put it on their tongue and swallow. Begin the activity by saying ―Pavlov‖ every 15 seconds for 2 min. After 2 min, tell students to put down their cup but still not drink anything. Then, begin introducing the idea of classical conditioning by defining the term and stating that it was accidentally uncovered by Pavlov. Pause and then ask students if they began salivating at the name Pavlov. Most students in your class will have salivated. Use this to illustrate the ideas of US, UR, CS, and CR. Source: Cogan, D., & Cogan, R. (1984). Classical salivary conditioning: An easy demonstration. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 170–171. OTHER EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONING PHENOMENA Ask students what or who they associate with a particular product—name a brand of athletic shoes, for example, or a certain soft drink or car. If students name a personality, icon, or abstraction to describe the product rather product features, then they are seeing the theory of behaviorism in action. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ACTIVITIES Classical Conditioning Experiences: Have students complete Handout 1: Classical Conditioning Experiences, in which they analyze examples of classical conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Terms: Use Handout 2: Classical Conditioning Terms as a way for students to better understand the terms that accompany classical conditioning. In this activity, the students read examples and identify the US, CS, UR, and CR in each of the examples. Advertising: In a group, have students design an advertisement using the principles of classical conditioning. As an alternative, have the group of students recall a specific advertisement and illustrate the principles of classical conditioning for that advertisement in a short presentation. To make this activity more interactive, have the group bring in the item that the advertisement is for to use as a prop during their presentation. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Classical Conditioning in Marketing—Give Us Your Money By understanding the components of classical conditioning and applying them to advertising and marketing, you may have become a victim of the power of conditioning. There are countless examples of advertisements attempting to pair their product with positive emotions. A list of several emotions paired with products includes satisfying hunger, humor, sex appeal, pleasure, youthfulness, and elitism. The methods used to pair these emotions with products can range from being very obvious to being very subtle. An example of a very obvious pairing would be a beer commercial in which a man is speaking with attractive women while holding the specific brand of beer. A more subtle pairing would be an insurance commercial that plays relaxing or calming music to associate the brand with ―peace of mind.‖ How many of you have bought something because you saw the advertisement or commercial? After you bought that product, how many of you were disappointed or realized that what you thought you were buying wasn‘t actually what you received? How many of you think it is unethical for advertisers and marketers to use learning principles to sell their products? Who thinks there should be some regulations or standards put in place so that advertising companies can‘t trick their customers? RESEARCH INVOLVING C LASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning and Psychological Disorders: Have students search online for examples of current research involving classical conditioning, including research involving conditioning as a method for treating psychological disorders such as phobias or mood disorders. Pavlov’s Work: As a homework project, instruct students to figure out a scenario in which Pavlov‘s classical conditioning experiment can be used. Have them write a report on it and share the experience as part of the class discussion. Little Albert: Ask students to bring in recent articles about Little Albert for discussion. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Identify and describe an example of classical conditioning from your own life. Be sure to use the classical conditioning terminology to explain the example. Give an example of how waking up at 7:00 a.m. to the sound of an alarm clock describes acquisition, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Classical Conditioning and Your Pet: Ask students to think about their pet. Ask them what happens when they go into the kitchen. How do their fish respond when they walk over to the tank? Why do animals get excited by these mundane behaviors? Their pet has learned to associate these behaviors with food. If you want to continue this line of discussion, ask them about ―false alarms.‖ If they go into the kitchen repeatedly and then don‘t give their pet food, what happens? Ask students to provide additional examples of this learning by association (e.g., how have they trained their significant other?). VIDEOS American Express. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQk7Zh-dXCk. This ad, which began airing in the fall of 2009, is an excellent example of pairing ―happy‖ stimuli with a credit card. Classical conditioning. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI. View the original work of Pavlov in this clip. Classical conditioning roommate. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eo7jcI8fAuI. A student uses Pavlov‘s classical conditioning on his roommate. Crash Course Psychology #11 (2014). How to train a brain. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM. Fodor, J. (2012, January 7). The science of everything: Episode 28: Classical conditioning [Audio podcast]. https://www.podbean.com/media/share/pb-itewf-260bed. John Watson. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhwats.html. The Public Broadcasting Service website gives a brief biography of John Watson. Little Albert. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8. This clip provides original footage of Little Albert. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #16: The locus of learning and memory [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/the-locus-of-learning-andmemory/?jwsource=cl. This clip describes where learning occurs in the brain. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #17: Learning as synaptic change [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/learning-as-synaptic-change/. This clip discusses structural changes in the brain that occur due to learning. ADDITIONAL READINGS

Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Chance, P. (2013). Learning and behavior. Boston, MA: Cengage. Goldman, J. G. (2012, January 11). What is classical conditioning? (And why does it matter?). Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-isclassical-conditioning-and-why-does-it-matter/. Griggs, R. A. (2014). Psychology‘s lost boy: Will the real Little Albert please stand up? Teaching of Psychology, 42, 14–18. Griggs, R. A. (2014). The continuing saga of Little Albert in introductory textbooks, Teaching of Psychology, 41, 309–317. Jones, M. C. (1924). A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter. Pedagogical Seminary, 31, 308–315. Jones, M. C. (1974). Albert, Peter, and John B. Watson. American Psychologist, 29, 581–583. Kuo, M., Barnes, M., & Jordan, C. (2019, February). Do experiences with nature promote learning? Converging evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(305). https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00305/full. Little Albert regains his identity (January 2010). Monitor on Psychology, 41. McSweeney, F. K., & Murphy, E. S. (2014). The Wiley Blackwell handbook of operant and classical conditioning. Wiley Blackwell. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Peter Smith. Seligman, M. E. P. (1970). On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Review, 77, 406–418. Stanford University. (2018, October 25). How the brain decides what to learn. ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181025142023.htm. Vernoy, M. W. (1987). Demonstrating classical conditioning in introductory psychology: Needles do not always make balloons pop! TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY, 14, 176– 177. Watanabe, H., Kobayashi, Y., Sakura, M., Matsumoto, Y., & Mizunami, M. (2003). Classical olfactory conditioning in the cockroach. Zoological Science, 20, 1447–1454. Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158– 177. Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1–14.

MODULE 16: OPERANT CONDITIONING LEARNING OBJECTIVES 16-1

What are the roles of reward and punishment in learning?

16-2

What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in others?

Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we say that a response has been strengthened or weakened, we mean that it has been made more or less likely to recur regularly. Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original behaviors are the natural, biological responses to the presence of a stimulus, such as food, water, or pain, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point: The organism ―operates‖ on its environment to produce a desirable result. THORNDIKE‘S LAW OF EFFECT After conducting the cat-in-the-cage experiment (see Figure 1), Edward L. Thorndike observed the cat had learned that pressing the paddle was associated with the desirable consequence of getting food. Thorndike summarized that relationship by formulating the law of effect: Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. According to Thorndike, it was not necessary for an organism to understand that there was a link between a response and a reward. Instead, Thorndike believed, over time and through experience, the organism would make a direct connection between the stimulus and the response without any awareness that the connection existed. THE BASICS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Thorndike‘s early research served as the foundation for the work of one of the 20th century‘s most influential psychologists, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). The Skinner box was a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals (see Figure 2). Whereas Thorndike‘s goal was to get his cats to learn to obtain food by leaving the box, animals in a Skinner box learn to obtain food by operating on their environment within the box. Skinner became interested in specifying how behavior varies as a result of alterations in the environment. Skinner, whose work went far beyond perfecting Thorndike‘s earlier apparatus, is considered the inspiration for a whole generation of psychologists studying operant conditioning. REINFORCEMENT: THE CENTRAL CONCEPT OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that a

preceding behavior will occur again. A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person‘s previous experience. Examples of primary reinforcers include food for a hungry person, warmth for a cold person, and relief for a person in pain. In contrast, a secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money). POSITIVE REINFORCERS, NEGATIVE REINFORCERS, AND PUNISHMENT (SEE FIGURE 3) A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response. If food, water, money, or praise is provided after a response, it is more likely that that response will occur again in the future. In contrast, a negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. Negative reinforcement, then, teaches the individual that taking an action removes a negative condition that exists in the environment. Like positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers increase the likelihood that preceding behaviors will be repeated (Magoon & Critchfield, 2008). Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again. Unlike negative reinforcement, which produces an increase in behavior, punishment reduces the likelihood of a prior response. There are two types of punishment: positive punishment and negative punishment, just as there are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus. In contrast, negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant. Both positive and negative punishment result in a decrease in the likelihood that a prior behavior will be repeated. The following are rules that help with distinguishing concepts from one another:  



Reinforcement increases the frequency of the behavior preceding it; punishment decreases the frequency of the behavior preceding it. The application of a positive stimulus brings about an increase in the frequency of behavior and is referred to as positive reinforcement; the application of a negative stimulus decreases or reduces the frequency of behavior and is called positive punishment. The removal of a negative stimulus that results in an increase in the frequency of behavior is negative reinforcement; the removal of a positive stimulus that decreases the frequency of behavior is negative punishment.

THE PROS AND CONS OF PUNISHMENT: WHY REINFORCEMENT BEATS PUNISHMENT Punishment often presents the quickest route to changing behavior that, if allowed to continue, might be dangerous to an individual. Moreover, the use of punishment to suppress behavior, even temporarily, provides an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a

more desirable way. Punishment has several disadvantages that make its routine questionable. For one thing, punishment is frequently ineffective, particularly if it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior or if the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. Even worse, physical punishment can convey to the recipient the idea that physical aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable. Ultimately, those who resort to physical punishment run the risk that they will grow to be feared. Punishment can also reduce the selfesteem of recipients unless they can understand the reasons for it. Finally, punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. To be useful in bringing about more desirable behavior in the future, punishment must be accompanied by specific information about the behavior that is being punished, along with specific suggestions concerning a more desirable behavior. In short, reinforcing desired behavior is a more appropriate technique for modifying behavior than using punishment. Finally, punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. To be useful in bringing about more desirable behavior in the future, punishment must be accompanied by specific information about the behavior that is being punished, along with specific suggestions concerning a more desirable behavior. Reinforcing desired behavior is a more appropriate technique for modifying behavior than is using punishment. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: TIMING LIFE‘S REWARDS (SEE FIGURE 4) Schedules of reinforcement refer to the different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. In a continuous reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. In contrast, in a partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule, behavior is reinforced some but not all the time it occurs. Although learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement schedule, behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial reinforcement schedule. Partial reinforcement schedules maintain performance longer than do continuous reinforcement schedules before extinction—the disappearance of the conditioned response—occurs. Partial reinforcement schedules can be put into two categories: schedules that consider the number of responses made before reinforcement is given, called fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules, and those that consider the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is provided, called fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules. Fixed- and Variable-Ratio Schedules: In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses. In a variable-ratio schedule, behaviors are reinforced after an average number of responses, but exactly when reinforcement will occur is unpredictable. Although the specific number of responses necessary to receive reinforcement varies, the number of responses usually hovers around a specific average. Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time: In contrast to fixed- and variable-ratio schedules, in which the crucial factor is the number of responses, fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules focus on the amount of time that has elapsed since a person or animal was rewarded. Because a fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low. One way to

decrease the delay in responding that occurs just after reinforcement and to maintain the desired behavior more consistently throughout an interval is to use a variable-interval schedule. In a variable-interval schedule, the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. DISCRIMINATION AND GENERALIZATION IN OPERANT CONDITIONING Just as in classical conditioning, operant learning involves the phenomena of discrimination and generalization. The process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli is known as stimulus control training. In stimulus control training, a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence. A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response. Just as in classical conditioning, the phenomenon of stimulus generalization, in which an organism learns a response to one stimulus and then exhibits the same response to slightly different stimuli, occurs in operant conditioning. SHAPING: REINFORCING WHAT DOESN‘T COME NATURALLY Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. In shaping, you start by reinforcing any behavior that is at all similar to the behavior you want the person to learn. Later, you reinforce only responses that are closer to the behavior you ultimately want to teach. Finally, you reinforce only the desired response. Each step in shaping, then, moves only slightly beyond the previously learned behavior, permitting the person to link the new step to the behavior learned earlier. Shaping allows even lower animals to learn complex responses that would never occur naturally, ranging from lions jumping through hoops to dolphins rescuing divers lost at sea and rodents finding hidden land mines. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTURY: A NOSE FOR DANGER: SNIFFING OUT COVID-19 Dogs were trained to sniff out the presence of the COVID-19 virus on band members, their crews, and their families. It turns out that dogs, who have a highly sophisticated sense of smell, can learn to identify the odor of the COVID-19 virus and reliably distinguish it from other smells emanating from human bodies. In fact, dogs may be more accurate than the rapid antigen tests that are widely available, as they can identify even small amounts of the virus. One concern about the use of COVID-sniffing dogs is that there are no national standards for their appropriate use. In addition, although dogs clearly seem able to identify people with COVID by the smell, researchers have not yet determined the specific chemicals dogs detect. Classical conditioning might be used to identify other diseases and with animals other than dogs. Finally, the procedure has the potential to be used in other ways, such as finding victims buried during earthquakes. BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING: YOU CAN‘T TEACH AN OLD DOG JUST ANY TRICK

Not all behaviors can be trained in all species equally well. Instead, there are biological constraints, built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors. The existence of biological constraints is consistent with evolutionary explanations of behavior. Clearly, there are adaptive benefits that promote survival for organisms that quickly learn—or avoid—certain behaviors. Additional support for the evolutionary interpretation of biological constraints lies in the fact that the associations that animals learn most readily involve stimuli that are most relevant to the specific environment in which they live. COMPARING CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING (SEE FIGURE 5) We have considered classical conditioning and operant conditioning as two completely different processes. The key concept in classical conditioning is the association between stimuli, whereas in operant conditioning, it is reinforcement. Furthermore, classical conditioning involves an involuntary, natural, innate behavior, but operant conditioning is based on voluntary responses made by an organism. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: USING BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Behavior modification is a technique for increasing the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. A behavior analyst is a psychologist who specializes in behavior modification techniques. The techniques used by behavior analysts are as varied as the list of processes that modify behavior. They include reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization training, discrimination training, and extinction. Participants in a behavior change program do, however, typically follow a series of similar basic steps that include the following:      

Identifying goals and target behaviors Designing a data-recording system and recording preliminary data Selecting a behavior-change strategy Implementing the program Keeping careful records after the program is implemented Evaluating and altering the ongoing program

Behavior-change techniques based on these general principles have enjoyed wide success and have proved to be one of the most powerful means of modifying behavior. KEY TERMS behavior modification A technique whose goal is to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease the incidence of unwanted ones. continuous reinforcement schedule A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs.

fixed-interval schedule A schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed. fixed-ratio schedule A schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. negative reinforcer An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. operant conditioning Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response's favorable or unfavorable consequences. partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time. positive reinforcer A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response. punishment A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again. reinforcement The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. reinforcer Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again. schedule of reinforcement The pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. shaping The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. variable-interval schedule A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. variable-ratio schedule A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable. LECTURE IDEAS DEMONSTRATION: SHAPING You will need to arrange for a bicycle to be present in the classroom. Have it sitting unobtrusively off to one side against a wall. If this is not possible, an umbrella will suffice as a prop.

Select a volunteer. Ask them their name and where they are from, and have the class cheer them on for what they are about to do. Ask the student to step outside of the room. When the volunteer is out of earshot, tell the class that they are going to use shaping to get the volunteer to ride the bicycle across the front of the classroom (alternatively, to open the umbrella and dance in a circle while holding it over their head). The students will do this by clapping as the volunteer gets closer to each desired step in a sequence. First, the volunteer will have to look at the bicycle. Then, they will have to walk over to it and so on, until they ride the bicycle across the stage. The class will look at you, and you will cue them when to clap. After the volunteer performs the desired act, the clapping should stop and should not start again until the next higher level in the hierarchy is reached. After the desired behavior is performed, lead the class in a big round of applause for the volunteer. (While the volunteer is on the bicycle, you may want to have someone take their picture.) HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Classical: Think of Beethoven‘s Fifth Symphony (―classical‖ music)—you feel an emotional reaction when you hear the first four notes. Operant: A surgeon operates, and this takes a great deal of training. Shaping: When you have your hair done, your stylist has been trained through a complex process. Reinforcement: You strengthen a building with reinforcement; in behavioral psychology, reinforcement strengthens a behavior. BIOGRAPHY OF B. F. SKINNER Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990) is one of the most famous, influential, and controversial figures in contemporary American psychology. He was born in the small railroad town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, in March 1904. After graduating from Hamilton College in 1926 with a degree in English, he tried writing but eventually gave it up because he felt he had nothing important to say. He became interested in psychology and earned his PhD from Harvard University in 1931. He taught for several years at the University of Minnesota and Indiana University. During this time, he wrote two of his most important books—The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel, Walden Two (1948), which is an account of a utopian society run in accordance with operant principles. Skinner returned to Harvard in 1948, where he remained until his death in August 1990. Skinner made numerous contributions to the science of behavior. He strongly influenced the area of learning that he named operant conditioning. His Skinner box is now a standard apparatus for the experimental study of animal behavior. Much of his work involved the study of how reinforcement schedules influence learning and behavior. His Beyond Freedom and Dignity

(1971) is a nonfiction examination of his utopian society in which he explains why we must understand how we control behavior in everyday life. In his 1987 book, Upon Further Reflection, Skinner presents his views on issues ranging from world peace and evolution to education and old age. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. BIOGRAPHY OF EDWARD L. THORNDIKE Edward Lee Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, in 1874. His mother was homemaker, and his father was a minister. After graduating from high school in 1891, he attended Wesleyan University, where he graduated in 1895. He then continued his education at Harvard University. In 1897, he left Harvard and began graduate work at Columbia University. Thorndike studied learning in cats and earned a PhD in psychology in 1898. His dissertation resulted in his publication in 1898 of ―Animal Intelligence‖ in Psychological Review. Thorndike observed trial and error learning in cats. He placed a cat in a small cage and observed it manipulate the environment in order to escape. Thorndike called this type of learning instrumental learning, stating that the individual is instrumental in producing a response. After teaching for a year at the College for Women of Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio, Thorndike went to Teachers College at Columbia University, where he remained the rest of his academic career. He became more interested in human mental abilities, and in 1903, he published a monograph, ―Heredity, Correlation and Sex Differences in School Abilities.‖ Thorndike was a prolific writer, publishing more than 450 articles and books. Some of his important publications include Educational Psychology (1903), The Elements of Psychology (1905), The Fundamentals of Learning (1932), and The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes (1935). He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation. He served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. Thorndike died in 1949. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING Show students this comparison chart: Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Acquisition

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery

Stimulus generalization

Association between stimuli and responses

Reinforcement

Based on involuntary reflexive behavior

Based on voluntary behavior

Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Use these examples: Schedule

Examples

Fixed ratio: rewards given after fixed number of responses

Getting a free coffee for every 10 cups that you buy at a local coffee house Magazine subscription offer: buy 11 issues and get the 12th one for free Being paid by commission

Variable ratio: rewards given after varying number of responses

Gambling (slot machine) is always the best example.

Fixed interval: rewards given after a fixed period of time

Exam is given every Friday in class. Studying occurs on Thursday night. A store offers a sale or discount every Saturday. Weekly paycheck

Variable interval: rewards given after varying periods of time

A radio station offers free tickets at some point during the next hour, but you do not know when the offer will occur.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS

SHAPING AND SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION Shaping. Use Handout 3: How Do You Shape Behaviors? The goal of this activity is to have students demonstrate the concept of shaping. The students are given various behaviors and are supposed to describe how they would go about shaping them. Shaping the Professor: This activity gives students the opportunity to observe and then shape their professor‘s behavior. For example, pacing behaviors can be shaped if every time the professor paces to the left, students ask questions, stay awake, take notes, and look interested. If the professor moves to the right, students yawn, take no notes, talk to other students, and generally ignore the professor. Ask the class members if they think they can shape you. Remind them to pick a simple behavior, then leave the room while they make their choice. Even with this introduction and with the full awareness of the professor, they can be very successful. They may be able to shape you to write on the blackboard, look out of the window, or touch your ear. Source: Chisler, J. C. (2000). Conditioning instructor‘s behavior: A class project in psychology of learning. In M. E. Ware & D. E. Johnson (Eds.). Handbook of demonstrations and activities in psychology (2nd ed.), 137–139. Psychology Press. REINFORCEMENT Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement can be difficult concepts to grasp. The realworld examples and accompanying practice exercises on the following website should help to clarify the distinction for you: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Differences Between Primary and Secondary Reinforcers: Students may have difficulty discriminating the differences between these two types of reinforcements. You can use the advertising example in the text (e.g., how reinforcers may acquire pleasant characteristics by virtue of their association with something that is inherently reinforcing, such as food or sex, in ads for sports cars, beer, beauty supplies, etc.). You can also discuss what types of reinforcers are most effective for different situations. For example, ask how to get classmates to show up at different events: the answer is FREE FOOD (a primary reinforcer). How might you as a faculty member get students to attend class regularly? OFFER EXTRA CREDIT (a secondary reinforcer). Partial Reinforcement: Break the class into groups, and have each group come up with one example each for fixed-ratio schedules, variable-ratio schedules, fixed-interval schedules, and variable-interval schedules. The students will learn from each other by working together to come up with their examples. They will also be reviewing the various schedules as they complete the assignment.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Use Handout 4: Which Schedule Is It? The goal of this activity is to have students read various scenarios from which they are to identify the schedule of reinforcement (positive or negative reinforcement, or positive or negative punishment). The students will gain knowledge with the various schedules of reinforcement. They will have to evaluate the example critically before determining which schedule of reinforcement it fits into. Schedules of Reinforcement—Personal Examples: Use Handout 5: Schedules of Reinforcement. The goal of this activity is to have students provide an original example from their daily life for each of the schedules of reinforcement. PUNISHMENT Behavior Modification: Use Handout 6: How Do You Change Behavior? In this activity, the students will have to choose a behavior from the ones listed on the assignment sheet, and they will have to use the principles of operant conditioning that were discussed in the chapter to change the behavior they chose. Punishment: Have the students search the internet for various forms of acceptable and unacceptable punishment. The students should find out which forms of punishment are acceptable in various cultures. Then, they should write a one- to two-page paper summarizing the information they found. Time-Out! Have your class debate the effectiveness of ―time-out‖ as punishment for children‘s bad behaviors. Students should be able to articulate examples of punishments and reinforcements as they argue their opinions about this topic. To add depth in the debate, ask students to reflect on cultural components of this argument and what place culture and social components have in learning. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT Why do psychologists prefer negative reinforcement to punishment as a way to shape behavior? What are examples of negative reinforcement in your life? What are examples of punishment in your life? Which is more effective in motivating you—negative reinforcement or punishment? Discuss alcohol addiction as it relates to reinforcement and punishment. Discuss how wearing sunglasses can be a form of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Do the same for smoking cigarettes.

Behavior Modification: How should you best modify behaviors? Ask students how their parents reinforced and punished them. Which actions were most effective? Which were most ineffective? Skinner emphasized that reinforcement is a much more effective way of modifying behavior than is punishment. Specifically, using reinforcement to increase desirable behaviors works better than using punishment in an attempt to decrease undesirable behaviors. As another example, ask students to honestly report if they have ever driven drunk. Then, ask if they were ever caught in this act. What can government do to curb drunk driving? Should it punish people with jail sentences, major fines, and so on, or should it reward people each time they drive sober? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Punishment After John brings home a disappointing report card, his mother responds by taking away his cell phone. This is an example of: a) Positive reinforcement b) Negative reinforcement c) Positive punishment d) Negative punishment Polling Question: Learning Principles—Abusive to Animals (You Decide) Service dogs and sniffer dogs have been trained to demonstrate excellent skills and amazing complex behaviors that you may not ever see from your house pet. Training dogs to detect blood sugar levels in humans through smell or having service dogs flush toilets for those who are disabled are among some of the most extraordinary skills these canines have mastered. How did they do it? Learning principles are incredibly powerful and influential. How many of you think it is acceptable to train service dogs to do such extraordinary behaviors? Imagine the extensive training programs these dogs go through. Who thinks we have crossed the line by training dogs in this manner, utilizing the same learning principles discussed in this chapter? How many of you think it is an invaluable service that these dogs provide and would consider it a privilege to either own or train one of these special animals? SUGGESTED MEDIA Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Learning., 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/learning/. The basic principles of classical and operant conditioning as Skinner, Pavlov, and Watson saw it are explored. B. F. Skinner. http://www.bfskinner.org/. This website includes information describing B. F. Skinner‘s contributions to psychology and about the foundation. Big Bang Theory: Sheldon Trains Penny. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4. In The Gothowitz Deviation episode of this CBS sitcom, one character uses operant conditioning principles to modify the behavior of another character. Students enjoy the episode for its humor

and the examples of conditioning. Note, however, that there is one error in the episode: see if students can spot it. Carleton, S., & Herron, A. (Panic Mode). (2019, April 28). 20-Operant conditioning in video games [Audio podcast]. https://www.panicmode.net/episodes/ep20. Dancing dogs. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nc9xq-TVyHI and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0uK16zu5vA. Both of these links show dogs that have learned to ―dance‖ using operant conditioning principles. Insight Media. B. F. Skinner and behaviorism, 26 min. Skinner discusses applications of behaviorism, such as programmed instruction and behavior modification. Insight Media. (2001). Learning: Classical and operant conditioning, 30:00. Pavlov and Skinner‘s groundbreaking experiments are discussed. Insight Media. (2006). Learning Machine: Learning, 30:00. Studies on classical and operant conditioning are described. Litter Kwitter. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut7gm2tFqWY. Using conditioning, this device claims to train cats to use a toilet in 8 weeks or less. Lost. Season 2 of the ABC show Lost introduces a key plot element in which the characters must press a button on a computer every 108 min or else something bad will happen (they do not know what it is because they are afraid to find out). This is an example of both negative reinforcement and fixed-interval conditioning. Overview of operant conditioning. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctAb37tK7zg. Pigeons Play Ping-Pong. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4. Rat basketball (operant conditioning): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAQSEO25fa4. Sea World and Busch Gardens Animal Training. https://seaworld.org/animals/all-about/zoocareers/animal-training/. This website discusses animal training at Sea World and Busch Gardens. It has many links to other sites that are associated with animal training. The Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning, TED-Ed: https://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-difference-between-classical-and-operant-conditioning-peggyandover. ADDITIONAL READINGS Khan, S. (TED Talks Live). (2015, November). Let‘s teach for mastery-not test scores. https://www.ted.com/talks/sal_khan_let_s_teach_for_mastery_not_test_scores. Shields, C., & Gredler, M. (2003). A problem-solving approach to teaching operant conditioning. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 114–116.

Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York, NY: Knopf. Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York, NY: Knopf. MODULE 17: COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVE 17-1

What are the roles of cognition and thought in learning?

Some psychologists view learning in terms of the thought processes, or cognitions, that underlie it—an approach known as cognitive learning theory. Although psychologists working from the cognitive learning perspective do not deny the importance of classical and operant conditioning, they have developed approaches that focus on the unseen mental processes that occur during learning, rather than concentrating solely on external stimuli, responses, and reinforcements. In its most basic formulation, cognitive learning theory suggests that it is not enough to say that people make responses because there is an assumed link between a stimulus and a response—a link that is the result of a past history of reinforcement for a response. Instead, according to this point of view, people and even lower animals develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response. Two types of learning in which no obvious prior reinforcement is present are latent learning and observational learning. LATENT LEARNING (SEE FIGURE 1) In latent learning, a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. Both humans and animals develop cognitive maps, which are mental representations of spatial locations and directions. For example, latent learning may permit a person to know the location of a kitchenware store at a local mall that they have frequently visited, even though they have never entered the store and do not even like to cook. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: LEARNING THROUGH IMITATION According to psychologist Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major part of human learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person or model. Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social phenomenon—the perspective taken by Bandura is often referred to as a social cognitive approach to learning. Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills in which the operant conditioning technique of shaping is inappropriate. Observational learning may have a genetic basis. For example, we find observational learning at work with mother animals teaching their young such activities as hunting. Not all behavior that we witness is learned or carried out. One crucial factor that determines whether we later imitate a model is whether the model is rewarded for their behavior. Models who are rewarded for behaving in a particular way are more apt to be mimicked than are models

who receive punishment. Observing the punishment of a model, however, does not necessarily stop observers from learning the behavior. For more information, see the Neuroscience in Your Life: Learning Through Imitation box in the text. VIOLENCE IN TELEVISION AND VIDEO GAMES: DOES THE MEDIA‘S MESSAGE MATTER? Most psychologists agree that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively. Violent video games have also been linked with actual aggression. In one of a series of studies by psychologist Craig Anderson and his colleagues, college students who frequently played violent video games, such as Postal or Doom, were more likely to have been involved in delinquent behavior and aggression. Frequent players also had lower academic achievement. Several aspects of media violence may contribute to aggressive behavior. For one thing, experiencing violent media content seems to lower inhibitions against carrying out aggression. Exposure to media violence also may distort our understanding of the meaning of others‘ behavior, predisposing us to view even nonaggressive acts by others as aggressive. Finally, a continuous diet of aggression may leave us desensitized to violence, and what previously would have repelled us now produces little emotional response. On the other hand, there are contrary research findings. For example, a recent meta-analysis of video game influences finds the effects of video games on aggression are not substantial. Furthermore, some researchers argue that violent video games may produce certain positive results—such as a rise in social networking. However, most experts agree that the clear preponderance of evidence points to at least moderate negative outcomes from viewing violent video games. Does real-life exposure to actual violence also increase aggression? Exposure to actual firearm violence (being shot, or being shot at) doubles the probability that an adolescent will commit serious violence over the next 2 years. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HOW WE LEARN? Some psychologists, taking a cognitive perspective on learning, suggest that people develop particular learning styles, characteristic ways of approaching material, based on their cultural background and unique pattern of abilities. Learning styles differ along several dimensions. For example, one central dimension is relational versus analytical approaches to learning. People with a relational learning style master material best through understanding the ―big picture‖ about something. They need to understand the complete picture of what they‘re studying before they understand its component parts. In contrast, those with an analytical learning style do best when they first analyze the various components underlying an object, phenomenon, or situation.

By developing an understanding of the individual parts, they are best able to grasp the full picture. The conclusion that members of particular ethnic and gender groups have similar learning styles is controversial. Because there is so much diversity within each particular racial and ethnic group, critics argue that generalizations about learning styles cannot be used to predict the style of any single individual, regardless of group membership. Still, it is clear that values about learning, which are communicated through a person‘s family and cultural background, have an impact on how successful students are in school. One theory suggests that members of minority groups who were voluntary immigrants are more apt to be successful in school than those who were brought into a majority culture against their will. The theory suggests that the motivation to succeed is lower for children in forced immigration groups. KEY TERMS cognitive learning theory An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. latent learning Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. observational learning Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model. LECTURE IDEAS FOCUS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY Emphasize the focus of cognitive learning theory on thoughts and expectations. Explain why this was an important departure from strict behaviorism. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Violence in the Media: Raise the issue of whether violence on television, in the movies, and in video games affects young people and how. Include in this discussion the question of the effects of the behavior of well-known public figures such as politicians, sports personalities, pop stars, and movie celebrities. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment: Describe the sequence of events in the classic Bobo doll experiment. Choose students to act out this experiment as a skit: Subjects were brought individually by the experimenter to the experiment room and the model, who was in the hallway outside the room, was invited by the experimenter to come in and join in the game. The experimenter then escorted the subject to one corner of the room, which was structured as the subject‘s play area.

After seating the child at a small table, the experimenter demonstrated an interesting task for the child to perform. Then, the experimenter escorted the adult model to the opposite corner of the room, which contained a small table and chair, a Tinkertoys set, a mallet, and a 5foot inflated Bobo doll. After the model was seated, the experimenter left the room. In the nonaggressive condition, the model assembled the Tinkertoys in a quiet, subdued manner, totally ignoring the Bobo doll. In the aggressive condition, the model began by assembling the Tinkertoys, but after approximately a minute had elapsed, the model turned to the Bobo doll and spent the remainder of the period behaving aggressively toward it. This is what the model did: The model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sat on it, and punched it repeatedly in the nose. The model then raised the Bobo doll, picked up the mallet, and struck the doll on the head. Following the mallet aggression, the model tossed the doll up in the air aggressively and kicked it about the room. This sequence of physically aggressive acts was repeated approximately three times, interspersed with verbally aggressive responses such as, ―Sock him in the nose . . . ,‖ ―Hit him down . . . ,‖ ―Throw him in the air . . . ,‖ ―Kick him.. . . ,‖ ―Pow . . . ,‖ and two nonaggressive comments, ―He keeps coming back for more‖ and ―He sure is a tough fella.‖ Subjects were tested for the amount of imitative learning in a different experimental room that was set off from the main nursery school building. Before this, they had been frustrated moderately by being allowed to play for only 2 min with some very attractive toys. Ratings were then made of the child‘s aggressive behavior, including verbalizations and physical acts of violence against the doll. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Clive Wearing and Learning: People who cannot form new memories nevertheless learn. The body can learn things of which the conscious mind is not aware. If you have internet access in your classroom, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymEn_YxZqZw for clips on Clive Wearing, a man who is unable to form new memory but demonstrates learning none the less. You may also want to use http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y. Latent Learning: Ask the students to think about a time in their life when latent learning was evident. After they have written down an example of latent learning in their life, break the class into groups and have them share with others in their group the example they came up with for

latent learning. The students will have to review the concept of latent learning in order to come up with their own examples and will learn from each other by sharing with the group. Bandura’s Approach: Break the class into groups. Write various behaviors on the board, such as riding a bike, jumping rope, washing dishes, and driving a car. Ask the groups to work their way through Bandura‘s four approaches that are discussed in this chapter as though they were observing another person acting out these behaviors. Ask the groups to choose two of the behaviors and discuss how they would go about imitating those behaviors. Blame the Video Game? As an interactive assessment of student‘s understanding of the various principles of learning, create student teams and play ―Blame the Video Game.‖ The instructor will give one concept of learning (e.g., positive reinforcement), and student teams must come up with one example of this concept used in video games. Each team must come up with a unique video game and/or example that illustrates this concept, and their explanation must be correct in order to win points. Other teams can ―steal‖ the points by refuting the explanation or showing how it is incorrect. If two teams use the same video game or example from the video game, then no team gets the points. These rules are similar to Scattegories, the family game by Hasbro Milton Bradley Company. Finally, ask students to discuss the impact video games are having on children based on the use of learning principles. Can You Do It? Bring a video clip of the Dancing with the Stars television show, or visit https://abc.com/shows/dancing-with-the-stars. Scroll to the Dancing with the Stars program. Use the link ―relive the dances‖ or ―watch free episodes.‖ Direct the students to watch the video and determine if they can imitate the dances by observational learning. Considering Bandura‘s four approaches, what additional inputs would the students need in order to learn the dances, and why? Effects of Music Videos: Have students complete Handout 8: Images in Music Videos. Ideal Internship and Observation Learning: Imagine that you are about to begin an internship in an organization that you would like to join someday as a professional. Use the processes of observational learning to describe your strategy for making the most of your internship. Role Models and Observational Learning: Have students complete Handout 7: Effects of Role Models on the effect of role models on their behavior. Violence on Television: Give students a homework assignment of watching television. Have them make note of different types of aggression they see in the course of one evening (you may wish to differentiate physical aggression versus relational aggression). Talk to students in the next class meeting about their observations. They will likely be surprised by just how much aggression they saw. Ask them how this might influence children (you can also talk about cartoon violence here). DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

What is the difference between latent learning and insight learning? Sixteen-year-old Sena has never driven a car before but has observed many of her friends drive. On her first attempt at driving, Sena shows remarkable skill and ability. What might explain Sena‘s ability? Describe something you learned by insight. What led to your learning? IMPACT OF TELEVISION AND MOVIES ON AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN AND TEENS What do you think are the effects of watching violent television programs and movies on children? Why? Reflect on some examples of ways in which observational learning has benefited you in your life. Are there instances in which observational learning has worked to your disadvantage? Do you think watching violence in movies and TV leads to aggressive behavior? Why or why not? How would you evaluate the argument that showing violence on television and in movies helps to reduce violence in children by showing them that they will be punished for this behavior? Can vicarious learning be beneficial? How? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Don’t Downplay My Insight Max Wertheimer‘s experiment on insight learning consisted of his telling children to find the area of a parallelogram. In one group, he told them a formula to solve the problem, but the other group did not receive the formula. The children who were given the formula were able to find the area, but they did not understand why it was the answer. Because not many of the children who were not given the formula knew how to find the area of a parallelogram, they figured out to cut the right triangles off the ends of the parallelogram and combine them to form a rectangle. After this was done, Wertheimer gave both groups of students a set of transfer problems (problems like the original but different in some way). The children who were not given the formula and understood how to find the area of the parallelogram did better on the transfer problems, whereas the children who received the formula and did not understand did worse. The children who were not given the formula used insight learning, which allowed them to see how to solve the problem. Let‘s take a more personal look at insight learning. First, do you think you are insightful? What does that mean to you? How many of you think that insight learning is really just good guessing? Who in this room has had an experience in which you didn‘t really know how to do or solve

something, then, like magic, you managed to figure it out? How many of you think that animals can exhibit insight learning? For those who answered yes, what examples can you give? Polling Question: Vicarious Learning Do you believe that violent video games, TV shows, and movies have an impact on aggressive behavior? SUGGESTED MEDIA Bobo doll study: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmBqwWlJg8U. This clip includes an interview with Bandura along with footage from the original study. Bowling for Columbine: Show a segment from this documentary, which examines questions related to the causes of gun violence in the United States. http://watchdocumentaries.com/bowling-for-columbine/. Crash Course Psychology #12. The Bobo Beatdown. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE. Children See. Children Do: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw. This clip explores observational learning. Learning and Transfer Lab. http://greenlab.psych.wisc.edu/. Insight Media. (2001). Learning: Observational and Cognitive Approaches, 30:00. Behavior modification, modeling, observational learning, and other cognitive approaches are investigated. Robinson, K. (TED Talks Education). (2013, April). How to escape education’s death valley. https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_how_to_escape_education_s_death_valley. Support Monkeys. http://www.monkeyhelpers.org/. Highly trained capuchin monkeys assist adults with spinal cord injuries and other mobility impairments. The man with the seven second memory. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_P7Y0-wgos. The story of Clive Wearing. ADDITIONAL READINGS Ashuri, T., Dvir-Gvisman, S., & Halperin, R. (2018, January 31). Watching me watching you: How observational learning affects self-disclosure network sites. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 23 (1), pp 34–68. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 67, 601–608. Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477–489. Gentile, D.A., Li, D., Khoo, A., Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2014). Mediators and moderators of long-term effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Practice, thinking, and

action. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(5), pp 450–457. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/1850198. Keim, B. (2013). What science knows about video games and violence. Nova Next. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/body/what-science-knows-about-video-games-andviolence/. Kohler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes (E. Winter, Trans.). New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Sacks, O. (2007, September 17). The abyss: Music and amnesia. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/09/24/the-abyss. Tolman, E. C., & Honzik, C. H. (1930). Introduction and removal of reward, and maze performance in rats. University of California Publications in Psychology, 4, 257–275. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Classical Conditioning  Operant Conditioning  Schedules of Reinforcement  Observational Learning INTERACTIVITIES  Reinforcement and Punishment  Shaping  Observational Learning LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Classical Conditioning Example  Schedules of Reinforcement NEWSFLASH  Can Humans Detect Text by AI Chatbot GPT?  Teaching Tolerance



Is Your Company‘s Diversity Training Making You More Biased?

COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXPERIENCES Using the chart below, analyze the following experiences in terms of classical conditioning: Experience

Unconditione d Stimulus

Unconditioned Response

A song reminds you of a former friend or romantic partner.

You cringe when you pass the intersection where you nearly had a car accident.

Opening a can of pet food with a can opener leads your pet to start jumping around.

Walking by the gym where you hurt yourself working out makes you wince.

Smelling a perfume you wore during a great party makes you

Conditioned Stimulus

Unconditioned Response

smile and feel good.

HANDOUT 2: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TERMS Read through the examples below and then identify the CS, US, CR, and UR in each. 1. Pamela went shopping with her baby in a mall when she bumped into her friend Carmen. Carmen was wearing a shiny, jingling bracelet, much like the one Pamela wore. When Carmen reached down to kiss Pamela‘s baby on the forehead, her bracelet jingled, and the baby started making suckling noises. CS US CR UR

2. Scott‘s dog, Tony, waits every afternoon in the front room for Scott to come home. Tony knows that with the sound of the garage door opening, Scott will come in and take Tony out for a walk. One evening, on his way out to the store, Scott hits the garage door opener, and the dog starts running about excitedly. CS US CR UR

3. Every day, Jelani feeds her cat wet cat food. She uses the electric can opener each time to open the can. The cat gets visibly excited at this sound because it loves the wet food. One day, while preparing lunch for herself, Jelani took out a can of tuna to make tuna sandwiches. As she opened the can with the electric can opener, the cat, excited at the sound, started purring in anticipation. CS US CR UR

4. Rachel‘s partner always wore a certain kind of cologne that she was allergic to. When her partner came over, she would start sneezing. A couple of weeks after they had broken up, Rachel was at the mall and ran into her partner‘s identical twin sibling. When she came up to see her and say hello, she started sneezing. US UR CS CR

HANDOUT 3: HOW DO YOU SHAPE BEHAVIORS? Look over the list of behaviors below and choose three of the behaviors. Explain what steps you would take to shape each of the behaviors you chose. Riding a bicycle Jumping rope Brushing your teeth Making cookies Potty training a toddler Persuading someone to complete their homework

HANDOUT 4: WHICH SCHEDULE IS IT? For each of the scenarios below, determine which schedule is being used, such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Explain why you chose your answer. Nadia is paid $20 for every A she brings home on her report card. Schedule:

For every A that Tim receives on his report card, he doesn‘t have to do his chores for 2 days. Schedule:

Every time the dog rolls over, he is rewarded with a treat. Schedule:

Kai comes home after his curfew, and his parents take his car keys away for a week. Schedule:

Sally talks back to her mom and is grounded for 3 weeks. Schedule:

Bethany keeps her room clean and tidy, so that when she needs something, she is able to find it easily. Schedule:

Mr. Zhang‘s students in her kindergarten class receive a gold star every time they say ―Please‖ when asking for something. Schedule:

Jeremy‘s ball rolls out onto the street and he runs after it. He almost gets hit by a car but is saved by the driver, who, seeing him run after the ball, brakes just in time. Jeremy‘s action upsets his mother, who spanks him for running out recklessly into the street. Schedule:

Terri and her boyfriend are caught kissing on the front porch after she was told she wasn‘t allowed to date yet. Her parent tells her she isn‘t allowed to see her boyfriend anymore. Schedule:

Mia is speeding because she is late for her morning class. She is pulled over by the police and receives a $75 fine. Schedule:

HANDOUT 5: SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Provide an original example from your daily life for each of the schedules of reinforcement. Fixed ratio: rewards given after fixed number of responses

Example:

Variable ratio: rewards given after varying number of responses

Example:

Fixed interval: rewards given after fixed period of time

Class example:

Variable interval: rewards given after varying periods of time

Class example:

HANDOUT 6: HOW DO YOU CHANGE BEHAVIOR? Read over the negative behaviors listed below. Choose three of the behaviors, and explain how you would go about changing that behavior into a more positive behavior. Use the principles of operant conditioning that were discussed in the chapter. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Talking back to your parents Getting bad grades in school Taking toys that do not belong to you from the playground Kicking and hitting your sister Writing on the table with crayons while coloring Splashing water all over the bathroom floor while taking a bath Using your mother‘s lipstick to draw pictures on the walls

HANDOUT 7: EFFECTS OF ROLE MODELS In the spaces below, write down the names of seven people who are important role models for you (they can be well-known people, family, or friends). Describe their most striking characteristics and summarize the effects of their behavior on yours. Name

Most Striking Characteristics

HANDOUT 8: IMAGES IN MUSIC VIDEOS

Effects on Your Behavior

Watch 30 min of music videos. Note below the nature and frequency of images that communicate messages about sex, violence, drugs, and other dangerous behaviors. Music Video

Images

Number of Times Images Occur

What do you conclude about the images in music videos?

HANDOUT 9: HAVE YOU LEARNED TO BE STRESSED? Research has provided some insightful aspects of how we deal with stress. Under each component of the stress response, identify one or two examples from your own life illustrating the functionality of that component. Predictability:

Control:

Improvement:

Outlets for frustration:

From a learning perspective, how does stress operate in your life? What can you do to decrease the amount of stress you are under?

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 2: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TERMS ANSWER KEY Read through the examples below and then identify the US, CS, UR, and CR in each. 1. Pamela went shopping with her baby in a mall when she bumped into her friend Carmen. Carmen was wearing a shiny, jingling bracelet, much like the one Pamela wore. When Carmen reached down to kiss Pamela‘s baby on the forehead, her bracelet jingled, and the baby started making suckling noises. US food (milk) UR suckling noises from the food CS the noise from the bracelets CR suckling noises from the noise of the bracelets 2. Scott‘s dog, Tony, waits every afternoon in the front room for Scott to come home. Tony knows that when he hears the sound of the garage door opening, Scott will come in and take Tony out for a walk. One evening, on his way out to the store, Scott hits the garage door opener, and the dog starts running around excitedly. US going on a walk UR dog’s excitement at going on a walk CS garage door CR dog’s excitement at the sound of the garage door 3. Every day, Jelani feeds her cat wet cat food. She uses the electric can opener each time to open the can. The cat gets visibly excited at this sound because it loves the wet food. One day, while preparing lunch for herself, Jelani took out a can of tuna to make tuna sandwiches. As she opened the can with the electric can opener, the cat, excited at the sound, started purring in anticipation. US wet cat food UR cat’s excitement at the wet food CS can opener CR cat’s excitement (purring) at the sound of the can opener 4. Rachel‘s partner always wore a certain kind of cologne that she was allergic to. When her partner came over, she would start sneezing. A couple of weeks after they had broken up, Rachel was at the mall and ran into her partner‘s identical twin sibling. When she came up to see her and say hello, she started sneezing. US cologne UR sneezing from the cologne CS sight of boyfriend (and twin brother) CR sneezing at the sight of boyfriend and twin brother

5. Elmer really likes to cook with onions, and he puts onions into almost everything he makes. He usually starts dinner every day around 5:00 p.m. As he is cutting the onions, the grandfather clock chimes five times because it is 5:00 p.m. Elmer is crying because cutting the onions makes his eyes water. One evening he is at a friend‘s house because they are going out to dinner later. He and his friend are watching TV and the clock chimes five times when it is 5:00 p.m. Elmer‘s eyes start to water. US onions UR crying from the onions CS clock chiming five times CR crying from the clock chiming HANDOUT 3: HOW DO YOU SHAPE BEHAVIORS? ANSWER KEY Look over the list of behaviors below and choose three of the behaviors. Explain how you would go about (what steps you would use) shaping each of the behaviors you chose. Riding a bicycle Jumping rope Brushing your teeth Making cookies Potty training a toddler Getting someone to complete their homework Each example should include the concept of beginning the training by reinforcing any approximation of the behavior, then gradually rewarding only the actual behavior. HANDOUT 4: WHICH SCHEDULE IS IT? ANSWER KEY For each of the scenarios below, determine which schedule is being used, such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment. Explain why you chose your answer. 1. Nadia gets $20 for every A she brings home on her report card. Schedule: positive reinforcement 2. For every A that Tim gets on his report card, he doesn‘t have to do his chores for 2 days. Schedule: negative reinforcement 3. Every time the dog rolls over, he is rewarded with a treat. Schedule: positive reinforcement 4. Kai comes home after curfew, and his parents take his car keys away for a week. Schedule: negative punishment

5. Sally talks back to her mom and is grounded for 3 weeks. Schedule: negative punishment 6. Bethany keeps her room nice and tidy so that when she needs something, she is able to find it easily. Schedule: negative reinforcement 7. Mr. Zhang‘s students in his kindergarten class receive a gold star every time they say ―Please‖ when asking for something. Schedule: positive reinforcement 8. Jeremy‘s ball rolls out into the street and he runs after it. He almost gets hit by a car but is saved by the driver, who, seeing him run after the ball, brakes just in time. Jeremy‘s action upsets his mother, who spanks him for running out recklessly into the street. Schedule: positive punishment 9. Terri and her boyfriend are caught kissing on the front porch after she was told she wasn‘t allowed to date yet. Her parent tells her she isn‘t allowed to see her boyfriend anymore. Schedule: negative punishment 10. Mia is speeding in her car on the highway because she is late for her morning class. She gets pulled over by the police and receives a $75 fine. Schedule: positive punishment HANDOUT 6: HOW DO YOU CHANGE BEHAVIOR? ANSWER KEY Read over the negative behaviors listed below. Choose three of the behaviors, and explain how you would go about changing that behavior into a more positive behavior. Use the principles of operant conditioning that were discussed in the chapter. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Answers should include the principles of operant conditioning, such as reinforcement and punishment. HANDOUT 9: HAVE YOU LEARNED TO BE STRESSED? ANSWER KEY

Research has provided some insightful aspects of how we deal with stress. Under each component of the stress response, identify one or two examples from your own life illustrating the functionality of that component. Predictability: Any answer that reflects on how events that are perceived as predictable are considered less stressful in general than unpredictable situations Control: Any answer that includes the idea of how having personal control over situations that happen in our lives is deemed less stressful than having the feeling of a lack of control over aversive stimuli Improvement: Any answer that shows how a perception of improvement over one’s circumstance, even in a situation that is objectively worse than another, is related to lowered stress Outlets for frustration: Any answer that includes examples of ways to deal with stressful situations (productive or maladaptive) From a learning perspective, how does stress operate in your life? What can you do to decrease the amount of stress you are under? Answers will vary.

Chapter 6 Memory OPENING THEMES Memory is a topic of inherent interest to students—they need memory to learn and retain the material in this course. This unit will incorporate short-term memory and long-term memory with a focus on the fallibilities of memory as well. Memory is also central to an individual’s sense of identity; without memory, we would not know who we are. People with memory disorders, such as amnestic disorder and Alzheimer’s disease, suffer a loss of identity as well as knowledge about their past. MODULE 18: THE FOUNDATIONS OF MEMORY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 18-1

What is memory?

18-2

Are there different kinds of memory?

18-3

What are the biological bases of memory?

The initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory, a process called encoding, is the first stage in remembering something. However, even if you remember something, you may still be unable to recall it when required because of a failure to retain it. Memory specialists speak of storage, the maintenance of material saved in memory. If the material is not stored adequately, it cannot be recalled later. Memory also depends on one last process—retrieval: Material in memory storage has to be located and brought into awareness to be useful. In sum, psychologists consider memory to be the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information (see Figure 1). According to the three-system approach to memory that dominated memory research for several decades, there are different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered. The theory proposes the existence of three separate memory stores (see Figure 2). Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant. In a second stage, short-term memory holds information for 15 to 25 seconds and stores it according to its meaning rather than as mere sensory stimulation. The third type of storage system is long-term memory. Information is stored in long-term memory on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. SENSORY MEMORY Sensory memory is the first repository of the information the world presents to us. There are several types of sensory memories, each related to a different source of sensory information. For instance, iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. In addition, there are corresponding memories for each of the other senses. Sensory memory can store information for only a very short time. If information does not pass into short-term memory, it is lost for good. For instance, iconic memory seems to last less than a second, and echoic memory typically fades within 2 or 3 s. However, despite the brief duration of sensory memory, its precision is high. Psychologist Sperling (1960) demonstrated the existence of sensory memory in a series of clever and now-classic studies. SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Because the information that is stored briefly in sensory memory consists of representations of raw sensory stimuli, it is not meaningful to us. If we are to make sense of it and possibly retain it, the information must be transferred to the next stage of memory: short-term memory. Short-term memory is the memory store in which information first has meaning, although the maximum length of retention there is relatively short. Unlike sensory memory, which holds a relatively full and detailed—if short-lived—representation of the world, short-term memory has incomplete representational capabilities. In fact, the specific amount of information that can be held in short-term memory has been identified as seven items, or “chunks,” of information, with variations of plus or minus two chunks. A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit in short-term memory. REHEARSAL The transfer of material from short- to long-term memory proceeds largely on the basis of rehearsal, the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. Rehearsal accomplishes two things. First, as long as the information is repeated, it is maintained in shortterm memory. More important, however, rehearsal allows us to transfer the information into long-term memory. If the information in short-term memory is rehearsed using a process called elaborative rehearsal, it is much more likely to be transferred into long-term memory. Elaborative rehearsal occurs when the information is considered and organized in some fashion. By using organizational strategies, such as mnemonics, we can vastly improve our retention of information. Mnemonics are formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered. WORKING MEMORY Working memory is the memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information. Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning, planning, and decision making. The central executive coordinates three distinct storage-and-rehearsal systems: the visual store, the verbal store, and the episodic buffer (see Figure 4). Working memory permits us to keep information in an active state briefly so that we can do something with the information. Although working memory aids in the recall of information, it uses a significant amount of cognitive resources during its operation. In turn, this can make us less aware of our surroundings. Furthermore, stress can reduce the effectiveness of working memory by reducing its capacity. LONG-TERM MEMORY Material that makes its way from short-term memory to long-term memory enters a storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Long-term memory stores information on a relatively permanent basis. Evidence of the existence of long-term memory, as distinct from short-term memory, comes from a number of sources. For example, people with certain kinds of brain

damage have no lasting recall of new information received after the damage occurred, although people and events stored in memory before the injury remain intact. Results from laboratory experiments are also consistent with the notion of separate short-term and long-term memory. The distinction between short- and long-term memory is also demonstrated by the fact that the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears. For instance, in some cases, a primacy effect occurs, in which items presented early in a list are remembered better. In other cases, a recency effect is seen, in which items presented late in a list are remembered best. LONG-TERM MEMORY MODULES (SEE FIGURE 5) Just as short-term memory is often conceptualized in terms of working memory, many contemporary researchers now regard long-term memory as having several different components, or memory modules. Each of these modules represents a separate memory system in the brain. One major distinction within long-term memory is that between declarative memory and procedural memory. Declarative memory is memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and facts. In contrast, procedural memory (or nondeclarative memory) refers to memory for skills and habits. Declarative memory can be subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory is memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts. In contrast, episodic memory is memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context. SEMANTIC NETWORKS (SEE FIGURE 6) According to some memory researchers, one key organizational tool that allows us to recall detailed information from long-term memory is the associations that we build between different pieces of information. In this view, knowledge is stored in semantic networks, mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as spreading activation. THE NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY (SEE FIGURE 7) The search for the engram, the term for the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory, has proved to be a major puzzle to psychologists and other neuroscientists interested in memory. Using advanced brain scanning procedures in their efforts to determine the neuroscientific basis of memory formation, investigators have learned that certain areas and structures of the brain specialize in different types of memory-related activities. The hippocampus, a part of the brain’s limbic system, helps to consolidate memories, stabilizing them after they are initially acquired. That information is subsequently passed along to the cerebral cortex of the brain, where it is actually stored. The amygdala, another part of

the limbic system, also plays an important role in memory. The amygdala is especially involved with memories involving emotion. MEMORY AT THE LEVEL OF NEURONS The transformation of information into a memory takes place at the level of neurons. Longterm potentiation shows that certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned. At the same time, the number of synapses between neurons increases as the dendrites branch out to receive messages. These changes reflect a process called consolidation, in which memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory. Longterm memories take some time to stabilize; this explains why events and other stimuli are not suddenly fixed in memory. Instead, consolidation may continue for days and even years. Memory traces are distributed throughout the brain. In short, the physical stuff of memory— the engram—is produced by a complex of biochemical and neural processes. New research shows that a brain implant that works like a pacemaker helps improve memory in a method called transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS). In addition to increasingly understanding the biological basis of how memories are formed and recalled, memory specialists are also beginning to understand how to help people forget information (traumatic events, persistent fears, annoying habits, etc.) through biological treatment. KEY TERMS chunk A group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory. declarative memory Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like. episodic memory Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context. long-term memory Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. memory The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. procedural memory Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball; sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory. rehearsal The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. semantic memory Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts. semantic networks Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. sensory memory The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant.

short-term memory Memory that holds information for 15–25 s. working memory A memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information. LECTURE IDEAS SEMANTIC NETWORKS IN MEMORY Ask students to name the 50 states. Then, find out what methods they used. These are the most popular:    

The “Fifty States That Rhyme” song that many learned in school Alphabetical order Going through each region Personal experience through travel

REMEMBERING NAMES AND FACES There are also a number of systems to remember names and faces, a useful skill for yourself to remember the names of your students. Here are some suggestions:     

Associate the name with a part of the face—such as “Larry” and “lip.” Pay attention when you first hear the name—most people do not really listen when they meet someone for the first time. Pronounce the name and see how it is spelled—this gives you additional cues. Link the person’s name with that of a celebrity—such as a woman named “Carly,” who reminds you of Carly Simon or a song by Carly Simon. Ask again if you forget—try a different cue this time.

REMEMBERING NAMES AND FACES: THE BACHELOR You can also use the TV format of The Bachelor to see how well students remember names and faces. Choose a “bachelor” and three “bachelorettes.” Have the bachelorettes introduce themselves to the bachelor by name. Then, engage the bachelor in chitchat, enough to serve as a memory distraction. Then, go back and ask the bachelor to remember the names of the three bachelorettes. If you have done this right, he will not remember (this can also be used to demonstrate the axiom that “if you don’t encode, you don’t retrieve”). VISUAL MEMORY Imagine you are out walking on a cloudy day. All around you, the land is flat and covered with snow, and you cannot see your house. How do you find your way home? If you are a native of

northern Alaska, you may simply look at a mental map. Westerners who explored the Arctic in the 19th century were astounded by sophisticated 3D maps Native American Inuits drew by hand. Modern researchers have tested Inuit children by having them look at pictures and then draw them from memory. Arctic natives remembered the relationships between parts of the picture better than Caucasians. In other words, they had excellent mental spatial maps. Both sexes had equally good visual memories (McShane & Berry, 1988; McArthur, 1978; Kleinfeld, 1971). There are many explanations for the Inuits' visual ability. Traditionally, Inuits have hunted for food on monotonous, flat tundra and sea ice, where a good memory for visual detail is important for navigation. Over time, there may have been genetic selection for people who have good visual memory. By contrast, there are also strong social motivations to remember where you are. In the past, young hunters who got lost were publicly ridiculed and scorned. OLFACTION MEMORY Students often find olfactory cues to be an interesting subject. You may want to ask students if there are any smells that evoke strong memories for them. Then, point out that one reason may be the location of the olfactory bulb in the limbic system (which is the same as the hippocampus). CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Three Processes of Memory: Have students write down a memory. Next, have them write down how this memory went through the three stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Go over the examples and discuss them as a class. Constructive Nature of Memory: Read the following words aloud at a rate of about one word per second: BED, QUILT, DARK, SILENCE, FATIGUE, CLOCK, SNORING, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, ARTICHOKE, TURN, NIGHT, REST, AND DREAM Ask students if they heard you say aardvark. They typically look at you like you are nuts. Next, ask them if they heard you say sleep. Many will raise their hands even though sleep is not on the list. Point out the constructive nature of memory. This is a variation on Deese (1959). Source: Deese. K. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 17–22. CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION: IF YOU DON’T ENCODE, YOU CAN’T RETRIEVE IT—1

To show the importance of encoding, ask students to provide answers to these questions: Which color is on top on a stoplight? How many rows of stars are on the U.S. flag? Whose image is on a dime? Is he wearing a tie? What five words in addition to “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins? When water goes down the drain, does it swirl clockwise or counterclockwise? The point is that students have seen these stimuli thousands of times but because they did not think about the information, they cannot recall it. (Answers are red; 9; F. D. Roosevelt with no tie; United States of America and Liberty; and water drains counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.) CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION: IF YOU DON’T ENCODE, YOU CAN’T RETRIEVE IT—2 This activity challenges contestants to recall exactly the lyrics of familiar songs. Choose a song that students are familiar with. One example I used is “Sweet Caroline” because it is popular among Red Sox fans. Almost no one actually knows how the song begins, even though they have sung and heard it many times. Ask for three volunteers who think they know the lyrics. Then, start the song, stopping at several intervals, and ask the volunteers to guess what the next words are. Go through the song like this, stopping five or six times, just before the next line, asking for the lyrics. Award a point if the contestant gets the lyrics correct. If the contestants are not getting the right words, ask the audience to coach them with the answers. At the end, calculate the scores to determine the winner. At this point, there may not be a winner because the task is much more difficult than it seems. However, choose the one who came the closest and ask the class to applaud for all of the participants. You can then pass out small prizes (such as pencils with the school logo) for all contestants. Encoding Failure: Bring a $10 bill to class. Ask students what image appears on the back of a $10 (hold the bill up). Most students don't know. In fact, most people do not know. The answer is the U.S. Treasury. Ask students why they don’t know. Often, they will say that they don’t need to know. This is another example of how we don’t encode everything and that errors in encoding information do occur. Source: McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Improving student learning: Moving from memory laboratory to the classroom. NITOP presentation.

Imagery: Use Handout 2: The Story of E = mc2 as a way for students to use imagery to remember information. The students will be writing a story much like the one S. wrote for remembering an equation. The students should see how using imagery and mnemonics helps in remembering information. CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION: CHUNKING Ask for a volunteer or adapt this activity for the whole class. Announce that you are going to prove that ordinary students can remember 15 letters without any difficulty. Display this letter sequence for one second on a slide, and ask the volunteer or the class to say or write it down: T WAN BAC BSC PRC IA. They will not remember more than four or five letters. Then, display this letter sequence: TWA NBA CBS CPR CIA. They will have no difficulty remembering it.

Show this picture for one second (or less, if possible).

Ask students to recall which items were in the picture. Then, show this picture:

They should be able to say exactly which items were in this picture without any difficulty because the shapes are chunked. Short-Term Memory: Use Handout 3: Chunking as a way for students to experience how chunking works. Students will see how their brains are already set up to chunk information that is familiar to them. Short-Term Memory: There are many variations of this exercise. Have students test their shortterm memory abilities with the digit span task. Tell them you are going to say “ready” and then read a list of numbers. After you say “recall,” they should write the list of numbers down. After signaling students, each time read the following list: 4432, 98325, 793627, 9963012, 10521904, and 563829610. Reread the list so students can see what they got correct. Ask them at what point did this task begin to get difficult. Ask them what they think you could have done to help them remember the list better. This can lead into a discussion of chunking. SENSORY MEMORY Sensory Memory: Play two lines of a song. Ask students if they heard the song. Next, ask students to write down the lyrics of the song they heard. Students may get some of the words but not all of them, even though they told you that they did hear it. Next, run a PowerPoint slide show with 10 slides, each with a different number on it, and run them rather quickly. Have students write down the numbers they remember seeing. Students will probably remember some of the numbers but not all of them. Break the students into groups and have them

compare their answers. Go over the correct answers as a class, and discuss how information in sensory memory, both echoic and iconic, only lasts for a few seconds. CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION: WORKING MEMORY To show how working memory is tested, use this demonstration: Add up each of the following: 3+2=? 7–4=? 6–2=? 5+1=? Now ask: What was the second digit mentioned in each arithmetic task? Mnemonics: Use Handout 4: Mnemonic Devices as a way for students to understand and practice how mnemonic devices work. In this activity, students have to come up with their own mnemonics for various sets of words. They also have to explain what mnemonic devices they used. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF MEMORY LOSS Choose one recent situation in which you forgot (and later remembered) something important. Describe it briefly. Then, use one of the theories of forgetting to explain:   

Why you forgot this What helped you remember it later How you could have avoided forgetting it

You may want to discuss developmental trends in memory systems. Most research shows that memory systems improve over childhood and remain fairly stable until very late adulthood and even there, with the exception of source memory, most people who are healthy and living an active life show no major deficit, save slower times. This also reinforces Hebb’s “use it or lose it” law. Have you ever walked into a room and could not remember why you went there? How do you retrieve that memory? LONG-TERM MEMORY To help students remember the different types of long-term memory, ask them to complete the following:

Define the term declarative memory and give an example from your own life. Define the term procedural memory and give an example from your own life. Define the term semantic memory and give an example from your own life. Define the term episodic memory and give an example from your own life. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: If You Can’t Encode, You Can’t Retrieve It 1 Use the questions from the above Classroom Demonstration: If You Can’t Encode, You Can’t Retrieve It—1 to assess students’ memory and launch a discussion about the process encoding. Do you agree that people can have repressed memories? Have you ever had an experience that created a flashbulb memory? SUGGESTED MEDIA Annenberg/CBS Collection. (1984). The Brain, part 5: Learning and memory, 30:00. The physiological mechanisms of learning and memory as they relate to an individual with exceptional memory and a person with memory loss are discussed. Insight Media. (2008). How does your memory work? 50:00. Case studies of people who suffer from memory problem are presented. Insight Media. (2001). Memory, 30:00. Several models of memory including encoding, storage, and retrieval stages are described. Scientific American Frontiers, PBS. Pieces of Mind, , 60:00. Alan Alda takes the viewer through many fascinating aspects of memory. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #20: A super-memoirist advises on study strategies [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/a-super-memorist-adviseson-study-strategies/?jwsource=cl. Memory storage and study strategies for learning new material are investigated. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #16: The locus of learning and memory [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/the-locus-of-learning-andmemory/?jwsource=cl. Where learning occurs in the brain is described. The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #18: Living with amnesia: The hippocampus and memory [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/living-with-amnesiathe-hippocampus-and-memory/?jwsource=cl. Amnesia and the brain are discussed.

The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #10, Pt. 1: Life without memory: The case of Clive Wearing [Video file]. https://youtu.be/OmkiMlvLKto. The nature of memory and its importance are discussed. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #11, Pt. 2: Clive Wearing: Living without memory [Video file]. https://youtu.be/Lu9UY8Zqg-Q. The relationship between brain damage and memory is described. POPULAR TELEVISION SHOW: SEINFELD Seinfeld: A way to illustrate the principle “if you don’t encode, you can’t retrieve” is the Seinfeld episode “The Parking Garage,” in which the characters forget where they parked their car and wander for hours in a parking garage while one of the characters carries a heavy package: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Parking_Garage. POPULAR MOVIES Anterograde amnesia: A number of movies have depicted anterograde amnesia, including Finding Nemo (2003), Finding Dory (2016), Memento (2000)—and 50 First Dates (2004), starring Drew Barrymore, which is a cute, lighthearted look at anterograde amnesia. The Man With the Seven Second Memory (2005): This documentary follows the story of Clive Wearing, a man with one of the worst documented cases of anterograde amnesia. His story provides a stark depiction of the realities of living with little to no short-term memory: https://youtu.be/k_P7Y0-wgos. ADDITIONAL READINGS Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1998). When things that were never experienced are easier to “remember” than things that were. Psychological Science, 9, 484–489. Burgess, G. C., Gray, J. R., Conway, A. R., & Braver, T. S. (2011). Neural mechanisms of interference control underlie the relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(4), 674. Corkin, S. (2013). Permanent present tense: The unforgettable life of the amnesic patient, H. M. Basic. Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1998). Consciousness and neuroscience. Cerebral Cortex, 8, 97–107. Dittrich, L. (2016, August 7). The brain that couldn’t remember: The untold story of the fight over the legacy of “H. M.”—the patient who revolutionized the science of memory. The New York Times Magazine. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/magazine/the-brainthat-couldnt-remember.html?_r=0.

Foer, J. (2012). Moonwalking with Einstein: The art and science of remembering everything. Penguin Books. Howes, M. B., & O’Shea, G. (2014). Human memory: A constructivist view. Academic Press. Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306–340. Kahana, M. J. (2012). Foundations of human memory. Oxford University Press. Miles, C., & Johnson, A. J. (2007). Chewing gum and context-dependent memory effects: A re-examination. Appetite, 48(2), 154–158. Piolino, P., Hisland, M., & Ruffeveille, I. (2007). Do school-age children remember or know the personal past? Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 16(1), 84–101. Piore, A. (2012). Totaling recall. Scientific American Mind, 22(6), 40–45. MODULE 19: RECALLING LONG-TERM MEMORIES LEARNING OBJECTIVE 19-1

What causes difficulties and failures in remembering?

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory. RETRIEVAL CUES A retrieval cue is a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory. It may be a word, an emotion, or a sound; whatever the specific cue, a memory will suddenly come to mind when the retrieval cue is present. Retrieval cues guide people through the information stored in long-term memory. They are particularly important when we are making an effort to recall information, as opposed to being asked to recognize material stored in memory. In recall, a specific piece of information must be retrieved. In contrast, recognition occurs when people are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it previously or are asked to identify it from a list of alternatives. Recognition is generally a much easier task than recall (see Figures 1 and 2). LEVELS OF PROCESSING One determinant of how well memories are recalled is the way in which material is first perceived, processed, and understood. The levels-of-processing theory emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed. It suggests that the amount of information

processing that occurs when material is initially encountered is central in determining how much of the information is ultimately remembered. According to this approach, the depth of information processing during exposure to material—meaning the degree to which it is analyzed and considered—is critical; the greater the intensity of its initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it. The theory goes on to suggest that there are considerable differences in the ways in which information is processed at various levels of memory. At shallow levels, information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects. At the deepest level of processing, information is analyzed in terms of its meaning. We may see it in a wider context and draw associations between the meaning of the information and broader networks of knowledge. Rote memorization of a list of key terms for a test is unlikely to produce long-term recollection of information because processing occurs at a shallow level. EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY Explicit memory refers to intentional or conscious recollection of information. In contrast, implicit memory refers to memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. Implicit memory is closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people exhibit toward members of other ethnic groups. These associations can influence people’s behaviors without their awareness of their underlying beliefs. One way that memory specialists study implicit memory is through experiments that use priming. Priming is a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information. When information that we are unable to consciously recall affects our behavior, implicit memory is at work. Our behavior may be influenced by experiences of which we are unaware—an example of what has been called “retention without remembering.” Implicit memories help explain the other-race effect, which is when people have difficulty recognizing and recalling faces of people of other races. FLASHBULB MEMORIES (SEE FIGURE 3) Flashbulb memories are memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid, and they represent a virtual snapshot of the event. Flashbulb memories do not contain every detail of an original scene. The details recalled in flashbulb memories are often inaccurate, particularly when they involve highly emotional events. Flashbulb memories illustrate a more general phenomenon about memory: Memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (although not necessarily accurately) than are those relating to events that are commonplace. Source amnesia occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where they encountered it. CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES IN MEMORY: REBUILDING THE PAST

Constructive processes are processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events. When we retrieve information, then, the memory that is produced is affected not just by the direct prior experience we have had with the stimulus, but also by our guesses and inferences about its meaning. Frederic Bartlett, a British psychologist, suggested that people tend to remember information in terms of schemas, organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled. One of the earliest demonstrations of schemas came from a classic study that involved a procedure similar to the children’s game of “telephone,” in which information from memory is passed sequentially from one person to another. People's expectations and knowledge—and, in this case, prejudices—affect the reliability of their memories. MEMORY IN THE COURTROOM: THE EYEWITNESS ON TRIAL Research on eyewitness identification of suspects, as well as on memory for other details of crimes, has shown that eyewitnesses are apt to make significant errors when they try to recall details of criminal activity—even if they are highly confident about their recollections. One reason is the impact of the weapons used in crimes. When a criminal perpetrator displays a gun or knife, it acts like a perceptual magnet, attracting the eyes of the witnesses. As a consequence, witnesses pay less attention to other details of the crime and are less able to recall what actually occurred. The specific wording of questions posed to eyewitnesses by police officers or attorneys also can lead to memory errors (see Figure 5). Children’s Reliability: The problem of memory reliability becomes even more acute when children are witnesses because children’s memories are highly vulnerable to the influence of others. Children’s memories are especially susceptible to influence when the situation is highly emotional or stressful. REPRESSED AND FALSE MEMORIES: SEPARATING TRUTH FROM FICTION Repressed memories are apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious. Supporters of the notion of repressed memory (based on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory) suggest that such memories may remain hidden, possibly throughout a person’s lifetime, unless they are triggered by some current circumstance, such as the probing that occurs during psychological therapy. Many memory researchers maintain that there is little evidence for the phenomenon of repressed memories and that these may well be inaccurate or even wholly false memories. False memories also may be at work when people embrace what has come to be called “fake news.” APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTYRY: REMEMBERING WHAT NEVER HAPPENED AND THEN FORGETTING IT

That was the jury’s verdict in the case of George Franklin, Sr., who was charged with murdering his daughter’s playmate. Franklin’s daughter claimed that she had forgotten everything about her father’s crime until 2 years earlier, when she began to have flashbacks of the event. Initially, she had only a memory of her friend’s look of betrayal. Over the next year, the memories became richer, and she recalled being together with her father and her friend. Then she remembered her father sexually assaulting her friend. She recalled his lifting a rock over his head and then seeing her friend lying on the ground, covered with blood. On the basis of these memories, her father was arrested and convicted—though he ultimately gained his freedom following an appeal of the conviction. According to psychologist Elizabeth Loftus, such recovered memories may well be inaccurate or even wholly false. She notes how easy it is to plant memories that people believe are real.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY: WHERE PAST MEETS PRESENT Autobiographical memory is our recollections of our own life experiences. Autobiographical memories encompass the episodic memories we hold about ourselves. Our memory of experiences in our past may well be a fiction—or at least a distortion of what actually occurred. The same constructive processes that make us inaccurately recall the behavior of others also reduce the accuracy of autobiographical memories (see Figure 6). People don't only distort certain kinds of events; they also remember particular periods of life more easily than others. For example, when people reach late adulthood, they remember periods of major transitions, such as attending college and working at their first jobs, better than they remember their middle-age years. Similarly, although most adults’ earliest memories of their own lives are of events that occurred when they were toddlers, toddlers show evidence of recall of events that occurred when they were as young as 6 months old. In some cases, then, autobiographical memories can be accurate, particularly for high impact events. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: THE NOSE REMEMBERS Scents have a powerful ability to evoke memories that are so vivid, you feel yourself transported back in time. Psychologists have known for decades that smells trigger memory more than any other sense. This is especially true for autobiographical memories, the episodic memories about a person’s past, odors that evoked the most vivid autobiographical memories.

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: ARE THERE CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN MEMORY? Memory researchers suggest that there are both similarities and differences in memory across cultures. Basic memory processes such as short-term memory capacity and the structure of long-term memory—the “hardware” of memory—are universal and operate similarly in people in all cultures. In contrast, cultural differences can be seen in the way information is acquired and rehearsed—the “software” of memory. Culture determines how people frame information initially, how much they practice learning and recalling it, and the strategies they use to try to recall it. An example would be that people in the United States may focus more on important

visual details, such as the color of decorations at a birthday party or the kind of icing on the birthday cake. In contrast, East Asians may recall interpersonal details, such as who served the cake. KEY TERMS autobiographical memory Our recollections of our own life experiences. constructive processes Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events. explicit memory Intentional or conscious recollection of information. flashbulb memories Memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery. implicit memory Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. levels-of-processing theory The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed. priming A phenomenon that occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall information related to the prime. recall Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved. recognition Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives. schemas Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory. LECTURE IDEAS LEVELS OF PROCESSING ACTIVITY Have students complete this level of processing experiment (this also can be presented on slides to the class). Introduce the activity to students as follows: This activity will test the effectiveness of depth of processing. You will be presented with a list of 20 words, one at a time. After each word, you will be given instructions for processing that

word. Specifically, you will be asked either to count the number of syllables in some words or to rate the word for its pleasantness or unpleasantness. When you are finished with the entire list, you will be asked to remember as many of the words as you can. For example, if the word was penguin and your task was to count the number of syllables, you would say “two” to yourself. If the word was penguin and your task was to rate it for pleasantness or unpleasantness, you would have to think about the word and decide whether you thought of it as a more pleasant or more unpleasant word. Show these words in this order with the instructions next to them: School (count the number of syllables) Trailer (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Elephant (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Bookcase (count the number of syllables) Triangle (count the number of syllables) Giraffe (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Table (count the number of syllables) Sailboat (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Telephone (count the number of syllables) Glasses (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Pencil (count the number of syllables) Computer (count the number of syllables) Book (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Television (count the number of syllables) Calendar (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Watch (count the number of syllables) Sandwich (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Zebra (count the number of syllables) Wallet (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Shoe (rate the pleasantness or unpleasantness) Then, show this list and have students check the words that they recognize. Ring Trailer College Park Watch Money Shelf Mouse Text

Giraffe Telephone Table Wallet Date Platform Ship Square Glasses Dial Plates Pencil Computer Calendar Triangle Pen Disk Sailboat Television Sandwich Horn Lunch Bookcase Radio School Elephant Sock Shoe Lion Zebra Now, show the list of correct words and have them count the syllables versus pleasantness rating list. There should be more correct words in the pleasantness rating list. EYEWITNESS FALLIBILITY SCENARIO FROM THE “WHEN EYES DECEIVE” VIDEO SEGMENT See https://youtu.be/MDq6vtdIS4M for reference.

Enlist a volunteer to serve as the “perpetrator.” The volunteer should be as neutral as possible—that is, medium build, height, skin color, and hair. He should wear a distinctive item of clothing, and his face should be at least partially covered. Take photos of the perpetrator and four or five men of similar build and appearance. These will be used as the “lineup” photos. Several days ahead of time, make sure that you leave in a prominent position on the desk or lecture podium the item that will be “stolen.” That way, it will not seem obvious on the day of the theft. Also mention that there have been thefts on campus recently in classroom buildings and that students should be careful (this is generally true, so it is not bad to warn them). Occasionally, the police department on campus has inadvertently collaborated with me by sending an all-campus alert about thefts in the dorms or library because by this point in the semester, unfortunately, there have usually been several incidents. All of this helps to make the scene more plausible when it occurs in your class. Practice how you will cue the perpetrator and how you will respond. Watch the video segment first so you can see how that was done and what accommodations you will need to make to your particular classroom. The best scenario is one where you do not react to the thief but react to the students in the class who react to the thief. You also should arrange to have a teaching assistant run after the perpetrator. The following scenario has worked with some success: Begin the lecture. At a preassigned point early in the lecture (at a certain word or time, such as when I say “implicit memory”), the perpetrator will come into the room, but you will have your back to him. You will hear the perpetrator steal the object but will not see him. Instead, you will react to the students, who will scream out. Then, you put on an air of concern and fear. Say that someone should go after him. The teaching assistant will then make noises outside (banging and clattering). You could also arrange for another student (perhaps an undergraduate teaching assistant) to pretend to call the campus police. After your confederate goes after the perpetrator, look at the class in shock and express your fright and surprise. Pause for a few seconds—and then indicate that the whole thing was a stunt. However, before the students talk or say anything, they should immediately write down on a sheet of paper everything they remember about the perpetrator, such as his eye color, age, height, weight, hair color, skin color, clothing, and anything distinctive such as the “odd shape of his nose.” Then, show the “lineup” photos and have them write down the number

corresponding to the perpetrator. I have used an adaptation of the Law & Order website image as a backdrop during the exercise. Some examples from my students: Jacket color (it was black) The perp was wearing a blue sweater. He had on a navy blue jacket. He was wearing a big, puffy, black jacket. He wore a white shirt. He was wearing a gray, hooded sweatshirt. Pants (he wore jeans) He was wearing baggy pants. He had on grayish-green pants. He wore khaki pants. Height (he was about 5’8”) He was 5’3”. Shortish About 5’7” Medium height He was 6 feet tall. Skin color (white) He was Caucasian. He was an African American guy. He had olive skin. MEMORY SUGGESTIBILITY DEMONSTRATION This is the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm. Tell students that you are going to implant a false memory. You will read a list of words and then they are to recall as many from the list as they can. Then, they will be given a recognition memory test. The list of words is: candy sour sugar bitter good taste

tooth nice honey soda chocolate heart cake eat pie Give them a minute to write down the words. Then, present this recognition task: Which words were on the list I read to you? Indicate “old” or “new” for each. For example: taste (old word) point (unrelated new word) sweet (related new word) Then, score the data by having them raise their hands if they wrote down “old” and go through each of the items in order. Most will raise their hands for taste, very few will for point, and then almost all the hands go up for sweet. You can then ask how many people wrote down sweet on the recall test; roughly half will raise their hands. The key to this experiment is that the lists all contain words that are strongly associated to category names of “sweet,” hence implanting the false memory. For more information, see: Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 803–814. SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY (SCHACTER, 2001) Following are the “seven sins of memory” with brief definitions and examples. Add other examples from the student assignment on this topic. Also, Schacter’s book has a number of very interesting examples of each “sin.” Transience: Simple forgetting. Absentmindedness: Insufficient attention at encoding stage. Example: You park your car at the mall but cannot find it when you go to leave because you did not really look at where you

parked it when you arrived. Blocking: Inability to retrieve, like tip of the tongue. Example: forgetting the name of someone you know very well. Misattribution: Wrong source of information. You think that one person told you something, but in reality, someone else did. Suggestibility: Planting of false memory. The memory suggestibility demonstration above showed how this works. Bias: See one’s self in a positive light. Students arrested for disorderly conduct over time, in memory, regard this as the fault of their friends or the police. Persistence: Intrusive recollections of past events. People with posttraumatic stress disorder continually reexperience the trauma. Source: Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. New York: Houghton Mifflin. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Levels of Processing: Use Handout 1: How Do You See a House as a way to work through the levels of processing. The students will gain knowledge on how their brains function as they are encoding information. LONG-TERM MEMORY Long-Term Memory: Use Handout 5: What Type of Memory Is It? as a way to give students experience in learning the various types of long-term memory and seeing how memories are organized. RETRIEVAL Serial Position Effect: Write a list of 25 groceries on the board. Tell the students that they should study this list for about 5 min. After the 5 min have elapsed, either erase or cover the board and have the students write down as many of the items on the grocery list as they can remember. Give the students about 5 min or so to write down their answers. Next, show them the original list again and have them compare their answers to the correct list. Ask by a show of hands how many of them got at least the first 5 items correct, and then ask them how many of them got at least the last 5 items correct. Discuss with students how the answers they gave demonstrate the primacy and recency effects.

Serial Position Effect: Ask students to write down all the presidents of United States. You may want to remind students how many presidents we have had in the United States. Give them a few minutes to do this exercise. Typically, students write the first few and the last few presidents. This is a great example of the serial position effect. Source: Roediger, H. L., & Crowder, R. G. (1976). A serial position effect in recall of United States presidents. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 8, 275–278. Recall and Recognition: Break the class into groups and have them discuss the various exams that could be given to demonstrate recall and recognition. Students will probably come up with essay exams and multiple choice exams most frequently. Then, have them discuss other situations in everyday life that employ recall and recognition. Discuss as a class some of the examples they came up with and how their experiences differed between recalling and recognizing. Recall and Recognition: While this exercise is “culture bound,” students will find it interesting. First, have students list the Seven Dwarfs. Next, ask them to pick out the names of the Seven Dwarfs from an array of names that you present via PowerPoint or another visual means. You may change names as you like. Below is a sample of the listing of the names of the dwarfs: GROUCHY, GABBY, FEARFUL, SLEEPY, SMILEY, JUNKIE, JUMPY, HOPEFUL, DROOPY, DOPEY, SNIFFY, WISHFUL, PUFFY, DUMPY, SNEEZY, LAZY, POP, GRUMPY, BASHFUL, CHEERFUL, TEACH, SHORTY, NIFTY, HAPPY, DOC, WHEEZY, STUBBY, SLEAZY Ask students if it was easier to list the names or to pick out the names. Typically, they will tell you that it is easier to pick out the names. You can introduce students to the topic of retrieval in this way. This is often a good time to discuss why students often prefer a multiple-choice exam to an essay-type exam. You may also want to ask students if they almost came up with a name, but just couldn’t. Students will quickly catch on what the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is all about. Memory and Emotion: Some people remember more negative experiences and others remember more positive experiences in their lives. Ask students to take a few minutes and write down 10 memories of their childhood. Next, label the memories as positive, negative, or neutral. Have students calculate the number of positive, negative, or neutral memories. Are they surprised by the results of this exercise? Why or why not? You may also want to generate a class tally of the number of positive, neutral, or negative memories. This can lead to a nice discussion of emotion and memory. It can also lead to a discussion of forgetting and false memory. Memory Cues: Ask students to list the 50 states. When the students are done, tell them you are not interested in how many states they wrote down. Tell them instead that you are interested

in how they retrieved the states from their memory. They will begin to tell you they retrieved the names based on states in which they have lived, states they have visited, a visual map, the alphabet, sports teams, or region of the country. This is a great springboard to discussing the value of cues and how we tend to cue ourselves. Retrieval Exercise: Divide the class into four fairly equal groups. Have each student take out a piece of paper and label it with their group number. Tell the class that they are going to hear a list of words and that they need to remember the words. According to Wertheimer (1981), the following list works well: envelope, bex, nav, Carter, ruj, fet, textbook, nav, Nixon, fulfill, GEF, mandate, fet, 47, tal Instructors may also make up their own list; just be sure to include nonsense words, real words, and duplicates of some words or nonsense words. Note: pronounce and spell the nonsense syllables. After you have read the list once, read it again in the same voice at the same pace. Following the second reading, ask only Group 1 to write down as many words as they can remember. Continue class. After about 3 min, ask Group 2 to write down as many words as they can remember. Continue class. Again, after about 5 min, ask Group 3 to write down as many words as they can remember. Continue class for about 40 more minutes, then ask Group 4 to write down as many words as they can remember. Which group remembered more words? Are real words remembered better than nonsense words? Are repeated words remembered better? Is there evidence of the serial position effect? Source: Wertheimer, M. (1981). Memory and forgetting. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.). Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 75–76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. “Speed Dating”: Tell students they are going to interview 10 classmates in order to find a study partner. They have one (1) minute to do so. Notes or writing down information is not allowed. At the flick of the light switch, students have 1 min to interview one person for a study partner. When you flick the light switch, students must move to a new person and interview him or her. Continue this until 10 interviews have occurred. Only allow 1 min for each interview. For a large class, you may need to allow some travel time. Once students have returned to their seats, ask them which participant they remembered the most and why. Students usually remember the first person and the last person the best (serial position effect) and the person with the most unusual presentation or smell. Have students write a short essay about the process of finding a study partner. This is also a great ice breaker! EYEWITNESS MEMORY DEMONSTRATION

Eyewitness Observations: Have students work in pairs to test their eyewitness memory. They should observe an event on a campus sidewalk or roadway. Then, they should wait 60 seconds. At that point, each one should write down exactly what they observed. Then, they should compare notes. Have them bring their observations into class to determine how closely their observations correspond. Eyewitness Testimony: Use Handout 6: Were They Really Eyewitnesses? as a way to study the area of eyewitness testimony. Students are to go online and find a case where eyewitness testimony was false. Have the students discuss, in class, some of the articles they found. Do a classroom exercise: show students a video clip of a simulated crime, such as a bank robbery. After they have watched it, ask them various questions, such as what color shirt the perpetrator was wearing and what color the getaway car was. Write their various answers on the board (or have a student do it). Then, replay the video and let them see what they remembered correctly or incorrectly. Discuss this as a class. Eyewitnesses in the Classroom: There are many variations of this exercise. You may want to enlist the help of your teaching assistant or another confederate for a demonstration of how poor eyewitness testimony can be. Have the confederate come in during the lecture and cause some form of disruption (maybe yell and then laugh or throw paper wads and then run out). Next, ask students to describe what they saw, how the person was dressed, hair color, and so forth. If you are in a large room, make sure the confederate comes into the room and is in long enough to draw attention. You may even want to ask your confederate not to wear socks and slightly roll up their pant legs. When you are asking the class to describe the person, you may want to add “even down to their socks.” You can see if any students “construct” a memory of socks. SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY Based on the “seven sins of memory” (see definitions in the Lecture Ideas section), have students complete Handout 7: Seven Sins of Memory.

FLASHBULB MEMORIES To test their flashbulb memories, have students complete Handout 8: Flashbulb Memories. Flashbulb Memories: Ask students to take about 10 to 15 min to write down everything they can remember about the where they were on when they heard about the Sandy Hook school shooting on December 14, 2012. Next, ask students to discuss what they wrote down to see what they included. Some students may be brief and say where they were. Other students may say more, such as what they were wearing that day, who was with them, and how they felt. Explain to the students how a flashbulb memory is like someone taking a picture of them at that point in time and how, as in a photo, there are many different components to see. Have a class discussion wherein students volunteer other instances of flashbulb memories they have experienced; have them discuss what factors contributed to the vividness and durability of these memories. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY Should the criminal justice system put as much emphasis as it does on eyewitness testimony? What are some possible circumstances that could influence eyewitnesses to say they saw something they might not really have seen? It is sometimes difficult to believe that our memories are not as accurate as we think. To test your ability to be a good eyewitness, visit one of the following websites: Publication Broadcasting: Conduct a search at https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline using the keyword Ronald Cotton. National Science Foundation: How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony? https://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/mmg_disp.jsp?med_id=79024. After they have done so, ask them: Did these resources change your opinion of the accuracy of eyewitness testimony? Explain. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Remember Me? Can a memory be forgotten and then remembered? Can a so-called memory be suggested and then remembered as true? These questions lie at the heart of the memory of childhood abuse issues and other experienced traumatic events. For a historical background to prompt deeper discussions, visit: http://www.apa.org/topics/trauma/memories.aspx. How many of you think that adults who remember past childhood abuse are telling the truth about the experiences?

How many of you think that adults who remember past childhood abuse are making up these memories for a hidden motive? Who believes we have enough technology, research, and information to be able to see memories in the brain? How many would consider using a neuroimaging technique to verify whether a person was telling the truth or lying about a particular traumatic experience? Polling Question: Just Google It! Without a doubt, technology has changed our world. New research is being conducted on the influence technology has on our memory. We’ve all had someone asked us a question that we didn’t know the answer to or couldn’t remember. So, what did you do? Did you google it on your smartphone or use another device to look up the answer? Are the days of remembering facts for the sake of pure knowledge over now that we have instant access to information from our devises? Within the last 3 days, how many of you have searched on the internet for an answer to something that you probably should have known? Who feels less motivated to remember something now that you can access that information instantly while on the go? How many of you think that this method of accessing information (rather than memorizing it) has affected your ability to do well on a test or in a class? How many of you think that memorization takes too much time? Resource: Ambrose, S. H. (2010). Coevolution of composite tool technology, constructive memory, and language. Current Anthropology, 51(S1), S135–S147. Polling Question: Men Versus Women—The Best Multitasker Challenge Ever wondered who is really better at multitasking? Just about everyone today is expected to engage in multitasking in one way or another. As we learned about memory, attention plays a very important role in what we remember and its accuracy. How many of you think that multitasking has interfered with your ability to remember some important detail because you were too busy to stop one task to focus on another? Though controversial, there is some research that suggests there are gender differences in multitasking ability. Who thinks that men are better at multitasking than women? (Indicate that those who don’t respond think that women are better multitaskers than men.) Who thinks they are better at multitasking than their friends or family? (If the entire class thinks they are better, delve into this overconfidence a bit more.) Resource: Mäntylä, T. (2013). Gender differences in multitasking reflect spatial ability. Psychological Science, 24(4), 514–520. SUGGESTED MEDIA

ABC Commercial. (2010). False memories, 10:00. Experts, including Elizabeth Loftus, demonstrate how easily false memories can be implanted. ABC News. (2008). The woman who can’t forget, 20:00. Jill Price, who has amazing autobiographical memory, demonstrates her abilities and discusses the positives and negatives of living with such vivid memories. CBS News. (2009). The Ronald Cotton case, 60 min. https://youtu.be/u-SBTRLoPuo and https://youtu.be/I4V6aoYuDcg. This presentation is about the case of Ronald Cotton, who was falsely identified and wrongfully convicted of rape. Child abuse, false memories part one (of two). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhZjxkaCkzk. Child abuse, false memories part two (of two). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsXoVYDL_gs&feature=related. Child abuse and false memories are discussed in this two-part clip. Clive Wearing: The Man With No Short-Term Memory.: https://youtu.be/Vwigmktix2Y. This brief clip describes Clive Wearing’s inability to form any new memories. Creating a Memory. https://youtu.be/P3ldO66qrb0. Elizabeth Loftus demonstrates the ease in which people can create a false memory. Elizabeth Loftus: http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/eloftus/. Insight Media. (2011). Elizabeth Loftus: Eyewitness memory, 18:00. Experimental evidence, case studies, and reviews of literature and conviction rates have all revealed the fallibility of eyewitness testimony and recovered memories. This DVD explores Loftus’s work on eyewitness memory, which explains how words can affect recall. It considers the implications and applications of her research findings. Jill Price. https://youtu.be/aAbQvmf0YOQ. Price, formally known as A. J. in memory literature, demonstrates her amazing autobiographical memory. Loftus and Bugs Bunny. https://youtu.be/eZlPzSeUDDw. Elizabeth Loftus describes the ease of implanting false memories about Bugs Bunny at Disney World. National Criminal Justice Reference Service, Eyewitness Interviews. https://www.ncjrs.gov/nij/eyewitness/eyewitness_evidence_slides.pdf. Open University. (2009). Eyewitness: What actually happened, 59:00. This program explores eyewitness reliability.

Open University. (2009). Eyewitness: When the only eye witness is also the victim, 52:00. Real cases and eyewitness experiments illustrate the issues involved in eyewitness testimony. Open University. (2009). Eyewitness: Who did it? 59:00. This program explores eyewitness reliability. Scientific American Frontiers, PBS. False Memories. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4lisNg91_M0. Alan Alda explores false memories with the help of Daniel Schacter. POPULAR MOVIES Don’t Say a Word (2001): Show a segment from this movie about a case of repressed memory. ADDITIONAL READINGS Berkowitz, S. R., & Javaid, N. L. (2013). It's not you, it's the law: Eyewitness memory scholars' disappointment with Perry v. New Hampshire. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 19(3), 369. Bjorklund, D. F., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., & Cassel, W. S. (1998). Children’s susceptibility to repeated questions: How misinformation changes children's answers and their minds. Applied Developmental Science, 2, 99–111. Bjorklund, D. F., Cassel, W. S., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., Park, C. L., Ernst, K., & Owen, F. A. (2000). Social demand characteristics in children's and adults' eyewitness memory and suggestibility: The effect of different interviewers on free recall and recognition. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 421–433. Ceci, S. J., Ross, D. F., & Toglia, M. P. (1987). Suggestibility in children's memory: Psycholegal implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 38–49. Constanzo, M. A. (2013). Using forensic psychology to teach basic psychological processes: Eyewitness memory and lie detection. Teaching of Psychology, 40, 156–160. Greene, E., Flynn, M. S., & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Inducing resistance to misleading information. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 207–219. Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers’ reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, 568–578. Lilienfeld, S. O., & Byron, R. (2013). Your brain on trial. Scientific American Mind, 23(6), 44–53. Loftus, E. F., & Mazzoni, G. A. L. (1998). Using imagination and personalized suggestion to change people. Behavior Therapy, 29, 691–706.

Loftus, E. F. (1997). Creating false memories. Scientific American, 277(3), 70–75. Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720–725. Loftus, E. F., & Ketchum, K. (1991). Witness for the defense: The accused, the eyewitness, and the expert who puts memory on trial. New York: Macmillan. Loftus, E. F. (1979). The malleability of human memory: Information introduced after we view an incident can transform memory. American Scientist, 67, 312–320. Luminet, O., & Curci, A. (2009). Flashbulb memories. Psychology Press. Pescod, L., Wilcock, R., & Milne, R. (2013). Improving eyewitness memory in police call center interviews. Policing, 7(3), 299–306. Price, J. (2008). The woman who can’t forget: A memoir. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Free Press. Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The developing brain in a multitasking world. Developmental Review, 35, 42–63. Schacter, D. L. (1990). Perceptual representation systems and implicit memory: Toward a resolution of the multiple memory systems debate. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 543–571. Schacter, D. L. (1995). Implicit memory: A new frontier for cognitive neuroscience. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed). The cognitive neurosciences. (pp. 815–824). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Schacter, D. L., Norman, K. A., & Koustaal, W. (1998). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 289–318. MODULE 20: FORGETTING: WHEN MEMORY FAILS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 20-1

Why do we forget information?

20-2

What are the major memory impairments?

All of us who have experienced even routine instances of forgetting—such as not remembering an acquaintance’s name or a fact on a test—understand the very real consequences of memory failure. Memory failure is also essential to remembering important information. The ability to forget inconsequential details about experiences, people, and objects helps us avoid being burdened

and distracted by trivial stores of meaningless data. Forgetting helps keep unwanted and unnecessary information from interfering with retrieving information that is wanted and necessary. Forgetting also permits us to form general impressions and recollections. The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. The basic conclusion of his study was that there is almost always a strong initial decline in memory, followed by a more gradual drop over time (see Figure 1). Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material is almost always faster than starting from scratch, whether the material is academic information or a motor skill such as serving a tennis ball. WHY WE FORGET One reason for why we forget is that we may not have paid attention to the material in the first place—a failure of encoding. The reason for your memory failure is that you probably never encoded the information into long-term memory initially. Obviously, if information was not placed in memory to start with, there is no way the information can be recalled (see Figure 2). Decay is the loss of information in memory through nonuse. This explanation for forgetting assumes that memory traces, the physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned, simply fade away or disintegrate over time. However, since decay does not fully account for forgetting, memory specialists have proposed an additional mechanism: interference. In interference, information stored in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory. Finally, forgetting may occur because of cue-dependent forgetting, forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory. Forgetting serves an important purpose in keeping our thoughts uncluttered and manageable. In a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting, the prefrontal cortex of the brain manages access to information stored in memory, enhancing access to information we use most frequently while also inhibiting access to conflicting information. Your brain prioritizes information. If we didn't forget, we'd constantly be sorting through memories that are not very helpful and that would only impede successful navigation of the world. Forgetting reduces the occurrence of other kinds of memory problems, such as interference. It also disrupts old patterns of responding. PROACTIVE AND RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: THE BEFORE AND AFTER OF FORGETTING There are actually two sorts of interference that influence forgetting (see Figure 3). One is proactive interference, and the other is retroactive interference. In proactive interference, information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. In contrast, retroactive interference occurs when material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. Proactive interference progresses in time—the past interferes with the

present while retroactive interference retrogresses in time, working backward as the present interferes with the past. MEMORY DYSFUNCTIONS: AFFLICTIONS OF FORGETTING Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. In the beginning, Alzheimer’s symptoms appear as simple forgetfulness of things such as appointments and birthdays. As the disease progresses, memory loss becomes more profound, and even the simplest tasks—such as using a telephone—are forgotten. Amnesia is memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde. In retrograde amnesia, memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events. In anterograde amnesia, memory is lost for events that follow an injury. Wernicke-Korsakoff’s syndrome is a disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY Apart from the advantages of forgetting, most of us would like to find ways to improve our memories. Effective strategies for studying and remembering course material include the following:      

Rely on organization cues. Take effective notes. Practice, practice, practice. Use the keyword technique. Test yourself. Be skeptical.

KEY TERMS Alzheimer’s disease A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. amnesia Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. anterograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury. cue-dependent forgetting Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory.

decay The loss of information in memory through its nonuse. interference The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information. Wernicke-Korsakoff’s syndrome A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story. proactive interference Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later. retroactive interference Interference in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. retrograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event but not for new events. LECTURE IDEAS TRICKS OF MEMORY EXPERTS Present students with this strategy used by memory experts in which numbers are associated with letters: Number

Letter/Sound

Memory Aid

t, d

t has one downstroke

n has two downstrokes

m has three downstrokes

Four ends with r

Latin 50 = L

j, sh, ch

J reversed looks like 6

Visualize a K drawn with 2 7s

f, v

Cursive f has two loops like an 8

p, b

P reversed looks like 9

z, s

Zero starts with z

This is the standardized mnemonic system used by memory experts. It has been optimized in order to make it easy to learn and use. Note that pairs of letters have been grouped together because of their phonetic similarity, such as t and d or p and b. If you are not familiar with

phonetics, whisper the word dog. Notice that it sounds like “tok.” This is how you can tell which sounds are phonetically similar. Here are some rules about using the number alphabet:     

The alphabet is strictly phonetic. For example, the word cough should be thought of as KoF and translated to 78; gem is pronounced JeM and is thus 63. Double letters are not counted. For example, butter translates to B, T, and R (only one T). Three consonant sounds do not appear in the chart: W, H, and Y. Why, you ask? Good question! Good answer! Vowels are always ignored, as well as W, H, and Y mentioned above. The long word hollow, for example, contains just one useful letter: L. When creating words from consonants, vivid nouns usually work the best, rather than adjectives, verbs, or other related words.

There are other tips for this method. The source for this information was http://www.thememorypage.net/htiym3.htm, but it also can be found on other websites. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS FORGETTING Have students complete Handout 9: Theories of Forgetting. Encoding Failure: Have students write their answers to the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

On a U.S. penny, which way does Lincoln’s face point—to the left or to the right? What is written below Lincoln’s head? What does it say above Lincoln’s head? What is to the right of Lincoln’s face?

This assignment will show students that even though they think that they have encoded information, they may not have encoded everything. There are errors in encoding information. Real False Memories: Ask students to come up with a favorite early childhood memory. Then, ask them to call their parents and siblings after class to verify its accuracy. It will be interesting to see if students come to the next class period and say their family reports that it is a false memory. Prospective Memory: Break the class up into groups and ask them to discuss and come up with two examples each of a time-based prospective memory and an event-based prospective memory. After completing the assignment, have the students discuss their examples with the rest of the class.

Alzheimer’s Disease: Have students search the internet to find two to three articles about patients with Alzheimer’s disease and whether the patients were mentally active. Ask the students to write a few paragraphs stating what the patients did for a living and how that may have affected the severity of their Alzheimer's disease. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS REPRESSED MEMORIES Do you agree that people can have repressed memories? Why or why not? What is the basis for the charge that therapists plant repressed memories in their clients? How do you think a repressed memory would affect a person’s everyday functioning? PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF MEMORY LOSS Why does it seem we remember more negative events than positive ones? What would life be like if you did not remember? Ask students if they would like to have the ability to never forget. In other words, they would always be able to remember everything that happened to them. Would they like to be able to do this? Why or why not? This might make a nice lead-in to the story of Jill Price. SUGGESTED MEDIA ABC Commercial. (2010). Unforgettable memories, 10:00. The story of Jill Price is presented. Alzheimer’s Association. http://www.alz.org/. Annenberg/CBS Project. (2001). Discovering psychology, part 9: Remembering and forgetting, 30:00. Memory formation, forgetting through decay and interference, and methods for improving memory are discussed. Films for the Humanities & Sciences. (1998). The nature of memory, 26:00. This piece describes computer models of memory and research on people with amnesia. It also covers the role that emotions play on memories and how memories can be altered. Insight Media. (2006). The Mind’s Storehouse: Memory, 30:00. How memory works and repressed memories are both described.

Lumosity. http://www.lumosity.com/. Lumosity's brain training games aim to strengthen attention, memory, and cognitive flexibility. Mnemonic Wizards: Incredible Feats of Memory. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vsYCSmBcM0&feature=related. Students are often interested in mnemonic devices. This is a great clip of individuals maximizing memory systems by using mnemonic devices. Peg word method. http://www.thememorypage.net/. This website has links for improving your memory and also links for techniques, such as the Peg Word Method. POPULAR MOVIES Alzheimer’s Disease: Show a segment from the movie Iris (2001), which chronicles Alzheimer’s disease as experienced by the British author Iris Murdoch from the standpoint of her husband, the author John Bayley. Memento (2000): This feature film involves a man with anterograde amnesia searching for his wife’s killers using notes and messages to himself much as we see in the real case of Clive Wearing. This film includes fairly graphic material. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148. Bowes, A., McCabe, L., Wilson, M., & Craig, D. (2012). Keeping your brain active: The activities of people aged 50–65 years. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(3), 253– 261. Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L. III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129. Kandel, E. R. (2006). In search of memory: The emergence of a new science of mind. New York: Norton. Levitin, D. J. (2014). The organized mind: Thinking straight in the age of information overload. Dutton. Markman, A. (2016, October). The value of proper police lineup procedures. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com.

Martin, J. A., Cohen, J., & Stokes, A. (2018, September). Understanding and evaluating eyewitness recall of events. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 62, 421–425. Payne, B. K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181–192. Restak, R., & Kim, S. (2013). How puzzles improve your brain: The surprising science of the playful brain. United Kindgdom: Souvenir Press Ltd. Scullin, M. K. (2013). Sleep, memory, and aging: The link between slow-wave sleep and episodic memory changes from younger to older adults. Psychology and Aging, 28(1), 105. Shapiro, L. R. (2006). Remembering September 11th: The role of retention interval and rehearsal on flashbulb and event memory. Memory, 14(2), 129–147. Tannenbaum, M. (2013). Are your 9/11 memories really your own? Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/psysociety/are-your-911-memories-really-yourown/. Thompson-Cannino, J., & Cotton, R. (2009). Picking Cotton: Our memoir of injustice and redemption. New York: St. Martin’s Press. (This is the story of Ronald Cotton and mistaken eyewitness testimony.) Toglia, M. P., Neuschatz, J. S., & Goodwin, K. A. (1999). Recall accuracy and illusory memory: When more is less. Memory, 7, 233–256. Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1–12. Wade, K. A., Nash, R. A., & Lindsay, D. S. (2018, May). Reasons to doubt the reliability of eyewitness memory: Commentary on wixted, mickes, and fisher. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 339–342. Wearing, D. (2006). Forever today. London: Corgi Books. (This is the story of Clive Wearing, a gifted musician, who can only keep information in his short-term memory for a few seconds.) Wickelgren, I. (2012). Trying to FORGET. Scientific American Mind, 22(6), 33–39. Wixted, J. T. (2015, April). Police lineups can play tricks on memories. San Diego Union-Tribune. https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com. Wixted, J. T., Mickes, L., & Fisher, R. P. (2018, May). Rethinking the reliability of eyewitness memory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 324–335.

Zeisel, J. (2009). I’m still here: A breakthrough approach to understanding someone living with Alzheimer’s. New York, NY: Avery. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Three Types of Memory  Schemas  Forgetting INTERACTIVITIES  Sensory Memory  Working Memory  Long-Term Memory  Crime Eyewitness LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Chunking and Rehearsal COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: HOW DO YOU SEE A HOUSE? Think of the word house. In the spaces provided below, discuss how you would interpret the word house through each of the levels processing: shallow level, intermediate level, and deepest level. Shallow Level:

Intermediate Level:

Deepest Level:

HANDOUT 2: THE STORY OF E = MC 2 Use the concept of “imagery” to write out a story as a way to remember the equation E = mc 2.

HANDOUT 3: CHUNKING Use chunking to divide the following bits of information: 1. issheilagoingtobuythenewphone

2. 1776200119951970179219402007

3. canyouchunktheselettersintowords

4. 5101520253035404

5. 300305310320330340350

HANDOUT 4: MNEMONIC DEVICES

Read through the lists below and develop your own mnemonic device for each set of lists. Mnemonic: 1. Boat Paddle Oar Water Seaweed Motor Mnemonic: 2. Carrots Apples Bread Milk Ice cream Dog food Cereal Crackers Steaks Bathroom cleaner Salad dressing Mnemonic: 3. Cornea Pupil Iris Lens Retina Rods Cones Fovea

HANDOUT 5: WHAT TYPE OF MEMORY IS IT? Read each statement below and then state what type of memory is being used or what type of organizational technique is being used. 1. Saul is baking blueberry muffins and goes through the following steps: he preheats the oven, mixes all the ingredients in the order in which they are presented in the recipe, greases the muffin pan, places the batter in separate cups, places the pan in the oven, and then sets the timer. Type of Memory: ___________________ 2. In school, Carlos is asked to name the first president of the United States, and he answers, “George Washington.” Type of Memory: ___________________ 3. Zuri is giving a speech in her speech class about her most memorable birthday, which was her sweet 16th birthday party. Type of Memory: ___________________ 4. Thomas is trying to remember various items on a list for holiday shopping. He organizes the items in the following way: DVDs for his daughter, PS2 games for his son, a microwave for his sister in college, a TV for his parents, and a diamond tennis bracelet for his wife. Type of Memory: ___________________ 5. Rebecca goes into a restaurant with her 5-year-old niece and sits down. The niece is fidgety because she is so hungry. Rebecca explains to her that they need to wait to order. Because this is a not a fast-food restaurant, they must wait for the server to bring them menus. Next, they have to give a drink order, and then when the server comes back, they need to give their dinner order. Salads will be served, and when they are finished with the salads, their dinners will be brought to the table. Finally, they will finish their meal with dessert. Type of Memory: ___________________

HANDOUT 6: WERE THEY REALLY EYEWITNESSES? Go on the internet and find at least two articles about convictions based on eyewitness reports, print them out, and after reading them, answer the following questions: 1. Where was the eyewitness when the incident occurred? In other words, was the eyewitness next to the incident, on the other side of the street, etc.?

2. What time of day did the incident occur: morning, afternoon, or evening? Was it daylight or dark when the incident occurred?

3. Did the eyewitness know the victim personally?

4. What did the eyewitness say happened?

5. Was the defendant (the person charged with committing the crime) found guilty of the crime?

6. What do you believe really happened? Do you feel the defendant was guilty of committing the crime?

HANDOUT 7: THE SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY Below are the “seven sins of memory.” Based on the class discussion, for each one, provide an example from your own experience. Transience

Absentmindedness

Blocking

Misattribution

Suggestibility

Bias

Persistence

HANDOUT 8: FLASHBULB MEMORY QUESTIONNAIRE

Sandy Hook Answer each of the following questions, and after each one, rate your confidence in your answer using this scale: 1 = Not confident 2 = Somewhat confident 3 = Fairly confident 4 = Very confident 1. Describe in detail what you were doing when you heard about the mass shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, on December 14, 2012. Confidence: __________ 2. What was the exact time? Confidence: __________ 3. Who was with you? Confidence: __________ 4. What was your first thought when you heard the news? Confidence: __________ 5. Now, recall what you were doing on December 20, 2008. Describe in detail your most vivid memory. Confidence: __________

HANDOUT 9: THEORIES OF FORGETTING Choose one recent situation in which you forgot (and later remembered) something important and describe the situation. Using the grid below, show how each of these theories of forgetting would explain your memory lapse. Theory

How You Could Have Avoided Forgetting?

Why You Forgot?

Levels of processing

Decay

Interference

Cue-dependent forgetting

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS

HANDOUT 1: HOW DO YOU SEE A HOUSE ANSWER KEY? Think of the word house. In the spaces provided below, discuss how you would interpret the word house through each of the levels of processing: shallow level, intermediate level, and deepest level. Shallow Level: Letters and/or the lines that make up the letters are identified. Intermediate Level: The word as a whole is recognized. Deepest Level: Associations linked to the word house are made. HANDOUT 2: THE STORY OF E = MC 2 ANSWER KEY Use the concept of “imagery” to write out a story as a way to remember the equation E = mc 2. Correct stories should contain some of the following information:   

Mnemonic devices A story in which each letter represents a name or place Imagery representing the equal and squared symbols

HANDOUT 3: CHUNKING ANSWER KEY Use chunking to divide the following bits of information: 1. issheilagoingtobuythenewphone is sheila going to buy the new phone 2. 1776200119951970179219402007 1776 2001 1995 1970 1792 1940 2007 3. canyouchunktheselettersintowords can

you chunk these letters into words

4. 5101520253035404 5101 5202 5303 5404 5. 300305310320330340350 300 305 310 320 330 340 350 HANDOUT 5: WHAT TYPE OF MEMORY IS IT? ANSWER KEY

Read each statement below and then state what type of memory is being used or what type of organizational technique is being used. 1. Saul is baking blueberry muffins and goes through the following steps: he preheats the oven, mixes all the ingredients in the order in which they are presented in the recipe, greases the muffin pan, places the batter in separate cups, places the pan in the oven, and then sets the timer. Type of Memory: procedural (implicit; nondeclarative) 2. In school, Carlos is asked to name the first president of the United States, and he answers, “George Washington.” Type of Memory: semantic (explicit; declarative) 3. Zuri is giving a speech in her speech class about her most memorable birthday, which was her sweet 16th birthday party. Type of Memory: episodic (explicit; declarative) 4. Thomas is trying to remember various items on a list for holiday shopping. He organizes the items in the following way: DVDs for his daughter, PS2 games for his son, a microwave for his sister in college, a TV for his parents, and a diamond tennis bracelet for his wife. Type of Memory: working memory 5. Rebecca goes into a restaurant with her 5-year-old niece and sits down. The niece is fidgety because she is so hungry. Rebecca explains to her that they need to wait to order. Because this is a not a fast-food restaurant, they must wait first for the server to bring them menus. Next, they have to give a drink order, and then when the server comes back with their drinks, they need to give their dinner order. Salads will be served, and when they are finished with the salads, their dinners will be brought to the table. Finally, they will finish their meal with dessert. Type of Memory: procedural (implicit; nondeclarative) (schemas; script) HANDOUT 6: WERE THEY REALLY EYEWITNESSES? ANSWER KEY Go on the internet and find at least two articles about convictions based on eyewitness reports, print them out, and after reading them, answer the following questions: 1. Where was the eyewitness when the incident occurred? In other words, was the eyewitness next to the incident, on the other side of the street, etc.? 2. What time of day did the incident occur: morning, afternoon, or evening? Was it daylight or dark when the incident occurred?

3. Did the eyewitness know the victim personally? 4. What did the eyewitness say happened? 5. Was the defendant (the person charged with committing the crime) found guilty of the crime? 6. What do you believe really happened? Do you feel the defendant was guilty of committing the crime? Correct answers should contain some information regarding the inaccuracy of eyewitness testimony, including distortion and bias.

Chapter 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence OPENING THEMES AlphaZero is a new kind of chess-playing computer program that was designed to learn from its own mistakes and formulate its own rules for game play. It was given only the basic rules of the game, and then it was allowed to play against itself millions of times. Within hours, it became the best chess player in history—human or machine. Games (like chess) teach adaptation to new experiences and hone cognitive skills, and these skills are the subject of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making. The topic of cognition includes thought processes and ways to reason. A particularly important concept in this unit is that of mental set or functional fixedness. Students can benefit from learning about this topic because it will help them to tackle real life, everyday problems that they face. The topic of language gives students an appreciation for the complexity of thought processes and is also entertaining in its own right, given the importance of language in the arts. Another facet of language is nonverbal communication. Students can learn how to use both linguistic and nonverbal aspects of language to their advantage as a way to influence the impressions they make on other people. Within this cognitive unit, the topic of intelligence is also fascinating and, like many in psychology, does not have a generally accepted definition. Theories of intelligence differ according to the number and organization of proposed abilities. Controversial areas in research on intelligence relate to questions of whether intelligence should be defined in terms of academic abilities alone and whether intelligence testing is biased against racial and ethnic minorities.

MODULE 21: THINKING LEARNING OBJECTIVES 21-1

What is thinking?

21-2

What processes underlie decision making?

21-3

How do people approach and solve problems?

21-4

What are the major obstacles to problem solving?

Psychologists define thinking as brain activity in which we purposefully manipulate mental representations of information. A mental representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, or data in any other sensory modality that is stored in memory. MENTAL IMAGES: EXAMINING THE MIND‘S EYE Mental images are representations in the mind of an object or event. They are not just visual representations; our ability to ―hear‖ a tune in our heads also relies on a mental image. Research has found that our mental images have many of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent. See Figure 1. Some experts see the production of mental images as a way to improve various skills. For instance, many athletes use mental imagery in their training. Mental imagery may improve other types of skills as well. CONCEPTS: CATEGORIZING THE WORLD Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people. Concepts enable us to organize complex phenomena into cognitive categories that are easier to understand and remember. Concepts help us classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experience. Ultimately, concepts influence behavior. When cognitive psychologists first studied concepts, they focused on those that were clearly defined by a unique set of properties or features. Other concepts—often those with the most relevance to our everyday lives—are more ambiguous and difficult to define. When we consider these more ambiguous concepts, we usually think in terms of examples called prototypes. Prototypes are typical, highly representative examples of a concept that correspond to our mental image or best example of the concept. Cultures differ in the specific kinds of prototypes they hold. Concepts enable us to think about and understand more readily the complex world in which we live. The use of concepts and prototypes can have negative consequences, as when they perpetuate racial prejudice.

ALGORITHMS AND HEURISTICS When faced with making a decision, we often turn to various kinds of cognitive shortcuts, known as algorithms and heuristics, to help us. An algorithm is a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. A heuristic is a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but— unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors. Heuristics increase the likelihood of success in coming to a solution, but unlike algorithms, they cannot ensure it. The availability heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory. According to this heuristic, we assume that events we remember easily are likely to have occurred more frequently in the past— and are more likely to occur in the future—than events that are harder to remember. We also make use of a familiarity heuristic, in which familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar. Another common heuristic is the present bias, which is the tendency to more heavily weigh options that are closer to the present than ones further away. Although algorithms and heuristics may be characteristic of human thinking, scientists are now attempting to program computers that optimize problem solving but avoid the biases of human thought. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities. It remains to be seen whether the quality of thinking produced by AI will match that of humans. SOLVING PROBLEMS Problem solving is divided into three steps (see Figure 3): preparing to create solutions, producing solutions, and evaluating solutions that have been generated. A famous puzzle, the Tower of Hanoi (see Figure 2) helps demonstrate the complexity of human problem solving. PREPARATION: UNDERSTANDING AND DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS When approaching a problem, most people begin by trying to understand the problem thoroughly. If the problem is a novel one, they probably will pay particular attention to any restrictions placed on coming up with a solution. If, by contrast, the problem is a familiar one, they are apt to spend considerably less time in this preparation stage. In a well-defined problem, both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear. With an ill-defined problem, not only may the specific nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem may be even less obvious. A problem falls into one of three categories: arrangement, inducing structure, and transformation. An arrangement problem requires the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements of the problem in a way that will satisfy specific criteria.With an inducing structure problem, a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented in the problem and then construct a new relationship among them. The transformation problem is one

that consists of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state. PRODUCTION: GENERATING SOLUTIONS After preparation, the next stage in problem solving is the production of possible solutions. If a problem is relatively simple, we may already have a direct solution stored in long-term memory, and all we need to do is retrieve the appropriate information. If we cannot retrieve or do not know the solution, we must generate possible solutions and compare them with information in long- and short-term memory. At the most basic level, we can solve problems through trial and error. In place of trial and error, complex problem solving often involves the use of heuristics, cognitive shortcuts that can generate solutions. Probably the most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving is a means-ends analysis, that is, considering the ultimate goal (the end) and determining the best strategy (the means) for attaining the goal. Although this approach is often effective, if the problem requires indirect steps that temporarily increase the discrepancy between a current state and the solution, means–ends analysis can be counterproductive. For other problems, the best approach is to work backward by focusing on the goal, rather than the starting point, of the problem. FORMING SUBGOALS: DIVIDING PROBLEMS INTO THEIR PARTS Another heuristic commonly used to generate solutions is to divide a problem into intermediate steps, or subgoals, and solve each of those steps. INSIGHT: SUDDEN AWARENESS Some approaches to generating possible solutions focus less on step-by-step heuristics than on the sudden bursts of comprehension that one may experience during efforts to solve a problem. Wolfgang Köhler examined learning and problem-solving processes in chimpanzees. Köhler called the cognitive process underlying the chimps‘ new behavior insight, a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated. Can we help people achieve insight when they are seeking to solve problems? The answer is yes. One way is to directly train them, giving them practice in generating solutions that require outof-the-box thinking. Another way is to provide cross-cultural experiences that show people that their traditional ways of thinking may be inadequate when applied to the problems faced by those living in other cultures. People living in collectivistic cultures, in which the well-being of the group or society is emphasized more than that of the individual, are often better at solving problems involving interdependence and connection. In contrast, those living in individualistic cultures—in which a primary value is personal identity, uniqueness, and freedom—are more proficient at problems involving autonomy.

JUDGMENT: EVALUATING SOLUTIONS The final stage in problem solving requires an evaluation of the adequacy of the solution. The complexity of the problem and whether the solution is concrete, will contribute to the difficulty of the evaluation process. If we rely on appropriate heuristics and valid information, we can make accurate choices among alternative solutions. IMPEDIMENTS TO SOLUTIONS: WHY IS PROBLEM SOLVING SUCH A PROBLEM? Significant obstacles to problem solving can exist at each of the three major stages. Although cognitive approaches to problem solving suggest that thinking proceeds along fairly rational, logical lines as a person confronts a problem and considers various solutions, several factors can hinder the development of creative, appropriate, and accurate solutions. Functional Fixedness: The difficulty most people experience with the candle problem (see Figure 9) is caused by functional fixedness, the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use. Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set, the tendency to solve problems in a certain way, based on past experience, thereby hindering one‘s ability to come up with other solutions. It can prevent you from seeing beyond the apparent constraints of a problem. The phrase ―thinking outside the box‖—a commonly used term to encourage creativity—stems from research on overcoming the constraining effects of functional fixedness and mental set (see Figure 10). INACCURATE EVALUATION OF SOLUTIONS Confirmation bias is the tendency to prefer one‘s first hypothesis and ignore contradictory evidence that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions. Confirmation bias occurs for several reasons. For one thing, because rethinking a problem that appears to be solved already takes extra cognitive effort, we are apt to stick with our first solution. For another, we give greater weight to subsequent information that supports our initial position than to information that is not supportive of it. EVALUATING OTHERS’ CONCLUSIONS: THE SCIENCE OF FAKE NEWS The rise of fake news has provided considerable discussion among politicians and citizens alike. Psychologists and other scholars are just beginning to study fake news and how it is spread and influences us. In one pioneering study, researchers found that false stories (such as rumors of terror attacks) were distributed significantly farther, faster, and more broadly than true news, apparently due their higher level of novelty. Other research supports an illusory truth effect: That is, simply repeating misinformation may lead people to remember that information—and forget that it might be false. One reason for the illusory truth effect may be "cognitive laziness," in which people don't put in the time and effort it takes to carefully evaluate the truthfulness of news. Additional factors are involved in the acceptance of fake news. One way to address fake new is cognitive immunization. Cognitive immunization, in which resistance to fake news,

misinformation, and other falsehoods is created by providing accurate information before someone is exposed to the false information. CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING Despite obstacles to problem solving, many people adeptly discover creative solutions to problems. Creativity is the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways. Several characteristics are associated with creativity. For one thing, highly creative individuals show divergent thinking, which generates multiple and novel, although potentially appropriate, responses to problems or questions. When we use ―out-of-the-box‖ thinking, we‘re showing divergent thinking. This type of thinking contrasts with convergent thinking, which is thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic. Another aspect of creativity is its cognitive complexity, or preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. One factor that is not closely related to creativity is intelligence. Creative people also show cognitive complexity in their thinking. Cognitive complexity is the preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex thoughts and solutions to problems. One factor that is not closely related to creativity is intelligence. Traditional intelligence tests, which ask focused questions that have only one acceptable answer, tap convergent thinking skills. Women and men don't appear to differ in degree of creativity either, at least when creativity is measured objectively. Research suggests that we actually become less creative the older we get. One reason may be that as we get older, we know more. Researchers are increasingly speculating that some kinds of developmental disabilities may help promote creativity. Specifically, people with autism spectrum disorder, a severe developmental disability that impairs one‘s ability to communicate and relate to others, may show enhanced creativity. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: YOU MAKE ME LAUGH! THE DIVERGENT THINKING AND COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY THAT DEFINE CREATIVITY HAVE A BASIS IN THE BRAIN. IN NEUROIMAGING STUDIES OF CREATIVITY, THREE BRAIN NETWORKS SHOW UP CONSISTENTLY. THE NEUROSCIENTISTS FOUND COMEDIC EXPERTISE WAS ASSOCIATED WITH GREATER SURFACE AREA IN PARTS OF THE BRAIN THAT PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE LINKED TO CREATIVE THINKING. THIS BRAIN FEATURE MAY ENABLE COMEDIANS TO LINK CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES IN NEW WAYS THAT MAKE US LAUGH. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: THINKING CRITICALLY AND CREATIVELY Research suggests that critical and creative thinkers are made, not born. Consider, for instance, the following suggestions for increasing critical thinking and creativity: Redefine problems, use

subgoals, adopt a critical perspective, consider the opposite, use analogies, think divergently, think convergently, use heuristics, experiment with various solutions, remember that good enough is good enough, and walk away. KEY TERMS algorithm A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. cognitive psychology The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making. concept Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people. confirmation bias The tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one‘s initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions. convergent thinking Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces a solution that is based primarily on knowledge and logic. creativity The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways. divergent thinking Thinking that generates multiple and unusual, although appropriate, responses to problems or questions. functional fixedness The tendency to think of an object only in terms of the way it is most frequently or typically used. heuristic A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision but—unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors. insight A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another. means-ends analysis A strategy in which a problem solver considers the ultimate goal (the end) and determines the best strategy for attaining the goal. mental set The tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist, which can hinder effective problem solving. mental images Representations in the mind of an object or event. prototypes Typical, highly representative examples of a concept. thinking Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data.

LECTURE IDEAS THE WASON SELECTION TASK Although not discussed in the text, this classic logic problem is a fascinating one that has been analyzed in a number of psychological studies on reasoning. The gist of the task is as follows: Four cards are presented:

The cards are labeled ―D‖ or ―K‖ on one side and ―3‖ or ―7‖ on the other. A rule says that ―if a card is D on one side then it is 3 on the other side.‖ Which cards need to be turned over to know whether this sample of cards is consistent with the rule? The answer is ―D‖ and ―7.‖ If there is a 3 on the other side of D, this proves the rule of those two cards. If there is a D on the other side of 7, this violates the rule. For instance, if these are tickets purchased at a party where underage drinkers are not allowed to drink alcohol, the four cards showing would be: D = Beer K = Soda 3 = Age 21 7 = Under 21 Therefore, all ―Beer‖ tickets should have ―Age 21‖ on the back and no ―Under 21‖ tickets should have ―Beer‖ on the back. This problem is easier to solve than the D-K-3-7 problem. LOGICAL REASONING: WORD PUZZLES Here are some good word puzzles that will test the logical powers of your students. A murderer is condemned to death. He has to choose between three rooms. The first is full of raging fires, the second is full of assassins with loaded guns, and the third is full of lions that have not eaten in three years. Which room is safest for him?

ANSWER: The third. Lions that have not eaten in three years are dead. A woman shoots her husband. Then she holds him under water for over 10 min. Finally, she hangs him. But 5 min later they both go out together and enjoy a wonderful dinner together. How can this be? ANSWER: The woman was a photographer. She shot a picture of her husband, developed it, and hung it up to dry. Two different plastic jugs are filled with water. How could you put all of this water into a barrel, without using the jugs or any dividers, and still tell which water came from which jug? ANSWER: Freeze them first. Take the ice out of the jugs and put it in the barrel. You will be able to tell which water came from which jug. What is black when you buy it, red when you use it, and gray when you throw it away? ANSWER: Charcoal. Can you name three consecutive days without using the words Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday? ANSWER: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. ALGORITHMS VERSUS HEURISTICS Define the difference between algorithms and heuristics. Algorithms are slow but always generate the correct solution; heuristics are quicker but may lead to the wrong answer. Examples: 1. Buying a rug for a dorm room.

Heuristic: Jared and his roommate Doug are trying to decide what size rug they need to buy to cover the floor of their dorm room. Jared looks at the floor and says, ―This is about the size of my room at home. Let‘s buy a 9' × 12' rug.‖ Algorithm: Doug says, ―I want to measure the area. Let‘s find a yardstick so that I can find out its exact size.‖ 2. Baking cookies.

Heuristic: Allison decides to bake chocolate chip cookies to take to her boyfriend‘s house for dinner. She calls her mother to find out the ―family‖ recipe. Allison‘s mother tells her to take about a cup of butter, a bit of baking soda, two eggs, about a cup of brown sugar, and about the same amount of flour. Finally, add some chocolate chips.

Algorithm: Allison is nervous about making the cookies without having more exact amounts. She looks up a recipe in a cookbook and decides to use that one, which specifies how much to use of sugar, flour, butter, baking soda, and chocolate chips. The recipe also says exactly what order in which to add the ingredients. Lecture demonstration: What word can you form from this anagram? ERET The answer is TREE. Ask students whether they tried all possible combinations before they reached the answer. This would be using an algorithm. It is possible to do this with a fourletter word. Now show this: LSSTNEUIAMYOUL The answer is SIMULTANEOUSLY. Find out how many students tried all possible combinations. Chances are they did not, as this would be a much slower solution. Therefore, they had to use a heuristic. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS An algorithm is the same every time, like the rhythm of music. A heuristic is also a ―rule of thumb,‖ and heuristic starts with the letter ―h‖ (as in thumb). HEURISTICS IN COGNIT IVE MAPS Illustrate the operation of heuristics in cognitive maps, which are mental representations of geographic spaces: Two days before this lecture, ask students to draw a map of their campus. Specify which buildings or areas to include. On the day before the cognition lecture, collect the maps. Choose one that will illustrate these heuristics: 1. Rotation heuristic—the tendency to think of geographic locations as more vertical or horizontal than they are in reality, especially effective when looking at North-to-South directions. The rotation heuristic is responsible for the common error that people make in assuming that Reno, Nevada, is further east than San Diego, California. (Also, people think that California is by definition further west than Nevada.) 2. Alignment heuristic—the tendency to think of arrangements of locations such as buildings as being more in alignment than they really are:

Make a slide of the map that you choose to show. Lay it over the actual campus map, and these cognitive map distortions will be clearly revealed. STATISTICAL HEURISTICS Give students these problems in class: Availability heuristic: People judge events that they can remember easily as more common than events that they cannot remember. 1. Which is more common—deaths from homicides or deaths from suicides?

ANSWER: Deaths from suicides. Newspapers place much more emphasis on deaths from homicides and therefore people can remember these deaths more readily and hence judge them as more frequent. Another similar example is deaths from drowning versus deaths from fires. Drowning deaths are more frequent, but they do not get as much media attention. 2. Which is more common in the English language: Words that begin with the letter “r” or words that have the letter “r” as the third letter?

ANSWER: Words that have the letter ―r‖ as the third letter. People can remember words that begin with a letter more readily than they can remember words that have an embedded letter. Vividness and distinctiveness also play a role. You are more likely to believe a friend who tells you a dramatic story about the problems he had with his Camry than all the positive ratings you read in consumer reports. Similarly, people are more likely to buy flood insurance after reading about floods than at any other time, even though the probability of a flood is no different than it was before the flood. Representativeness heuristic: People tend to ignore base rates, and fail to seek out base rates when base rate information is needed to make reliable probabilistic judgments. For example, people believe that coincidences are unlikely. Out of 30 people, there is a 70% probability that two will share the same birthday, but people think it is a coincidence when that occurs. People will also believe that a sequence of the same six numbers is less likely to win in a lottery than a sequence of six different numbers even though they are equally likely.

1. When flipping coins, which is the most likely sequence?

HHHTTT HHHHHH TTTTTT HTHTHT HHTTHH ANSWER: They are all equally probable; each coin toss is a separate event, and each has a 50/50 chance of occurring. 2. Imagine you just met a man named Steve. Steve is very shy and withdrawn, invariably helpful, but with little interest in people or in the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and structure, and a passion for detail. Is Steve more likely to be a librarian or a salesperson?

ANSWER: A salesperson. Statistically, there are far more salespeople than librarians in the workforce. Therefore, although Steve may seem to have the attributes of a librarian, the odds are far more likely that he is a salesperson. Effect of question wording: This is not covered in the text, but it provides a fascinating classroom demonstration: Tell the students that you know what they are going to say and have it written on the next slide. It will be the number 7. Guess the number I am thinking of. Add: 2+2 4+4 8+8 16+16 Pick a number between 12 and 5. People who were doing the addition problems before the final question were induced into an addition set. This led them, when later asked to pick a number between 5 and 12, to ADD 5+12 = 17. Then, because 17 could not be chosen, they chose 7 as the most salient substitute. When members of a class were asked to pick a number between 5 and 12 without the preamble, only 30 percent chose 7 compared to 67% who did when given the preamble. Representative heuristic: You may want to ask students whether this could be a serious error. Point out that racial profiling is an example of the representativeness heuristic and thus could have very serious errors associated with it.

WHAT‘S MY HEURISTIC? You can also demonstrate the above heuristics in a game show format called ―What‘s My Heuristic?‖ Students have to get the right answer and state what type of heuristic it is. Benefits of Heuristics: You may want to spend some time going over the representativeness heuristic and availability heuristics. Remind students that all heuristics are fallible, but they allow us to make snap judgments quickly, and what we sacrifice for accuracy is the ability to make quick general appraisals. Point out the adaptive value of these devices. Both have strong survival implications. APPROACHES TO SOLVING PROBLEMS: Four ways to obtain solutions: 1. Trial and error—most primitive and time-consuming. For example, if you do not know how to use a remote control, you push every button until what you want happens. 2. Means–ends analysis—most frequently used. Involves heuristics. Example: Planning route to center of town around beltway. 3. Subgoals—divide problem into steps if possible—making a meal involves going through a set of subroutines so that everything is finished on time. 4. Insight—burst of comprehension (“aha” experience). For some reason, the word aha always draws a laugh.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS Anagrams (Arrangement problem): Here are some humorous anagrams. For an ―anagram maker‖ website, go to http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/. listen = silent dormitory = dirty room schoolmaster = the classroom Elvis = lives slot machines = cash lost in ‘em conversation = voices rant on The Hilton = Hint: hotel snooze alarms = alas, no more Zs Presbyterian = Best in prayer eleven plus two = twelve plus one debit card = bad credit psychology = cop go shyly (not very funny, but relevant)

TRANSFORMATION PROBLEM Go to this Tower of Hanoi website: http://www.cut-the-knot.org/recurrence/hanoi.shtml. Alternatively, you can purchase an inexpensive Tower of Hanoi and have a student volunteer try to solve it as a class demonstration. This is a great time to discuss Gazzaniga‘s work on split brain and the problems folks have solving problems. You may want to show a clip of Gazzaniga with his patient talking about split brain: https://youtu.be/ZMLzP1VCANo. Here is a clip of Gazzaniga discussing his early research: https://youtu.be/0lmfxQ-HK7Y. Another video on split brain: https://youtu.be/MZnyQewsB_Y. INDUCING STRUCTURE PROBLEM Give students this puzzle: This is an unusual paragraph. I am curious how quickly you can find out what is so unusual about it. It looks so plain you would think nothing was wrong with it! In fact, nothing is wrong with it. Study it, and think about it, but you still may not find anything odd. But if you work at it a bit, you might find out. Try to do so without any coaching. Write your answer here: __________________ Answer: The letter ―e,‖ which is the most common letter in the English language, does not appear even once in the paragraph. FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS For an excellent example of functional fixedness or mental set, present these examples: A construction detour leads you to take the long way around to get to your psychology class. After the construction is finished and the detour removed, you continue to go the long way around. Overcoming functional fixedness can save your life: Jan Demczur, a window cleaner who was stuck on an elevator in the World Trade Center attack, was able to rescue himself and a group of people with him on the elevator by using his ―squeegee‖ to open a hole in the wall. A failure in logic also was involved in the World Trade Center construction. Although explicitly designed to withstand an airplane‘s impact, the engineers had not taken into account the effect of a full load of jet fuel. INSIGHT: MATCHSTICK ARITHMETIC

For another example of functional fixedness and insight, see https://youtu.be/46Z4iwBhwYc. CREATIVITY DEMONSTRATION: DIVERGENT THINKING Guilford developed tests of creativity as part of his structure of intellect model. In the ―Alternative Uses Task,‖ the respondent answers questions such as ―Name all the uses for a brick.‖ Scoring is based on four dimensions: originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration. Ask students to provide answers to this question. Have them share their answers either by switching papers or contributing their answers while you write them down. Then have other students rate the uses along the four dimensions. See this website: http://curtbonk.com/bobweb/Handout/d1.uses.htm. CONVERGENT THINKING Traditional problems that have one correct solution provide examples of convergent thinking. An entertaining example of such a problem is: ―I have two coins in my pocket that add up to $.30 in value. One of the coins is not a nickel. What is the other coin?‖ The answer is—a nickel! One of the coins is not a nickel, but the other one is. IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING Mental set: A very silly example of this was suggested by Tammy Rahhal. Have the class repeat after you: Coast Coast Coast Then say: What do you put in a toaster? The class will all shout out ―Toast!‖ Of course, that is ridiculous because you would put bread in a toaster, not toast. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS COGNITIVE MAPS Have students complete the following assignment: Draw a map of your campus. Now compare it to the official campus map. Did your cognitive map reveal one or both of the cognitive map heuristics? Show where the heuristic applied to your map by labeling it.

Now think about your cognitive map of a well-known location. Choose one of these (such as the main street of your hometown, the layout of a local shopping mall, or the map of a museum or gallery). Draw this map. Which areas were smallest on this map? Which were largest? Why do you think this is? Ask a friend to draw a map of the same area. Compare your maps. Where and how did they differ? Why do you think this is? CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES Compare answers among students from Handout 1: Concepts and Prototypes. Use this in the lecture to point out which concepts have clear prototypes and which do not. EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM-SOLVING TERMS Have students complete Handout 2: Problem-Solving Terms in which they provide examples from daily life of problem solving. Problem Solving: Use Handout 3: Solve This Problem as a way for students to understand and experience the steps involved in problem solving. Students will choose from a list of problems and then use the steps discussed in the chapter to find a solution to the problem. Problem Solving: Tell the class that sometimes a problem-solving exercise just comes together in an ―aha‖ moment often called insight. Write the words you just me on the board or another type of visual presenter. Ask students what this means. Typically, they look blankly at you. Provide a hint: ―What is the relative position of just?‖ If you think of this problem in terms of the relative position, then the phrase ―just between you and me‖ becomes obvious. Write the following on the board: stood well view What is communicated in these three words? If needed, give your students a hint. Tell them that stood is above well and both words are above view. With this reorganization most students will suddenly come up with ―well understood overview.‖ Source: Wertheimer, M. (1999). Reorganization and productive thinking. In L. T. Benjamin et al. (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Divergent and Convergent Thinking: Have students take 10 min to jot down all the uses for a cardboard box, including every possibility that they can think of, even if it seems unreasonable. Explain that this list is divergent thinking. Next, have students look the list over and determine

which of the possible uses are most usual or most likely to be worthwhile. Explain that this is convergent thinking. Decision Making: Discuss decision making, especially the areas of decision making without awareness, confirmation bias, and hindsight bias. Have the students come up with an example from their own lives where these three concepts have played a part. Have them write down and explain the example. Next, break the class into groups and have them discuss their examples with the other students in the group. The students will get a better understanding of decision making when they come up with their own examples, and they will gain knowledge from the other students in their group by hearing their examples. CREATIVITY Have students read the article ―Biological Basis for Creativity Linked to Mental Illness‖ in Science Daily (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/10/031001061055.htm) and then find a scholarly article on this topic and write a brief review of the research. Creative Thinking: Use Handout 4: Make Your Own Invention. This activity has students create an invention and then explain how the invention might have come about. Finally, students should evaluate their own invention or a classmate‘s invention for creativity. What ―standards‖ will they use and why? Creativity and Play: Watch the video of Tim Brown‘s TED Talk on ―Tales of Creativity and Play‖ (http://www.ted.com/talks/tim_brown_on_creativity_and_play?language=en) and consider using one of the examples discussed in the video in class or assign students to pick one activity and report their experience to the class on the following meeting. Creativity: Make copies of the Remote Associates Test or have students go to the website at https://www.cengage.com/collegesuccess/book_content/1413031927_santrock/ch05/ch05exe6.ht ml and take the test. You could have students take the test individually or in groups and then discuss their findings. Challenge Your Thinking: Have students brainstorm what present-day inconveniences new inventions could solve. Discuss their ideas in class. Next, ask students to determine what thought processes led to the invention of Nike shoes and the Sony Walkman. Discuss their ideas in class. Now, ask students to share their worst idea they had lately. What made it seem like a good idea? What made it a bad idea? Discuss these in class. Last, ask students to share what it was like to think about the two questions. These can also be used as a small group activity, share-pair dyad, or a homework essay. METACOGNITION Ask students to engage in a metacognitive exercise. Ask them to think about their study habits from the last test. Did they work? What could they do differently to improve performance? This

will not only demonstrate what metacognition is but also prove useful in their studying for the next exam. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS STATISTICAL HEURISTICS Identify and describe a situation in which you have fallen prey to the availability heuristic. What factors affected you reasoning in this case? Identify and describe a situation in which you have fallen prey to the familiarity heuristic. What factors affected you reasoning in this case? APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: NAVIGATING WITH COGNITIVE MAPS Have students review the related box in their text and answer the following questions: 1. In what ways are navigational problems unlike other kinds of problems? 2. Why wouldn‘t following GPS directions stimulate the hippocampus the way navigating by visual cues does? CREATIVITY What factors do you think lead to creativity? Why are these important? Provide an example of a person who you think is highly creative along with a rationale for having chosen this person. What do you regard as your most creative accomplishment? Why? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Heuristics People often incorrectly assume that it‘s more dangerous to travel by plane than by car. What accounts for this error in reasoning? a) Prototypes b) The availability heuristic c) The familiarity heuristic d) An algorithm Polling Question: I’m Not Blind! I See Exactly What I Want to See! Let‘s talk about the bias blind spot, a concept that suggests even the smartest, deepest thinkers— the ones who are open minded and considerate of others—harbor a level of bias against others and even themselves. What do you think? Who thinks we are hardwired (biologically) to create

groups and show favoritism toward a certain set of individuals? Let‘s take a Social Attitudes test by Project Implicit: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/. How many of you were surprised at your results? Polling Question: Calling All Geniuses—Your Psychotherapist Is Ready to See You Now ―Genius and insanity may actually go together, according to scientists who found that mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are often found in highly creative and intelligent people.‖ Let‘s critically evaluate this statement. There is research that indicates a link between creativity and mental health; however, there is also research that suggests the opposite. So, what do you think? Given the numerous examples of creative geniuses and their reported mental health status, who thinks that those who are super intelligent are more likely to possess a psychological disorder? List four psychological disorders, and have students vote on the disorder most likely to be associated with creative genius. Collectively discuss why the disorder with the highest votes is perceived to be related to being a genius. Do you consider yourself to be a creative person? Do you believe that it is possible to test for creativity? SUGGESTED MEDIA Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Cognitive processes, 30:00. The higher mental processes, such as problem solving, reasoning, and planning are investigated. Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Judgment and decision making., 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/judgement-and-decision-making/. The processes by which individuals make judgments and decisions through an examination of risk taking and negotiation are explored. Ariely, D. (TED). (2009, May 19). Are we in control of our own decisions? [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_ariely_asks_are_we_in_control_of_our_own_decisions. Berlin, H. (2015, March 4). (Big Think). The neuroscience of genius, creativity, and improvisation [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4anaU6rdU1Q. Brown, T. (TED). (2008, November). Tales of creativity and play [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/tim_brown_on_creativity_and_play/up-next?language=en. CBS. Chaser, the smartest dog, 60 min. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=omaHv5sxiFI. Chaser, the dog can identify over 1,000 toys. Critical thinking. http://www.criticalthinking.org. This is the home page of the Foundation and Center for Critical Thinking.

Cambridge Educational (2009). Critical thinking and problem solving., 10:00. This is a part of the series Academic Success: Smart Tips for Serious Students discussing and providing realworld academic examples of critical thinking and problem solving. Divergent thinking. http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/imdt.htm. Insight Media. (2001). Intelligence and creativity, 30:00. Multiple intelligences and the history of intelligence testing are described in this film. Insight Media. (2008). Introduction to critical thinking, 25:00. Learning to think critically is the centerpiece of this video. Insight Media. (2008). Critical thinking: Analyzing problems and decision making, 29:00. This video exploring the problem-solving process. Merlot.org. http://www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm. This site has a host of information for teaching various topics including thinking. Michalko, M. (2018, February 27). Can you spot the hidden tiger? http://creativethinking.net/can-you-spot-the-hidden-tiger/#sthash.69T6socP.dpbs. Mindtools. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TMC.htm. This site provides a test of problem-solving abilities and gives some problem-solving techniques. Practical psychology. (2016, December 30). Twelve cognitive biases explained—How to think better and more logically removing bias [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEwGBIr_RIw. Society for Judgment and Decision Making. http://www.sjdm.org/. The stuff of thought. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6H7utm3eco4&feature=related. Very funny interview with Steven Pinker (warning: it does involve swearing). Veritasium. (2014, February 24). Can you solve this? ( [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vKA4w2O61Xo. POPULAR MOVIES OR TE LEVISION SHOWS: FORMAL REASONING A number of recent television shows are based on the character Sherlock Holmes, who is famed for his reasoning abilities. Clips from the shows Sherlock or Elementary can be used to provide examples of formal reasoning strategies. POPULAR MOVIES OR TE LEVISION SHOWS: PROBLEM SOLVING

Show a segment from a television sitcom in which a character struggles with solving an interpersonal problem. Alternatively, show a segment from a movie or television crime drama in which the main character must use logic to find or catch a criminal. You could also show a humorous example of this from a Saturday Night Live segment of MacGruber (here is an example of the 2009 Pepsi commercial that aired during the Super Bowl: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejVs7I5y4QQ. Good Will Hunting (1998). Matt Damon as Will Hunting cleans floors at a top university but turns out to be one the smartest kids on campus. Robin Williams plays a psychology professor who discovers Will‘s intellect. Trailer available at https://youtu.be/7TSLzPu2no4. POPULAR MOVIES OR TELEVISION SHOWS: CREATIVITY Abstract: The Art of Design (2017). Netflix documentary series follows eight creative thinkers and imaginative minds working in the art and design world. Trailer available at https://youtu.be/DYaq2sWTWAA. Amadeus (1984). Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qikgX4rlG4. Ask students what elements of creativity were shown in this movie. Dr. Who (2015): Vincent Van Gogh Visits the Gallery. The doctor and Amy take Vincent Van Gogh to a Paris art Gallery in the year 2010. Video scene available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubTJI_UphPk. Loving Vincent (2017). The world‘s first fully oil painted feature film bringing the art of Vincent Van Gogh to life. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hC3dqQPunKs. ADDITIONAL READINGS Ariely, D. (2010). Predictably irrational, revised and expanded edition: The hidden forces that shape our decisions. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. Dunbar, R. I. M. (2001). Brains on two legs: Group size and the evolution of intelligence. In F. B. M. deWaal (Ed.), Tree of origin: What primate behavior can tell us about human social evolution (pp. 173–191). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Holowka, S., & Petitto, L. A. (2002). Left hemisphere cerebral specialization for babies while babbling. Science, 297(5586), 1515. Kotovsky, K., Hayes, J. R., & Simon, H. A. (1985). Why are some problem hard? Evidence from the tower of Hanoi. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 248–294. Krueger, J. (2012). Social judgments and decision making. London, England: Psychology Press. Luchins, A. S. (1946). Classroom experiments on mental set. American Journal of Psychology, 59, 295–298.

Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (2013). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. London, England: Psychology Press. MODULE 22: LANGUAGE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 22-1

How do people use language?

22-2

How does language develop?

The use of language—the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules—is a central cognitive ability, one that is indispensable for us to communicate with one another. Not only is language central to communication, but it is also closely tied to the very way in which we think about and understand the world. GRAMMAR: LANGUAGE‘S LANGUAGE The basic structure of language rests on grammar, the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. Grammar deals with three major components of language: phonology, syntax, and semantics. Phonology is the study of phonemes, the smallest basic units of speech that affect meaning, and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning. For instance, the ―a‖ sound in fat and the ―a‖ sound in fate represent two different phonemes in English. Syntax refers to the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences. Every language has intricate rules that guide the order in which words may be strung together to communicate meaning. The third major component of language is semantics, the meanings of words and sentences. Semantic rules allow us to use words to convey the subtle nuances in meaning. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPING A WAY W ITH WORDS BABBLING Children babble—make speech-like but meaningless sounds—from around the age of 3 months through 1 year. An infant‘s babbling increasingly reflects the specific language being spoken in the infant‘s environment, initially in terms of pitch and tone and eventually in terms of specific sounds. The critical period exists for language development early in life in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language. In fact, if children are not exposed to language during this critical period, later they will have great difficulty overcoming this deficit. Cases in which abused children have been isolated from contact with others support the theory of such critical periods related to language acquisition. PRODUCTION OF LANGUAGE

By the time children are approximately 1 year old, they stop producing sounds that are not in the language to which they have been exposed. It is then a short step to the production of actual words. In English, these are typically short words that start with a consonant sound such as b, d, m, p, and t. Of course, even before they produce their first words, children can understand a fair amount of the language they hear. Language comprehension precedes language production. After the age of 1 year, children begin to learn more complicated forms of language. By age 2, the average child has a vocabulary of more than 50 words. They produce two-word combinations, the building blocks of sentences, and sharply increase the number of different words they are able to use. Just 6 months later, that vocabulary has grown to several hundred words. At that time, children can produce short sentences, although they use telegraphic speech—sentences that sound as if they were part of a telegram, in which only essential words are used. Rather than saying, ―I showed you the book,‖ a child using telegraphic speech may say, ―I show book.‖ By age 3, children learn to make plurals by adding s to nouns and to form the past tense by adding -ed to verbs. This skill also leads to errors, since children tend to apply rules inflexibly. Overgeneralization is the phenomenon by which children apply language rules even when the application results in an error. Consider the example of a 5-year-old boy who sees a blindfolded doll and is asked, ―Is the doll easy or hard to see?‖ If he were asked to make the doll easier to see, he would probably try to remove the doll‘s blindfold. UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: IDENTIFYING THE ROOTS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORY APPROACHES: LANGUAGE AS A LEARNED SKILL The learning theory approach suggests that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning discovered by psychologists who study learning. This view suggests that children first learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech. Ultimately, through a process of shaping, language becomes more and more like adult speech. The learning-theory approach is less successful in explaining how children acquire language rules. Learning theory has difficulty fully explaining language acquisition. NATIVIST APPROACHES: LANGUAGE AS AN INNATE SKILL The linguist Noam Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate linguistic capability that emerges primarily as a function of maturation. According to his nativist approach to language, all the world‘s languages share a common underlying structure that is prewired, biologically determined, and universal. Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure language provides—a kind of universal grammar.

In contrast, learning theorists contend that the apparent ability of certain animals, such as chimpanzees, to learn the fundamentals of human language (as we discuss later in this module) contradicts the innate linguistic capability view. INTERACTIONIST APPROACHES The interactionist approach suggests that language development is both biological and social, produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and circumstances in one‘s social environment growing up that help teach language. THE INFLUENCE OF LANGUAGE ON THINKING: DO THE INUIT HAVE MORE WORDS FOR SNOW THAN TEXANS DO? The contention that the Inuit language is especially abundant in snow-related terms led to the linguistic-relativity hypothesis, the notion that language shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world. According to this view, language provides us with categories that we use to construct our view of people and events in the world around us. Consequently, language shapes and produces thought. On the other hand, suppose that instead of language being the cause of certain ways of thinking, thought produces language. The only reason to expect that Inuit language might have more words for snow than English does is that snow is considerably more relevant to Inuits than it is to people in other cultures. Most recent research refutes the linguistic-relativity hypothesis and suggests, instead, that thinking produces language. New analyses of the Inuit language suggest that Inuits have no more words for snow than English speakers. Still the linguistic-relativity hypothesis has not been entirely discarded. A newer version of the hypothesis suggests that speech patterns may influence certain aspects of thinking. In short, although research does not support the linguistic-relativity hypothesis that language causes thought, it is clear that language influences how we think. It certainly is the case that thought influences language, suggesting that language and thinking interact in complex ways. Language seems to foster and support certain kinds of reasoning. Language makes us better able to think, helps us understand cause and effect as well. Although research does not support the linguistic-relativity hypothesis that language causes thought, language clearly influences how we think. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTURY: ¡HOLA! CAN THE LANGUAGE YOU SPEAK KEEP YOU HEALTHIER? Does the specific language someone speaks offer them health benefits? That‘s the surprising hypothesis put forward by psychologist María Magadalena Llabre of the University of Miami, Hispanic people who speak Spanish are less likely to die from cardiovascular disease than non-Hispanic White individuals and members of other groups who are economically disadvantaged and who speak English. The finding is contrary to what we‘d

normally expect because membership in an economically disadvantaged minority group typically makes one more prone to health problems due to the presence of more risk factors for disease. According to the hypothesis, the Spanish language has features that provide for emotional expression in ways that promote health. Spanish speakers use suffixes that can minimize negative emotions and stress, and that create the potential for the expression of greater optimism. Is the language hypothesis correct? We don‘t know for sure, and no convincing research has yet determined its accuracy.

DO ANIMALS USE LANGUAGE? One question that has long puzzled psychologists is whether language is uniquely human or if other animals are able to acquire it as well. Many animals communicate with one another in rudimentary forms. Researchers have yet to demonstrate conclusively that animals use true language, which is characterized in part by the ability to produce and communicate new and unique meanings by following a formal grammar. Psychologists, however, have been able to teach chimps to communicate at surprisingly high levels. Even more impressively, Kanzi, a bonobo, has linguistic skills that some psychologists claim are close to those of a 2-year-old human being. Kanzi‘s trainers suggest that he can create grammatically sophisticated sentences and can even invent new rules of syntax. Despite the skills primates such as Kanzi display, critics contend that the language such animals use still lacks the grammar and the complex and novel constructions of human language. Instead, they maintain that the chimps are displaying a skill no different from that of a dog that learns to lie down on command to get a reward. As they seek further understanding of language use among nonhuman species, researchers are learning that at the very least, nonhumans have a surprising range of linguistic capabilities. DOES SPEAKING TWO LANGUAGE MAKE YOU SMARTER? Does the ability to speak two languages make you smarter? In one sense, of course it does: That you can speak multiple languages shows you know more than someone who can only speak one language. A substantial body of evidence supports the idea that speaking more than one language provides significant cognitive benefits when looking at specific areas of intellectual functioning. Learning and speaking several languages has discernable effects on the brain.

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: TEACHING WITH LINGUISTIC VARIETY: BILINGUAL EDUCATION How to appropriately and effectively teach the increasing number of children who do not speak English is not always clear. Many educators maintain that bilingual education is best. With a bilingual approach, students learn some subjects in their native language while simultaneously learning English. In contrast, other educators insist that all instruction ought to be in English from the moment students, including those who speak no English at all, enroll in school. In immersion programs, students are immediately plunged into English instruction in all subjects. Although the controversial issue of bilingual education versus immersion has strong political undercurrents, evidence shows that the ability to speak two languages provides significant cognitive benefits over speaking only one language. Individuals who are bilingual have more linguistic tools for thinking because of their multiple-language abilities. In addition, the advantages of bilingualism start early: by the time bilingual children are 3 or 4 years old, their cognitive development is superior to that of children who speak only one language. Furthermore, speaking several languages changes the organization of the brain. See the Neuroscience in Your Life: Being Bilingual Affects Processing in the Brain box in the text. Related to questions about bilingual education is the matter of biculturalism—that is, being a member of two cultures, and its psychological impact. Some psychologists argue that society should promote an alternation model of bicultural competence. Such a model supports members of a culture in their efforts to maintain their original cultural identity as well as in their integration into the adopted culture. In this view, a person can belong to two cultures and have two cultural identities without having to choose between them. Research suggests that a bicultural identity produces mental health benefits and increases feelings of well-being. KEY TERMS babble Meaningless, speech-like sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year. grammar The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. interactionist approach (to language development) The view that language development is determined by genetic and social factors, produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and the social world in which one is raised. language The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules. learning-theory approach (to language development) The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning.

linguistic-relativity hypothesis The hypothesis that language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world. nativist approach (to language development) The theory that humans are genetically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways. overgeneralization The phenomenon by which children overapply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error. phonemes The smallest units of speech. phonology The study of the smallest units of speech, called phonemes. semantics The aspect of language referring to the meaning of words and sentences. syntax Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences. telegraphic speech Sentences in which only essential words are used, typically including only nouns and verbs. LECTURE IDEAS Although language can be a very dry topic (unless you are a specialist in this area), there are many ways to spice up this lecture by poking fun at our use of language through understanding ambiguities, puns, Freudian slips, and the nonverbal aspects of communication, as in dialects. Here are some ideas to incorporate into the lecture and, taken together, can easily occupy an entire class period. Animal Language: This is a great time to ask students what they think about animal language. You may want to show a clip of the bee waggle dance: https://youtu.be/-7ijI-g4jHg. Ask students what they feel are potential barriers to studying animal cognition and language. Ask whether they think their dog is thinking. Communicating with other dogs? Engaging in reflective thinking? Problem solving and reasoning? Do they think that we are currently underestimating other species‘ abilities in thinking and overestimating our own? Language and Thinking: This is a good time to also point out that language and memory go hand in hand. You may also want to tie in for students the relationship between thought and language being the representation of things symbolically. Point out that Piaget and Vygotsky both argued that language is required for higher-order thinking. Ask students if they think metacognition, for example, would be possible without language. Evolutionary Approaches: Ask students which approach to language acquisition they think best explains universal grammar. They should answer ―nativist.‖ Discuss evolutionary pressures that could pressure language to be selected for. Visual Representation: Hormones affect our way of thinking. Moderately high levels of testosterone, in both men and women, are associated with the ability to perform spatial and

mental rotation tasks such as finding one‘s way around a new building or playing a threedimensional video game. You may want to discuss the role of evolution in selecting a male bias in spatial thinking. Evolutionary psychology would suggest that the male advantage in spatial thinking comes from hunter-gatherer days when males would need to travel great distances and to hunt, skills that would require good mental rotation and spatial orientation. Feral Children: Discuss the case of Genie. Show part or all of the BBC‘s series on Genie. You may also want to mention the case of Itard‘s Victor, the first documented feral child. These cases support the critical period and illustrate the link between thought and language. Genie: Assign students to watch The Mockingbird Don’t Sing (2001), a movie based on the case of Genie. Have them write a paragraph on the interaction of species-typical genes in a speciesatypical environment. Make sure they grasp that species-typical genes require a species-typical environment to develop in a species-typical manner. Learning a Second Language: This is a great time to point out to students the disparity between research and curriculum. As many students will be taking a class on another language in the next 4 years, they will no doubt bring it up anyway. You may want to point out to students that most of the research on bilingualism shows that it results in greater cognitive flexibility. This includes ASL. Ask students why they think that is. Learning a Second Language: Ask whether there are any bilingual students in the room. Ask them whether they think more in one language than another. You may also want to point out that early plasticity in the brain may also account for these differences. GRAMMAR—AMBIGUOUS SENTENCES An excellent way to teach surface versus deep structure is to point out the reasons that ambiguous sentences are ambiguous. First, introduce the idea of ―garden path sentences.‖ These are sentences that, strictly speaking, are grammatical, but which sound as though they are not until their underlying structure is analyzed: The horse raced past the barn fell. When Fred eats food gets thrown. Mary gave the child the dog bit a Band-Aid. I convinced her children are noisy. Helen is expecting tomorrow to be a bad day. I know the words to that song don‘t rhyme. She told me a little white lie will come back to haunt me. Until the police arrest the drug dealers control the street. The dog that I had really loved bones. That Jill is never here hurts. The man who whistles tunes pianos.

The old man the boat. They are called garden path sentences because they lead you ―down the garden path,‖ meaning that you start thinking the sentence has one meaning but then it turns out to have another. ―The horse raced past the barn.‖ ―The horse raced past the barn fell.‖ Both are sentences. The second sentence is a garden path sentence because you think that the horse raced past the barn (went beyond it). When you read the word fell, you realize that the sentence had this meaning instead: ―The horse (that was) raced past the barn fell.‖ Principle of minimal attachment: We try to form the simplest interpretation of a sentence so that it has the least number of phrases, but this may lead us down the garden path: ―The spy saw the cop with binoculars, but the cop didn‘t see him.‖—Binoculars were used by the spy to see the cop. ―The spy saw the cop with a revolver, but the cop didn‘t see him‖ is a garden path sentence. At first, you think that the spy used a revolver to see the cop, which is impossible! ―The spy couldn‘t see the cop with a revolver‖—This sentence more clearly means that the cop was holding the revolver. HUMOROUS INSTRUCTIONS These state the obvious, so that although they are grammatically correct, they are semantically empty. Students will readily come up with other examples of their own: In Microsoft Word: To undo the last action, click the Undo button. On a Sears hair dryer: Do not use while sleeping. On a bag of Fritos: You could be a winner! No purchase necessary. Details inside. On a bar of Dial soap: Directions: Use like regular soap. On some Swanson frozen dinners: Serving suggestion: Defrost. On a hotel-provided shower cap in a box: Fits one head. On Tesco‘s Tiramisu dessert: Do not turn upside down. (Printed on the bottom of the box.) On Marks & Spencer‘s Bread Pudding: Product will be hot after heating. On packaging for a Rowenta Iron: Do not iron clothes on body. On Boots Children‘s Cough Medicine: Do not drive car or operate machinery. On Nytol (a sleep aid): Warning: may cause drowsiness. On a Korean-made kitchen knife: Warning: keep out of children. On a string of Chinese-made Christmas lights: For indoor or outdoor use only. On a Japanese food processor: Not to be used for the other use.

On Sainsbury‘s peanuts: Warning: contains nuts. On an American Airlines packet of nuts: Instructions: open packet, eat nuts. On a Swedish chainsaw: Do not attempt to stop chain with your hands. On many promotional offers: Void where prohibited. On a Knorr soup mix packet: To prepare with low-fat milk: Prepare as directed above using low-fat milk. STUPID SPORTS QUOTES The following quotes are also semantically empty. They say nothing that is not patently obvious. Here is one of my favorites from a coach at my university on his thoughts about the weekend‘s game with Rhode Island: ―We just have to keep playing the way we have. It‘s nice to be home. We know it will be another tough game. Rhode Island is a rival and a conference opponent. They‘ve struggled a little and a win might turn their year around.‖ Others can be heard on sports commentaries:     

They didn’t have their game face on. They didn’t come out to play. We wanted it more. You’ve got to play with emotion. The game was closer than the score indicated.

Specific sports quotes are variants on these:       

“Any time Detroit scores more than 100 points and holds the other team below 100 points, they almost always win.” (Doug Collins, sports commentator) “Ninety percent of this game is half mental.” (Yogi Berra) “I ain’t in no slump, I just ain’t hittin.’” (Yogi Berra) “I want to rush for 1,000 or 1,500 yards, whichever comes first.” (New Orleans Saints running back George Rogers when asked about the upcoming season) “Nobody in football should be called a genius. A genius is a guy like Norman Einstein.” (Football commentator and former player Joe Theismann) “I can’t really remember the names of the clubs that we went to.” (Shaquille O’Neal on whether he had gone to the Parthenon during his visit to Greece) “We can’t win at home. We can’t win on the road. As general manager, I just can’t figure out where else to play.” (Pat Williams, Orlando Magic general manager, on his team’s 7–27 record in 1992)

GOOD POLITICAL QUOTES Politicians are also able to devise their own special brand of language:

―All the partisanship is on their side.‖ (Senator Trent Lott) ―When I was coming up, it was a dangerous world and we knew exactly who the they were. It was us versus them, and it was clear who them was. Today, we‘re not so sure who the they are, but we know they‘re there.‖ (President George W. Bush) Their most important job ―is not to be Governor or First Lady, in my case.‖ (presidential candidate George W. Bush) ―I‘ve never professed to be anything but an average student.‖ (Senator Dan Quayle) ―I think that is a position which is not consistent with the fact. Actually, just look at what Osam, uh, Barack Obama, said just yesterday.‖ (Governor George Romney) AMBIGUOUS OR OTHERWISE RIDICULOUS NEWSPAPER HEADLINES There are many, many of these floating around on the Web. Here is a sampling: Juvenile court to try shooting defendant Red tape holds up new bridge Deer kill 17,000 Chef throws his heart into helping feed needy Arson suspect is held in Massachusetts fire Lansing residents can drop off trees Prostitutes appeal to pope Air head fired Police begin campaign to run down jaywalkers Safety experts say school bus passengers should be belted Farmer bill dies in house Iraqi head seeks arms Shipping workers nabbed with Oscars Sox fan accused of verbally abusing horse with anti-Yankee slur. Tighter seat belt rule rejected Eye drops off shelf Teacher strikes idle kids Squad helps dog bite victim Enraged cow injures farmers with ax Killer sentenced to die for second time in 10 years Miners refuse to work after death Kids make nutritious snacks Local high school dropouts cut in half

Steals clock, faces time Typhoon rips through cemetery: Hundreds dead Two sisters reunited after 18 years in the checkout counter Hospitals are sued by 7-foot doctors Some pieces of Rock Hudson sold at auction Include your children while baking cookies Something went wrong in jet crash, expert says Plane too close to ground, crash probe told War dims hope for peace If strike isn‘t settled quickly, it may last a while Enfield couple slain: Police suspect homicide Panda mating fails, veterinarian takes over Soviet virgin lands short of goal again Postal service to mail warning Police arrest seven armed men RIDICULOUS SIGNS DRIVE WITH CAUTION (as opposed to with reckless abandon?) DRIVE SAFELY (same as above) DUE TO RECENT PLUMBING CONCERNS, ONLY TOILET PAPER MAY BE FLUSHED DOWN TOILETS (in a bathroom) SIGNS POSTED ON THIS GLASS WILL BE REMOVED IMMEDIATELY (sign on a window in a building, ironically next to a sign that says ―Think‖) VOID WHERE PROHIBITED FREUDIAN SLIPS Mistakes in speaking are very common, estimated at one error for every 10–20 utterances. Although Freud believed that our unconscious desires are reflected in slips of the tongue, linguistics experts attribute these mistakes to such mundane processes as phonemic substitution. For example, sounds may be rearranged between two or more separate words, such as ―snow flurries‖ becomes ―flow snurries.‖ Words may be rearranged, as in ―passing the rusher‖ instead of ―rushing the passer.‖ Some examples: 

“Yosef Burg, leader of the National Religious Party (in Israel), a Bedouin (instead of veteran) in Israeli politics” (The New York Times, Sept. 13, 1984).



Misquote in a book review: “Your goal should be to help your daughter become a sexually active, healthy adult” (instead of—I assume—“sexually healthy adult”) (The New York Times, March 19, 2001). At other times, though, a Freudian interpretation may hold some weight. At a meeting of a group of women’s psychologists that I attended, the speaker stated, “We must work in condom” (rather than “in tandem”).

Of course, the most famous Freudian slips were Spoonerisms, named after Reverend William A. Spooner, dean and warden of New College, Oxford, who uttered such memorable lines as ―queer old dean‖ instead of ―dear old queen‖ when referring to Queen Victoria. DIALECTS Students find it amusing to hear about dialects, especially their own! Below is a list of Boston dialect terms/phrases. You can probably find some from your own part of the country as well: When we say . . . We mean . . . . bizah = odd flahwiz = roses, and so on hahpahst = 30 min after the hour Hahwahya? = How are you? khakis = what we staht the cah with shewah = of course wikkid = extremely yiz = you (plural) popcahn = popular snack bubblah = water fountain haht dahgs = hot dogs INTONATIONS AND OTHER STYLISTIC IDIOSYNCRASIES Point out that students often will end a verbal statement with a question mark (women are more likely to do this than men), so when you ask where someone is from, the answer sounds as though the person is not sure, as in ―Shrewsbury?‖ Do you know where you are from, or are you asking? On my campus, people from Massachusetts are more likely to do this (because there are so many small towns), but people from the New York area rarely do, just stating ―the Bronx.‖ No questions there! Another stylistic idiosyncrasy is to use the word like as every other word in a sentence. Gestures, eye contact, and facial expressions are also fun to examine, often reflecting cultural influences (this ties into the video segment below).

FOOT IN MOUTH AWARD This website presents awards given in the United Kingdom for particularly bad use of language: http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/campaigning/awards/2016-awards.html. MORPHEMES One last point—based on my experience with the psych GRE—students should learn what a ―morpheme‖ is, as it is not presented in the text. Morphemes are the smallest linguistic units that have meaning. They can be free or bound. Un = a bound morpheme because it is never presented alone. Cat or even a longer word, such as technique = free morpheme CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS HUMOR IN LANGUAGE Assign students the task of finding ambiguous headlines, humorous instructions, and quotes. FEATURES OF LANGUAGE Pragmatics: Have students write a paragraph on the role of pragmatics, the linguistic rule of who can say what to whom, and an example from their lives when the rule was violated. You can then read some examples in class and discuss the importance of rules in language. Steven Pinker: Have students do some brief internet research on Steven Pinker and write a brief paragraph on the nativist perspective and on Pinker‘s own perspective. Structure of Language: Use Handout 5: Elements of Language in Everyday Life as a way for the students to come up with their own examples of the various structures of language that are discussed in the chapter. The students will gain more knowledge of the various structures that make up a language. Language and Education: Have the students do a literature search on the internet on both the whole-language approach and the phonics approach. Have them write a two- to four-page paper on the differences between the approaches. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language: Discuss with the class the differences between nature and nurture and how these ideas are very controversial in the area of the development of language. Break the students into groups and have them randomly draw pieces of paper with the words biological or environmental on them. Each group must then develop a debate strategy for arguing either for a biological influence or an environmental influence on the development of language. The following week have the groups debate both sides as a presentation.

Learning a Second Language: Have students write a two- to four-page reflective paper on their experience with learning a second language. Students should include when they learned that language, their perceived difficulty with learning that language, and what they had to change (behaviorally) to help them learn the language better. Finally, students should be able to make connections between the research illustrated in the book on language over the life span and their personal experiences. LANGUAGE IN OTHER SPECIES Animal Language: Talk to students about Irene Pepperberg‘s work with Alex the gray parrot. Do they think that Alex has language? Why or why not? You may want to show the clip about Alex the gray parrot and language at https://youtu.be/WGiARReTwBw. Animal Language: This may be a good time to ask students what they think about animal language and communication. Ask students what they feel are potential barriers to studying animal cognition and language. Ask whether they think their dog is thinking. Communicating with other dogs? Engaging in reflective thinking/problem solving and reasoning? Do they think that we are currently underestimating other species‘ abilities in thinking and overestimating our own? It may be interesting to ask, ―Can Orangutans Mimic Human Speech?‖ See https://youtu.be/pyhgBhrcdeo. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Of the three theories of language development discussed in your text, which do you believe best explains how we learn language? Provide evidence from the text along with examples from your own life to support your position. Ask students to discuss how culture plays a role in language development. Ask students if males and females use language differently, and why. Ask students why gender differences are so fascinating to people. Have students explain why some people talk a lot and others are quieter. Most colleges and universities have a foreign language requirement for graduation. Is this a good idea? Why or why not? What are the advantages of bilingualism or multilingualism? In what ways might bilingualism or multilingualism increase thinking and creativity? Are there any disadvantages?

POLLING QUESTIONS Do you believe that animals are capable of learning and using language? Which approach to learning two languages do you believe would be most effective?

SUGGESTED MEDIA Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Language development, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/language-development/. The development and use of language as a means of social communication are examined in this video. BBC. (2010). Touched by genius: A neurological look at creativity. BBC, 2010, 50:00. Available at https://www.films.com/id/14014. The link between the brain and creativity is explored in this program. Boroditsky, L. (TEDWomen). (2017, November). How language shapes the way we think [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/lera_boroditsky_how_language_shapes_the_way_we_think?language =en. Brain involvement in babbling: Holowka, S., & Petitto, L. A. (2002). Left hemisphere cerebral specialization for babies while babbling. Science, 297(5586), 1515, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/297/5586/1515. Child Development Institute. https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/childdevelopment/language_development/#.XPXaeS2ZNTY. The various stages that individuals go through in language development are presented at this site. There is also a variety of links to other sites discussing language development in children. Critical periods of brain development. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0yGZnJqMXY. John Abbott discusses critical periods in language acquisition. Divergent thinking. http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/imdt.htm. Filmoption International. (2005). War of the sexes: Language. Filmoption International, 2005, 46:00. This program investigates gender differences in development and use of language. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2009). Why do we talk? The science of speech. , 53:00. The underlying structures—sociological, anatomical, developmental, intellectual—of language are investigated in this film.

Insight Media. (2003). The day we learned to think: The evolution of language and cognition, 50:00. The origin of language is investigated. Insight Media. (2006). Thinking and language, 30:00. This video is about the principles of language and a case study of a young person who did not acquire language.

Insight Media. (2008). Introduction to critical thinking, 25:00. Learning to think critically is the centerpiece of this video. Murray Gell-Mann. (TED Talk). Ancestor of Language. https://www.ted.com/talks/murray_gell_mann_on_the_ancestor_of_language. Gell-Mann discusses the relationships between human languages. Noam Chomsky. https://youtu.be/fOIM1_xOSro. Funny clip of Ali G interviewing Chomsky. Pagel, M. (TEDGlobal). (2011, August 3). Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQrUjlyHUg. Pinker, S. (2014, March 12). What our language habits reveal [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_pinker_on_language_and_thought/up-next. PBS. (1997). Secrets of the wild child, 50:00. https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/genie-secretwild-child/. This video examines the issue of critical periods in language acquisition and considers the case of Genie, a young girl who had been raised in isolation from her infancy. It looks at her language progress and considers the lack of development of grammar in her speech. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #4: Cognition and the immune system: Mind body interaction [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EpHgp3_3iyo&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx 64Z&index=5&t=0s. How thinking affects mind–body connections and the immune system is looked at. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #8: Language processing in the brain [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWJblv3Zyw&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx64Z&index=9&t=0s. Infant speech development is examined. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #23: Infant speech sound discrimination [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jaH3DAI2h4k&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82y x64Z&index=23&t=0s. Infant speech development is examined. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #24: Language predisposition [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nF6rJkqFw4c&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx 64Z&index=24&t=0s. Human sound recognition abilities are focused on in this segment. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #25: Human language: Signed and spoken [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_AAttEQj88&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx 64Z&index=25&t=0s. Language acquisition, formation, and the nature of language are examined in this segment.

The Mind. 2nd ed. (1999). Teaching module #27: Animal language [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g5hqENOfzfo&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82y x64Z&index=27&t=0s. Communication and linguistic abilities in animals are investigated. The Mind. 2nd ed. (1999). Teaching module #28: Language and culture [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMVuGBmHCBM&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6 l82yx64Z&index=28&t=0s. How language and culture interact is examined. The Mockingbird Don’t Sing. (2001). This is a movie based on the case of Genie, the tale of young girl locked in a room for over 12 years. Trailer available at https://www.traileraddict.com/mockingbird-dont-sing/trailer. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Deaf Babies’ Babbling. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3894007.stm. Humor in Language: To illustrate humorous headlines, show a ―Headlines‖ segment from the Tonight Show. ANIMALS AND LANGUAGE Noam Chomsky. https://chomsky.info/. Language development milestones. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/speech-and-language. Alex the Gray parrot and language. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGiARReTwBw&feature=related. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cheng, C., Cheung, S. F., Chio, J. H. M., & Chan, M. P. S. (2013). Cultural meaning of perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 152. Chomsky, N. (2000). New horizons in the study of language and the mind. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern day ―wild child.‖ New York: Academic Press. Erard, M. (2007). Um: Slips, stumbles, and verbal blunders, and what they mean. New York: Pantheon. Hoff, E. (2006). How social contexts support and shape language development. Developmental Review, 26, 55–88. Hofmann, W., & Friese, M. (2011). Control yourself! Scientific American Mind, 22(2), 42–47.

Holowka, S., & Petitto, L. A. (2002). Left hemisphere cerebral specialization for babies while babbling. Science, 297 (5586), 1515. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60–99. Kim, K. H. S., Relkin, N. R., Lee, K. M., & Hirsh, J. (1997). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature, 388, 171–174. Newport, E. L. (2003). Language development, critical periods. In L. Nadel (Ed), Encyclopedia of cognitive science (Vol. 2, pp. 733–740). London, England: Nature Group Press. Pepperberg, I. M. (2007). Gray parrots do not always ―parrot‖: The roles of imitation and phonological awareness in the creation of new labels from existing vocalizations. Language Sciences, 29, 1–13. Pepperberg, I. M. (2009). Alex and me: How a scientist and a parrot discovered a hidden world of animal intelligence and formed a deep bond. New York, NY: Harper. Petitto, L. A. (2000). On the biological foundations of human language. In H. Lane & K. Emmorey (Eds.), The signs of language revisited (pp. 447–471). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Petitto, L. A., & Holowka, S. (2002). Evaluating attributions of delay and confusion in young bilinguals: Special insights from infants acquiring a signed and a spoken language. Sign Language Studies, 3(1), 4–33. Pinker, S. (2005). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York, NY: HarperPerennial Modern Classics. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Turkewittz, G., & Devenny, D. A. (1993). Developmental time and timing. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Westly, E. (2011). The bilingual advantage. Scientific American Mind, 22(3), 38–41. Wexler, K. (2013). Lenneberg‘s dream: Learning, normal language development, and speciﬁc language impairment. Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of specific language impairment, 11. MODULE 23: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? LEARNING OBJECTIVES 23-1

What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence?

23-2 What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure? 23-3

How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized?

23-4

Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?

23-5 To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment and to what degree by heredity? The term intelligence can take on many different meanings. People from different countries and cultural backgrounds tend to have varied ideas about what intelligence is. If, for instance, you lived in a remote part of the Australian outback, the way you would differentiate between more intelligent and less intelligent people might have to do with successfully mastering hunting skills, whereas to someone living in the heart of urban Miami, intelligence might be exemplified by being ―streetwise‖ or by achieving success in business. That two such different sets of behavior can exemplify the same psychological concept has long posed a challenge to psychologists. For years, they have grappled with the issue of devising a general definition of intelligence. Ironically, lay people have fairly clear ideas of what intelligence is, although the nature of their ideas is related to their culture. Westerners view intelligence as the ability to establish categories and debate rationally. In contrast, people in Eastern and some African cultures view intelligence more in terms of understanding and relating to one another. The definition of intelligence that psychologists employ contains some of the same elements found in the layperson‘s conception. To psychologists, intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: ARE THERE DIFFERENT KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE? Early psychologists interested in intelligence assumed that there was a single, general factor for mental ability, which they called g, or the g-factor. This general intelligence factor was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence, and it was the g-factor that was presumably being measured on tests of intelligence. More recent theories explain intelligence in a different light. Rather than viewing intelligence as a unitary entity, some psychologists consider it to be a multidimensional concept that includes different types of intelligence. FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE Some psychologists suggest that there are two different kinds of intelligence: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, and solve problems. In contrast, crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education. It reflects our ability to call up information from long-term memory. In contrast to fluid intelligence, which

reflects a more general kind of intelligence, crystallized intelligence is more a reflection of the culture in which a person is raised. In late adulthood, people show declines in fluid intelligence but not crystallized intelligence. GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: THE MANY WAYS OF SHOWING INTELLIGENCE Psychologist Howard Gardner has taken an approach very different from traditional thinking about intelligence and has developed a theory of multiple intelligences that has become quite influential. Gardner argues that we have a minimum eight different forms of intelligence, each relatively independent of the others: musical, bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist (see Figure 1). In Gardner‘s view, each of the multiple intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain. Furthermore, he suggests that there may be even more types of intelligence, such as existential intelligence, which involves identifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human existence. Normally, any activity encompasses several kinds of intelligence working together. The concept of multiple intelligences has led to the development of intelligence tests that include questions in which more than one answer can be correct; these provide an opportunity for test-takers to demonstrate creative thinking. PRACTICAL AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: TOWARD A MORE INTELLIGENT VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE Practical intelligence is intelligence related to overall success in living. Noting that traditional tests were designed to relate to academic success, psychologist Robert Sternberg points to evidence showing that most traditional measures of intelligence do not relate especially well to career success. Whereas academic success is based on knowledge of a specific information base obtained from reading and listening, practical intelligence is learned mainly through observation of others‘ behavior. People who are high in practical intelligence are able to learn general norms and principles and apply them appropriately. In addition to practical intelligence, Sternberg argues there are two other basic, interrelated types of intelligence related to life success: analytical and creative. Analytical intelligence focuses on abstract but traditional types of problems measured on IQ tests, while creative intelligence involves the generation of novel ideas and products. Emotional intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the basis of empathy for others, self-awareness, and social skills. It encompasses the ability to get along well with others. Emotional intelligence clearly is an important and useful attribute, both in children and adults. Unfortunately, evidence indicates that emotional intelligence in school-aged children and adults declined during the COVID-19 pandemic as people lost opportunities to learn and use social skills during the prolonged lockdown. The notion of emotional intelligence reminds us that people demonstrate

intelligent behavior in many ways just as researchers view the nature of intelligence in multiple ways. ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE Intelligence tests are tests devised to quantify a person‘s level of intelligence. These tests have proved to be of great benefit in identifying students in need of special attention in school, diagnosing cognitive difficulties, and helping people make optimal educational and vocational choices. The idea that the size and shape of a person‘s head could be used as an objective measure of intelligence was put forward by Sir Francis Galton. Galton‘s motivation to identify people of high intelligence stemmed from personal prejudices. He sought to demonstrate the natural superiority of people of high social class by showing that intelligence is inherited. He hypothesized that head configuration, which is genetically determined, is related to brain size and therefore is related to intelligence. Galton‘s theories were proved wrong on virtually every count. However, Galton‘s work did have one desirable result: He was the first person to suggest that intelligence could be quantified and measured in an objective manner. BINET AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF IQ TESTS The first real intelligence tests were developed by the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857– 1911). His tests followed from a simple premise: If performance on certain tasks or test items improved with chronological, or physical, age, performance could be used to distinguish more intelligent people from less intelligent ones within a particular age group. On the basis of the Binet test, children were assigned a score relating to their mental age, the age for which a given level of performance is average or typical. Assigning a mental age to students provided an indication of their general level of performance. However, it did not allow for adequate comparisons among people of different chronological ages. A solution to the problem came in the form of the intelligence quotient (IQ), a measure of intelligence that takes into account an individual‘s mental and chronological (physical) age. Although the basic principles behind the calculation of an IQ score still hold, today IQ scores are determined in a different manner and are known as deviation IQ scores. First, the average test score for everyone of the same age who takes the test is determined, and that average score is assigned an IQ of 100. Then, with the aid of statistical techniques that calculate the differences (or ―deviations‖) between each score and the average, IQ scores are assigned (see Figure 4). CONTEMPORARY IQ TESTS: GAUGING INTELLIGENCE Remnants of Binet‘s original intelligence test are still with us, although the test has been revised in significant ways. Now in its fifth edition and called the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale, the test consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested. The IQ tests most frequently used in the United States were devised by psychologist David Wechsler and are known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–IV, or, more commonly, the WAIS-IV (for

adults) and a children‘s version, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–V, or WISC-V. Because the Stanford–Binet, WAIS-IV, and WISC-V all require individualized, one-on-one administration, they are relatively difficult to administer and score on a large-scale basis. Consequently, there are now a number of IQ tests that allow group administration. However, sacrifices are made in group testing that, in some cases, may outweigh the benefits. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY: TAKING THE MEASURE OF TESTS It is expected that psychological tests have reliability—that they measure consistently what they are trying to measure. We need to be sure that each time we administer the test, a test-taker will achieve the same results—assuming that nothing about the person has changed relevant to what is being measured. A test has validity when it actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Knowing that a test is reliable is no guarantee that it is also valid. Test validity and reliability are prerequisites for accurate assessment of intelligence. Assuming that a test is both valid and reliable, one further step is necessary in order to interpret the meaning of a particular test-taker‘s score: the establishment of norms. Norms are standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person‘s score on a test to the scores of others who have taken the same test. Tests for which norms have been developed are known as standardized tests. ADAPTIVE TESTING: USING COMPUTERS TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE Ensuring that tests are reliable, valid, and based on appropriate norms has become more critical with computer-administered testing. In computerized versions of certain tests, not only are test questions viewed and answered on a computer, but the test itself is individualized. With adaptive testing, every test-taker does not receive identical sets of test questions (see Figure 6). Because computerized adaptive testing pinpoints a test-taker‘s level of proficiency fairly quickly, the total time spent taking the exam is shorter than it is with a traditional exam. VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITY INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES Although sometimes thought of as a rare phenomenon, intellectual disabilities occur in 1% to 3% of the population. There is wide variation among those labeled intellectually disabled. Intellectual disability is formally defined as disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills, and originates before the age of 22. Most people with intellectual disabilities have relatively minor deficits and are classified as having mild intellectual disability (IQs of 55 to 69). Difficulties are more pronounced where greater degrees of intellectual deficit—moderate intellectual disability (IQs of 40–54), severe intellectual disability (IQs of 25–39), and profound intellectual disability (IQs below 25)—occur.

Identifying the Roots of Intellectual Disabilities: The most common preventable cause of intellectual disabilities is fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, produced by a mother‘s use of alcohol while pregnant. Another major cause of intellectual disabilities, Down syndrome, results when a person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46. In most cases, there is an extra copy of the 21st chromosome, which leads to problems in how the brain and body develop. In other cases of intellectual disabilities, an abnormality occurs in the structure of particular chromosomes. In some cases, intellectual disabilities begin after birth following a head injury, a stroke, or infections such as meningitis. However, the majority of cases of intellectual disabilities are classified as familial intellectual disability, in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of intellectual disability in the family. Integrating Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities: Important advances in the care and treatment of those with intellectual disabilities have been made since the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) was passed by Congress in the mid-1970s.The law increased the educational opportunities for individuals with intellectual disabilities, facilitating their integration into regular classrooms as much as possible—a process known as mainstreaming. Children with intellectual disabilities who are mainstreamed into regular classes typically attend special classes for at least part of the day. On the other hand, full inclusion is the total integration of all students, even those with the most severe educational disabilities, into regular classes and an avoidance of segregated special education classes. THE INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED The intellectually gifted differ from those with average intelligence as much as individuals with intellectual disability, although in a different manner. Accounting for 2–4% of the population, they have IQ scores greater than 130. The intellectually gifted are most often outgoing, welladjusted, healthy, popular people who are able to do most things better than the average person can. Although special programs attempting to overcome the deficits of people with intellectual disability abound, programs targeted at the intellectually gifted are rarer. Some approaches, however, have acknowledged that without some form of special attention, the gifted become bored and frustrated with the pace of their schooling and may never reach their potential. GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE: GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS Although IQ tests do not include questions that are very clearly dependent on prior knowledge, the background and experiences of test-takers do have the potential to affect results. In fact, the issue of devising fair intelligence tests that measure knowledge unrelated to culture, family background, and experience is central to explaining an important and persistent finding: Members of certain racial and cultural groups consistently score lower on traditional intelligence tests than do members of other groups. There is good reason to believe that some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white majority.

EXPLORING DIVERSITY: CAN WE DEVELOP A CULTURE-FAIR IQ TEST? In an attempt to produce a culture-fair IQ test, meaning one that does not discriminate against the members of any particular group and that is relatively independent of their background and experiences, psychologists have tried to devise test items that assess experiences common to all cultures or emphasize questions that do not require language usage. Test makers have found this difficult to do because past experiences, attitudes, and values almost always have an impact on respondents‘ answers. Tests may include even subtler forms of bias against minority groups. Producing a truly culture-fair test is difficult, but some cross-cultural test comparisons show relatively minor differences in scores regardless of racial and ethnic group membership. Still, creating a truly culture-fair IQ test has remained an elusive goal. IQ AND HERITABILITY: THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF GENETICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT The efforts of psychologists to produce culture-fair measures of intelligence relate to a lingering controversy over differences in intelligence between members of different racial and ethnic groups. In attempting to identify whether there are differences between such groups, psychologists have had to confront the broader issue of determining the relative contribution to intelligence of genetic factors (heredity) and experience (environment)—the nature-versusnurture issue that is one of the basic issues of psychology. Richard Herrnstein, a psychologist, and Charles Murray, a sociologist, argued in their book The Bell Curve that an analysis of IQ differences between whites and blacks demonstrated that although environmental factors played a role, there were also basic genetic differences between the two races. This conclusion was later refuted. Drawing comparisons between races on any dimension, including IQ scores, is an imprecise, potentially misleading, and often fruitless venture. At worst, it may perpetuate stereotypes and discrimination. By far, the greatest discrepancies in IQ scores occur when comparing individuals, not when comparing mean IQ scores of different groups. KEY TERMS crystallized intelligence The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education, reflecting the facts that we have learned. culture-fair IQ test A test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group. emotional intelligence The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions. familial intellectual disability Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is a history of intellectual disability among family members.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy. fluid intelligence Intelligence that reflects the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve problems, and find patterns. g or g-factor The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence. heritability The degree to which a characteristic is related to inherited genetic factors. intelligence The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges. intelligence quotient (IQ) A score that takes into account an individual‘s mental and chronological ages. intelligence tests Tests devised to quantify a person‘s level of intelligence. intellectual disability A disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. intellectually gifted The 2–4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130. mental age The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical. norms Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person‘s score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test. practical intelligence According to Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living. reliability The consistency of a test in measuring what it is trying to measure. theory of multiple intelligences Gardner‘s intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence. validity The degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure. LECTURE IDEAS WHAT MAKES A GOOD INTELLIGENCE TEST? What makes a good intelligence test? Originally, Alfred Binet developed the intelligence test to predict future academic success. The value of an intelligence test to predict achievement depends on several important factors: validity, reliability, standardization, objectivity, and practicality. Validity refers to the degree to which a test actually measures what it is intended to measure. A valid intelligence test would measure intelligence, not memory, speed, guessing ability, or

vocabulary. Reliability is the degree to which a person‘s score at one time is the same at a different time. A reliable intelligence test would yield consistent scores from one time to the next. Standardization is the process of obtaining a norm, or sample of scores representative of the population, and is necessary in interpreting a particular subject‘s score. For example, if a friend of yours tells you that they received a score of 179 on a test, how would you know whether this was a good score? It would help if you knew that the test contained a possible 200 points, the mean score was 125, and the range for the class was 75–190. Psychologists standardize tests so that they can interpret individual test results. The first step is to define the population serving as the standardization group. For example, we might wish to know how an individual compared to other adult Americans, and so we would standardize the test on the American adult population. Or a population might include all high school seniors in Canada. After the population is identified, we need to obtain a norm, or representative sample, that will allow us to describe what the entire population is like. An intelligence test should be objective. Objectivity ensures that a test‘s results are not affected by the personal feelings and biases of the examiner. Ideally, a test should be constructed so that any qualified person can administer and score it and obtain the same results as any other scorer. An intelligence test should also be practical. Practicality provides that a test can be administered easily and scored in a reasonable amount of time. Chances are good that psychologists would not be interested in a new test requiring five people to administer and 16 hr to complete. Tests that are valid, reliable, standardized, objective, and practical meet the general requirements for use. Developing intelligence tests that meet all of these requirements is a difficult task. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. ALFRED BINET‘S BIOGRAPHY Alfred Binet was born in 1857 in Nice, France. His parents divorced when he was young, and he was raised by his mother. He entered college with the goal of getting a medical degree but dropped out when he became interested in psychology. He never completed a degree but continued to read and study psychological topics. In 1883, Binet accepted a position at a clinic at Salpêtrière Hospital, where he worked with Jean Charcot, who was studying hypnosis at the time. In 1890, he resigned this position and spent time studying the cognitive abilities of his young daughters. Binet began working at the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne and was appointed director there in 1894. He studied memory, thinking, hypnosis, handwriting, and perception. He also served as editor of the French psychological journal L'Année Psychologique.

In 1904, he began work on developing a test to identify students who needed special education because of their low level of intellectual functioning. Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon published the first intelligence scale in 1905. During the next several years, Binet spent much of his time testing children and revising the intelligence test, first in 1908 and again in 1911, the year of his death. Binet‘s early work on intelligence testing has stimulated an enormous amount of research in this area of psychology. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. ROBERT STERNBERG‘S BIOGRAPHY Robert J. Sternberg was born in December 1949 in Newark, New Jersey. He attended Yale University, where he decided to major in psychology (even after earning a C in his introductory psychology course). After graduating (with high honors in psychology) in 1972, he entered Stanford University, earning his PhD in psychology in 1975. Sternberg has been extremely influential in psychology, especially in the cognitive area of intelligence and the emotional area of love. The American Psychological Association awarded him a Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology in 1981. Since then, he has received many honors in the discipline. Sternberg recalls that he has had an interest in intelligence since he was in elementary school, where he experienced great test anxiety whenever he took intelligence tests. Throughout his career, he has conducted research in intelligence and thinking. He published an award-winning book, Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, in 1987, and a collection of practical advice called Successful Intelligence in 1996. In addition to his work on intelligence, Sternberg has developed a theory of love, as outlined in his 1988 book, The Triangle of Love. He feels that love is an important emotion that can be studied scientifically. He also published another book, Love Is a Story: A New Theory of Relationships (1998, Oxford University Press). Robert Sternberg is currently professor of psychology at Yale University, where he has been since 1975. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. GARDNER‘S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY Use the following descriptions of the eight forms of intelligence proposed by Gardner. In-class demonstrations can be conducted of some or all, using the guidelines below. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

Description: Musical intelligence refers to sensitivity to music, sounds, tonal patterns, and the human voice. People who are high in this type of intelligence are able to easily beat out rhythms, enjoy singing and playing musical instruments, and listen to music while studying or engaged in other activities. They experience a strong connection between music and their emotions. Examples: Play these songs or, if no music source is available, hum them or others equally familiar: ―Yankee Doodle‖ Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony (the four opening notes) ―On the Sunny Side of the Street‖ ―When You‘re Smiling‖ Clair de Lune ―Over the Rainbow‖ ―Malagueña‖ BODILY KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE Description: The ability to think in movements and to use the body in skilled and complicated ways for self-expression, and to achieve goals. People who have high levels of this type of intelligence have a sense of timing and coordination for moving their whole bodies and for using their hands to manipulate objects. Examples: Have students follow a set of directions, as in the game Simon Says, in which they have to carry out complex physical activities. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE Description: To think of cause and effect connections and to understand relationships among actions, objects or ideas. People with high levels of this type of intelligence are able to perform calculations easily and can solve problems with logic. They prefer to see things categorized in a logical sense of order. This intelligence includes sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships, statements and propositions, functions, and other abstractions. Activity: Give students the following brain teasers (all are true or false): 

If a tree branch can hold three people and John weighs twice as much as Adam, and Rachel weighs half as much as Adam, then Rachel, John, and Adam can all sit together on the tree branch safely. (True)



There are seven letters between K and R in the alphabet. (False)



The number 25 is the next logical number in the following sequence of numbers: 5, 7, 10, 14, 19. (True)



The product of 8 × 3 × 3 × 2 is less than the product of 18 × 16. (True)



If you multiply any two of the following numbers together, your result will be odd: 9, 11, 3, 7, 17. (True)



The digits 08232569 are the same as 96523208 read backward. (False)



If the word SAW is written above the word COW and the word TOO is written above SAW, then the word TOW is formed diagonally. (False)



If read backwards, the phrase “now live” answers the question: “In the battle between good and evil, who was victorious?” (True)



The following sentence includes all six vowels, appearing in reverse alphabetical order: “Why run from fire ants?” (True)



If all Boogles are Battuns, and some Battuns are Trandles, all Trandles must be Boogles. (False)



By taking the second letter of each word from the following sentence, you can spell the word thinking: “At the time, interesting Ukrainians visited Andy’s igloo.” (True)



Walter is taller than Scott, and Scott’s little brother is taller than Roger. Since Walter is not the tallest one of the four, then Scott’s little brother must be the tallest. (True)



Five horses, two people, three dogs, and seven chickens have a total of 52 legs. (False)



If boffing is understood to mean “shot,” then the following sentence is correct: “The young freshman from Kentucky took a desperate boffing, but he was unable to boffing over the star defender.” (False)



The sum of all numbers from 8 to 18 is an even number. (False)



Walter’s grandmother’s daughter could be Walter’s son’s grandmother. (True)



If the second day of the month is a Friday, then the 12th day of the month is a Tuesday. (False)



By removing seven letters from the word strengthen, the word rent can be formed. (False)



If Borbs are better than Fribs, and Luns are worse than Jirts, Luns must be better than Fribs if Luns are better than Borbs. (True)

LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE Description: To think in words and to use language to express and understand complex meanings. People who are high on linguistic intelligence are sensitive to the meaning of words as well as to their sounds, rhythms, and inflections. They listen carefully and enjoy speaking in public, reading, spelling correctly, and writing. Their memory is good for names and dates, and they have a strong vocabulary. Activity: Any type of word-based activity would work as a test of linguistic intelligence. Find a set of

difficult words and ask students to define them or play an in-class version of a game such as Hangman. SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE Description: To think in pictures and to perceive the visual world accurately. People with high levels of spatial intelligence are able to think in three dimensions and to transform their perceptions and recreate aspects of their visual experience using their imagination. They are able to work with objects. They are able to visualize an image or idea and to create mental pictures. Activity: Bring two simple jigsaw puzzles to class and ask for four volunteers to compete against each other to see who can complete a puzzle first. Have students try the mental rotation task found in Figure 1 of Module 21. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE Description: To think about and understand another person. High levels of this form of intelligence are associated with having empathy and being able to recognize distinctions among people and to appreciate their perspectives with sensitivity to their motives, moods, and intentions. People with high levels of interpersonal intelligence can interact effectively with family, friends, and coworkers. Activity: Here are examples of questions that can be used to tap interpersonal intelligence. The ―+‖ indicates that this answer would be considered more ―intelligent.‖ After administering the test, ask students to discuss why these represent interpersonal intelligence. 1. Your friends want to go out to the movies, but you would prefer to go bowling. What should you do? a) b) c) d)

Insist on having things your way. See if you can find other friends to go out with. Rip up the newspaper with the movie times. Go to the movies with them. (+)

2. The sister of your best friend has just come to visit. You are very busy, but you notice that there is something that seems to be concerning her. What is the right thing to do? a) b) c) d)

Take time to speak with her. (+) Tell her to call you in 2 weeks. Ask your friend to help her. Make a joke so she will smile.

3. You are applying for a job that you really want and are excited to have been granted an interview. What is the right way to handle the introduction to the interviewer, a middle-aged man wearing a suit? a) b) c) d)

Grasp his hand hard, and call him by his first name. Avoid looking at him so you do not appear too confident. Look him in the eye and shake his hand if he offers it. (+) Walk past him and sit down as quickly as possible.

4. While being served at a restaurant with a friend you want to impress, the server spills a glass of wine, spoiling your favorite pair of pants. What is the right way to handle this? a) b) c) d)

Apologize to the server because it was probably your fault anyway. Stand up and scream, “How could you be so careless?” Ask for a stain remover to try to get it out as quickly as possible. (+) Pretend that you do not care because you will look bad to your friend.

5. You are speaking to another student, and without realizing where that student is from, you make an unpleasant observation about people from her hometown. How would you know if you said the wrong thing and hurt her feelings? a) There is no way you would know, and since it was an honest mistake, why should you worry? b) Later on, you realize that what you said was wrong but figure that she probably did not mind. c) Right after you made the remark, you see that she looks a bit annoyed and sad by the expression in her eyes. (+) d) If she says nothing, then it probably means that she did not hear your remark at all, and so you are probably okay. 6. A group that you have joined is holding elections for officers. You are in charge of the elections committee, and it is your job to tell people they lost. What is the best way to handle telling them bad news? a) Write an impersonal email so that they will not feel that they lost because they were disliked. b) Ask someone else to write the email so that you do not have to communicate to them directly. c) Do not write or tell them at all because they will probably figure they lost when the winners are announced. d) Ask to meet with them so that you can tell them in person rather than through an email or phone call. (+)

INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE Description: To think about and understand one‘s self. Having high levels of intrapersonal intelligence means that a person is aware of strengths and weaknesses, and is able to plan effectively to achieve

personal goals. This ability involves reflecting on and monitoring one‘s thoughts and feelings and regulating them effectively. Activity: Start an activity such as providing a mathematical problem to solve. For example, ask the question, ―How much tea is there in China?‖ Then start going through these calculations: So how much tea is in China? We assume the following:    

There are about 1.2 billion people in China. Each person drinks an average of two cups of tea per day. About 4 g of tea leaves (after drying and processing) make one cup of tea. There may be 3 or 4 months of leaves stockpiled at any one time.

With these (debatable) assumptions, the amount of tea in China is 1.2 billion people × 2 cups per person per day × 4 g of tea leaves per cup × 100 days, which equals about 1 billion kilograms (or 1 million tons) of tea leaves in China. Have students copy down what you are saying. But stop your explanation just before you reach the calculation ―1.2 billion people × 2 cups . . . .‖ Pretend that you are having trouble with your microphone or other presentation device and that you cannot read any further. Tell them that this problem is not working, and you will have to start a new one. You want them to tear out the piece of paper they were using, crumple it up, and start all over. Wait 5 s. Then tell them that this was part of the test—to see how they would react! Now ask them these questions: 1. How mad were you just now when the screen went blank?

Show this scale: 1 = Not mad at all 2 = Somewhat mad 3 = Mad 4 = Very mad 2. What did you think when I told you that you would have to start over?

Show this scale: 1 = I couldn’t figure out what went wrong, but I wasn’t mad 2 = I was pretty annoyed 3 = I was furious because I thought all my work had gone to waste Have them compare their reactions on this test to the extent to which they crumpled and perhaps threw the ball of paper. If they said they were mad and their paper was in fact crumpled and thrown, then the chances are that they ―understood‖ their own feelings! NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE

Description: To understand the natural world, including plants, animals, and scientific studies. A person with high levels of this intelligence is able to recognize and classify individuals, species, and ecological relationships. This intelligence also focuses on the ability to recognize natural and human-made objects in the environment. Activity: Ask the following science trivia questions. Afterward, have students raise their hands to see who got the most correct. An (X) indicates the correct answer. The galaxy we live in is called the Milky Way. It is shaped approximately like ______. a) b) c) d)

a round ball a doughnut a pretzel a flat spiral (X)

Unlike most other fish, sharks have no ______. a) b) c) d)

bones (X) teeth gills liver

The metal mercury ______. a) b) c) d)

is the hardest known metal is a liquid at room temperature (X) is highly radioactive is extensively used in aircraft construction

If you were to take a lump of coal and squeeze for a long time at very high temperatures, you would end up with ______. a) b) c) d)

graphite volcanic glass, also known as obsidian a smaller lump of coal a diamond (X)

It is now believed that dinosaurs became extinct because of _______. a) b) c) d)

viral diseases hunting by early humans a worldwide period of climatic cooling a meteorite impact (X)

Kinetic energy is ______. a) b) c) d)

life energy, possessed only by living organisms only important at subatomic distances energy of movement (X) a rare form of energy sometimes observed in deep space

Charles Darwin began developing his theory of evolution while voyaging on a ship named ______. a) b) c) d)

the Enterprise the Beagle (X) the Santa Maria the Endeavour

An android is any robot that ______. a) b) c) d)

has more than one basic function has the ability to make decisions and formulate plans is built by other robots looks and acts like a human (X)

What is special about Sirius, the Dog Star? a) b) c) d)

It is the only star first observed by Albert Einstein. It is the brightest star in the sky. (X) It always lies directly above the North Pole. It emits staccato barking sounds that radio telescopes can detect.

The platypus and the echidna are the only mammals that ______. a) b) c) d)

lay eggs (X) have green blood live in Antarctica eat eucalyptus leaves

Students could visit the site www.triviapark.com and check out the answers for the following questions: Dry ice is ______. a) b) c) d)

frozen carbon dioxide (X) ordinary ice from which all moisture has been chemically removed a term applied to industrial diamonds a movie prop used to simulate ice at room temperature

The exploration of caves is called ______. a) b) c) d)

Plutonation Spelunking (X) Karsting undermining

The main defensive weapon of the dinosaur called Iguanodon was probably ______. a) b) c) d)

its teeth its horns its tail its thumbs (X)

Newton‘s third law of motion can be roughly stated as ______. a) b) c) d)

the bigger they are, the harder they fall what goes up must come down if you shove me, I’ll shove you back (X) nature abhors a vacuum

Sir Isaac Newton, as a boy, began his serious academic studies after ______. a) b) c) d)

meeting Galileo Galilei beating up a bully (X) having a vision falling out of a tree

The first human-made object to move faster than the speed of sound, or ―break the sound barrier,‖ was ______. a) b) c) d)

a bullet an airplane a whip (X) a discus

After completing these activities, have students tally their scores. They can then compare their scores to their self-ratings on Handout 1: Self-Rating of Multiple Intelligences. REALITY SHOW GAME FORMAT FOR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES A briefer version of the above lecture idea can be adapted for a reality show game format. Just for fun, I called this Battle of the Sexes and pitted a male against a female student. I asked the class to make predictions about who would win each of the eight tasks, using the following article as a basis: Furnham, A., Li-Ping Tan, Lester, D., O‘Connor, R., & Montgomery, R. (2002). Sex and national differences in the perception of oneself and famous people. European Psychologist, 7, 245–255. Females should perform higher on linguistic, musical, bodily, interpersonal, and intrapersonal tasks, according to this article. These were the eight tasks. The contestants flipped a coin to see who would go first on the first task, and for all subsequent tasks, the first person to choose a task alternated between male and female. The first person completing the task had the chance to pick ―A‖ or ―B.‖ Judges from the class were selected to rate the winner on some of the tasks, encouraging audience participation from males and females to root for their representative. Linguistic: A. Spell Freud. B. Spell trichotillomania.

Logical-mathematical: A. Three kids from (name a local town) went for a walk. About a mile into the walk, they came to a deep, wide river. There was no bridge. They did not have a boat or raft, or any materials to make one. None of them could swim. How did they get across? (Answer: They walked across on a tree branch.) B. A man and his son were on a tour of a nuclear power plant. In the control room, the boy asked whether he could see the controls for the reactor core. The head physicist said yes and explained how the controls worked. After the boy left, the head physicist turned to an assistant and said, "That was my son." How could that be? (Answer: The physicist was a woman.) Musical: A. Sing the school ―fight‖ song (or some other locally popular song). B. Who is the top earning dead celebrity? (Answer: Elvis Presley) Bodily kinesthetic: Each contestant must dance to one of the following songs: A. ―Get Down Tonight‖ by KC and the Sunshine Band B. ―Loosen Up My Buttons‖ by The Pussycat Dolls (or other current top-40 song) The judges determine who the winner is. Interpersonal: A. Your roommate has just suffered a breakup. How do you comfort them? B. You have run out of cash. How would you get your folks to stock up your account? The judges determine who the winner is. Intrapersonal: A. How do you get yourself to relax when you are stressed? B. What do you think is your greatest strength? The audience judges the winner. Naturalist: A. Which brain wave is from a person who is asleep?

Answer: The top one

B. What is this?

Answer: The Milky Way EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Use this brief instructive self-report rating scale in class to show students how emotional intelligence might be measured (more complete online versions can be found, such as at http://www.queendom.com/cgi-bin/tests/transfer.cgi). The +s and −s indicate whether they are positive or negative indications of emotional intelligence. + 1. I am aware of even subtle feelings as I have them. + 2. I find myself using my feelings to help me make decisions in my life. − 3. Bad moods overwhelm me. − 4. When I‘m angry, I blow my top or fume in silence. + 5. I can delay gratification in pursuit of my goals instead of getting carried away by impulses. − 6. When I‘m anxious about a challenge, such as a test or public talk, I find it difficult to prepare well. + 7. Instead of giving up in the face of setbacks or disappointments, I stay hopeful and optimistic. + 8. People don‘t have to tell me what they feel—I can sense it. + 9. My keen sense of others‘ feelings makes me compassionate about their plight. − 10. I have troubling handling conflict and emotional upsets in relationships. + 11. I can sense the pulse of a group or a relationship and state unspoken feelings. + 12. I can soothe or contain distressing feelings so they don‘t keep me from doing things I need to do. BACKGROUND ON INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY Using the resources on the website of the Administration on Developmental Disabilities (http://www.acl.gov/programs/aidd/index.aspx), summarize current concerns, research findings, and issues. Information can also be found at the National Organization on Disability site: http://www.nod.org/.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Intelligence: In an essay, have students compare and contrast the difference between ―book smart‖ and ―people smart‖ and include what kinds of intelligence each shows. Discuss their ideas in class. Intelligence Testing: You may want to talk with students about how they feel about standardized testing in general, as well as how they feel about taking portions of IQ tests. This is also a good time to remind them that regardless of the theories, IQ tests should really only be used to do what they were designed for, which is to predict school performance. GARDNER‘S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY Have students test their abilities on Garner‘s forms of multiple intelligence, adopting the lecture ideas above as follows. (Instead of presenting the lecture ideas above, have students complete the tasks as an assignment or several short assignments—along with Handout 8: Which Type of Intelligence Is It?) Note: These are not validated tests. They would not be used for any actual diagnosis but are opportunities for students to get a hands-on sense of the complexity of intelligence as defined by Gardner. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE Have students work on this in pairs (or a student can work with a roommate). One student can hum the tunes and the other can guess them. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE Choose one of the other seven forms of intelligence. Have the student complete the test for that one and then have the student compare their score on that test with self-rated intelligence on that scale on Handout 6: Self-Rating of Multiple Intelligences. The closer the score is to a high score on that scale, the greater the student‘s self-knowledge and hence intrapersonal intelligence. Have students watch Rain Man (1988), then write a three-paragraph paper on the movie, savants, and if they think Gardner is right using that as evidence for his theory. Ask students what they think about multiple intelligences. Do they think that schools should be gearing curriculum based to the few rather than the many? Should colleges start on this path? Have them write a two-paragraph essay, with the first paragraph being ―pro‖ on multiple intelligences curriculums and the second being ―con‖ on the issue. The concept of reaction range describes how biology and environment work together to produce a person‘s overall level of intelligence. Does the concept of reaction range really apply to a broad range of ability or behavior? Ask students to think about a wide range of capabilities and ask whether the concept would apply. Ask them to describe their thoughts.

Ask students to think about multiple intelligences. Which two areas do they believe are their strengths and weaknesses? Ask them to defend their answer. Ask students how they feel about the concept of multiple intelligences. You may want to use the bodily kinetic in your discussion, as that is one of the most controversial aspects of the theory. Yes, it involves spatial cognition, but is that intelligence? EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Have students complete Handout 7: Emotional Intelligence. Emotionally Intelligent! Have students complete a self-assessment of their own emotional intelligence. Upon getting their results, have students identify what emotional intelligence is and its relationship to academic achievement and/or work productivity. GOVERNMENTAL POLICIES TOWARD PEOPLE WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY Have students conduct an online research project on policies of the U.S. government toward people with intellectual disability. Ask them to address recent trends in programs and policies. CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY Have students complete Handout 9: Causes of Intellectual Disability, in which they are asked to summarize causes of and prevention of intellectual disability. Distribution in IQ Scores: You may want to show an overhead of the distribution and discuss how 95% fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. You have 2.5% of the population in the two tails: the R tail being ―gifted‖ and the L tail being ―mentally retarded.‖ Remind students that any significant developmental delay will result in testing at a lower IQ because the individual is being compared to others of the same age. You also may want to stress that because of the distribution, schools are only looking for the top 2.5% and bottom 2.5%, as 95% are within ―normal‖ range. Thus, there is no need to give a long, full IQ test to most folks, as they will be within ―normal‖ range. They only need to give full tests to kids who might fall out of the two standard deviations. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS VALIDITY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE What happened the last time you did not ―get your way‖ in dealing with a friend? How did you handle it? Do you agree that the ability to delay gratification is an important part of emotional intelligence? Why or why not?

How do you think emotional intelligence compares to academic intelligence in importance in life success? Why? ATTITUDES TOWARD PEOPLE WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY What experiences have you had with people who have intellectual disability? Do you believe that children with intellectual disability should be mainstreamed, or do you support the notion of full inclusion? Why?* What are the challenges in daily life faced by people with intellectual disability? How do social attitudes toward intellectual disability affect the daily lives of people with intellectual disability? * The terms mainstreaming and inclusion are often used interchangeably in education today. This inconsistency in usage has led to some confusion about what educators mean when they talk about inclusion or full inclusion. Mainstreaming is the practice of educating the disabled student in the general education classroom. Inclusion is a newer term used to describe the placement of students in regular classes for all, or nearly all, of the school day; mainstreaming is often associated with sending a student from a special education class to a regular class for specified periods. Although in some inclusion models students are mainstreamed only part of the day, students in full inclusion programs remain in the general classroom for the entire day. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Multiple Intelligences Of Gardner‘s multiple intelligences, which do you believe is your strongest? Your weakest? Polling Question: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Of Sternberg‘s three intelligences, which do you believe is your strongest? Your weakest? Polling Question: Intellectual Disabilities Did you attend a high school that mainstreamed or fully included students with intellectual disabilities? SUGGESTED MEDIA Association for Psychological Science: http://psych.hanover.edu/APS/teaching.html. This site has many teacher resources to link students to opportunities to participate in research or activities across the various subfields in the discipline. Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences. (2007). Battle of the brains: The case for multiple intelligences,, 50:00. The importance of multiple intelligence is discussed in this film.

The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #4: Intelligence and culture[ Video File]. Video posted to: https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/intelligence-and-culture/. Cultural bias testing is the focus of this segment. Annenberg/CPB Collection (2001). Discovering psychology: Testing and intelligence, 30:00. This video investigates psychological assessment including testing for intelligence. Developmental disabilities: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/developmentaldisabilities/index.html. This Centers for Disease Control and Prevention site is an excellent website with information and links. Is rain man syndrome real? https://www.verywellhealth.com/the-rain-mans-disorder-savant-syndrome-2860421. Insight Media. (2001). Intelligence and creativity, 30:00. Multiple intelligences and the history of intelligence testing are described in this film. Intelligence theory. http://www.intelltheory.com/. The site includes biographical profiles of people who have influenced the development of intelligence theory and testing. MENSA: www.mensa.org. This website provides tests and information on intellectually gifted adults. Multiple intelligences. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEFpaY3GI-I&feature=related. Howard Gardner talks about multiple intelligences in this short clip. Multiple intelligences research.: http://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-research. National Association for Gifted Children. http://www.nagc.org/. Nonverbal IQ test. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sThCoWH03HU&feature=related. Personality research http://www.personalityresearch.org/intelligence.html. A great overview of all the theories. Insight Media. (2006). The search for intelligence: Intelligence, 30:00. Theories of intelligence and its relationship to nature and nurture are discussed. POPULAR MOVIES: PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE A number of movies include scenes relevant to the issues raised in this module. In particular, look for scenes in which characters show ―practical‖ versus ―academic‖ intelligence as in Forrest Gump (1994), emotional intelligence in which characters show sensitivity to other people‘s feelings or the ability to delay gratification, or the opposite of emotional intelligence where characters are unsuccessful due to their lack of emotional intelligence.

POPULAR MOVIE: INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY As indicated above, show a scene from Forrest Gump, in which the main character, although intellectually disabled, shows a great deal of practical and emotional intelligence. Here is one suggestion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFvASiMTDz0. ADDITIONAL READINGS Change in terminology: ―Mental retardation‖ to ―intellectual disability.‖ https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2013/08/01/2013-18552/change-interminology-mental-retardation-to-intellectual-disability. Duncan, J., Rüdiger, J. S., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H., Ahmed, A., Newell, F. N., & Emslie, H. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 289, 457–460. Fletcher, R. B. (2011). Intelligence and intelligence testing. London: Routledge. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books. Garlick, D. (2003). Integrating brain science research with intelligence research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 185–189. Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Random House Digital, Inc. Jensen, A. R. (1999). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Psychology, 10(23). McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560–1563. Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101. Simonton, D. (2012). The science of genius. Scientific American Mind, 23(5), 34–41. Spearman, C. (1904). ―General intelligence,‖ objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201–293. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.) (1999). Handbook of creativity. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J., & Wagner, R. K. (1993). The geocentric view of intelligence and job performance is wrong. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 1–4.

Sternberg, R. J. (1986). The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence. New York, NY: Penguin. Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Szymanski, T., & Shaff, T. (2013). Teacher perspectives regarding gifted diverse students. Gifted Children, 6(1), 1. http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=giftedchildren. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect: PRACTICE QUIZZES    

Pre-Test Reading Assignment quizzes (one per module) Terminology Quiz Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS    

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Convergent and Divergent Thinking Kuhl’s Theory Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

VIDEOS   

Problem-Solving in Animals Savant Syndrome Genes and Intelligence

INTERACTIVITIES   

Heuristics Word Decoder Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES 

Language Acquisition

MILESTONES 

Emergence of Language, Esme, 16–20 months

NEWSFLASH 

The Dark History of IQ Tests



Celebrating International Day of Persons with Disabilities by Pushing for More Accurate Representation in Media

COURSE-WIDE CONTENT        

Psychology Relevancy Modules Psychology NewsFlash Psychology at Work Videos Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide Psychology Videos Scientific Reasoning Exercises Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES For each of the following concepts, think of a prototype: Then ask a friend to give you his or her prototype for that concept. Concept

Your Prototype

Compare With Friend‘s

Active sports

Spectator sports

Junk food

Female music stars

Male music stars

Horror movies Kids‘ movies

Fast cars

Cheap cars

Clothing stores

Count how many of your prototypes match those of your friend: __________ What does this tell you about prototypes?

HANDOUT 2: PROBLEM-SOLVING TERMS Define each term related to problem solving and cognition in your own words, and provide an example from your everyday life that fits the term. 1. Arrangement problem

2. Functional fixedness (mental set)

3. Availability heuristic

4. Algorithm

5. Means-end analysis

HANDOUT 3: SOLVE THIS PROBLEM Choose from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in problem solving that were discussed in the chapter, describe how you would go about solving this problem. 1. The Smiths‘ daycare provider is closing in 4 weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith work full time during the day and need childcare for their child. They only have a short period of time to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider. 2. Felipe is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida. He lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it would be more cost effective to drive or to fly to Florida. 3. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in 6 weeks, and she has not yet started to work on it. She is feeling very overwhelmed because she works a full-time job during the day and has three children at home. She knows she should get started soon but is not sure where to begin. 4. Mr. and Mrs. Luong‘ parents are getting older and can no longer live on their own in a big, three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and either move to a smaller house, a retirement community, or an assisted-living community. Mr. and Mrs. Luong said they would help their parents find the appropriate place to live, but they are not sure where to begin. 5. Sally found out through a friend that her partner has been cheating on her. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the situation.

HANDOUT 4: MAKE YOUR OWN INVENTION Think of a new idea of an invention that you want to create. How did this invention come about? What will it be used for? Be as specific as possible, and include drawings or mappings of your new invention. Finally, evaluate your invention or a classmate‘s invention for creativity. What criteria will you use?

HANDOUT 5: ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE IN EVERYDAY LIFE Over the next day, for each of the following language elements, provide examples from observing others. Element

Example

Intonation

Dialect

Hand gestures

Facial expression

Odd use of language

Freudian slip

Ambiguity

Unintended humorous meaning

What do these examples tell you about language?

HANDOUT 6: SELF-RATING OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence

___ I enjoy telling stories and jokes. ___ I have a good memory for trivia. ___ I enjoy word games (e.g., Scrabble and puzzles). ___ I read books just for fun. ___ I am a good speller (most of the time). ___ In an argument, I tend to use put-downs or sarcasm.

___ I really enjoy my math class. ___ I like logical math puzzles or brain teasers. ___ I find solving math problems to be fun. ___ If I have to memorize something I tend to place events in a logical order. ___ I like to find out how things work. ___ I enjoy computer and any math games.

___ I like talking and writing about my ideas. ___ If I have to memorize something I create a rhyme or saying to help me remember. ___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I read the instruction book first. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to do the writing and library research.

___ I love playing chess, checkers, or Monopoly. ___ In an argument, I try to find a fair and logical solution. ___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I look at the pieces and try to figure out how it works. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to create the charts and graphs.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence

___ I prefer a map to written directions. ___ I daydream a lot. ___ I enjoy hobbies such as photography. ___ I like to draw and create. ___ If I have to memorize something, I draw a diagram to help me remember.

___ My favorite class is gym because I like sports. ___ I enjoy activities such as woodworking, sewing, and building models. ___ When looking at things, I like touching them.

___ I like to doodle on paper whenever I can. ___ In a magazine, I prefer looking at the pictures rather than reading the text. ___ In an argument, I try to keep my distance, keep silent or visualize some solution.

___ I have trouble sitting still for any length of time. ___ I use a lot of body movements when talking. ___ If I have to memorize something, I write it out a number of times until I know it. ___ I tend to tap my fingers or play with my pencil during class.

___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I tend to study the diagram of how it works. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to draw all the pictures.

___ In an argument, I tend to strike out and hit or run away.

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelligence

___ I enjoy listening to CDs and the radio. ___ I tend to hum to myself when working. ___ I like to sing. ___ I play a musical instrument quite well. ___ I like to have music playing when doing homework or studying. ___ If I have to memorize something I try to create a rhyme about the event. ___ In an argument, I tend to shout or punch or move in some sort of rhythm.

___ I get along well with others. ___ I like to belong to clubs and organizations. ___ I have several very close friends. ___ I like helping teach other students. ___ I like working with others in groups. ___ Friends ask my advice because I seem to be a natural leader. ___ If I have to memorize something, I ask someone to quiz me to see if I know it. ___ In an argument, I tend ask a friend or some person in authority for help. ___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I try to find someone who can help me. ___ For a group presentation, I like to help organize the group‘s efforts.

___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I tend to play with the pieces to try to fit them together. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to move the props around, hold things up or build a model.

___ I can remember the melodies of many songs. ___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I tend to tap my fingers to a beat while I figure it out. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to put new words to a popular tune or use music.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Naturalist Intelligence

___ I like to work alone without anyone bothering me. ___ I like to keep a diary. ___ I like myself (most of the time). ___ I don‘t like crowds.

___ I am keenly aware of my surroundings and of what goes on around me. ___ I love to go walking in the woods and looking at the trees and flowers. ___ I enjoy gardening.

___ I know what I am good at and what I am weak at.

___ I like to collect things (e.g., rocks, sports cards, stamps).

___ I find that I am strong-willed, independent, and don‘t follow the crowd. ___ If I have to memorize something, I tend to close my eyes and feel the situation. ___ In an argument, I will usually walk away until I calm down. ___ If something breaks and won‘t work, I wonder if it‘s worth fixing up. ___ For a group presentation, I like to contribute something that is uniquely mine, often based on how I feel.

___ As an adult, I think I would like to get away from the city and enjoy nature. ___ If I have to memorize something, I tend to organize it into categories. ___ I enjoy learning the names of living things in our environment, such as flowers and trees. ___ In an argument, I tend to compare my opponent to someone or something I have read or heard about and react accordingly. ___ If something breaks down, I look around me to try and see what I can find to fix the problem. ___ For a group presentation, I prefer to organize and classify the information into categories so it makes sense.

Now complete the tally below: Total Score

_______ Verbal/Linguistic

_______ Musical/Rhythmic

_______ Logical/Mathematical

_______ Interpersonal

_______ Visual/Spatial

_______ Intrapersonal

_______ Bodily/Kinesthetic

_______ Naturalist

Answer these questions: Do you feel that your scores reflect accurately your strengths? Why or why not?

What advantages and disadvantages do you think that the multiple intelligence theory has compared with other theories of intelligence?

HANDOUT 7: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Over the course of the next 24 hr, record the following for each strong emotion you feel. Be sure to include at least 10 emotional incidents. Time

Emotion Felt

What Provoked You?

Now answer the following questions: 1. Were there occasions in which you felt that you reacted too strongly to a provocation? What were these?

2. How could you improve on your reaction to similar provocations in the future?

HANDOUT 8: WHICH TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE IS IT?

Read through the scenarios below and identify what type of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has. 1. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree without having to water it himself every day. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 2. Leilani has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 3. Kofi started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S. Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World Champion title. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 4. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of 12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling records. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 5. Cecil wrote their first novel at the age of 16, and just recently, their third novel made the New York Times best-seller list. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 6. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math classes. She can work through sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 7. Javier has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to make a delicious new fruit. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: 8. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life‘s most challenging questions.

TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

HANDOUT 9: CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY Complete the following chart on causes of intellectual disability. If necessary, look for more specific information online.

Cause

Genetic or Environmental

Specific Cause

Down syndrome

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Head injury

Stroke

Meningitis

Poverty

Familial

Which of these conditions are preventable?

What are three strategies that parents can follow to minimize the risk of intellectual disability in their children?

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 8: WHICH TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE IS IT? ANSWER KEY Read through the scenarios below and then identify what type of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has. 1. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree without having to water it himself every day. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative 2. Leilani has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative, spatial, analytical, and/or practical 3. Kofi started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S. Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World Champion title. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: bodily-kinesthetic 4. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of 12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling records. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: musical 5. Cecil wrote their first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, their third novel made the New York Times best-seller list. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: verbal and/or creative 6. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math classes. She can work through sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: analytical and/or mathematical 7. Javier has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to make a delicious new fruit. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: naturalist, creative, and/or analytical

8. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life‘s most challenging questions. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: existentialist

Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion OPENING THEMES The topics of motivation and emotion are basic to psychology. Theories of motivation attempt to explain the “whys” of behavior—and theories of emotion, why we feel the way we do. Both areas share the quality of involving a variety of theoretical approaches. These approaches reflect the major perspectives in psychology ranging from biological to social. They also have important implications for the way that we feel about ourselves and our daily activities. MODULE 24: EXPLAINING MOTIVATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 24-1

How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

Motivation refers to the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms. INSTINCT APPROACHES: BORN TO BE MOTIVATED Instincts are inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. According to instinct approaches to motivation, people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. Those instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions. DRIVE-REDUCTION APPROACHES: SATISFYING OUR NEEDS Drive-reduction approaches to motivation suggest that a lack of some basic biological need (such as water) produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need (in this case, seeking water). A drive is motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. Many basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, are related to biological needs of the body or of the species as a whole. These are called primary drives. Primary drives contrast with

secondary drives in which behavior fulfills no obvious biological need. In secondary drives, prior experience and learning bring about needs. HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis, the body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state, underlies primary drives. Using feedback loops, homeostasis brings deviations in body functioning back to an optimal state. See Figure 1. Although drive-reduction theories provide a good explanation of how primary drives motivate behavior, they cannot fully explain a behavior in which the goal is not to reduce a drive but rather to maintain or even increase the level of excitement or arousal. Both curiosity and thrillseeking behavior shed doubt on drive-reduction approaches as a complete explanation for motivation. AROUSAL APPROACHES: BEYOND DRIVE REDUCTION According to arousal approaches to motivation, each person tries to maintain a steady level of stimulation and activity. As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high, we try to reduce them. However, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective, the arousal approach also suggests that if levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation. People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out, with some people looking for especially high levels of arousal. INCENTIVE APPROACHES: MOTIVATION’S PULL Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives. In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli— whether grades, money, affection, food, or sex—account for a person’s motivation. Although the theory explains why we may succumb to an incentive (such as a mouth-watering dessert) even though we lack internal cues (such as hunger), it does not provide a complete explanation of motivation because organisms sometimes seek to fulfill needs even when incentives are not apparent. Consequently, many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by drivereduction theory work in tandem with the external incentives of incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior, respectively. COGNITIVE APPROACHES: THE THOUGHTS BEHIND MOTIVATION Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is the outcome of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation causes us to

participate in an activity for our own enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will bring us. In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward. We are more apt to persevere, work harder, and produce work of higher quality when motivation for a task is intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Another example of cognitive approaches comes from research on workplace motivation and particularly on perceptions of workplace stressors. That is, employees perceive some stressors as hindrances and others as challenges, and these perceptions affect motivation. Hindrance stressors are those that employees see as outside their control and, thus, as barriers to good performance—for example, when they lack sufficient resources to get a job done. Hindrance stressors are particularly demotivating because no matter how hard people work, they can't succeed. In contrast, challenge stressors are those that employees see as something they can overcome, such as learning a new skill that can get the job done more effectively. Challenge stressors motivate employees to work harder. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY: ORDERING MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS (SEE FIGURE 2) Maslow’s model places motivational needs in a hierarchy and suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied. The basic needs are primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex, and the like. To move up the hierarchy, a person must first meet these basic physiological needs. Safety needs come next in the hierarchy; Maslow suggests that people need a safe, secure environment in order to function effectively. Physiological and safety needs compose the lower-order needs. Only after meeting the basic lower-order needs can a person consider fulfilling higher-order needs, such as the needs for love and a sense of belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Selfactualization, the highest-level need, is a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potentials in their own unique way. The important thing is that people feel at ease with themselves and satisfied that they are using their talents to the fullest. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important for two reasons: It highlights the complexity of human needs, and it emphasizes the idea that until more basic biological needs are met, people will be relatively unconcerned with higher-order needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has also spawned other approaches to motivation. For example, Edward Deci and Richard Ryan have considered human needs in terms of psychological well-being. They suggest in their selfdetermination theory that people have the three basic needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. APPLYING THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION (SEE FIGURE 3) The various theories of motivation give several different perspectives on it. Many of the approaches are complementary rather than contradictory. In fact, employing more than one

approach can help us understand motivation in a particular instance. In short, applying multiple approaches to motivation in a given situation provides a broader understanding than we might obtain by employing only a single approach. KEY TERMS arousal approaches to motivation The belief that people try to maintain a steady level of stimulation and activity. cognitive approaches to motivation Theories suggesting that motivation is the outcomes of people‘s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. drive Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. drive-reduction approaches to motivation Theories suggesting that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need. homeostasis The body‘s tendency to maintain a steady internal state. incentive approaches to motivation Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives. instinct approaches to motivation The explanation of motivation that suggests people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. instincts Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. motivation The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms. self-actualization A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way. LECTURE IDEAS MOTIVATION Have students ask their friends and parents to define the word motivation, then compare those definitions of motivation with the way psychologists define and approach motivation. What are the similarities? What are the differences? How do the definitions of their friends differ from those of their parents? Why do they think all of these variations exist? Reaching Goals: Show the film Pursuit of Happyness. Identify the various theories of motivation that drive the main character to pursue his goals. Discuss these in class. Next, have the students determine how far they would go to reach their college goals, and why or why not. Share the results in class for those who want to do so.

AROUSAL VERSUS DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORIES Help students remember the difference between arousal and drive-reduction theories by using slides that illustrate the relationship as follows: Drive-Reduction Theory:

Stimulation too high

If stimulation becomes too high, we try to reduce it to achieve homeostasis. (The horizontal line represents desired level of stimulation.)

Stimulation reduced

Arousal Theory: If stimulation becomes too high, we try to reduce it, as in drive-reduction theory.

Stimulation too low

However, if stimulation becomes too low, we try to increase it.

Stimulation increased

These graphics will help students visualize the difference between the two theories. YERKES-DODSON LAW The text does not include a discussion of the Yerkes–Dodson law, relating the level of arousal with the level of performance. This principle can be introduced after discussing the drivereduction and arousal theories of motivation. Briefly, the Yerkes–Dodson law states that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance and that easier tasks allow for a higher level of arousal. This overhead can be used to present these basic principles:

You can talk about how this principle applies to your own performance as an instructor. If you are not aroused sufficiently, you cannot present the material well, but if you are too anxious, you will find it equally difficult to do a good job teaching. Ask students to provide examples from their own lives, such as in the areas of athletics, music, drama, or a testing situation. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS One argument against Maslow’s hierarchy is that the same behavior could serve to fulfill different needs for different people. For example, you might use sex. Sex is clearly a physiological need, but for some it can serve other functions, such as love, safety, and esteem. Have students think of other behaviors that may fulfill multiple needs on the hierarchy.

Ask students to think about how mood affects daily behaviors, such as helpfulness. If they are in a good mood and another driver is trying to merge into their lane, what do they do? What about if someone yells for them to hold the elevator? Generally, if you’re in a good mood, you are more helpful (you let people into your lane and frantically press the “open door” button or put your foot in the doorway to keep the elevator open). If you’re in a bad mood, though, you are less helpful (speeding up to prevent the merge and actively pushing the “close door” button). The Amazing Race or Survivor: Use a segment from one of these television shows to point out that it is consistent with Maslow’s theory to risk lower-order needs for the purposes of becoming self-actualized. Lower-order needs must be satisfied, but they may be set to one side for the purpose of achieving a higher goal. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS APPLYING THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Assign Handout 1: Applying Theories of Motivation to Personal Accomplishments. Goal-Setting Exercise: To explore your own goals and sense of purpose, try the following activity. First, list the top five or 10 goals that you are trying to accomplish in your everyday behavior. Then write your responses to the following questions that Damon used in his interviews (Damon, 2008):    

Do you have any long-term goals? What does it mean to have a good life? What does it mean to be a good person? If you were looking back on your life now, how would you like to be remembered?

Finally, consider: Are your everyday goals leading to the fulfillment of your long-term dream? How are you working in your everyday behavior to achieve your grander purposes? MASLOW Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization: Assign Handout 2: Maslow’s Theory of SelfActualization. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Discuss with the class the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Have the students write down examples from their own life when they did something for intrinsic motivation and something else for extrinsic motivation. Break the class into groups, and have them discuss their examples. INCENTIVE THEORIES

Incentive Theories: Assign Handout 3: Drive Versus Incentive Motivations in Advertising. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS MOTIVATION THEORY Compare and contrast the James–Lange and Cannon–Bard theories. Give examples of how various cultures view the motivation for going to college or going into the workforce. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Ask students the following questions:   

Name three sources of intrinsic motivation in your life. Name three sources of extrinsic motivation in your life. Do you agree that your creativity suffers if extrinsic rewards are provided for conducting activities that are intrinsically rewarding to you?

Ask students what motivates them. Is it food? (It usually is!) Sex? Understanding? Love? Ask them what motivates them most. If they are having a hard time getting started, talk to them about how clubs and organizations draw new members. They have events that advertise free food! How do landlords draw in new tenants? They offer cuts in rent or a month free. How do commercials get you to buy products? They promise sex and love. In other words, they appeal to our basic needs. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Ask students what motivates them to perform well in school. It may be that they are not motivated to perform well in school, so you may want to have another example, such as what motivates them to do well at work. Get students to think about these motivators. This can be a nice lead-in to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Incentive Theory: To illustrate incentive theory, show TV or print advertisements that attempt to create a need in the viewer or reader for food, entertainment, or luxury items (going through the daily newspaper can provide ample examples, such as ads for jewelry, vacations, video games, digital equipment, or DVDs). Ask students how advertisers manipulate our desires in order to sell their products. This can be done in conjunction with the student assignment on Handout 3: Drive versus Incentive Motivations in Advertising. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Intrinsic Motivation Which of the following is an example of intrinsic motivation?

a) Bob works hard in order to get a bonus. b) Crystal plays soccer because she enjoys the way it makes her feel. c) Sally plays volleyball because she wants to earn a trophy. d) Jamal cleans his room in order to earn praise from his mother. Polling Question: LOL! My Motivation Is Bigger Than Yours! What really motivates us? Let’s consider the options and highlight some of the popular motivators. How many of you would do something that is risk-taking, say base jumping off a building in Chicago with a parachute, for a large sum of money? How many of you would say that money actually doesn’t motivate you at all? Ask students to choose from a list of four or five examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation which items motivate them the most. Who thinks that highly motivated individuals can accomplish anything they set their minds to? Polling Question: Psychological Egoism Psychological egoism posits that we are always motivated deep down by what we perceive to be in our own self-interest. ALTRUISM, on the other hand, is the view that sometimes we can have ultimately altruistic motives. So, what do you think? How many of you think people can be truly altruistic? How many of you think that people are really motivated by their own selfinterest, always? Who has ever considered doing something or pursue a goal because they were going to gain an extrinsic reward? Given today’s society and the implications that this generation is more narcissistic and egocentric than previous ones, who thinks that the value of intrinsic motivation has been lost? SUGGESTED MEDIA Austin Powers (1997): Show a film in which the protagonist engages in behavior that could be interpreted as indicating need for power. A humorous movie in this category is Austin Powers, in which the character Dr. Evil shows an insatiable lust for world domination. Films, Inc. (1984). The brain, part 3, rhythms and drives, 57:00. This video shows vignettes of animals and humans to demonstrate motivational concepts. Kinsey Institute. https://kinseyinstitute.org. The Kinsey Institute promotes sexual health and sexual knowledge. The Puzzle of Motivation, TED Talks. https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_on_motivation. Career analyst Dan Pink examines the puzzle of motivation, starting with a fact that social scientists know but most managers don't: Traditional rewards aren't always as effective as we think. Listen for illuminating stories—and, maybe, a way forward. Napoleon Dynamite (2004): In the scene “I Want That,” Napoleon’s uncle uses a model sailboat as an incentive when he sells plastic dishware. This movie is a cult classic, and most of the

students will know every line, so it is an excellent example to show in class and probably will be for a number of years. ADDITIONAL READINGS Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper. Di Domenico, S. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). The emerging neuroscience of intrinsic motivation: A new frontier in self-determination research. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 145. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5364176/. Howard-Jones, P., & Jay, T. (2016). Reward, learning and games. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 65–72. Kruglanski, A., Chernikova, M., & Kopetz, C. (2015). Motivation science. In R. Scott & S. Kosslyn (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Wiley. Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Harper & Row. Masters, W. H., Johnson, V. E., & Kolodny, R. C. (1986). Masters and Johnson on sex and human loving. Boston, MA: Little & Brown. McClelland, D. C. (1985). How motives, skills, and values determine what people do. American Psychologist, 40, 812–825. Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2011). Why women have sex: Understanding sexual motivations from adventure to revenge (and everything in between). New York, NY: Times Books. Pink, D. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York, NY: Riverhead Books. Plunkett, M. (2016, August 19). How two of the world’s top athletes battled burnout. Denver Post. https://www.denverpost.com/2016/08/19/how-top-athletes-battle-burnout/. Ryan, R. M. (2012). The Oxford handbook of motivation. England, UK: Oxford University Press. Wrzesniewski, A., & Schwartz, B. (2014, July 6). The secret of effective motivation. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/06/opinion/sunday/the-secret-ofeffective-motivation.html?_r=0. Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habitformation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 458–482. Yuhas, D. (2012). So you want to be a genius. Scientific American Mind, 23(5), 49. MODULE 25: HUMAN NEEDS AND MOTIVATION: EAT, DRINK, AND BE DARING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 25-1

What biological and social factors underlie hunger?

25-2

What are the variables of sexual behavior?

25-3

How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and power motivation exhibited?

An estimated 28 million people in the United States suffer from eating disorders at some time in their lives. These disorders, which usually appear during adolescence, can bring about extraordinary changes in weight and other forms of physical deterioration. Extremely dangerous, they sometimes result in death. THE MOTIVATION BEHIND HUNGER AND EATING Obesity is body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a particular height. The most widely used measure of obesity is body mass index (BMI), which is based on a ratio of weight to height. People with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese, whereas those with a BMI between 25 and 30 are overweight. Nearly, 40% of adults and 19% of children in the United States are obese. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE REGULATION OF HUNGER Complex biological mechanisms tell organisms whether they require food or should stop eating. One important factor is changes in the chemical composition of the blood. Changes in levels of glucose, a kind of sugar, regulate feelings of hunger. In addition, the hormone insulin leads the body to store excess sugar in the blood as fats and carbohydrates. Finally, the hormone ghrelin communicates to the brain feelings of hunger. The production of ghrelin increases according to meal schedules as well as the sight or smell of food producing the feeling that tells us we are hungry and should eat. The brain’s hypothalamus monitors glucose levels. Increasing evidence suggests that the hypothalamus carries the primary responsibility for monitoring food intake. Injury to the hypothalamus has radical consequences for eating behavior, depending on the site of the injury. Although the important role the hypothalamus plays in regulating food intake is clear, the exact way this organ operates is still unclear. One hypothesis suggests that injury to the hypothalamus affects the weight set point, or the particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain, which in turn regulates food intake. People seem destined, through heredity, to have a particular metabolism, the rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body. People with a high metabolic rate can

eat virtually as much as they want without gaining weight, whereas those with low metabolism may eat literally half as much, yet gain weight readily. New research has found four distinct stages: birth to age 1, when metabolism is at its fastest; age 1 to 20, when metabolism decreases by 3% a year; age 20 to 60, in which metabolism holds relatively steady; and finally, after age 60, when it slowly declines, losing 0.7% a year. The changes in metabolism suggest that eating requirements change as we age. SOCIAL FACTORS IN EATING Internal biological factors do not fully explain our eating behavior. External social factors, based on societal rules and on what we have learned about appropriate eating behavior, also play an important role. In sum, cultural influences and our individual habits play important roles in determining when, what, and how much we eat. Other social factors affect our eating behavior as well. We learn that eating focuses our attention on immediate pleasures. We eat when we feel distressed. Eating behavior, as well as obesity, are related to systemic racism. Chronis stress due to racism can lead to obesity. THE ROOTS OF OBESITY Given that both biological and social factors influence eating behavior, determining the causes of obesity has proven to be a challenging task. Some psychologists suggest that oversensitivity to external eating cues based on social factors, coupled with insensitivity to internal hunger cues, produce obesity. Others argue that some people’s weight set points are higher than those of others. One biological explanation for this condition is that obese individuals have a higher level of the hormone leptin, which appears to be designed, from an evolutionary standpoint, to “protect” the body against weight loss. Genetics is also indicated: Some people have a clear genetic risk of obesity, and multiple genes appear to be involved. Another biologically based explanation for obesity relates to fat cells in the body. Starting at birth, the body stores fat either by increasing the number of fat cells or by increasing the size of existing fat cells. Furthermore, any loss of weight past infancy does not decrease the number of fat cells; it only affects their size. According to the weight-set-point hypothesis, the presence of too many fat cells from earlier weight gain may result in the set point’s becoming “stuck” at a higher level than desirable. Not everyone agrees with the set point explanation for obesity. Some researchers suggest that the body does not try to maintain a fixed weight set point. Instead, they suggest, the body has a settling point, determined by a combination of our genetic heritage and the nature of the environment in which we live. EATING DISORDERS

One devastating weight-related disorder is anorexia nervosa. In this severe eating disorder, people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual. Anorexia nervosa mainly afflicts females between the ages of 12 and 40, although both men and women of any age may develop it. We also now know it occurs at all socioeconomic levels. A related problem, bulimia, is a disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means. Eating disorders represent a significant problem: 8.4% of women and 2.2% of men will experience an eating disorder during their lifetime. With regard to the causes of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, some researchers suspect a biological cause such as a chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, perhaps brought on by genetic factors. (People with anorexia nervosa are genetically driven to high levels of physical activity.) Furthermore, brain scans of people with eating disorders show that they process information about food differently from healthy individuals Others believe that the cause has roots in society’s valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable, a social norm that is reinforced through photos or videos on social media such as Instagram and TikTok. In fact, TikTok in particular seems to use algorithms that can inundate teenage users with weight-loss videos even after only a few days of joining the platform. Finally, some psychologists suggest that the disorders result from overly demanding parents or other family problems. These disorders most likely stem from both biological and social causes, and successful treatment probably encompasses several strategies, including therapy and dietary changes. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: DIETING AND LOSING WEIGHT SUCCESSFULLY Although 60% of the people in the United States say they want to lose weight, it is a losing battle for most of them. Most people who diet eventually regain the weight they lost, so they try again and get caught in a seemingly endless cycle of weight loss and gain. One should keep several things in mind when trying to lose weight:   

    

There is no easy route to weight control. Develop a plan of action. Set reasonable goals. Keep track of what you eat and what you weigh. Eat “big” foods. Cut down on screen time. Exercise. Decrease the influence of external social stimuli on your eating behavior.

  

Avoid fad diets. Avoid taking any of the diet pills advertised as promising quick and easy results. Lose weight with others by joining a support group.

SEXUAL MOTIVATION Human sexual behavior, in comparison with animal behavior, is more complicated, although the underlying biology is not all that different from that of related species. The male and female sex organs are referred to as the genitals (see Figure 1). In males, for example, the testes begin to secrete androgens, male sex hormones, at puberty. Not only do androgens produce secondary sex characteristics, such as the growth of body hair and a deepening of the voice, they also increase the sex drive. Because the level of androgen production by the testes is fairly constant, men are capable of (and interested in) sexual activities without any regard to biological cycles. Given the proper stimuli leading to arousal, male sexual behavior can occur at any time. Females show a different pattern. When they reach maturity at puberty, the two ovaries begin to produce estrogens, female sex hormones. However, these hormones are not produced consistently; instead, their production follows a cyclical pattern. The greatest output occurs during ovulation, when an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by a sperm cell highest. While in nonhumans the period around ovulation is the only time the female is receptive to sex, people are different. Although there are variations in reported sex drive, women are receptive to sex throughout their cycles. Though biological factors “prime” people for sex, it takes more than hormones to motivate and produce sexual behavior. In animals, the presence of a partner who provides arousing stimuli leads to sexual activity. Humans are considerably more versatile; not only other people but nearly any object, sight, smell, sound, or other stimulus can lead to sexual excitement. MASTURBATION: SOLITARY SEX Masturbation refers to sexual self-stimulation with the hand or an object such as a pillow or vibrator, and is one of the most frequently practiced sexual activities. Men and women typically begin to masturbate for the first time at different ages (see Figure 1). Furthermore, men masturbate considerably more often than women, although there are differences in frequency according to age. Male masturbation is most common in the early teens and then declines; females both begin and reach a maximum frequency later. There are also some racial differences: African American men and women masturbate less than Whites do. Despite the high incidence of masturbation, attitudes toward it still reflect some of the negative views of yesteryear. Most experts on sex, however, view masturbation as a healthy and legitimate—and harmless—sexual activity. In addition, masturbation is seen as providing a means of learning about one’s own sexuality and a way of discovering changes in one’s body such as the emergence of precancerous lumps.

HETEROSEXUALITY Heterosexuality, sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex, consists of far more than male–female intercourse. Kissing, petting, caressing, massaging, and other forms of sex play are all components of heterosexual behavior. SEX OUTSIDE OF MARRIAGE Before the 21st century, sexual intercourse outside of heterosexual marriage, at least for women, was considered one of the major taboos in our society. Traditionally, men have been told that premarital sex is okay for them, but they should marry virgins. This attitude is the basis of what is called the double standard, the view that sex outsdee of marriage is permissible for males but not for females. The majority of adult Americans believed that sex outside of marriage was always wrong. But there has been a dramatic change in public opinion since then (see Figure 2). Changes in attitudes toward sex outside of marriage were matched by changes in actual rates of sex outside of marriage activity. Males, too, have shown an increase in the incidence of sex outside of marriage, although the increase has not been as dramatic as it has been for females—probably because the rates for males were higher to begin with. What may be most interesting about the patterns of sex outside of marriage is that they show a convergence of male and female attitudes and behavior. For many people, particularly younger individuals, the double standard has been succeeded by a new view: permissiveness with affection. According to those holding this view, sex outside of marriage is permissible for both men and women if it occurs within a long-term, committed, or loving relationship. Still the double standard has not disappeared completely. Where differing standards remain, the attitudes are almost always more lenient toward the male than toward the female. Furthermore, there are substantial cultural differences regarding the incidence and acceptability of sex outside of marriage. MARITAL SEX Married couples are often concerned that they are having too little sex, too much sex, or the wrong kind of sex. Although there are many different dimensions along which sex in marriage is measured, one is certainly the frequency of sexual intercourse. As with most other types of sexual activities, there is no easy answer to the question because there are such wide variations in patterns between individuals (see Figure 3). Although early research found extramarital sex—sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse—to be widespread, the current reality appears to be otherwise. According to surveys, 85% of married women and more than 75% of married men are faithful to their spouses. SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction to another individual. Homosexuality is sexual attraction to members of one’s own sex, whereas bisexuality is sexual attraction to more than one sex or gender. Many people prefer the term gay (for males) and lesbian (for females), in part because these terms refer to a broader array of attitudes and lifestyles than the which focuses on the sexual act. The exact number of people who identify themselves as exclusively gay, lesbian, and bisexual has proved difficult to gauge; some estimates are as low as 1.1% and some as high as 10%. Although people often view homosexuality and heterosexuality as two completely distinct sexual orientations, the issue is not that simple. Pioneering sex researcher Alfred Kinsey acknowledged this when he considered sexual orientation along a scale or continuum with “exclusively homosexual” at one end and “exclusively heterosexual” at the other. In the middle were people who showed both homosexual and heterosexual behavior. Kinsey’s approach suggests that sexual orientation is dependent on a person’s sexual feelings and behaviors and romantic feelings. DETERMINING THE CAUSES OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION Although there are a number of theories about what determines whether people become homosexual or heterosexual, none has proved completely satisfactory. Some explanations for sexual orientation are biological, suggesting that there are genetic causes. Evidence for a genetic origin of sexual orientation comes from studies of identical twins. The studies found that when one twin identified as homosexual, the occurrence of homosexuality in the other twin was higher than it was in the general population. Hormones also may play a role in determining sexual orientation. For example, research shows that women exposed before birth to DES (diethylstilbestrol—a drug their mothers took to avoid miscarriage) were more likely to be gay or bisexual. Some evidence suggests that differences in brain structures may be related to sexual orientation. For instance, the structure of the anterior hypothalamus, an area of the brain that governs sexual behavior, differs in male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Similarly, other research shows that, compared with heterosexual men or women, gay men have a larger anterior commissure, which is a bundle of neurons connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain. However, research suggesting that biological causes are at the root of sexual orientation is not conclusive because most findings are based on only small samples of individuals. Little evidence suggests that sexual orientation is brought about by child-rearing practices or family dynamics. Although proponents of psychoanalytic theories once argued that the nature

of the parent–child relationship can produce homosexuality, research evidence does not support such explanations. Another explanation for sexual orientation rests on learning theory. According to this view, sexual orientation is learned through rewards and punishments in much the same way that we may learn to prefer swimming over tennis. Although the learning theory explanation is plausible, several difficulties rule it out as a definitive explanation. Because our society has traditionally held homosexuality in low esteem, one ought to expect that the negative treatment of homosexual behavior would outweigh the rewards attached to it. Furthermore, children growing up with a gay or lesbian parent are statistically unlikely to become gay or lesbian, which thus contradicts the notion that homosexual behavior may be learned from others. Because of the difficulty in finding a consistent explanation for sexual orientation, we cannot definitively answer the question of what determines it. It seems unlikely that any single factor orients a person toward homosexuality or heterosexuality. Instead, a combination of biological and environmental factors is involved. Despite increasingly positive attitudes toward homosexuality, many lesbian, gay, and bisexual people still face antigay attitudes and discrimination, and it can take a toll. Lesbian and gay people have higher rates of depression and suicide than do their straight counterparts. APA and other mental health organizations have endorsed efforts to eliminate discrimination. TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS Transgender is a broad term encompassing people whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior does not conform to the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Transgender people may have male bodies but view their gender identity as female, or may have female bodies and have a male gender identity. In other cases, transgender individuals may view themselves as a third gender (neither male nor female) or as gender fluid. In the United States, about 1.6 million individuals 13 and up currently identify themselves as transgender, and the number is growing considerably, particularly among youth between the ages of 13 and 25. In fact, the number of young people who identify as transgender almost doubled between 2017 and 2020. In some cases, transgender individuals may seek sex-change operations in which their existing genitals are surgically removed, and the genitals of the desired sex are fashioned. Transgender issues have become increasingly prominent in recent years. For instance, college campuses have struggled with how to best provide restrooms that address the needs of the transgender community. Whereas transgender centers on gender identity, the term intersex person refers to the small number of people who are born with genitals that makes their sexual identity ambiguous. An

intersex person has an atypical combination of sexual organs or chromosomal or gene patterns, making their sexual identity unclear. THE NEEDS FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT: STRIVING FOR EXCELLENCE The need for achievement is a stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals. People with a high need for achievement seek out situations in which they can compete against some objective standard— such as grades, money, or winning a game—and prove themselves successful. People high in achievement motivation generally choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty. In contrast, people with low achievement motivation tend to be motivated primarily by a desire to avoid failure. The instrument used most frequently for measuring a person’s need for achievement is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). In the TAT, an examiner shows a series of ambiguous pictures (see Figure 4). The examiner tells participants to write a story that describes what is happening, who the people are, what led to the situation, what the people are thinking or wanting, and what will happen next. Researchers then use a standard scoring system to determine the amount of achievement imagery in people’s stories. The inclusion of such achievement-related imagery in the participants’ stories is assumed to indicate an unusually high degree of concern with—and therefore a relatively strong need for—achievement. GROWTH MINDSET AND ACHIEVEMENT Carol Dweck has shown in her research that intelligence and other human capabilities are fluid and flexible, and through hard work and effort, people can increase their achievement, the way you train and strengthen a muscle. People who believe in this fluidity and flexibility are said to hold a growth mindset, which provides them with grit. In contrast, those with a fixed mindset inappropriately believe that individual characteristics such as intelligence, talent, and motivation are set at birth and vary little throughout the life span. As a result, they do not work as hard as others, which has the self-defeating effect of leading to failure. THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION: STRIVING FOR FRIENDSHIP A need for affiliation is an interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people. People who have higher affiliation needs are particularly sensitive to relationships with others. They desire to be with their friends more of the time and alone less often, compared with people who are lower in the need for affiliation. However, gender is a greater determinant of how much time is actually spent with friends: Regardless of their affiliative orientation,

female students spend significantly more time with their friends and less time alone than male students do. THE NEED FOR POWER: STRIVING FOR IMPACT ON OTHERS The need for power is a tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual. People with strong needs for power are more apt to belong to organizations and seek political office than are those low in the need for power. They also tend to work in professions in which their power needs may be fulfilled. Significant gender differences exist in the display of need for power. KEY TERMS androgens Male sex hormones secreted by the testes. anorexia nervosa A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual. bisexuals Persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex. bulimia A disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means. double standard The view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females. estrogens Class of female sex hormones. extramarital sex Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not their spouse. genitals The male and female sex organs. heterosexuality Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex. homosexuals Persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex. masturbation Sexual self-stimulation. metabolism The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body. need for achievement A person's desire to strive for and achieve challenging accomplishments. need for affiliation An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people. need for power A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual. obesity Body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a particular height.

ovulation The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries. transgender A general term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior is not consistent with that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. weight set point The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain. LECTURE IDEAS BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CAUSES OF EATING DISORDERS Present eating disorders in terms of a biopsychosocial model to indicate that there are interactions among the possible causes in the biological (genetic, biochemical), psychological (body image disturbances), and social (media) domains. EATING DISORDERS AND THE MEDIA Summarize or present advertisements and articles that emphasize a thin body as a standard of beauty for women. Emphasize that cultural pressures from the media can help to push young people (especially women) to develop disturbed eating patterns. Contrast this emphasis with the increases in rates of obesity in the U.S. population (see below regarding physical fitness). Ask students to discuss these contradictions in the media and the health implications of both sets of cultural images. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN THE UNITED STATES Emphasize the importance of physical fitness. The current U.S. guidelines for physical activity can be found here: https://health.gov/paguidelines/. Have students discuss their own experiences in relation to the guidelines. MOTIVATION: HUNGER AND SEX What Motivates You? Ask students what motivates them. Is it food? (It usually is!) Sex? Understanding? Love? Ask them what motivates them most. If they are having a hard time getting started, talk to them about how clubs and organizations draw new members. They have events that advertise free food! How do landlords draw in new tenants? They offer cuts in rent or a month free. How do commercials get you to buy products? They promise sex and love. In other words, they appeal to our basic needs. Blood Chemistry: Ask the students to explain how glucose, insulin, and leptin all play a role in hunger. Are they all interconnected, and if so, how?

Obesity in America: Show the film Supersize Me. Discuss whether and, if so, how the fast-food industry contributes to the obesity problem in America. Discuss the responsibility Americans bear toward controlling their diet and eating habits. You can lead them by asking if they think fatty foods are hard to find, how portion sizes have changed in recent times, about the cost of fatty foods in comparison to healthy alternatives (even at local fast-food stops), and about lifestyle changes between “then” and “now.” Gastric Bypass: Ask students whether they feel that the recent increase in people having gastric bypass surgery will decrease the number of cases of obesity in the United States? Why or why not? Is such surgery really a means to an end? Favorite Foods: Ask students to list their favorite foods. When did they first begin to eat these foods? How did these foods become their favorite foods? Are their favorite foods high or low in calories? When do they typically eat their favorite foods? Do these foods evoke any memories? Biology of Hunger: Hunger involves internal biological processes interacting with external, environmental ones. Ask students about their experiences with their parents taking them out to dinner. Chances are, they order vast quantities of food so that they can take home the leftovers. After dinner, when they are very full, they go home and what is the first thing they do? They look in the refrigerator to see if the “food fairy” (or their roommate) has delivered anything new. Why does this happen? It happens because that is their social, environmental cue. They come home. They look in the refrigerator. TAT Ratings: Show students the TAT picture in the text (Figure 4) and instruct them to write a story in which they state what is happening and what the people involved are feeling and thinking. Then show this list of Murray’s 15 needs and their definitions. Have students count the number of times they referred to one of these needs.

Abasement

To surrender and submit to others, accept blame and punishment. To enjoy pain and misfortune.

Achievement

To accomplish difficult tasks, overcoming obstacles, and becoming expert.

Affiliation

To be close and loyal to another person, pleasing them and winning their friendship and attention.

Aggression

To forcefully overcome an opponent, controlling, taking revenge, or punishing them.

Autonomy

To break free from constraints, resisting coercion and dominating authority. To be irresponsible and independent.

Counteraction

To make up for failure by trying again, seeking pridefully to overcome obstacles.

Defendance

To defend oneself against attack or blame, hiding any failure of the self.

Deference

To admire a superior person, praising them and yielding to them and following their rules.

Dominance

To control one’s environment, controlling other people through command or subtle persuasion.

Exhibition

To impress others through one’s actions and words, even if these are shocking.

Harm avoidance

To escape or avoid pain, injury, and death.

Infavoidance

To avoid being humiliated or embarrassed.

Nurturance

To help the helpless, feeding them and keeping them from danger.

Order

To make things clean, neat, and tidy.

Play

To have fun, laugh, and relax, enjoying oneself.

Rejection

To separate oneself from a negatively viewed object or person, excluding or abandoning it.

Sentience

To seek out and enjoy sensual experiences.

Sex

To form relationships that lead to sexual intercourse.

Succorance

To have one’s needs satisfied by someone or something. Includes being loved, nursed, helped, forgiven, and consoled.

Understanding

To be curious, ask questions, and find answers.

AGE DIFFERENCES IN SEXUALITY Talk about age differences in sexuality, and ask students to comment on how they feel about depictions of sexual relationships among older adults. Another related topic of interest is that of age differences between romantic couples. Movie stars commonly marry people who are very different in age, and although the age difference tended to be in favor of older men and younger women, this is changing. Ask students to comment on what they think of these trends. HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLES Depending on the level of sophistication of students in the class, either review the human sexual response cycles, or skip this information and move on to the more controversial topics in the chapter, which examine issues that have considerable depth and interest to students. If you plan to cover sexual dysfunctions in detail, use the cycle of the four human sexual responses as a way of helping students think about these dysfunctions. For example, premature ejaculation is a dysfunction associated with the orgasm stage of the sexual response cycle. See the slide below:

DATA ON ATTITUDES TOWARD SEX OUTSIDE OF MARRIAGE The Kinsey Institute provides updates on surveys regarding attitudes and sexual behavior: https://kinseyinstitute.org/. Learning Sexual Behavior: Discuss with the class where they remember learning about sexual behaviors. How did they know what to do and how to think about it? Who was influential in their lives with respect to sex education? As adults, how do they want their children learning about sex? LGBTQ+ ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY Go to this APA website, https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq which presents information on gay, lesbian, and bisexual issues in psychology. Some issues to focus on are the following:    

Sexual orientation reflects multiple interacting factors. Sexual orientation is not considered to be a “choice.” Conversion therapy is not accepted in psychology. Education against stereotypes and hate crimes is important.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Body Mass Index: Compare body mass index information (printed directions are available at https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm) with actuarial tables (available at https://www.bcbst.com/mpmanual/hw.htm). As a class, determine which measure

is an accurate calculator of one’s ideal weight. Discuss which is better for one’s health, the concept of fit and fat or “just thin.” Social Eating: Bring a bag of M&Ms, or some other candy, to class. Have some students sit with their friends, and others sit alone. Place some of the candy in front of both groups of students and ask them to engage in a writing task (unrelated to motivation). After approximately 5 min, see which group has consumed more candy. Discuss the results in the context of social cues for eating behavior. Source: De Castro, J. M. (2000). Eating behavior: Lessons from the real world of humans. Nutrition, 16, 800–813. Anorexia Nervosa: Show the movie Killing Us Softly (1979) or one of its updates (1987, 1999, 2010) to the class, and then discuss the various struggles of anorexics. Break the class into groups and have them discuss why some people become anorexic and others do not. Have them also discuss whether they believe the media and fashion industries are partly responsible for the diet problems that young girls encounter today. Have each group make and present an outline of their key discussion points. Media Project: In groups, have students search for pictures, articles, blogs, or other media in newspapers, magazines, or online that relate to body image or that advertise diet plans or exercise routines. Then, have the groups present their findings to the class and write a paper summarizing their conclusions. What does the media portray as “sexy,” “healthy,” or “motivating?” How does culture play a role in the media portrayal of eating, exercise, and appearance? Transgender Experiences: Conduct web searches for “transgender experience” and “gender identity disorder.” How do the sites you find differ in terms of their discussion of the person who feels trapped in the wrong sex? Where Does Sexual Orientation Fit Into This? Engage the classroom in a discussion using the following prompts or questions. This discussion should be prefaced to the class using terms such as respect and tolerance for other’s comments or thoughts.     

How would you define “heterosexual” or “homosexual” if someone isn’t exactly male or female? What if those genitals are ambiguous? Do you base it on their legal status? How do you classify a transsexual woman partnered with a straight man? Does the definition depend on whether the transsexual woman has had gender reassignment or not?

   

Does a straight man “become” homosexual through seeing and fancying a transsexual woman? Is it a mental illness to be different in this way? Is it a mental illness to be gay or lesbian? (Hint: It once was considered that way.) Do we need more than two gender roles or none at all?

Is Marriage the Issue? Have students find two websites that discuss the issue of gay and lesbian marriages. Students should write one to two pages documenting these two websites and summarizing their findings. Finally, students should draw conclusions about their personal feelings on the topic and how these feelings are depicted on the internet. ATTITUDES TOWARD SEXUALITY IN THE MEDIA Advertising and Mate Selection: The evolutionary psychology approach to gender suggests that men are more likely to seek women who are younger than they are and that women are more likely to seek older men with resources. Sit down with the personal ads from a local paper and examine the ads placed by men and women. Do the ads‘ content support predictions about what men and women look for? HUMAN SEXUALITY The Kinsey Report: Have students go to the following website http://health.howstuffworks.com/sexual-health/sexuality/alfred-kinsey-sexualitydictionary.htm and write a one- to two-page summary response to the website identifying the strengths and weaknesses that came about as a result of Alfred Kinsey’s research. A Sexual Double Standard: Play the MTV documentary Fight for Your Rights: The Double Standard in Sexuality. This is a very modern, pop culture–infused take on how a double standard still exists in this culture when it comes to sexual behavior. After showing the video, have the class work in groups to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the documentary, along with any biases it appeared to have. If you cannot find this video, https://youtu.be/baT3LWaSfuM is another link that can be used to illustrate the same concepts. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO EATING DISORDERS Have students complete Handout 4: Cultural Contributions to Eating Disorders, which asks students to examine cultural contributions to eating disorders. DAILY ACTIVITY LEVELS

Have students complete Handout 5: Daily Activity Diary. Explain how to use this based on the examples provided. For each low-energy activity, they should indicate a high-energy activity that could have been completed in its place (for more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/nchs, which has advice on physical fitness). OBESITY AND EATING DISORDERS Have students work in groups to create educational materials that they believe would be effective in teaching other students about topics related to obesity and eating disorders. Students could make posters, flyers, or even videos. Have students complete Handout 6: The World’s Heaviest People. Ask students the following questions: 



 

Do you feel the recent increase in people getting gastric bypass surgery will decrease the cases of obesity in the United States? Why or why not? Is the surgery really a means to an end? If you were developing a public health campaign to warn people about the dangers of overeating and obesity, how would you balance off the need to prevent obesity with the need to avoid increasing the risk of eating disorders? What do you think the differences are in the causes of eating disorders in men versus women? Young people versus older people? Explain your answers. What can psychologists contribute separately from medical and health professionals to help prevent and treat eating disorders?

SELF-RATINGS OF NEEDS Have students complete Handout 7: Self-Ratings of Needs. The key is shown at the bottom of the handout. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Eating Disorders Which is the most prevalent eating disorder? a) Anorexia nervosa b) Bulimia nervosa c) Binge-eating disorder Polling Question: Sex Is a HOT Topic No matter where you turn today, and definitely on social media sites, sex, sexuality, and gender are hot topics. Let’s consider why this is. Broadly speaking, how many of you believe that you

hold very strong opinions on topics related to sex and sexual orientation? How many of you can identify where you have developed (or gotten) those opinions/beliefs from? Who thinks that we shouldn’t even be talking about sex and sexual orientation because these topics are simply none of anyone’s business? How many of you think that social media sites have dramatized topics of debate on sexual orientation? Polling Question: Don’t Teach My Kid That Sex education in the schools has increasingly become a topic of conversations. With many influences, including political ones, how many of you think that the educational system should be responsible for teaching sex education to children? (List several age ranges, such as 5–7, 8– 10, and 11–13.) From the ranges on the board, identify the age of which sex education should begin. Discuss any discrepancies and include content from the development chapter, as needed. Who thinks there should be an open, candid conversation about sex education curriculum that doesn’t minimize the consequences of sexual behaviors?

SUGGESTED MEDIA Aamodt, S. (TEDGlobal). (2013, June). Why dieting doesn’t usually work [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/sandra_aamodt_why_dieting_doesn_t_usually_work.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. (1997). The Brain: Gender Development: Social Influences, 5 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/gender-development-socialinfluences/. This segment shows how social factors affect gender-specific behaviors. Anorexia’s living face. https://youtu.be/aTIjRxT_Y9g. Cambridge Educational. Eating Disorders: The inner voice. https://www.films.com/id/851/Eating_Disorders_The_Inner_Voice.htm. Capatides, C. (2017, March). Survey: Millennials are less likely than their elders to know someone who is gay. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/glaad-report-millennials-less-likely-toknow-someone-who-is-gay-lesbian-than-members-of-older-generations/. Carle Medical Communications (1989). Dying to be thin, 25:00. This video gives real-life stories about people recovering from bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. CBC News: The National (2013, March 6). The science of addictive food. [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cpdb78pWl4.

Gender: The space between (2017). https://www.cbsnews.com/video/playlist/gender-thespace-between/. An exploration of the intricate world of gender, beyond him or her.

Human Rights Campaign. https://www.hrc.org. This is the website of the National Coalition of LGBT, which is committed to improving the health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals and communities through public education, coalition building, and advocacy that focus on research, policy, education, and training.

National Eating Disorders Association. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org.

National LGBTQ Task Force. https://www.thetaskforce.org. This website is a good resource on gay and lesbian issues and explains how the task force is promoting individuals to take action. Overweight and obesity: https://www.cdc.gov/obesity. PBS. Perfect illusions. http://www.pbs.org/perfectillusions/aboutshow/watchvideo.html. This video does an excellent job of dealing with the relationship of anorexia nervosa and bulimia to issues within the family. Roach, M. (2008). Bonk: The curious coupling of science and sex. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s website has information on binge eating disorders, treatment, and support services. The Center for Eating Disorders at Sheppard Pratt Hospital. http://www.eatingdisorder.org/. There are many links on the page for more information on eating disorders.

The Kinsey Institute. https://kinseyinstitute.org. This website features links to other online resources, a FAQs section, and information on current research on sex, gender, and reproduction.

The science of sexual orientation, 60 min, 2006, 13:00. Part I: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5vrNYA_nik. Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-S5QYVe0mJY. Researchers focus on twin studies to help understand the development of sexual orientation. POPULAR MOVIE OR TELEVISION SHOW: SEXUALITY IN OLDER ADULTS

Show a segment of a movie or television show in which an older couple is depicted as having sex or at least having a romantic relationship. Relatively recent examples are Something’s Gotta Give with Diane Keaton and Jack Nicholson and It’s Complicated with Meryl Streep, Alec Baldwin, and Steve Martin. A more recent movie, Our Souls at Night (2017) tells the story of a widow (Jane Fonda) who tries to make a connection with her widower neighbor (Robert Redford).

Ask the class to comment on how they regard the characterization of sex between older adults compared to sex between younger adults. POPULAR TELEVISION PROGRAM: HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE MEDIA Show a scene from a television show such as Grey’s Anatomy in which people with homosexual orientations are depicted. Ask students to comment on how they think these programs both reflect and influence people’s attitudes.

Chaiken, I. (Creator). (2004-2009). The L Word. Los Angeles, CA: Showtime.

Davies, R. T. (Producer). (2018). A Very English Scandal. London, England: BBC. A three-part miniseries based on John Preston’s book of the same name. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7aUZRKv-bU.

Waller-Bridge, P. (Writer). (2018). Killing Eve. The lives of a security operative and an assassin become inextricably linked. London, England: BBC. Trailer available at https://www.imdb.com/videoplayer/vi3292969497?ref_=vi_nxt_ap. POPULAR TELEVISION PROGRAM: SEINFELD In the classic Seinfeld episode The Contest, the characters challenge each other to deprive themselves of masturbating for as long as possible. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Contest. Ask students to discuss the implications of the greater freedom in expressing sexuality in the current media versus the earlier depictions in television and the movies.

TED TALK: IS ANATOMY DESTINY?

Dreger, A. (2010, December). Is anatomy destiny? [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/alice_dreger_is_anatomy_destiny. TED TALK: WHY I MUST COME OUT Geena Rocero, a transgender fashion model, gives a talk that can help students understand gender identity and related concepts: https://www.ted.com/talks/geena_rocero_why_i_must_come_out. ADDITIONAL READINGS Airton, L. (2019). Gender: Your guide. New York, NY: Adams Media. Bering, J. (2010). The third gender. Scientific American Mind, 21(2), 60–63. Birch, L. L., & Fisher, J. O. (1998). Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 101(Supplement 2), 539–549. Brody, J. E. (2007, February 20). Out of control: A true story of binge eating. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/20/health/20brod.html. Burn, S. M. (2019). Women Across Cultures (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204–232. Capaldi, E. D. (1996). Why we eat what we eat: The psychology of eating. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Cherlin, A. J. (2013). Health, marriage, and same-sex partnerships. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 54(1), 64–66. Custers, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2009). Viewership of pro-anorexia websites in seventh, ninth, and eleventh graders. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 214–219. Disch, E. (2009). Reconstructing gender: A multicultural anthology (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Carter, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Predictors and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1284–1295. Hoffman-Fox, D. (2017). You and your gender identity: A guide to discovery. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing.

Mardell, A. (2016). The ABCs of LGBT+. Miami, FL: Mango Publishing. Maron, D. F. (2015, March 5). How lab rats are changing our view of obesity. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-lab-rats-are-changing-ourview-of-obesity/?redirect=1. McAnulty, R.D., & Burnette, M. (2006). Sex and sexuality, volume 1: Sexuality today: Trends and controversies. Westport: Greenwood Press. Simpkins, S. D., Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2015). The role of parents in the ontogeny of achievement-related motivation and behavioral choices. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Wansink, B. (2010). Mindless eating: Why we eat more than we think. New York, NY: Bantam. MODULE 26: UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 26-1

What are emotions, and how do we experience them?

26-2

What are the functions of emotions?

26–3 What are the explanations for emotions? 26-4

How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions?

Emotions are feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior. Think, for example, about how it feels to be happy. First, we obviously experience a feeling that we can differentiate from other emotions. It is likely that we also experience some identifiable physical changes in our bodies: Perhaps the heart rate increases, or we find ourselves “jumping for joy.” Finally, the emotion probably encompasses cognitive elements: Our understanding and evaluation of the meaning of what is happening prompts our feelings of happiness. It is also possible, however, to experience an emotion without the presence of cognitive elements. Some psychologists argue that entirely separate systems govern cognitive responses and emotional responses. A current controversy focuses on whether the emotional response predominates over the cognitive response or vice versa. Some theorists suggest that we first respond to a situation with an emotional reaction and later try to make sense of it cognitively. In contrast, other theorists propose that people first develop cognitions about a situation and then react emotionally. This school of thought suggests that we must think about and understand a stimulus or situation, relating it to what we already know, before we can react on an emotional level. Because proponents of both sides of this debate can cite research to

support their viewpoints, the question is far from resolved. Neuroimaging studies of the brain may help resolve this debate as well as others about the nature of emotions. THE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS Psychologists have identified several important functions that emotions play in our daily lives. Among the most important of those functions are the following:   

Preparing us for action: Emotions act as a link between events in our environment and our responses. Shaping our future behavior. Emotions promote learning that will help us make appropriate responses in the future. Helping us interact more effectively with others. We often communicate the emotions we experience through our verbal and nonverbal behaviors, making our emotions obvious to observers.

DETERMINING THE RANGE OF EMOTIONS: LABELING OUR FEELINGS If we were to list the words in the English language that have been used to describe emotions, we would end up with at least 500 examples. One challenge for psychologists has been to sort through this list to identify the most important, fundamental emotions. Theorists have hotly contested the issue of cataloging emotions and have come up with different lists, depending on how they define the concept of emotion. In fact, some reject the question entirely, saying that no set of emotions should be singled out as most basic and that emotions are best understood by breaking them down into their component parts. Other researchers argue for looking at emotions in terms of a hierarchy, dividing them into positive and negative categories and then organizing them into increasingly narrower subcategories (see Figure 1). One difficulty in defining a basic set of emotions is that substantial differences exist in descriptions of emotions among various cultures. Germans report experiencing schadenfreude, a feeling of pleasure over another person’s difficulties, and the Japanese experience hagaii, a mood of vulnerable heartache colored by frustration. In Tahiti, people experience musu, a feeling of reluctance to yield to unreasonable demands made by one’s parents. Finding schadenfreude, hagaii, or musu in a particular culture doesn’t mean that the members of other cultures are incapable of experiencing such emotions, of course. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTURY: MY COMPUTER SAYS YOU’RE HAPPY Advances in artificial intelligence are turning what was only recently thought to be the domain of science fiction into modern-day realities. Deep learning is a form of artificial intelligence that

mimics how the human brain solves complex and vaguely defined problems, such as driving a car or recognizing a human voice or face. The latest challenge in artificial intelligence goes well beyond mere facial recognition and attempts to determine people’s underlying emotions and even their personalities from their facial expressions. Before we can teach machines to infer people’s emotions from a glance at their faces, we must better learn to do so ourselves, assuming that’s even possible. THE ROOTS OF EMOTIONS Consider the experience of fear. The most likely reactions, which are associated with activation of the autonomic nervous system, include an increase in your rate of breathing, an acceleration of your heart rate, a widening of your pupils (to increase visual sensitivity), and a dryness in your mouth as the functioning of your salivary glands and in fact of your entire digestive system ceases. At the same time, though, your sweat glands probably will increase their activity because increased sweating will help you rid yourself of the excess heat developed by any emergency activity in which you engage. Some theorists suggest that specific bodily reactions cause us to experience a particular emotion—we experience fear, for instance, because the heart is pounding and we are breathing deeply. In contrast, other theorists suggest that the physiological reaction results from the experience of an emotion. In this view, we experience fear, and as a result, the heart pounds and our breathing deepens. THE JAMES–LANGE THEORY: DO GUT REACTIONS EQUAL EMOTIONS? To William James and Carl Lange, who were among the first researchers to explore the nature of emotions, emotional experience is, very simply, a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment. James and Lange suggested that for every major emotion there is an accompanying physiological or “gut” reaction of internal organs—called a visceral experience or arousal of the autonomic nervous system—that leads us to label the emotional experience. They proposed that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of emotional experiences. This view has come to be called the James–Lange theory of emotion (see Figure 2). THE CANNON–BARD THEORY: PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS AS THE RESULT OF EMOTIONS In response to the difficulties inherent in the James–Lange theory, Walter Cannon and later Philip Bard suggested an alternative view (see Figure 2). The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, which Cannon and Bard suggested emanates from the thalamus in the brain. Hence, it is not necessary for different emotions to have unique

physiological patterns associated with them—as long as the message sent to the cerebral cortex differs according to the specific emotion. THE SCHACHTER–SINGER THEORY: EMOTIONS AS LABELS The Schachter-Singer Theory of emotions explains that emotions emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others. The Schachter–Singer Theory states that emotions are determined jointly by a relatively nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and the labeling of that arousal on the basis of cues from the environment (see Figure 2). CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON THE NEUROSCIENCE OF EMOTIONS Advances in the measurement of the nervous system and other parts of the body have allowed researchers to examine more closely the biological responses involved in individual emotions. As a result, evidence is growing that specific patterns of biological arousal are associated with specific emotions. In addition, new research shows that the amygdala, in the brain’s temporal lobe, plays an important role in the experience of emotions. Because neural pathways connect the amygdala, the visual cortex, and the hippocampus, some scientists speculate that emotionrelated stimuli can be processed and responded to almost instantaneously. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: LOOKING ON THE BRIGHT SIDE According to stereotypes, everything goes downhill with age. But studies consistently show that older adults are better than their younger counterparts at regulating their emotions. During late adulthood, people tend to appreciate and invest more effort in things they consider most important. Regulating emotions requires the prefrontal cortex to direct the activity of other brain regions that process emotions. Prefrontal cortex activity may also play a role in the moments when we’re expecting that something emotional is going to happen. Emotion-processing problems are common in psychological disorders, understanding ways to improve emotion regulation can help researchers develop treatments for these disorders.

MAKING SENSE OF THE MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES ON EMOTION As new approaches to emotion continue to develop, it is reasonable to ask why so many theories of emotion exist and, perhaps more important, which one provides the most complete explanation. Emotions are such complex phenomena, encompassing both biological and cognitive aspects, that no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience. Furthermore, contradictory evidence of one sort or another challenges each approach, and therefore, no theory has proved invariably accurate in its predictions. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DO PEOPLE IN ALL CULTURES EXPRESS EMOTION SIMILARLY?

Why do people across cultures express emotions similarly? A hypothesis known as the facialaffect program gives one explanation. The facial-affect program—which is assumed to be universally present at birth—is analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a particular emotion is experienced. When set in motion, the “program” activates a set of nerve impulses that make the face display an appropriate expression. However, the link between facial expressions and emotion is not as clear-cut and universal as once thought. People communicate the typically expected facial expression—such as smiling when happy—only 20–30% of the time. Additional research casts some doubt on the universality of facial expressions. Facial expressions remain a fundamental way in which we communicate, not only with others but also apparently with ourselves, according to an intriguing notion known as the facial-feedback hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience, but they also help determine how people experience and label emotions. KEY TERMS Cannon-Bard theory of emotion The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus. emotions Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior. facial-affect program The theory that a set of nerve impulses produce a facial display reflecting an emotion that is universal across cultures. facial-feedback hypothesis The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions. James-Lange theory of emotion The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation (―I feel sad because I am crying‖). Schachter-Singer theory of emotion The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues. LECTURE IDEAS JAMES-LANGE THEORY Starting with James, provide context for his theory that the emotion follows the physiological response by reading the following quote, which captures the theory very well:

My theory . . . is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion. Common sense says we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect, that the one mental state is not immediately induced by the other, that the bodily manifestations must first be interposed between, and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, and afraid because we tremble. For more information: Ellsworth, P. C. (1994). William James and emotion: Is a century of fame worth a century of misunderstanding? Psychological Review, 101, 222–229. IMPORTANCE OF THEORIES OF EMOTIONS Theories exist with regard to emotions because, as with motivation, there are many possible causes. Highlight the pros and cons of the main theories in your lecture. Be sure to emphasize the key differences between the theories: this is often a difficult topic for students. Show students the following image: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/blogs/morris/posts/27morris_ekman_cd.jpg. Ask them which person is showing a Duchenne smile. Show students the following site: http://www.jaschahoffman.com/ekmanLight.jpg. The images are of the South Fore people of New Guinea. Ask them to identify the emotions in each face. You may want to place students in groups. Have students discuss what is attractive in today’s society versus in the 1920, 1960s, and 1980s. What is similar? What is different? If students have Internet access, ask them to provide some images from each era. GREAT MOMENTS IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: SCHACHTER-SINGER EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATION Select students to act out a skit for the rest of the class to demonstrate the two conditions of euphoria and anger expressed when the subject was not informed about the drug’s real effects. You need five students (two confederates, two subjects, and an experimenter) who can act out a skit while you read the narration of what happened in the study. Afterward, ask the class to critique the experiment. This is a good description to use either for the skit or to read to the class:

All subjects were told they were being used to test the effectiveness of a (fictitious) vitamin supplement called “Suproxin” that supposedly improves the eyesight. They were then going to be given a test as soon as the Suproxin had taken effect (in approximately 20 min). This was a cover story to disguise the real purpose of the experiment. All subjects received extra credit on their final exam for participating. Drug injection had two conditions: 1. Adrenaline—Subjects were given an injection of adrenaline, which produces autonomic arousal. 2. Saline—Subjects were given an injection of saline, which produces no arousal. Subjects given adrenaline then could be in one of three conditions: 1. Informed about the effects of the drug (told to expect effects of adrenaline but not told the drug was adrenaline) 2. Misinformed about the effects of the drug (told to expect numb feet, itching, and a headache) 3. Not given any information about the drug Subjects were then exposed to either the euphoria or anger condition while waiting the 20 min for the drug to “take effect.” During this time, the experimenter’s confederate engaged in either euphoric or angry behavior. Euphoric condition: The waiting room had deliberately been put into a state of disarray. When the experimenter left, he told the subject and the confederate that they could take any paper, pencils, or paper clips they wanted. Then the confederate started playing with the objects in the room, including two hula hoops. He tried to get the subject to join in. Anger condition: The questionnaire was supposed to make the subject have a reason for being angry, as the questions get progressively more personal. The confederate encouraged this angry feeling toward the experiment by complaining about the injection. The confederate then kept pace with the subject as the questionnaire was answered. The confederate added negative comments about the questions. At the end of the session, the confederate pretended to be very angry by ripping up the questionnaire. The experimenter then returned. Behavioral observations were then made as well as ratings based on these two key questions:

1. How irritated, angry, or annoyed would you say you feel at present? This was answered on a 5-point scale ranging from 0—I don’t feel at all irritated or angry to 4—I feel extremely irritated and angry. 2. How good or happy would you say you feel at present? This also was answered on a 5point scale, ranging from 0—I don’t feel at all happy or good to 4—I feel extremely happy and good. The results showed that the ignorant condition was significantly different from the informed condition in the case of both euphoria and anger. But those in the anger ignorant condition did not feel angry (although they behaved in an angrier manner than those in the informed condition). Although the study can be criticized for important limitations, the conclusions are important in pointing to the role of cognition in emotion. Later theories such as those of Beck and Lazarus placed even more importance on cognition, suggesting that thoughts (cognitions) produce emotions as in the case of thoughts of loss or inadequacy leading to the emotion of sadness or depression. NOTE: Because I have a number of undergraduate teaching assistants, I was able to rehearse this ahead of time and present it to the class as a skit. I titled this (and others that I will discuss later): “Great Moments in the History of Psychology” and began it with a PowerPoint slide along with the song “Don’t Know Much about History” by Sam Cooke. HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS Use these hints to help students keep the theories straight: James–Lange: Lange hits James and makes him angry (i.e., physiological changes precede emotions). Cannon–Bard: A cannon goes off in your thalamus. Schachter–Singer: A singer makes you happy. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS FACIAL AFFECT PROGRAM AND FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS Indicate that the facial affect program is not really a “theory” of emotions but rather a way to understand how people express and interpret emotions. The facial feedback hypothesis is a theory of emotions and in some ways is like the James–Lange theory in that it emphasizes physiology as a cause of emotion.

BIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS Students may have a hard time differentiating the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Tell them to imagine that they are driving down the road in a rainstorm when they suddenly see brake lights from the car in front of them. Ask them to explain their reaction. Typically, their hear rate increases, they hold their breath, their mouth gets dry. These are all a result of their sympathetic nervous system. Their body is having “sympathy” for their situation and preparing them to react (slam on the brakes, brace for impact, etc.). Now, have them imagine how they would feel when they are able to avoid the accident. Their heart rate slows, their breathing returns to normal, and so on. This is the parasympathetic nervous system. Like a “parachute,” it calms the free fall and returns you to a normal state. HUMOR IN PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING Discuss the role of humor in promoting psychological well-being. Can laughter improve the body’s immune functioning and reactions to stressful events, as is sometimes claimed? If so, why? And if not, why not? If you feel comfortable with this, tell a few good psychology jokes. Ask the class how they feel about the role of laughter in their lives. CAN PEOPLE LIE TO LIE DETECTORS? Explore whether potential employees should have to pass lie detector tests. Another serious issue is whether people can learn to “fake” lie detectors by controlling their bodily reactions to lying. This topic also can be used to enliven the discussion of the James–Lange theory. Psychologists have devised various ways to detect lying. Have students search online for information on detecting deception and detecting lies. Ask them what is a good way to tell if someone is being truthful and to explain their answer. THEORIES OF EMOTION Theories of Emotion: After discussing the various theories of emotion in class, break the class into three groups. Assign each group one of the theories and have them do an internet search for studies on these theories. Each group should find at least two studies on their assigned theory. Next, have them present to the class, describing the studies that were conducted on the theory they were assigned. This activity will give the students a more in-depth knowledge of the theories, and each group will learn from the other groups about the other two theories. The Primacy Debate: Discuss with the class the debate over whether thinking or emotion comes first. Break the students into groups, and have them randomly draw pieces of paper on which have been written the words thinking or emotion. Tell the students that depending on which paper they drew, their group must develop a debate strategy arguing either for thinking

coming first or emotion coming first. The following week, have the groups debate both sides as a class presentation. Positive Emotions and Illness: Ask the students to think of a time in their life when they were ill and how their emotions played a part in feeling better or worse. Next, have them do an internet search to find cases in which patients started feeling better because they changed their emotions regarding their illness. Review their search results and have selected students briefly present what they found to the class. Emotional Intelligence: Some psychologists believe that the ability to identify and regulate one's emotions is a kind of intelligence. Emotionally intelligent people are also thought to be better at reading the emotional expressions of others. Have students do an online search for emotional intelligence tests and take some online quizzes or try the one at http:\\testyourself.psychtests.com/testid/3038. Ask them: Do you think you are emotionally intelligent? Does your performance on the test seem to reflect your actual experience? What is your opinion of the test you tried? Is there information on the site about its validity and reliability? FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Facial Expressions: Create a slide show of a variety of faces with different expressions. For each face, have students guess the emotion being expressed. Do students generally agree? Disagree? Use this to encourage discussion about expressing and understanding emotions. Facial Feedback: Break the students into pairs. Give a list of facial expressions to one of the students in each pair. Ask the students with the list to make the facial expression listed to their partners. The partner should then write down what emotion they think the other student is feeling. Afterward, ask the students to discuss their answers to see whether they got them correct. Have the pairs share and compare their results in a whole-class discussion. Facial Feedback: Ask half of the class to suck on their pencil or pen for 1 min. Ask the other half to bite on their pencil or pen (held horizontally) for 1 min. After the minute has passed, ask them to indicate their mood on a scale of 1 (highly depressed) to 10 (ecstatic). Discuss the difference. Emoticon Challenge: Team up your students to see who can identify the emotions that emoticons are trying to represent. To prepare ahead, go to http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/emoticons.php and pick out some of your favorites to show the students. At the end of this activity, ask students whether someone from a different country would have the same answers as they did. Also, what is the benefit of having these emoticons? And, can students think of a time when they didn’t use one of these icons and someone misunderstood or misinterpreted what they wrote?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ROLE OF EMOTIONS IN DAILY LIFE Ask students whether they believe that there are gender differences in emotion. Do men and women feel differently, or do they just demonstrate their emotions differently? Ask students to explain and provide examples. You might also want to point out how single examples sometimes fall into stereotypical categories.    

Why are emotions important in our daily lives? Do you feel that fear is an unpleasant emotion? Knowing that most people feel fear as an unpleasant emotion, how can fear be seen in a positive manner? What would be the benefits of learning to control our emotions? How does a person’s expression of emotions influence what you think about that person? Why?

Resilience: Use Handout 8: How They Felt After 9/11 as a way for students to realize the emotions people felt after 9/11 and how many felt resilient in that time of tragedy. The students are asked to question 15 people who were in the teens or older in 2001 about their emotions following 9/11. How were they able to bounce back to their typical selves? Emoticons: Instruct students to draw emoticons that would express the ideas in the chapter. After they are done, have them share these with the class and see whether the rest of the class understands the language. This can also be done in “texting” language. Positive Emotions and Illness: Ask the students to think of a time in their lives when they were ill and say how their emotions played a part in their feeling better or worse. Next, have them do an internet search to find cases in which patients started feeling better because they changed their emotions regarding their illness. Review their search results and have selected students briefly present what they found. Gratitude Journal or Blog: Instruct the students to list 10 items they are grateful for at the moment. Discuss in class the difficulty of coming up with such a list. Assign the students to keep a gratitude journal or blog. Have them list five items they are grateful for every day for a minimum of 7 days. From their gratitude journal, have the students write a one- to two-page paper describing any differences in their outlook or affect. Happiness: Ask students what would make them happy. Winning the lottery? Finding true love? Getting straight As? Talk to them about the predictors of happiness. Emotional Arousal and Horror Movies: Show students a scene from a frightening movie (preferably not too gory). Ask them how they felt after watching the scene. What emotions are

they experiencing? How much of their feelings can be attributed to physiological arousal and how much to their cognitive labeling of the situation? LIE DETECTORS AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS What is your opinion about lie detectors? Do you think they can be fooled? Give an example of a misunderstanding you have had with someone else based on misinterpreting someone’s nonverbal behavior. Are there any conditions that you feel justify employers’ giving employees a polygraph test? To what extent are nonverbal behaviors culturally determined or are there universals in the way we express ourselves? Measuring Arousal: Have the students do an internet search on the pros and cons of using the polygraph test to determine whether suspects are lying. Have them summarize the arguments for and against this practice. Ask them to give examples of confounding variables in polygraphy. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Emotional Weaknesses Exposed Consider your emotional response to a given argument or situation. In cases in which you must make an important decision, let’s consider how emotions may help or hinder your ability to successfully solve problems and make decisions. How many of you think that emotions are generally “irrational” or cloud someone from seeing the “truth?” Stereotypically, women are seen as more emotional than men. How many of you think that men are better than women at making decisions and solving problems because “they don’t let emotions get in the way?” Who thinks that emotions play an important role in the decision-making process and to ignore them means to ignore a valuable component of what makes us human? SUGGESTED MEDIA ABC News 20/20 (2008). The how of happiness. https://vimeo.com/51783559. Anger Management Groups. https://www.angermanagementgroups.com/anger-managementtechniques. This site provides techniques for dealing with the emotion of anger. Annenberg/PCB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Motivation and emotion., 30:00. The distinction between emotion and motivation is discussed, and a description of how they interact is presented. Annenberg/PCB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: The self, 30:00. The motivational and emotional effects of beliefs about oneself are described.

Dan Goleman on emotional intelligence and social intelligence. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZskNGdP_zM&feature=related Emotion. http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/emo/. Emotional IQ Test: https://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=3978. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2010). Emotional brain: An introduction to affective neuroscience, 33:00. In this program, animations and fMRI images introduce students to the subcortical emotional circuits in the brain and chemical processes that produce emotional responses and contribute to decision making and mental health. Fosslien, L., & West-Duffy, M. (The Science of Success). (2019, April 11). No hard feelings: Your complete guide to dealing with emotions at work with Liz Fosslien & Mollie West Duffy [Audio podcast]. Available at https://www.successpodcast.com/show-notes/2019/4/10/no-hardfeelings-your-complete-guide-to-dealing-with-emotions-at-work-with-liz-fosslien-amp-molliewest-duffy.

Fry, H. (TEDx). (2014, April). The mathematics of love. [Video file]. Available at https://www.ted.com/talks/hannah_fry_the_mathematics_of_love.

Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. D. (2019). World Happiness Report. Available at https://s3.amazonaws.com/happiness-report/2019/WHR19.pdf. Insight Media. (2008). All about happiness, 39:00. This ABC News program explores happiness. Insight Media. (2002). Tough times, resilient kids: The documentary, 58:00. The resilience of children is discussed in this documentary. Paul Ekman: Available at https://www.paulekman.com Ekman has conducted a number of famous studies on facial expression of emotion. This site contains a summary of his studies and descriptions of his most recent research. PBS. (2009). Facing our emotions (part of the series This Emotional Life), 60:00. This program investigates emotions such as anger, fear, and anxiety. PBS. (2009). Rethinking happiness (part of the series This Emotional Life), 60:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQl2BL4e9zM&list=ELetM63HSkcninfDzzrOAyZA&index=4

&t=0s. This program explores what makes people happy and how to predict happiness. It also looks at resilience. Rubin, G. (Happy & Well).(2015, July 13). The happiness project with Gretchen Rubin at happiness & its causes 2015 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzuawrFE1xM.

The Pursuit of Happyness (2006). Will Smith portrays the life of a single father struggling to make a life for him and his young son. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00uTFVnWJMw.

The Science of Happiness. (Greater Good0. [Audio podcast]. Available at https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/podcasts. Science-based insights for a meaningful life.

Truth or Lie: Available at http://www.truthorlie.com/whopoly.html. Although the company has retired, the information remaining on the home page of the Truth or Lie Polygraph Examination Agency offers frames on short articles about polygraph issues.

Van Edwards, V. (The Science of Success). (2017, April 20). The secret science of lies & body language with Vanessa Van Edwards. [Audio podcast]. Available at https://www.successpodcast.com/show-notes/2017/4/18/the-secret-science-of-lies-bodylanguage-with-vanessa-van-edwards.

Webb, A. (TEDSalon). (2013, April). How I hacked online dating. [Video file]. Available at https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_webb_how_i_hacked_online_dating. Insight Media. (2004). When tempers flare: A guide to understanding and managing anger., 30:00. Anger management is discussed in this video. Wood, J. M. (2015, November 30). 6 scientific facts about happiness. http://mentalfloss.com/article/71798/6-scientific-facts-about-happiness. ADDITIONAL READINGS

Beck, J. (2015, February). Hard feelings: Science’s struggle to define emotions. The Atlantic. Available at http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/02/hard-feelingssciences-struggle-to-define-emotions/385711/. Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and Memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148. DeWall, C. N. (2015). When two emotions are better than one: Teaching students the importance of emotional differentiation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 34–35. DeWall, C. N., & Myers, D. G. (2014). The cost of happiness: Teaching students it costs less than they think. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27, 26–27. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House. Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99, 550–553. Fridlund, A. J. (1991). Evolution and facial action in reflex, social motive, and paralanguage. Grant, A. (Medium) (2015, October 27). Does trying to be happy make us unhappy? Available at https://medium.com/@AdamMGrant/does-trying-to-be-happy-make-us-unhappy21d3a60ea05. Gilbert, D. (2007). Stumbling on happiness. New York, NY: Vintage. Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam.

Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. New York, NY: Bantam.

Hsee, C.K., & Ruan, B. (2016). The pandora effect: The power and peril of curiosity. Psychological Science, 27(5), 659-666. Izard, C. E. (1992). Basic emotions, relations among emotions, and emotion-cognition relations. Psychological Review, 99, 561–565. Kashdan, T. B., Barrett, L. F., & McKnight, P. E. (2015). Unpacking emotion differentiation: Transforming unpleasant experience by perceiving distinctions in negativity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 10–16.

Key, J. R. (2012). Journey towards professionalism: Straight talk for today's generation: A nononsense lesson about the basics of being a professional aimed at today's generation. Bloomington, IL: iUniverse. Klein, R. T. (2012). Frequently asked questions about texting, sexting, and flaming. New York, NY: Rosen Publishing. Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). The how of happiness: A new approach to getting the life you want. New York, NY: Penguin. Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). The myths of happiness: What should make you happy, but doesn’t, what shouldn't make you happy, but does. New York, NY: Penguin. Maclim, G. L. (2007). Practitioner’s guide to emotional regulation in school-aged children. New York, NY: Springer. Matsumoto, D., & Hwang, H. S. (2011, May). Reading facial expressions of emotion. APA Science Brief, Available at https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2011/05/facial-expressions. Plamer, J. (2015). The history of emotions: An introduction. England, UK: Oxford University Press. Schacter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379–399. Spilsbury, R. (2013). Emotions: From birth to old age. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Strack, F., Martin, L. L., & Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 545(5), 768–777. Weierstall, R., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2013). An Appetite for Aggression. Scientific American Mind, 24(2), 46–49. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES   

Pre-Test Reading Assignment quizzes (one per module) Terminology Quiz



Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS    

Motivation Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Drive Reduction Theory Self-Determination Theory

INTERACTIVITIES   

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Motivation and Psychological Perspectives Sensation Seeking

NEWSFLASH  

Helping Others Makes Us Happier—But It Matters How We Do It Strange Dreams During COVID-19? You're Not Alone, U of T Researchers Say

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: APPLYING THEORIES OF MOTIVATION TO PERSONAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS 1. Describe a recent goal you have achieved (academic, personal, social, performance, or athletic).

2. Explain this achievement in terms of each of these theories or terms: a. Drive-reduction

b. Intrinsic-extrinsic

c. Maslow’s hierarchy

3. Which theory or term best accounts for your having achieved this goal? Why?

HANDOUT 2: MASLOW’S THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION Choose an original example of a person (living or dead) who you think meets the criteria for self-actualization (in Maslow’s theory). Answer these questions about that person: 1. Who is this person?

2. Justify why you think this person is self-actualized.

3. Do you think this person proves or disproves the idea that lower-order needs must be satisfied in order to achieve self-actualization? Why?

4. How do you think self-actualization differs from need for achievement?

HANDOUT 3: DRIVE VERSUS INCENTIVE MOTIVATIONS IN ADVERTISEMENTS

Select advertisements that fulfill either the drive (filling a need) or incentive (creating a need) theories of motivation. For each one, briefly describe the advertisement, list the need it appeals to, and indicate whether or not you think it is effective. Advertisement Description

Need It Appeals to

Effective or Not?

HANDOUT 4: CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO EATING DISORDERS Select four magazine articles that deal with weight or weight loss. Describe and comment on each article below.

Article title

Content of Article and How It Treats the Topic of Weight or Weight Loss

How Do You Think This Article Conveys Social Attitudes Toward Weight or Weight Loss?

HANDOUT 5: DAILY ACTIVITY DIARY Over the next 24 hours, complete this chart. For each activity, indicate what might have motivated you to use more energy. For example, if you drove from one end of campus to the next, indicate what would make you more likely in the future to walk that distance. The first three rows are filled in to show a suggested way to complete the rest of the chart.

Time

Low-Energy Activity

9:00 a.m.

Took the elevator five flights

Alternate High-Energy Activity

What Would Motivate You to Use More Energy?

Walked the stairs

Ate pizza last night

1:00 p.m.

Drove to the grocery store

Walked

Wear comfortable shoes

6:00– 8:00 p.m.

Watched television

Worked out (for 30–60 minutes of that time)

Want to feel energized

HANDOUT 6: THE WORLD’S HEAVIEST PEOPLE Go to the following website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heaviest_people. After reading through the list, write a short paper on the situations of obesity and how these people became obese. Do any of them have similar situations or causes for their obesity? What are some possible underlying causes for obesity?

HANDOUT 7: SELF-RATINGS OF NEEDS Indicate whether each of the items below is true or false for you. There are no right or wrong answers. 1. I work hard to accomplish my goals. 2. Other people consider me to be a risk-taker. 3. When I have a problem, I talk to other people. 4. I feel good when other people compliment me. 5. I have trouble establishing new friendships. 6. Others consider me to be friendly and outgoing. 7. I must take responsibility for my own life. 8. I like directing other people. 9. I can most often be found with other people. 10. I consider myself to be independent. 11. I enjoy influencing other people. 12. I enjoy working with others to solve problems. 13. I plan my life so I can be successful. 14. People say that I am a good leader. 15. Success is not as important as being popular. 16. Other people consider me to be ambitious. 17. I compete whenever given a chance. 18. I need others to approve of what I do. 19. I need feedback on my performance. 20. I like to be in charge of things. 21. Friendship is very important to me. 22. I set realistic goals so I can meet them. 23. Having the ability to influence others is important. 24. I enjoy going to parties and social events. 25. I am very proud of my accomplishments. 26. I am basically a competitive person. 27. I prefer to avoid conflict whenever possible. 28. Success in life requires time and effort. 29. It is important to influence other people. 30. I like to spend time with other people. KEY:

Achievement: 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 25, 28 Power: 5, 8, 11, 20, 23, 26, 29 Affiliation: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30

HANDOUT 8: HOW THEY FELT AFTER 9/11 Identify 15 people who were in the teens or older in 2001, and ask them how they felt in the days and weeks following 9/11. Based on what the people you interviewed said, write a short essay on resilience. How many people were more likely to feel happy that they were alive? Did any of the people’s reports of the negative and positive emotions they felt reflect what you read in your text about resilient individuals?

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 6: THE WORLD’S HEAVIEST PEOPLE ANSWER KEY Go to the following website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heaviest_people. After reading through the list, write a short paper on the situations of obesity and how these people became obese. Do any of them have similar situations or causes for their obesity? What are some possible underlying causes for obesity? Correct answers should include some of the following: lifelong struggle with weight medical problems associated with weight set point cognitive and sociocultural influences such as time and place associations with food HANDOUT 8: HOW THEY FELT AFTER 9/11 ANSWER KEY Identify 15 people who were in the teens or older in 2001, and ask them how they felt in the days and weeks following 9/11. Based on what the people you interviewed said, write a short essay on resilience. How many people were more likely to feel happy that they were alive? Did any of the people’s reports of the negative and positive emotions they felt reflect what you read in your text about resilient individuals? Correct responses should include a thoughtful discussion of resilience, defined as the ability to bounce back from negative experience, and to be flexible and adaptable when things are not going well. Resilient individuals tend to experience positive emotion, are optimistic and energetic, and tend to cope more successfully than others.

Chapter 9 Development OPENING THEMES

Developmental psychology is increasingly becoming a psychology of the life span rather than a psychology of children. This unit takes a life span approach, covering ―cradle to grave.‖ Themes to emphasize in the lectures based on these modules are the biopsychosocial nature of development (i.e., that development occurs in multiple domains) and that development occurs in a number of directions (i.e., not simply a trajectory of growth and decline). Although the last topic in the unit is death and dying, another possibility to consider is ending with the topic of ―successful aging.‖ Lecture ideas below contain suggestions for material to include on this topic. MODULE 27: NATURE AND NURTURE: THE ENDURING DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 27-1

How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors?

27-2

What is the nature of development before birth?

27-3

What factors affect a child during the mother‘s pregnancy?

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. The nature–nurture issue is the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior. Although the question was first posed as a nature-versus-nurture issue, developmental psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes. Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature–nurture question. Although no one would argue that our behavior is determined solely by inherited factors, evidence collected by behavioral geneticists does suggest that our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. See Figure 1. Developmental psychologists agree that genetic factors not only provide the potential for specific behaviors or traits to emerge, but also place limitations on the emergence of such behavior or traits. Developmental psychologists also agree that in most instances environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people to reach the potential capabilities that their genetic background makes possible. Developmental psychologists typically take an interactionist position on the nature–nurture issue by suggesting that a combination of hereditary and environmental factors influences development. DETERMINING THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF NATURE AND NURTURE Developmental psychologists use several approaches to determine the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on behavior. In one approach, researchers can experimentally control the genetic makeup of laboratory animals by carefully breeding them for specific traits.

Human twins serve as another important source of information about the relative effects of genetic and environmental factors. If identical twins (those who are genetically identical) display different patterns of development, those differences have to be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised. The most useful data come from identical twins who are adopted at birth by different sets of adoptive parents and raised apart in differing environments. Researchers can also take the opposite track. Instead of concentrating on people with similar genetic backgrounds who are raised in different environments, they may consider people raised in similar environments who have totally dissimilar genetic backgrounds. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH TECHNIQUES Cross-sectional research is a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time. Cross-sectional studies provide information about differences in development between different age groups. Cross-sectional research has limitations, however. For instance, we cannot be sure that the differences we might find are due to age differences alone. Instead, they may reflect differences of the cohorts represented. A cohort is a group of people who grow up at similar times, in similar places, and in similar conditions. Longitudinal research assesses the behavior of one or more participants as the participants get older. Longitudinal studies assess change in behavior over time, whereas cross-sectional studies assess differences among groups of people. Longitudinal research has some drawbacks, too, such as cost, time, dropout rates, and participants becoming test-wise. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTION TO BIRTH Our knowledge of the biology of conception—when a male‘s sperm cell penetrates a female‘s egg cell—and its aftermath makes the start of life no less of a miracle. Let‘s consider how an individual is created by looking first at the genetic endowment that a child receives at the moment of conception. THE BASICS OF GENETICS The one-cell entity established at conception contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information. One member of each pair is from the mother, and the other is from the father. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes— smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted. Either individually or in combination, genes produce each person‘s particular characteristics. Composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, genes are the biological equivalent of ―software‖ that programs the future development of all parts of the body‘s hardware (see Figure 2). Some genes control the development of systems common to all members of the human species— the heart, circulatory system, brain, lungs, and so forth; others shape the characteristics that make each human unique, such as facial configuration, height, and eye color. The child‘s sex is also determined by a particular combination of genes. Specifically, a child inherits an X chromosome

from its mother and either an X or a Y chromosome from its father. When it receives an XX combination, it is a female; with an XY combination, it develops as a male. Male development is triggered by a single gene on the Y chromosome; without the presence of that specific gene, the individual will develop as a female. As behavioral geneticists have discovered, genes are also at least partially responsible for a wide variety of personal characteristics, including cognitive abilities, personality traits, and psychological disorders. THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT Our understanding of genetics took a giant leap forward in 2001, when scientists were able to map the specific location and sequence of every human gene as part of the massive Human Genome Project. The success of the Human Genome Project started a revolution in health care because scientists can identify the particular genes responsible for genetically caused disorders. THE EARLIEST DEVELOPMENT When an egg becomes fertilized by the sperm, the resulting one-celled entity, called a zygote, immediately begins to develop. The zygote starts out as a microscopic speck. Three days after fertilization, though, the zygote increases to around 32 cells; within a week it has grown to 100– 150 cells. These first 2 weeks are known as the germinal period. Two weeks after conception, the developing individual enters the embryonic period, which lasts from Week 2 through Week 8; he or she is now called an embryo. From Week 8 and continuing until birth, the developing individual enters the fetal period and is called a fetus. At the start of this period, it begins to respond to touch; it bends its fingers when touched on the hand. At 16–18 weeks, its movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them. At the same time, hair may begin to grow on its head, and the facial features become similar to those the child will display at birth. Within the womb the fetus continues to develop before birth. It begins to grow fatty deposits under the skin, and it gains weight. The fetus reaches the age of viability, the point at which it can survive if born prematurely, at about prenatal age 22 weeks. By Week 24, a fetus has many of the characteristics it will display as a newborn. At prenatal age 28 weeks, the fetus weighs less than 3 pounds and is about 16 in. long. It may be capable of learning. Before birth, a fetus passes through several sensitive periods. A sensitive period is the time when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli. Sensitive periods can also occur after birth. In the final weeks of pregnancy, the fetus continues to gain weight and grow. At the end of the normal 38 weeks of pregnancy, the fetus typically weighs 7 pounds and is about 20 in. in length. However, the story is different for preterm infants, who are born before Week 38. Because they have not been able to develop fully, they are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and even death.

GENETIC INFLUENCES ON THE FETUS A major cause of birth defects is faulty genes or chromosomes. Some of the more common genetic and chromosomal difficulties are phenylketonuria (PKU), sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and Down syndrome. Phenylketonuria (PKU). A child born with the inherited disease phenylketonuria cannot produce an enzyme that is required for normal development. Sickle-cell anemia. One of a group of diseases known as sickle cell disease, sickle-cell anemia gets its name from the abnormally shaped red blood cells that characterize it. Tay-Sachs disease. Children born with Tay-Sachs disease, a disorder most often found in Jews of Eastern European ancestry, usually die by age 3 or 4 because of the body‘s inability to break down fat. Down syndrome. Down syndrome, one of the causes of intellectual disability, occurs when the zygote receives an extra chromosome at the moment of conception. PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Environmental influences—the nurture part of the nature–nurture equation—also affect the fetus. Some of the more profound consequences are brought about by teratogens, environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect. Among the major prenatal environmental influences on the fetus are the mother‘s nutrition, mother‘s illness, mother‘s emotional state, mother‘s use of drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use. Mother’s nutrition. What a mother eats during her pregnancy has important implications for the health of her baby. Seriously undernourished mothers cannot provide adequate nutrition to a growing fetus, and they are likely to give birth to underweight babies. Poorly nourished babies are also more susceptible to disease, and a lack of nourishment may adversely affect their cognitive development. Mother’s illness. Even minor illnesses that a mother catches during the early months of pregnancy can have devastating consequences for a developing fetus. Mother’s emotional state. A mother‘s emotional state affects her baby. Mothers who are anxious and tense during the last months of their pregnancies are more apt to have irritable infants who sleep and eat poorly. Mother’s use of drugs. Mothers who take illegal, physically addictive drugs such as cocaine run the risk of giving birth to babies who are similarly addicted. Opioid addiction crisis has produced an increase in neonatal abstinence syndrome, in which infants born to mothers addicted to codeine, fentanyl, and oxycodone are themselves addicted to the drugs. Alcohol. Alcohol is extremely dangerous to fetal development and may result in fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD), a condition resulting in below-average intelligence, growth delays, and facial deformities. Nicotine use. Pregnant mothers who smoke put their children at considerable risk. Smoking while pregnant can lead to miscarriage and infant death. KEY TERMS age of viability The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely. chromosomes Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information.

cross-sectional research A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time. developmental psychology The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. embryo A developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs. fetus A developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth. genes The parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted. identical twins Twins who are genetically identical. longitudinal research A research method that investigates behavior as participants get older. nature–nurture issue The issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior. teratogens Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect. zygote The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm. LECTURE IDEAS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AS LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Explain that developmental psychology examines development throughout life, not just in childhood. Development is understood as a life span process that is complex and multidirectional. Contrast this modern perspective on development with the more traditional approach, which focused on change in the early part of the life span more than on the later years. NATURE AND NURTURE Point out that the debate of nature vs. nurture is now nature AND nurture—the question is how much these factors interact in development. Explain that studies of identical twins raised in different environments allow us to compare the relative effects of nature and nurture. The following methods are used: Monozygotic (identical) twins raised in the same environment are compared to: 

Monozygotic twins adopted by different parents and raised in different environments. Because they share genetic endowment, any differences between them must be due to the environment.



Dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised in same environment. Differences between them must reflect genetics. The heritability index is used to calculate effect of genetics on a behavior.

However, there are differences even among monozygotic twins, according to what type they are: 

Monochorionic diamniotic: share one placenta with two amniotic sacs (70–75% of MZ



twins) Monochorionic monoamniotic: share one placenta and one amniotic sac (approximately 1% of MZ twins)



Dichorionic diamniotic: two placentas and two amniotic sacs (20–25% of MZ twins)

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Show this chart: Year of Test

Year of Birth

1970

1980

1990

2000

1920

50 years

60 years

70 years

80 years

1930

38 years

50 years

60 years

70 years

1938

30 years

38 years

50 years

60 years

These are the designs: Cross-sectional = Compare all age-groups at 1 year of test (vertical columns of table) Longitudinal = Follow one cohort across all years of test (horizontal rows of table) Research Methods Applied: This section is a review of experimental design and research methods in psychology. Using PsychINFO or another search engine, provide students peer reviewed research articles that highlight cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs. Then in

groups, ask students to describe the findings of the study as well as their significance to developmental psychology. INFLUENCES ON THE FETUS Summarize genetic and environmental influences, indicating their effects on the development of the fetus and whether they can be prevented or not. Below is detailed information to use as a background for describing these influences: GENETIC FACTORS Phenylketonuria (PKU): Available at https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/phenylketonuria/. The absence or deficiency of an enzyme that is responsible for processing the essential amino acid phenylalanine characterizes PKU. With normal enzymatic activity, phenylalanine is converted to another amino acid (tyrosine), which is then utilized by the body. However, when the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme is absent or deficient, phenylalanine abnormally accumulates in the blood and is toxic to brain tissue. This condition is detectable during the first days of life with appropriate screening through a simple blood test. Without treatment, most infants with PKU develop intellectual disability and may also develop additional neurologic symptoms. Sickle-cell anemia (SCA): Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22238/. SCA is the most common inherited blood disorder in the United States, affecting about 72,000 Americans and 1 in 500 African Americans. SCA is characterized by episodes of pain, chronic hemolytic anemia, and severe infections, usually beginning in early childhood. SCA is an autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in the hemoglobin beta gene (HBB) found on chromosome 11p15.4. Carrier frequency of HBB varies significantly around the world, with high rates associated with zones of high malaria incidence, since carriers are somewhat protected against malaria. About 8% of the African American population are carriers. A mutation in HBB results in the production of a structurally abnormal hemoglobin (Hb) called HbS. Hb is an oxygen-carrying protein that gives red blood cells (RBCs) their characteristic color. Under certain conditions, such as low oxygen levels or high hemoglobin concentrations in individuals who are homozygous for HbS, the abnormal HbS clusters together, distorting the RBCs into sickle shapes. These deformed and rigid RBCs become trapped within small blood vessels and block them, producing pain and eventually damaging organs. Although there is no cure for SCA, a combination of fluids, painkillers, antibiotics, and transfusions are used to treat symptoms and complications. Hydroxyurea, an antitumor drug, has been shown to be effective in preventing painful crises. Hydroxyurea induces the formation of fetal Hb (HbF)—a Hb normally found in the fetus or newborn—which, when present in individuals with SCA, prevents sickling. A mouse model of SCA has been developed and is being used to evaluate the effectiveness of potential new therapies for SCA (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18063756).

Tay-Sachs disease: Available at http://www.curetay-sachs.org/. Named for Warren Tay (1843– 1927), a British ophthalmologist who in 1881 described a patient with a cherry red spot on the retina of the eye. It is also named for Bernard Sachs (1858–1944), a New York neurologist whose work several years later provided the first description of the cellular changes in Tay-Sachs disease. Sachs also recognized the familial nature of the disorder, and, by observing numerous cases, he noted that most babies with Tay-Sachs disease were of Eastern European Jewish origin. Tay-Sachs disease is caused by the absence of a vital enzyme called hexosaminidase A (HEXA). Without HEXA, a fatty substance or lipid called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of the brain. This ongoing accumulation causes progressive damage to the cells. The destructive process begins in the fetus early in pregnancy, although the disease is not clinically apparent until the child is several months old. By the time a child with TSD is 3 or 4 years old, the nervous system is so badly affected that life itself cannot be supported. Even with the best of care, all children with classical TSD die early in childhood, usually by the age of 5. A baby with Tay-Sachs disease appears normal at birth and seems to develop normally until about 6 months of age. The first signs of TSD can vary and are evident at different ages in affected children. Initially, development slows; there is a loss of peripheral vision, and the child exhibits an abnormal startle response. By about 2 years of age, most children experience recurrent seizures and diminishing mental function. The infant gradually regresses, losing skills one by one, and is eventually unable to crawl, turn over, sit, or reach out. Other symptoms include increasing loss of coordination, progressive inability to swallow, and breathing difficulties. Eventually, the child becomes blind, intellectually disabled, paralyzed, and nonresponsive to their environment. Down syndrome: Available at https://bgcdownsyndrome.org/about-down-syndrome/. Named after John Langdon Down, the first physician to identify the syndrome, Down syndrome is the most frequent genetic cause of mild to moderate intellectual disability and associated medical problems and occurs in 1 out of 800 live births, in all races and economic groups. Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder caused by an error in cell division that results in the presence of an additional third chromosome 21 or ―trisomy 21.‖ ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (ALSO CALLED TERATOGENS) Rubella: Available at http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/R/rubella.html. About 25% of babies whose mothers contract rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy are born with one or more birth defects, which, together, are referred to as congenital rubella syndrome. These birth defects include eye defects (resulting in vision loss or blindness), hearing loss, heart defects, intellectual disability, and, less frequently, cerebral palsy. Many children with congenital rubella syndrome are slow in learning to walk and to do simple tasks, although some eventually catch up and do well. The infection frequently causes miscarriage and stillbirth. The risk of congenital rubella syndrome from maternal infection drops to around 1% in the early weeks of the second trimester, and there is rarely any risk of birth defects when maternal rubella occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Some infected babies have health problems that are not lasting. They may

be born with low birthweight (less than 5.5 pounds), or have feeding problems, diarrhea, pneumonia, meningitis (inflammation around the brain), or anemia. Red purple spots may show up on their faces and bodies because of temporary blood abnormalities that can result in a tendency to bleed easily. The liver and spleen may be enlarged. Some infected babies appear to show no signs of infection at birth and during infancy. However, all babies whose mothers had rubella during pregnancy should be monitored carefully because problems with vision, hearing, learning, and behavior may first become noticeable during childhood. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy—when it results in fetal alcohol syndrome—has emerged as one of the leading causes of intellectual disability. This illustration from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism shows the parts of the brain affected by maternal alcohol consumption:

For additional information, see this website: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/default.htm. Other drugs of abuse: Up-to-date information on the effects of prenatal exposure to cocaine, MDMA (―ecstasy‖), methamphetamine, and heroin can be found on the National Institutes of Health Medline Plus website: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/pregnancyandsubstanceabuse.html. MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS GENETIC INHERITANCE

CHROMOSOMAL SEX DETERMINATION

SLIDE IDEA: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT First Month

Fertilization occurs Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus Rapid cell division occurs Embryonic stage lasts from 2 to 8 weeks Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm Nervous system begins to develop Embryo is ½ in. long

Second Month

Heart and blood vessels form

Head area develops rapidly Eyes begin to form detail Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished Arms and legs form and grow Heart begins to beat faintly Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce Third Month

Head growth occurs rapidly Bone formation begins to form rapidly The digestive organs begin to function Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements Fetus is 3 in. long and weighs 1 ounce

Fourth Month

Lower parts of the body show rapid growth Bones are distinct in X-ray films Reflex movement becomes more active Heartbeat detected by physician Sex organs are fully formed Fetus is 7 in. long and weighs 5 ounces

Fifth Month

Mother begins to feel reflex movements A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage Fingernails and toenails begin to appear Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking Fetus is 12 in. long and weighs 14 ounces

Sixth Month

Eyes and eyelids fully formed Fat is developing under the skin Fetus is 14 in. long and weighs 2 pounds

Seventh Month

Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly Fetus is 17 in. long and weighs 3 pounds

Eighth Month

Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips Fetus is 17 in. long and weighs 5 pounds

Ninth Month

Hair covering the entire body is shed Organ systems function actively Vernix is present over the entire body Fetus settles into position for birth Neonate is 21 in. long and weighs 7 pounds

PICTURES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Photos and information from: http://www.mhhe.com/cls/psy/ch03/fetus.mhtml. Sperm Penetrating Egg A sperm spends several hours in the female reproductive tract undergoing a process called capacitation, which enables it to penetrate an egg. Here we see a sperm approaching an egg. Although several hundred sperm reach an egg, only one penetrates it. The egg then produces a hard protein covering to prevent penetration by another sperm.

Six-Week-Old Embryo (Rear View) At 6 weeks, the embryo is just over half an inch long. As shown in this photograph, the arms and

legs are just beginning to grow, and the head area is extremely large compared to its size after birth. The embryo is shown here in the amniotic sac, which is filled with fluid to protect it.

Four-and-a-Half-Month-Old Fetus Sucking Thumb At about 4.5 months of prenatal development, the fetus is about 10 in. long and weighs approximately 9 ounces. As shown in this photograph, the fetus shows the reflexive movement of sucking its thumb. This activity appears remarkably similar to thumb-sucking in neonates.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AS LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT In order to get students thinking about development from a life-span perspective, have them work in teams to list changes that occur during each period of the life span. Ask students to list at least three changes/developments that characterize the following periods: prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The Developmental Processes: Write various development changes that occur during life on the board. Break the class into groups and have them discuss the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional processes that happen to an individual during the changing periods of time written on the board. The students will get an idea of what occurs during development and how development does not only refer to physical changes, but other changes that occur also. Nature and Nurture: Use Handout 1: Is It Nature or Nurture? The goal of this activity is to have students think about and discuss the components of the nature versus nurture debate. Students will have to argue for and against both nature and nurture and then give their opinion on the debate as to which is more accurate.

Joan/John Case Study: Nature and Nurture: Ask students to give their opinion about the John/Joan Case. Tell them to provide reasons for their opinions. Ask them what they think they would have done in such a scenario. Would You Want to Be the Opposite Sex? Ask students the question, ―If you had your life to live over, would you come back as the other sex?‖ It works well to have the students all stand up and ask those who ―strongly agree‖ (that they would indeed come back as the other sex) to move to one corner of the room. Then ask those who ―agree‖ to move to a second corner, the ―strongly disagree‖ to move to the third corner, and the ―disagree‖ to move to the fourth corner. Once they have arranged themselves around the room, ask them to explain their positions. Epigenetics: This is a good time to discuss the concept of epigenetics. A great site on pruning is: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/plast.html. I typically show clips from the PBS series The Secret Life of the Brain, including an overview of the series at https://www.pbs.org/video/frontline-inside-teenage-brain/ and these episodes: (infant) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3BoUpMjY-Y; (child) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DK4NhmY5bK0 and (teenager) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGaz_fHLHNU. INFLUENCES ON THE FETUS Prenatal Influences: Have students complete Handout 2, Prenatal Influences. Threats to the Fetus: Have the students choose one of the three threats that were discussed in the textbook, such as teratogens, fetal alcohol syndrome, or sexually transmitted infections. Have the students use the Internet to find various cases that describe these threats. The students should write a one- to two-page paper on the information they read. On the day the papers are due, break the class into groups and have them discuss which threat they chose and what information they found. The students will become more familiar with the threats to infancy and how they can be avoided. The students will also learn from others in their group about other threats that they had not chosen. Teratogens: Have students do a web search for different teratogens and bring a list to class. Then have students volunteer information they found. Some of this is obvious (FAS, smoking, crack, etc.); however, some of the things like lunch meat may lead to a lively discussion. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS RESEARCH METHODS Compare and contrast the pros and cons of cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research. NATURE AND NURTURE

Consider the factors that might determine when a child learns to walk. What kinds of environmental influences might be involved? What kinds of genetic influences might be involved? Choose a personality trait that you believe describes you. How might nature and nurture have contributed to your current personality? What kinds of environmental influences might be involved? What kinds of genetic influences might be involved? HARMFUL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Have students conduct an online search for answers to these questions: What are three harmful maternal behaviors that can affect the developing child? What suggestions do health researchers have for lowering risks to the developing child of harmful maternal behaviors? You might want to ask how many people have a cat. Remind them that toxoplasmosis is from cat feces and thus pregnant women should not change the litter box. If you were a health educator, how would you help pregnant women lower the risks of harmful behaviors that might affect their unborn children? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Research Designs If you wanted to study the development of language over time, which of the following research designs would you choose? a) cross-sectional b) longitudinal Polling Question: Drug Use During Pregnancy Do you think it should be illegal for pregnant women to drink/use drugs/smoke while pregnant? SUGGESTED MEDIA Developmental psychology (APA). https://www.apa.org/about/division/div7. Life‘s greatest miracle. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/lifes-greatest-miracle. Life‘s greatest miracle. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/lifes-greatest-miracle. National Center for Biotechnology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. National Human Genome Research Institute. https://www.genome.gov/10001772/all-about-the-human-genome-project-hgp/.

Preterm birth (CDC). https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/pretermbirth.htm. Students like me. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfbztgLafPY. This series of videos is designed to educate teachers about fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Twin studies. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDXVh_UUk7c. A brief video lecture on twin studies and the nature–nurture issue given by Dr. Matt McGue. ADDITIONAL READINGS Buss, D. (2011). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. New York, NY: Pearson. Framingham Heart Study (an example of a longitudinal study). https://www.framinghamheartstudy.org/about-fhs/background.php. Stromswold, K. (2006). Why aren‘t identical twins linguistically identical? Genetic, prenatal, and postnatal factors. Cognition, 101, 333–384. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16797523. Victor, D. (2016, February 4). No alcohol for sexually active women without birth control, CDC. recommends. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/04/health/noalcohol-for-sexually-active-women-without-birth-control-cdc-recommends.html?_r=0. MODULE 28: INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD LEARNING OBJECTIVES 28-1

What are the major competencies of newborns?

28-2

What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood?

28-3

How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?

A neonate is a newborn child. THE EXTRAORDINARY NEWBORN Several factors cause a neonate‘s strange appearance. The trip through the mother‘s birth canal may have squeezed the incompletely formed bones of the skull together and squashed the nose into the head. The skin secretes vernix, a white greasy covering, for protection before birth, and the baby may have lanugo, a soft fuzz, over the entire body for a similar purpose. All these features change during the first 2 weeks of life as the neonate takes on a more familiar appearance. REFLEXES

A neonate is born with a number of reflexes—unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. Critical for survival, many of those reflexes unfold naturally as part of an infant‘s ongoing maturation. The rooting reflex causes neonates to turn their heads toward things that touch their cheeks—such as the mother‘s nipple or a bottle. Similarly, a sucking reflex prompts infants to suck at things that touch their lips. Among other reflexes are a gag reflex (to clear the throat), the startle reflex (a series of movements in which an infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to a sudden noise), and the Babinski reflex (a baby‘s toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked). Infants lose these primitive reflexes after the first few months of life and replace them with more complex and organized behaviors. The typical baby rolls over by the age of about 3 months, sits without support at about 6 months, stands alone at about 11 months, and walks at just over a year old (see Figure 1). DEVELOPMENT OF SENSES: TAKING IN THE WORLD Neonates can follow objects moving within their field of vision. They also show the beginnings of depth perception as they react by raising their hands when an object appears to be moving rapidly toward the face. Researchers have devised a number of ingenious methods that rely on the newborn‘s biological responses and innate reflexes to test perceptual skills. Habituation refers to the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus. Other approaches include examining babies‘ eye movements and observing which way babies move their heads in response to a visual stimulus. Infants‘ visual perception is remarkably sophisticated from the start of life. At birth, babies prefer patterns with contours and edges over less distinct patterns, indicating that they can respond to the configuration of stimuli. Furthermore, even newborns are aware of size constancy because they are apparently sensitive to the phenomenon by which objects stay the same size even though the image on the retina may change size as the distance between the object and the retina varies. In fact, neonates can discriminate facial expressions—and even imitate them (see Figure 2). In addition to vision, infants display other impressive sensory capabilities. Newborns can distinguish different sounds to the point of being able to recognize their own mothers‘ voices at the age of 3 days. They can also make the subtle perceptual distinctions that underlie language abilities. Moreover, they can recognize different tastes and smells at a very early age. By the age of 4 or 5 months, they are able to recognize two- and three-dimensional objects. By the age of 7 months, neural systems related to the processing of information about facial expressions are highly sophisticated and cause babies to respond differently to specific facial expressions. Sensitivity to visual stimuli, for instance, becomes three to four times greater at 1 year of age than it was at birth. THE GROWING CHILD: INFANCY THROUGH MIDDLE CHILDHOOD PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Children‘s physical growth provides the most obvious sign of development. During the first year of life, children typically triple their birthweight, and their height increases by about half. From age 3 to the beginning of adolescence at around age 13, growth averages a gain of about 5 pounds and 3 in. a year (see Figure 3). The physical changes that occur as children develop are not just a matter of increasing growth; the relationship of the size of the various body parts to one another changes dramatically as children age (see Figure 4). DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: TAKING ON THE WORLD Attachment, the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, is the most important form of social development that occurs during infancy. Developmental psychologists have suggested that human attachment grows through the responsiveness of infants‘ caregivers to the signals the babies provide, such as crying, smiling, reaching, and clinging. The greater the caregiver‘s responsiveness to the child‘s signals, the more likely it is that the child will become securely attached. Full attachment eventually develops as a result of the complex series of interactions between caregiver and child; and in the course of these interactions, the infant plays as critical and active a role as the caregiver in the formation of the bond between them. Assessing Attachment: Developmental psychologists have devised a quick and direct way to measure attachment. Developed by Mary Ainsworth, the Ainsworth strange situation consists of a sequence of events involving a child and (typically) the mother. Initially, the mother and baby enter an unfamiliar room, and the mother permits the baby to explore while she sits down. An adult stranger then enters the room; after this, the mother leaves. The mother returns, and the stranger leaves. The mother once again leaves the baby alone, and the stranger returns. Finally, the stranger leaves, and the mother returns. Babies‘ reactions to the experimental situation vary drastically, depending, according to Ainsworth, on their degree of attachment to the mother: Children who are securely attached employ the mother as a kind of home base; they explore independently but return to her occasionally. Avoidant children do not cry when the mother leaves, and they seem to avoid her when she returns as if indifferent to her. Ambivalent children display anxiety before they are separated and are upset when the mother leaves, but they may show ambivalent reactions to her return. A fourth reaction is disorganized-disoriented; these children show inconsistent and often contradictory behavior. The Father’s Role: Although early developmental research focused largely on the mother–child relationship, more recent research has highlighted the father‘s role in parenting—and with good reason: The number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly, and fathers play an increasingly important role in their children‘s lives. Fathers engage in more physical, rough-and-tumble sorts of activities, whereas mothers play more verbal and traditional games, such as peekaboo. Despite such behavioral differences, the nature of attachment between fathers and children compared with that between mothers and children can be similar.

Social Relationships with Peers: By the time they are 2 years old, children become less dependent on their parents, more self-reliant, and increasingly prefer to play with friends. Initially, play is relatively independent: Even though they may be sitting side by side, 2-year-olds pay more attention to toys than to one another when playing. Later, however, children actively interact, modify one another‘s behavior, and exchange roles during play. Cultural factors also affect children‘s styles of play. Through play children learn to take the perspective of other people and to infer others‘ thoughts and feelings, even when those thoughts and feelings are not directly expressed. Social interaction helps children interpret the meaning of others‘ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately. Screen Time: Monitoring Children’s Use of Media: The World Health Organization (WHO) recently urged that children in the first year of life never be exposed to screen time, and children of 2–4 should spend no more than an hour a day watching a screen. This is roughly in line with American Academy of Pediatrics, which also recommends that any screen time should involve ―co-watching‖ with an engaged adult. However, some critics argue that strict screen time guidelines don't take into account what children are watching and that research evidence on the issue is slim. Not all screen time content is the same, and some types of screen time may actually be beneficial. The Consequences of Child Care Outside the Home: Research on the importance of social interaction is corroborated by work that examines the benefits of child care out of the home, which is an important part of an increasing number of children‘s lives (see Figure 6). According to the results of a large study supported by the U.S. National Institute of Child Health and Development, children who attend high-quality childcare centers may not only do as well as children who stay at home with their parents, but in some respects they may actually do better. Children in childcare are generally more considerate and sociable than other children, and they interact more positively with teachers. Especially for children from poor or disadvantaged homes, childcare in specially enriched environments—those with many toys, books, a variety of children, and high-quality providers—may be more intellectually stimulating than the home environment. However, child care outside the home does not have universally positive outcomes. The key to the success of nonparental child care is its quality. High-quality child care produces benefits; low-quality childcare provides little or no gain and may even hinder children‘s development. Parenting Styles and Social Development: Parents‘ child-rearing practices are critical in shaping their children‘s social competence. According to classic research by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind, four main categories describe different parenting styles (see Figure 7). Rigid and punitive, authoritarian parents value unquestioning obedience from their children. They have strict standards and discourage expressions of disagreement. Permissive parents give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them. In contrast, authoritative parents are firm and set limits for their children. As the children get older, these parents try to reason and explain things to them. They also set clear goals and encourage their children‘s independence. Finally, uninvolved parents show little

interest in their children. The four kinds of child-rearing styles seem to produce very different kinds of behavior in children (with many exceptions, of course). Children are born with a particular temperament—a basic, inborn characteristic way of responding and behavioral style. Some children are naturally easygoing and cheerful, whereas others are irritable and fussy or pensive and quiet. The kind of temperament a baby is born with may in part bring about specific kinds of parental child-rearing styles. In addition, children vary considerably in their degree of resilience, the ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological or even physical harm. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed one of the more comprehensive theories of social development. Psychosocial development involves changes in our interactions and understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society. In the first stage of psychosocial development, the trust-versus-mistrust stage (ages birth to 1½ years), infants develop feelings of trust if their physical requirements and psychological needs for attachment are consistently met and their interactions with the world are generally positive. In the second stage, the autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage (ages 1½–3 years), toddlers develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or they experience shame, self-doubt, and unhappiness if they are overly restricted and protected. Next, children face the crises of the initiative versus-guilt stage (ages 3–6). In this stage, children‘s desire to act independently conflicts with the guilt that comes from the unintended and unexpected consequences of such behavior. The fourth and last stage of childhood is the industry-versus-inferiority stage (ages 6–12). During this period, increasing competency in all areas, whether social interactions or academic skills, characterizes successful psychosocial development. In contrast, difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: CHILDREN‘S THINKING ABOUT THE WORLD Cognitive development is the process by which a child‘s understanding of the world changes due to their age and experience. Theories of cognitive development seek to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual advances that occur during development. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order (see Figure 8). He maintained that these stages differ not only in the quantity of information acquired at each stage but in the quality of knowledge and understanding as well. Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years. During the sensorimotor stage, children base their understanding of the world primarily on touching, sucking, chewing, shaking, and manipulating objects. In the initial part of the stage, children have relatively little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other kinds of symbols. Consequently, infants lack what Piaget calls object permanence, the awareness that objects—and people—continue to exist even if they are out of sight. How do we know? Up to the age of 9 months, infants will

make no attempt to locate the hidden toy, but soon after will begin an active search for the missing object. This indicates that they have developed object permanence—a critical development during the sensorimotor stage. Preoperational Stage: 2–7 Years. The most important development during the preoperational stage is the use of language. Children develop internal representational systems that allow them to describe people, events, and feelings. Preoperational children use egocentric thought, a way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from their own perspective. Preoperational children think that everyone shares their perspective and knowledge. Preoperational children have not yet developed the ability to understand the principle of conservation, which is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects (see Figure 9). Concrete Operational Stage: 7–12 Years. Mastery of the principle of conservation marks the beginning of the concrete operational stage. According to Piaget, the concrete operational stage is the period from 7–12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism. Although children make important advances in their logical capabilities during the concrete operational stage, their thinking still displays one major limitation: They are largely bound to the concrete, physical reality of the world. Formal Operational Stage: 12 Years to Adulthood. The formal operational stage produces a new kind of thinking that is abstract, formal, and logical. Thinking is no longer tied to events that individuals observe in the environment but makes use of logical techniques to resolve problems. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory: No other theorist has given us as comprehensive of a theory of cognitive development as Piaget. Still, many contemporary theorists suggest that a better explanation of how children develop cognitively can be provided by theories that do not involve a stage approach. Some developmental psychologists suggest that cognitive development advances smoothly rather than from one stage to another. These advocates of more continuous development also propose that cognitive development is primarily quantitative rather than qualitative. Piaget may also have underestimated the age at which infants and children can understand specific concepts and principles. Information Processing Approaches: Charting Children’s Mental Programs: To many developmental psychologists, changes in information processing, the way in which people take in, use, and store information, account for cognitive development. According to this approach, quantitative changes occur in children‘s ability to organize and manipulate information. Speed of processing increases with age as some abilities become more automatic. The speed at which children can scan, recognize, and compare stimuli increases with age. Memory also improves dramatically with age (see Figure 10). Memory capabilities are impressive at a very early age: Even before they can speak, infants can remember for months events in which they actively participated. Improvement in information processing relates to advances in metacognition, an awareness and understanding of one‘s own cognitive processes. Metacognition involves the planning, monitoring, and revising of cognitive strategies. Younger children, who lack an

awareness of their own cognitive processes, often do not realize their incapabilities. It is only later, when metacognitive abilities become more sophisticated, that children are able to know when they do not understand. Such increasing sophistication reflects a change in children‘s theory of mind, their knowledge and beliefs about the way the mind operates. Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Considering Culture: In an increasingly influential view, Vygotsky suggests that the focus on individual performance of both Piagetian and information processing approaches is misplaced. Instead, he holds that we cannot understand cognitive development without taking into account the social aspects of learning. According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves. In short, cognitive development occurs when parents, teachers, or skilled peers assist a child by presenting information that is both new and within the ZPD. This type of assistance, called scaffolding, provides support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth. KEY TERMS attachment The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual during infancy. autonomy versus shame-and-doubt stage According to Erikson, the second stage of development in toddlers (ages 1½–3 years) where they develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. authoritative parents Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them. authoritarian parents Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children. cognitive development The process by which children‘s understanding of the world changes due to their age and experience. concrete operational stage According to Piaget, the period from age 7–12 where children begin to think more logically and understand some aspects of the principle of conservation, excluding weight and volume. egocentric thought A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from their own perspective. formal operational stage According to Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought.

habituation The decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus. industry-versus-inferiority stage According to Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children ages 6–12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable. information processing The way in which people take in, use, and store information. initiative-versus-guilt stage According to Erikson, the period during which children ages 3–6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action. metacognition An awareness and understanding of one‘s own cognitive processes. neonate A newborn child. object permanence The awareness that objects—and people—continue to exist even if they are out of sight. permissive parents Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them. preoperational stage According to Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development. principle of conservation The understanding that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. psychosocial development Development of individuals‘ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society. reflexes Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. sensorimotor stage According to Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols. temperament A basic, inborn characteristic way of responding and behavioral style. trust-versus-mistrust stage According to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust. uninvolved parents Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) According to Vygotsky, the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves. LECTURE IDEAS Much of the material in this unit is self-explanatory and students can read about the facts regarding infant development on their own. More interesting and helpful is to focus the lecture on the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and the work of Ainsworth and Baumrind. JEAN PIAGET BIOGRAPHY (FROM PETTIJOHN‘S ―CONNECTEXT‖) Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, in 1896. His father was a professor of medieval literature. As a child, he became absorbed in philosophy and zoology, and wrote his first scientific article on the albino sparrow at the age of 10. After graduating from the University of Neuchâtel in 1918 with a degree in zoology, he turned to psychology, going to Zurich to pursue his studies. There he met Théodore Simon, who invited him to work on the development of intelligence in a grade school in Paris. Trained as a zoologist, Piaget had the skills necessary to begin observing children. He found that children make certain types of errors when solving problems, depending on their age. He concluded that their thinking is qualitatively different than adults‘, and thus it was important to understand children from their own viewpoint. Because of his extensive work studying the development of intelligence, he has had an important impact on developmental psychology. He believed that cognitive development occurred because of the child‘s unsatisfactory experiences in solving problems. His observations led him to develop his famous theory of cognitive development. Piaget was a prolific writer and produced numerous books and articles. He continued to teach and write until his death at 84 in 1980. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. MARY SALTER AINSWORTH BIOGRAPHY (FROM PETTIJOHN‘S ―CONNECTEXT‖) Mary Ainsworth was born in December 1913 in Glendale, Ohio. She attended the University of Toronto, where she earned her BA in 1935, her MA in 1936, and her PhD in developmental psychology in 1937. Ainsworth joined the Canadian Army, where she reached the rank of Major in 1945. After the army, she taught at the University of Toronto. Her interests in attachment led her to Uganda,

where she was a Senior Research Fellow at the East African Institute of Social Research. Here she was able to study cultural differences in attachment formation in infants. After several other academic positions, she settled at the University of Virginia in 1974, where she remained the rest of her academic career. Ainsworth has received many honors, including the Award for Distinguished Contributions to Child Development in 1985 and the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the APA in 1989. She wrote numerous books and articles, including Child Care and the Growth of Love (1965, with John Bowlby, London: Penguin), Infancy in Uganda (1967, Baltimore: John Hopkins), and Patterns of Attachment (1978, with M. Blehar, E. Waters, & S. Wall, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum). One of her important contributions to psychology was her research on early emotional attachment. Her ―strange situation‖ room that infants are placed in during attachment testing is a standard procedure. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. BASICS OF VYGOTSKY‘S THEORY Concepts to emphasize in Vygotsky‘s theory are:   

Focus on social processes in development. Zone of proximal development—area of knowledge just beyond a child‘s abilities; according to Vygotsky, children learn best when they encounter information at this level. Scaffolding—adults and teachers present the kind of support for learning (within the ZPD) that enables the children to work independently but with help so that they can both solve problems and develop their cognitive abilities more generally.

GUEST SPEAKER Invite a parent of an infant or young child to class (if possible, have them bring their child with them). Based on the age of the child, ask the parent to discuss or demonstrate relevant concepts (e.g., with an infant the topic could be reflexes, with an older child it could be Piaget‘s stages). Have students work together to prepare questions ahead of time. CLASS DEMONSTRATION: CONSERVATION This activity is designed to show students that the ability to understand reversibility (in conservation) is not necessarily established by the age of 8. For this activity, you will need to bring into class a set of items in pairs that are the same or similar in amount but are different in their configuration. For example:

1. Two differently shaped perfume bottles containing the same amount of perfume 2. Two 1-pound boxes of pasta boxes, one long and thin (spaghetti) and one wide and short (ziti) 3. Two cans of fruit that are of different weights, with the smaller one weighing more Then ask for a volunteer to judge whether they are the same or different amounts. Chances are that the volunteer will make a few mistakes, demonstrating that conservation is not necessarily established by the age of 8 and that even adults can be fooled! PIAGET‘S CONCEPT OF EGOCENTRISM Show this figure demonstrating the concept of egocentrism:

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS The Developing Infant and Child: The newborn human brain is especially responsive to the specific world around it, allowing nurture to shape human nature. You may want to stress the idea of epigenetics. This is also a good time to point out that Piaget‘s theory is epigenetic in nature. That is, he believes that children are active and cause their own development as they interact with the world. Thus, an impoverished environment (one with little chance for exploration with the baby stuck in a playpen or bounce seat all day) should lead to limited cognitive development. On the other hand, an environment that has many opportunities for exploration should lead to a more complex level of thought. You may want to have students discuss the ways to have a rich environment. INFANCY, PIAGET, PARENTING STYLES Piaget’s Conservation: Have students complete Handout 3, on Everyday Examples of Conservation. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Use Handout 4: Which Stage Is It? The students will read various statements and then decide during which of Piaget‘s stages of cognitive development the behavior is occurring.

Piaget: This is a great time to discuss the educational implications of Piaget‘s work. Remind students that Piaget felt the only benefit of peers was that they offered a state of disequilibrium. You may want to tie in Vygotsky‘s as a counter perspective. You can also point out to students that Piaget believed children cause their own development. Montessori based her educational work on this perspective. You can show a clip of Montessori and her work: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7a3Br6kPbU. Day Care: Using online resources, including PsycINFO, have students answer the following questions:   

What are the long term, if any, effects of day care on child development? Be sure to consider both positive and negative effects. How can parents minimize any harmful effects of day care on their children? What features should parents seek in day care for their children?

Harry Harlow and Comfort: Start by showing a clip of Harlow‘s work: https://youtu.be/_O60TYAIgC4. Attachment: Have students look at http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm, which has a great overview of how infant attachment correlates with adult attachment styles. Then have them go to http://www.web-research-design.net/cgi-bin/crq/crq.pl to take a quick survey on adult attachment style (it even plots where they are on the graph). Then have them write a paragraph summarizing infant attachment styles, a paragraph on adult attachment styles, and finally a paragraph on if they feel this assumption of adult effects is correct, based on their score. Parenting Styles: Have students interview three people outside of class about the parenting styles those people grew up with during childhood. The people they interview should be from three different cultural backgrounds. The students should then turn in an overview of what they found, along with a description of the parenting style in their household as they were growing up. The students will learn about various parenting styles. They will also learn about the differing parenting styles across cultures. Have students consider the style of parenting with which they were raised. Suggest that it might help to think of specific situations or moments when their parents did or did not put limits on their behavior. If they have one or more siblings, have them ask for their opinion too and determine whether they agree with one another about their parents‘ style. Students should then give these definitions to their parents, and ask which, if any, describes them. Sometimes there are as many different views of a family as there are members of that family. Child’s Play: A major part of any child‘s life is playing, and when kids are playing, they are often playing with toys. Using the information on perceptual and cognitive development reviewed in this chapter, design a toy that you think is a perfect fit for a child of 2 months, of 2 years, and of 10 years. With respect to the child‘s development, what features of the toy are especially good for the child of each age-group?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET, INFORMATION PROCESSING, VYGOTSKY) Which theory of cognitive development do you most agree with? Why? How does each theory of cognitive development treat the role of social and cultural factors? Which theory gives the most emphasis to culture? If you were a teacher, how would you apply each of the three theories of cognitive development? As a parent, how would you handle your child asking for a cell phone or tablet to use and to play with? What limitations, if any, would you impose? And does the age of the child change your answers? What evidence can you use to support your decisions? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Child Care As a child, which of the following forms of care did you experience: a) Home care b) Care with a relative c) Home childcare center d) Childcare center e) More than one of the above f) Other Polling Question: Violence Doesn’t Belong Here It seems that more and more we are hearing about violence in our schools. Going to school provides very important developmental experiences that are necessary for children to grow up healthy physically, cognitively, and socially. In the wake of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shootings and other examples, what do you think? How many of you think that violence is more prevalent in schools than it ever has been before? How many of you think that the media and other social institutions are overly publicizing and making these situations more dramatic than necessary? Who thinks that children going to school are more fearful today of terror and violence than were previous generations? SUGGESTED MEDIA Bandura‘s Bobo doll study. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE. Child Development Institute. https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/. Conservation Task. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o.

Egocentrism. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0. Erik Erikson. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpOtpuBnjbo. Piaget‘s conservation tasks. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I. Jean Piaget Society. http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html. The Strange Situation: Mary Ainsworth. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU. ADDITIONAL READINGS Beilen, H. (1992). Piaget‘s enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191–204. Elkind, D. (1988). The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon. New York, NY: AddisonWesley. Epstein, R. (2010). What makes a good parent? Scientific American Mind, 21(5), 46–51. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton. Gopnik, A. (2010). The philosophical baby: What children's minds tell us about truth, love, and the meaning of life. Picador. Legerstee, M., Haley, D. W., & Bornstein, M. H. (2013). The infant mind: Origins of the social brain. Guilford Press. Lourenco, O. (2011). Piaget and Vygotsky: Many resemblances and a crucial difference. New Ideas in Psychology, 30(3), 281–295. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732118X1100078X. Piaget, J. (1990). The child’s conception of the world. New York, NY: Littlefield Adams. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Boston, MA: MIT Press. MODULE 29: ADOLESCENCE: BECOMING AN ADULT LEARNING OBJECTIVES 29-1

What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?

Adolescence is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood—it begins just before the teenage years and ends just after them. It is a time of profound changes and, occasionally, turmoil. Considerable biological change occurs as adolescents attain sexual and physical maturity. At the same time and rivaling these physiological changes, important social, emotional, and cognitive changes occur as adolescents strive for independence and move toward adulthood.

Dramatic changes in society—such as single-family households, less time with parents and more with peers, cultural and ethnic diversity—also affect adolescents‘ development. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: THE CHANGING ADOLESCENT Puberty, the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, begins at about age 11 or 12 for girls, when menstruation starts. However, girls vary widely (see Figure 1). In fact, in the past several decades, puberty has started earlier for a significant minority of girls, who develop breasts as young as age 6 or 7. For boys, the onset of puberty is marked by their first ejaculation, known as spermarche. Spermarche usually occurs around the age of 13. The age at which puberty begins has implications for the way adolescents feel about themselves—as well as the way others treat them. The rate at which physical changes occur during adolescence can affect the way in which people are viewed by others and the way they view themselves. In some cases, early maturation is favorable for boys. For example, early-maturing boys do better in athletics, are generally more popular with peers, and have more positive self-concepts. However, the picture differs for girls. Although early-maturing girls are more sexually desirable and have better self-esteem than do later-maturing girls, some consequences of early physical maturation may be less positive. Late physical maturation may produce certain psychological difficulties for both boys and girls. Boys who are smaller and less coordinated than their more mature peers tend to feel ridiculed and less attractive. Similarly, late-maturing girls are at a disadvantage in middle school and early high school. MORAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: DISTINGUISHING RIGHT FROM WRONG KOHLBERG‘S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT According to Kohlberg, people pass through a series of stages in the evolution of their sense of justice and in the kind of reasoning they use to make moral judgments (see Figure 2). Largely because of various cognitive limitations, preadolescent children tend to think either in terms of concrete, unvarying rules or in terms of the rules of society. Adolescents, however, have typically reached Piaget‘s formal operational stage of cognitive development and can reason on a higher plane. Kohlberg suggests that the changes in moral reasoning can be understood best as a three-level sequence. His theory assumes that people move through the levels in a fixed order and that they cannot reach the highest level until about age 13—primarily because of limitations in cognitive development before that age. However, many people never reach the highest level of moral reasoning. In fact, Kohlberg found that only a relatively small percentage of adults rise above the second level of his model. One difficulty with the theory is that it pertains to moral judgments, not moral behavior. In addition, the theory applies primarily to Western society and its moral code; cross-cultural research conducted in cultures with different moral systems suggests that Kohlberg‘s theory is not necessarily applicable.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN WOMEN One glaring shortcoming of Kohlberg‘s research is that he primarily used male participants. Furthermore, psychologist Carol Gilligan (1996) argues that because of men‘s and women‘s distinctive socialization experiences, a fundamental difference exists in the way each gender views moral behavior. According to Gilligan, men view morality primarily in terms of broad principles such as justice and fairness. In contrast, women see it in terms of responsibility toward individuals and willingness to make sacrifices to help a specific individual within the context of a particular relationship. The fact that Gilligan‘s conception of morality differs greatly from Kohlberg‘s suggests that gender plays an important role in determining what a person sees as moral. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: FINDING ONE‘S SELF IN A SOCIAL WORLD ERIKSON‘S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY Erikson‘s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the search for identity during the adolescent years. The fifth stage of Erikson‘s theory, the identity-versus-role-confusion stage, encompasses adolescence (see Figure 3). During this stage, a time of major testing, people try to determine what is unique about themselves. They attempt to discover who they are, what their strengths are, and what kinds of roles they are best suited to play for the rest of their lives—in short, their identity. During the identity-versus-role-confusion period, an adolescent feels pressure to identify what to do with their life. Because these pressures come at a time of major physical changes as well as important changes in what society expects of them, adolescents can find the period an especially difficult one. The identity-versus-role-confusion stage has another important characteristic: declining reliance on adults for information with a shift toward using the peer group as a source of social judgments. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: SCREEN TIME IS FINE? HOLD THE PHONE A number of recent popular media articles have boldly declared that children‘s media consumption, commonly called screen time, is just not that big a deal. It‘s not exactly good for kids, these articles argue, but they also reassure the reader that the harm it does to kids‘ mental health is so trivial as to be barely greater than the harm caused by eating potatoes! The basis for this surprising conclusion comes mainly from one comprehensive study in 2019 in which researchers Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski ran many analyses on multiple large datasets. They found only a tiny association between digital technology use and adolescent well-being— one so small that it didn't warrant any policy recommendations (Orben & Przybylski, 2019). However, psychologists Jean Twenge, Jonathan Haidt, and public health researcher Kevin Cummins raised an important criticism of that research: In the original study, the researchers

defined screen time by lumping together such widely varying activities as using social media, watching television, and even talking with friends on the phone. These researchers found that for girls in particular, the relationship between screen time and mental health problems was 10 times stronger than the original study had reported. Moreover, the researchers make the compelling argument that even a small effect can have an outsized impact when it is widespread over a large population, as is the case with tens of millions of adolescent girls using social media. In short, the consequences of screen time can actually be quite profound (Twenge et al., 2022). During early adulthood, people enter the intimacy-versus-isolation stage. Spanning the period of early adulthood (from postadolescence to the early 30s), this stage focuses on developing close relationships with others. Development continues during middle adulthood as people enter the generativity-versus-stagnation stage. Generativity is the ability to contribute to one‘s family, community, work, and society and to assist the development of the younger generation. Finally, the last stage of psychosocial development, the ego-integrity-versus-despair stage, spans later adulthood and continues until death. People in this stage ask themselves whether they have lived a meaningful life. Erikson‘s theory suggests that development does not stop at adolescence but continues throughout adulthood. STORMY ADOLESCENCE: MYTH OR REALITY? At one time, psychologists thought that most children entering adolescence were beginning a period filled with stress and unhappiness. Now, however, research shows that this characterization is largely a myth. The reality is that most young people pass through adolescence without great turmoil in their lives, and that they get along with their parents reasonably well. In most families with adolescents, the amount of arguing and bickering clearly rises. Most young teenagers, as part of their search for identity, experience tension between their attempts to become independent from their parents and their actual dependence on them. One reason for the increase in discord during adolescence appears to be the protracted period in which children stay at home with their parents. Current social trends hint at an extension of the conflicts of adolescence beyond the teenage years because a significant number of young adults—known as boomerang children—return to live with their parents, typically for economic reasons, after leaving home for some period. Another source of strife with parents lies in the way adolescents think. Adolescence fosters adolescent egocentrism, a state of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from their own point of view. Egocentrism leads adolescents to be highly critical of authority figures, unwilling to accept criticism, and quick to fault others. Furthermore, they develop personal fables, the belief that their experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else. Finally, parent–adolescent discord occurs because adolescents are much more apt to engage in risky behavior than later in life. In large part, their riskiness is due to the immaturity of brain systems that regulate impulse control, some of which do not fully develop until people are in their mid-20s.

ADOLESCENT SUICIDE Although the vast majority of teenagers pass through adolescence without major psychological difficulties, some experience unusually severe psychological problems. Sometimes those problems become so extreme that adolescents take their own lives. In the United States, suicide is the second leading cause of death among individuals between the ages of 10 and 14 and the third leading cause of death for 15- to 24-year-olds. The rate of suicide increased 30% between 2000 and 2018 and decreased in 2019 and 2020. Male adolescents are five times more likely to die by suicide than females are, although females attempt suicide significantly more often than males do. In 2019, 9% of high school students reported that they attempted suicide during the prior 12 months. In terms of race and ethnicity, non-Hispanic American Indians and Alaskan Natives are particularly at risk for suicide. Furthermore, non-Hispanic whites have a higher rate of suicide than blacks and Asians (see Figure 4). In addition, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender teens are at increased risk of suicide (Yildiz et al., 2019; Ramchand et al., 2021; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). Although the question of why adolescent suicide rates are so high remains unanswered, several factors put adolescents at risk (see Figure 4). One factor is depression, characterized by unhappiness, extreme fatigue, and—a variable that seems especially important—a profound sense of hopelessness. In other cases, adolescents who commit suicide are perfectionists who are inhibited socially and prone to extreme anxiety when they face any social or academic challenge. Easy access to weapons tends to increase the chance of suicide. Family background and adjustment difficulties are also related to suicide. Suicides sometimes come in clusters, meaning that the suicide of one adolescent can trigger the suicide of others. The COVID-19 pandemic brought about a significant increase in thoughts about suicide, as well as an increase in actual suicide rates in many regions of the United States. These increases reflected a general decline in mental health resulting from the pandemic (Charpignon et al., 2022). EXPLORING DIVERSITY: RITES OF PASSAGE: COMING OF AGE AROUND THE WORLD It is not easy for male members of the Awa tribe in New Guinea to make the transition from childhood to adulthood. First come whippings with sticks and prickly branches, followed by sharpened sticks pushed into the boys‘ nostrils. Then they force a 5-foot length of vine into the boys‘ throats until they gag and vomit. Finally, tribesmen cut the boys‘ genitals, causing severe bleeding. Other cultures have less dramatic ceremonies that mark the passage from childhood to adulthood. For instance, when a girl first menstruates in traditional Apache tribes, the event is marked by dawn-to-dusk chanting. Western religions, too, have several types of celebrations, including bar mitzvahs and bat mitzvahs at age 13 for Jewish boys and girls, respectively. In most societies, males are the focus of coming-of-age ceremonies. The reason for this gender distinction may be that in most cultures, men traditionally have higher status than women, and

therefore, those cultures regard boys‘ transition into adulthood as more important to celebrate. For females, the transition from childhood is marked by a definite biological event: menstruation. For males, in contrast, no single event can be used to pinpoint entry into adulthood. KEY TERMS adolescence The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. ego-integrity-versus-despair stage According to Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life‘s accomplishments and failures. puberty The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys. generativity-versus-stagnation stage According to Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society. identity The distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of. identity-versus-role-confusion stage According to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one‘s unique qualities. intimacy-versus-isolation stage According to Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships. LECTURE IDEAS As noted above, rather than repeat what many students already know about adolescence, focus on theories relevant to adolescence that may be more difficult for them to understand from their reading. ERIKSON‘S BIOGRAPHY (FROM PETTIJOHN‘S CONNECTEXT) Erik Erikson was born on June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt, Germany. His parents were separated before he was born, and his mother then married Theodor Homburger, the physician who cared for Erik as a baby, and they raised him as Erik Homburger. As a young boy, Erikson experienced some conflict because of his Jewish faith and his Danish appearance. This may have helped to form his long-standing interest in identity as a research area. Although his family encouraged him to study medicine, he preferred to develop his talents as an artist. After graduating from art school, Erikson taught at a private school in Vienna. He attended the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society where he met Anna Freud. Eventually, he moved with his family to the United States. When he became a U.S. citizen in 1937, he changed his name from Homburger to Erikson.

Erikson held positions at Harvard Medical School, Yale University, and several private appointments prior to returning to Harvard University as a professor of human development. He remained at Harvard until his retirement in 1970. Among Erikson‘s most influential books were Childhood and Society (2nd ed., 1963, Norton) and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968, Norton). Erikson continued to write until his death in 1994. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. ERIKSON‘S THEORY OF IDENTITY According to Erikson, identity is the major psychosocial issue of adolescence. Based on Erikson‘s theory, James Marcia proposed four types or statuses that characterize the identityversus-identity-diffusion stage. In addition to the polar opposites of identity achievement versus identity diffusion, Marcia proposed that many adolescents achieve an identity without going through a crisis. He referred to this as ―foreclosed.‖ Another possibility is that adolescents remained in a prolonged state of crisis, called ―moratorium.‖ Students can be asked these questions, which will give them an idea of which type they are:    

Have you chosen a college major? What led you to that decision? Did you consider any alternatives? If you have not chosen a college major, what are you doing to help you decide?

Identity achievement: have a major, considered alternative before deciding on it Identity diffusion: no college major, not particularly concerned about finding one Foreclosed: decided on a college major without going through a period of questioning Moratorium: trying to decide, and very involved in trying to arrive at this decision CHART OF ERIKSON‘S STAGES Show this chart that nicely illustrates the fact that Erikson thought that any issue (1–8) could emerge at any age (0–65+) although some issues were more likely to emerge at certain ages (the diagonal). Illustrate by asking students for examples of when such ―off-diagonal‖ issues might arise.

KOHLBERG‘S STAGES Kohlberg developed his theory on the basis of interviews with adolescent boys. Starting with Piaget‘s theory, Kohlberg proposed that children‘s moral judgments reflect their cognitive abilities. They are able to see the relative pros and cons of different moral positions after they pass the stage of concrete operations. Compared to Piaget‘s theory, Kohlberg developed these ideas in much more detail and, although there are controversies associated with both the theory and the research on which it is based, Kohlberg‘s theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how we develop our sense of right and wrong.

ADOLESCENT BRAIN See the feature Applying Psychology in the 21st Century: Screen Time Beats Face Time for Adolescent Friendships in the text. Review the basic concepts as a group, and then have students discuss the ―Rethink‖ questions in small groups. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS MORAL DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemma: Although Kohlberg is most famous for the Heinz Dilemma (see Figure 2), he also used a variety of other moral dilemmas to measure development. Visit the following website and choose one of Kohlberg‘s dilemmas to share with your students: http://ww3.haverford.edu/psychology/ddavis/p109g/kohlberg.dilemmas.html. Have students work in pairs to answer the questions following the chosen dilemma. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Use Handout 5: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development as a way for the students to become more familiar with Kohlberg‘s levels. The students will have to work through the levels with a moral dilemma. Gender and Moral Development: Gilligan argues that psychology has underestimated sex differences in development and thinking. Specifically, she argued that the traditional view of moral development (Kohlberg‘s) was unfair to women. She argued for a ―caring‖ versus ―justice‖ orientation as opposed to the Kohlberg view. For more information, see https://pages.stolaf.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1023/2014/02/Deciding1.5.pdf. Adolescent Suicide: Have students research resources available in your area for students who are struggling. Alternatively, you could invite a guest from your school‘s counseling center to speak with students about common signs of suicide or about suicide prevention. The Adolescent Brain and the Legal System: Have students go on the internet and find a case where the defense attorney is arguing that an adolescent should not be given the death penalty because of their immature brain development. Have the students write a one- to two-page paper about the case and their own personal opinion on the situation. In class discuss with the students the cases they found and why the situation is debatable. The students will find some real-world situations that address the developing brains of adolescents and they will have to think about their own views on the issue. Where Do I Fit In? Using biculturalism and multiculturalism as a foundation for discussion, have students list where they think they fit in, in terms of ethic and cultural identities. Then, pairshare to converse on similarities and differences between cultures as well as comfort levels of confidence in ethnic identity development.

My YouTube Channel: Have students do a search on youtube.com on ‗adolescent egocentrism‘ and evaluate their findings. What videos discuss the concept versus what videos illustrate the concept. Discuss the implications of media on adolescent egocentrism. Internet Addiction Test: Have students take the Internet Addiction Test (IAT): http://netaddiction.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/IAT-Manual.doc. Ask them whether they feel that people can really be addicted to the internet. What about their phones? Although they may be in a younger cohort, point out that the underlying issue here may not be checking Facebook over email but checking over conversations in real life. Ask students about other people‘s behaviors. How often are they on the phone or internet while sitting with someone else? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS RITES OF PASSAGE AND ADOLESCENCE Describe a rite of passage that exists in your culture. If this is an event you have experienced, details can be added from your own life. Explain your opinions about the media being responsible for how women feel about their weight and appearance. Do you think women will ever really accept the fact that it is biological to gain weight in adolescence? Give an example from your own life where adolescent egocentrism came into play. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Cookies, Cakes, and Pies According to the Center for Disease Control (2010), approximately 17% (or 12.5 million) of children and adolescents aged 2–19 years of age are obese. Since 1980, obesity prevalence among children and adolescents has almost tripled. Eating behaviors and motivations are complex, which will be explored later on. However, let‘s take a look at how obesity in childhood influences their overall development. Who blames the fast-food industry for marketing unhealthy eating to children and parents? How many of you think that parents are the ones to blame for obese children? How many of you think that physical education classes in schools should not be removed and actually required as part of academic progress? List four to five possible effects on development that can happen as a result of childhood obesity. Then, ask your students to poll-in their top answer for the one they think is most alarming or detrimental. Discuss the results. How many of you think that being overweight is becoming the standard or accepted physical size? Polling Question: Adolescence Do you believe that the conception of adolescence as a time of storm and stress is accurate? SUGGESTED MEDIA Puberty. https://medlineplus.gov/puberty.html.

Teen suicide. https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFFGuide/Teen-Suicide-010.aspx. The Up series: Seven Up, 7 Plus Seven, 21 Up, 28 Up, 35 Up, 42 Up. The premise behind the Up series of movies, available on www.netflix.com, is deceptively simple: take a cross section of children at age 7, ask them about their hopes for the future, and then return every 7 years to mark their progress. Series trailer available at https://youtu.be/UcrTX6x_qpw. POPULAR MOVIES Booksmart (2019): On the eve of their high school graduation, two friends and self-admitted over achievers suddenly realize they may have missed out on the best of their teenage years. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uhd3lo_IWJc. Boyhood (2014): Filmed with the same cast over the course of 12 years, Boyhood is a comingof-age drama depicting the childhood and adolescence of Mason Evans, Jr. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiDztHS3Wos. Juno (2007): Many popular movies deal with the adolescent transition. This recent film also illustrates many issues involved with teen pregnancy. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0SKf0K3bxg. Mean Girls (2004): This movie depicts a number of issues facing today‘s adolescents (e.g., bullying, peer pressure, dating). Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KAOmTMCtGkI.

ADDITIONAL READINGS Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M. C., Waters, M., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Arnett, J. J. (2014). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-41921-000. Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54(5), 317–326. http://jeffreyarnett.com/Arnett_1999_AmPsy.pdf. Blair, B. L., & Fletcher, A. C. (2011). The only 13-year-old on planet earth without a cell phone: Meanings of cell phones in early adolescents‘ everyday lives. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 155–177. Galvan, A. (2013). The teenage brain: Sensitivity to rewards. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 88–93. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York, NY: The Free Press. Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). Lawrence Kohlberg's approach to moral education. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. MODULE 30: ADULTHOOD LEARNING OBJECTIVES 30-1

What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes?

30-2

How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period?

39-3

How can we adjust to death?

It's no surprise that people change as they move through adulthood. Emerging adulthood is the period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s. Although the brain is still growing and modifying its neural pathways during emerging adulthood, people are no longer adolescents. The view that adulthood is preceded by an extended period of emerging adulthood reflects the new reality of the economies of industrialized countries. There‘s also an increasing ambivalence about reaching adulthood. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: THE PEAK OF HEALTH For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. From about 18–25 years of age, people‘s strength is greatest, their reflexes are quickest, and their chances of dying from disease are quite slim. Moreover, reproductive capabilities are at their highest level. Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease. Overall, however, ill health remains the exception; most people stay remarkably healthy during early adulthood. During middle adulthood, people gradually become aware of changes in their bodies. They often experience weight gain. Furthermore, the sense organs gradually become less sensitive, and reactions to stimuli are slower. The major biological change that does occur during middle adulthood pertains to reproductive capabilities. On average, during their late 40s or early 50s, women begin menopause, during which they stop menstruating and are no longer fertile. For men, the aging process during middle adulthood is somewhat subtler. There are no physiological signals of increasing age equivalent to the end of menstruation in women; that is, no male menopause exists. In fact, men remain fertile and capable of fathering children until well into late adulthood. Men‘s psychological difficulties associated with these changes are usually

brought about more by aging men‘s inability to meet the exaggerated standards of youthfulness than by men‘s physical deterioration. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: WORKING AT LIFE The entry into early adulthood is usually marked by leaving one‘s childhood home and entering the world of work. People envision life goals and make career choices. In their early 40s, however, people may begin to question their lives as they enter a period called the midlife transition. Finally, during the last stages of adulthood, people become more accepting of others and of their own lives and are less concerned about issues or problems that once bothered them. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN, AND DIVORCE: FAMILY TIES Today, couples are just as likely to first live together, then get married and have children, but ultimately get divorced. The percentage of U.S. households made up of unmarried couples has increased dramatically over the past two decades. At the same time, the average age at which marriage takes place is higher than at any time since the turn of the last century. These changes have been dramatic, and they suggest that the institution of marriage has changed considerably from earlier historical periods. Divorce is not only a U.S. phenomenon, and in many countries, such as Russia, the divorce rate is even higher than in the United States. In addition, 25% of all family households are now headed by one parent, compared with 13% in 1970. The United States has the highest rate of single-parent households in the world. In most single-parent families, the children live with the mother rather than the father—a phenomenon that is consistent across racial and ethnic groups throughout the industrialized world (Sarsour et al., 2011; U.S. Census Bureau, 2022). Changes in marriage and divorce trends have doubled the number of single-parent households in the United States over the last two decades. Single-parent families are often economically less well off, and this economic disadvantage has an impact on children‘s opportunities. More than a third of single-mother families with children have incomes below the poverty line. In addition, good child care at an affordable price is often hard to find. Furthermore, for children of divorce, the parents‘ separation is often a painful experience that may result in obstacles to establishing close relationships later in life. CHANGING ROLES OF MEN AND WOMEN One of the major changes in family life in the last two decades has been the evolution of men‘s and women‘s roles. More women than ever before act simultaneously as wives, mothers, and wage earners—in contrast to women in traditional marriages in which the husband is the sole wage earner and the wife assumes primary responsibility for care of the home and children. Most married working women are not free of household responsibilities. Even in marriages in which the spouses hold jobs that have similar status and require similar hours, the distribution of household tasks between husbands and wives has not changed substantially.

For gay and lesbian couples, household chores are divided more equally—until they have children. At that point, the division of chores becomes less equitable, with one partner concentrating on household chores and child care, and the higher-earning spouse focusing more on career-related activities. WOMEN‘S ―SECOND SHIFT‖ Working mothers can put in a staggering number of hours. The additional work women perform is sometimes called the ―second shift.‖ Consequently, rather than careers being a substitute for what women do at home, they are often an addition to the role of homemaker. LATER YEARS OF LIFE: GROWING OLD By focusing on the period of life that starts at around age 65, gerontologists are making important contributions to clarifying the capabilities of older adults. Their work is demonstrating that significant developmental processes continue even during old age. And as life expectancy increases, the number of people who reach older adulthood will continue to grow substantially (see Figure 2). PHYSICAL CHANGES IN LATE ADULTHOOD: THE AGING BODY The aging process brings many physical changes. The most obvious are those of appearance: hair thinning and turning gray, skin wrinkling and folding, and sometimes a slight loss of height as the thickness of the disks between vertebrae in the spine decreases. But subtler changes also occur in the body‘s biological functioning. Genetic programming theories of aging suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction. These theories suggest that after a certain time cells stop dividing or become harmful to the body—as if a kind of automatic self-destruct button had been pushed. In contrast, wear-and-tear theories of aging suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply work less efficiently as people age. COGNITIVE CHANGES: THINKING ABOUT—AND DURING—LATE ADULTHOOD At one time, many gerontologists would have agreed with the popular view that older adults are forgetful and confused. Today, however, most research indicates that this assessment is far from an accurate one of older people‘s capabilities. Today, many sophisticated research techniques exist for studying the cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood. Other difficulties hamper research into cognitive functioning during late adulthood. For example, older people are often less healthy than younger ones; when only healthy older adults are compared to healthy younger adults, intellectual differences are far less evident.

In general, skills relating to fluid intelligence (which involves information processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving) show declines in late adulthood (see Figure 3). In contrast, skills relating to crystallized intelligence (intelligence based on the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience) remain steady and in some cases actually improve. Even when changes in intellectual functioning occur during later adulthood, people often are able to compensate for any decline. They can still learn what they want to learn; it may just take more time. MEMORY CHANGES IN LATE ADULTHOOD: ARE OLDER ADULTS FORGETFUL? Most evidence suggests that memory change is not an inevitable part of the aging process. Even when people show memory declines during late adulthood, their deficits generally are limited to certain types of memory. For instance, losses tend to be limited to episodic memories that relate to specific experiences in people‘s lives. Declines in episodic memories can often be traced to changes in older adults‘ lives. In the past, older adults with severe cases of memory decline accompanied by other cognitive difficulties were said to suffer from senility. Now, most gerontologists view senility as an imprecise label that has outlived its usefulness. Instead, gerontologists explain symptoms of mental deterioration using more precise factors. Older adults with severe cases of memory decline accompanied by other cognitive difficulties were said to suffer from senility. For instance, Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. Alzheimer‘s occurs when production of the beta amyloid precursor protein goes awry, producing large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cells. The brain shrinks, neurons die, and several areas of the hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes deteriorate. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: HOW TO BE A SUPERAGER Not everyone ages in the same way. Among other things, some people experience a decline in their memory and cognitive abilities as they grow older, whereas others maintain these abilities well into their 80s and 90s. Some older adults perform just as well as they did in previous life stages on tests of memory and cognitive functioning. SuperAgers, the older adults whose memory scores were as good or better than people in their 40s, had white matter tracts that were more intact—in other words, healthier—than those of the people whose memory scores were in the typical range for their age. Another factor of SuperAgers was their physical activity level; those who were more active have healthier levels of white matter. THE SOCIAL WORLD OF LATE ADULTHOOD: OLD BUT NOT ALONE SuperAgers, the older adults whose memory scores were as good or better than people in their 40s, had white matter tracts that were more intact—in other words, healthier—than those of the

people whose memory scores were in the typical range for their age. Late adulthood brings significant challenges. People who have spent their adult lives working and then enter retirement bring about a major shift in the role they play. There is no single way to age successfully. According to the disengagement theory of aging, aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels. According to the activity theory of aging, people who age most successfully are those who maintain the interests, activities, and level of social interaction they experienced during the earlier periods of adulthood. Activity theory argues that late adulthood should reflect a continuation, as much as possible, of the activities in which people participated during the earlier part of their lives. Regardless of how people age, most engage in a process of life review in which they examine and evaluate their lives. Remembering and reconsidering what has occurred in the past, people in late adulthood often come to a better understanding of themselves. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: ADJUSTING TO DEATH At some time in our lives, we all face death—certainly our own as well as the deaths of friends, loved ones, and even strangers. Although there is nothing more inevitable in life, death remains a frightening, emotion-laden topic. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969) brought the subject of death into the open with her observation that those facing impending death tend to move through five broad stages:     

Denial: In this stage, even if people are told that their chances for survival are small, they refuse to admit that they are facing death. Anger: Moving beyond the denial stage, dying people become angry at everybody. Bargaining: Anger leads to bargaining, in which the dying try to think of ways to postpone death. They may decide to dedicate their lives to religion if God saves them. Depression: When dying people come to feel that bargaining is no use, they move to the next stage: depression. They realize that their lives really are coming to an end. Acceptance: In this stage, people accept impending death. Usually, they are unemotional and uncommunicative.

It is important to keep in mind that not everyone experiences each of these stages in the same way. Vast differences occur in the way individuals react to impending death. KEY TERMS activity theory of aging The theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life. Alzheimer’s disease A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities.

disengagement theory of aging The theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels. emerging adulthood The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid20s. genetic programming theories of aging Theories that suggest that our DNA genetic code includes a built-in time limit to the reproduction of human cells and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time. life review The process by which people examine and evaluate their lives. menopause The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile. wear-and-tear theories of aging Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently. LECTURE IDEAS INFORMATION ON MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY The U.S. Census Bureau‘s website contains recent demographic information on changing trends in the American family: https://www.census.gov/topics/families.html. CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS ON AGING IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD There is a wealth of data on aging in the United States. These are some websites to check:    

The complete U.S. Census website—look for links on aging: www.census.gov The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) site: www.cdc.gov/nchs NCHS: Alzheimer‘s Disease and Healthy Aging, with links to other publications and data sources: www.cdc.gov/aging/. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion: www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/.

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN LATER LIFE Discuss the roles of social attitudes toward aging on physical and cognitive functioning. Emphasize the importance of findings that show that older adults will ―lose it‖ if they do not ―use it.‖ The National Institute on Aging has published a number of helpful online reports and articles on these topics: http://www.nia.nih.gov/. SUCCESSFUL AGING

Rather than end the lecture with death and dying, ending with the topic of ―successful aging‖ provides a more upbeat approach to looking at life span development. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes an excellent series on ―Healthy Aging‖ that can form the basis for this part of the lecture: http://www.cdc.gov/aging/. Ask students to describe themselves at age 75. What will they be like physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally? How do they feel about aging? Have students share their answers. Look for similarities, differences, and myths about aging in students‘ answers. GRANDPARENTS AND GRANDCHILDREN In recent years, there has been a large increase in the number of grandparents raising grandchildren. This U.S. Census Bureau website contains a wealth of information about this topic: https://www.census.gov/topics/families/families-and-households.html. CRITIQUE OF KÜBLER-ROSS Point out that research does not support the five stages of dying as described by Kübler-Ross. Instead, her stages are thought of as a general guideline; they are not necessarily found in all terminally ill patients. The main contribution of her work was to highlight the fact that dying patients need to be able to talk to others about what they are experiencing, rather than to have their needs dismissed or the reality of their dying ignored. For an example of an alternative perspective on dying, have student watch the brief TED Talk ―Am I Dying? The Honest Answer‖: https://www.ted.com/talks/matthew_o_reilly_am_i_dying_the_honest_answer. CURRENT ISSUES IN DEATH AND DYING Discuss these issues involved in death and dying: Advance directives and living wills: A healthcare advance directive is a document in which you give instructions about your health care in case, in the future, you cannot speak for yourself. You can give someone your name (your ―agent‖ or ―proxy‖) the power to make healthcare decisions for you. You also can give instructions about the kind of health care you do or do not want. Physician-assisted suicide: Physician-assisted suicide refers to the physician providing the means for death, most often with a prescription. The patient, not the physician, will ultimately administer the lethal medication. In contrast, euthanasia generally means that the physician would act directly—for instance, by giving a lethal injection—to end the patient‘s life. End-of-life care: Consult the APA website on psychology and end-of-life care: https://www.apa.org/pi/aging/programs/eol. GUIDELINES IN GEROPSYCHOLOGY

In 2003, the APA passed a set of guidelines for psychologists specializing in gerontology. These guidelines can be found in their entirety on this website: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/older-adults.pdf. CHART OF AGE-RELATED CHANGES IN INTELLIGENCE Show this chart from Schaie et al., data from the Seattle Longitudinal Study:

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS AGING Attitudes Toward Aging: Have students complete the activity in Handout 6: Attitudes Toward Aging. Key Features of Adulthood: Use Handout 7: The Features of Adulthood as a way for students to gain knowledge in the various aspects that people go through in adulthood. Students will develop their own examples of situations in which adults experience each key feature of adulthood. Biological Theories of Aging: Have students compare and contrast the cellular clock theory and the free-radical theory. Have the students give a short presentation on the information they found for each and whether they believe in one or the other. Erikson’s Adult Stages: Ask students to come up with their own examples of situations that adults would go through in each of Erikson‘s adult stages. Draw Your Life: Have students complete a graph in which they put age or year on the horizontal axis and then sketch out across this what they foresee as the major periods of their lives. Ask them to explain why they believe these events will be happening to them and how they think they will react.

Future Self: Set aside 15 min to have students write a brief essay as follows: Think about your life in the future, when you are 70 or 80 years old. Imagine that everything has gone as well as it possibly could, and you have achieved your life dreams. What is your life like at this stage? What things about you are the same at that age as they are for you now as a student of psychology? What things have changed? What is your best possible older adult self? How have aspects of your life today contributed to this ―happily older after‖? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS DEATH AND DYING How would you characterize our society‘s attitudes toward death and dying? Should terminally ill patients have the right to choose when to end their lives? Why or why not? What role can psychologists play in helping people adjust to death, both their own death and the death of others close to them? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Tying the Knot Research indicates that people are waiting until they are older to get married. Let‘s explore this in more detail. How many of you plan to wait until you are older to get married or remarried? Who doesn‘t even plan on getting married? How many of you think that having a stable job or career is important prior to getting married? Who thinks that the online dating sites have impacted the marriage trends in the United States? Polling Question: Adulthood Do you feel that you have reached adulthood? a) Yes b) No c) Yes and No Polling Question: With or Without You Let‘s consider all of the issues and research around parenting. Some will say it is a lot of work and can be very stressful, while others say that being a parent is the happiest part of their lives. So, let‘s vote on this topic. Who believes that being a parent is too stressful and often makes people less happy? Are people without children happier than people with children? Does being a parent require too much emotional energy to deal with everything else? Discuss these answers within the context of current literature on emotional well-being and parental happiness. Polling Question: Aging Is Tricky Business, But I’ve Got It Covered Adult development is largely a conscious process. This means that as we get older, despite some changes, we are relatively in charge of how we handle new experiences, challenges, and

emotional connections. There are really two ways of looking at aging: ―doom and gloom‖ or ―revitalization and reconnection.‖ How many of you perceive the aging process as ―doom and gloom,‖ meaning that decline in physical, cognitive, and social development happens and there is really nothing you can do about it? How many of you think the opposite? Who thinks that a grandparent or older adult using technology is cool or really a good idea? How many of you think that companies such as Apple, Microsoft, and Samsung should make their technology products more user-friendly for older adults? SUGGESTED MEDIA Aging matters: Nashville Public Television presents a multiyear initiative designed to open a community-based conversation about what Middle Tennessee‘s older citizens need to optimize their quality of life. https://www.pbs.org/show/npt-reports-aging-matters/. Alzheimer‘s Association. https://www.alz.org/. Buettner, D. (2009). How to live to be 100+ [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_buettner_how_to_live_to_be_100. Fulfillment at any age: This Psychology Today blog (new posts every Tuesday) covers stories related to aging. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age. Hamilton, J. (2017, May 26). All things considered. As brains mature, more robust information networks boost self-control [Audio podcast]. https://www.npr.org/sections/healthshots/2017/05/26/529828305/more-robust-information-networks-boost-self-control-as-brainsmature. Life expectancy calculator. https://www.livingto100.com/. NOVA scienceNOW. Alzheimer‘s disease: A second documentary covers Alzheimer‘s disease and the effect of enriched environments on memory in mice. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/0301/02.html. Senior, Jennifer: For parents, happiness is a very high bar (TED Talk). https://www.ted.com/talks/jennifer_senior_for_parents_happiness_is_a_very_high_bar. Sinclair, D. (2019, April 22). Can humans live for 1000 years? [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J736mfy7KEg. POPULAR MOVIES Aging: Many movies can be used to illustrate emotional relationships in later life, including On Golden Pond and Grumpy Old Men. Other movies that have age-related themes include Up, The Bucket List, Cocoon, Driving Miss Daisy, Gladiator, Space Cowboys, Where’s Poppa?, and Harold and Maude (to name a few).

Age of Adaline (2015). Adaline Bowma remains 29 years old for 80 years. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7UzSekc0LoQ. American Beauty. To illustrate the midlife crisis, show the scene in this movie in which the main character plays with his new ―toy‖ of a remote-controlled car. Ask the class why they think that the theme of midlife crisis has remained popular, such as in this movie, despite evidence suggesting that it does not exist. The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2012). Three protagonists uproot from their current lives and move into India‘s Best Exotic Marigold Hotel. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=roDQowqG3cE. Death and Dying: Death and dying is a topic relevant to many popular movies, including most of the above. In addition, movies in which characters come back to life present an interesting perspective, such as The Sixth Sense (1999), City of Angels (1998), What Dreams May Come (1998), and Ghost (1990). PBS special. The forgetting: A portrait of Alzheimer‘s., Warner Home video. The Hero (2017). A Western icon spends his days reliving old glories and smoking weed. A cancer diagnosis changes his life drastically. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RiKtUnI0u4U. Nebraska (2013). An aging alcoholic on the brink of dementia travels on an odyssey to claim a million-dollar sweepstakes he believes he has won. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuIBvmxIN4w. Still Alice (2015). Julianne Moore plays Alice Howland, a linguistics professor diagnosed with familial Alzheimer‘s disease shortly after her 50th birthday. Movie trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrXrZ5iiR0o. ADDITIONAL READINGS Buettner, D. (2010). The blue zones: Lessons for living longer from the people who’ve lived the longest. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. Irish, D. P., Lundquist, K. F., & Nelsen, V. J. (2014). Ethnic variations in dying, death and grief: Diversity in universality. Taylor & Francis. Pearce, N. (2011). Inside Alzheimer’s. New York, NY: APG Sales. Schulz, R., & Ewen, R. B. (1988). Adult development and aging: Emerging realities. New York, NY: Macmillan. Shwalb, D. W., Shwalb, B. J., & Lamb, M. E. (2013). Fathers in cultural context. New York, NY: Routledge.

Stewart, A. J., & Ostrove, J. M. (1998). Women‘s personality in middle age: Gender, history, and midcourse corrections. American Psychologist, 54, 165–181. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Attachment  Piaget‘s Sensorimotor Stage  Piaget‘s Preoperational Stage  Piaget‘s Concrete Operational Stage  Piaget‘s Formal Operational Stage  Vygotsky‘s Sociocultural Theory  Erikson‘s Psychosocial Theory of Development VIDEOS  The Birth of Epigenetics: The Agouti Mouse Study INTERACTIVITIES  Prenatal Development  Visual System Development in Infants  Kohlberg‘s Moral Reasoning  Age Buster: Attitudes toward Aging MILESTONES  Personal Fable COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos

 

Scientific Reasoning Exercises Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: IS IT NATURE OR NURTURE? Prepare both sides of the nature/nurture debate by gathering information on each side, considering both pros and cons. Prepare the information as if you will be taking part in a debate. In class, the instructor will assign your group either the nature side or the nurture side, and then your group will go up against another group arguing the opposite side.

HANDOUT 2: PRENATAL INFLUENCES Complete this chart by indicating the nature of the influence, its effect, and methods of prevention: Influence

Effect on Developing Child

Rubella

Tay-Sachs disease

Addictive drugs

Phenylketonuria

Alcohol

Smoking

Sickle-cell anemia

Down syndrome

Mother‘s emotional state

Genetic or Environmental?

HANDOUT 3: EVERYDAY EXAMPLES OF CONSERVATION Use the chart below to provide examples from your daily life of Piaget‘s concept of conservation. For each type of conservation, find two objects that appear to have different quantities but actually are the same. Type of Conservation

Object 1

Object 2

Number

Substance

Length

Area

Weight

Volume

Give an example of a time that you were fooled into thinking that objects of the same size, weight, or volume were different because they differed in one dimension.

If adults have difficulty with conservation, what does this say about Piaget‘s theory?

HANDOUT 4: WHICH STAGE IS IT?

Read through each of the statements and then determine what stage of cognitive development the person is in. 1. You take an infant‘s toy and place it behind the couch. The infant starts crying because he thinks it is gone. STAGE: 2. There are two glasses of milk sitting on the table. One is a tall, thin glass and the other is a short, fat glass; both have the same amount of milk in them. When given a choice, Tommy takes the tall, thin glass. STAGE: 3. You have two piles of coins. One pile has a dime and the other pile has 10 pennies. Susie chooses the pile with the 10 pennies because she thinks it has more money. STAGE: 4. You ask the children in kindergarten to look at the problem on the board and explain what the completed answer would be. The problem is: 2 + 2 = 4 and 4 − _____ = _____. STAGE: 5. Lakshmi is sitting at the end of a table and is looking at a picture of the sun above the mountains. Kelley is sitting halfway down the side of the table, and she sees the sun to the right of the mountains in the picture. Lakshmi says that her perception of the sun sitting above the mountains is correct and doesn‘t see how Kelley‘s could be right. STAGE: 6. Seth and Habib are in class and are asked to explain how to solve the problem of getting from one house to another that is across town when they only have 15 min to get there. Seth and Habib think about it and discuss the streets in town and the traffic situation at various times throughout the day. They come up with an answer without actually having to drive both distances to see which one is faster. STAGE:

HANDOUT 5: KOHLBERG‘S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT For this assignment, you will need to find another student, a child, or a teenager. Ask this person to answer the ―Henry‖ dilemma. Read the following text word for word. In a European country, a woman is near death from a special kind of cancer. The one drug that the doctors think might save her is a medicine that a researcher has recently discovered. The drug is expensive to make, and the researcher is charging 10 times the cost, or US$5,000, for a dose. The sick woman‘s husband, Henry, approaches everyone he knows in hopes of borrowing money, but he can get together only about US$2,500. He tells the researcher that his wife is dying and asks him to lower the price of the drug or let him pay later. The researcher says, ―No, I discovered the drug and I‘m going to make money from it.‖ Henry is desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What would you tell Henry to do? 1. Write down your subject‘s response and their age.

2. Use the chart in the text (see Figure 2) to rate the level of moral reasoning this response fits in with.

3. Justify why you rated the response as belonging to this level.

HANDOUT 6: ATTITUDES TOWARD AGING Indicate whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Cognitive functioning does not decline significantly in old age. 2. Older people lose all interest in sex. 3. Most older people are lonely and unhappy. 4. Belief in a religion usually significantly increases among older people. 5. The vast majority of older people live in institutions. 6. Older people rarely take baths or wash their clothes. 7. Fear of death increases significantly as a person grows older. 8. Older people most often tend to be victims of crime. 9. Older people only want to talk about the past. 10. Older people cannot effectively contribute to society.

HANDOUT 6 (CON‘T): ATTITUDES TOWARD AGING: SURVEY RESPONSES From 1,291 entries: Percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. 1. Cognitive functioning does not decline significantly in old age. True

579

44%

False

656

50%

2. Older people lose all interest in sex. True

114

False

1126 87%

3. Most older people are lonely and unhappy. True

216

16%

False

1021 79%

4. Belief in a religion usually significantly increases among older people. True

858

66%

False

380

29%

5. The vast majority of older people live in institutions. True

156

12%

False

1078 83%

6. Older people rarely take baths or wash their clothes. True

False

1143 88%

7. Fear of death increases significantly as a person grows older. True

449

34%

False

781

60%

8. Older people most often tend to be victims of crime. True

696

53%

False

539

41%

9. Older people only want to talk about the past. True

262

20%

False

973

75%

10. Older people cannot effectively contribute to society. True

False

1166 90%

HANDOUT 7: THE FEATURES OF ADULTHOOD For each of the key features listed, come up with your own example of how an adult would feel or what they would be experiencing in each. Use the same individual as an example for all of the features so you can see how a person develops in adulthood. 1. Identity exploration, especially in love and work

2. Instability

3. Self-focused

4. Feeling in between

5. The age of possibilities

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: IS IT NATURE OR NURTURE? ANSWER KEY

Prepare both sides of the nature/nurture debate by gathering information on each side, considering both pros and cons. Prepare the information as if you will be taking part in a debate. In class, the instructor will assign your group either the nature side or the nurture side, and then your group will go up against another group arguing the opposite side. Nature: Pros: genes are important predictors of traits; genes determine the possible range of a trait (example, height) Cons: genes may determine range, but environment can determine the actual set point within the ranges Nurture: Pros: social influence is important; two people with the same genes can be very different and that difference is due to environment Cons: genetic material (i.e., nature) is essential in creating our characteristics HANDOUT 4: WHICH STAGE IS IT? ANSWER KEY Read through each of the statements and then determine what stage of cognitive development the person is in. 1. You take an infant‘s toy and place it behind the couch. The infant starts crying because he thinks it is gone. STAGE: sensorimotor 2. There are two glasses of milk sitting on the table. One is a tall, thin glass and the other is a short, fat glass; both have the same amount of milk in them. When given a choice, Tommy takes the tall, thin glass. STAGE: preoperational 3. You have two piles of coins. One pile has a dime and the other pile has 10 pennies. Susie chooses the pile with the 10 pennies because she thinks it has more money. STAGE: preoperational 4. You ask the children in kindergarten to look at the problem on the board and explain what the completed answer would be. The problem is: 2 + 2 = 4 and 4 − ___ = ___. STAGE: concrete operational 5. Lakshmi is sitting at the end of a table and is looking at a picture of the sun above the mountains. Kelley is sitting halfway down the side of the table and she sees the sun to the

right of the mountains in the picture. Lakshmi says that her perception of the sun sitting above the mountains is correct and doesn‘t see how Kelley‘s could be right. STAGE: preoperational 6. Seth and Habib are in class and are asked to explain how to solve the problem of getting from one house to another that is across town when they only have 15 min to get there. Seth and Habib think about it and discuss the streets in town and the traffic situation at various times throughout the day. They come up with an answer without actually having to drive both distances to see which one is faster. STAGE: formal operational

Chapter 10 Personality OPENING THEMES Many people, like the notorious Boston gangster Whitey Bulger who lived for 16 years as a quiet retiree in Santa Monica, California, have more than one side to their personalities. Personality is the pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person. Personality encompasses the behaviors that make each of us unique and that differentiate us from others. Personality also leads us to act consistently in different situations and over extended periods of time. Like motivation, emotion, and intelligence, personality is characterized by a variety of theoretical approaches. In this unit, students will learn about personality as viewed by the major perspectives. Tying these lectures back to the opening unit on psychology‘s major perspectives will help students understand the roots of these theories, each of which is derived from one of those perspectives. In addition, the application of the theories to the area of personality assessment gives students concrete ways to understand how these theoretical perspectives influence the ways that psychologists attempt to describe and explain individual differences. MODULE 31: PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 31-1

How do psychologists define and use the concept of personality?

31-2

What do the theories of Freud and his successors tell us about the structure and development of personality?

Psychodynamic approaches to personality are based on the idea that personality is primarily unconscious and motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness. The most important pioneer of the psychodynamic approach was Sigmund Freud. A number of Freud‘s followers, including Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and Alfred Adler, refined Freud‘s theory and developed their own psychodynamic approaches. FREUD‘S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: MAPPING THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND According to Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory, conscious experience is only a small part of our psychological makeup and experience. He argued that much of our behavior is motivated by the unconscious, a part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware. Freud maintained that to understand personality, it is necessary to expose what is in the unconscious. But because the unconscious disguises the meaning of the material it holds, the content of the unconscious cannot be observed directly. It is therefore necessary to interpret clues to the unconscious—slips of the tongue, fantasies, and dreams—to understand the unconscious processes that direct behavior. Some of the unconscious is made up of the preconscious, which contains material that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind. But deeper in the unconscious are instinctual drives— the wishes, desires, demands, and needs that are hidden from conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause if they were part of our everyday lives. STRUCTURING PERSONALITY: ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO To describe the structure of personality, Freud developed a comprehensive theory that held that personality consists of three separate but interacting components: the id, the ego, and the superego (see Figure 1). The id is the instinctual and unorganized part of personality. From the time of birth, the id attempts to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. Those drives are fueled by ―psychic energy,‖ which we can think of as a limitless energy source constantly putting pressure on the various parts of the personality. The id operates according to the pleasure principle in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction. The ego, which begins to develop soon after birth, strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world. In contrast to the pleasure-seeking id, the ego operates according to the reality principle in which instinctual energy is restrained to maintain the individual‘s safety and to help integrate the person into society. In a sense, then, the ego is the ―executive‖ of personality: It makes decisions, controls actions, and allows thinking and problem-solving of a higher order than the id‘s capabilities permit. The superego, the final personality structure to develop in childhood, represents the rights and wrongs of society as taught and modeled by a person‘s parents, teachers, and other significant individuals. The superego includes the conscience, which prevents us from behaving in a morally improper way by making us feel guilty if we do wrong. The superego helps us control impulses coming from the id, making our behavior less selfish and more virtuous. DEVELOPING PERSONALITY: PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Freud also provided us with a view of how personality develops through a series of five psychosexual stages (see Figure 2) during which children encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges (in which sexuality is more about experiencing pleasure and less about lust). According to Freud, failure to resolve the conflicts at a particular stage can result in fixations, conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur. Such conflicts may be due to having needs ignored or (conversely) being overindulged during the earlier period. In the first psychosexual stage of development, called the oral stage, the baby‘s mouth is the focal point of pleasure. During the first 12 to18 months of life, children suck, eat, mouth, and bite anything they can put into their mouths. To Freud, this behavior suggested that the mouth is the primary site of a kind of sexual pleasure and that weaning (withdrawing the breast or bottle) represents the main conflict during the oral stage. If infants are either overindulged (perhaps by being fed every time they cry) or frustrated in their search for oral gratification, they may become fixated at this stage. Fixation at the oral stage might produce an adult who was unusually interested in oral activities—eating, talking, and smoking—or who showed symbolic sorts of oral interests such as being ―bitingly‖ sarcastic or very gullible (―swallowing‖ anything). From around age 12 to 18 months until 3 years of age—a period when the emphasis in Western cultures is on toilet training—a child enters the anal stage. At this point, the major source of pleasure changes from the mouth to the anal region, and children obtain considerable pleasure from both retention and expulsion of feces. If toilet training is particularly demanding, fixation might occur. Fixation during the anal stage might result in unusual rigidity, orderliness, punctuality—or extreme disorderliness or sloppiness—in adulthood. At about age 3, the phallic stage begins. At this point, there is another major shift in the child‘s primary source of pleasure. Now, interest focuses on the genitals and the pleasures derived from fondling them. If difficulties arise during this period, however, all sorts of problems are thought to occur, including improper sex-role behavior and the failure to develop a conscience. During the phallic stage, the child must also negotiate one of the most important hurdles of personality development: the Oedipal conflict. According to Freudian theory, as children focus attention on their genitals, the differences between male and female anatomy become more salient. Furthermore, according to Freud, at this time the male unconsciously begins to develop a sexual interest in his mother, starts to see his father as a rival, and harbors a wish to kill his father and enjoy the affections of his mother—as Oedipus did in the ancient Greek tragedy. But because he views his father as too powerful, he develops a fear that his father may retaliate drastically by removing the source of the threat: the son‘s penis. The fear of losing one‘s penis leads to castration anxiety, which ultimately becomes so powerful that the child represses his desires for his mother and identifies with his father. Identification is the process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person‘s behavior and adopting similar beliefs and values. By identifying with his father, a son seeks to obtain a woman like his unattainable mother. For girls, the process is different. Freud argued that girls begin to experience sexual arousal toward their fathers and begin to experience penis envy. Like males,

they find that they can resolve such unacceptable feelings by identifying with the same-sex parent, behaving like her, and adopting her attitudes and values. At this point, the Oedipal conflict is said to be resolved, and Freudian theory assumes that both males and females move on to the next stage of development. After the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, typically around age 5 or 6, children move into the latency period, which lasts until puberty. During this period, sexual interests become dormant, even in the unconscious. Then, during adolescence, sexual feelings reemerge, which marks the start of the final period, the genital stage, which extends until death. The focus during the genital stage is on mature, adult sexuality, which Freud defined as sexual intercourse. DEFENSE MECHANISMS Anxiety is an intense, negative emotional experience. According to Freud, anxiety is a danger signal to the ego. Although anxiety can arise from realistic fears—such as seeing a poisonous snake about to strike—it can also occur in the form of neurotic anxiety in which irrational impulses emanating from the id threaten to burst through and become uncontrollable. Freud believed that people develop a range of defense mechanisms to deal with anxiety. Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by distorting reality and concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves (see Figure 3). The primary defense mechanism is repression in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious. All of us employ defense mechanisms to some degree, according to Freudian theory, and they can serve a useful purpose by protecting us from unpleasant information. Yet some people fall prey to them to such an extent that they must constantly direct a large amount of psychic energy toward hiding and rechanneling unacceptable impulses. In such cases, the result is a mental disorder produced by anxiety—what Freud called ―neurosis.‖ EVALUATING FREUD’S LEGACY Many contemporary personality psychologists have leveled significant criticisms against psychoanalytic theory. Among the most important is the lack of compelling scientific data to support it. The lack of evidence is due, in part, to the fact that Freud‘s conception of personality is built on unobservable abstract concepts. Moreover, it is not clear that the stages of personality Freud laid out provide an accurate description of personality development. We also know now that important changes in personality can occur in adolescence and adulthood—something that Freud did not believe happened. The vague nature of Freud‘s theory also makes it difficult to predict how an adult will display certain developmental difficulties. Furthermore, Freud can be faulted for seeming to view women as inferior to men because he argued that women have weaker superegos than men and in some ways unconsciously yearn to be men. Finally, Freud made his observations and derived his theory from a limited population. His theory was based almost entirely on upper-class Austrian women living in the strict, puritanical era of the early 1900s, who had come to him seeking treatment for psychological and physical problems. How far one can generalize beyond this population is a matter of considerable debate.

THE NEO-FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYSTS: BUILDING ON FREUD Freud laid the foundation for important work done by a series of successors who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but later rejected some of its major points. These theorists are known as neo-Freudian psychoanalysts. The neo-Freudians placed greater emphasis than Freud on the functions of the ego by suggesting that it has more control than the id over day-to-day activities. They focused more on the social environment and minimized the importance of sex as a driving force in people‘s lives. They also paid greater attention to the effects of society and culture on personality development. JUNG’S COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS Carl Jung, one of the most influential neo-Freudians, rejected Freud‘s view of the primary importance of unconscious sexual urges. Instead, he looked at the primitive urges of the unconscious more positively and argued that they represented a more general and positive life force that encompasses an inborn drive motivating creativity and more positive resolution of conflict. Jung suggested that we have a universal collective unconscious, an inherited set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that are shared with all humans because of our common ancestral past. This collective unconscious is shared by everyone and is displayed in behavior that is common across diverse cultures—such as love of mother. Jung went on to propose that the collective unconscious contains archetypes, universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, idea, or experience. To Jung, archetypes play an important role in determining our day-to-day reactions, attitudes, and values. Jung also suggested that men possess an unconscious feminine archetype that affects how they behave, and women have an unconscious male archetype that colors their behavior. HORNEY’S NEO-FREUDIAN PERSPECTIVE Karen Horney was one of the earliest psychologists to champion women‘s issues and is sometimes called the first feminist psychologist. Horney suggested that personality develops in the context of social relationships and depends particularly on the relationship between parents and child and how well the child‘s needs are met. She rejected Freud‘s suggestion that women have penis envy; she asserted that what women envy most in men is not their anatomy but the independence, success, and freedom women often are denied. Horney was also one of the first to stress the importance of cultural factors in the determination of personality. ADLER AND THE OTHER NEO-FREUDIANS Alfred Adler, another important neo-Freudian psychoanalyst, also considered Freudian theory‘s emphasis on sexual needs misplaced. Instead, Adler proposed that the primary human motivation is a striving for superiority, not in terms of superiority over others but in terms of a quest for selfimprovement and perfection. Adler used the term inferiority complex to describe adults who have not been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority they developed as children. Other neoFreudians included Erik Erikson, whose theory of psychosocial development we discussed in

earlier modules, and Freud‘s daughter, Anna Freud. Like Adler and Horney, they focused less than Freud on inborn sexual and aggressive drives and more on the social and cultural factors behind personality. KEY TERMS anal stage According to Freud, a stage from age 12–18 months to 3 years of age in which a child‘s pleasure is centered on the anus. archetypes According to Jung, universal symbolic representations of particular types of people, objects, ideas, or experiences. collective unconscious According to Jung, an inherited set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that are shared with all humans because of our common ancestral past. defense mechanisms In Freudian theory, unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by distorting reality and concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves. ego The rational, logical part of personality that attempts to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world. fixations Conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur. genital stage According to Freud, the period from puberty until death, marked by mature sexual behavior (i.e., sexual intercourse). id The instinctual and unorganized part of personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. identification The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person‘s behavior and adopting similar beliefs and values. latency period According to Freud, the period between the phallic stage and puberty during which children‘s sexual concerns are temporarily put aside. neo-Freudian psychoanalysts Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of its major points. Oedipal conflict A child‘s intense, sexual interest in their opposite-sex parent. oral stage According to Freud, a stage from birth to age 12–18 months in which an infant‘s center of pleasure is the mouth. personality The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person.

phallic stage According to Freud, a period beginning around age 3 during which a child‘s pleasure focuses on the genitals. psychoanalytic theory Freud‘s theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality. psychodynamic approaches to personality Approaches that assume that personality is primarily unconscious and motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness. psychosexual stages Developmental periods that children pass through during which they encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges. repression The defense mechanism in which the ego pushes unacceptable or unpleasant thoughts and impulses out of consciousness but maintains them in the unconscious. superego The part of personality that harshly judges the morality of our behavior. unconscious A part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware. LECTURE IDEAS OPENING CONSIDERATIONS As was true with intelligence, this topic covers a theoretical construct that cannot be directly observed. The wealth of theories can frustrate some students, who seek clear-cut definitions and answers. By pointing out that each theory has something worthwhile to offer, you can address these concerns. Students can use these theories as a way to understand their own beliefs and assumptions about human nature. Another feature of this topic that is important to emphasize is that what is covered in personality theories will be fundamental to understanding abnormal behavior and treatment, topics in which most students are very interested. Ask students to consider what situations dominate their behaviors; for example, being in class. There are set scripts outlining how you behave: you sit down, take notes, and so forth. If you go to a funeral, job interview, and so forth, you act in a particular fashion. Some situations, though, allow more flexibility (e.g., the beach, a coffee shop, a park, etc.). Have students contact their primary caregiver and ask them about the type of temperament they displayed as a child. Have them provide at least three specific examples. FREUDIAN THEORY Ideas regarding Freud‘s theory are most easily understood as falling into these categories:

  

Structures of the mind (id, ego, and superego) Defense mechanisms Stages of personality development

Emphasize that Freud developed his theory within the context of his clinical practice. However, he had the lofty ambition of creating a ―science of the mind.‖ Therefore, he used his patients as a way to test the components of his theory. This was both a strength and a limitation. As he was creating new ideas about personality, he was also gathering data from sources that were limited in time and place within the historical context of late-19th- and early-20th-century Vienna. Regardless of what students may think about the validity of his theory, Freud‘s ideas had a major impact on 20th-century culture—and beyond. Why Freud? Ask students about their opinions on Freud‘s theories. Do they think they are scientifically valid? Ask them why they think it is still important to study Freud. Should Freud be given much space in textbooks? Why or why not? NEO-FREUDIAN THEORY Each of the three neo-Freudians described in the chapter began their work as traditional psychoanalysts, but each found the theory too limiting. Jung was interested in the spiritual roots of personality; Adler in the relationship between the individual and society; and Horney rejected Freud‘s ideas about women but also felt that his theory did not place enough weight on social factors in development. Here are specific bullet points for each theorist: Jung:  Collective unconscious at the center of personality  Made up of archetypes  Healthy personality strives for balance Adler:  Humans strive for self-improvement  Inferiority complex the basis for neurosis Horney:  Women not motivated by penis envy; instead, envy men‘s higher social status  Emphasized discrepancy between real and ideal self DEFENSE MECHANISMS CHART Show this chart of defense mechanism:

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Personality: This activity makes for a nice lead-in to the topic of personality. Ask students who they are. Have them write down traits or characteristics that describe themselves. After they have done this, have them mark each trait as positive or negative. Are there any traits that they would like to change, and why? Where do they think personality comes from? Personality Structures: Use Handout 1: Explaining the Id, the Ego, and the Superego as a way for students to become more familiar with the differences between Freud‘s three personality structures. In this exercise, the students are given various scenarios or situations and have to describe how the id, the ego, and the superego would handle them. Oedipal Conflict: Have the students break into groups and discuss how Freud got the idea of the Oedipal conflict. Have them discuss in their groups whether they believe there is any truth to the idea of an Oedipal conflict. Psychodynamic Dissenters: Ask the students to write a one- to two-page paper on the similarities and differences between Horney‘s, Jung‘s, Adler‘s, and Freud‘s theories of personality. Freud: Ask students about their opinions on Freud‘s theories. Do they think they are scientifically valid? Ask them why they think it is still important to study Freud. Should Freud be given much space in textbooks? Why or why not? Birth Order: Ask students if they think Adler‘s theory on birth order fits their own personalities. Ask them if they believe the ―spread‖ affects birth order. For example, if you are 10 years

younger than your sibling, could you be considered a firstborn? Ask them to defend their answers. Jung’s Shadow: Darth Vader is a good example of Jung‘s shadow archetype. Ask students to come up with a list of other examples in literature, movies, and television. DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN EVERYDAY LIFE Have students complete Handout 2: Defense Mechanisms. DEMONSTRATION: DEFENSE MECHANISMS (―WHAT‘S MY DEFENSE MECHANISM?‖) Have students create improvisational skits in which they act out the Freudian defense mechanisms. Make sure they understand the defense mechanisms, however, before they take the stage. This activity can be enhanced by having a panel of students (or the entire class, if it is not too large) trying to guess what defense mechanisms are being portrayed. Leave the defense mechanism chart on the screen during this activity. COMPARISON OF PERSONALITY THEORIES AND TERMS: FAMILY FEUD (OR YOU COULD CALL IT FAMILY F(R)EUD) Survey students in the class on the following categories: Favorite psychological term Most Freudian food item Best psychological song Other (could be trivia from the psychology department) Here are ideas generated by previous classes: Favorite psychological term: Anal retentive (19%) Humanistic (19%) Libido (9%) Id (7%) Oedipus complex (7%) Penis envy (7%) Self-efficacy (7%) Most Freudian food item: Banana (68%) Hotdog (20%) Pickle (4%) Cucumber (4%)

Popsicle (2%) Sausage (2%) Most psychological song: ―Isn‘t It Ironic‖ (27%) ―I‘m a Loser‖ (19%) ―You Oughta Know‖ (11%) ―They‘re Coming to Take Me Away‖ (7%) ―Comfortably Numb‖ (7%) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Ask students if they feel personality is based more on nature or nurture. Have them use their own experiences and personalities to back up their opinion. You can use the CPS clickers to poll the class on this to get the discussion under way. FREUD If you could meet Freud, what would you ask him? Do you believe that Freud‘s theory was applicable only to the era in which he lived, or do you believe it can still be applied today? Why? DEFENSE MECHANISMS Define the defense mechanism in your own words. Describe a situation that happened to you in which you used this defense mechanism. Provide a brief analysis regarding why you think you used this defense mechanism. COMPARING NEO-FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYSTS List one idea of each of the three neo-Freudians (Jung, Adler, and Horney) that you find particularly useful. Why do you find this idea to be useful? Give an example from a popular movie in which this idea is represented. How do Horney‘s, Jung‘s, and Adler‘s theories of personality differ from Freud‘s theory of personality? COMPARISON OF PERSONALITY THEORIES (WITH REGARD TO DEFENSE MECHANISMS) Think of a recent instance in your life in which you used a particular defense mechanism. Describe what happened and which defense mechanism you used. Why do you think you used this defense mechanism? Would your behavior be better explained by another personality theory?

SUGGESTED MEDIA Adler School of Professional Psychology. https://www.adler.edu/. Face to face with Carl Jung (Part 1 of 4). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLJsiQ4h3fY Face to face with Carl Jung (Part 2 of 4). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6D6N6U6Hjg. Face to face with Carl Jung (Part 3 of 4). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hD-W-1z_qco. Face to face with Carl Jung (Part 4 of 4). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90VXHjQREDM. The Jung Page. http://www.cgjungpage.org/. Karen Horney Clinic. https://www.karenhorneyclinic.org/karen-horney/. New York Psychoanalytic Society and Institute. https://nypsi.org/. Sigmund Freud and the Freud Archives. http://www.freudarchives.org/. TELEVISION PROGRAM: FREUD Young Dr. Freud: A Film by David Grubin traces the early life of Sigmund Freud from his birth in 1856 to the year 1900 publication of the seminal The Interpretation of Dreams. Video and story content available from https://www.pbs.org/youngdrfreud/pages/aboutprogram.htm. POPULAR MOVIES: JUNGIAN ARCHETYPES Show a scene from a movie illustrating archetypes, such as Star Wars (1977; or any one of the other films in the series) or Lord of the Rings (2001–2003). The Broadway musical Into the Woods (released as a feature film in 2014) is an excellent example of Jungian theory, as the characters are all archetypes. In addition, they seek greater balance within their personalities. Each looks in the ―woods‖ (i.e., the unconscious) to find happiness, but instead almost each of the main characters is eaten by the Giant! ADDITIONAL READINGS Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., & Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. Journal of Personality, 66, 1081–1124. Blatt, S. J., & Auerbach, J. S. (2000). Psychoanalytic models of the mind and their contributions to personality research. European Journal of Personality, 14, 429–447. Cramer, P. (2000). Defense mechanisms in psychology today: Further processes for adaptation. American Psychologist, 55, 637–646.

Freud, S. (1910). The origin and development of psychoanalysis. American Journal of Psychology, 21, 181–218. Leman, K. (2009). The birth order book: Why you are the way you are. Ada, MI: Revell. Mitchell, S. A., & Black, M. (2016). Freud and beyond: A history of modern psychoanalytic thought. New York, NY: Basic Books. MODULE 32: TRAIT, LEARNING, BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY, AND HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 32-1

What are the major aspects of trait, learning, biological and evolutionary, and humanistic approaches to personality?

Much of our own understanding of others‘ behavior is based on the premise that people possess certain traits that are consistent across different situations. Dissatisfaction with the emphasis in psychoanalytic theory on unconscious—and difficult to demonstrate—processes in explaining a person‘s behavior led to the development of alternative approaches to personality, including a number of trait-based approaches. TRAIT APPROACHES: PLACING LABELS ON PERSONALITY Traits are consistent, habitual personality characteristics and behaviors displayed across different situations. Trait theory seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality. Trait theorists do not assume that some people have a trait and others do not; rather, they propose that all people possess certain traits but the degree to which a particular trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 ST CENTURY: IS YOUR PERSONALITY WRITTEN ALL OVER YOUR FACE? Researchers are studying whether the way we see ourselves physically reflects something about how we see ourselves psychologically. researchers used software to generate many hundreds of images of human face shapes with small variations. Then they showed them two at a time to participants and asked them each time to choose which face looked more like their own. Participants then completed questionnaire measures of their personality traits and current selfesteem. The researchers then used software to combine all the facial images that each individual participant chose as more like their own into one composite face for that participant. In a second phase of the study, other participants were randomly shown the composite faces as well as the actual photographs of each of the original participants, and they were asked to rate the personality of each face using the same questionnaire measure of personality the first group used. The researchers found that in relation to participants who had described themselves as more

extraverted, raters tended to judge the composite face as looking more extraverted compared with the actual face. Participants whose self-esteem scores were higher with regard to social interactions were less likely to show this exaggerated self-view. The researchers speculated that perhaps people with higher social self-esteem get more frequent and better feedback from others on their actual appearance. The research findings suggest the way in which we view our personality is embodied in how we think we look to others. ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY: IDENTIFYING BASIC CHARACTERISTICS In an effort to answer which personality traits are the most basic, Allport suggested that there are three fundamental categories of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary. A cardinal trait is a single, overriding characteristic that motivates most of a person‘s behavior. Most people, however, do not develop a single, comprehensive cardinal trait. Instead, they possess a handful of central traits that make up the core of personality. Central traits, such as honesty and sociability, are an individual‘s major characteristics; they usually number from five to 10 in any one person. Finally, secondary traits are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or cardinal traits. CATTELL AND EYSENCK: FACTORING OUT PERSONALITY Factor analysis is a statistical method of identifying patterns among a large number of variables. For example, a personality researcher might ask a large group of people to rate themselves on a number of individual traits. By statistically computing which traits are associated with one another in the same person, a researcher can identify the most fundamental patterns or combinations of traits—called factors—that underlie participants‘ responses. Using factor analysis, personality psychologist Raymond Cattell suggested that 16 pairs of traits represent the basic dimensions of personality. Using those source traits, he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, or 16PF, a measure that provides scores for each of the 16 source traits and is still used today. Another trait theorist, psychologist Eysenck (1995), also used factor analysis to identify patterns of traits, but he came to a very different conclusion about the nature of personality. He found that personality could best be described in terms of just three major dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (see Figure 1). The extraversion dimension relates to the degree of sociability, whereas the neuroticism dimension encompasses emotional stability. Finally, psychoticism refers to the degree to which reality is distorted. By evaluating people along these three dimensions, Eysenck was able to predict behavior accurately in a variety of situations. Serious questions have been raised about the integrity of Eysenck's research. THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS For the last two decades, the most influential trait approach contends that five traits or factors— called the ―Big Five‖—lie at the core of personality (see Figure 2). Using factor analytic statistical techniques, a host of researchers have identified a similar set of five factors that

underlie personality. The five factors are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability). A growing consensus exists that the Big Five represent the best description of personality traits we have today. Still, the debate over the specific number and kinds of traits—and even the usefulness of trait approaches in general—remains a lively one. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: BOUNCING BACK AFTER DIFFICULT TIMES Some people have more of what psychologists call resilience, the ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological or physical harm. Research shows that personality characteristics as well as the brain play key roles in resilience. Higher resilience, extraversion, and conscientiousness scores were also associated with lower activity in the brain‘s ―salience network,‖ which detects and filters information about one's internal state and external stimuli. Researchers interpreted this association as an indication that having higher resilience makes it possible to focus one‘s mind and avoid distractions. With more research, neuroscientists may be able to develop ways to protect vulnerable people from developing conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder. EVALUATING TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Trait approaches have several virtues. They provide a clear, straightforward explanation of people‘s behavioral consistencies. Furthermore, traits allow us to readily compare one person with another. However, trait approaches also have some drawbacks. For example, we have seen that various trait theories describing personality come to very different conclusions about which traits are the most fundamental and descriptive. The difficulty in determining which of the theories is the most accurate has led some personality psychologists to question the validity of trait conceptions of personality in general. Even if we are able to identify a set of primary traits, we are left with little more than a label or description of personality—rather than an explanation of behavior. LEARNING APPROACHES: WE ARE WHAT WE‘VE LEARNED The psychodynamic and trait approaches concentrate on the ―inner‖ person—the fury of an unobservable but powerful id, or a critical set of traits. In contrast, learning approaches to personality focus on the external environment and how that determines and affects personality. SKINNER’S BEHAVIORIST APPROACH According to the most influential learning theorist, B. F. Skinner, personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns. Similarities in responses across different situations are caused by similar patterns of reinforcement that have been received in such situations in the past. Strict learning theorists such as Skinner are less interested in the consistencies in behavior across situations than in ways of modifying behavior. Their view is that humans are infinitely changeable through the process of learning new behavior patterns.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Unlike other learning approaches to personality, social cognitive approaches to personality emphasize the influence of cognition—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as observation of others‘ behavior, on personality. According to Albert Bandura, one of the main proponents of this point of view, people can foresee the possible outcomes of certain behaviors in a specific setting without actually having to carry them out. This understanding comes primarily through observational learning—viewing the actions of others and observing the consequences. Self-Efficacy: Bandura places particular emphasis on the role played by self-efficacy, the belief that we have the personal capabilities to master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Selfefficacy underlies people‘s faith in their ability to carry out a specific task or produce a desired result. People with high self-efficacy have higher aspirations and greater persistence in working to attain goals and ultimately achieve greater success than those with lower self-efficacy. Compared with other learning theories of personality, social cognitive approaches are distinctive in their emphasis on the reciprocity between individuals and their environment. Not only is the environment assumed to affect personality, but people‘s behavior and personalities are also assumed to ―feed back‖ and modify the environment. HOW MUCH CONSISTENCY EXISTS IN PERSONALITY? Another social cognitive theorist, Walter Mischel, took a different approach to personality from that of Bandura. He saw personality as considerably more variable from one situation to another. In this view, particular situations give rise to particular kinds of behavior. Some situations are especially influential, such as in a movie theater; other situations permit much variability in behavior, such as at a party. From this perspective, personality cannot be considered without taking the particular context of the situation into account—a view known as situationism. In his cognitive–affective processing system (CAPS) theory, Mischel argued that people‘s thoughts and emotions about themselves and the world determine how they view and then react in particular situations. SELF-ESTEEM Self-esteem is the component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative selfevaluations. It relates to how we feel about ourselves. Although people have a general level of self-esteem, it is not unidimensional. We may see ourselves positively in one domain but negatively in others. Self-esteem is strongly affected by culture. For example, in Asian cultures, having high relationship harmony—a sense of success in forming close bonds with other people—is more important to self-esteem than it is in more individualistic Western societies. High levels of self-esteem can also be troublesome if they are unwarranted. According to a growing body of data, an increasing number of college-age students have high levels of narcissism, in which people show self-absorption and hold inflated views of themselves.

EVALUATING LEARNING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Because they ignore the internal processes, such as thoughts and emotions, traditional learning theorists such as Skinner have been accused of oversimplifying personality. Their critics think that reducing behavior to a series of stimuli and responses and excluding thoughts and feelings from the realm of personality leaves behaviorists practicing an unrealistic and inadequate form of science. Of course, some of these criticisms are blunted by social cognitive approaches, which explicitly consider the role of cognitive processes in personality. Still, learning approaches tend to share a highly deterministic view of human behavior, which maintains that behavior is shaped primarily by forces beyond the individual‘s control. Nonetheless, learning approaches have helped make personality psychology an objective, scientific venture by focusing on observable behavior and the effects of their environments. BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHES: ARE WE BORN WITH PERSONALITY? Biological and evolutionary approaches to personality suggest that important components of personality are inherited (see Figure 4). Building on the work of behavioral geneticists, researchers using biological and evolutionary approaches argue that personality is determined at least in part by our genes in much the same way that our height is largely a result of genetic contributions from our ancestors. In fact, personality tests indicate that, in major respects, genetically identical twins raised apart are quite similar in personality, despite having been separated at an early age. There are certain traits that are more heavily influenced by heredity than are others. For example, social potency (the degree to which a person assumes mastery and leadership roles in social situations) and traditionalism (the tendency to follow authority) had particularly strong genetic components, whereas achievement and social closeness had relatively weak genetic components. Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the roots of adult personality emerge in the earliest periods of life. Infants are born with a specific temperament, an inborn behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. Temperament encompasses several dimensions, including general activity level and mood. Some researchers contend that specific genes are related to personality. For example, people with a longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers than those without such a gene. It is hardly likely that the identification of specific genes linked to personality, coupled with the existence of temperaments from the time of birth, means that we are destined to have certain types of personalities. First, it is unlikely that any single gene is linked to a specific trait. More important, genes interact with the environment. As we can see in the case of the heritability of intelligence and the nature–nurture issue, it is impossible to completely divorce genetic factors from environmental factors. Finally, even if more genes are found to be linked to specific personality characteristics, genes still cannot be viewed as the sole cause of personality. Furthermore, behaviors produced by genes may help to create a specific environment. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES: THE UNIQUENESS OF YOU

According to humanistic theorists, all the approaches to personality we have discussed share a fundamental misperception in their views of human nature. Instead of seeing people as controlled by unconscious, unseen forces (psychodynamic approaches), a set of stable traits (trait approaches), situational reinforcements and punishments (learning theory), or inherited factors (biological and evolutionary approaches), humanistic approaches to personality emphasize people‘s inherent goodness and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning. It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and improve, along with people‘s unique creative impulses, that humanistic theorists argue make up the core of personality. ROGERS AND THE NEED FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION The major proponent of the humanistic point of view is Rogers (1971). Along with other humanistic theorists, such as Abraham Maslow, Rogers maintains that all people have a fundamental need for self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in a unique way. He further suggests that people develop a need for positive regard that reflects the desire to be loved and respected. Because others provide this positive regard, we grow dependent on them. If the discrepancies between people‘s self-concepts and what they actually experience in their lives are minor, the consequences are minor. But if the discrepancies between one‘s experience and one‘s self-concept are great, they will lead to psychological disturbances in daily functioning. Rogers suggests that one way of overcoming the discrepancy between experience and self-concept is through the receipt of unconditional positive regard from another person—a friend, a spouse, or a therapist. Unconditional positive regard refers to an attitude of acceptance and respect on the observer‘s part, no matter what a person says or does. This acceptance, says Rogers, gives people the opportunity to evolve and grow both cognitively and emotionally and to develop more realistic self-concepts. In contrast, conditional positive regard depends on your behavior. In such cases, others withdraw their love and acceptance if you do something of which they do not approve. The result is a discrepancy between your true self and what others wish you would be, which leads to anxiety and frustration (see Figure 5). EVALUATING HUMANISTIC APPROACHES Although humanistic theories suggest the value of providing unconditional positive regard toward people, unconditional positive regard toward humanistic theories has been less forthcoming. The criticisms have centered on the difficulty of verifying the basic assumptions of the approach as well as on the question of whether unconditional positive regard does, in fact, lead to greater personality adjustment. Humanistic approaches have also been criticized for making the assumption that people are basically ―good‖—a notion that is unverifiable—and, equally important, for using nonscientific values to build supposedly scientific theories. COMPARING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY (SEE FIGURE 6)

Each theory of the approaches to personality is built on different assumptions and focuses on somewhat different aspects of personality. Furthermore, there is no clear way to scientifically test the various approaches and their assumptions against one another. Given the complexity of every individual, it seems reasonable that personality can be viewed from a number of perspectives simultaneously. KEY TERMS biological and evolutionary approaches to personality Theories that suggest that important components of personality are inherited. humanistic approaches to personality Theories that emphasize people‘s innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of functioning. self-actualization A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way. self-efficacy The belief that we can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. self-esteem The component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative selfevaluations. social cognitive approaches to personality Theories that emphasize the influence of a person‘s cognitions—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as observation of others‘ behavior, in determining personality. temperament An individual‘s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding that emerges early in life. trait theory A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality. traits Consistent, habitual personality characteristics and behaviors that are displayed across different situations. unconditional positive regard An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does. LECTURE IDEAS BIOGRAPHY OF RAYMOND CATTELL Raymond Cattell was born in Staffordshire, England, on March 20, 1905. He earned his undergraduate degree in chemistry and his PhD in psychology from the University of London in 1929. He taught college and worked in a psychological clinic in London until 1937.

In 1937, Cattell moved to the United States. He taught at Clark University and Harvard University before becoming, in 1942, the director of the Laboratory of Personality and Group Analysis at the University of Illinois. Cattell was a prolific writer, having written more than 500 articles and 50 books. His important works include Description and Measurement of Personality (1946), Personality and Motivation: Structure and Measurement (1957), and Personality and Mood by Questionnaire (1973). Cattell developed the popular personality inventory, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). In 1978, when he was in his 70s, he accepted a part-time position at the University of Hawaii. Cattell died on February 4, 1998, at the age of 92. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. BIOGRAPHY OF CARL ROGERS Carl R. Rogers, the son of prosperous businesspeople, was born in Oak Park, Illinois, in 1902. He was reared in a strict religious environment that placed great emphasis on the value of hard work and the sharing of responsibility. Rogers enrolled in the University of Wisconsin with the intention of studying agriculture. However, he soon decided to prepare for the ministry. Leaving Wisconsin in 1924, he entered the Union Theological Seminary in New York. He became deeply involved in clinical work with disturbed children, and his interests shifted to clinical psychology. He received his doctorate from Columbia University in 1931 and went to work at a guidance clinic in Rochester, New York. He later taught at Ohio State University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Wisconsin, before settling at the Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla, California. Throughout his career, Rogers continued to work extensively with delinquent and underprivileged children, gathering the experience that led to his theory of nondirective, or person-centered, therapy. He wrote many influential books, including Client-Centered Therapy (1951), On Becoming a Person (1961), and A Way of Being (1980). He was a leader of the humanistic psychology movement until his death in 1987. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. TRAIT THEORY Ask students to think about what aggression is and the behaviors that make it up. Have them then label traits that may lead to such behaviors. This activity can help them see how multifaceted ―traits‖ are.

Major theorists are Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck. They agreed that personality is made up of stable dispositions or dimensions along which people differ. Big Five or Five Factor Model theory incorporates other trait theories into a set of five. The Big Five or Five Factor Model traits are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. To remember these names, think of OCEAN or CANOE (or a canoe on the ocean!). Here are brief descriptions of each trait: Openness to experience: Toleration for and exploration of the unfamiliar Conscientiousness: Degree of organization, persistence, and motivation in goal-directed behavior Extraversion: Capacity for joy, need for stimulation Agreeableness: One‘s orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings, and actions Neuroticism: Proneness to psychological distress, excessive cravings or urges, and unrealistic ideas Below is a table of the Five Factor Model showing each of the factors:

SOCIAL COGNITIVE (LEARNING) THEORY People acquire new behaviors by watching the consequences of behavior reinforced by others. Self-efficacy is the belief you have in your ability to succeed at a given task. It is acquired on the basis of observing the results of your own actions.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES Temperament reflects genetic inheritance and is manifested early in life. HUMANISTIC THEORIES Major points of Rogers:  

People are basically good. Self-actualization requires unconditional positive regard.

SELF-EFFICACY In conjunction with Handout 4, indicate that self-efficacy is usually measured with regard to specific situations. You can have students choose one area of their lives for which they feel that performance is important and rate their self-efficacy for that area. This would take into account:    

Expectations for success or failure Self-assessments of abilities Evaluation of the challenges faced Past record of success or failure

Self-efficacy is applied to a variety of situations such as fears or phobias, stress, addictive behavior, achievement in school, career choice, and ability to recover from illness such as coronary heart disease. CATTELL‘S 16PF TEST Present this table of the scales on Cattell‘s 16 Personality Factors test: Primary Source Traits Covered by the 16PF Test Factor Low Sten Score Description (1–3)

High Sten Score Description (8–10)

Cool, reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, aloof; sizothymia

Warm, outgoing, kindly, easygoing, participating, likes people; affectothymia

Concrete-thinking, less intelligent; lower scholastic mental capacity

Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright; higher scholastic mental capacity

Affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily annoyed; lower ego strength

Emotionally stable, mature, faces reality, calm; higher ego strength

Submissive, humble, mild, easily led, accommodating; submissiveness

Dominant, assertive, aggressive, stubborn, competitive, bossy; dominance

Sober, restrained, prudent taciturn, serious; desurgency

Enthusiastic, spontaneous, heedless, expressive, cheerful; surgency

Expedient, disregards rules, self-indulgent; weaker superego strength

Conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule-bound; stronger superego strength

Shy, threat sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated; threctia

Bold, venturesome, uninhibited, can take stress; parmia

Tough-minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough, realistic; harria

Tender-minded, sensitive, overprotected, intuitive, refined; premsia

Trusting, accepting conditions, easy to get on with; alaxia

Suspicious, hard to fool, distrustful, skeptical; protension

Practical, concerned with ―down to earth‖ issues, steady; praxernia

Imaginative, absent-minded, absorbed in thought, impractical; autia

Forthright, unpretentious, open, genuine, artless; artlessness

Shrewd, polished, socially aware, diplomatic, calculating; shrewdness

Self-assured, secure, feels free of guilt, untroubled, self-satisfied; untroubled adequacy

Apprehensive, self-blaming, guilt-prone, insecure, worrying; guilt proneness

Q1 Conservative, respecting traditional ideas; conservatism of temperament

Experimenting, liberal, critical, open to change; radicalism

Q2 Group-oriented, a ―joiner‖ and sound follower, listens to others; group adherence

Self-sufficient, resourceful, prefers own decisions; self-sufficiency

Q3 Undisciplined self-conflict, lax, careless of social rules; low integration

Following self-image, socially precise, compulsive; high self-concept control

Q4 Relaxed, tranquil, composed, has low drive, unfrustrated; low ergic tension

Tense, frustrated, overwrought, has high drive; high ergic tension

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS HUMANISITIC PERSPECTIVES The Self: Have the students think of three people, including themselves, and then describe the real self and the ideal self of each of those people. After they have turned in the assignment, discuss with the students how each of them (and you) has both a real self and an ideal self. Give them examples of your own real self and your ideal self. Unconditional Positive Regard, Empathy, and Genuineness: Break the class into groups, and have them discuss the concepts behind unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. Have each group come up with an example of each and then discuss with the others in their group an example from their own lives when they demonstrated each of these.

A Grinch’s Personality Unfolded: Either in class or as an assignment, have student watch the 26-min How the Grinch Stole Christmas (1966) short. Then, either in groups or individually, have students apply the following personality theories to explain the Grinch: Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney, Maslow, and Rogers. Have students engage in analytical and critical thought on how the theory(ies) explain what we know about the Grinch. Modifications of this activity can be found and credited at: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-psychology/classroomresources/how-grinch-stole-psychology-class. The Five-Factor Model: Use Handout 3: Do They Have the Five Factors? The goal of this activity is for the students to think of their closest friends and determine if they carry the five factors for personality. The students will gain a better understanding of what personality traits people close to them actually have. The Big Five: Have students take the five-factor personality test at http://similarminds.com/bigfive.html. What did their results say about them? Do they feel their results are valid? Traits: Ask students to write an essay on impulsivity. They can also write an essay on how their personality traits relate to their health behaviors. To facilitate a class discussion, ask students who are willing to share their results with the rest of the class. Traits 2: Ask students to pick five or more traits that they think describe themselves. Have them think about where these traits came from. Are they inherited? Are they biological or environmental in origin? What has shaped their personality? Do they think personality is more nature or nurture? Man’s Best Friend: Ask students to consider their family‘s or a friend‘s pet. At some point, they have probably spoken of the pet as if it were human, allocating specific terms to explain how or why a pet behaves the way it does. Have them use the Big Five factors of personality to identify which traits the pet appears to be high or low on and why. Ask them to share their example with the class or present a more formal paper on the application of personality traits to animals. SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE The Cross-Situational and Personality Approaches: Discuss with the students the differences between the cross-situational and personality approach. Divide the class into groups, and have each group come up with examples of each and discuss them with the rest of the class. Consistency Across: Mischel argued that behavior is not consistent across different situations. Have students do the following speculative experiment to see just how easy (or difficult) it might be to change their personality. Ask them to choose some situation that they frequently encounter and think about how they would change their behavior from their typical routine. What specifically would they change? In light of their behavioral change, what do they imagine the experience would be like? Then, have them actually attempt to change and keep a reflective log of their experiences.

SELF-EFFICACY SCALE Have students complete the items in Handout 4: Self-Efficacy Scale. However, indicate that selfefficacy is also established for specific areas of abilities and is usually not measured as a general trait or quality. Use Handout 5: Make a Life Change as a way for students to understand the steps involved in making a positive change. The students will choose an activity that they want to stop doing, and then they will work through the strategic steps discussed in the chapter for stopping this unwanted behavior. SURVEY ON LOCUS OF CONTROL Handout 6: Locus of Control Scale contains a form of the measure that assesses an individual‘s tendency to seek reinforcement from internal or external sources. The Locus of Control: Have the students make a list of important behaviors, such as coming to class regularly, going to work, completing their homework, and so on. Next, have them discuss whether the locus of control for these behaviors is internal or external. How does a person switch from an external locus to an internal one, and why would they want to? REVIEW OF THEORIES: PERSONALITY JEOPARDY Use these questions to create your own Jeopardy game that reviews the concepts associated with the major personality theories (you can create slides or put these on overheads; if using PowerPoint, triggers can be activated to move to a specific slide that goes with each dollar amount).

Defense Mechanisms

Famous People

Definitions

Well-Known Tests

General Facts and Knowledge

$100

$200

$300

$400

$500

Defense mechanisms: $100: This defense mechanism is also known as the ―kick the dog syndrome.‖ Q: What is displacement? $200: In this defense mechanism, people ―forget‖ important but difficult past events. Q: What is repression? $300: When displaying this defense mechanism, people unconsciously pretend they like someone whom they secretly hate. Q: What is reaction formation? $400: Denial is part of this defense mechanism, which causes people to blame others for something foolish they have done. Q: What is projection? $500: In this defense mechanism, anal impulses convert to creating a pottery vase. Q: What is sublimation? Famous people: $100: This psychoanalyst challenged Freud‘s ideas about women. Q: Who was Karen Horney? $200: This personality researcher discovered 18,000 words in the dictionary that refer to personality traits. Q: Who was Gordon Allport? $300: Observational learning plays an important role in personality according to this researcher and theorist. Q: Who is Alfred Bandura? $400: The use of factor analysis led to this researcher‘s development of 16 Personality Factors. Q: Who is Raymond Cattell? $500: For this personality theorist, psychoticism was one of three basic personality traits. Q: Who was Hans Eysenck?

Definitions: $100: In Freud‘s theory, this is the concept that women view themselves as castrated males. Q: What is penis envy? $200: In Adler‘s theory, this is a person‘s feelings of low self-esteem. Q: What is inferiority complex? $300: For Jung, this is the universal symbolic representation of people, objects, or experiences. Q: What is archetype? $400: This is the basic, innate dispositions that infants are born with, according to biological theories. Q: What is temperament? $500: According to Rogers, this is when parents show consistent love and acceptance of their children. Q: What is unconditional positive regard? Well-known tests: $100: This ―true-false‖ personality test is named after a state. Q: What is the MMPI? $200: Inkblots form the basis of this test. Q: What is the Rorschach? $300: You would tell a story about people in a picture in this test. Q: What is the TAT? $400: A psychologist watches you and records what you do. Q: What is behavioral assessment? $500: Use of racial norming on this test was discontinued in the 1990s. Q: What is the General Aptitude Test Battery? General facts and knowledge (or use trivia about your college or department): $100: This theory regards human behavior as shaped by external forces. Q: What is behaviorism? $200: According to this theory, personality consists of five major traits. Q: What is the ―Big Five‖? $300: This tragic Greek figure formed the basis for a Freudian personality stage. Q: Who was Oedipus?

$400: A Jungian would regard this sci-fi movie as illustrating archetypes of good and evil. Q: What is Star Wars? $500: By improving our faith in ourselves, social learning theorists say we can increase this personality quality. Q: What is self-efficacy? BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Behavioral Genetics: Have the students write a one- to two-page paper on the implications of behavioral characteristics being inherited in both humans and animals. Have the students share their views in class, including their view of personality traits in animals. Temperament: The Kiersey Temperament Sorter is a 70-item test that measures four pairs of preferences and can be used to develop 16 personality profiles. The pairs (based on Jung‘s dimensions) are:    

Extraversion–introversion Intuition–sensation Thinking–feeling Judging–perceiving

Use all of the items or select one pair, such as extroversion–introversion, to illustrate the concept of a continuum of bipolar dimensions. The scale is found in: Kiersey, D., & Bates, M. (1984). Please understand me: Character and temperament types. Prometheus Nemesis Book Company. Eysenck: The Lemon Juice Experiment was devised by Hans Eysenck to demonstrate differences between the extrovert and the introvert by arousing salivation. Findings indicate that extroverts will require more juice to arouse salivation, compared to the introvert who needs just a couple drops to arouse salivation. Assign students to go to the link below (hosted by the BBC). Ask students to follow the link‘s directions and complete the experiment at home and be prepared to discuss the findings the next class period. You may want to assign this as a writing assignment. http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/personalityandindividuality/lemons.sht ml. Trauma and Personality: Engage the class in a healthy discussion about whether personality is ―fixed‖ or whether it changes. How do they explain people who witnessed traumatic events as ―being different from before?‖ Did that person‘s personality change? What about military personnel and war? Was the person ―wired‖ to be a certain disposition or personality or did the impact of war change ―who they are?‖

Designing Genes: Ask students to write a two- to three-page reflection paper on behavioral genetics and whether they would want to know the personality of their child. If they could turn certain genes on or off to exhibit specific behavioral traits, would they? What are the implications of such choices? Have students include at least two references to support their ideas. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS COMPARISON OF PERSONALITY THEORIES Select the personality theory that you think best explains individual differences. State which theory this is and describe why you like it. Use examples from your experience to support your choice of this as the best. Describe any limitations or problems with the theory. How does your personality affect your life goals? What is a personality conflict, and how do you solve one? Which theory of personality best describes your behavior and why? How would you describe your personality? Why? How are you like your friends and family, and how are you different? What makes you unique? What advice would you give a friend who wants to be more outgoing? Ask students to note when their personality style is consistent across situations and when it is different. What role does the environment play in consistency and inconsistency? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Drooling Is Cool? Ask students what relationship, if any, they think exists between one‘s level of introversion or extraversion and how much they drool. Most students will think that extraverts drool more. Then, discuss Corcoran‘s (1964) research in this area (see Additional Readings), which says introverts drool more because of their higher baseline of arousal. You can link this to Eysenck‘s theories. Polling Question: Big Five Traits Which of the Big Five traits do you believe most describes your personality? Polling Question: Advantageous Traits? The evolution of personality traits demonstrates how our bodies, brain, and behavior can be shaped by environmental forces over long periods of time. Nurture shapes nature. Research finds anxiety can be evolutionarily advantageous. Ask your students what other personality traits could be advantageous (e.g., extraversion, conscientiousness, etc.).

Polling Question: Are We a Product of Our Inner Personalities or Our External Situations? Reflect on the following question, ―Who am I?‖ Now, jot down a few words, experiences, or descriptors that came to your mind. Looking at what you wrote, how many of you listed things more like traits that described who you are? For the others, how many of you listed experiences or situations that shaped the answer to your question? Who thinks that who you are is a combination of your inner makeup and external experiences? (Work through identifying the various theoretical perspectives that may come up to justify student answers.) Who thinks that your personality changes, meaning who you are changes over time? Polling Question: Move Over Freud, Social Media Is the New Thing It is astonishing what people will post on social media sites. Think about the last time you read a post on Facebook or X that shocked you. You said, ―I can‘t believe so-and-so posted that!‖ Now, consider personality psychology. How many of you think that social media has influenced people‘s expressions of their personality. Think about what you post: What do you think your postings say about you? How many of you think it is all right for a potential employer to access your social media sites before offering you a job? Who thinks that what we post on social media can be an insight into our unconscious motivations and anxieties? Polling Question: Your Density… I Mean, Your Destiny Alice Dreger works with people at the edge of anatomy, such as conjoined twins and intersexed people. In her observation, it's often a fuzzy line between male and female, among other anatomical distinctions. Which brings up a huge question: Why do we let our anatomy determine our fate? Watch the TedTalks video (December 2010) https://www.ted.com/talks/alice_dreger_is_anatomy_destiny? and vote on how many believe that we are a product of our biology? Who believes we can take control over who we are by changing the experiences we chose to have? SUGGESTED MEDIA Big Five Project Personality Test: https://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/. PEN Model: http://www.personalityresearch.org/pen.html. Carl Rogers discussing his form of psychotherapy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HarEcd4bt-s. Personality Project: http://www.personality-project.org/readings-theory.html. Psychological science at work (Association for Psychological Science): http://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/minds-business. HUMOROUS TV SHOW: SATURDAY NIGHT LIVE

You can show ―Great Moments in the Herstory of Psychology‖ with Dan Aykroyd as Freud and Laraine Newman as Anna from the first season of Saturday Night Live. POPULAR MOVIE: AGGRESSION As was the case for the discussions on learning, a movie illustrating the learning of aggression through imitating violent models would be appropriate in the context of social cognitive personality theory. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: BOBO DOLL STUDY The Bobo doll study, conducted by Albert Bandura, is one of the original studies of observational learning in children. This video includes an explanation from Bandura himself along with footage from the experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE. POPULAR TELEVISION SHOW: UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD Show a clip from the PBS children‘s show Mister Rogers to illustrate the theory of Carl Rogers (interesting coincidence!) in which the main character discusses the importance of children feeling good about themselves. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bailey, S. (2014, July 8). Can personality predict performance? Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sebastianbailey/2014/07/08/can-personality-predictperformance/#4a4dab995499. Barondes, S. (2011). Making sense of people: Decoding the mysteries of personality. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press. Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can’t stop talking. New York, NY: Crown. Carere, C., & Maestripieri, D. (Eds.). (2013). Animal personalities: Behavior, physiology, and evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on psychology (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Corcoran, D. W. J. (1964). The relation between introversion and salivation. American Journal of Psychology, 77(2), 298–300. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways Five Factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653–665.

Eysenck, H. J. (1990). Genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences: The three major dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality, 58, 245–261. Eysenck, H. J. (1991). Dimensions of personality: 16, 5, or 3?—Criteria for a taxonomic paradigm. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 773–790. Feist, J., Roberts, T. A., & Feist, G. (2018). Theories of personality. New York, NY: McGrawHill. Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. B. (1998). Theories of personality (4th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley. Hampson, S. E. (2012). Personality processes: Mechanisms by which personality traits ―get outside the skin.‖ Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 315. Jaffe, E. (2013). The link between personality and immunity. APS Observer, 26, 27–30. Kam, C., & Meyer, J. P. (2012). Do Optimism and pessimism have different relationships with personality dimensions? A re-examination. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 123–127. Leckl, K. (2006). Teaching personality theory using popular music. Teaching of Psychology, 33, 34–36. Loveland, J. M., Lounsbury, J. W., Park, S. H., & Jackson, D. W. (2015). Are salespeople born or made? Biology, personality, and the career satisfaction of salespeople. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 30(2), 233–240. Loewenstein, G. (2019). Self-control and its discontents: A commentary on Duckworth, Milkman, and Laibson. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(3), 95–101. Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52, 509–516. McAdams, D. P. (1999). Personal narratives and the life story. Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2, 478–500. Massen, J. J., & Koski, S. E. (2014). Chimps of a feather sit together: Chimpanzee friendships are based on homophily in personality. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35(1), 1–8. Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574–583.

Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Schneider, K. J., Bugetal, J. F. T., & Pierson, F. (2002). The handbook of humanistic psychology. Washington, DC: Sage. Shanahan, M. J., Hill, P. L., Roberts, B. W., Eccles, J., & Friedman, H. S. (2012 & 2014). Conscientiousness, health, and aging: The life course of personality model. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1407–1425. Soto, C. J. (2015). Is happiness good for your personality? Concurrent and prospective relations of the big five with subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 83(1), 45–55. Stelmack, R. M. (1990). Biological bases of extraversion: Psychophysiological evidence. Journal of Personality, 58, 293–312. MODULE 33: ASSESSING PERSONALITY: DETERMINING WHAT MAKES US DISTINCTIVE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 33-1

How can we most accurately assess personality?

33-2

What are the major types of personality measures?

Psychologists interested in assessing personality must be able to define the most meaningful ways of discriminating between one person‘s personality and another‘s. To do this, they use psychological tests, standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively. With the results of such tests, psychologists can help people better understand themselves and make decisions about their lives. Researchers interested in the causes and consequences of personality also employ psychological tests. As with assessments that seek to measure intelligence, all psychological tests must have reliability and validity. Reliability refers to a test‘s measurement consistency. If a test is reliable, it yields the same result each time it is administered to a specific person or group. In contrast, unreliable tests give different results each time they are administered. For meaningful conclusions to be drawn, tests also must be valid. Tests have validity when they actually measure what they are designed to measure. If a test is constructed to measure sociability, for instance, we need to know that it actually measures sociability and not some other trait. Finally, psychological tests are based on norms, the average test performance of a large sample of individuals that permit the comparison of one person‘s score on a test with the scores of others who have taken the same test. Norms are established by administering a specific test to a large number of people and determining the typical scores. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: SHOULD RACE AND ETHNICITY BE USED TO ESTABLISH TEST NORMS?

The passions of politics may confront the objectivity of science when test norms are established, at least in the realm of standardized tests that are meant to predict future job performance. In fact, a national controversy has developed around the question of whether different norms should be established for members of various racial and ethnic groups. Critics of the adjusted norming system suggested that such a procedure discriminates in favor of certain racial and ethnic groups at the expense of others, thereby fanning the flames of racial bigotry. However, proponents of race norming continue to argue that norming procedures that take race into account are an affirmative action tool that simply permits minority job seekers to be placed on an equal footing with White job seekers. Furthermore, a panel of the National Academy of Sciences supported the practice of adjusting test norms. It suggested that the unadjusted test norms are not very useful in predicting job performance and that they would tend to screen out, otherwise, qualified minority group members. Job testing is not the only area in which issues arise regarding norms and the meaning of test scores. The issue of how to treat racial differences in IQ scores is also controversial and divisive. SELF-REPORT MEASURES OF PERSONALITY Psychologists utilize self-report measures that ask people about their own behavior and traits (see Figure 1). This sampling of self-report data is then used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics. MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI) One of the best examples of a self-report measure, and one of the most frequently used personality tests, is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF). Although the original purpose of this measure was to identify people with specific sorts of psychological difficulties, it has been found to predict a variety of other behaviors. The test consists of a series of 338 items to which a person responds ―true,‖ ―false,‖ or ―cannot say.‖ The questions cover a variety of issues ranging from mood to opinions to physical and psychological health. There are no right or wrong answers. Instead, interpretation of the results rests on the pattern of responses. The test yields scores on 51 separate scales, including several scales meant to measure the validity of the respondent‘s answers (see Figure 2). The authors of the MMPI-2-RF, in order to determine what specific patterns of responses indicate, used a process that is typical of personality test construction. This is known as test standardization—a technique used to validate questions on personality tests by analyzing the responses of people who have completed the same set of questions under the same circumstances. OTHER SELF-REPORT MEASURES The Kuder Career Interest Assessment–Likert (KCIA-L) measures the relative level of interest a person has in six broad areas to identify career pathways and occupations that match those interests. The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator places people along four dimensions: (1) introverts versus extraverts; (2) intuitors versus sensors; (3) thinkers versus feelers; and (4) perceivers

versus judgers. Despite its widespread use, objective scientific validation for the test is lacking. Researchers have failed to find that the test predicts much of interest, including professional jobrelated success. PROJECTIVE METHODS Projective personality tests are personality tests in which a person is shown an ambiguous, vague stimulus and asked to describe it or to tell a story about it. The responses are considered to be ―projections‖ of the individual‘s personality. The best-known projective test is the Rorschach test. Devised by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1924), the test involves showing a series of symmetrical stimuli (inkblots) to people who are then asked what the figures represent to them (see Figure 3). Their responses are recorded, and people are classified by their personality type through a complex set of clinical judgments on the part of the examiner. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is another well-known projective test. The TAT consists of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story. The stories are then used to draw inferences about the writer‘s personality characteristics. TAT is used to assess need for achievement and other motivational needs, but its use requires a high degree of training, skill, and care in interpretation—so much so that many psychologists question the validity of projective test results. BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT Psychologists subscribing to a learning approach to personality would be likely to object to the indirect nature of projective tests. Instead, they would be more apt to use behavioral assessment—direct measures of an individual‘s behavior designed to describe characteristics indicative of personality. Behavioral assessment is particularly appropriate for observing—and eventually remedying—specific behavioral difficulties, such as shyness in children. It provides a means of assessing the specific nature and incidence of a problem and subsequently allows psychologists to determine whether intervention techniques have been successful. Behavioral assessment techniques based on learning theories of personality have also made important contributions to the treatment of certain kinds of psychological difficulties. In addition, they are also used to make hiring and personnel decisions in the workplace. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: ASSESSING PERSONALITY ASSESSMENTS Many companies employ personality tests to help determine who they hire. They ask potential employees various brain teasers and sometimes extremely vague questions. Before relying too heavily on the results of such personality testing in the role of potential employee, employer, or consumer of testing services, you should keep several points in mind: 

Understand what the test claims to measure. Standard personality measures are accompanied by information that discusses how the test was developed, to whom it is



most applicable, and how the results should be interpreted. Read any explanations of the test; they will help you understand the results. Do not base a decision only on the results of any one test. Test results should be interpreted in the context of other information, such as academic records, social interests, and home and community activities. Remember that test results are not always accurate. The results may be in error; the test may be unreliable or invalid. For example, you may have had a bad day when you took the test, or the person scoring and interpreting the test may have made a mistake. You should not place too much significance on the results of a single administration of any test.

In sum, it is important to keep in mind the complexity of human behavior—particularly your own. No single test can provide an understanding of the intricacies of someone‘s personality without considering a good deal more information than can be provided in a single testing session. KEY TERMS behavioral assessment Direct measures of an individual‘s behavior used to describe personality characteristics. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) A widely used self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviors. projective personality test A test in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it in order to infer information about their personality. psychological tests Standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves. Rorschach test A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them. self-report measures A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about their own behavior and traits. test standardization A technique used to validate questions in personality tests by studying the responses of people with known diagnoses. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story. LECTURE IDEAS

PROJECTIVE MEASURES Go to Wikipedia and download Rorschach test images to show to the class. Because these are now available online, it is no longer illegal to show them in a public setting such as the classroom. The instructions for the Rorschach are to ask, ―What might this be?‖ Ask this question, and then have students write down three brief answers for each stimulus (separately). Note that scoring of these responses would occur along the following dimensions: (1) whether or not color is mentioned; (2) whether the answer takes into account the whole figure or a part of it; (3) if the figures are seen as two halves of a single figure, or as mirror images; and (4) whether the images look like cartoon, comic, or animal-like figures. Although Rorschach‘s validity is often questioned, these are the types of considerations given in assessments using standardized procedures. Rorschach Inkblots and TAT: Show students Rorschach inkblots and TAT images and ask them what they see (e.g., https://www.deltabravo.net/). Students really get into this. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS SELF-TESTING OF THE BIG FIVE TRAITS A Big Five mini-test is available online at: https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bigfiveminitest.html. After students complete the test, have them answer these questions:  Did you feel that the test accurately reflected your personality? Why or why not?  Do you think that the Big Five factors are a good way to evaluate personality differences? Just One Personality: Have students take the self-assessing 41-question personality inventory found at https://www.41q.com/. Once they have completed it, the computer will synthesize their results and provide them some feedback. Ask them to print out their results and compare them to the Big Five factors. Then, have them determine which traits they are higher or lower on. Do they consider the self-assessment accurate in terms of reliability and validity? Why or why not? Ask them to find an alternative personality test website and see if their results are similar on a different test. Have students report their findings to the class. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT Self-Report Tests: Have the students compare the Five Factor assessment with the MMPI assessment and give examples of each. Projective Tests: Bring some examples of Rorschach inkblots into class. As you show them to the class, ask the students to write down their interpretations of them. After they complete this

assignment, break the class into groups, and have the students share with the others in their group what they thought the inkblots were. Projective Tests: Show students Rorschach inkblots and TAT images and ask them what they see (e.g., https://www.deltabravo.net/). Students really get into this. Thematic Apperception Test: For a homework assignment, have the students make up various cards that tell a story in the way that the Thematic Apperception Test does. The next day, break the class into pairs, and have the students go through their cards with their classmate. Picture Story Exercise: For a homework assignment, have the students make up various cards that tell a story in the way that the Picture Story Exercise (PSE) does. The next day in class, break the class into pairs and have the students go through their cards with their classmate. Rate Thy Self or My Self: Ask students to complete the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI; Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2013) at http://www.personalityarp.org/html/newsletter07/docs/14_teaching_self_observer.pdf (adopted from J. Fayard), and then have them engage with a classmate in a discussion of or write a short paper on any differences or similarities they identified between their rating score sheets. PERSONNEL ASSESSMENT Give students the following assignment: You are the personnel manager of a large corporation and decide that you want to change the company‘s test procedures for new employees, which include some outdated instruments. Answer the following questions about designing a new test procedure:  

Which tests would you want to use to screen new employees? Why? Do you think it is fair to use psychological tests in evaluating new employees? Why or why not?

CLASS DEMONSTRATION: THE ―BARNUM EFFECT,‖ OR PROBLEMS WITH SELF-REPORT INVENTORIES The ―Barnum Effect‖ refers to the tendency to place faith in generic feedback. The term is derived from the expression (wrongly) attributed to circus producer P. T. Barnum: ―There‘s a sucker born every minute.‖ For this demonstration, you will give students a generic personality inventory, such as the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (excerpted in Handout 7: Barnum Effect). Alternatively, you can make up an innocuous personality questionnaire with items that sound like those on the MMPI or the online Big Five questionnaire. For this demonstration to work, you must present the questionnaire as though it is known to have great validity and provides an accurate picture of an individual‘s personality. Give the questionnaire 2 weeks before the lecture so that students will not associate the questionnaire with the feedback.

The guise for this is that it will take 2 weeks for the data to be analyzed. Have students complete the questionnaire on a machine scoring format (an Opscan or scantron sheet), with an ID number that they give to themselves but that you do not have access to. They should write this ID number down so that they can retrieve it later. On the day that you are giving feedback, copy the feedback in Handout 7 onto a sheet of paper and insert it into an envelope with the ID number on it. Hand this back to the students along with the rating sheet. Do not allow them to talk or share comments. (Ensure this by stating that the feedback is highly individualized and may contain very revealing facts. To protect themselves, they should keep it private.) Then, collect their ratings. You should be able to scan them quickly to determine that the majority rate the applicability of the feedback as very high (you can calculate this later and report the actual number during the next class). In class testings of this demonstration, the percentages with ratings of 4 or 5 ranged from 70% to 80%. Then, point out that the name of the questionnaire, the ―SUCR,‖ actually stands for ―sucker,‖ and that they have been victims of the Barnum Effect! DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Should personality tests be used for personnel decisions? Should they be used for other social purposes, such as identifying individuals at risk for certain types of personality disorders? Discuss the pros and cons of developing separate test norms for different racial and ethnic groups. Based on your list of pros and cons, draw a conclusion: Do you believe the testmakers should use one set of norms for everyone, or should norms depend on your racial and ethnic background? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: B. F. Skinner and Assessments Which of the following assessments would B. F. Skinner have been most likely to use? a) Behavioral assessment b) Projective tests c) Self-report measures d) None of the above Polling Question: The Science of Online Dating— Just Fill Out This Questionnaire and the Love of Your Life Will Be Right With You! Research shows that more couples are meeting each other online. With dating sites such as https://www.eharmony.com/ and https://www.match.com/, have you ever wondered how those sites actually work and the power behind their claims to fame? How many of you have ever created an online dating profile that included some form of personality assessment? Who would rather be with a partner who is more like themselves? How many of you think that online dating

sites don‘t work at all, and that they are just gimmicks? Using what we learned about personality in this chapter, how many of you think it is a good idea to use personality assessments (to learn about the other person) before you get into a serious relationship with them? SUGGESTED MEDIA Discovering Psychology—The Self (Annenberg). https://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/the-self/. Extreme Sports and Teens: The Psychology of Risk Addiction (discusses the T-type personality). https://www.films.com/dealerpreview/35832. Locus of Control Scale. http://www.mccc.edu/~jenningh/Courses/documents/Rotterlocusofcontrolhandout.pdf. The Myers & Briggs Foundation. https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbtibasics/home.htm?bhcp=1. Personality tests—Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/tests/personality. Crash Course #21. (2014, July 8). Rorschach and Freudians [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUELAiHbCxc. Rorschach test. https://www.deltabravo.net/ TAT image.: http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm. POPULAR MOVIE: ARMAGEDDON In Armageddon (1998), trainees take a battery of psychological tests, including the Rorschach. ADDITIONAL READINGS Archer, R. P., & Smith, S. R. (2014). Personality assessment. Routledge. Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test: Mastering self-control. Little, Brown, & Company. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS  Psychoanalytic Theory  Five Factors of Personality  Bandura‘s Social Cognitive Theory INTERACTIVITIES  Defense Mechanisms  Trait Theory of Personality  Your Ideal Self  Personality Assessment  Rorschach Inkblots NEWSFLASH  The Man Who Studies Everyday Evil COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos  Scientific Reasoning Exercises  Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: EXPLAINING THE ID, THE EGO, AND THE SUPEREGO Read through the below scenarios and then briefly describe how the id, the ego, and the superego would handle the situation. 1. Rachel is walking to class and the late bell rang 2 min ago. As she walks into her class, she stumbles, and her books go flying everywhere. Out of one of the books falls a note to a boy that Rachel has secretly liked for a long time. The boy picks up the note and reads the top line and then hands it back to Rachel. She is so embarrassed.

2. Abdul is going on his first date with a really popular girl. He still can‘t believe that she agreed to go out with him. During the movie, they are sitting so close that their legs are touching. He so badly wants to hold her hand and kiss her, but he isn‘t sure how she would react. He takes a chance and does it and she looks at him and then gets up and walks out.

3. Alex is babysitting for the same family they babysit for every Friday night. This Friday night, however, Alex has invited their partner over and they are snuggled on the couch, watching a movie. The parents come home early and find Alex and their partner wrapped in each other‘s arms, sound asleep. They wake them up and are so upset because they felt Alex was being irresponsible. Alex is really upset and not sure what to think or say.

HANDOUT 2: DEFENSE MECHANISMS For each defense mechanism, provide an example from your own experience (either yourself or someone else). Defense Mechanism

Personal Example

Repression

Regression

Displacement

Rationalization

Denial

Projection

Sublimation

Reaction formation

HANDOUT 3: DO THEY HAVE THE FIVE FACTORS?

Think of your three closest friends. Write down their names in the space provided and then put a check next to the space of the personality trait that your friend has. They can have more than one personality trait. After completing every one, go back, and in the space provided briefly explain what this tells you about your friends. 1. Name: Neuroticism: ____ Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation:

2. Name: Neuroticism: ____ Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation:

3. Name: Neuroticism: ____ Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation:

HANDOUT 4: SELF-EFFICACY SCALE

1 = Disagree strongly 2 = Disagree moderately 3 = Neither agree nor disagree 4 = Agree moderately 5 = Agree strongly 1. I am able to make sure that my plans will work. 2. It is difficult for me to apply myself to my work. 3. If I can‘t succeed at a job the first time, I keep trying till I can. 4. Making friends is difficult for me. 5. Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality. 6. It is difficult for me to make new friends. 7. When I set important goals for myself, I usually achieve them. 8. I give up on things before completing them. 9. If I see someone I would like to meet, I go to that person rather than waiting for that person to approach me. 10. I feel that I work best when I am challenged. 11. If something looks too complicated, I will not even bother to try it. 12. When I have something unpleasant to do, I stick to it until I finish it. 13. When I decide to do something, I go right to work on it. 14. When trying to learn something new, I soon give up if I am not initially successful. 15. I don‘t handle unexpected problems very well. 16. I enjoy the challenge of trying to learn new things, even if they seem difficult. 17. Failure just makes me try harder. 18. I do not handle myself well in social gatherings. 19. I feel insecure about my ability to do things. 20. I feel that I am a self-reliant person. 21. I have acquired my friends through my personal abilities at making friends. 22. I give up easily. 23. I do not seem able to deal with most problems that come up in my life. Scoring: Positive: 1, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21 Negative: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 15, 18, 19, 22, 23

HANDOUT 5: MAKE A LIFE CHANGE Choose a behavior that you would like to change or stop doing, such as smoking, swearing, working out, losing your temper, drinking, losing weight, and so on. Write the behavior below and then walk through the steps discussed in the chapter for self-efficacy and the strategies for succeeding.

HANDOUT 6: LOCUS OF CONTROL SCALE Indicate for each statement whether it is T (true) or F (false) for you. There are no right or wrong answers. NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: The scoring criteria are shown in parentheses after each item. I usually get what I want in life. (I) I need to be kept informed about news events. (I) I never know where I stand with other people. (I) I do not really believe in luck or chance. (I) I think that I could easily win a lottery. (E) If I do not succeed on a task, I tend to give up. (E) I usually convince others to do things my way. (I) People make a difference in controlling crime. (I) The success I have is largely a matter of chance. (E) Marriage is largely a gamble for most people. (E) People must be the master of their own fate. (I) It is not important for me to vote. (E) My life seems like a series of random events. (E) I never try anything that I am not sure of. (I) I earn the respect and honors I receive. (I) A person can get rich by taking risks. (E) Leaders are successful when they work hard. (I) Persistence and hard work usually lead to success. (I) It is difficult to know who my real friends are. (E) Other people usually control my life. (E) 0–15 Very strong external locus of control 20–35 External locus of control 40–60 Both external and internal locus of control 65–80 Internal locus of control

85–100 Very strong internal locus of control

HANDOUT 7: BARNUM EFFECT Use this scale for the initial personality ―test.‖ THE SELF-UNDERSTANDING CLINICAL RATING SCALE This is a test of personality dispositions or enduring tendencies. To complete this test, answer each item TRUE or FALSE, marking ―1‖ if TRUE and ―2‖ if FALSE in the corresponding space on the answer sheet. Do not discuss your answers with anyone else. You will receive an interpretation of your answers at a later date. MAKE NO MARKS ON THIS SHEET. If you have any questions, direct these to the examiner. ____ Before voting, I thoroughly investigate the qualifications of all the candidates. ____ I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone in trouble. ____ It is sometimes hard for me to go on with my work if I am not encouraged. ____ I never have intensely disliked anyone. ____ On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. ____ I sometimes feel resentful when I don‘t get my way. ____ I am always careful about my manner of dress. ____ My table manners at home are as good as when I am eating out in a restaurant. ____ If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen, I would probably do it. ____ On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too little of my ability. ____ I like to gossip at times. ____ No matter whom I‘m talking to, I‘m always a good listener. ____ I can remember ―playing sick‖ to get out of something. ____ There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone. ____ I‘m always willing to admit when I make a mistake. ____ I always practice what I preach.

____ I sometimes try to get even rather than forgive and forget. ____ When I don‘t know something, I don‘t at all mind admitting it. ____ I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable. ____ At times I have really insisted on having things my own way. ____ There have been occasions when I felt like smashing things. ____ I never resent being asked to return a favor. ____ I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own. ____ There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. ____ I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off. ____ I am sometimes irritated by people who ask favors of me. ____ I sometimes think when people have a misfortune they only got what they deserved. ____ I have never deliberately said something that hurt someone‘s feelings. FEEDBACK: You have a great need for other people to like and to admire you. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. You have a great deal of unused capacity that you have not turned to your advantage. Although you have some personality weaknesses, you generally are able to compensate for them. Your sexual adjustment has presented problems for you. Disciplined and self-controlled outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure inside. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing. You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations. You pride yourself as an independent thinker and do not accept others‘ statements without satisfactory proof. You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others. At times you are extraverted, affable, and sociable, while at other times you are introverted, wary, and reserved. Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic. Security is one of your major goals in life. INTERPRETATION OF THE SELF-UNDERSTANDING CLINICAL RATING SCALE We at TPTS are interested in your reactions to the feedback provided by this rating scale. Using the categories below, please rate the degree to which the feedback from this scale accurately describes your personality. FOR TPTS USE ONLY. DO NOT SHARE THIS INFORMATION WITH OTHERS.

1= 2= 3= 4= 5=

Very poor; doesn’t fit me at all. Poor; only applies to me a little. Neither good nor poor. Good; describes me quite well. Excellent; really describes me accurately.

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: EXPLAINING THE ID, THE EGO, AND THE SUPEREGO ANSWER KEY Read through the below scenarios and then briefly describe how the id, the ego, and the superego would handle the situation. 1. Rachel is walking to class and the late bell rang 2 min ago. As she walks into her class, she stumbles, and her books go flying everywhere. Out of one of the books falls a note to a boy that Rachel has secretly liked for a long time. The boy picks up the note and reads the top line and then hands it back to Rachel. She is so embarrassed. Id: scream, runaway Ego: calmly collect belongings and proceed to class Superego: judge Rachel for being so foolish 2. Abdul is going on his first date with a really popular girl. He still can‘t believe that she agreed to go out with him. During the movie they are sitting so close that their legs are touching. He so badly wants to hold her hand and kiss her, but he isn‘t sure how she would react. He takes a chance and does it and she looks at him and then gets up and walks out. Id: kiss her more Ego: apologize to her Superego: feel guilty 3. Alex is babysitting for the same family they babysit for every Friday night. This Friday night, however, Alex has invited their partner over and they are snuggled on the couch, watching a movie. The parents come home early and find Alex and their partner wrapped in each other‘s arms, sound asleep. They wake them up and are so upset because they felt Alex was being irresponsible. Alex is really upset and not sure what to think or say. Id: spend more time with partner Ego: apologize to the parents and promise not to do it again Superego: feel guilty HANDOUT 3: DO THEY HAVE THE FIVE FACTORS? ANSWER KEY Think of your three closest friends. Write down their names in the space provided and then put a check next to the space of the personality trait that your friend has. They can have more than one personality trait. After completing every one, go back, and in the space provided briefly explain what this tells you about your friends. 1. Name: Neuroticism: ____

Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation: 2. Name: Neuroticism: ____ Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation: 3. Name: Neuroticism: ____ Extraversion: ____ Openness to Experience: ____ Agreeableness: ____ Conscientiousness: ____ Explanation:

Correct answers should include the following descriptions: Neuroticism: anxious, insecure, self-pitying Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving, affectionate Openness: Imaginative, interested in variety, independent

Agreeableness: softhearted, trusting, helpful Conscientiousness: organized, careful, disciplined

HANDOUT 5: MAKE A LIFE CHANGE ANSWER KEY Choose a behavior that you would like to change or stop doing, such as smoking, swearing, working out, losing your temper, drinking, losing weight, and so on. Write the behavior below and then walk through the steps discussed in the chapter for self-efficacy and the strategies for succeeding. Correct answers should include the following steps: Select something you can reasonably expect to be able to do. Don’t be discouraged by past failure. Pay attention to successes. Keep written records of performance. Make a list of situations that are both difficult and not difficult. Begin by tackling the less difficult.

Chapter 11 Health Psychology: .

Stress, Coping, and Well-Being OPENING THEMES Arlene Amarosi was very worried when the COVID-19 pandemic began. At 77 years old and with a weak heart, she was at high risk for serious illness and death if she contracted the virus. At first the isolation wasn‘t so bad. She watched a lot of TV, but that eventually became boring. Against her physician‘s advice, she started sleeping in a lot and spent more and more time just sitting in her bedroom feeling sad—sometimes not even bothering to get dressed. When she finally got vaccinated after a year of isolation, she felt hopeful about resuming her old life. But by then, Arlene was having a lot of difficulty standing and walking. Her mental acuity had declined. It didn‘t take her life, but it did take a lot of the life that was left in her. MODULE 34: STRESS AND COPING LEARNING OBJECTIVES 34-1

How is health psychology a union between medicine and psychology?

34-2

What is stress, how does it affect us, and how can we best cope with it?

Stress refers to people‘s response to events that threaten or challenge them. Life is full of circumstances and events known as stressors that produce threats to our well-being. All of us face stress in our lives. Ultimately, our attempts to overcome stress may produce biological and psychological responses that result in health problems. STRESS: REACTING TO THREAT AND CHALLENGE THE NATURE OF STRESSORS: MY STRESS IS YOUR PLEASURE Stress is a very personal thing. For people to consider an event stressful, they must perceive it as threatening or challenging and must lack all the resources to deal with it effectively. Consequently, the same event may at some times be stressful and at other times provoke no stressful reaction at all. Hence, a person‘s interpretation of events plays an important role in the determination of what is stressful. CATEGORIZING STRESSORS There are three general types of stressors: cataclysmic events, personal stressors, and background stressors. Cataclysmic events are strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically affect many people simultaneously. Cataclysmic events such as the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001, the Boston Marathon bombings in 2013, or the 2022 Uvalde, Texas, school shooting produce considerable stress for those involved. Furthermore, exposure to repeated events, whether experienced directly or through the media, may lead to increased sensitivity to

stress. Personal stressors include major life events such as the death of a parent or spouse, the loss of one‘s job, a major personal failure, or even something positive such as getting married. Personal stressors produce an immediate major reaction that soon tapers off. Although both negative and positive events can produce stress, negative events typically have a greater impact. As you might expect, negative events produce more psychological distress and physical symptoms than do positive stressors. Some victims of major catastrophes and severe personal stressors experience posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, in which a person has experienced a significantly stressful event that has long-lasting effects that may include reexperiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder also include emotional numbing, sleep difficulties, interpersonal problems, alcohol and drug abuse, and, in some cases, suicide. People who have experienced child abuse or rape, rescue workers facing overwhelming situations, and victims of sudden natural disasters or accidents that produce feelings of helplessness and shock may suffer from PTSD. Terrorist attacks produce high incidences of PTSD. The majority of people who experience traumas that might be expected to trigger PTSD actually recover on their own. Gun violence is a personal stressor that became an increasing part of everyday life through the prospect of being injured or killed in a mass shooting. The stress produced by the fear of being involved in a mass shooting is considerable. Surveys show that one-third of Americans avoid certain places or certain events because they fear being shot. Survivors, members of victims' families, and even those who simply live near where an incident occurred may experience PTSD, substance abuse problems, and major depression. Even those not directly affected by mass killings may feel stress, anxiety, helplessness, fear, anger, or persistent grief. Background stressors, or more informally, daily hassles, are the third major category of stressors. Daily hassles do not require much coping or even a response on the individual‘s part, although they certainly produce unpleasant emotions and moods. In fact, the number of daily hassles people face is associated with psychological symptoms and health problems such as flu, sore throat, and backaches. The flip side of hassles is uplifts, the minor positive events that make us feel good—even if only temporarily. Uplifts include relating well to a friend or finding one‘s surroundings pleasing. THE HIGH COST OF STRESS Stress can produce both biological and psychological consequences. Often the most immediate reaction to stress is biological. Exposure to stressors generates a rise in hormone secretions by the adrenal glands, an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, and changes in how well the skin conducts electrical impulses. On a short-term basis, these responses may be adaptive because they produce an ―emergency reaction‖ in which the body prepares to defend itself through activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Those responses may allow more effective coping with the stressful situation. However, continued exposure to stress results in a decline in the body‘s overall level of biological functioning because of the constant secretion of stress-related hormones.

Psychophysiological disorders are medical problems that are influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. On a psychological level, high levels of stress prevent people from adequately coping with life. Their view of the environment can become clouded. In short, stress affects us in multiple ways. It may increase the risk that we will become ill, it may directly cause illness, it may make us less able to recover from a disease, and it may reduce our ability to cope with future stress. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME MODEL: THE COURSE OF STRESS The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) is a theory developed by Hans Selye that suggests that a person‘s physiological response to a stressor consists of three stages: alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion (see Figure 2). The first stage—alarm and mobilization—occurs when people become aware of the presence of a stressor. On a biological level, the sympathetic nervous system becomes energized, which helps a person cope initially with the stressor. However, if the stressor persists, people move into the second response stage: resistance. During this stage, the body is actively fighting the stressor on a biological level. If resistance is inadequate, people enter the last stage of the GAS: exhaustion. During the exhaustion stage, a person‘s ability to fight the stressor declines to the point where negative consequences of stress appear: physical illness and psychological symptoms in the form of an inability to concentrate, heightened irritability, or, in severe cases, disorientation and a loss of touch with reality. PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY AND STRESS Focusing on the outcomes of stress, contemporary health psychologists specializing in PNI have identified three main consequences of stress (see Figure 3). First, stress has direct physiological results, including an increase in blood pressure, an increase in hormonal activity, and an overall decline in the functioning of the immune system. Second, stress leads people to engage in behaviors that are harmful to their health, including increased nicotine, drug, and alcohol use; poor eating habits; and decreased sleep. Third, stress produces indirect consequences that result in declines in health: a reduction in the likelihood of obtaining health care and decreased compliance with medical advice when it is sought. One reason is that stress likely decreases the ability of the immune system to respond to disease, permitting germs that produce colds to reproduce more easily or allowing cancer cells to spread more rapidly. Another way that stress affects the immune system is by overstimulating it. Rather than fighting invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders, the immune system may begin to attack the body itself and damage healthy tissue. COPING WITH STRESS

Stress is a normal part of life—and not necessarily a completely bad part. For example, without stress, we might not be sufficiently motivated to complete the activities we need to accomplish. Efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress are known as coping. In emotion-focused coping, people try to manage their emotions in the face of stress by seeking to change the way they feel about or perceive a problem. Problem-focused coping attempts to modify the stressful problem or source of stress. Problem-focused strategies lead to changes in behavior or to the development of a plan of action to deal with stress. One of the least effective forms of coping is avoidant coping. In avoidant coping, a person may use wishful thinking to reduce stress or use more direct escape routes, such as drug use, alcohol use, and overeating. Another way of dealing with stress occurs unconsciously through the use of defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others. Defense mechanisms permit people to avoid stress by acting as if the stress were not even there. Another defense mechanism used to cope with stress is emotional insulation in which a person stops experiencing any emotions at all and thereby remains unaffected and unmoved by both positive and negative experiences. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Learned helplessness occurs when people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled—a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances even if they actually can exert some influence on the situation. Victims of learned helplessness have concluded that there is no link between the responses they make and the outcomes that occur. People experience more physical symptoms and depression when they perceive that they have little or no control than they do when they feel a sense of control over a situation. COPING STYLES: HARDINESS AND RESILIENCE Most of us characteristically cope with stress by employing a coping style that represents our general tendency to deal with stress in a specific way. HARDINESS Among those who cope with stress most successfully are people who are equipped with hardiness, a personality trait characterized by a sense of commitment to one‘s goals, viewing problems as challenges, and having a sense of control over one‘s life and environment. Hardiness consists of three components: 

Commitment: Commitment is a tendency to throw ourselves into whatever we are doing with a sense that our activities are important and meaningful.

 

Change: Hardy people believe that change rather than stability is the standard condition of life. Control: Hardiness is marked by a sense of control—the perception that people can influence the events in their lives.

RESILIENCE Resilience is the ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive after profound adversity. Resilient people are generally optimistic, good-natured, and have good social skills. They are usually independent, and they have a sense of control over their own destiny. Resilience may have its origins in a complex series of biological reactions that occur when people confront devastating situations. These reactions involve the release of the hormone cortisol. Although cortisol is helpful in responding to challenges, too much can produce damage. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: EFFECTIVE COPING STRATEGIES Although there is no universal solution for coping with stress because effective coping depends on the nature of the stressor and the degree to which it can be controlled, here are some general guidelines:  

 

Turn a threat into a challenge: When a stressful situation might be controllable, the best coping strategy is to treat the situation as a challenge and focus on ways to control it. Make a threatening situation less threatening: When a stressful situation seems to be uncontrollable, you need to take a different approach. It is possible to change your appraisal of the situation, view it in a different light, and modify your attitude toward it. Change your goals: If you are faced with an uncontrollable situation, a reasonable strategy is to adopt new goals that are practical in view of the particular situation. Modify your physiological reactions to stress. Many people don‘t know that they can directly change their physiological reactions to stress, which can help with coping. Change the situations that are likely to cause stress. In proactive coping, you anticipate and try to head off stress before you encounter it.

KEY TERMS background stressors (―daily hassles‖) Everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events. cataclysmic events Strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically affect many people at once (e.g., natural disasters). coping The efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS) A theory developed by Selye that suggests that a person‘s response to a stressor consists of three stages: alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion. hardiness A personality trait characterized by a sense of commitment, the perception of problems as challenges, and a sense of control. health psychology The branch of psychology that investigates the psychological factors related to wellness and illness, including the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems. learned helplessness A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled—a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances even if they actually can exert some influence on the situation. personal stressors Major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time. posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A phenomenon in which victims of major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams. psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) The study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain. psychophysiological disorders Medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. resilience The ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive after profound adversity. social support A mutual network of caring, interested others. stress A person‘s response to events that are threatening or challenging. LECTURE IDEAS THE NATURE OF STRESS Begin the lecture by describing the biological and psychological consequences of stress. Biological consequences include:  Hormones (cortisol)  Heart rate  Blood pressure  Skin conductivity (GSR) Over time, the heightened levels of these consequences can lead to psychophysiological disorders.

Psychological consequences include:  Distorted view of environment  Extreme emotional responses  Inability to handle new stressors Stress Interpreted: Ask students how they would feel if their new roommate declared that they were going to throw a party. For some students, this is cause for excitement! They love parties; they always have fun and meet new and interesting people. They can‘t wait to co-host. For others, this brings a feeling of dread. They are always awkward at parties, and they don‘t want to take financial responsibility for helping to host a party. They don‘t want people going through their stuff. The amount of stress they feel as a result of this announcement is also different. Some feel stress at the task at hand. Others would say ―your party, your problem.‖ Some students may feel stress at the social implications, whereas others are at ease. In all these examples, we see the interplay between interpretation of the situation and experience. Ask students for other examples in which they may see these differences. Top Three Stressors: Have students list three things that are currently causing them stress. Ask them to describe how they physically when they are under stress. Ask them to describe their thoughts and feelings when they are under stress. Next, ask them what they do to cope with stress. Finally, ask them what, if anything, they would like to do differently to cope with their stress. Stress in the Past: Ask students to imagine the most stressful event in their lives over the past 6 months. What was it? How did it feel (i.e., what did the stress feel like)? How did they get through it (i.e., how did they cope)? Describing Stress: Ask students to describe the physical sensation of stress. Then, ask them to focus on the emotional feelings that accompany stress. Finally, ask them about the interaction between the two. The text discusses final exam week. There is cognitive and emotional stress here that can lead to physical ailments. Some other examples you can use are roommate stress, romantic relationship stress, moving stress, and the stress they felt when applying for college. PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY Stress is viewed as an interaction among the following:   

Central nervous system functioning Immune system Emotions

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Response to Stress: Ask students how they feel when they are driving and someone cuts them off in traffic and they almost crash. Their heart pounds, their palms sweat, and it takes a few minutes for their body to return to a calm state. The sympathetic is responsible for the panicked sensation, and the parasympathetic is responsible for the return of the body to a resting state. A mnemonic device you can provide here is the sympathetic nervous

system reacts because it has ―sympathy‖ for you being in a bad situation, whereas the parasympathetic acts like a parachute to slow the body back down. Adaptive Value of Stress? Is stress adaptive? You may want to discuss with students if they think there is an adaptive value to stress. What does it do that‘s good and helpful? For example, on the next exam, should they have some stress? What if they had none? Would they even study? Stress and Illness: Have students think about the last time they got a cold. What was going on in their lives? Was there stress from school, work, their romantic relationships, and their friendships? Was it when they first went away to college? Often these events are tied together. Chronic Stress and Disease: This is a good time to discuss incurable chronic health conditions and their effect on stress levels, not only for the person with the disease but also for family, friends, and caregivers. Ask students to think about any long-term incurable condition (e.g., cancer, diabetes, herpes, etc.). Keep in mind that many folks have difficulty adjusting to a diagnosis, as may their loved ones. This may actually even have greater impact on family, friends, and caregivers, as they may feel that ―they have to be strong‖ for their loved one. AIDS: Show the class the movie And the Band Played On (1993), which discusses the progression of AIDS from when it was first discovered through the 1990s. The movie involves individuals who contracted the disease in various ways such as through homosexual intercourse, blood transfusions, and the use of hypodermic needles. After watching the movie, break the class into groups, and ask them to discuss whether they think the U.S. government is doing more today for AIDS funding and research than in the past, as depicted in the movie. Stress and Aging: Stress makes your cells age faster. Ask students what physical changes in their appearance they notice about themselves when they are under stress. Ask how they recognize stress in their friends and loved ones. Stress Hormones: Stress hormones can change the function of the immune system, which in turn can affect areas of the brain that regulate mood. Research has shown that high cortisol levels for extended periods of time suppress the immune system. Why? Cortisol gets the body ready for ―fight or flight‖ and thus, everything else moves to the back burner. See http://www.advancehealth.com/cortisol.html for a review of some of the literature. BIOGRAPHY OF HANS SELYE Hans Selye was born in Vienna in 1907. As early as his second year of medical school (1926), he began developing his now-famous theory of the influence of stress on people‘s ability to cope with and adapt to the pressures of injury and disease. He discovered that patients with a variety of ailments manifested many similar symptoms, which he ultimately attributed to their bodies‘ efforts to respond to the stresses of being ill. He called this collection of symptoms—this separate stress disease—stress syndrome, or the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).

He spent a lifetime in continuing research on GAS and wrote some 30 books and more than 1,500 articles on stress and related problems, including Stress Without Distress (1974) and The Stress of Life (1956). So impressive have his findings and theories been that some authorities refer to him as ―the Einstein of medicine.‖ A physician and endocrinologist with many honorary degrees for his pioneering contributions to science, Selye also served as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the University of Montreal. More than anyone else, Selye has demonstrated the role of emotional responses in causing or combating much of the wear and tear experienced by human beings throughout their lives. He died in 1982 in Montreal, where he had spent 50 years studying the causes and consequences of stress. Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. BIOGRAPHY OF MARTIN E. P. SELIGMAN Martin E. P. Seligman was born on August 12, 1942, in New York. He earned his PhD in experimental psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1967. He taught at Cornell University before accepting a permanent position at the University of Pennsylvania in 1972, where he is currently Kogod Term Professor of Psychology. Seligman served as president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1998. He also served as president of APA Division 12 (Clinical). He has received numerous recognitions, including the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. His research interests include psychopathology, helplessness, depression, health psychology, and optimism. His current research is focused on preventing mental illness by teaching children at risk for depression to learn a more optimistic explanatory style. Seligman is a prolific writer, having written over 140 scientific articles and 13 books. Some of his books include Helplessness (1975), Learned Optimism (1990), What You Can Change and What You Can’t (1993), and The Optimistic Child (1995). Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) Ask students to describe stages with regard to specific stressors from their own lives. Ask them whether they have experienced these stages during exam time and how their health was affected. An important qualification on this model is that the physiological reaction depends on the way the event is perceived. CATEGORIZING STRESSORS

Distinguish among cataclysmic, personal, and background stressors as follows: Cataclysmic: Strong stressors that occur suddenly and affect many people at once. Examples include the 2010 Haitian earthquake, 2004 tsunami, 2005 Hurricane Katrina, and so on. Choose a recent one to illustrate. (Hint to students to remember this term: Cataclysm sounds like chasm, and falling down a chasm would be a catastrophe.) Personal: Major life events that have immediate consequences that fade with time. Examples: see the College Stress Test (below). Background: Everyday annoyances that cause minor irritations but have no long-term effects unless continued or combined with other stressful event. Point out that cataclysmic stressors often include personal stressors (the death of a loved one) and background stressors (after a fire or natural disaster, people have difficulties on a daily basis in terms of housing, work, and transportation). It is also important to point out that appraisal processes influence how these events are interpreted, as discussed below in terms of the Folkman and Lazarus model. People with strong religious convictions will see these stressful events as a test of their faith. COLLEGE STRESSORS These ratings are adapted from a College Stress Test that indicates the degree of stress associated with each event. This test, like other life event stress rating scales, is based on the assumption that the greater the amount of readjustment associated with an event, the greater the degree of stress. On these life event rating scales, even positive events (such as getting married) receive ―stress‖ scores.

College Stress Test Being raped Death of a close friend or family member Finals week Ending a steady dating relationship Two exams in one day Negative consequences of drinking or drugs Lack of sleep Declaring a major or concerns about future A class you hate Registration Being away from home for first time Making new friends Falling asleep in class Attending an athletic event

STRESS INOCULATION TECHNIQUES

100 97 90 85 80 75 69 65 62 55 53 47 40 20

There are many techniques designed to reduce stress. A particularly effective approach to dealing with stress is stress inoculation. Meichenbaum (1985) described three phases of stress inoculation: education, rehearsal, and implementation.

Education Phase Specific information about what to expect is given to the individual. For instance, someone going into the hospital for an operation is able to cope better if they know exactly what to expect. Rehearsal Phase The person practices the threatening event in safe surroundings. For example, if I need to give a talk to a group of people, I rehearse at home until I am confident. Implementation Phase The person actually carries out the plan. Meichenbaum also recommends that individuals develop coping ―self-statements‖ to practice during the rehearsal phase. Here are some examples:            

I can work out a plan to handle this. Stop worrying. Worrying won‘t help anything. What are some of the helpful things I can do instead? I can convince myself to do it. I‘m feeling nervous—that‘s natural. One step at a time. Look for positives; don‘t jump to conclusions. As long as I keep my cool, I‘m in control of the situation. Things are not as serious as I make them out to be. Time to take a slow deep breath. I can be pleased with the progress I‘m making. Don‘t try to eliminate stress entirely; just keep it manageable.

Stress reduction techniques also include a change in diet (e.g., ingesting less caffeine), building a social support system, practicing meditation, using biofeedback, exercising, and implementing time-management techniques. (See Meichenbaum, D. [1985]. Stress inoculation training. New York: Pergamon Press.) MODEL OF COPING Use this as the basis for a discussion of the Lazarus and Folkman model of coping: Person-environment encounter (the potentially stressful situation)  Appraisal (of situation and ability to cope)  Emotion (stress or challenge)  Coping (problem-focused = change situation; emotion-focused = change emotion) Point out that in this model, it is ―all in the appraisal.‖ There is no absolutely stressful event because one person‘s stress is another person‘s challenge. This makes the Lazarus model very different from the life events model in which individual differences in appraisal of events are not taken into account (as in the College Stress Test, above). TYPES OF COPING Use this chart to describe and contrast methods of coping: Type of Coping

Characterized by

Coping Strategy

Perception of Problem

Emotion-focused

Conscious regulation of emotions

Accept sympathy or look at the bright side of the situation

Unchangeable

Problem-focused

Management of the problem or stimulus

Change behavior or develop a plan of action

Modifiable

Some methods of coping do not fall into these two categories, specifically seeking social support and escaping from a stressful situation. Indicate that the appropriateness of the coping method depends on the situation. Emotionfocused coping is more effective in situations that are not amenable to change; by contrast, problem-focused coping is more effective when the situation is modifiable. For example, emotion-focused coping would not be an effective way to prepare for an exam, but problemfocused coping would be. Emotion-Coping Strategies: Ask students which emotion-focused coping strategies they use most often, and which are most effective. Stress-Eating: Ask students how their eating habits change with stress (e.g., if there is a natural disaster, they have a problem with a family member or their relationship partner, or it‘s finals

week). Do they hit the fridge, or do they go on a diet? If they hit the fridge, what foods do they go after? Vegetables and meats or chips, sweets, and carbs? Explain why some foods are ―comfort foods‖ and the risks involved in these eating patterns. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS The Biopsychosocial Model: After discussing in class the biopsychosocial model, break the class into groups and have them give examples of how the model relates to stress. They should explain it through the biological aspect, the psychological aspect, and the social aspect. Stress Journal: Have students keep a journal starting up to a week before you cover this unit or as you cover this unit. Each night they should write down their daily stresses and hassles. They should monitor their stress levels throughout the day and the week. They should discuss how they coped with each stress and link that coping strategy to one of Lazarus and Folkman‘s (1984) categories. Stress Vulnerability Quiz: Have students take a stress vulnerability quiz. Students can write a one- to two-page paper on their results and identify specific coping mechanisms that they can use to help decrease their vulnerability to stress. Final Exams Just Make Me Sick: After learning about stress‘s effect on the immune system, create a seminar or workshop for students at your college or university that teaches them about the importance of coping strategies and ways to handle stress during final exam week. Present your ideas to the class. Stress: Have students complete Holmes and Rahe‘s Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) at https://www.stress.org/holmes-rahe-stress-inventory. Ask them if they think the values accurately represent different stressors. Why or why not? Stress: Have students complete the Interactive Stress Scale at http://www.teachhealth.com/#stressscale. Ask them if they think the results are accurate for them. COPING CHECKLIST Methods of Coping: Have students complete Handout 1: Methods of Coping. HOW DO YOU COPE? How Do You Cope? Have students complete Handout 2: How Do You Cope? indicating methods they have used in a stressful situation. Stress Detective: Take one day and become a stress detective. Every time a friend mentions how stressed out they are feeling, ask your friend to describe the source of the stress. What is the stressful event? How is the person appraising the event? How might they appraise the situation in ways that would help decrease stress?

Stress Management: Search the web on the topic of stress management or coping with stress. Visit three or four sites and critically evaluate the suggestions made on the sites. How are they similar to the suggestions given in the text? How much information is available to evaluate the claims on the sites? Based on your critical evaluation, is the advice something you would follow or not? Explain. Reducing Tension: The following site offers three different breathing exercises: http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/ART00521/three-breathing-exercises.html. Have the students record how tense they feel before the breathing exercise. If possible, minimize classroom distractions. Next, teach the students how to perform Exercise 3. Have the students practice the exercise for about 5 min. Then, ask them to record their tension level at the end of the exercise. Discuss the results in class and have those who are willing to share say if their tension levels changed at all. Ask the students what would stop them from practicing such an exercise daily. LOCUS OF CONTROL AND ATTRIBUTION STYLE TEST Have students go to https://testyourself.psychtests.com/testid/2109 and take the Locus of Control and Attribution Style Test—Revised. This gives you the opportunity to discuss the role that LOC has on explanatory styles and thus resiliency in the face of negative events. BURNOUT SURVEY Burnout Survey: Have students complete Handout 3: Burnout Survey. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS COPING EXAMPLE Choose a stressful event that has happened to you during your time in college. Describe this event, and then answer these questions in terms of the theories described in the book and in class:   

What caused you to interpret the event as stressful? What type of coping strategy did you use to reduce your stress in this situation? Why was this coping strategy useful (or not useful) in reducing your stress?

Ask students to imagine the most stressful event in their lives over the past 6 months. What was it? How did it feel (i.e., what did the stress feel like)? How did they get through it (i.e., how did they cope)? LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Give an example of a time when you felt that you were a victim of learned helplessness. Describe this briefly.

How did you feel about not being able to alter the outcome of the situation? What do you think people can do to overcome the feeling of learned helplessness? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Coping Strategies Which type of coping strategy do you use most often? a) problem-focused b) emotion-focused c) avoidant SUGGESTED MEDIA American Institute of Stress: http://www.stress.org. Coping With Stress (CDC): https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/cope-with-stress/index.html . The Healing Mind. Insight Media, 1991, 58:00. This video explores the world of psychoneuroimmunology and examines studies conducted with cancer patients, HIV-positive individuals, and those experiencing chronic stress. Health Psychology and Rehabilitation: http://www.healthpsych.com/ This website offers research, viewpoints, and practical suggestions about health psychology. Help! I’m Stressed. Insight Media, 2012, 26:00. This program defines stress and looks at both positive and negative forms of stress. It describes the symptoms of stress and stress management techniques. How Stress Affects Your Health. https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress. American Psychological Association. One Nation Under Stress (2019). https://www.hbo.com/documentaries/one-nation-under-stress. Sanjay Gupta explores the root causes of why American life expectancy is falling. Selye on stress: https://youtu.be/YJCeDtNh_Aw. Seriously Stressed. TVF International, 2007, 42:00. Information available at https://www.films.com/id/13069. The symptoms of stress and the impact of stress on the body are discussed in this program. Stress. Insight Media, 1993, 25:00. This video examines the biology of stress and discusses its detrimental effects. Stress, Health, and Coping. Insight Media, 2001, 30:00. General Adaptation Syndrome and coping are discussed.

Stress Management. Insight Media, 2001, 30:00. Problems of stress and stress management are described. Stressed Out: Special NPR Series [Audio file]. https://www.npr.org/series/327816692/stressedout. Taking Control: Strategies for Coping With Stress. VEA, 2008, 24:00. Focusing on stress in teens and young adults, this program distinguishes between positive and negative stressors and how your body is affected by stress. Stress management techniques are also provided. Twenty Tips to Tame Your Stress: https://psychcentral.com/lib/20-tips-to-tame-your-stress/. Understanding the Mind/Body Connection. Insight Media, 2007, 30:00. The role of the mind in the body‘s ability to heal is examined. POPULAR MOVIE: COPING METHODS In addition to facing stress, many characters in action movies must find ways to cope with stress. A good example of emotion-focused coping can be found at the end of the movie Gone With the Wind (1939), in which Scarlett O‘Hara tells herself that ―after all, tomorrow is another day.‖ This line comes at the end of a 4-min scene containing several famous movie quotes; students will chuckle at some of them but will appreciate seeing Scarlett‘s example of denial in context. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cohen, L. M., McChargue, D. E., & Collins, F. L., Jr. (Eds.). (2003). The health psychology handbook: Practical issues for the behavioral medicine specialist. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 401–407. Epstein, R. (2011). Fight the frazzled mind. Scientific American Mind, 22(4), 30–35. Greenberg, J. S. (2010). Comprehensive stress management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Karen, K., Hafen, B., & Smith, N. (2002). Mind/body health: The effects of attitudes, emotions, and relationships (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Benjamin Cummings. Langer, E. J. (2009). Counterclockwise: Mindful health and the power of possibility. New York, NY: Ballantine. Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. New York, NY: Springer. Lovallo, W. (2016). Stress and health: Biological and psychological interactions. Sage.

McGonigal, K. (2015). The upside of stress: Why stress is good for you and how to get good at it. New York, NY: Avery. Selye, H. (1978). The stress of life (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sood, A. (2013). The Mayo Clinic's guide to stress free living. Boston, MA: Da Capo Life Long Books. Tummers, N. (2013). Stress management: A wellness approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wolever, R. Q., Reardon, B., & Hannan, T. (2016). The mindful diet: How to transform your relationship with food for lasting weight loss and vibrant health. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. MODULE 35: PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ILLNESS AND WELL-BEING LEARNING OBJECTIVES 35-1

How do psychological factors affect such health-related problems as coronary heart disease, cancer, and smoking?

35-2

What are the psychological impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic?

THE As, Bs, AND Ds OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE The Type A behavior pattern is a cluster of behaviors involving hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, and feeling driven. In contrast, the Type B behavior pattern is characterized by a patient, cooperative, noncompetitive, and nonaggressive manner. The importance of the Type A behavior pattern lies in its links to coronary heart disease. Men who display the Type A pattern develop coronary heart disease twice as often and suffer significantly more fatal heart attacks than those classified as having the Type B pattern. Hostility is the key component of the Type A behavior pattern that is related to heart disease. Hostility is very toxic as it produces excessive physiological arousal in stressful situations. That arousal, in turn, results in increased production of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine as well as increases in heart rate and blood pressure. In addition, other types of negative emotions besides the hostility found in Type A behavior appear to be related to heart attacks. For example, psychologist Johan Denollet has found evidence that what he calls Type D—for ―distressed‖—behavior is linked to coronary heart disease. In this view, insecurity, anxiety, and the negative outlook Type Ds display put them at risk for repeated heart attacks. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CANCER The process by which cancer spreads is straightforward. Certain cells in the body become altered and multiply rapidly in an uncontrolled fashion. As those cells grow, they form tumors; if left unchecked, the tumors suck nutrients from healthy cells and ultimately destroy the body‘s ability

to function properly. Although the processes involved in the spread of cancer are basically physiological, some research suggests that the emotional responses of cancer patients to their disease may affect its course. Despite conflicting evidence, health psychologists believe that patients‘ emotions may at least partially determine the course of their disease. In the case of cancer, it is possible that positive emotional responses may help generate specialized ―killer‖ cells that help control the size and spread of cancerous tumors. Conversely, negative emotions may suppress the ability of those cells to fight tumors. No conclusive evidence suggests that people who develop cancer would not have done so if their personality had been of a different sort or if their attitudes had been more positive. It is clear that certain types of psychological therapy have the potential for improving quality of life and even extending the lives of cancer patients. SMOKING WHY PEOPLE SMOKE Genetics seems to determine, in part, whether people will become smokers, how much they will smoke, and how easily they can quit. Genetics also influence how susceptible people are to the harmful effects of smoking. For instance, although black Americans smoke at slightly lower rates (13%) than white Americans (14%), they are more likely to die from smoking-related illnesses than white people. However, although genetics plays a role in smoking, most research suggests that environmental factors are the primary cause of the habit. Greater exposure to smoking in media, such as film, also leads to a higher risk of becoming an established smoker. In addition, smoking a cigarette is sometimes viewed as a rite of passage for adolescents undertaken at the urging of friends and viewed as a sign of growing up. Ultimately, smoking becomes a habit. People begin to label themselves smokers, and they become dependent physiologically as a result of smoking because nicotine, a primary ingredient of tobacco, is highly addictive. A complex relationship develops among smoking, nicotine levels, and a smoker‘s emotions in which a certain nicotine level becomes associated with a positive emotional state. As a result, people smoke in an effort to regulate both emotional states and nicotine levels in the blood. Vaping and E-Cigarettes: Vaping refers to the inhalation of vapors created by electronic cigarettes. Electronic cigarettes, or e-cigarettes, are battery-powered, cigarette-shaped devices that deliver nicotine that is vaporized to form a mist. E-cigarette use has grown exponentially, and it is increasingly concerning to medical experts. More than a third have tried e-cigarettes at least once, and the numbers continue to rise. The trend is worrisome for several reasons. Although e-cigarettes do not contain the tar and other toxic chemicals found in cigarette smoke, the nicotine itself is harmful to developing adolescent brains. The nicotine in e-cigarettes such as Juul is an addictive substance that can become a long-term habit. Furthermore, some research suggests that young users may be more prone to smoke regular cigarettes in the future, although the research findings are mixed on this point. Teenagers who have a clear understanding of the risks of cigarette smoking are often unsure about the risks of using e-cigarettes, and instead, they

point to benefits such as looking cool and being trendy, as well as enjoying the flavorings of the e-cigarettes. QUITTING SMOKING Because smoking has both psychological and biological components, few habits are as difficult to break. Some of the biochemical reactions to nicotine are similar to those to cocaine, amphetamines, and morphine. Furthermore, changes in brain chemistry brought about by smoking may make smokers more resistant to antismoking messages. Although e-cigarettes do not contain the tar and other toxic chemicals found in cigarette smoke, the nicotine itself is harmful to developing adolescent brains. Contaminants in e-cigarettes have led to serious health consequences, lung damage, and in some cases even the deaths of users. Among the most effective tools for ending the smoking habit are drugs that replace the nicotine found in cigarettes. Whether in the form of gum, patches, nasal sprays, or inhalers, these products provide a dose of nicotine that reduces dependence on cigarettes. Another approach is exemplified by the medications Zyban and Chantix; rather than replacing nicotine, they reduce the pleasure from smoking and suppress withdrawal symptoms that smokers experience when they try to stop. Behavioral strategies, which view smoking as a learned habit and concentrate on changing the smoking response, can also be effective. In the long term, the most effective means of reducing smoking may be changes in societal norms and attitudes toward the habit. The longterm effect of the barrage of information regarding the negative consequences of smoking on people‘s health has been substantial; overall, smoking has declined over the last two decades, particularly among males. Exploring Diversity: Reducing health disparities to attain health equity Consider these stark health disparities that exist in the United States today:   

  

Black women are three times more likely to die from a pregnancy-related cause than are white women. Among black Americans, 11 infant deaths occur per 1,000 live births—about twice the national average. Compared with only 8% of non-Hispanic whites, 17% of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 14% of African Americans, and 10% of Hispanics report being in fair or poor health. In counties with high segregation, black children experience greater poverty and higher infant mortality than those living in counties with less segregation. Black children suffer more postsurgery problems than white children, even when controlling for degree of healthfulness. Black patients are 2.5 times more likely to be labeled as uncooperative than are white patients, according to notes in their medical records.

Health disparities are the norm around the world: In every country, the lower the socioeconomic status of an individual, the poorer the health outcomes. Ultimately, these health disparities are associated with higher rates of death and with life expectancy in low-income countries being 18 years lower than in high-income countries. Existing health disparities became even more pronounced during the COVID pandemic. Not only were people of color more likely to become infected with COVID, but vaccines were also less available to them, and they received less adequate treatment, both for physical and mental health issues. Psychological, social, economic, and moral needs underlie the goal of working to eliminate health-care inequities. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC By 2022, over a million people in the United States died due to the COVID pandemic; worldwide, more than 6 million people lost their lives. Life expectancy in the United States dropped by 3 years in 2020 and 2021, the greatest 2-year decline in a century. Health psychologists, along with psychologists specializing in nearly every area of the field, have brought their expertise to better understand COVID and help those affected by it. STRESS AND THE PANDEMIC Virtually no one was immune to the stress produced by the pandemic. Although it played out differently for each individual, during the height of the pandemic, people were forced to engage in constant risk assessment based on ever-changing conditions. The scale of stressors was considerable, ranging from simply figuring out how to live in a world with COVID, how to keep oneself and others safe, how to manage when a close relation became ill, and of course, what to do when and if you contracted it. And beyond the fear of COVID itself were the challenges of everyday life: dealing with job issues, child care, home schooling, and a host of others. Even after treatments for the virus became widely available and the overall death rates from the pandemic began to decline, many people still experienced unusually high levels of stress. During the pandemic, Hispanic, black, and Asian adults experienced higher levels of stress than nonHispanic white adults. In other demographic groups, parents were especially affected by stress due to the pandemic. In addition to the usual challenges of parenting, those who were able to stay home had to mentor their children academically as they struggled with online classes, many times balancing their own remote jobs with their children‘s schooling. Given that the pandemic had no clear endpoint, the related stress often lingered. THE PANDEMIC AND MENTAL HEALTH According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic brought about a 25% increase in the prevalence of anxiety and depression across the globe. Studies revealed that by the end of 2020, the year the pandemic began, more than 4 in 10 U.S. individuals had experienced anxiety or depressive symptoms. This level of anxiety was significantly higher than what had been observed the previous year. The day-to-day logistical and emotional challenges that life

presented during the pandemic were not the only reason mental health deteriorated. Contracting COVID itself had the potential to instigate psychological disorders. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: MENTAL HEALTH AND THE BRAIN AFTER COVID Physical health and mental health are closely intertwined, partly because they both relate to brain health. COVID-19 gives a great example of these interrelationships. About 30% of COVID survivors have experienced depression, posttraumatic distress, and other psychological symptoms for weeks or even months after recovering from the virus. In fact, research shows that COVID survivors who had the most systemic inflammation while they had the virus also had the most damage to their brain months later, demonstrating how a medical condition can affect the brain, which in turn increases the risk for emotional symptoms. LONELINESS, SOCIAL ISOLATION, AND THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT Consider the measures that public health officials urged people to follow during the height of the pandemic:     

Physical social distancing Sheltering in place Travel bans Remote learning, which kept students out of physical classrooms and schools Office closures, resulting in fewer opportunities to work with and socialize with coworkers

All these practices led to increases in social isolation; that is, the number of social interactions declined, and the size of social networks diminished. However, social isolation is not the same as loneliness. Loneliness is a subjective state. Loneliness occurs when people cannot experience the level of connection with others that they desire. In short, a person can be totally physically alone and not feel lonely, or someone can be in the midst of a crowd and feel lonely. The Importance of Social Support During the Pandemic Researchers have found that having social support—that is, being part of a mutual network of caring, interested others—enables us to experience lower levels of stress, better cope with the stress we do undergo, and experience better health in general. The social and emotional support people provide each other helps in dealing with stress in several ways. People who are part of a social support network can provide actual, physical aid to others in stressful situations. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY RELIEVING THE ISOLATION OF THE PANDEMIC: TALKING TO A STRANGER

The COVID pandemic brought an unprecedented degree of social isolation, and it caused a variety of negative consequences for their mental health and quality of life. Research evidence suggests that interactions with strangers can enhance well-being. People who have more casual acquaintances tend to be happier than those who have fewer. Most job-seekers find employment through casual acquaintances—often from people they seldom even see. Feeling ignored or excluded, even by total strangers, tends to make people feel bad. People who greet others frequently, even if briefly, report greater feelings of belongingness and well-being. Interactions with strangers may even offer some benefits that are not experienced in interactions with closer connections. VACCINE HESITANCY AND THE COVID-19 VACCINE One of the greatest public health success stories of the past hundred years has been the development and widespread use of vaccines. Vaccines drastically reduced the spread of COVID and reduced the consequences of the disease for those who became infected. During the pandemic, a significant minority of people refused to get vaccinated, saying the vaccines were developed too quickly, weren‘t safe, had life-threatening side effects, were a scheme by ―Big Pharma‖ to make a quick profit, or represented a government plot to subjugate the American citizenry. Many people—even some health-care workers—became reluctant to get vaccinated. In fact, some people refused to believe that COVID itself existed. Some parents have refused to vaccinate their children, based on religious or philosophical grounds. These parents claim, without scientific evidence, that vaccines are dangerous or deadly, often based on a single study that purported to show a link between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and autism—a study that was discredited and retracted. Psychologists have sought to understand the source of the disconnect between the clear messages from the scientific community on the safety of vaccines and the persistent skepticism from those involved in the antivaccine (―antivax‖) movement. Past research on a phenomenon known as the Dunning-Kruger effect shows that people can be so ignorant about a body of knowledge that they lack even the understanding necessary to appreciate the depth of their own ignorance; as a result, they tend to overestimate and express overconfidence in their understanding. KEY TERMS Type A behavior pattern A cluster of behaviors involving hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, and feeling driven. Type B behavior pattern A cluster of behaviors characterized by a patient, cooperative, noncompetitive, and nonaggressive manner. LECTURE IDEAS TYPE A AND TYPE B BEHAVIOR PATTERNS Distinguish between these behavior patterns using this list:

Type A behavior pattern:  Competitive  Urgency about time  Driven quality to one‘s work  Hostile in verbal and nonverbal behavior Type B behavior pattern:  Not competitive  Not urgent about time  Not unusually aggressive or hostile Problems with Type A/Type B research: Point out that as compelling as the Type A–Type B distinction seems, there are still weaknesses in the literature. The main problem is that the data are correlational and other factors may be responsible for the apparent relationship between behavior and cardiovascular disease. DEMONSTRATION: TYPE A RESEARCH Using the format of ―Great Moments in the History of Psychology‖ (see Chapter 10, Schachter– Singer experiment), design a skit that involves the original research on the Type A behavior pattern in which Meyer Friedman and R. H. Rosenman first noticed that the chairs in their office were worn out at the fronts of the arms and seats; this discovery led to the research that now has become the basis for the Type A behavior pattern relationship and cardiovascular disease. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyer_Friedman http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/104/23/2758 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1807381/ These were the slides I used: The ―Waiting Room‖ served as the backdrop for the skit. A ―Type A‖ patient is waiting at the edge of his seat next to a ―Type B‖ patient. The Type A patient gets increasingly restless and hostile as he has to wait for his appointment, while the Type B patient calmly reads the paper. The Type A patient starts yelling at the receptionist/nurse, asking when the doctor will be ready. Finally, the nurse goes to the doctor (―Friedman‖) and tells him that this patient is getting more and more hostile. When the patient finally sees the doctor, the nurse notices that his chair is worn out at the front edges and points this out to the doctor after the patient leaves. Friedman calls ―Rosenman‖ and tells him of his observation, and together they decide to conduct research on this phenomenon. Students will remember this important moment in psychological history after seeing it portrayed in this dramatic fashion. HEALTH IN THE UNITED STATES

Describe the results of findings on health of the U.S. population, summarized in this graph from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report, Health-Related Quality of Life: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5404a1.htm This was the measure used to assess health-related quality of life:   



Would you say that in general, your health is excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor? Now thinking about your physical health, which includes physical illness and injury, for how many days during the past 30 days was your physical health not good? Now thinking about your mental health, which includes stress, depression, and problems with emotions, for how many days during the past 30 days was your mental health not good? During the past 30 days, for about how many days did poor physical or mental health keep you from doing your usual activities, such as self-care, work, or recreation?

PREVALENCE OF CIGARETTE SMOKING IN THE UNITED STATES The CDC has extensive resources on this topic: http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/youth_data/tobacco_use/index.htm. The National Cancer Institute also has informative resources: https://www.cancer.gov. Taxing Unhealthy Habits? One method that has helped to decrease unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, is to make them more expensive. Currently, some people are calling for a tax on unhealthy foods. Ask students if they think such a tax would be useful and if they would be for or against such a tax and why. Nicotine and Stress: Students sometimes find it difficult to understand how nicotine (which calms people down) is a stimulant, whereas alcohol (which seems to liven people up) is a depressant. Explain how the drugs work on the body. With alcohol, for example, the CNS is depressed so that their normal social inhibitions are relaxed, leading to more outgoing behaviors. Nicotine activates the sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, but it also relaxes the skeletal muscles. You might also poll the smokers in the room and ask them when they smoke: it is either to calm them down or wake them up. This shows the interaction between the person and their situation (the drug). You can take that opportunity to discuss the risks of that habit with your class. Finally, you can discuss the irony that trying to quit smoking can lead to stress that can lead to the desire to keep smoking (see http://quitsmoking.about.com/od/stressmanagement/a/stresstips.htm for more information). Why Smoke? Ask why, if people know that smoking is unhealthy, they continue to smoke. Students may talk about addiction, association with pleasant things (eating, socializing, food, etc.), or a combination thereof. You may want to use this question to reinforce the idea of the biopsychosocial model and its effect on health.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS TYPE A AND TYPE B BEHAVIOR PATTERNS QUESTIONNAIRE Type A and B Behavior Patterns: Have students complete Handout 4: Type A and B Behavior Inventory. Type A, Type B, and Type D Behavior: Have the students write down the names of their immediate family members. Next, have the students determine if those family members are of Type A, Type B, or Type D. Direct the students to explain their choices. Type A: Have students take the Type A test, comprised of 73 questions: http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=1126. Do they think the results are accurate? Why or why not? Quitting Smoking: Have the students think of someone they know that has quit smoking. Ask the students to interview that person to find out how that person quit. Did they use any of the common methods discussed in the chapter? They should find out information such as how long it has been since the person last smoked and whether or not they still have cravings. Ask the students to write a brief one- to two-page paper summarizing the information they found. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS TYPE A AND TYPE B BEHAVIOR Do you know someone who shows the Type A behavior pattern? What is it like being around this person? Why might hostility be such an important component of the Type A behavior pattern? Would it be possible to help a Type A person become more like Type B? How might this be accomplished? Do you believe individuals in the United States experience more stress than those in other countries? Why or why not? Are individuals really responsible for the unhealthy life styles they may be living, considering how easy our society makes it to be unhealthy with fast-food restaurants, remote controls for televisions, easy car purchasing, gas prices that are low compared with those in other countries, and having most foods preprocessed for microwave cooking? What areas of psychology discussed in the textbook prior to the present chapter can contribute to health psychology? Explain. POLLING QUESTIONS

Polling Question: Personality Type Characterization How would you characterize yourself? a) Type A b) Type B c) Type D d) Other Which personality style do you believe describes most politicians? a) Type A b) Type B c) Type D d) Other Polling Question: Set in My Ways Most of us are aware of our bad habits and even understand the consequences of doing them (e.g., drinking, smoking, and road rage). However, despite knowing the negative consequences of our continued behavior, we keep doing these things. Ever ask yourself why? How many of you have tried to change a behavior that you knew was bad for you within the past 6 to 9 months? Of those who tried to change, how many of you are still successful at that new behavior now? Who thinks that it doesn‘t really matter what you do because even people who live healthy lifestyles still get diseases? SUGGESTED MEDIA American Cancer Society: https://www.cancer.org/ American Heart Association: https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/StressManagement/HowDoesStressAffectYo u/FAQs-About-Stress_UCM_307982_Article.jsp. FAQs on stress and heart disease can be found here. American Family Physician: https://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0301/p1409.html. A stages-ofchange approach to helping change behavior (tables and charts included). Anxiety and Depression Association of America. https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/relatedillnesses/other-related-conditions/stress/news-and-research-about-stre. News and research about stress. Emotion, Stress, and Health: Crash Course Psychology #26 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KbSRXP0wik&vl=en. How Stress Affects Your Health. https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress. American Psychological Association. Quit Smoking (CDC): http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/quit_smoking/index.htm. Links to resources, programs, and materials for quitting smoking.

Tips From Former Smokers Campaign (CDC): https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/index.html. CANCER EDUCATIONAL VIDEOS The web resources include videos on cancer prevention and survivor stories. Consult this website: https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/survivors/index.htm. ADDITIONAL READINGS Borelli, L. (2016). How long will I live? Personality type influences physical health, life span. Medical Daily. http://www.medicaldaily.com/how-long-will-i-live-personality-typeinfluences-physical-health-life-span-396082. Goliszek, A. (2014). Is there a cancer prone personality? Psychology Today: How the Mind Heals the Body. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/how-the-mind-heals-thebody/201411/is-there-cancer-prone-personality. MODULE 36: PROMOTING HEALTH AND WELLNESS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 36-1

How do our interactions with physicians affect our health and compliance with medical treatment?

36-2

How does a sense of well-being develop?

COMPLYING WITH MEDICAL ADVICE As many as 85% of patients do not fully comply with their physician‘s recommendations, sometimes because of misunderstandings or simply forgetting to follow a particular regimen. Patients sometimes practice creative nonadherence, in which they alter a prescribed treatment by substituting their own medical judgment. Noncompliance can result from misunderstanding medical directions such as low literacy skills and emotionally unable to accept bad news. Noncompliance and medical errors committed by patients and health-care providers are the thirdleading cause of death in the United States. COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY WITH HEALTH-CARE PROVIDERS Lack of communication between health-care providers and patients can be a major obstacle to good medical care. Such communication failures occur for several reasons. One is that physicians make assumptions about what patients prefer, or they push a specific treatment that they prefer without consulting patients. Furthermore, the relatively high prestige of physicians may intimidate patients. Patients may also be reluctant to volunteer information that

might cast them in a bad light, and physicians may have difficulties encouraging their patients to provide information. Sometimes patient–physician communication difficulties occur because the material that must be communicated is too technical for patients, who may lack fundamental knowledge about the body and basic medical practices. Cultural values and expectations also contribute to communication barriers between patients and their physicians. Providing medical advice to a patient whose native language is not English may be problematic. New approaches to communication involve telehealth, which uses technology to convey information. This type of communication involves being reminded to refill or take medications with smartphone notifications or having virtual appointments with a medical provider via Zoom or FaceTime. INCREASING COMPLIANCE WITH MEDICAL ADVICE One strategy is to provide clear instructions to patients regarding drug regimens. Maintaining good, warm relations with patients also leads to increased compliance. In addition, honesty helps. Patients generally prefer to be well informed—even if the news is bad; their degree of satisfaction with their medical care is linked to how well and how accurately physicians are able to convey the nature of their medical problems and treatments. Positively framed messages suggest that a change in behavior will lead to a gain and thus emphasize the benefits of carrying out a health-related behavior. In contrast, negatively framed messages highlight what you can lose by not performing a behavior. WELL-BEING AND HAPPINESS What makes for a good life? Health psychologists are turning their spotlight on the question by investigating subjective well-being, people‘s sense of their happiness and satisfaction with their lives. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAPPY PEOPLE? Happy people have high self-esteem. Particularly in Western cultures, which emphasize the importance of individuality, people who are happy like themselves. Happy people have a strong sense of control over their environment and themselves. They feel more in control of events in their lives, unlike those who feel they are the pawns of others and who experience learned helplessness. Happy individuals are optimistic. Their optimism permits them to persevere at tasks and ultimately to achieve more. Happy people like to be around other people. They tend to be extroverted and have a supportive network of close relationships.

Happy people don’t always feel good. Happy people feel a range of emotions, both positive and negative, but the key to their happiness is that they can manage their emotions effectively. DOES MONEY BUY HAPPINESS? Why is the level of subjective well-being so stable? One explanation is that people have a general set point for happiness, a marker that establishes the tone for one‘s life. Although specific events may temporarily elevate or depress one‘s mood (e.g., a surprise promotion or a job loss), ultimately people return to their general level of happiness. Few differences exist between members of different demographic groups. Men and women report being equally happy, and black Americans are only slightly less likely than European Americans to rate themselves as ―very happy.‖ The bottom line: Money does not seem to buy happiness. Despite the ups and downs of life, most people tend to be reasonably happy, and they adapt to the trials and tribulations—and joys and delights—of life by returning to a steady-state level of happiness (see Figure 1). KEY TERMS subjective well-being People‘s sense of their happiness and satisfaction with their lives. LECTURE IDEAS MESSAGE FRAMING AND HEALTH Framing of a health-related message can influence its effectiveness. Positive message (gain) framing: Using this approach, the advantages or gains of following health behaviors are emphasized. For example, ―A smoke-free lifestyle will make it possible for you to achieve your goals.‖ Negative message (loss) framing: This approach emphasizes what you will lose if you do not follow a desired health practice. For example, ―Smoking is an expensive habit that can cost you your life.‖ SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING Present these components of subjective well-being:    

High self-esteem Firm sense of control Optimism Enjoy being around other people

Show the relationship between subjective well-being or optimism and health (Cohen et al., 1999).

Optimists have better immune system functioning during high levels of short-term stress. However, when faced with chronic stress, they suffer more harmful immune system changes than pessimists. High expectations of the optimists may make them more vulnerable. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS MESSAGE FRAMING AND ADVERTISING Message Framing: Have students complete Handout 5: Message Framing in Advertising. Stress in the Movies: Have students watch Born on the 4th of July (1989; an R rating) or Steel Magnolias (1989; a PG rating) and write a paragraph on the toll stress takes on the individuals portrayed in the movie. Health in the News: As an out-of-class activity, have students find news reports or internet sources that make a claim about some research related to healthy living (exercise, diet, and motivation). Then, have students use knowledge about research methods to describe the findings portrayed from the source and determine what the implications of those findings would be on a person‘s behavior or thoughts. WELLNESS AND STRESS CONTROL Becoming Physically Active and Eating Right: Ask students to keep a journal for a week on how many times they exercise and what activities they do. They should also write down what they eat during the day for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, as well as snacks. At the end of the week, ask the students to write a summary of what they found out about their eating habits and exercise habits. Discuss with the students what was in the chapter regarding varying the exercise routines and eating food from all four food groups. The students should gain some insight into their eating habits, noticing where they should make adjustments and improvements. They should also take note of their exercise routines and if they are exercising enough to burn the recommended number of calories per week. Personal Interview of Success: Interview someone you know who has successfully lost weight, quit smoking, or started an exercise program. Ask the person about thheir experience with each of the stages of change. Does the theory fit that person‘s experience? Why or why not? Breaking Bad: Select one bad habit you would like to break for a week—for example, smoking, eating sugary foods, or putting off aerobic exercise. Keep a journal of your progress each day in avoiding the bad habit. How easy or difficult did you find this little test in healthy life change? The Good Life: Instruct the students to write a one- or two-page paper describing their idea of a good life and their steps to achieving the good life.

Smart Choices on the Go: Using Handout 6: Smart Choices on the Go! have students discuss their dining-out habits in groups. They should include the healthy and unhealthy habits in the discussion. Have a notetaker write down what the group discusses and then present to the rest of the class. Don’t Label Us: Becoming a wise consumer of healthy food choices can be difficult. Either go to the grocery store or find some items in your household pantry, and take a very close look at what the label tells you about the food or product you are eating. Check expiration dates as well. Make sure you look up any words that you don‘t understand. Create a report to the class on your findings. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Why do people engage in unhealthy behaviors even when they know it is unhealthy? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Blah, Blah, Blah—Diet and Exercise Everywhere you turn, especially in the media, you hear advertisements about dieting, exercise fads, and other ways to become healthier. How many of you (or someone else you know) have bought something you saw on the media in order to lose weight or exercise more? Of those who answered, did the product work? How many of you think those types of advertisements and products are scams and have no value? Who thinks these advertisements are using psychological concepts to manipulate people to purchase their products? Polling Question: Just Stay Positive, I Promise Much research exists on the important role that our cognitions (thoughts) play in relation to our behavior. And we have learned that the stress response includes cognitive appraisal of the situation. How many of you have been told to just think positive that the situation you are explaining will be better if you think about it differently? Did you try to think differently? Of those who answered, did changing your thoughts change the situation? Who thinks that our thoughts are actually very powerful tools that can help us change the way we make decisions? MESSAGE FRAMING AND HEALTH Have students conduct a search of advertisement campaigns intended to reduce smoking among teenagers, identifying which messages are negatively framed and which are positively framed. Ask them the following questions:    

Which type of message framing do you think is more effective? Why? If you were designing an advertisement, how would you approach your audience? Name other health-relevant areas in which message framing might be important. Which type of nonsmoking campaign would you be most likely to heed?

a) Positively framed b) Negatively framed SUGGESTED MEDIA Center for Science in the Public Interest: Binge Drinking on College Campuses: http://www.cspinet.org/booze/collfact1.htm. Eatright.org: http://www.eatright.org. This website on eating healthy includes interactive games, fact sheets, and other useful information regarding nutrition. Healthy choices. http://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/healthy_choices. NOVA scienceNOW. Keep the weight off https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3313/03off.html. Insight Media. (2007). Understanding the mind/body connection, 30:00. The role of the mind in the body‘s ability to heal is examined. Emily Balcetis. (TedxNewYork). (2014). Why some people find exercise harder than others. https://www.ted.com/talks/emily_balcetis_why_some_people_find_exercise_harder_than_others . ADVERTISEMENTS: MESSAGE FRAMING AND HEALTH Show examples of print or television advertisements that use positive (gain) and negative (loss) message framing. Ask students which type they think is more effective and why. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cohen, L. M., McChargue, D. E., & Collins, F. L., Jr. (Eds.). (2003). The health psychology handbook: Practical issues for the behavioral medicine specialist. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 401–407. Davis-Laack, P. (2015, December). How to Improve Your Resilience to Stress. Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany.com/3054070/3-strategies-for-improving-your-stressresilience. Taylor, S. E. (2017). Health psychology (5th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Tummers, N. (2013). Stress management: A wellness approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wolever, R. Q., Reardon, B., & Hannan, T. (2016). The mindful diet: How to transform your relationship with food for lasting weight loss and vibrant health. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Stress and Coping INTERACTIVITIES  Stress and Coping NEWSFLASH  Consider Culture When Communicating with Young People  US Teens Feel Down, But the Adults Aren‘t All Right Either  Mental Health Effects of Racism on Indigenous Communities  ‗Weathering‘: What Are the Health Effects of Stress and Discrimination?  What to Know About Obesity Discrimination in Health Care  4 Female Psychologists Create Mental Health Company for Black Community  9 Ways Ableism is Showing Up During the COVID-19 Outbreak  A Mental Health Pandemic: The Second Wave of COVID-19  Brad‘ Bark Episode 16—UBCO B.A.R.K. Program  Coronavirus Deaths Show How Little Black Lives Matter in American Health Care  COVID-19 and the LGBTQ+ Community: Rising to Unique Challenges  Dr. Isha Metzer Interview  How Racism Makes Us Sick  What is Impostor Syndrome and How Can You Combat It? COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide

  

Psychology Videos Scientific Reasoning Exercises Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: METHODS OF COPING For each of the following, indicate whether it is a problem-focused or emotion-focused method of coping and whether it is a method that you would find useful. (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Answers are written in middle column.)

Example

Method of Coping (Problem-Focused, Emotion-Focused, or Both)

Looking at failure as having taught you a useful lesson

Emotion

Trying not to think about the problem

Emotion

Accepting responsibility when something went wrong

Emotion

Useful or Not? Why?

Seeking help from other people

Both

Getting away from the problem; taking a break

Emotion

Feeling that you have benefited from disappointment

Emotion

Facing a challenge by breaking it down into smaller components

Problem

Taking a stand against a difficult situation

Problem

Controlling your emotions even though disappointed or hurt

Emotion

HANDOUT 2: HOW DO YOU COPE? Briefly describe a situation that you experienced recently that you considered stressful. Answer these questions: What was the event?

What made it stressful to you?

Indicate by using this 0–4 scale which methods of coping you found useful: 0 = Not used 1 = Used somewhat 2 = Used quite a bit 3 = Used a great deal (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: A ―P‖ indicates problem-focused; an ―E‖ indicates emotionfocused.)

____ 1. Tried to get the person responsible to change their mind. (P) ____ 2. Tried to keep my feelings to myself. (E) ____ 3. Criticized or lectured myself. (E) ____ 4. Changed or grew as a person in a good way. (E) ____ 5. Stood my ground and fought for what I wanted. (P) ____ 6. Knew what had to be done, so I doubled my efforts to make things work. (P) ____ 7. Found new faith. (E) ____ 8. Made a plan of action and followed it. (P) ____ 9. Refused to believe it had happened. (E) ____ 10. Came up with a couple of different solutions to the problem. (P) Scoring: Add up the scores for P and E to indicate which method, if any, is predominantly used. Source: Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

HANDOUT 3: BURNOUT SURVEY Burnout is the depletion of our physical and mental resources. This brief survey will provide you with a rough estimate of the degree to which you may be experiencing burnout. Indicate whether each statement is T (true) or F (false) for you. (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: An ―X‖ indicates a high level of burnout for those who reply ―true.‖) 1. I often feel exhausted at the end of the day. (X) 2. I always appreciate recognition of my efforts. 3. Other people demand a lot of my time and energy. (X) 4. I sometimes forget to think of other people as individuals. (X)

5. I am a very healthy individual, mentally and physically. 6. I am able to appreciate the beauty of life. 7. I always enjoy helping other people. 8. I sometimes feel bored with what I do. (X) 9. I am impatient with people who can‘t keep up. (X) 10. I usually have to do things myself to make sure they‘re done right. (X) 11. I always take time to relax and enjoy life. 12. I always treat all other people with great respect. 13. I always work well as a team member. 14. I often experience headaches, stomach distress, or nervousness. (X) 15. I try to defend myself from stress and anxiety. (X) 16. I always look forward to the challenges of each day. 17. Often my efforts are unappreciated by others. (X) 18. My busy schedule often drains my resources. (X) 19. I get plenty of rest so I always feel refreshed. 20. I do not experience as much stress as other people. Scoring: Each X receives a 5 for ―T‖; all others, if marked ―F,‖ receive a 5. 0–15 Too few demands (or rustout) 20–35 Low average burnout (no stress) 40–60 Average (good adjustment and health) 65–80 Burning out (stress) 85–100 High level of burnout

HANDOUT 4: TYPE A AND TYPE B BEHAVIOR INVENTORY Indicate whether each statement is T (true) or F (false) for you. (NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: An ―A‖ indicates Type A question; a ―B‖ indicates Type B question.) 1. I don‘t let people know when I am angry. (B) 2. Most people are generally selfish and self-centered. (A) 3. Other people consider me a relaxed person. (B) 4. I feel anxious whenever I am idle. (A) 5. I usually can trust the people I work with. (B) 6. I think people are basically good. (B) 7. I become irritated when I must wait for something. (A) 8. I stay calm in emergency situations. (A) 9. I am usually patient while waiting for someone. (B) 10. I tend to keep my feelings to myself. (B) 11. I enjoy working against deadlines. (A) 12. It is important to take vacations regularly. (B) 13. I tend to concentrate on one problem at a time. (B) 14. I really can‘t trust other people. (A) 15. Other people have mentioned my hostility. (A) 16. I listen to the ideas of other people. (B) 17. I often race against time even when there is no reason to. (A) 18. I often feel suspicious toward others. (A) 19. I do not work well under deadlines. (B) 20. I try to relax when things slow down. (B) Scoring: Each Type A response receives 5 points. 0–15 20–35 40–60 65–80 85–100

Definite Type B Type B Both Type A and Type B traits Type A Definite Type A

HANDOUT 5: MESSAGE FRAMING IN ADVERTISING

Find two examples of both positive and negative message framing in advertisements (print or television). For each, write the example, indicate what makes it positive or negative, and describe its effect on the message recipient. Advertisement

Message

Effect on Message Recipient

Positive messages Advertisement 1:

Advertisement 2:

Negative messages Advertisement 1:

Advertisement 2:

HANDOUT 6: SMART CHOICES ON THE GO! This handout will help students:  

Identify at least three barriers to fruit and vegetable consumption while they are dining out. Describe strategies for including fruits and vegetables in their meals while dining out.

In groups, discuss your eating habits while dining out. Appoint a notetaker to jot down the discussion points of the group. Consider answering the following questions: 1. How many times a week do you eat out?

2. What types of food do you order when you eat out?

3. What sorts of restaurants do you eat at and why?

4. Do you think it is hard to eat healthy while eating out? Why?

5. Does money play a factor in what or how much you order at a restaurant?

6. Have you ever tried eating out less often? If so, what were the results, and what motivated you to make that lifestyle change?

Chapter 12 Psychological Disorders OPENING THEMES For many students, the topic of abnormal psychology represents the high point of the course: what they have been waiting to learn all semester. Therefore, engaging student interest in the topic should not be a problem. The challenge is choosing the topics to focus on in this very rich area of content. Working within the structure of the perspectives in psychology will make this content easier for students to grasp because the basic parameters have already been laid down and developed in other chapters. Thus, presenting the possible causes for psychological disorders should be done in terms of those perspectives. In terms of presenting the disorders, it is crucial to emphasize the role of DSM-5-TR (the most recent version) in setting the stage for reliable diagnoses. DSM-5-TR also provides a good organizing structure to use in presenting the disorders. Although there will not be time to devote sufficient attention to all disorders, you should be able to focus on one or two that are of particular interest to you in helping students gain a conceptualization of disorders as having multiple causes and (as discussed in the next chapter) multiple approaches to treatment. MODULE 37: NORMAL VERSUS ABNORMAL: MAKING THE DISTINCTION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 37-1

How can we distinguish normal from abnormal behavior?

37-2 What are the major perspectives on psychological disorders used by mental health professionals? 37-3

What are the major categories of psychological disorders?

If it was to be believed that a piece of writing could help us understand and ascertain to what degree a person is “normal,” it would not be true. Casually examining a person’s writing is insufficient to determine the degree to which that person is “normal.” However, even when we consider more extensive samples of a person’s behavior, we will find that there may be only a fine line between behavior that is considered normal and behavior that is considered abnormal. DEFINING ABNORMALITY

Because of the difficulty in distinguishing normal from abnormal behavior, psychologists have struggled to devise a precise, scientific definition of “abnormal behavior.” For instance, consider the following definitions, each of which has advantages and disadvantages: 

Abnormality as deviation from the average: To employ this statistically based approach, we simply observe what behaviors are rare or occur infrequently in a specific society or culture and label those deviations from the norm “abnormal.”



Abnormality as deviation from the ideal: An alternative approach considers abnormality in relation to the standard toward which most people are striving—the ideal.



Abnormality as a sense of personal discomfort: A more useful definition concentrates on the psychological consequences of the behavior for the individual. In this approach, behavior is considered abnormal if it produces a sense of personal distress, anxiety, or guilt in an individual—or if it is harmful to others in some way.



Abnormality as the inability to function effectively: Most people are able to feed themselves, hold a job, get along with others, and in general live as productive members of society. Yet some are unable to adjust to the demands of society or function effectively. Abnormality as a legal concept: To the judicial system, the distinction between normal and abnormal behavior rests on the definition of insanity, which is a legal but not a psychological term. The definition of insanity varies from one jurisdiction to another. In some states, insanity simply means that defendants cannot understand the difference between right and wrong at the time they commit a criminal act. Other states consider whether defendants are substantially incapable of understanding the criminality of their behavior or unable to control themselves.



Given the difficulties in precisely defining the construct, psychologists typically define abnormal behavior broadly as behavior that causes people to experience distress and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives. Because of the imprecision of this definition, it is best to view abnormal behavior and normal behavior as marking two ends of a continuum rather than as absolute states. PERSPECTIVES ON ABNORMALITY: FROM SUPERSTITION TO SCIENCE (SEE FIGURE 1) Throughout much of human history, people linked abnormal behavior to superstition and witchcraft. Individuals who displayed abnormal behavior were accused of being possessed by the devil or some sort of demonic god. Authorities felt justified in “treating” abnormal behavior by attempting to drive out the source of the problem. This typically involved whipping, immersion in hot water, starvation, or other forms of torture. Contemporary approaches take a more enlightened view. Today, six major perspectives are used to understand psychological

disorders. These perspectives suggest not only different causes of abnormal behavior but different treatment approaches as well. MEDICAL PERSPECTIVE The medical perspective suggests that when an individual displays symptoms of a psychological disorder, the fundamental cause will be found through a physical examination of the individual, which may reveal a hormonal imbalance, a chemical deficiency, or a brain injury. PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE The psychoanalytic perspective holds that abnormal behavior stems from childhood conflicts over opposing wishes regarding sex and aggression. To uncover the roots of people’s disordered behavior, the psychoanalytic perspective scrutinizes their early life history. However, there is no conclusive way to link people’s childhood experiences with the abnormal behaviors they display as adults. Consequently, we can never be sure that specific childhood experiences can be linked to specific adult abnormal behaviors. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE The behavioral perspective looks at the rewards and punishments in the environment that determine abnormal behavior and views the behavior itself as the problem. Using the basic principles of learning, behavioral theorists see both normal and abnormal behaviors as responses to various stimuli—responses that have been learned through past experience and are guided in the present by stimuli in the individual’s environment. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE The cognitive perspective suggests that cognitions (people’s thoughts and beliefs) are central to a person’s abnormal behavior. A primary goal of treatment using the cognitive perspective is to explicitly teach new, more adaptive ways of thinking. Critics of the cognitive perspective argue that rather than maladaptive cognitions being the cause of a psychological disorder, they could be just another symptom of the disorder. Furthermore, under certain circumstances, negative beliefs may not be irrational at all; they may simply reflect accurately the realities of people’s lives. HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE The humanistic perspective emphasizes the responsibility people have for their own behavior, even when such behavior is abnormal. Humanistic approaches focus on the relationship of the individual to society; it considers the ways in which people view themselves in relation to others and see their place in the world. The humanistic perspective views people as having an awareness of life and of themselves that leads them to search for meaning and self-worth.

Rather than assuming that individuals require a “cure,” the humanistic perspective suggests that they can, by and large, set their own limits of what is acceptable behavior. SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The sociocultural perspective assumes that people’s behavior—both normal and abnormal—is shaped by the society and culture in which they live. According to this view, societal and cultural factors, such as poverty and prejudice, may be at the root of abnormal behavior. Specifically, the kinds of stresses and conflicts people experience in their daily lives can promote and maintain abnormal behavior. Consistent with the sociocultural perspective, some kinds of psychological disorders are far more prevalent among particular social classes, races, and ethnicities than they are in others. Poor economic times seem to be linked to general declines in psychological functioning, and social problems such as homelessness are associated with psychological disorders and deeply intertwined with socioeconomic factors. Homelessness, in particular, is linked with high levels of psychological disorder: approximately 30% of homeless people in the United States suffer from serious psychological disorders. CLASSIFYING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR: THE ABCS OF DSM Society has long placed labels on people who display abnormal behavior. Unfortunately, most of the time these labels have reflected intolerance and have been used with little thought as to what each label signifies. Providing appropriate and specific names and classifications for abnormal behavior has presented a major challenge to psychologists. It is not hard to understand why, given the difficulties discussed earlier in simply distinguishing normal from abnormal behavior. Yet psychologists and other care providers need to classify abnormal behavior in order to diagnose it and ultimately treat it. DSM-5-TR: DETERMINING DIAGNOSTIC DISTINCTIONS Over the years, mental health professionals have developed many classification systems that vary in terms of their utility and the degree to which they have been accepted. However, one standard system, devised by the American Psychiatric Association, has emerged in the United States. Most professionals today use this classification system, known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition—Text Revisions (DSM-5-TR), to diagnose and classify abnormal behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). The DSM-5-TR, most recently revised in 2022, attempts to provide comprehensive and relatively precise definitions for more than 200 disorders. By following the criteria presented in the DSM-5-TR classification system, diagnosticians use clients’ reported symptoms to identify the specific problem an individual is experiencing. (Figure 3 provides a brief outline of the major diagnostic categories; American Psychiatric Association, 2022.) The manual takes an atheoretical approach to identifying psychological disorders, meaning that it does not rely on any particular theoretical

perspective. However, some practitioners have argued that this diagnostic approach is too heavily based on a medical model. CONNING THE CLASSIFIERS: THE SHORTCOMINGS OF DSM When clinical psychologist David Rosenhan and eight colleagues sought admission to separate mental hospitals across the United States in the 1970s, each stated that they were hearing voices—“unclear voices” that said “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud”—and each was immediately admitted to the hospital. However, the truth was that they actually were conducting a study, and none of them was really hearing voices. Aside from these misrepresentations, everything else they did and said represented their true behavior, including the responses they gave during extensive admission interviews and their answers to the battery of tests they were asked to complete. In fact, as soon as they were admitted, they said they no longer heard any voices. In short, each of the pseudo-patients acted in a “normal” way (Rosenhan, 1973). Each of them was diagnosed as severely abnormal on the basis of observed behavior. Mental health professionals labeled most as suffering from schizophrenia and kept them in the hospital for 3 to 52 days, with the average stay of 19 days. Even when they were discharged, most of the “patients” left with the label schizophrenia—in remission, implying that the abnormal behavior had only temporarily subsided and could recur at any time. Most disturbing, no one on the hospital staff identified any of the pseudopatients as impostors—although some of the actual patients figured out the ruse. Rosenhan's study has been criticized on both ethical and methodological grounds. The (real) patients never gave their consent to participate in an experiment, and even the staff at the hospital were kept in the dark that an experiment was occurring. THE STIGMA OF LABELING Determining a psychological diagnosis is not always a clear-cut or even necessarily an accurate process. Moreover, placing labels on individuals powerfully influences the way mental health workers, as well as a layperson, perceive and interpret their future behavior. Therefore labeling a person with a diagnosis raises multiple concerns. Gender dysphoria (in which one’s gender identity is in conflict with one’s biological sex) provides a contemporary illustration of the dilemma between the pros of a formal diagnosis and the cons of patient labeling. For example, most medical insurance providers require a formal, specific diagnosis in order to provide health-care coverage for procedures such as a sex change operation. Many individuals who experience a conflict between their gender identity and their biological sex object theoretically to the idea that their desire to be the other sex should be labeled a “disorder.” Yet without a formal diagnosis, those same individuals may be forced to pay out-of-pocket for what is an expensive medical procedure. This diagnosis-based system of insurance coverage often creates a catch-22 for mental health-care professionals: They must decide between potentially stigmatizing their clients by providing a formal diagnosis, implying some type of disorder, or

leaving patients undiagnosed and potentially without the financial support necessary to receive important procedures that will significantly improve the clients’ quality of life. KEY TERMS abnormal behavior Behavior that causes people to experience distress and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives. behavioral perspective The perspective that looks at the rewards and punishments in the environment that determine abnormal behavior. cognitive perspective The perspective that suggests that people‘s thoughts and beliefs are central components of abnormal behavior. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition—Text Revision (DSM5-TR) A system, devised by the American Psychiatric Association, used by most professionals to classify and define psychological disorders. humanistic perspective The perspective that emphasizes the responsibility people have for their own behavior, even when such behavior is abnormal. medical perspective The perspective that suggests that when an individual displays symptoms of abnormal behavior, the root cause will be found in a physical examination of the individual, which may reveal a hormonal imbalance, a chemical deficiency, or a brain injury. psychoanalytic perspective The perspective that suggests that abnormal behavior stems from childhood conflicts over opposing wishes regarding sex and aggression. sociocultural perspective The perspective that assumes that society and culture shape abnormal behavior. LECTURE IDEAS SUMMARY OF HISTORY OF MENTAL ILLNESS Prehistoric times: Demonic possession was thought to cause psychological disorders. Based on evidence of trephined skulls, it was thought that prehistoric people tried to release the evil spirits by drilling a hole in the skull. Ancient Greece and Rome: The scientific approach emerged. The Greek physician Hippocrates sought a cause within the body. This approach continued through Roman times with the writings of the physician Galen. Middle Ages: Return to belief in spiritual possession and attempts to exorcise the devil out of the mentally ill. The mentally ill were thrown into prisons and poorhouses.

Renaissance: Bethlem Royal Hospital was founded in London in 1247, as a priory dedicated to St. Mary of Bethlehem; it served as a site for the housing of people with psychological disorders. Also in this period, witch hunts took place, starting in the 1480s and continuing through the 1700s. 1700s: Asylums again became overcrowded and conditions deteriorated. By the 1700s, St. Mary’s was known as “bedlam.” 1800s: Reform movements began in Europe and the United States:  

Benjamin Rush attempted to devise new methods of treatment (the “tranquilizing chair”) based on scientific method. Dorothea Dix, a Massachusetts schoolteacher, originated the state hospital movement as a means of providing “moral treatment.”

Early to mid-20th century: Overcrowding again became prevalent in state mental hospitals. Extreme measures of treatment were used that were thought by many to be inhumane. Era of deinstitutionalization—late 20th century: Invention of antipsychotic medications in the 1950s made it possible for people with severe disorders to live outside institutions. President John F. Kennedy called for community mental health centers. However, this has not been completely effective as the problem of homelessness has arisen. DEFINING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY You may want to point out to students that defining a disorder is no easy feat. For example, do you go with statistically unusual as the standard? If so, then how do you deal with intelligence? The bottom 2.5% are in the DSM as intellectually challenged, but the top 2.5% (the gifted portion) are not. Should they be? Then, what do you do about disorders that are high in the general population, such as substance abuse? Students generally have no problem brainstorming ideas about what abnormal is, but it is easy to challenge most of them. For example, let’s use unusual behaviors. Are behaviors you don’t see frequently necessarily abnormal? What if a student took off their shirt and started dancing on a table in a bar? It’s not something you see every day, but as the tabloids show us, it’s not something that people think is necessarily “abnormal.” However, if it happened in class. . . . Another factor is cultural influences. It is important to remind students that speaking in tongues in a Pentecostal church is fine, but in another setting, it’s probably not. “MADNESS” AND CREATIVITY: THE CASE OF VINCENT VAN GOGH The case of Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) provides an excellent opportunity to discuss the relationship between “madness” and creativity. Van Gogh is generally considered the greatest

Dutch painter after Rembrandt. His reputation is based largely on the works of the last 3 years of his short, 10-year painting career, and he had a powerful influence on expressionism in modern art. He produced more than 800 oil paintings and 700 drawings, but he sold only one during his lifetime. His striking colors, coarse brushwork, and contoured forms display the anguish of the mental illness that drove him to suicide. Illustrate his case with examples of his late artworks, completed while he was a patient at the asylum in Saint-Rémy. The Vincent van Gogh online museum can be found at: http://www.vggallery.com/painting/main_az.htm. Discuss the diagnoses that have been ascribed to van Gogh over the years: Epilepsy

Neurasthenia

Schizophrenia

Chronic sunstroke and the influence of yellow

Suppressed form of epilepsy

Psychomotor epilepsy

Episodic twilight states

Dromomania

Epileptoid psychosis

Maniacal excitement

Psychopathy

Turpentine poisoning

Psychosis of degeneration

Hypertrophy of the creative forces

Schizoform reaction

Acute mania with generalized delirium

Cerebral tumor

Epileptic crises and attacks of epilepsy

Active luetic schizoid and epileptoid disposition

Glaucoma

Phasic schizophrenia

Frontotemporal dementia

Dementia praecox

Xanthopsia caused by digitalis (as treatment for mania)—seeing the world through a yellow haze

Meningoencephalitis luetica Psychotic exhaustion caused by creative effort Atypical psychosis heterogeneously compounded of elements of epileptic and schizoid disposition Phasic hallucinatory psychosis

Numerous websites discuss van Gogh’s condition and possible diagnoses; here is one: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071623/. Most recently, this diagnosis was published in the American Journal of Psychiatry: Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) had an eccentric personality and unstable moods, suffered from recurrent psychotic episodes during the last 2 years of his extraordinary life, and committed suicide at the age of 37. Despite limited evidence, well over 148 physicians have ventured a perplexing variety of diagnoses of his illness. Henri Gastaut, in a study of the artist’s life and medical history published in 1956, identified van Gogh’s major illness during the last 2 years of his life as temporal lobe epilepsy precipitated by the use of absinthe in the presence of an early limbic lesion. In essence, Gastaut confirmed the diagnosis originally made by the French physicians who had treated van Gogh. However, van Gogh had earlier suffered two distinct episodes of reactive depression, and there are clearly bipolar aspects to his history. Both episodes of depression were followed by sustained periods of increasingly high energy and enthusiasm, first as an evangelist and then as an artist. The highlights of van Gogh’s life and letters are reviewed and discussed in an effort toward better understanding of the complexity of his illness. Source: Blumer, D. (2002). The illness of Vincent van Gogh. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 519– 526. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids= 11925286&dopt=Abstract. THE DSM-5-TR Summarize the assumptions of the DSM-5-TR: Descriptive, atheoretical. Present two areas of criticism of the DSM-5-TR:  

Because it is descriptive, it does not address causes the way that medical diagnostic manuals do. Dimensional ratings may be preferable.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS VIEWS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Have students complete Handout 1: Views on Psychological Disorders.

Have students read more about illness anxiety disorder at the Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Hypochondriasis.html) and discuss how creativity factors into this disorder. Have a speaker from the counseling department at your university come and speak to your class. As college students are at the peak age for the development of many disorders, counselors can answer student questions and review the support available at your university. This may also increase students’ awareness of diversity and disability. Abuse and Brain Damage: Remind students that perhaps being abused as a child may affect the development of the brain, increasing activity level. That is, neglect and abuse no doubt affect the way the brain becomes wired. For example, let’s take poor feeding habits. Would poor food choices affect the development of the brain? Further, witnessing extreme abuse of others or being in an aggression-charged environment would have effects on behavior as well. Theoretical Approaches: Have students choose one psychological disorder from a list of the various disorders discussed in the chapter. Next, have them walk that disorder through the various theoretical perspectives and explain how each perspective (biological, psychological, and sociocultural) would describe and explain the disorder. The students should get a better understanding of each of the perspectives and perhaps how many of the disorders were described and treated according to the various perspectives. Observations: Assign students to spend about 20 min observing an area with a large number of people (mall, cafeteria, stadium, or concert). Ask students to identify and make a list of behaviors they would classify as abnormal. Next, ask them to record how their list conforms to the definition in the textbook. Then, have them record what would change if they were in a different circumstance, such as a church, hospital, library, or bar. Finally, ask what this exercise tells them about the meaning of abnormal? Share the results in class. Challenge Your Thinking: Have students answer the following as a class discussion, small-group confab, or short essay: What is an appropriate label for someone with a psychological disorder? When are medical treatments appropriate for a psychological disorder? Finally, if a teacher suggested your child be tested for ADHD, what would you do? LIBRARY RESEARCH ON THE DSM-5-TR Send students to the library (or other source) to look at the DSM-5-TR. Ask them these questions:   

How do you feel about the idea of categorizing psychological disorders as is done in the DSM-5-TR? What was the scientific basis for the DSM-5-TR? How does the DSM-5-TR differ from earlier DSMs?



What do you think is the most intriguing disorder in the DSM-5-TR?

The DSM Classification System: Have the students again choose a psychological disorder from a list of disorders. Next, for a homework assignment, the students should go to the library or on the Internet and find a copy of the DSM-5-TR. The students should describe what the DSM-5-TR says about the disorder they have chosen. Through this process, the students will have a closer look at the DSM and its classification system. As they are looking up the disorder of their choice, they will also see other disorders listed and will probably look into these also. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS PERSPECTIVES ON ABNORMALITY How does the medical perspective of abnormality compare with the behavioral neuroscience perspective in psychology? How are they the same, and how are they different? If you were a mental health professional, how would you integrate the best of each perspective in treating your clients? Which perspective is the DSM-5-TR most closely associated with? Could the biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors behind psychological disorders all be correct, or is there only one factor that dominates? Explain. Why is it difficult for an individual with a psychological disorder to identify and find the correct treatment of a physical illness? What are some ideas for correcting this problem? How can society help individuals with psychological disorders overcome the stigma and labeling they face every day? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Abnormality Defined Which of the following definitions of abnormality do you believe to be the most useful for psychologists? a) Abnormality as deviation from the average b) Abnormality as deviation from the ideal c) Abnormality as a sense of personal discomfort d) Abnormality as the inability to function effectively e) Abnormality as a legal concept SUGGESTED MEDIA

Insight Media. (1989). Asylum: A History of the Mental Institution in America., 60:00. A history of mental institutions is presented. Behavenet.com. https://www.behavenet.com/. This website lists the major psychological disorders and the DSM-IV-TR criteria for each disorder. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR). https://www.psychiatry.org/dsm5.

Eysenck and psychoticism. http://www.trans4mind.com/personality/EPQ.html. This site provides an overview of traits Eysenck argued were parts of psychoticism. Eysenck has done considerable research on creativity and psychoticism and may be one of the leaders in this area. Insight Media. (2009). An introduction to personality disorders, 73:00. This program explores personality disorders. Mental health—Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/. National Alliance on Mental Illness. http://www.nami.org/. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). http://www.nimh.nih.gov/. POPULAR MOVIE: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ABNORMALITY One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975) is the classic depiction of life in a psychiatric hospital in the late 1950s, when ECT was used as punishment. TED TALK: WHAT’S SO FUNNY ABOUT MENTAL ILLNESS? In this talk, Ruby Wax urges viewers to end the stigma that surrounds mental illness: https://www.ted.com/talks/ruby_wax_what_s_so_funny_about_mental_illness?language=en. ADDITIONAL READINGS American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Costello, V. (2012). Signs of psychosis appear early. Scientific American Mind, 23(1), 31–37. Epstein, R. (2010). Are you mentally healthy? Scientific American Mind, 21(1), 58–61. Kendell, R., & Jablensky, A. (2003). Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric

diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 4–12. Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Barlow, D. H., et al. (2005). Toward a dimensionally based taxonomy of psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 491–493. Regier, D. S., Narrow, W. E., First, M. B., & Marshall, T. (2002). The APA classification of mental disorders: Future perspectives. Psychopathology, 35(2–3), 166–170. MODULE 38: THE MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS LEARNING OBJECTIVE 38-1

What are the major psychological disorders?

Each psychological disorder represents a very human set of difficulties that influence and in some cases considerably disrupt people’s lives. ANXIETY DISORDERS Anxiety is a feeling of apprehension or tension in reaction to stressful situations. There is nothing “wrong” with such anxiety. It is a normal reaction to stress that often helps rather than hinders our daily functioning. However, some people experience anxiety in situations in which there is no apparent reason or cause for such distress. Anxiety disorders occur when anxiety arises without external justification and begins to affect people’s daily functioning. PHOBIC DISORDER A specific phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation (see Figure 1). The objective danger posed by an anxiety-producing stimulus is typically small or nonexistent. However, to someone suffering from the phobia, the danger is great, and a full-blown panic attack may follow exposure to the stimulus. Phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders in that there is a specific, identifiable stimulus that sets off the anxiety reaction. Phobias may have only a minor impact on people‘s lives if those who suffer from them can avoid the stimuli that trigger fear. A social phobia, or a fear of strangers, presents a more serious problem. PANIC DISORDER In panic disorder, panic attacks occur that last from a few seconds to several hours. Unlike phobias, which are stimulated by specific objects or situations, panic disorders do not have any identifiable stimuli. Instead, during an attack, anxiety suddenly—and often without warning—

rises, and an individual feels a sense of impending, unavoidable doom. Although the physical symptoms differ from person to person, they may include heart palpitations, shortness of breath, unusual amounts of sweating, faintness and dizziness, gastric sensations, and sometimes a sense of imminent death. After such an attack, it is no wonder that people tend to feel exhausted. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER People with generalized anxiety disorder experience long-term, persistent anxiety and uncontrollable worry (see Figure 2). Sometimes their concerns are about identifiable issues involving family, money, work, or health. In other cases, though, people with the disorder feel that something dreadful is about to happen but cannot identify the reason and thus experience “free-floating” anxiety. OBSESSIVE–COMPULSIVE DISORDER In obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), people are plagued by unwanted thoughts, called obsessions, or feel that they must carry out behaviors, termed compulsions, which they feel driven to perform. An obsession is a persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring. For example, a student may be unable to stop thinking that they have neglected to put their name on a test and may think about it constantly for the 2 weeks it takes to get the paper back. As part of an obsessive–compulsive disorder, people may also experience compulsions, irresistible urges to repeatedly carry out some act that seems strange and unreasonable even to them. Whatever the compulsive behavior is, people experience extreme anxiety if they cannot carry it out even if it is something they want to stop. The acts may be relatively trivial, such as repeatedly checking the stove to make sure all the burners are turned off, or more unusual, such as washing one’s hands so much that they bleed. THE CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS AND OBSESSIVE–COMPULSIVE DISORDER The variety of anxiety disorders means that no single explanation fits all cases. Genetic factors clearly are part of the picture. Furthermore, a person’s characteristic level of anxiety is related to a specific gene involved in the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin. This is consistent with findings indicating that certain chemical deficiencies in the brain appear to produce some kinds of anxiety disorder. Some researchers believe that an overactive autonomic nervous system may be at the root of panic attacks. Psychologists who employ the behavioral perspective have taken a different approach that emphasizes environmental factors. They consider anxiety to be a learned response to stress. Finally, the cognitive perspective suggests that anxiety disorders grow out of inappropriate and inaccurate thoughts and beliefs about circumstances in a person’s world. According to the cognitive perspective, people’s maladaptive thoughts about the world are at the root of an anxiety disorder.

SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS Somatic symptom disorders are psychological difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form but for which there is no medical cause. Even though an individual with a somatoform disorder reports physical symptoms, no biological cause exists, or if there is a medical problem, the person’s reaction is greatly exaggerated. One type of somatic symptom disorder is illness anxiety disorder in which people have a constant fear of illness and a preoccupation with their health. These individuals believe that everyday aches and pains are symptoms of a dread disease. The “symptoms” are not faked; rather, they are misinterpreted as evidence of some serious illness. Another somatic symptom disorder is conversion disorder. Unlike illness anxiety disorder, in which there is no physical problem, functional neurological disorder (previously known as conversion disorder) involve an apparent physical disturbance, such as the inability to see or hear or to move an arm or leg (see Figure 3). The cause of such a physical disturbance is purely psychological; there is no biological reason for the problem. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Dissociative disorders are characterized by the separation (or dissociation) of different facets of a person’s personality that are normally integrated and work together. By dissociating key parts of who they are, people are able to keep disturbing memories or perceptions from reaching conscious awareness and thereby reduce their anxiety. Several dissociative disorders exist, although all of them are rare. A person with a dissociative identity disorder (DID; once called multiple personality disorder) displays characteristics of two or more distinct personalities, identities, or personality fragments. Individual personalities often have a unique set of likes and dislikes and their own reactions to situations.

The diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder is controversial. Dissociative amnesia is another dissociative disorder in which a significant, selective memory loss occurs. Dissociative amnesia is unlike simple amnesia, which involves an actual loss of information from memory and typically results from a physiological cause. In contrast, in cases of dissociative amnesia, the “forgotten” material is still present in memory—it simply cannot be recalled. The term repressed memories is sometimes used to describe the lost memories of people with dissociative amnesia. Dissociative fugue is a form of amnesia in which a person leaves home suddenly and assumes a new identity. In this rare and unusual state, people take sudden, impulsive trips and adopt a new identity. After a period of time—days, months, or sometimes even years—they suddenly realize that they are in a strange place and completely forget the time they have spent wandering. Their last memories are those from the time just before they entered the fugue state. MOOD DISORDERS

A mood disorder is a disturbance in emotional experience that is strong enough to intrude on everyday living. MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER Major depressive disorder is a severe form of depression that interferes with concentration, decision making, and sociability. Major depression is one of the more common forms of mood disorders. Women are twice as likely to experience major depression as men are, with onefourth of all females apt to encounter it at some point during their lives. Worldwide, over 280 million people suffer from major depressive disorder. When psychologists speak of major depression, they do not mean the sadness that comes from experiencing one of life’s disappointments that we all have experienced. People who suffer from major depression experience similar feelings, but the severity tends to be considerably greater. They may feel useless, worthless, and lonely, and they may think the future is hopeless and no one can help them. They may lose their appetite and have no energy. Moreover, they may experience such feelings for months or even years. They may cry uncontrollably, have sleep disturbances, and be at risk for suicide. The depth and duration of such behavior are the hallmarks of major depression. MANIA AND BIPOLAR DISORDER While depression leads to the depths of despair, mania leads to emotional heights. Mania is an extended state of intense, wild elation. People experiencing mania feel intense happiness, power, invulnerability, and energy. Believing they will succeed at anything they attempt, they may become involved in wild schemes. Bipolar disorder is a disorder in which a person alternates between periods of euphoric feelings of mania and periods of depression. The swings between highs and lows may occur a few days apart or may alternate over a period of years. In addition, in bipolar disorder, periods of depression are usually longer than periods of mania. CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS Some mood disorders clearly have genetic and biochemical roots. In fact, most evidence suggests that bipolar disorders are caused primarily by biological factors. For instance, bipolar disorder (and some forms of major depression) clearly runs in some families, pointing to a genetic cause. Furthermore, researchers have found that several neurotransmitters play a role in depression. Supporters of psychoanalytic perspectives see depression as the result of feelings of loss (real or potential) or of anger directed inwardly at oneself. However, little research supports this explanation. Some explanations of depression take a behavioral approach, looking to influences outside the person. For example, behavioral theories of depression argue that the stresses of life produce a reduction in positive reinforcers. Some explanations for mood disorders attribute them to cognitive factors.

For example, psychologist Martin Seligman suggests that depression is largely a response to learned helplessness. Learned helplessness is a learned expectation that events in one’s life are uncontrollable and that one cannot escape from the situation. As a consequence, people simply give up fighting aversive events and submit to them, which thereby produces depression. Clinical psychologist Aaron Beck has proposed that faulty cognitions underlie people’s depressed feelings. Specifically, his cognitive theory of depression suggests that depressed individuals typically view themselves as life’s losers and blame themselves whenever anything goes wrong. Brain imaging studies suggest that people with depression experience a general blunting of emotional reactions. Other explanations of depression derive from evolutionary psychology, which considers how our genetic inheritance from our ancestors influences our behavior. DEPRESSION IN WOMEN Why does depression occur in approximately twice as many women as men—a pattern that is similar across a variety of cultures? One explanation suggests that the stress women experience may be greater than the stress men experience at certain points in their lives—such as when a woman must simultaneously earn a living and be the primary caregiver for her children. In addition, women have a higher risk for physical and sexual abuse, typically earn lower wages than men, report greater unhappiness with their marriages, and generally experience chronic negative circumstances. Furthermore, women and men may respond to stress with different coping mechanisms. Biological factors may also explain some women’s depression. SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER Schizophrenia spectrum disorder refers to a class of disorders in which severe distortion of reality occurs. Thinking, perception, and emotion may deteriorate; the individual may withdraw from social interaction; and the person may display bizarre behavior. The symptoms displayed by persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorder may vary considerably over time, and people with schizophrenia spectrum disorder show significant differences in the pattern of their symptoms even when they are labeled with the same diagnostic category. The following characteristics reliably distinguish schizophrenia spectrum disorder from other disorders:  



Decline from a previous level of functioning: An individual can no longer carry out activities they were once able to do. Disturbances of thought and speech: People with schizophrenia spectrum disorder use logic and language in a peculiar way. Their thinking often does not make sense, and their logic is frequently faulty, which is referred to as a formal thought disorder. Delusions: People with schizophrenia spectrum disorder often have delusions, firmly held, unshakable beliefs with no basis in reality. Among the common delusions people with schizophrenia spectrum disorder experience are the beliefs that they are being



controlled by someone else, they are being persecuted by others, and their thoughts are being broadcast so that others know what they are thinking. Hallucinations and perceptual disorders: People with schizophrenia spectrum disorder do not perceive the world as most other people do. They also may have hallucinations, the experience of perceiving things that do not actually exist. Furthermore, they may see, hear, or smell things differently from others. In fact, they may not even have a sense of their bodies in the way that others do and have difficulty determining where their bodies stop and the rest of the world begins. Inappropriate emotional displays: People with schizophrenia spectrum disorder sometimes show a lack of emotion in which even the most dramatic events produce little or no emotional response. Conversely, they may display emotion that is inappropriate to a situation. Withdrawal: People with schizophrenia spectrum disorder tend to have little interest in others. They tend not to socialize or hold real conversations with others, although they may talk at another person. In the most extreme cases, they do not even acknowledge the presence of other people and appear to be in their own isolated world.

Usually, the onset of schizophrenia spectrum disorder occurs in early adulthood, and the symptoms follow one of two primary courses. In process schizophrenia, the symptoms develop slowly and subtly. There may be a gradual withdrawal from the world, excessive daydreaming, and a blunting of emotion until eventually the disorder reaches the point where others cannot overlook it. In other cases, known as reactive schizophrenia, the onset of symptoms is sudden and conspicuous. The treatment outlook for reactive schizophrenia is relatively favorable, but process schizophrenia has proved more difficult to treat. DSM-5-TR classifies the symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorder into two types. Positivesymptom schizophrenia is indicated by the presence of disordered behavior such as hallucinations, delusions, and emotional extremes. Those with positive-symptom schizophrenia clearly lose touch with reality. In contrast, those with negative-symptom schizophrenia show disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors. For example, there may be an absence or loss of normal functioning, such as social withdrawal or blunted emotions. SOLVING THE PUZZLE OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER: BIOLOGICAL CAUSES Because schizophrenia spectrum disorder is more common in some families than in others, genetic factors seem to be involved in producing at least a susceptibility to or readiness for developing schizophrenia spectrum disorder (see Figure 7). One biological hypothesis to explain schizophrenia spectrum disorder is that the brains of people with the disorder may have a biochemical imbalance. For example, the dopamine hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia spectrum disorder occurs when there is excess activity in the areas of the brain that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter. This hypothesis came to light after the discovery that drugs

that block dopamine action in brain pathways can be highly effective in reducing the symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Further evidence for the importance of biological factors shows that when people with schizophrenia spectrum disorder hear voices during hallucinations, the parts of the brain responsible for hearing and language processing become active. When they have visual hallucinations, the parts of the brain involved in movement and color are active. SITUATIONAL CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER Psychoanalytic approaches suggest that this disorder is a form of regression to earlier experiences and stages of life. Freud believed that people with schizophrenia lack egos that are strong enough to cope with their unacceptable impulses. They regress to the oral stage—a time when the id and ego are not yet separated. Some researchers suggest that schizophrenia spectrum disorder is related to a family interaction style known as expressed emotion. Expressed emotion is an interaction style characterized by high levels of criticism, hostility, and emotional intrusiveness within a family. Some psychologists suggest that this disorder results from overattention to stimuli in the environment. Other cognitive experts argue that this disorder results from underattention to certain stimuli. Although it is plausible that overattention and underattention are related to different forms of this disorder, these phenomena do not explain the origins of such information-processing disorders. THE MULTIPLE CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER: THE PREDISPOSITION EXPLANATION Most scientists now believe that schizophrenia spectrum disorder involves both biological and situational factors. The predisposition model of schizophrenia spectrum disorder suggests that individuals may inherit a predisposition or an inborn sensitivity to developing this disorder. This genetic predisposition makes them particularly vulnerable to stressful factors in the environment, such as social rejection or dysfunctional family communication patterns. The stressors may vary, but if they are strong enough and are coupled with a genetic predisposition, they result in the appearance of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Furthermore, a strong genetic predisposition may lead to the onset of this disorder even when the environmental stressors are relatively weak. PERSONALITY DISORDERS A personality disorder is characterized by a set of inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that keep a person from functioning appropriately in society. People with personality disorders frequently lead seemingly normal lives. However, just below the surface lies a set of inflexible, maladaptive personality traits that do not permit these individuals to function as members of society. The best-known type of personality disorder is the antisocial personality disorder (sometimes referred to as a sociopathic personality). Individuals with this disturbance show no

regard for the moral and ethical rules of society or the rights of others. Although they can appear quite intelligent and likable (at least at first), upon closer examination they turn out to be manipulative and deceptive. Moreover, they lack any guilt or anxiety about their wrongdoing. People with borderline personality disorder have problems regulating emotions and thoughts, display impulsive and reckless behavior, and have unstable relationships with others. They also have difficulty developing a secure sense of who they are. As a consequence, they tend to rely on relationships with others to define their identity. Individuals with borderline personality disorder often feel empty and alone, and they have difficulty cooperating with others. Another example of a personality disturbance is the narcissistic personality disorder, which is characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance. Those with the disorder expect special treatment from others while at the same time disregarding others’ feelings. In some ways, in fact, the main attribute of the narcissistic personality is an inability to experience empathy for other people. DISORDERS THAT AFFECT CHILDHOOD We typically view childhood as a time of innocence and relative freedom from stress. In reality, though, almost 20% of children and 40% of adolescents experience significant emotional or behavioral disorders. For example, although major depression is more prevalent in adults, around 2.5% of children and more than 8% of adolescents suffer from the disorder. Children do not always display depression the same way adults do. Rather than showing profound sadness or hopelessness, childhood depression may produce the expression of exaggerated fears, clinginess, or avoidance of everyday activities. A considerably more common childhood disorder is attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, a disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. Although all children show such behavior some of the time, it is so common in children diagnosed with ADHD that it interferes with their everyday functioning. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: DIFFERENT DISORDERS, COMMON BRAIN FEATURES Thanks to advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and other neuroimaging techniques, we have learned a great deal over the past several decades about how psychological disorders look in the brain. Most neuroimaging studies focus on a single psychological disorder. Combining the results of 147 fMRI experiments, the researchers found that different disorders shared common features in the brain, such as reduced activation in regions important for controlling emotions and for storing, processing, and using information about other people. Autism spectrum disorder, a severe developmental disability that impairs children’s ability to communicate and relate to others, is another disorder that usually appears in the first 3 years

and typically continues throughout life. Children with autism have difficulties in both verbal and nonverbal communication, and they may avoid social contact. The prevalence of the disorder has risen significantly in the past decade. Whether the increase is the result of an actual rise in the incidence of autism or is due to better reporting is a question of intense debate among researchers. OTHER DISORDERS Psychoactive substance use disorder relates to problems that arise from the use and abuse of drugs. Alcohol use disorders are among the most serious and widespread problems. Both psychoactive substance use disorder and alcohol use disorder co-occur with many other psychological disorders such as mood disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and schizophrenia spectrum disorder, which complicates treatment considerably. Another widespread problem is eating disorders. They include such disorders as anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder. Sexual disorders, in which one’s sexual activity is unsatisfactory, are another important class of problems. They include sexual desire disorders, sexual arousal disorders, and paraphilic disorders, atypical sexual activities that may include nonhuman objects or nonconsenting partners. Another important class of disorders is neurocognitive disorders. These are problems that have a purely biological basis, such as Alzheimer’s disease and some types of developmental disabilities. The latest revision of the DSM includes a new disorder, prolonged grief disorder. Prolonged grief disorder is characterized by distressing symptoms of grief that continue for at least 12 months after the loss of a close contact. The latest edition also includes revised criteria for 70 existing disorders. KEY TERMS antisocial personality disorder A disorder in which individuals show no regard for the moral and ethical rules of society or the rights of others. anxiety disorder The occurrence of anxiety without an obvious external cause that affects daily functioning. attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and a great deal of inappropriate activity. autism spectrum disorder A severe developmental disability that impairs children‘s ability to communicate and relate to others. bipolar disorder A disorder in which a person alternates between periods of euphoric feelings of mania and periods of depression.

borderline personality disorder A disorder characterized by problems regulating emotions and thoughts, displaying impulsive and reckless behavior, and having unstable relationships with others. compulsion An irresistible urge to repeatedly carry out some behavior that seems strange and unreasonable. functional neurologic disorder A major somatic symptom disorder that involves an actual physical disturbance, such as the inability to use a sensory organ or the complete or partial inability to move an arm or leg. dissociative amnesia A disorder in which a significant, selective memory loss occurs. dissociative disorders Psychological dysfunctions characterized by the separation of different facets of a person‘s personality that are normally integrated. dissociative fugue A form of amnesia in which a person leaves home and assumes a new identity. dissociative identity disorder (DID) A disorder in which a person displays characteristics of two or more distinct personalities. generalized anxiety disorder The experience of long-term, persistent anxiety and worry. illness anxiety disorder A somatic symptom disorder in which people have a constant fear of illness and a preoccupation with their health. major depressive disorder A severe form of depression that interferes with concentration, decision making, and sociability. mania An extended state of intense, wild elation. mood disorder A disturbance in emotional experience that is strong enough to interfere with everyday living. narcissistic personality disorder A personality disturbance characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance. obsession A persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring. obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) A disorder characterized by obsessions or compulsions. panic disorder Anxiety disorder that takes the form of panic attacks lasting from a few seconds to several hours. personality disorder A disorder characterized by a set of inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that keep a person from functioning appropriately in society.

schizophrenia spectrum disorder A class of disorders in which severe distortion of reality occurs. somatic symptom disorders Psychological difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form for which there is no medical cause. specific phobia Intense, irrational fear of specific objects or situations. LECTURE IDEAS SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER You may want to introduce students to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis, which argues that early brain development gone awry may be causal in the development of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. DEPRESSIVE DISORDER Ask students how concepts of dominant and recessive genes might influence the impact of genetic contributions to depression. ANXIETY DISORDERS PTSD: Ask students about what kinds of events other than war can lead to PTSD. Point out that being a victim of a violent crime, for example, could lead to similar effects. What kinds of effects could this have on everyday life? Phobias: Ask students what they have a phobic response to. You may want to point out that having one phobia in a subtype—say, animal types—increases the probability of having another phobia in the same subtype (e.g., fear of spiders and snakes). You may want to show this clip of unusual phobias: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rl7Lr6eDLc. Biology as Destiny: Those most likely to develop anxiety disorders are people with a genetic predisposition to anxiety, low levels of GABA, or the personality trait of neuroticism and who also experience chronic stress environments or abuse. Ask students to discuss the issue of biology being destiny. If they know that their partner has a history of a psychological disorder somewhere in their bloodline, should they panic about reproducing? DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER Ask students what they think about the DID diagnosis. Do they think it’s possible? This is a good time to remind students about Loftus’s work on repressed memories. AUSTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

You may want to point out that the increase in the occurrence of autism spectrum disorder is most likely due to several factors—increased awareness, a broadening of the definition into “spectrum,” a need to “label” a child to procure government-provided services for children with delays, and many others. Ask students to brainstorm other possible reasons for why the numbers have jumped. Some people who have autism or Asperger’s syndrome are called savants for their extreme giftedness in one domain, such as music or math. At this point, most students are thinking that this sounds great. Students tend to idolize actors, writers, musicians, and artists. Remind students that although savants show great creativity, the data overall supports that these increases in ability in one area are tied to severe deficits in other areas. For example, although it may sound to students that savants have these great spikes, they often cannot complete many aspects of independent living without help. That is, depressive stages and autism are severely debilitating. You may also want to remind them that most schizophrenics are not like the mathematician John Nash; they are homeless and in a vicious cycle of nontreatment and severe symptoms. FORMS OF PHOBIA Show these terms and symptoms for a variety of types of phobias: Disorder

Symptoms

Panic disorder

Panic attacks occur without a specific trigger or stimulus

Agoraphobia

Fear of being in a situation in which escape is difficult and in which help for a possible panic attack would not be available

Ailurophobia

Fear of cats

Arachnophobia

Fear of spiders

Cynophobia

Fear of dogs

Equinophobia

Fear of horses

Insectophobia

Fear of insects

Ophidiophobia

Fear of snakes

Rodentophobia

Fear of rodents

Acrophobia

Fear of heights

Brontophobia

Fear of thunder

Claustrophobia

Fear of small, enclosed spaces

Mysophobia

Fear of dirt

Nyctophobia

Fear of darkness

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE MEDIA Abnormal Psychology in the Media: Have students complete Handout 2: Abnormality in the Popular Media. Girl, Interrupted: Have students watch Girl, Interrupted (1999) and write a two-paragraph synopsis of the disorders seen in the film. A “Normal Life”: Show the film A Beautiful Mind (2001) that features John Nash, a Nobel Prize winner and professor at Princeton University. Have the students compare his life to the conception of a normal life. Define Abnormal: To introduce the topic of abnormal behavior, ask students to define “abnormal.” Use this information to segue into how the text defines abnormal behavior. Then, ask students to determine which of the three qualities—deviation from the norm, maladaptativeness, or personal distress, is the most important in naming a behavior abnormal and why? Next, ask students when you say, “psychological disorders,” what comes to mind? Finally, ask students to think of someone they know who has a psychological disorder and explain how it has affected their life and the person’s life. If students are willing to share this in class, have them do so. Mental Illness: Have students write down all the words that come to mind when they hear that someone has a psychological disorder. Ask students to share their words. Point out especially stigmatized words such as crazy or nuts. Remind students that these words are pejorative and won’t be allowed when talking about mental illness in class. You might also want to point out or ask students about stereotypes of the mentally ill. You will be able to relate this to the later section on stigmatization. What Is Abnormal, Anyway? Use Handout 3: What Is Abnormal, Anyway? The goal of this activity is for students to use the various aspects of the definition of abnormal (deviant, maladaptive, and distressful) to explain why they classified certain behaviors or thoughts as abnormal. Students should discuss their answers in groups to conclude that distinguishing what is abnormal is not always easy to do and the implications for such decisions have potentially lifelong consequences. National Art Exhibitions of the Mentally Ill: Although we might think of people who contend

with psychological disorders as troubled and downtrodden, they (like all people) have the capacity to be astonishingly creative. Check out the website maintained by the National Art Exhibitions of the Mentally Ill (NAEMI) to experience some amazing creations of artists who suffer from mental illness. Go to http://www.naemi.org and click on an artist profile to view each artist’s work. How does your exploration of this artwork influence your feelings about mental illness? Anorexia Nervosa: Show the movie Killing Us Softly 4 (2010) to the class, and then discuss the various struggles of anorexics. Break the class into groups, and have them discuss why some people become anorexic and others do not. Have them also discuss whether they believe the media and the fashion industry is partly responsible for the diet problems that young girls encounter today. Have each group make and present an outline of their key discussion points. ANXIETY DISORDERS Anxiety Disorder: Discuss with the students the difference between normal worrying and generalized anxiety disorder. Ask the students to write about a time when they were worried about something and how this type of worrying did not turn into generalized anxiety disorder. Ask them to explain what would have had to happen for the worrying to be considered a generalized anxiety disorder. Specific Phobias: Have the students do an Internet search for a list of various phobias that individuals have. Have them choose five of the phobias and describe in a short write-up what the various phobias entail. Anxiety Disorders: Use Handout 4: What Type of Anxiety or Anxiety-Related Disorder Is It? The goal of this activity is for students to recognize the various anxiety disorders described in the chapter. The students will read through various examples and then identify which anxiety disorder is being described. Messiness Versus Hoarding Quiz: Use Handout 5: Is It Hoarding or Just Messiness? Have students complete the quiz and in class discuss the answers. This quiz is adapted from the TV show Hoarding: Buried Alive (https://www.tlc.com/tv-shows/hoarding-buried-alive). You may also consider using excerpts from this show as illustrations of the disorder. Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Show the film As Good as It Gets (1997). Have the students identify the obsessive and compulsive behaviors. Discuss these in class, describing as well what it must be like to live with OCD. Compare and contrast what was shown in the film and the symptoms of the disorder as they were described in the text reading. PTSD: Ask students about what kinds of events other than war can lead to PTSD. What kinds of effects can PTSD have on everyday life?

MOOD DISORDERS Depressive Disorder: Ask the students to write a one- to two-page paper on the similarities and differences of major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder. The students should get a better perspective on depression and realize the extent to which depression can affect an individual’s life. Causes of Mood Disorders: Have the students choose one mood disorder from a list of the various disorders. Next, have them walk that disorder through the various causes and explain how each cause (biological, psychological, sociocultural, socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnic) would describe and explain the disorder. The students should get a better understanding of each of the causes. Gender Difference: Ask students to research the following—why might men show lower levels of depression than women? Have them bring their research to class and share it with the entire class. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Dissociative Amnesia: Have students watch the movie The Butterfly Effect (2004), which illustrates dissociative disorder. Then, either in a group discussion or through a written paper, students should identify the main features along with some of the challenges psychologists face with the diagnosis of the disorder. Dissociative Identity Disorder: Show the movie The Three Faces of Eve (1957), which discusses dissociative identity disorder. Afterward, break the class into groups to discuss the movie. Have the groups discuss the idea that some personalities are developed through therapy. SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER Symptoms of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder: Break the class into groups, and have each group develop an example of an individual with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Next, have the groups describe their individual through the various symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorder discussed in the chapter. After the groups have completed this task, ask one member of each group to come to the front of the class and discuss with the rest of the class the individual their group developed. Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder: Positive, Negative, and Cognitive Symptoms: Use Handout 6: Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder: Positive, Negative, or Cognitive Symptoms—What Type of Symptom Is It? The goal of this activity is for students to become more familiar with the various types of symptoms found in schizophrenia spectrum disorder. The students will read examples of individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorder and identify which set of symptoms is being described.

Examples of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder: Show the students the movie A Beautiful Mind (2001), which discusses the case of a man with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Afterward, break the class into groups to discuss the movie, focusing on the progression of schizophrenia spectrum disorder in John Nash. Causes of Autism: Have students do a literature review of recently proposed “causes” of autism and then write a paragraph on them. You may want to pick a few and show that research has yet to show any definitive causal factor. PERSONALITY DISORDERS Personality Disorders: Use Handout 7: Create the Case! The goal of this activity is for students to create an example of an individual with antisocial personality disorder and another example of an individual with borderline personality disorder. Students should create a case that demonstrates the fundamental DSM criteria for the specific disorder. Students should be encouraged to share their case creations. This is also a good illustration of how individuals diagnosed with the same disorder can “look and act” differently from each other. Personality Disorders: Use Handout 8: Which Personality Disorder Is It? The goal of this activity is for the students to become more familiar with the various types of personality disorders. The students will read examples of individuals with a personality disorder and then identify which type of disorder is being described. Dissociative Disorder: Students love to talk about dissociative states! Remind them that there is little evidence here, but it is also hard to falsify claims. Have them do a little Internet research and bring to class one example they found for either a “pro” or a “con.” This should lead to a lively discussion. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS PERSPECTIVES ON SPECIFIC DISORDERS Choose the psychological disorder that is of greatest interest to you and answer these questions:     

State which disorder it is and summarize its diagnostic criteria. Explain why this disorder is considered abnormal behavior. Compare two approaches to understanding this disorder (such as biological vs. sociocultural) and state which approach you prefer (and why). Compare and contrast the various forms of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Why are they all considered a form of schizophrenia spectrum diosrder? Is it possible that an individual with dissociative identity disorder can develop new



personalities through the suggestion of a therapist? Compare and contrast the disassociated identity disorder with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. What are the significant differences? If you had to have one of these disorders, which one would you prefer it be, and why?

Ask students to think about anorexia and bulimia. How do they think environmental factors such as media and the family can contribute to developing an eating disorder? Technology Addiction? Do you think a person can be addicted to technology? If a person is spending 10 or more hours online and it is interfering with their daily life, is that a problem? Is it a problem if a person constantly checks their phone? Be sure to have students defend their answer. This question often provides some lively debate, especially if a class has generational differences. MOVIE DEPICTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Describe a movie character that you think is a good example of a psychological disorder. What disorder does this character represent? Why? Do you think that the movie did a good job or a bad job of depicting this disorder? Why? What impact do you think that movies can have on how people feel about psychological disorders? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Common Phobias What do you think are the most common phobias? Polling Question: Everything’s a Disorder Two criticisms of the new DSM-5-TR suggest that we will see an increase in the number of people being diagnosed with some psychological disorder: (1) Too many new categories of disorders have been added, some of which do not yet have consistent research support, and (2) there has been a loosening of standards for some existing diagnoses. What do you think about this? How many of you know someone who is diagnosed with a mental health disorder? With the changes in the DSM-5-TR, how many of you think that more people will be diagnosed? Who thinks the increase in people suffering from mental health issues may suggest that some of the diagnoses are being labeled incorrectly? How many of you think that having more disorders listed in the DSM-5-TR is a positive thing? Polling Question: Aren’t We All Afraid of Something? Ask anyone around you what is one thing they are afraid of. Most of us will have an answer. And, some of us can give you a list of all the things we are afraid of. So, what makes us different

from someone with an anxiety disorder? Who has ever searched a list on the Internet for all of the different types of phobias? Of those who answered, who was surprised at the size of the list? How many of you are certain you understand the difference between those who have diagnosable anxiety disorders and your everyday common fear or worry? One explanation of anxiety disorders is learning theory. Who thinks that many of your fears are simply things you have learned to be afraid of? SUGGESTED MEDIA Anxiety Disorders Association. http://www.adaa.org/. Meridian Education. (2006). Battling eating disorders, 29:00. The signs, symptoms, and treatments of eating disorders are presented in this DVD. Insight Media. (2006). The biomedical mind: Deeply depressed, 46:00. Brain chemistry and depression are described in this program. Telepool. (2010). Bipolar: Life between two extremes, 45:00. This program examines the lives of several people who struggle with bipolar. ABC Commercial. (2007). Bipolar: The right diagnosis, 47:00. This DVD presents six individuals who describe the impact bipolar disorder has had on their lives and the strategies they have learned for dealing with it. Bipolar. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irt58wCWevI. The difficulty in diagnosing bipolar disorder is discussed in this clip. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2004). Body dysmorphic disorder, 15:00. Two women discuss their experiences with body dysmorphic disorder in this DVD. Brain and schizophrenia. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DL8mOHCIb_w.

The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #23: Multiple personality [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/multiple-personality/. Multiple personality therapy sessions are explored.

The Brain (1997). Teaching module #26: Schizophrenia: Symptoms [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/schizophrenia-symptoms/. Schizophrenia symptoms and treatments are discussed.

The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #27: Schizophrenia: Etiology [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/schizophrenia-etiology/. The attitudes, beliefs, and theories surrounding schizophrenia are investigated. Insight Media. (2005). The critical issue: Eating disorders, 24:00. The treatment of eating disorders is discussed in this program. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2009). Cry for help., 60:00. Many feel that, in today’s society, the needs of the mentally ill have fallen completely by the wayside—with the most tragic results, perhaps, occurring among young people. This program features first-person stories from adolescents and young adults who are confronting depression, anxiety, and mental illness. CrashCourse. (2014, September 8). Depressive and bipolar disorders: Crash course psychology #30 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwMlHkWKDwM. Insight Media. (2007). Diagnosing Depression, 27:00. Diagnosing and treating depression are explored in this program. Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: The Mind Hidden and Divided 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/the-mind-hidden-and-divided/. The influence of the subconscious mind on thought and behavior is discussed in this program.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. (2001). Discovering psychology: Psychopathology, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/psychopathology/. The symptoms and causes of schizophrenia, phobias, and affective disorders are discussed in this program.

Dissociative Identity Disorder. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfiB82OUXf0. This CBS News clip provides a discussion of DID.

CrashCourse. (2014, October 6). Eating and body dysmorphic disorders: Crash course psychology #33 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMVyZ6Ax-74.

Insight Media. (2004). Eating disorders, 28:00. The diagnosis and treatment of eating disorders are investigated.

Eating Disorders. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2012288/Rise-middle-aged-womeneating-disorders.html. This article discusses the rise of eating disorders in middle-aged women.

Insight Media. (2006). Going to extremes: Mood disorders and schizophrenia, 30:00. Depression, bipolar, and schizophrenic disorders are discussed. ABC News. (2003). Hair pulling, 11:00. Trichotillomania is discussed through the stories of several people who are afflicted with the disease. ScienCentral. (2009). Health news and interviews: Mental health and the human mind video clips, 60:00. This series presents 1- to 3-min video clips exploring mental health and the brain, including depression, panic attacks, schizophrenia, and PTSD. International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) website—free access. https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/.

Manic Depression: A clip of a doctor living with manic depression at Johns-Hopkins. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxRLap9xLag.

Mayberg, H. (TED). (2015, May 27). Examining depression through the lens of the brain [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KwHFHV9Jfd8. Medications and schizophrenia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=80skOLGG2dI.

BBC. (2014). Mental: History of the Madhouse [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oswUssXzFlY. Mental health—U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.mentalhealth.gov. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #32: Mood disorders: Hereditary factors [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWplExPRIo&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx64Z&index=31&t=0s. The genetic factors as they relate to bipolar disorder are described.

The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #33: Mood disorders: Medication and talk therapy [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzfHeiZIZM0&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx64 Z&index=32&t=0s. The treatment of mood disorders with a combination of medication and talk therapy is explored.

The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #33: Mood disorders: Medication and talk therapy [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82yx64Z. The treatment of mood disorders with a combination of medication and talk therapy is explored. National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org.

National Eating Disorders Association. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org. The NEDA provides a wealth of information about eating disorders.

National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml. Obsessive–Compulsive Foundation. https://iocdf.org. The foundation offers articles and links related to obsessive–compulsive disorders.

CrashCourse. (2014, September 1). OCD and anxiety disorders: Crash course psychology #29 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aX7jnVXXG5o.

Phobia List. http://phobialist.com/. This is a list of MANY types of phobias.

PsychCentral. https://psychcentral.com. This website offers information about various disorders.

CrashCourse. (2014, August 25). Psychological disorders: Crash course psychology #28 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuhJ-GkRRQc.

Psych Web. https://www.psywww.com/index.html.

NTV. (2007). PTSD: Post-traumatic stress, 24:00. This DVD explores the issue of posttraumatic stress including symptoms and treatments.

Schizophrenia. http://schizophrenia.com/.

Schizophrenia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4R6jln_eZg&feature=related. A brief clip with interviews of people with schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DL8mOHCIb_w. The brain and schizophrenia are examined.

Schizophrenia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4R6jln_eZg. This clip tells the stories of several people dealing with schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGnl8dqEoPQ. Gerald, a schizophrenic, displays many symptoms of schizophrenia in this clip. The first few minutes provide a great demonstration of several schizophrenic symptoms.

CrashCourse. (2014, September 29). Schizophrenia and dissociative disorders: Crash course psychology #32 [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxktavpRdzU.

The Soloist (2009). This film is the true story of a musician with schizophrenia. Trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-OdIYUPc40M.

Suicide Awareness Voices of Education. https://save.org.

Temple Grandin’s website. http://www.templegrandin.com/.

Insight Media. (2005). Thin: Death by eating disorder, 103:00. The process of recovery from eating disorders is investigated.

Trauma. http://www.trauma-pages.com. David Baldwin’s Trauma Information Pages site focuses on traumatic experiences—stress, PTSD, and mental health aspects of disaster.

CBS News. (2015, March 14). Trichotillomania: Why these women rip out their own hair [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKX79KuDYyY.

VEA. (2007). Understanding and dealing with depression, 18:00. This program explores and provides basic information about depression, symptoms, causes, and treatments.

Insight Media. (2002). Understanding eating disorders, 24:00. This program explores the major eating disorders.

Information Television Network. (2004). Understanding mental illness and schizophrenia, 27:00. This film investigates mental illness and how with treatment many individuals can live and function well.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, mental health website. https://www.mentalhealth.gov.

MedCircle. (2019, July 8).What it’s like to live with dissociative identity disorder (DID) [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0kLjsY4JlU.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. The world of abnormal psychology, part 1: Looking at abnormal behavior, 60 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/lookingat-abnormal-behavior/. This video gives an overview of different types of psychological disorders and the theories used to explain and treat them.

The World of Abnormal Psychology, Part 3: The Anxiety Disorders. Annenberg/CPB Collection, 60 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/the-anxietydisorders/. This video examines two of the more common anxiety disorders—panic with agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder. Annenberg/CPB Collection.

The world of abnormal psychology, part 5: Personality disorders, 60 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/personality-disorders/. This

video describes narcissistic, antisocial, borderline, and obsessive–compulsive disorders and issues related to their diagnosis and treatment.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. The world of abnormal psychology, part 8: Mood disorders , 60 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/mood-disorders/. This video describes psychological and biological approaches to explaining and treating depression and bipolar disorder.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. The world of abnormal psychology, part 9: The schizophrenias. 60 min. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/the-schizophrenias/. This video explores the symptoms, treatment, and myths associated with schizophrenia. Unusual phobias. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rl7Lr6eDLchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rl7Lr6eDLc. POPULAR MOVIES AND TELEVISION SHOWS The following is a partial list of films that portray characters with psychological disorders:

A Beautiful Mind: Schizophrenia spectrum disorder (Suggested Media above has a link to an interview with Nash) As Good as it Gets: Obsessive–compulsive disorder Benny & Joon: Schizophrenia spectrum disorder Chicago: Antisocial personality disorder in females (very unusual!) Copycat: Panic attacks and agoraphobia Fatal Attraction: Borderline personality disorder Gaslight: abusive relationships Girl, Interrupted: Borderline personality disorder (and/or depression) Gone With the Wind: Histrionic personality disorder Heavenly Creatures: Shared psychotic disorder I Am Sam: Intellectual disabilities

Inside Out: Highlights the importance of emotional expression Iris: Alzheimer’s disease King of Hearts: Mental illness and society Matchstick Men: Obsessive–compulsive disorder Memento: Amnestic disorder Monk: Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder Nurse Betty: Dissociative fugue Ordinary People: Stigma surrounding psychiatric treatment Pollock: Depression (and alcohol abuse) Rain Man: Autism spectrum disorder Silver Linings Playbook: multiple mental health illnesses including bipolar disorder Single White Female: Borderline personality disorder Still Alice: Early Onset Alzheimer’s disease Sybil: Dissociative identity disorder Temple Grandin: Autism spectrum disorder The Aviator: Depicts the story of Howard Hughes and his struggles with OCD The Fisher King: Schizophrenia spectrum disorder The Hours: Major depressive disorder The Virgin Suicides: Depression in teens Three Faces of Eve: DID and a forerunner to Sybil Vertigo: Anxiety disorder (acrophobia) What About Bob? Borderline personality disorder

The television program ER provided an excellent example of bipolar disorder in the character of Abby’s (the nurse) mother, played by Sally Field.

A&E DOCUMENTARY SERIES: HOARDERS

There is an entire series on hoarders: https://www.aetv.com/shows/hoarders.

TED TALK: WHAT'S SO FUNNY ABOUT MENTAL ILLNESS?

In this TED Talk, Ruby Wax urges viewers to end the stigma that surrounds mental illness. https://www.ted.com/talks/ruby_wax_what_s_so_funny_about_mental_illness?language=en.

PODCASTS: MENTAL ILLNESS

Gilmartin, P. The mental illness happy hour [Audio podcast]. https://mentalpod.com/#.

Moe, J. The hilarious world of depression [Audio podcast]. https://www.hilariousworld.org/.

Vander Leek, S., & Sivyer, A. Anxiety slayer [Audio podcast]. https://www.anxietyslayer.com/journal. ADDITIONAL READINGS Abramowitz, J. S., & Jacoby, R. J. (2015). Obsessive–compulsive disorder in adults. Boston, MA: Hogrege. Angst, J. (2013). Bipolar disorders in DSM-5: Strengths, problems and perspectives. International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. https://journalbipolardisorders.springeropen.com/track/pdf/10.1186/2194-7511-1-12. Brown, H. (2010). Brave girl eating: A family’s struggle with anorexia. New York, NY: William Morrow. Brumberg, J. J. (1998). Fasting girls: The history of anorexia. New York, NY: Random House. Cockburn, P., & Cockburn, H. (2011). Henry’s demons: Living with schizophrenia, a father and son’s story. New York, NY: Scribner.

Eysenck, H. J. (1983). The roots of creativity: Cognitive ability or personality trait? Roeper Review, 5, 10–12. Eysenck, H. J. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 147–178. Fountoulaksi, K. N. (2015). Bipolar disorder: An evidence-based guide. New York, NY: Springer. Fox-Kales, E. (2011). Body shots: Hollywood and the culture of eating disorders. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Freedman, R. (2010). The madness within us: Schizophrenia as a neuronal process. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. (2010). Stuff: Compulsive hoarding and the meaning of things. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Glenn, A. L., et al. (2007). Early temperamental and psychophysiological precursors of adult psychopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 508–515. Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (1990). Psychoticism as a dimension of personality: A multivariate genetic test of Eysenck and Eysenck's psychoticism construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 111–121. Holland, J. (2009). Weekends at Bellevue: Nine years in the psychiatric emergency room. New York, NY: Bantam. Hornbacher, M. (2009). Madness: A bipolar life. Boston, MA: Mariner Books. Howard-Taylor, L. (2009). Biting anorexia: A firsthand account of an internal war. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Janicak, P. (2014). Schizophrenia: Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment. New York, NY: Springer. Kaysen, S. (1994). Girl, Interrupted. New York, NY: Vintage. Kelly, A. D. (2014). The predatory lies of anorexia: A survivor’s story. Bettie Youngs Books. Klein, T. (2011). Coping with trauma-related dissociation: Skills training for patients and therapists. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. Lewis, M., & Rudolph, K. D. (2014). The handbook of developmental psychopathology. New York, NY: Springer. Lilienfeld, S. O., & Arkowitz, H. (2010). Living with schizophrenia. Scientific American Mind,

21(1), 66–67. Meyer, R. (2003). Case studies in abnormal behavior (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Montross, C. (2013). Falling into the fire: A psychiatrist’s encounters with the mind in crisis. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Moyer, M. (2011). Obsessions revisited. Scientific American Mind, 22(2), 36–41. Nathan, D. (2011). Sybil exposed: The extraordinary story behind the famous multiple personality case. New York, NY: Free Press. Oltmanns, T. F., Martin, M. T., Neale, J. M., & Davison, G. C. (2011). Case studies in abnormal psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Penney, D., & Stastny, P. (2008). The lives they left behind: Suitcases from a state hospital attic. New York, NY: Bellevue Literary Press. Poorman, P. B. (2002). Biography and role playing: Fostering empathy in abnormal psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 32–36. Redfield-Jamison, K. (1997). An unquiet mind: A memoir of moods and madness. New York, NY: Vintage. Redfield-Jamison, K. (2000). Night falls fast: Understanding suicide. New York, NY: Vintage. Resnick, P. J. (2007). The Andrea Yates case: Insanity on trial. Cleveland State Law Review, 55(2), 147–156. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&ar ticle=1174&context=clevstlrev. Ruether, R. R. (2010). Many forms of madness: A family’s struggle with mental illness and the mental health system. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. Saks, E. R. (2007). The center cannot hold: My journey through madness. New York, NY: Hyperion. Shawn, A. (2008). Wish I could be there: Notes from a phobic life. London, England: Penguin. Singer, J. (2013). OCD: Getting the right treatment can be a challenge. PSYCHCENTRAL. Retrieved September 28, 2013, from http://psychcentral.com/lib/ocd-getting-the-righttreatment-can-be-a-challenge/00017861. Sizemore, C. (1989). A mind of my own: The story of the person behind the three faces of Eve. New York, NY: Morrow.

Smith, D. (2013). Monkey mind: A memoir of anxiety. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Spanos, N. P. (1997). Multiple personalities and false memories. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Westly, E. (2010). Different shades of blue. Scientific American Mind, 21(2), 30–37. MODULE 39: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN PERSPECTIVE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 39-1

How prevalent are psychological disorders?

39-2

What indicators signal a need for the help of a mental health practitioner?

One out of 2 people in the United States is likely to suffer at some point in their lives from a psychological disorder. Researchers conducted face-to-face interviews with more than 8,000 men and women between the ages of 15 and 54. The most common disorder reported in the study was depression. Some 17% of those surveyed reported at least one major episode. Ten percent had suffered from depression during the current year. The next most common disorder was alcohol dependence, which occurred at a lifetime incidence rate of 14%. The national findings are consistent with studies of college students and their psychological difficulties. For example, in one study of the students who visited college mental health centers, almost a quarter had anxiety, and around 20% were depressed. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: A TEENAGE MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS Teenagers in the United States also are experiencing a mental health crisis, and experts aren’t sure why that is. By many indicators, they should actually be doing pretty well: Teens today are better educated and less likely to smoke, to use drugs or alcohol, or to get pregnant than they were a generation ago. One popular explanation for this crisis is the rise in use of social media. Part of the thinking is that social media apps present a sanitized and idealized portrayal of users’ lives, and that teens are constantly comparing themselves to these unrealistic standards and coming up short. Researcher Tracy Dennis-Tiwary (2022) suggests that social media apps aren’t so much the cause of the problem as they are another symptom of it: Anxious teens may use social media as a way to avoid their anxiety rather than confront it, and that avoidance may be the real problem. Dennis-Tiwary suggests that anxiety can be managed better by changing how we think about it—that is, by seeing it as an advantage rather than a liability. The crisis in teen mental health will require continued study into its causes as well as development of new and innovative treatment approaches.

The significant level of psychological disorders is a problem not only in the United States; according to the World Health Organization, mental health difficulties are a global concern. Globally, 970 million people have some sort of psychological or substance use disorder, which amounts to 13% of the world's population (Ritchie & Roser, 2018; see Figure 2). Economic disparities affect treatment; more affluent people with mild disorders receive more and better treatment than do less fortunate people who have more severe disorders. THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS In considering the nature of the psychological disorders described in DSM-5-TR it is important to keep in mind that the specific disorders reflect Western cultures at the turn of the 21st century. The classification system provides a snapshot of how its authors viewed mental disorders when it was published. In fact, the development of the most recent version of the DSM was a source of great debate, which in part reflects issues that divide society. Such controversies underline the fact that our understanding of abnormal behavior reflects the society and culture in which we live. Future revisions of DSM may include a different catalog of disorders. Even now, other cultures might include a list of disorders that are very different from the list that appears in the current DSM. The social and cultural environment may also play a role in the mass shootings that plague the United States. According to some politicians, mass murderers are severely psychologically disordered, while others claim that the easy availability of guns is the root of the problem. The scientific data are clear, though: While a small percentage of mass murderers do have some diagnosable disorder, the majority have no such history. Obviously, they are not emotionally stable or in good mental health, and many have experienced violence as children or have drugand alcohol-abuse issues. They ultimately turn to violence when triggered by some threatening event rather than by a mental disorder, and, often, easy access to weapons permits a violent response. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DSM AND CULTURE—AND THE CULTURE OF DSM In most people’s estimation, a person who hears voices of the recently deceased is probably a victim of a psychological disturbance. Yet some Plains Indians routinely hear the voices of the dead calling to them from the afterlife, and in their culture, that’s considered perfectly normal. This is only one example of the role of culture in labeling behavior as “abnormal.” In fact, among all the major adult disorders included in the DSM categorization, a minority are found across all cultures of the world. Most others are prevalent primarily in North America and Western Europe. Conversely, other cultures have disorders that do not appear in the West. For example, in Malaysia, a behavior called amok is characterized by a wild outburst in which a usually quiet and withdrawn person kills or severely injures another. Finally, ataque de nervios is a disorder found most often among Latinos from the Caribbean. It is characterized by

trembling, crying, uncontrollable screams, and incidents of verbal or physical aggression. In sum, we should not assume that the DSM provides the final word on psychological disorders. The disorders it includes are very much a creation and function of Western cultures at a particular moment in time, and its categories should not be seen as universally applicable. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: DECIDING WHEN YOU NEED HELP We all experience a wide range of emotions, and it is not unusual to feel deeply unhappy, fantasize about bizarre situations, or feel anxiety about life’s circumstances. It is the persistence, depth, and consistency of such behavior that set normal reactions apart from abnormal ones. On the other hand, many people do have problems that merit concern, and in such cases, it is important to consider the possibility that professional help is warranted. The following list of symptoms can serve as a guideline to help you determine whether outside intervention might be useful. Remember that if you are in severe psychological stress and feel you may harm yourself, you can call the U.S. national hotline at 988, 24 hours a day, and speak to a trained counselor. LECTURE IDEAS PHYSICIAN-ASSISTED SUICIDE—RELATIONSHIP TO MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER The right of a terminally ill person to commit suicide with the assistance of a physician is currently a controversial issue in the United States. Suicide is often considered an abnormal behavior that should be prevented at all costs. There are suicide telephone hotlines dedicated to persuading individuals from committing this act. Can suicide be viewed as a normal, rational behavior? Perhaps the strongest case could be made for terminally ill patients who experience extreme pain (Humphry, 1992). Many people now write “living wills” that dictate treatments to be given or refused in the event of a terminal illness. If a terminally ill person refuses treatment, this might be considered a type of passive suicide. More controversial is the situation in which a terminally ill person will not immediately die but will have to endure a long period of pain and suffering. One alternative to this situation is “assisted suicide,” in which the individual is helped in the suicide by a physician. Jack Kevorkian, a Michigan retired pathologist, was actively involved in assisted suicides and lobbied to make assisted suicide legal for mentally competent individuals. Opponents argue that potential suicide victims are not mentally competent. Indeed, many terminally ill patients become severely depressed prior to accepting their situation. It is generally assumed that depressed patients are not rational about suicide. Some people also voice concerns that if assisted suicide is sanctioned, there will be more pressure for the elderly to end their lives prematurely. Someone might not want to be a burden on others or might

believe that relatives do not want them around. The assisted suicide debate involves legal, medical, and psychological issues. The solution will not be easy and will need the cooperation and understanding of many different factions. References: Humphry, D. (1992). Rational suicide among the elderly. Suicides and Life-Threatening Behavior, 22, 125–129. Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. SURGEON’S GENERAL REPORT The Surgeon General’s Report on Mental Health contains a wealth of information: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/home.html and https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44243/. All material in this website is in the public domain. Reproduce summaries, figures, and tables either as handouts or as lecture overheads and slides. INFORMATION ON MENTAL ILLNESS FROM NIMH Extensive background information on mental illness can be found on the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) website: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/statistics/index.shtml. This site contains NIMH publications, including figures, statistics, professional publications, and information for the public. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS WEB RESEARCH Send students to the Surgeon General’s Report on Mental Health: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/home.html. The report contains detailed information about the major psychological disorders. Give students instructions to report on a disorder that they personally found to be the most interesting. Have them review briefly the symptoms, causes, and prevalence of this disorder, then indicate how it differs among age groups (children, teens, adults, and older adults). What are the prospects for the future of finding a cure for this disorder? An alternative is to send students to explore the website of the American Psychological Association: apa.org. EDUCATING OTHERS

Have students work together in teams to create educational materials (flyers, poster, video, etc.) geared toward college students. These educational materials should focus on the signs that indicate an individual might need help. Have students focus on ways to encourage others to seek help when needed, something that can often be a struggle. SUICIDE Have the students individually search the internet for a situation in which someone committed suicide. Ask them to print out the contents of the website and bring it to class. Next, break the class into groups, and have the students discuss their situation with the other students in their group. Each group should choose two situations they discussed and describe the biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors of each situation. COMBATING STIGMA Targeting Illness: Discuss with the class the difficulties individuals with mental illness have addressing physical illnesses because they have two separate doctors treating them. Ask the students to discuss various ideas for overcoming this problem. Stigma: Before the section on stigma, you may want to ask students why they think negative biases exist about mental illness. Ask them what the “costs” are of the negative biases (e.g., not being hired for jobs). You may also want to ask students what they think is the greatest misconception that people have about the mentally ill and why this misconception is so prevalent. Finally, ask students what can be done to improve people’s attitudes about those who have psychological disorders. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Managed Health Care, Unmanaged Mental Health The field of psychotherapy is being dramatically altered by economic trends in our country. Many of these changes are having a negative, widespread impact on those who need services. Who thinks that your health insurance should inform your mental health treatment? Who thinks there should be a time limit set on how much treatment your health insurance should pay for? Does it matter what the diagnosis is? How many of you think it is appropriate for a pediatrician or general practitioner to make mental health diagnoses? Who thinks that your mental health status is something that people (anyone) should know about? If it is projected that we will see an increase in people diagnosed with psychological disorders and they will need treatment, how many of you think the government should pay for it? Polling Question: An Escaping Concern For information about suicide statistics, visit https://afsp.org/ prior to discussing this topic. The data report that suicide is among the top 10 causes of death in the country. The topic of suicide

is a touchy one, so it is understandable if some don’t want to talk about this. However, since these are polling questions, invite all students to respond. How many of you find talking about suicide a difficult topic? How many of you have had a personal experience with someone (friend, family member, or acquaintance) attempting or committing suicide? List four to five causes of suicide on the board. Of the causes listed, have students identify which one they think is the most pressing or important. Who thinks that people who attempt commit suicide are trying to run away from their problems and escape working them out? Before you show students the data, have the students respond with which sex (male or female) is more likely to commit suicide. Then, compare their polled results with the data. You can do this for other demographics as well. SUGGESTED MEDIA American Association of Suicidology. https://suicidology.org. This website includes information on prevention, facts, and resources. Insight Media. (2008). Learned helplessness, 16:00. This program explores the concept of learned helplessness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. http://www.apa.org/journals/abn/. Some free articles are available here. Learning Resources Organization: Free copies of a The World of Abnormal Psychology video set. You have to register first, but then you can play it in the classroom: https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/.

Livestrong Organization. https://www.livestrong.com/slideshow/1011529-10-toughest-healthtopics-discuss-significant-other/. This discusses psychological disorders in the elderly.

Suicide Awareness Voices of Education. https://save.org. ADDITIONAL READINGS Arkowitz, H., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2009, November 1). Foreign afflictions: Mental disorders across country borders. Scientific American. Arnold, C. (2012). Inside the wrong body. Scientific American Mind, 23(2), 36–41. Miller, R. B. (2015). Not so abnormal psychology: A pragmatic view of mental illness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Winick, B. J. (1996). The right to refuse mental health treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES    

Pre-Test Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module) Terminology Quiz Post-Test

CONCEPT CLIPS  

Abnormality Major Depressive Disorder

VIDEOS    

Neuroscience of Anxiety Neuroscience of ADHD Symptoms of Schizophrenia Borderline Personality Disorder

INTERACTIVITIES 

Distinguishing Abnormality: A Continuum View

LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES 

Anxiety Disorders

NEWSFLASH      

Finding the words to heal from racial trauma Some Latinos don’t trust Western mental health. That’s where curanderos come in An ADHD diagnosis in adulthood comes with challenges and benefits Why do we need to understand neurodiversity for true inclusion? I Was Not Living, I Was Just Surviving: Pandemic’s Mental Health Effects Magnified by Race, Poverty A Double Pandemic? Social Isolation and Mental Health During the UK Lockdown

  

For Black Americans, Using Social Media Means Risking PTSD Too Many of our Babies are Killing Themselves—Here’s what we can do about it I Was Not Living, I Was Just Surviving: Pandemic’s Mental Health Effects Magnified by Race, Poverty

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: VIEWS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Indicate whether you believe each statement is T (true) or F (false). 1. Mental illness is mainly due to biochemical imbalances. 2. We should eliminate the insanity plea in court cases. 3. Most individuals with mental illness could get well if they really tried. 4. Psychological disorders are universal; every society has individuals with mental illness. 5. People with severe psychological disorders should be sterilized so that they cannot pass on their problems to offspring. 6. We should spend more tax money to help people with psychological disorders. 7. Depression is relatively rare in our society. 8. Most people develop psychological disorders after a stressful or traumatic event. 9. Most psychological disorders are genetically transmitted. 10. Women experience more psychological disorders then men do.

HANDOUT 1 (CON’T): VIEWS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: SURVEY RESPONSES Survey results for 757 entries: 1. Mental illness is mainly due to biochemical imbalances. True

518

68%

False

736

97%

2. We should eliminate the insanity plea in court cases. True

233

30%

False

1017 134%

3. Most individuals with mental illness could get well if they really tried. True

178

23%

False

1070 141%

4. Psychological disorders are universal; every society has individuals with mental illness. True

778

102%

False

661

87%

5. People with severe psychological disorders should be sterilized so that they cannot pass on their problems to offspring. True

165

21%

False

1083 143%

6. We should spend more tax money to help people with psychological disorders. True

533

70%

False

712

94%

7. Depression is relatively rare in our society. True

False

1213 160%

8. Most people develop psychological disorders after a stressful or traumatic event. True

543

71%

False

704

92%

9. Most psychological disorders are genetically transmitted. True

306

40%

False

943

124%

10. Women experience more psychological disorders then men do. True

1070 141%

False

390

51%

HANDOUT 2: ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE MEDIA Choose an example from each category and analyze whether or not it accurately portrays psychological disorders. Media Title

Disorder

Accurate or Not? Why or Why Not?

Movie

Novel

Television

Music

Other?

HANDOUT 3: WHAT IS ABNORMAL, ANYWAY? Read each example and decide if this behavior is abnormal. Use the main aspects of the definition (deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional) as a guide to justify your answers. At the end, draw some conclusions about the difficulty and implications of such decisions. 1. Feeling very nervous or scared when talking to someone

2. Hiding under a desk because you think alien spaceships are landing

3. Thinking about suicide

4. Talking to yourself when no one is around

5. Believing that someone can read your thoughts

6. Intentionally running another car off the road for entertainment

7. Manipulating others to like you

8. Doing illegal drugs

HANDOUT 4: WHAT TYPE OF ANXIETY OR ANXIETY-RELATED DISORDER IS IT? Read through the examples below and identify what type of anxiety disorder is being described. 1. Juan is driving down the road and is overcome with a feeling that something is going to happen. His heart rate increases, he feels dizzy, and he begins sweating profusely. TYPE OF DISORDER: 2. Mai has to check the door seven times before leaving her apartment to make sure it is locked. She also has to turn the faucet on and off seven times after washing her face. TYPE OF DISORDER: 3. Janet has never flown on an airplane because she has an intense fear of the plane crashing. She has never been able to go see her son and grandchildren in Hawaii because she would need to fly to get there. TYPE OF DISORDER: 4. Samantha keeps everything she receives, including junk mail, paper bags, plastic grocery bags, rubber bands, and so on. Her apartment is a mess, and all of the floor space is covered with piles of stuff. Her kitchen is a mess with dirty dishes everywhere, and she doesn’t even clean up after her dogs when they go to the bathroom in the house. TYPE OF DISORDER: 5. Joaquin was a soldier in the Vietnam War, and since returning over 35 years ago, he stills wakes up during the night in a cold sweat with his heart beating very fast. He takes five different nerve medications to relax him. He has lost many jobs and can’t seem to hold on to one for more than a couple of months. TYPE OF DISORDER: 6. Imani sets her clothes out the night before work. She checks and double-checks everything to make sure it all matches and looks right. She sets her alarm 2 hours early to make sure she is not late and even wakes up sometimes two or three times during the night to make sure the alarm is set. TYPE OF DISORDER:

HANDOUT 5: IS IT HOARDING OR JUST MESSINESS? Answer the following questions. Prepare to discuss your answers in class or in an alternative assignment. 1. Compulsive hoarding is typically considered what type of mental disorder? a) Anxiety disorder b) OCD-related disorder c) Mood disorder d) Psychotic disorder 2. Which of the following is not a cause of compulsive hoarding? a) Problems with aggression b) Emotional distress about discarding possessions c) A strong emotional attachment toward one’s possessions d) Trouble deciding what is valuable and what is not 3. Which is not a characteristic of hoarding? a) Repeatedly acquiring and saving unneeded things b) A living space so cluttered by acquisitions it disrupts moving around c) Sleeping disturbances d) Procrastination and indecisiveness

HANDOUT 6: SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDER: POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, OR COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS—WHAT TYPE OF SYMPTOM IS IT? Read through the examples below and identify the positive, negative, or cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. 1. Jamie hallucinates seeing pink elephants flying by the bedroom door. Jamie doesn’t like to be around other people and often sits on the bed and giggles uncontrollably while making silly faces at themself in the mirror. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____ 2. Susan doesn’t smile or frown. It does not matter whether she hears a joke or receives bad news. In fact, it seems as if she has no feelings. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____ 3. Thomas believes he is Jesus and so goes into the middle of downtown where he stands on the town square and starts preaching out loud to the people passing by. He claims that he can cure the sick and help the disabled walk again. If he sees someone drinking, he tells them they are going to hell and should come forward and ask for total forgiveness of their sins. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____ 4. Anjali has been in a state mental hospital for the past 15 years. She remains immobile at times. If one of the nurses throws a ball at her, she catches it, but then her arm remains up in the air in the position in which she caught the ball. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____ 5. Jonathan receives a lot of junk mail from various organizations asking him to donate money. He believes that the mail is from the IRS and that the government is trying to get information and money from him. He is afraid that if he doesn’t keep moving, the government will figure out where he lives and come get him. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____ 6. Benito believes that every time he hears thunder it is God sending him a message to go outside and see if someone needs his help. Benito will spend hours during a thunderstorm driving around looking for someone whose car has broken down and needs help. Positive _____ Negative _____ Cognitive _____ Why? _____

HANDOUT 7: CREATE THE CASE! Create a fictitious case that illustrates the main DSM-5-TR criteria for antisocial personality disorder, and another case that illustrates the main DSM-5-TR criteria for borderline personality disorder. Be as creative and descriptive as you would like. CASE 1: ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

CASE 2: BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER

HANDOUT 8: WHICH PERSONALITY DISORDER IS IT? Read through the examples below and identify which type of personality disorder is being described. 1. Rebeca does not really trust anyone and always feels that people are talking about her when she is out in public. She sees herself as unlovable or innately bad and cuts her arms and legs in order to make herself feel better. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER: 2. Cindy was sexually abused by her grandfather when she was younger. She is now 25 years old and likes to keep to herself. She cries at the drop of a hat and often buys things impulsively. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER: 3. Imran is used to getting everything he wants. He persuades people to do things for him by manipulating them. Some of these things are illegal, but he really doesn’t care if the people he is manipulating are caught, because he doesn’t consider this his problem. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER: 4. Ted is a charming man who could get any woman he wanted—and did. The only problem was that the women would end up dead. Eventually, Ted was convicted of being a serial killer. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER: 5. Steve is always taking supplies from work, and at times money from the petty cash fund. He sees nothing wrong with this behavior. Steve comes to work late or not at all. He gets his coworkers to cover for him, even though they could lose their jobs if they were caught. Steve does not seem to care, however, nor does he show any remorse when there is a problem or someone else is caught. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER: 6. Candela has had many partners and stormy relationships. These relationships can be very intense or boring and often do not last very long. Candela thinks that there is something innately wrong with her. She tends to be very irritable and quick to get angry. Her friends never know what to expect. Candela worries that no one likes her. She is prone to be impulsive in what she does and make a mess of her life. Lately, she has been contemplating suicide. TYPE OF PERSONALITY DISORDER:

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 3: WHAT IS ABNORMAL, ANYWAY? ANSWER KEY Read each example and decide if this behavior is abnormal. Use the main aspects of the definition (deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional) as a guide to justify your answers. At the end, draw some conclusions about the difficulty and implications of such decisions. 1. Feeling very nervous or scared when talking to someone Any answers that illustrate deviance, maladaptive, or distressful components can be accepted. 2. Hiding under a desk because you think alien spaceships are landing 3. Thinking about suicide 4. Talking to yourself when no one is around 5. Believing that someone can read your thoughts 6. Intentionally running another car off the road for entertainment 7. Manipulating others to like you 8. Doing illegal drugs HANDOUT 4: WHAT TYPE OF ANXIETY OR ANXIETY-RELATED DISORDER IS IT? ANSWER KEY Read through the examples below and identify what type of anxiety disorder is being described. 1. Juan is driving down the road and is overcome with a feeling that something is going to happen. His heart rate increases, he feels dizzy, and he begins sweating profusely. TYPE OF DISORDER: panic disorder 2. Mai has to check the door seven times before leaving her apartment to make sure it is locked. She also has to turn the faucet on and off seven times after washing her face. TYPE OF DISORDER: OCD 3. Janet has never flown on an airplane because she has an intense fear of the plane crashing. She has never been able to go see her son and grandchildren in Hawaii because she would need to fly to get there. TYPE OF DISORDER: specific phobia 4. Samantha keeps everything she receives, including junk mail, paper bags, plastic grocery bags, rubber bands, and so on. Her apartment is a mess, and all of the floor space is covered

with piles of stuff. Her kitchen is a mess with dirty dishes everywhere, and she doesn’t even clean up after her dogs when they go to the bathroom in the house. TYPE OF DISORDER: OCD-related disorder known as hoarding disorder 5. Joaquin was a soldier in the Vietnam War, and since returning over 35 years ago, he stills wakes up during the night in a cold sweat with his heart beating very fast. He takes five different nerve medications to relax him. He has lost many jobs and can’t seem to hold on to one for more than a couple of months. TYPE OF DISORDER: PTSD 6. Imani sets her clothes out the night before work. She checks and double-checks everything to make sure it all matches and looks right. She sets her alarm 2 hours early to make sure she is not late and even wakes up sometimes two or three times during the night to make sure the alarm is set. TYPE OF DISORDER: OCD HANDOUT 5: IS IT HOARDING OR JUST MESSINESS? ANSWER KEY Answer the following questions. Prepare to discuss your answers in class or in an alternative assignment. 1. Compulsive hoarding is typically considered what type of mental disorder? a) Anxiety disorder b) OCD-related disorder c) Mood disorder d) Psychotic disorder 2. Which of the following is not a cause of compulsive hoarding? a) Problems with aggression b) Emotional distress about discarding possessions c) A strong emotional attachment toward one’s possessions d) Trouble deciding what is valuable and what is not 3. Which is not a characteristic of hoarding? a) Repeatedly acquiring and saving unneeded things b) A living space so cluttered by acquisitions it disrupts moving around c) Sleeping disturbances d) Procrastination and indecisiveness

HANDOUT 7: CREATE THE CASE! ANSWER KEY Create a fictitious case that illustrates the main DSM-5-TR criteria for antisocial personality disorder, and another case that illustrates the main DSM-5-TR criteria for borderline personality disorder. Be as creative and descriptive as you would like. CASE 1: ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER Cases that identify the following criteria are acceptable: DSM-5-TR criteria for ASPD include: a. Failure to conform to social norms or obey law b. Deceitfulness, lying, using aliases c. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead d. Irritability and aggressiveness, getting into physical fights e. Reckless disregard for the safety of self or others f. Consistent irresponsibility, inconsistent work behavior (e.g., not paying bills) g. Lack of remorse, showing indifference to the pain of others CASE 2: BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER Cases that identify the following criteria are acceptable: DSM-5-TR criteria for BPD includes five or more of the following: a. Frantic efforts to avoid being abandoned b. Unstable and intense interpersonal relationships c. Marked and persistent unstable self-image or sense of self d. Impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging e. Recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or threats or self-mutilating behavior f. Unstable and extreme emotional responses g. Chronic feelings of emptiness h. Inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger i. Temporary stress-related paranoia

Chapter 13 Treatment of Psychological Disorders OPENING THEMES As was true for the unit on causes of and forms of psychopathology, this unit on treatment will capture students‘ interest. Following the format established for the perspectives on abnormality in the previous unit, these modules can also be organized according to theoretical perspective in psychology. It is important to emphasize the multiple routes that exist to treatment and that most psychologists do not adhere to one form of therapeutic model. Instead, eclecticism and empirically validated treatments have become the norm in the practice of clinical psychology. It is also important to be sensitive to the fact that some students may be seeking treatment for disorders involving symptoms of depression or anxiety. Finally, giving students information about treatment, including campus resources, may be vital in helping them to make decisions about seeking help, should they be suffering symptoms. MODULE 40: PSYCHOTHERAPY: PSYCHODYNAMIC, BEHAVIORAL, AND COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO TREATMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES 40-1 What are the goals of psychologically based and biologically based treatment approaches? 40-2

What are the psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive approaches to treatment?

Psychologically based therapy, or psychotherapy, is treatment in which a trained professional— a therapist—uses psychological techniques to help someone overcome psychological difficulties and disorders, resolve problems in living, or bring about personal growth. In psychotherapy, the goal is to produce psychological change in a person (called a ―client‖ or ―patient‖) through discussions and interactions with the therapist. In contrast, biomedical therapy relies on drugs and medical procedures to improve psychological functioning. Many therapists today take an eclectic approach to therapy, which means they use a variety of methods with an individual patient. There are hundreds of varieties of psychotherapy. Although the methods are diverse, all psychological approaches have a common perspective: They seek to solve psychological problems by modifying people‘s behavior and helping them obtain a better understanding of themselves and their past, present, and future. In light of the variety of psychological approaches, it is not surprising that the people who provide therapy vary considerably in their educational background and training (see Figure 1).

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES TO THERAPY Psychodynamic therapy seeks to bring unresolved past conflicts and unacceptable impulses from the unconscious into the conscious, where patients may deal with the problems more effectively. Psychodynamic approaches are based on Freud‘s psychoanalytic approach to personality, which holds that individuals employ defense mechanisms, psychological strategies to protect themselves from unacceptable unconscious. The most common defense mechanism is repression, which pushes threatening and unpleasant thoughts and impulses back into the unconscious impulses. A psychodynamic therapist, then, faces the challenge of finding a way to assist patients‘ attempts to explore and understand the unconscious. The technique that has evolved has a number of components, but essentially it consists of guiding patients to consider and discuss their past experiences in explicit detail from the time of their first memories. PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUD’S THERAPY Psychoanalysis is the kind of psychotherapy developed by Freud in which the goal is to release hidden unconscious thoughts and feelings in order to reduce their power in controlling behavior. In psychoanalysis, which tends to be a lengthy and expensive process, patients may meet with a therapist with considerable frequency, sometimes as much as 50 min a day, 4 to 5 days a week, for several years. In their sessions, they often use a technique developed by Freud called free association. Psychoanalysts using this technique tell patients to say aloud whatever comes to mind, regardless of its apparent irrelevance or senselessness, and the analysts attempt to recognize and label the connections between what a patient says and the patient‘s unconscious. Therapists also use dream interpretation, examining dreams to find clues to unconscious conflicts and problems. Moving beyond the surface description of a dream (called the manifest content), therapists seek its underlying meaning (the latent content), which thereby reveals the true unconscious meaning of the dream. The same unconscious forces that initially produced repression may keep past difficulties out of the conscious mind, which produces resistance. Resistance is an inability or unwillingness to discuss or reveal particular memories, thoughts, or motivations. Because of the close, almost intimate interaction between patient and psychoanalyst, the relationship between the two often becomes emotionally charged and takes on a complexity unlike most other relationships. Transference is the transfer of feelings to a psychoanalyst of love or anger that had been originally directed to a patient‘s parents or other authority figures. A therapist can use transference to help a patient recreate past relationships that were psychologically difficult. CONTEMPORARY PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES

Few people have the time, money, or patience to participate in years of traditional psychoanalysis. Today, psychodynamic therapy tends to be of shorter duration and usually lasts no longer than 3 months or 20 sessions. The therapist takes a more active role than Freud would have liked by controlling the course of therapy and prodding and advising the patient with considerable directness. EVALUATING PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY Even with its current modifications, psychodynamic therapy has its critics. In its longer versions, it can be time-consuming and expensive, especially in comparison with other forms of psychotherapy, such as behavioral and cognitive approaches. Ultimately, the most important concern about psychodynamic treatment is whether it actually works, and there is no simple answer to this question. Psychodynamic treatment techniques have been controversial since Freud introduced them. Part of the problem is the difficulty in establishing whether patients have improved after psychodynamic therapy. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO THERAPY Behavioral treatment approaches make use of the basic processes of learning, such as reinforcement and extinction, to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior. These approaches make this fundamental assumption: Both abnormal behavior and normal behavior are learned. The goal of therapy is to change people‘s behavior to allow them to function more effectively. Behavioral psychologists do not need to delve into people‘s pasts or their psyches. Rather than viewing abnormal behavior as a symptom of an underlying problem, they consider the abnormal behavior as the problem in need of modification. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TREATMENTS Aversive conditioning is a form of therapy that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by pairing an aversive, unpleasant stimulus with undesired behavior. Aversion therapy works reasonably well with some specific kinds of disorders, including substance-abuse problems such as alcoholism and certain kinds of sexual disorders. Important ethical concerns surround aversion techniques such as electric shock, even though therapists use such potent stimuli only in the most extreme cases, such as with patients who harm themselves. In systematic desensitization, gradual exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with relaxation to extinguish the response of anxiety. The idea is to learn to associate relaxation with a stimulus that previously produced anxiety. Using systematic desensitization to treat your problem, you would first be trained in relaxation techniques by a behavior therapist and learn to relax your body fully—a highly pleasant state, as you might imagine. The newest form of exposure therapy is virtual reality technology wherein clients wear virtual reality goggles that provide highly realistic depictions of stimuli that trigger anxiety. Once at the virtual site, a client can be treated with traditional systematic desensitization techniques.

Flooding is a behavioral treatment for anxiety in which people are suddenly confronted with a stimulus that they fear. However, unlike systematic desensitization, relaxation training is omitted. The goal of flooding is to allow the maladaptive response of anxiety or avoidance to become extinct. Flooding has proved to be an effective treatment for a number of problems, including phobias, anxiety disorders, and even impotence and fear of sexual contact. OPERANT CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES Some behavioral approaches make use of the operant conditioning principles. These approaches are based on the notion that we should reward people for carrying out desirable behavior and extinguish undesirable behavior by either ignoring it or punishing it. One example of the systematic application of operant conditioning principles is the token system, which rewards a person for desired behavior with a token such as a poker chip or some kind of play money that can later be exchanged for an actual reward. Contingency contracting, a variant of the token system, has proved quite effective in producing behavior modification. In contingency contracting, the therapist and client (or teacher and student, or parent and child) draw up a written agreement. The contract states a series of behavioral goals the client hopes to achieve. Behavior therapists also use observational learning, the process in which the behavior of other people is modeled, to systematically teach people new skills and ways of handling their fears and anxieties. EVALUATING BEHAVIOR THERAPY Behavior therapy works especially well for eliminating anxiety disorders, treating phobias and compulsions, establishing control over impulses, and learning complex social skills to replace maladaptive behavior. More than any of the other therapeutic techniques, it provides methods that nonprofessionals can use to change their own behavior. Critics of behavior therapy believe that because it emphasizes changing external behavior, people do not necessarily gain insight into thoughts and expectations that may be fostering their maladaptive behavior. On the other hand, neuroscientific evidence shows that behavioral treatments can produce actual changes in brain functioning, which suggests that behavioral treatments can produce changes beyond external behavior. COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO THERAPY Cognitive treatment approaches teach people to think in more adaptive ways by changing their dysfunctional cognitions about the world and themselves. Unlike behavior therapists, who focus on modifying external behavior, cognitive therapists focus on changing the way people think. Because they often use basic principles of learning, the methods they employ are sometimes referred to as the cognitive behavioral approach. Cognitive therapy is relatively short-term and usually lasts a maximum of 20 sessions. Therapy tends to be highly structured and focused on concrete problems.

One good example of cognitive treatment, rational-emotive behavior therapy, attempts to restructure a person‘s belief system into a more realistic, rational, and logical set of views. By adopting more accurate thought patterns, it is assumed that people will lead more psychologically healthy lives. Irrational beliefs trigger negative emotions, which in turn support the irrational beliefs and lead to a self-defeating cycle. Psychologist Albert Ellis calls it the A–B– C model in which negative activating conditions (A) lead to the activation of an irrational belief system (B), which in turn leads to emotional consequences (C; see Figure 3). Rational-emotive behavior therapy aims to help clients eliminate maladaptive thoughts and beliefs and adopt more effective thinking. To accomplish this goal, therapists take an active, directive role during therapy and openly challenge patterns of thought that appear to be dysfunctional. Like rational-emotive behavior therapy, Beck‘s cognitive behavioral therapy aims to change people‘s illogical thoughts about themselves and the world. Therapists urge clients to obtain information on their own that will lead them to discard their inaccurate thinking through a process of cognitive appraisal. In cognitive appraisal, clients are asked to evaluate situations, themselves, and others in terms of their memories, values, beliefs, thoughts, and expectations. EVALUATING COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO THERAPY Cognitive approaches to therapy have proved successful in dealing with a broad range of disorders, including anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. The willingness of cognitive therapists to incorporate additional treatment approaches has made this approach a particularly effective form of treatment. At the same time, critics have pointed out that the focus on helping people to think more rationally ignores the fact that life is in reality sometimes irrational. KEY TERMS aversive conditioning A form of therapy that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by pairing an aversive, unpleasant stimulus with undesired behavior. behavioral treatment approaches Treatment approaches that make use of the basic principles of learning, such as reinforcement and extinction, to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior. biomedical therapy Biologically based therapy that relies on drugs and other medical procedures to improve psychological functioning. cognitive treatment approaches Treatment approaches that teach people to think in more adaptive ways by changing their dysfunctional cognitions about the world and themselves. cognitive behavioral approach A treatment approach that incorporates basic principles of learning to change the way people think.

flooding A behavioral treatment for anxiety in which people are suddenly confronted with a stimulus that they fear. psychoanalysis Freud‘s form of psychotherapy in which the goal is to release hidden thoughts and feelings from the unconscious part of our minds in order to reduce their power in controlling behavior. psychodynamic therapy Therapy that seeks to bring unresolved past conflicts and unacceptable impulses from the unconscious into the conscious, where patients may deal with the problems more effectively. psychotherapy Psychologically based treatment in which a trained professional—a therapist— uses psychological techniques to help a person overcome psychological difficulties and disorders, resolve problems in living, or bring about personal growth. rational-emotive behavior therapy A form of therapy that attempts to restructure a person‘s belief system into a more realistic, rational, and logical set of views by challenging dysfunctional beliefs that maintain irrational behavior. systematic desensitization A behavioral technique based on classical conditioning in which exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with deep relaxation to reduce or eliminate anxiety. transference The transfer of feelings to a psychoanalyst of love or anger that had been originally directed to a patient‘s parents or other authority figures. LECTURE IDEAS Mental Health Professionals: Have a clinical psychologist, a psychiatrist, and a counselor come to the class to speak about their profession and about why they chose their particular profession over the other mental health professions. Afterward, have the students ask questions and then write a one- to two-page paper summarizing the information from the speakers. Professional Help: Have the students find three local mental health professionals. They can probably go on the Internet to find them. Once they have found them, ask them to write down the various credentials the professional says they have. What other information is provided about the professional? Does that other information make the professional seem more credible? Effects of Therapy on Health and Wellness: Break the class into groups, and have the groups discuss the effects of therapy on both physical health and emotional wellness. Have them give an example of each. PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY

The goal of psychodynamic therapy is to reduce anxiety by bringing conflicts and impulses out of the unconscious and into conscious awareness. Anxiety-producing areas may be long-hidden crises, trauma, or conflict. One tool is free association, in which patients are told to say whatever comes to mind, regardless of its apparent irrelevance or senselessness (the ―golden rule‖ of psychoanalysis). Unconscious forces can produce repression, which produces resistance in free association. Dream interpretation is another important tool of the therapist. Transference occurs as patients view the therapist as a parent, lover, or significant other in their past and apply the feelings they had for that individual to the therapist. BEHAVIORAL THERAPY According to the behavioral model, the causes of abnormal behavior are these:  

Failure to acquire adaptive skills Faulty learning of adaptive skills

MODIFICATION OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR Modification of abnormal behavior involves these two processes:  

Learning new behavior Unlearning maladaptive patterns

Abnormal behavior is viewed both as a symptom and as the problem. Classical conditioning approaches:   

Systematic desensitization—progressively closer encounters with feared stimulus using counterconditioning (replacing fear with relaxation) Used for treating phobias, anxiety disorders, and sexual dysfunctions Example in the text is treating a fear of flying

Operant conditioning approaches:  

Token system—person is rewarded for desired behavior with a tangible reward Contingency contracting—rewards given for achieving specific goals

Cognitive therapy:  

In this form of therapy, the focus is on changing the way people think and behave. Rational-emotive approach (Ellis)—attempts to restructure a person‘s belief system (get rid of the ―must‘s‖)



Cognitive behavioral approach (Beck)—attempts to change people‘s illogical thoughts about themselves

CHART SUMMARIZING PSYCHOANALYSIS Show this chart, which focuses on the main points in psychoanalytic treatment: Component

Definition

Example

Free association

Allow the client to say whatever comes to mind.

The client relates a dream; the therapist asks the client to say what the events in the dream are a reminder of, and then goes on from there.

Neutrality

The therapist does not reveal personal information.

The client asks the therapist where they were born; the therapist does not answer the question but attempts to examine why the client asked the question.

Interpreting resistance

Resistance occurs when the client forgets, is unwilling to talk about important issues, or resists free association.

The client forgets an appointment; the therapist attempts to understand why.

Transference

The client projects feelings about a The client accuses the therapist of parent onto the therapist. being critical.

Working-through process

Each major issue or conflict is examined, and the unconscious elements are revealed.

The client‘s ambivalent feelings regarding their father are examined and resolved.

CHART SUMMARIZING BEHAVIORAL METHODS Use this list of methods, definitions, and examples to provide more detail on behavioral therapy: Method

Definition

Example

Contingency management

Rewards are given that are contingent on performing specific behavior.

To help the client quit smoking— for every 30 min without a cigarette, put one dollar into a fund that can be used to buy something else that is desirable.

Aversive conditioning

An unpleasant outcome is associated with a behavior.

To reduce the eating of sweets by a person with diabetes, a bitter

flavor is added to foods such as doughnuts, cake, and candy. Covert (de)sensitization

Rather than actually presenting the feared stimulus, the therapist asks the subject to imagine the presence of it.

A student learns to relax during a test by imagining being in the test situation and relaxing while thinking about that situation.

Systematic desensitization

Relaxation is substituted for fear (or other undesirable response).

A client who is afraid of spiders is taught to relax instead of feeling tense while being exposed in stages to the feared stimulus.

Token economy

Tangible rewards are given for performing desired behavior.

Children in a classroom are given ―coins‖ that they can trade for time in the playground.

CHART SUMMARIZING COGNITIVE THEORY This chart can be shown to illustrate the process described in the rational-emotive theory of Albert Ellis: Term

Activating Experience

Belief

Consequences

Definition

An event occurs that has Assumptions about the relevance to the meaning of events with individual‘s self-concept. regard to the self

The feelings that result from interpreting actions according to one‘s beliefs, and maladaptive behaviors that interfere with the individual‘s ability to achieve desired goals

Example

A young man fails to be promoted in his job.

The young man becomes depressed (negative emotion) and becomes sluggish and nonproductive at work (maladaptive behavior).

The young man believes that one‘s self-worth is determined by one‘s job.

COMPARISON OF APPROACHES TO TREATMENT

Psychodynamic

Unresolved past conflicts Psychoanalysis Contemporary alternatives and anxiety (IPT) Current social relationships

Behavioral

Classical conditioning Modeling Operant conditioning

Maladaptive behaviors

Cognitive

Cognitive-behavioral Rational-emotive

Dysfunctional thoughts

Humanistic

Client-centered

Disconnectedness

Biological

Drug therapy Electroconvulsive therapy Psychosurgery

Biochemical abnormalities

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS ATTITUDES TOWARD THERAPY Have students complete Handout 1: Attitudes Toward Psychotherapy. RESEARCH ON PSYCHOTHERAPY Have students select one form of psychotherapy to research. For their chosen therapy, ask them to gather information about the effectiveness of the treatment for different psychological disorders. Talk Therapies: Students often get confused on the differences here. Remind students that the difference in most approaches stems from theoretical beliefs (e.g., psychodynamic stems from a belief of internal conflicts that are unconscious, behavioral from learning, etc.). This will directly correspond to the type of therapy and the methods used. What types of therapies have students seen in movies or TV? Is one form represented to a greater extent than others? What would it mean in terms of most insurance policies that only pay for 10 to 15 visits a year?

Freud’s Psychoanalysis: Break the class into groups, and have them come up with an example of what Freud would have to say during his treatment about the individual described below using each of the following: psychoanalysis, free association, dream analysis, and transference. Cheryl has been overly anxious for the past few months. She has had four boyfriends and has had a sexual relationship with all of them. She became extremely upset with the breakup of each boyfriend. Her parents have become very worried about her and have sent her to see Dr. Freud for therapy. BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism: You may want to inform students that the reason behavioral and cognitive behavioral therapies are so popular now is: (1) their efficacy; (2) they are relatively short in duration; and thus (3) they are less expensive. Ask students to generate examples of how a disorder could be learned and then how the behavioral perspective not only explains the disorder but also could ―fix‖ it. Behavior Therapies: Ask students to choose a phobia and then explain how systematic desensitization would be used in treating that phobia. The students will learn through experience how the steps in systematic desensitization work. ROLE PLAYING Have students work in groups to create a brief skit illustrating one of the methods of psychotherapy discussed in this chapter. The other students could be asked to guess which psychotherapy is being demonstrated or could be encouraged to point out key concepts presented in the skits. COMPARISON OF THERAPY METHODS Have students complete Handout 2: Comparison of Therapy Methods. Cognitive Therapies: Use Handout 3: Using REBT and Beck’s Cognitive Therapy. The students will read various scenarios of individuals being upset with themselves over something they did. The students are to pretend that they are the therapist and treat the individual using either REBT or Beck‘s cognitive therapy. Cognitive Therapy: Instruct students to write down the last circumstance that upset them. Next, have them list the kinds of thoughts they were thinking concerning the incident. If the thoughts were negative, ask them to change them to make them more realistic or positive. Finally, ask students to determine if they believe their thoughts can make them miserable. Why or why not? Irrational Beliefs: Ask students to generate a list of irrational beliefs (e.g., ―I need to be perfect‖; ―If I lose 5 pounds, then life will be perfect‖). Next, ask them to challenge these beliefs

with reality. Ask students to share their list of beliefs and challenges. You could also do this anonymously by collecting the papers and reading a few. CBT: Tell students to imagine that they were going to use the principles of cognitive behavioral therapy to change some aspect of their own thinking and behavior (e.g., quit smoking, be more organized, or overcome some fear). How would they identify faulty thinking? What could they do to change their thinking patterns and behavior? DEMONSTRATION: THE THERAPIST GAME This is a script of a class performance that can be staged by undergraduates in the class: The Therapist Game The ―host‖ introduces the contestant, Ms. Ann Chuss (i.e., ―Anxious‖), and the three therapists: Therapist #1 was born ___ years ago (1856) and lives in a central European city. Therapist #2 was born ___ years ago (1900) and lives in the Midwest. Therapist #3 was born ___ years ago (1878) and taught children to be afraid of white, furry objects. The host then announces the rules of the game: The contestant will ask the therapists various questions and then choose one of them. The contestant (A) begins by asking questions of the therapists: (Throughout the skit, she bites her nails, acts as if she is nervous, drops her cards, pulls at her hair, and looks uncomfortable.) A: Therapist #1, what is your favorite cartoon? T1: My favorite cartoon character is Linus from Peanuts. I find Linus amusing and intelligent. He sublimates often. He has a security blanket, and he often sucks his thumb, perhaps suggesting that he is going through his anal phase. A: (twists hair) Therapist #3, what is your favorite cartoon? T3: My favorite cartoon would be Jim, of Jim’s Journal. Jim is the type of person that observes everything. Reality constructs Jim; it is exclusively external. He does not think about what he is doing. A: Therapist #2, what is your favorite cartoon? T2: My favorite cartoon character is Marge Simpson. Marge provides unconditional positive regard for Bart. She provides a warm, caring atmosphere, demonstrating ―I care.‖ Marge has acceptance of all her family‘s feelings, be they negative, fearful, or painful feelings as well as positive and social feelings. A: (squirms in seat) Therapist #1, if you could be any movie, what would it be?

T1: A Nightmare on Elm Street. While on the surface this movie lacks substance, when you analyze it, it‘s dealing with a topic of importance and depth—DREAMS! This movie shows the importance of dreams, and how people can use them to survive. A: Therapist #2, if you could be any movie, what would it be? T2: That would be Field of Dreams. The actors all search for meaning in their lives. Kevin Costner, who plays Ray, the main character, is not happy with his life. He builds a baseball field and finds meaning in his life. A: Therapist #3, if you could be any movie, what would it be? T3: I would be A Christmas Carol. Yes, that Scrooge has no emotions. At first he is in love with a young girl, then as he becomes more successful, money becomes more important. All he wants is money, and in order to obtain money he becomes immersed in his work. His behavior is strictly driven by making money. Money is a positive reinforcer for Scrooge. A: (fixes clothes). Therapist #3, describe your ideal date. T3: An ideal date would be taking a beautiful woman out to dinner at an elegant restaurant. If during dinner our conversation is going well and she has a high degree of eye contact, it would bring me to believe she enjoys my company. By the end of the evening, if she behaves as though she enjoyed our date, that would be a positive reinforcer to ask her out again. A: Therapist #2, describe your ideal date. T2: My description of an ideal date would be going to a restaurant—nothing fancy, but a place where my date and I could have one-to-one contact and leisurely talk. Of course, I must be genuine. I must be willing to express the various attitudes and feelings that exist inside of me. In this way, my date would be able to express herself. Our relationship would then have potential for development. Maybe a walk in the park would follow. A: Therapist #1, describe your ideal date. T1: I would enjoy taking a date to the city, where we could gaze upon the fascinating shapes of the buildings and skyscrapers. Perhaps have lunch at a hot dog stand. We could ride the subway or train together, perhaps allowing me to know her better. A: (crosses legs, switches hands in lap). When I go out on a date and a guy tries to kiss me goodnight, I run away and slam the door in his face. Therapist #2, why do I do this? T2: Well, Ann, this doesn‘t say anything bad about you. It seems to me that in time you will be able to recognize your feelings and you too would want to express yourself through a kiss. And if not that, you will find a way that truly expresses you. A: Therapist #1, why do I do this?

T1: Perhaps you feel threatened by your dates. Are you perchance looking upon your date as a father figure, therefore causing internal conflicts regarding affection? Or perhaps you fear harming an attachment and endangering the love of the one man you truly love—your father. Therefore, you suffer anxiety and run away. A: Therapist #3, why do I run away? T3: Maybe this negative reaction is a result from a previous date that did not turn out so well. This negative emotion you feel could be associated with a previous negative experience. Now (on a date), you are conditioned to feel this negative response because of the stimulus of a date that you are exposed to. The next step is to go about and desensitize your . . . . A: (stamps feet) Why can‘t I relax on a date? How do I know where he will take me? What if I wear heels, and he takes me hiking? Maybe it will rain. What if he takes me somewhere nice, and I look like a slob? What if I wear a color he doesn‘t like? Therapist #2, can you answer these questions? T2: Uh, Ann, so what you‘re saying is that if you wore one thing, you would behave differently than if you wore something else? Eh? (Ann looks disgusted.) A: Therapist #3, can you tell me why I do this? T3: Maybe you had a bad experience wearing a certain article of clothing. So now when you go to get dressed, you become anxious, and picking out something to wear becomes a task. Could you please stop sliding your feet? If you continue, I will feel compelled to stop giving you my advice because I feel I am only reinforcing this negative behavior of yours. A: Therapist #1, can you tell me why I act this way? T1: You say you can‘t choose an outfit. That may signify an internal conflict. You are torn between wanting to look like the Daddy‘s little girl that you want to be, and, at the same time, looking grown up. Perhaps you are regressing, remembering the simple times in your life when you didn‘t choose your clothes, but a parent did it for you. Or perhaps you have a hidden motive, perhaps you don‘t want to go on a date and therefore refuse to prepare for it. A: (shaking a leg) Therapist #1, if your child spilled grape juice on your white rug, how would you react? T1: I would try to see the real root behind this behavior. If I believed the child was acting on sexual aggression or trying to punish the same-sex parent for taking away his object of affection, I would suggest counseling. If I believed it to be a true accident, I would ignore it and simply deal with it appropriately. A: Therapist #2, what would you do?

T2: My child would feel very bad for his actions. Aside from the fact that I would have to replace the rug and it would cost me a large sum of money, I would reassure my child that I still love him and that he‘s not a bad person as a consequence of the accident. A: (squirms in seat restlessly) Therapist #3, why can‘t I do well on tests? When I get into the room, I break out in a cold sweat. T3: Well, let‘s take a look at previous test situations. Were you anxious because you didn‘t study enough? Or because you did poorly on a previous exam? A: Well, I don‘t really do well on any exams. When I was in fourth grade, I did really bad on a spelling bee. Everyone laughed. (Drops cards) T3: You become anxious in test situations because of this embarrassing experience you had in the fourth grade. This bad situation had a strong impact on you, so now when you take exams, you become anxious. The test situation, for example, a classroom, is an aversive stimulus that is generalized so that any situation similar to a test situation would cause you to become anxious. A: Therapist #2, what do you think? T2: So, it seems you are doubting your ability to meet the high expectations of yourself, especially when you‘re put into stressful situations. A: Therapist #1, why am I afraid of tests? T1: Your strong feelings of anxiety during a test could stem from a number of repressed emotions. Perhaps you are frightened by your parents‘ expectations, say, your father‘s. You must examine these feelings, look into your thoughts, before you will be able to relax. Tell me more about your father—what kind of relationship do you have? A: I‘m the one asking questions, not you! Therapist #2, I see myself as a very reliable person, but my friends don‘t think so. They think just because I‘m always nervous and always late . . . I spend so much time preparing, thinking about what I need to do, that there‘s never enough time. (Shakes nervously) T2: It seems you are able to judge your emotions and reactions accurately, Ann. It is when you are dominated by others‘ evaluations that you are no longer free. A: Therapist #3, what do you think about this? T3: A reliable person behaves responsibly. By your behaviors, others see you as being either reliable or unreliable. Your behavior can completely control your environment. Setting up a schedule of reinforcement will help you be more responsible. A positive reinforcement with a reward will strengthen your behavior of being reliable and cause this positive behavior to act again. A: Therapist #1, am I a reliable person?

T1: You realize that none of your friends have the same opinion of you that you do of yourself. While they could all be wrong, it is more likely that you are going through a period of denial. You are hiding your true self in order not to face the facts. Do not rationalize or intellectualize your actions. Instead, look into yourself, see who you really are. Only then you can react to your problems. A: (bites nails) OK, Therapist #2, what seems to be the root of my problem? T2: Trying to meet the high expectations of yourself may make you feel alienated, leading to feelings of anxiety and conflict, Ann Chuss, just as your name implies! By working with me, Ann, over time, you will find a way of life that is truly and deeply satisfying to you. A: Therapist #3, what is the root of my problem? T3: Behavior can be acquired through conditioning. Bad experiences where you experienced anxiety have conditioned you to act anxious. By your never getting over these negative experiences, being anxious has stuck with you. Your anxious behavior can be changed through counterconditioning. I can help you become desensitized through my therapy. A: Therapist #1, what is the root of my problem? T2: Your problem is very clear to me. You suffer from anxiety for many different reasons. It is obvious that you are aware of your love for your father, and that inhibits you when you try and form attachments. Perhaps you even project these feelings to others and subsequently suffer irrational anger or denial. You must start delving into your mind, your hidden desires, your unconscious. Therapy with me would result in unlocking the secrets of your mind and analyzing them, so you can learn to deal with your anxiety. I would use free association, dreams, and inkblots as a means to accomplish this. Host asks Ann whom she will pick. A: Therapist #2 talks too slow. Therapist #3 talks too much. I‘ll take Therapist #1. DEMONSTRATION: THE THERAPY GAME A briefer form of The Therapist Game involves having students choose phrases printed on small pieces of paper that they have to associate with the theoretical model from which they are derived. These are somewhat generic phrases, so you will need to give this disclaimer, but they do fit well within particular orientations. You can have one student read the phrases and three students serve as a panel that has to guess the orientation. This takes about 10 min to complete. This slide was the backdrop so that all students could see the options (this is also a good summary slide).

Psychodynamic

Unresolved past conflicts Psychoanalysis Contemporary alternatives and anxiety (IPT) Current social relationships

Behavioral

Classical conditioning Modeling Operant conditioning

Maladaptive behaviors

Cognitive

Cognitive-behavioral Rational-emotive

Dysfunctional thoughts

Humanistic

Client-centered

Disconnectedness

Biological

Drug therapy Electroconvulsive therapy Psychosurgery

Biochemical abnormalities

The phrases below are identified as: M = Medical P = Psychodynamic H = Humanistic B = Behavioral C = Cognitive How does it make you feel when your parents say they expect you to do well in school? (H) Tell me your earliest childhood memory. (P) I want you to try relaxing as much as possible. Now, imagine you are in that situation again. (B) When I say the word mother, what comes to your mind? (P) We‘ll begin with a low dose of Paxil, then we‘ll see how you‘re doing. (M) You‘re making real progress. Next week, try going for 30 min at a time without having a cigarette. (B) You would feel a lot better if you could stop telling yourself you should be happier. (C) Why do you feel that everyone you meet has to like you? What would happen if someone didn‘t like you? (C) Try working on your social skills. If you can get along better with your family, you‘ll feel happier. (B) If you want to feel better, you have to want to change. (H)

Since you didn‘t respond to medications, we are going to have to try a procedure known as electroconvulsive therapy. You will see that after a few treatments, you‘ll feel much less depressed. (M) Take a deep breath and relax when you think about getting closer to the situation you fear. (B) I‘d like to talk about what‘s on your mind, but first we should discuss why you were 15 min late for today‘s session. (P) The next time you feel afraid to get into an elevator, tell yourself that nothing bad can really happen to you. (B) Your symptoms seem to be responding to the medications, but to be on the safe side, we‘ll keep you on them another week or two. (M) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS BEHAVIOR THERAPY Ask students these questions: Select a behavior that you would like to modify in yourself and design a reinforcement therapy schedule to alter it. Choose an undesirable behavior such as shyness, biting your nails, snacking too much, or some other nervous habit. What is this behavior? Identify a desired substitute behavior. Record your baseline, or normal frequency of showing the behavior. Decide on a reinforcer you find applicable. Reward yourself each time you show the desired behavior and withhold reinforcement when you show the undesired behavior. Record the results. How difficult is it to apply behavior therapy to your own behavior? Why? COMPARISON OF THERAPY MODELS Ask students the following questions: What are the common elements of psychoanalysis and behavioral therapy? In what ways are psychoanalysis and behavior therapy different? How would a psychoanalyst and a behaviorist treat a person with an anxiety disorder? POLLING QUESTIONS As a client, which type of psychotherapy do you think you would prefer? a) Psychodynamic b) Behavioral c) Cognitive

As a client, would you prefer group therapy or individual therapy? a) Group therapy b) Individual therapy SUGGESTED MEDIA Insight Media. Behavior modification, 45:00. This video illustrates behavior modification techniques and discusses how they are used. Cognitive-Behavior Therapy With Dr. Donald Meichenbaum. Insight Media, 2000, 111:00. https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310803. A cognitive therapy session with Meichenbaum is shown in this video. Insight Media. (2000). Comparing therapies using a simulated client, 60:00. Simulations of therapy sessions are demonstrated. Annenberg/CPB Collection. (1990). Discovering psychology: Psychotherapy., 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/psychotherapy/. Major treatment approaches for psychological problems and attitudes toward the mentally ill are portrayed. Freud Museum. https://www.freud.org.uk. Insight Media. (2006). Getting it together: Therapy, 30:00. This program explores treatments for psychological disorders. History of psychoanalysis and the case of Anna O. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUB85lSj4pM. Insight Media. (2001). Therapies, 30:00. This program outlines the process of psychotherapy. Insight Media. Token economy: Behaviorism applied, 23 min. Film clip available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPp2cnju8DA. This video shows B. F. Skinner explaining positive reinforcement and punishment and discusses applications using a token economy. Hazelden. (2002). Understanding Anxiety and Worry: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy., 26:00. This video presents an overview of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and its use in treating anxiety. Hazelden. (2002). Understanding depression: Rational emotive therapy, 31:00. This video presents an overview of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and its use in treating depression.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. (1992). The world of abnormal psychology: Psychotherapies, 60:00. https://www.learner.org/series/the-world-of-abnormal-psychology/psychotherapies/. Examples of psychoanalytic, cognitive behavioral, Gestalt, couples, and group therapy sessions are given. POPULAR MOVIES: PSYCHOANALYSIS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY Although unrealistic, the film Analyze This (and the sequel, Analyze That) illustrates a type of psychoanalysis. The humor of this film is that in addition to the therapy conducted by the therapist, the client provides therapy to the therapist when he analyzes the reasons the therapist chose this career path. The film Good Will Hunting also portrays (albeit unrealistically) a complex relationship between a therapist and a client. The Prince of Tides also portrays therapy and raises ethical questions as well about client–therapist boundaries. POPULAR TELEVISION SHOWS Several television series regularly include or focus entirely on therapy. For example, The Sopranos (https://www.hbo.com/the-sopranos), and available on DVD, includes many sessions between the lead character and his psychiatrist. Several episodes also include family therapy, couples therapy, and therapy with the adolescent son as well as sessions between the psychiatrist and her supervisor. In the second-to-last episode of the series, the psychiatrist violates confidentiality by naming her patient to guests at a dinner party—allowing for a discussion of ethics and therapy. Another HBO series, In Treatment, focuses exclusively on a therapist‘s practice. More information and series trailer available at https://www.hbo.com/in-treatment. As mentioned in the previous chapter, A&E‘s series Hoarders follows the symptoms and treatment of people with this version of OCD. Another series on A&E is Intervention: https://www.aetv.com/shows/intervention. ADDITIONAL READINGS Acton, G. S. (1998). Classification of psychopathology: The nature of language. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 19, 243–256. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., & Shaw, B. F. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Chiesa, M. (2010). Research and psychoanalysis: Still time to bridge the great divide? Psychoanalytic Psychology, 27(2), 99. Ellis, A. A., & Dryden, W. (1987). The practice of rational-emotive therapy. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co. Freud, S. (1910). The origin and development of psychoanalysis. American Journal of Psychology, 21, 181–218.

Kurtz, M. M. (2013). A social salve for schizophrenia. Scientific American Mind, 24(1), 62–67. Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment. American Psychologist, 48, 1181–1209. MODULE 41: PSYCHOTHERAPY: HUMANISTIC, INTERPERSONAL, GROUP, AND ONLINE APPROACHES TO TREATMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES 41-1

What are the humanistic approaches to treatment?

41-2

What is interpersonal therapy?

41-3

How does group therapy differ from individual types of therapy?

41-4

Is online therapy effective?

41-5

How effective is psychotherapy, and which kind of psychotherapy works best in a given situation?

HUMANISTIC THERAPY Humanistic therapy is a therapy in which the underlying rationale is that people have control of their behavior, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially responsible for solving their own problems. Humanistic therapists believe that people naturally are motivated to strive for self-actualization. Humanistic therapists view themselves as guides or facilitators, using humanistic techniques that help people understand themselves and find meaning in life, overcome feelings of loneliness, and build connections to others. PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY Person-centered therapy (also called client-centered therapy) aims to enable people to reach their potential for self-actualization. By providing a warm and accepting environment, therapists hope to motivate clients to air their problems and feelings. Instead of directing the choices clients make, therapists provide what Carl Rogers calls unconditional positive regard—providing whole-hearted acceptance and understanding, and no disapproval, regardless of the feelings and attitudes the client expresses. Furnishing unconditional positive regard does not mean that therapists must approve of everything their clients say or do. Rather, therapists need to communicate that they are caring, nonjudgmental, and empathetic—that is, understanding of a client‘s emotional experiences. EVALUATING HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO THERAPY

The notion that psychological disorders result from restricted growth potential appeals philosophically to many people. Furthermore, when humanistic therapists acknowledge that the freedom we possess can lead to psychological difficulties, clients find an unusually supportive environment for therapy. However, humanistic treatments lack specificity, a problem that has troubled their critics. INTERPERSONAL THERAPY Interpersonal therapy (IPT) is short-term therapy designed to help patients control their moods and emotions by focusing on the context of their current social relationships. It typically focuses on interpersonal issues such as conflicts with others, social skills issues, role transitions (such as divorce), or grief. The approach makes no assumptions about the underlying causes of psychological disorders but focuses on the interpersonal context in which a disorder is developed and maintained. GROUP THERAPIES In group therapy, several unrelated people meet with a therapist to discuss some aspect of their psychological functioning. People typically discuss with the group their problems, which often center on a common difficulty, such as alcoholism or a lack of social skills. Groups vary greatly in terms of the particular model they employ; there are psychoanalytic groups, humanistic groups, and groups corresponding to the other therapeutic approaches. Groups also differ with regard to the degree of guidance the therapist provides. In some, the therapist is quite directive; in others, the members of the group set their own agenda and determine how the group will proceed. Because several people are treated simultaneously in group therapy, it is a much more economical means of treatment than individual psychotherapy is. However, critics argue that group settings lack the individual attention inherent in one-to-one therapy and that especially shy and withdrawn individuals may not receive the attention they need in a group setting. FAMILY THERAPY Family therapy involves two or more family members, one (or more) of whose problems led to treatment. However, rather than focusing simply on the members of the family who present the initial problem, family therapists consider the family as a unit to which each member contributes. Family therapists view the family as a ―system‖ and assume that individuals in the family cannot improve without understanding the conflicts found in interactions among family members. One goal of this type of therapy, then, is to get the family members to adopt new, more constructive roles and patterns of behavior. SELF-HELP THERAPY In many cases, group therapy does not involve a professional therapist. Instead, people with similar problems get together to discuss their shared feelings and experiences. For example,

people who have recently experienced the death of a spouse might meet in a bereavement support group, or college students may get together to discuss their adjustment to college. One of the best-known self-help groups is Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), a type of treatment program designed to help members deal with alcohol-related problems. AA prescribes 12 steps that alcoholics must pass through on their road to recovery. Alcoholics Anonymous does not work for everyone. AA provides more treatment for alcoholics than does any other therapy. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21 S T CENTURY ONLINE THERAPY At the height of the coronavirus pandemic, almost 45% of those polled said that their mental health had been affected by the global health and economic crisis. Online therapy, whether via Zoom, FaceTime, or some other medium, was the only way of getting access to psychotherapy. Online psychotherapy was available even before the onset of the pandemic because its potential benefits were and are considerable. First, online sessions can be scheduled with ease for convenient times, and transportation isn‘t an issue. Online therapy normalizes mental health care by removing many of the traditional barriers and integrating it into people‘s daily lives. However, online therapy has limitations for clients with serious mental disorders. Some find it cold and impersonal, and legal and ethical concerns exist about conducting therapy via telecommunications companies. EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPY: DOES THERAPY WORK? IS THERAPY EFFECTIVE? The question of whether therapy is effective requires a complex response. In fact, identifying the single most appropriate form of treatment is a controversial and still unresolved task for psychologists specializing in psychological disorders. Until the 1950s, most people simply assumed that therapy was effective. However, in 1952, psychologist Hans Eysenck published an influential study challenging that assumption. He claimed that people who received psychodynamic treatment and related therapies were no better off at the end of treatment than were people who were placed on a waiting list for treatment but never received it. Eysenck concluded that people would go into spontaneous remission, recovery without formal treatment, if they were simply left alone—certainly a cheaper and simpler process. However, today most psychologists agree: Therapy does work. WHICH KIND OF THERAPY WORKS BEST? Although most psychologists feel confident that psychotherapeutic treatment in general is more effective than no treatment at all, the question of whether any specific form of treatment is superior to any other has not been answered definitively. One classic study comparing the effectiveness of various approaches found that although success rates vary somewhat by treatment form, most treatments show fairly equal success rates (see Figure 1). Behavioral and

cognitive approaches tended to be slightly more successful, but that result may have been due to differences in the severity of the cases treated. Other research, which relies on meta-analysis in which data from a large number of studies are statistically combined, yields similar general conclusions. In short, converging evidence allows us to draw several conclusions about the effectiveness of psychotherapy:    

For most people, psychotherapy is effective. On the other hand, psychotherapy does not work for everyone. No single form of therapy works best for every problem, and certain specific types of treatment are better, although not invariably, for specific types of problems. Most therapies share several basic similar elements.

Clinicians and researchers have reframed the question by focusing on evidence-based psychotherapy practice. Evidence-based psychotherapy practice seeks to use research findings to determine the best practices for treating a specific disorder. To determine best practices, researchers use clinical interviews, client self-reports of improvement in quality of life, reductions in symptoms, observations of behavior, and other outcomes to compare different therapies. Because no single type of psychotherapy is invariably effective for every individual, some therapists use an eclectic approach to therapy. In an eclectic approach to therapy, therapists use a variety of techniques, thus integrating several perspectives, to treat a person‘s problems. EXPLORING DIVERSITY: RACIAL AND ETHNIC FACTORS IN TREATMENT: SHOULD THERAPISTS BE COLOR-BLIND? This section explains the importance of taking people‘s environmental and cultural backgrounds into account during treatment for psychological disorders. In particular, members of racial and ethnic minority groups, especially those who are also poor, may behave in ways that help them deal with a society that discriminates against them. As a consequence, behavior that may signal psychological disorder in middle-class and upper-class whites may simply be adaptive in people from other racial and socioeconomic groups. For instance, characteristically suspicious and distrustful people may be displaying a survival strategy to protect themselves from psychological and physical injury, rather than suffering from a psychological disturbance. In fact, therapists must question some basic assumptions of psychotherapy when dealing with racial, ethnic, and cultural minority group members. Clearly, therapists cannot be ―color-blind.‖ Instead, they must take into account the racial, ethnic, cultural, and social class backgrounds of their clients in determining the nature of a psychological disorder and the course of treatment. KEY TERMS family therapy An approach that focuses on the family and its dynamics.

group therapy Therapy in which people meet in a group with a therapist to discuss problems. humanistic therapy Therapy in which the underlying rationale is that people have control of their behavior, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially responsible for solving their own problems. interpersonal therapy (IPT) Short-term therapy designed to help patients control their moods and emotions by focusing on the context of their current social relationships. person-centered therapy Therapy in which the goal is to reach one‘s potential for selfactualization. spontaneous remission Recovery without formal treatment. LECTURE IDEAS HUMANISTIC THERAPY Three fundamental ideas are:   

We have control over our behavior. We decide what kind of life to live. We must solve the difficulties that we encounter in our daily lives.

In humanistic therapy, the therapist is seen as a guide or facilitator. Psychological disorders are seen as resulting from lack of meaning in life and loneliness. Humanistic approaches include:   

Client-centered therapy Nondirective methods Providing unconditional positive regard

The goal is self-actualization. CHART SUMMARIZING HUMANISTIC METHODS Component of Therapy

Definition

Example

Genuineness

The therapist attempts to reveal their ―real‖ feelings and encourages client to do the same.

The therapist states that when the client says something, the therapist feels uncomfortable.

Empathy

The therapist attempts to see The client feels anger toward their the situation from the client‘s brother, and the therapist

point of view.

understands why the client feels this way (and communicates this to the client).

Unconditional positive regard

The therapist accepts without ―conditions‖ the client‘s behavior and attitudes.

The client loses their job, but the therapist does not criticize the client.

Nondirectiveness

The client, not the therapist, leads the session.

Rather than having a predetermined agenda, the therapist allows the client to bring up important issues.

Nonverbal communication

The therapist ―reads‖ the client‘s nonverbal signals.

The client sits with arms folded and legs crossed; the therapist notices this and concludes that the client is anxious. Over time, the client may learn more effective ways of expression through body language.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Introduction to Therapy: Facilitate a class discussion by asking students to consider how seeking therapy for a psychological disorder is a sign of strength and courage. Group Therapy: Break the class into groups, and ask each group to imagine that they are sitting in the eating-disorder ward conference room of a hospital. They are there to take part in group therapy for anorexia nervosa. They should discuss as a group how the six attractive features about group therapy that this chapter discusses would come into play in their therapy group. Family Therapy: Use Handout 5: Which Family Therapy Technique Is It? The goal of this activity is for students to identify the various family therapy techniques discussed in this chapter. Self-Help Support Groups: Have the students go to a local self-help support group such as AA, NA, or another. The students should see if they can ask some questions or interview the leader after the meeting. After the meeting, the students should write a one- to two-page paper summarizing the meeting and say how it ties into the information discussed in this chapter on self-help support groups. The students should gain more knowledge about self-help support groups by going to a meeting to see how it is run and what information is covered at the meetings. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS COMPARISON OF THERAPY METHODS

List three main differences between humanistic and psychoanalytic therapy (role of therapist, basic assumptions about human nature, interpretation of resistance, and other ―unconscious‖ phenomena). What advantages might there be for a therapist to be ―genuine‖ rather than ―neutral?‖ How would it make you feel to have a therapist who disclosed personal information? Why is humanistic therapy called ―person-centered?‖ Would you agree that psychoanalysis is person-centered, even though it is not called this? Why or why not? Which of the various therapies discussed in this chapter would be the most successful for you? The least successful? Why? Why are there so many types of therapies to treat the same disorders? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Cybertherapy! For background information on cybertherapy, see Dever Fitzgerald, T., Hunter, P. V., Hadjistavropoulos, T., & Koocher, G. P. (2010). Ethical and legal considerations for internetbased psychotherapy. Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 39(3), 173–187. How many of you knew that there is such a thing as cybertherapy? If needed, how many of you would try cybertherapy instead of the traditional face-to-face therapy sessions? How many of you are uncomfortable with the idea that people are practicing cybertherapy? Who thinks there are serious ethical concerns with cybertherapy? As a client, which type of psychotherapy do you think you would prefer? a) Psychodynamic b) Behavioral c) Cognitive As a client, would you prefer group therapy or individual therapy? DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION Ask students the following questions:  



What were the main causes of the deinstitutionalization movement? Some psychologists believe that clients were better treated in hospitals rather than community centers. Do you agree with this, or do you think that community centers are preferable? What are some of the problems involved in the current community treatment of people with serious mental illness?

If you were to become a therapist, which therapy technique would be your focus? SUGGESTED MEDIA Happiness: Harvard psychologist Dan Gilbert: The Surprising Science of Happiness (TED Talk). https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_asks_why_are_we_happy/up-next. Kaufman, M. (2005, January 3). Meditation gives brain a charge, study finds. Washington Post, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43006-2005Jan2.html?noredirect=on. Person-centered therapy. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ew8CAr1v48M&feature=PlayList&index=6&list=PL9EA5A 3049225F48F.

Positive psychology: https://www.ted.com/talks/martin_seligman_the_new_era_of_positive_psychology?language=en .

TED Talk with Martin Seligman on the state of psychology. Insight Media. (2008). Positive psychology and psychotherapy, 77:00. Positive psychology and how it relates to therapy are discussed. Psychotherapies—National Institute of Mental Health https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/psychotherapies/index.shtml. Understanding psychotherapy and how it works (APA) http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/understanding-psychotherapy.aspx. ADDITIONAL READINGS Callahan, A., & Inckle, K. (2012). Cybertherapy or psychobabble? A mixed methods study of online emotional support. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 40(3), 261–278. Epstein, R. (2011). Distance therapy comes of age. Scientific American Mind, 22(2), 60–63. Eysenck, H. J. (1952). The effects of psychotherapy: An evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16, 319–324. Gelso, C. J. (2011). Emerging and continuing trends in psychotherapy: Views from an editor's eye. Psychotherapy, 48(2), 182. Hoagwood, K., Jensen, P. S., Petti, T., & Burns, B. J. (1996). Outcomes of mental health care for children and adolescents: A comprehensive conceptual model. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1055–1063.

Lazarus, C. N. (2016, March 16). And the three best therapy methods are… . Psychology Today: Think Well. Markowitz, J. C. (1999). Developments in interpersonal psychotherapy. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 556–561. Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton. Smith, M. L., Glass, G. V., & Miller, T. I. (1980). The benefits of psychotherapy. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. Spring, B. (2007). Evidence-based practice in clinical psychology: What it is, why it matters, what you need to know. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(7), 611–631. Sue, S., Zane, N., Hall, G. C. N., & Berger, L. K. (2009). The case for cultural competency in psychotherapeutic interventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 525. MODULE 42: BIOMEDICAL THERAPY: BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO TREATMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE 42-1

How are drug, electroconvulsive, and psychosurgical techniques used today in the treatment of psychological disorders?

Therapists routinely use biomedical therapies that rely on drugs and medical procedures to improve psychological functioning. The biomedical approach focuses treatment directly on altering brain chemistry or other neurological factors rather than concentrating on a patient‘s psychological conflicts, past traumas, or other issues of daily life that may produce psychological disorders. DRUG THERAPY Drug therapy is the treatment of psychological disorders using medication. Drug therapy works by altering the operation of neurons and neurotransmitters in the brain. Some drugs operate by inhibiting neurotransmitters or receptor neurons, which reduces activity at particular synapses. Other drugs do just the opposite: They increase the activity of certain neurotransmitters or neurons, which allows particular neurons to fire more frequently (see Figure 1). ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS Probably no greater change has occurred in mental hospitals than the successful introduction in the mid-1950s of antipsychotic drugs—drugs used to reduce severe symptoms of disturbance, such as loss of touch with reality and agitation. This dramatic change came about through the introduction of the drug chlorpromazine. Along with other similar drugs, chlorpromazine rapidly became the most popular and successful

treatment for schizophrenia. Today, drug therapy is typically the preferred treatment for most cases of severely abnormal behavior and is used for most patients hospitalized with psychological disorders. The newest generation of antipsychotics, referred to as atypical antipsychotics, have fewer side effects; they include risperidone, olanzapine, and paliperidone. Most antipsychotics block dopamine receptors at the brain‘s synapses. Atypical antipsychotics affect both serotonin and dopamine levels in certain parts of the brain, such as those related to planning and goal-directed activity. Despite the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs, most of the time, the symptoms reappear when the drug is withdrawn. ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS Antidepressant drugs are a class of medications used in cases of severe depression to improve a patient‘s mood and feeling of well-being. Most antidepressant drugs work by changing the concentration of specific neurotransmitters in the brain. For example, tricyclic drugs increase the availability of norepinephrine at the synapses of neurons, whereas MAO inhibitors prevent the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) from breaking down neurotransmitters. Newer antidepressants—such as Lexapro—are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRIs target the neurotransmitter serotonin and permit it to linger at the synapse. Some antidepressants produce a combination of effects (see Figure 2). The overall success rates of antidepressant drugs are good. In fact, antidepressants can produce lasting, long-term recovery from depression. In many cases, even after patients stop taking the drugs, their depression does not return. On the other hand, antidepressant drugs may produce side effects, such as drowsiness and faintness, and there is evidence that SSRI antidepressants can increase the risk of suicide in children and adolescents. Consumers spend billions of dollars each year on antidepressant drugs. In particular, the antidepressant fluoxetine, sold under the trade name Prozac, has been highlighted on magazine covers and has been the topic of best-selling books. Another substance that has received considerable publicity is St. John’s wort, an herb that some have called a ―natural‖ antidepressant. Despite the popularity of St. John‘s wort, definitive clinical tests have found that the herb is ineffective in the treatment of depression. However, because some research shows that the herb successfully reduces certain psychological symptoms, some proponents argue that using it is reasonable. MOOD STABILIZERS Mood stabilizers are used to treat mood disorders. For example, the drug lithium, a form of mineral salts, has been used very successfully in patients with bipolar disorders. Although no one knows definitely why, lithium and other mood stabilizers such as divalproex sodium (Depakote) and carbamazepine (Tegretol) effectively reduce manic episodes. However, they do not effectively treat depressive phases of bipolar disorder, so antidepressants are usually prescribed during those phases.

ANTIANXIETY DRUGS Antianxiety drugs reduce the level of anxiety a person experiences and increase feelings of well-being. They are prescribed not only to reduce general tension in people who are experiencing temporary difficulties, but also to aid in the treatment of more serious anxiety disorders. Antianxiety drugs such as Alprazolam and Valium are among the medications physicians most frequently prescribe. Although the popularity of antianxiety drugs suggests that they hold few risks, they can produce a number of potentially serious side effects. For instance, they can cause fatigue, and long-term use can lead to dependence. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY WILL PSYCHEDELIC THERAPY RESHAPE TREATMENT FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS? It‘s been a difficult decade for mental health in the United States. We‘ve seen opioid and suicide crises, steadily growing numbers of mental health issues among teens and young adults, and widespread mental health declines as a result of the pandemic—all underscoring an urgent need for new therapies to treat psychological disorders. Ongoing studies are looking at whether psychedelic drugs can help people suffering from a variety of difficult-to-treat psychological disorders. These include severe depression, anxiety disorders such as PTSD and OCD, social anxiety in people with autism, substance abuse, and eating disorders. One of the first drugs to come under new investigation was ketamine. Researchers have also been turning their attention to psilocybin as a treatment for depression. Psilocybin is the compound found in what have been called ―magic mushrooms.‖ They must be part of a therapeutic process that includes supervised use under the care of a therapist who guides the patient to have a positive experience and in a carefully controlled environment that facilitates the same goal. It is believed that if these new psychedelic therapies are researched thoroughly, the result could be a revolution in treatment options for a variety of mental illnesses. ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY AND NEWER BRAIN STIMULATION TECHNIQUES Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure used in the treatment of severe depression. In the procedure, a weak electric current of around 0.8 amperes at 120 volts is briefly administered to a patient‘s head. Typically, health-care professionals place patients under general anesthesia before administering the current; such preparations help reduce the intensity of muscle contractions produced during ECT. ECT is a controversial technique. Apart from the obvious distastefulness of a treatment that evokes images of electrocution, side effects occur frequently. For instance, after treatment, patients often experience disorientation, confusion, and sometimes memory loss that may remain for months. Basically, therapists still use it because in many severe cases of depression, it offers

the only quickly effective treatment. For instance, it may prevent depressed, suicidal individuals from committing suicide, and it can act more quickly than antidepressive medications. The use of ECT has increased in the past decade, with more than 100,000 people undergoing it each year, and practitioners are trying to reduce the stigma that surrounds it. One new and promising alternative to ECT is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS creates a precise magnetic pulse in a specific area of the brain. By activating particular neurons, TMS has been effective in relieving the symptoms of major depression in a number of controlled experiments. Another promising therapy, still in the early stages of development, is the use of implants placed deep inside the brain to provide a short jolt of electrical stimulation, a method called deep brain stimulation (DBS). DBS has the potential to be personalized to the specific brain areas and neuronal configuration associated with a patient's depressive disorder. PSYCHOSURGERY Psychosurgery is a brain surgery used to reduce the symptoms of mental disorder, but it is rarely used today. The initial form of psychosurgery, a prefrontal lobotomy, consisted of surgically destroying or removing parts of a patient‘s frontal lobes, which surgeons thought controlled emotionality. Psychosurgery sometimes did improve a patient‘s behavior—but not without drastic side effects. Along with remission of the symptoms of the mental disorder, patients sometimes experienced personality changes and became bland, colorless, and unemotional. With the introduction of effective drug treatments—and the obvious ethical questions regarding the appropriateness of forever altering someone‘s personality—psychosurgery became nearly obsolete. However, it is still used in very rare cases when all other procedures have failed and the patient‘s behavior presents a high risk to the patient and others. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: MENTAL HEALTH IS BRAIN HEALTH In many ways, the field of neuroscience revolutionized the field of mental health by revealing the brain basis of psychological disorders. Neuroscience research is shedding light on the brainchanging power of combining psychotherapy with biomedical treatments. Not only does the brain change in response to mental health treatment, but the brain also provides clues about who is most likely to get better with treatment. Since different treatments affect the brain in different ways, people might be matched to treatments that are best suited to their patterns of brain activity. BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES IN PERSPECTIVE In some respects, no greater revolution has occurred in the field of mental health than biological approaches to treatment. As previously violent, uncontrollable patients have been calmed by the use of drugs, and mental hospitals have been able to concentrate more on actually helping

patients and less on custodial functions. Similarly, patients whose lives have been disrupted by depression or bipolar episodes have been able to function normally, and other forms of drug therapy have also shown remarkable results. Furthermore, new forms of biomedical therapy are promising. Despite their current usefulness and future promise, biomedical therapies do not represent a cureall for psychological disorders. For one thing, critics charge that such therapies merely provide relief of the symptoms of mental disorder; as soon as the drugs are withdrawn, the symptoms return. Biomedical therapies also can produce side effects that range from minor to serious physical reactions to the development of new symptoms of abnormal behavior. An overreliance on biomedical therapies may lead therapists to overlook alternative forms of treatment that may be helpful. Though biomedical therapy and psychotherapy appear distinct, research shows that biomedical therapies ultimately may not be as different from talk therapies as one might imagine. Biomedical therapies—sometimes alone and more often in conjunction with psychotherapy— have permitted millions of people to function more effectively. Measures of brain functioning as a result of drug therapy compared with psychotherapy show little difference in outcomes. COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY: FOCUS ON PREVENTION Community psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the prevention and minimization of psychological disorders in the community. Deinstitutionalization is the transfer of former mental patients from institutions to the community. Unfortunately, the promise of deinstitutionalization has not been met largely because insufficient resources are provided to deinstitutionalized patients. What started as a worthy attempt to move people out of mental institutions and into the community ended, in many cases, with former patients being dumped into the community without any real support. Many became homeless: Around 25% of all homeless adults are thought to have a major psychological disorder. The lack of adequate mental health care is a worldwide problem. For example, in low- and middle-income countries, less than 5% of the population receives treatment for major depression. Even in higher-income countries, only around 20% of the people receive adequate care for depression. Cost is only part of the problem when individuals are seeking treatment. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: CHOOSING THE RIGHT THERAPIST Choosing a therapist is not a simple matter. One place to begin the process of identifying a therapist is at the Help Center of the American Psychological Association at http://www.apa.org/helpcenter. And, if you start therapy, several general guidelines can help you determine whether you have made the right choice: 

You should feel comfortable with your therapist.

 

Therapists should have appropriate training and credentials and should be licensed by appropriate state and local agencies. You should feel that you are making progress after therapy has begun, despite occasional setbacks.

Be aware that you will have to put in a great deal of effort in therapy. Although our culture tends to promise quick cures for any problem, in reality solving difficult problems is not easy. It is you, not the therapist, who must do most of the work to resolve your problems. KEY TERMS antianxiety drugs Drugs that reduce the level of anxiety a person experiences and increase feelings of well-being. antidepressant drugs Medications that improve a severely depressed patient‘s mood and feeling of well-being. antipsychotic drugs Drugs that temporarily reduce psychotic symptoms such as agitation, hallucinations, and delusions. community psychology A branch of psychology that focuses on the prevention and minimization of psychological disorders in the community. deinstitutionalization The process of transferring patients who have been hospitalized for long periods into less-isolated community mental health settings. drug therapy Treatment of psychological disorders through the use of drugs that alter the operation of neurons and neurotransmitters in the brain and body. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A procedure used in the treatment of severe depression in which an electric current of 70–150 V is briefly administered to a patient‘s head. mood stabilizers Drugs used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense mood swings, especially manic episodes in bipolar disorder. psychosurgery Brain surgery once used to reduce the symptoms of mental disorder but rarely used today. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) A depression treatment in which a precise magnetic pulse is directed to a specific area of the brain. LECTURE IDEAS MEDICATIONS Use this chart to summarize medications for major forms of psychological disorders:

Class of Drug

Primary Action of Drug

Examples

Blocks dopamine receptors

Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) Haloperidol (Haldol)

Blocks serotonin and dopamine receptors

Clozapine (Clozaril)

Tricyclic antidepressants

Permit rise in excitatory neurotransmitters (norepinephrine and serotonin)

Trazodone (Desyrel), Amitriptyline (Elavil), Desipramine (Norpramin)

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)

Prevent MAO from breaking down norepinephrine and serotonin

Phenelzine (Nardil) Tranylcypromine (Parnate)

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Inhibit reuptake of serotonin

Fluoxetine (Prozac), Sertraline (Zoloft), Bupropion (Wellbutrin), Paroxetine (Paxil), Citalopram (Celexa)

Decreases catecholamine levels

Lithium carbonate (Lithonate)

Increase activity of GABA

Diazepam (Valium), Alprazolam (Xanax)

ANTIPSYCHOTIC

ANTIDEPRESSANT

MOOD STABILIZER Lithium ANTIANXIETY Benzodiazepines

ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY Provide this brief summary of electroconvulsive therapy:     

Passing of 75–100 V of electricity through the head Treatment must usually be repeated several times for one treatment and then repeatedly after that Used for severe depression Side effects can include memory loss and permanent damage to the brain Only used for otherwise untreatable cases

ECT: You may want to discuss ECT with students. Perhaps show a brief clip of it from One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975) and ask students what they think about it still being used today. Remind students that this is reserved for the most intensive cases as a last resort. PSYCHOSURGERY

Prefrontal lobotomy:   

Used in the early part of the 20th century Connections to frontal lobes severed Had very negative side effects

Cingulotomy: 

Used today for treatment of severe obsessive–compulsive disorder

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS Psychopharmaceuticals: Ask students what they think about the widespread use of psychopharmaceuticals. Maybe begin the discussion with, ―How many of you know someone taking an antidepressant or antianxiety medication?‖ This should allow a segue into a discussion of whether this is because it is needed or perhaps trendy. That is, if movie stars use benzodiazapans and antidepressives, what message does that send to impressionable youth? Medication: Remind students of the controversy in medicating children for disorders such as ADHD. You may want to show Frontline: The Medicated Child (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/medicatedchild/) to get the discussion going. Ask them if they think children should receive medication for a disorder. You may want to remind them that unlike cholesterol, blood sugars, or HIV, the disorders commonly found in children (such as ADHD) cannot be tested for in a clear manner. This is where the controversy lies. How does this carry over to adults? Dr. Rx: There is a growing movement in the United States to allow clinical psychologists to prescribe medication. Three states—Louisiana, Illinois, and New Mexico—allow script-writing privileges after completing an additional requirement. What is your opinion of this change? Do you believe that clinical psychologists should be allowed to write prescriptions? Why or why not? Why do you think that the American Medical Association might not support this change? Epigenesis and Maltreatment: Based on all the material we have covered in this text on abuse, epigenesis, and disorders, have students try to integrate it all. Have them start at http://www.health.am/ab/more/psychological_therapy_can_help_maltreated_children/ for an article on abused kids and therapy. Have them write a short paper synthesizing material from the text discussing abuse and neglect, and how it affects the brain and leads to a greater risk of mental health issues. Drug Therapy: Use Handout 4: Which Drug Will Help? The goal of this activity is to familiarize students with the various psychoactive drugs used to treat psychological disorders. The students will be given a symptom and must identify the drug that would help with the disorder. Electroconvulsive Therapy and Psychosurgery: Have the students do an Internet search to find situations in which both electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery have been used. They

should then write a three- to four-page paper summarizing the information they found. The students should also give their opinion on each of these biological therapies concerning the possible ethical concerns surrounding them. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Would you consider the drug Antibuse, which is a drug for alcoholics to take to keep them from drinking, a form of aversive conditioning? Explain. What are the ethical concerns surrounding electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery? What are the ethical concerns for psychotherapy in general? How will you react if you are diagnosed with a psychological disorder? There is a growing movement in the United States to allow clinical psychologists to prescribe medication. Three states—Louisiana, Illinois, and New Mexico—allow script-writing privileges after completing additional requirements. What is your opinion of this change? Do you believe that clinical psychologists should be allowed to write prescriptions? Why or why not? Why do you think that the American Medical Association might not support this change? Ask students what they think about the widespread use of psychopharmaceuticals. POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Take One of These a Day . . . Even If You Are 7 Years Old For quite some time, there has been much debate on the prescription of psychotherapeutic drugs for children and adolescents. More and more research is being published, and the controversy still exists. One of the biggest challenges is that for most of the commonly used medications for children and adolescents, no sound database about efficacy and safety is available and knowledge about adverse events and long-term safety remains poor. How many of you would allow a doctor to prescribe a psychotherapeutic drug to your child, knowing that there could be short-term and long-term risks? How many of you think that the effects of the prescription drugs given to children and adolescents outweigh the risks involved? Meaning, if the medicine helps the child, is the risk worth it? Who thinks a pediatrician is not qualified to prescribe psychotherapeutic medications to children and that a psychiatrist should be the only one writing the prescriptions? Polling Question: Come Get Your Free Treatment Treatment is expensive and often moderated by a managed health-care provider. However, what about all of the people who need treatment but can‘t afford it? Who thinks that clinical psychologists and other professionals who provide psychological treatment should be required to provide it at no cost to those who can‘t afford it? How many of you think that psychological well-being should be a higher priority for our governments and societies?

ATTITUDES TOWARD BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES Ask students the following questions:    

Under what conditions do you think that clinicians should use biomedical therapies? How should biomedical therapies be combined, if at all, with psychotherapy? Do you agree or disagree that psychologists should have prescription privileges? Why or why not? Do you believe that the potential benefits of medical therapies outweigh the potential side effects?

SUGGESTED MEDIA Antidepressants. https://medlineplus.gov/antidepressants.html. Begley, S. (2004, November 5). Scans of monk’s brains show meditation alters structure, functioning. http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma8/monkstudy.html. Brain-Based Therapies. http://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Treatment/ECT,-TMS-and-OtherBrain-Stimulation-Therapies. BrainPhysics. http://www.brainphysics.com/. A great site on most of the disorders. Campos-Pires, R., Yonis, A., Macdonald, W., Harris, K., Edge, C. J., Mahoney, & P. F., Dickinson, R. A. (2018). Novel in vitro model of blast traumatic brain injury. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 142, e58400. doi: 10.3791/58400. ABC News. (2006). Deep brain stimulation, 20:00. Two patients undergoing deep brain stimulation for depression and OCD are followed in this DVD. Insight Media. Depression: Medication uses and side effects, 10:00. This video describes various drugs used to treat depression and their potential side effects. Electroshock therapy: Dr. Sherwin Nuland: How Electroshock Therapy Changed Me (TED Talk). https://www.ted.com/talks/sherwin_nuland_how_electroshock_therapy_changed_me?language= en. National Geographic. (2001). Madness: A history, 51:00. This video focuses on the history of mental illness including historical treatments, asylums, psychopharmacology, and modern treatments for the mentally ill. Metrazol Convulsive Therapy. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fp8pY5wQ6nA. This brief clip demonstrates metrazol convulsive therapy. It may be useful if you are talking about the history of psychology and psychological treatments.

The Brain. (1997). Teaching module #28: Schizophrenia: Pharmacological treatment [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/schizophrenia-pharmacologicaltreatment/. The use of drug therapy to treat schizophrenia is explored. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #33: Mood disorders: Medication and talk therapy [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzfHeiZIZM0&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82y x64Z&index=32&t=0s. This clip demonstrates drug therapy and humanistic and psychodynamic therapy in combination. The Mind. (1999). 2nd ed. Teaching module #34: Treating depression: Electroconvulsive therapy [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S3EK19UHxt0&list=PLez3PPtnpncT0cvKA2SIyNYX6l82y x64Z&index=33&t=0s. The use of ECT is discussed. NIMH on childhood and adolescent mental health. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/childand-adolescent-mental-health/index.shtml. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (2011). Numb: The problems with antidepressants, 65:00. Discontinuing the use of antidepressants can be problematic, but many people taking these drugs choose the painful withdrawal process, and subsequent depression, over the emotional numbness the meds can cause. Transcranial Magnet Stimulation (TMS). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stJFwxVH2_s. POPULAR MOVIE: ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY (ECT) Show a segment from the movie One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975) in which electroconvulsive therapy was shown as punishment. Ask students whether they think the use of ECT is justified or not. Scientists do not understand how it works, but it is shown to reduce depression in people who might otherwise become suicidal. Trailer available at https://www.imdb.com/videoplayer/vi3943282969. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bauer, M. S., & Mitchner, L. (2004). What is a ―mood stabilizer?‖ An evidence-based response. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 3–18. Kaufman, M. (2005, Bauer, M. S., & Mitchner, L. (2004). What is a ―mood stabilizer?‖ An evidence-based response. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 3–18. Oram, M. (2018). The trials of psychedelic therapy. Boston, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Valaistein, E. S. (1986). Great and desperate cures: The rise and decline of psychosurgery and other radical treatments for mental illness. New York, NY: Basic Books. Van der Kolk, B. (2015). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Von Korff, M., Katon, W., Bush, T., Lin, E. H., Simon, G. E., Saunders, K., Ludman, E., Walker, E., & Unutzer, J. (1998). Treatment costs, cost offset, and cost-effectiveness of collaborative management of depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60, 143–149. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Cognition and Cognitive Therapy INTERACTIVITIES  Systematic Desensitization  Compare and Contrast Therapies LABELING/CLASSIFICATION EXERCISES  Biological Therapies NEWSFLASH  Therapy on Both Sides of the Couch  Black lives matter in Psychotherapy  Taking Action & Taking Care of Ourselves COURSE-WIDE CONTENT  Psychology Relevancy Modules  Psychology NewsFlash  Psychology at Work Videos  Anatomy and Physiology Revealed for Psychology  McGraw-Hill Psychology APA Documentation Guide  Psychology Videos

 

Scientific Reasoning Exercises Power of Process Readings (from main assignment page)

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: ATTITUDES TOWARD PSYCHOTHERAPY For each statement, indicate whether you agree (A) or disagree (D). When you are finished, your responses will be combined with those of other students who have taken this survey. 1. Classical psychoanalysis is the most effective kind of psychotherapy. 2. Psychotherapy does not really help people with psychological problems. 3. Drug therapy can be dangerous. 4. Behavior therapy does not really help because it does not analyze unconscious motivation. 5. Psychotherapists typically act in an unprofessional manner. 6. Drug therapy is more effective than psychotherapy. 7. There is a social stigma attached to going to a psychologist for therapy. 8. Psychotherapy is only effective with very severe psychological disorders. 9. Clients are often sexually attracted to their therapists. 10. Often a psychological problem will go away without therapy.

HANDOUT 1 (CON‘T): ATTITUDES TOWARD PSYCHOTHERAPY: SURVEY RESPONSES Survey results for 160 entries: Percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. 1. Classical psychoanalysis is the most effective kind of psychotherapy. True

23%

False

112

70%

2. Psychotherapy does not really help people with psychological problems. True

15%

False

126

78%

3. Drug therapy can be dangerous. True

130

81%

False

12%

4. Behavior therapy does not really help because it does not analyze unconscious motivation. True

23%

False

111

69%

5. Psychotherapists typically act in an unprofessional manner. True

10%

False

133

83%

6. Drug therapy is more effective than psychotherapy. True

22%

False

113

70%

7. There is a social stigma attached to going to a psychologist for therapy. True

124

77%

False

15%

8. Psychotherapy is only effective with very severe psychological disorders. True

False

136

85%

9. Clients are often sexually attracted to their therapists. True

36%

False

57%

10. Often a psychological problem will go away without therapy. True

28%

False

102

63%

HANDOUT 2: COMPARISON OF THERAPY METHODS Choose one disorder that interests you. For this disorder, show how treatment would be carried out according to each of the therapy methods. Method

Approach

Application to This Example

Psychoanalysis

Behavioral therapy

Cognitive therapy

Humanistic therapy

Biomedical therapy

HANDOUT 3: USING REBT AND BECK‘S COGNITIVE THERAPY Read the scenarios below of individuals who are upset about something that has happened in their life. After reading each scenario, describe how you would treat the individual with either REBT or Beck‘s cognitive therapy. 1. Susan is upset because she got a B in her physics class. She is planning to go to medical school and thinks that now, with this B, she won‘t gain acceptance into any medical school. TREATMENT: 2. Mr. Lohman had a very busy day and came home a little later than he had planned. His wife and children will be home in 45 min, and they want a hot three-course dinner every night. He knows he doesn‘t have time to prepare everything for dinner and is now afraid his wife will be irate with him and be in danger of divorcing him. TREATMENT: 3. Cho was driving home from school when a car ran a stop sign and slammed into her. The front of her car was completely smashed in. The other driver got out, apologized, and took full responsibility. Cho was still extremely upset because she thought her parents were going to be very angry with her and never let her drive again, even though it wasn‘t her fault. TREATMENT: 4. Justin and his serious girlfriend just broke up. He is very distraught and can‘t find the energy to get out of bed. He has missed 4 days of work so far and hasn‘t showered or shaved or even changed his clothes. He loved her too much and believes that he will never find another girl like her again. He is determined to remain alone for the rest of his life. TREATMENT:

HANDOUT 4: WHICH DRUG WILL HELP? Read the symptom variations below, then identify which of many drugs would work in treating the symptoms. 1. Sara is constantly anxious and on edge. She worries about her health and the safety of her family. DRUG: 2. Hamza has been on medication for his anxiety for about 3 weeks and has found that he is extremely drowsy and has a loss of coordination at times. DRUG HE IS CURRENTLY TAKING: 3. Jill has been depressed for 2 months and cannot find the strength to get out of bed in the morning. Her wife finally convinced her to go to a therapist, who prescribed a drug that did not have a lot of severe side effects. DRUG: 4. James has been prescribed medication for his depression. He has to be careful though, because the drug causes a bad reaction when interacting with cheese or fermented products. DRUG: 5. Carlos was prescribed a drug for his depression. The drug works by stabilizing moods and influencing norepinephrine and serotonin. DRUG: 6. Stephanie has had schizophrenia spectrum disorder for 2 years and has tried many different types of medication. Her new therapist has prescribed a medication for her, but the side effects make her arms and legs twitch a lot. DRUG: 7. Abidemi has been on neuroleptics for a couple of months, but the tardive dyskinesia has been so bad, and he is embarrassed to go out in public. His therapist is switching him to a different medication that does not have the extreme side effects of the neuroleptics. DRUG:

HANDOUT 5: WHICH FAMILY THERAPY TECHNIQUE IS IT? Read the scenarios below and identify which family therapy is being used and how you as the therapist would treat the individuals. 1. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have been having trouble with their teenage daughter. The daughter never seems to do her chores and throws a tantrum when she isn‘t allowed to go out with her friends to an unsupervised party. The daughter is constantly yelling at her parents, telling them they aren‘t fair and that she hates them. The therapist listens to the daughter‘s complaints and says he understands what she is saying. The therapist tells the daughter that it sure must be difficult not to be allowed to go over to her friend‘s house for a party. FAMILY THERAPY:

2. Mrs. Singh is tired of her son threatening her when he doesn‘t want to listen to her ask him to do something. She gets so frustrated because he sleeps until noon, gets up and makes breakfast and leaves a mess in the kitchen, and then sits around most of the afternoon watching TV and snacking on junk food. She repeatedly asks him to clean up his messes and help out around the house. He just yells at her and says it is her job and that if she doesn‘t stop nagging him he is going to knock her around. She is so fed up that the family goes to a therapist. The therapist asks Mr. Singh if he does any disciplining of the son, and he answers that he is away at work all day and doesn‘t want to deal with it when he gets home. The therapist suggests that Mr. Singh help with the son. She also suggests that maybe one or two nights a week, they (Mr. and Mrs. Singh) could go out to dinner by themselves and maybe to a movie to spend some quality time together. FAMILY THERAPY:

3. Mr. and Mrs. Gomez have three small children and find that lately, they are arguing over everything concerning their children. They argue about when the children should go to bed,

what foods they should eat, and what TV shows they should watch. They finally break down and go to see a therapist. The children say that their parents are accommodating and just enforce the rules. The therapist asks the parents about their relationship with each other. Mr. and Mrs. Gomez insist their relationship is fine, but they argue about the children and the children are the problem. FAMILY THERAPY:

4. James has been missing a lot of school in the past 2 months. Both his parents work full-time jobs and leave the house before he does in the morning and get home after he does in the evening. They weren‘t even aware of his truancy until the school called one parent at work the other day to say that if James missed any more classes, he wouldn‘t pass the school year and would have to repeat the same grade again next year. The parents feel as though James is out of control and are at their wit‘s end. They all go into family therapy. The therapist tries to explain that what is occurring is not only James‘ fault, but it is also a family problem. She asks each parent if there is anything they could have done differently in their parenting to change the problem. FAMILY THERAPY:

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 4: WHICH DRUG WILL HELP? ANSWER KEY Read the symptom variations below, then identify which of many drugs would work in treating the symptoms. 1. Sara is constantly anxious and on edge. She worries about her health and the safety of her family. DRUG: antianxiety (probably a nonbenzodiazepine) 2. Hamza has been on medication for his anxiety for about 3 weeks and has found that he is extremely drowsy and has a loss of coordination at times. DRUG HE IS CURRENTLY TAKNG: antianxiety (benzodiazepine) 3. Jill has been depressed for 2 months and cannot find the strength to get out of bed in the morning. Her wife finally convinced her to go to a therapist, who prescribed a drug that did not have a lot of severe side effects. DRUG: antidepressant (tricyclic, MAOI, and SSRI) 4. James has been prescribed medication for his depression. He has to be careful though, because the drug causes a bad reaction when interacting with cheese or fermented products. DRUG: antidepressant (MAOI) 5. Carlos was prescribed a drug for his depression. The drug works by stabilizing moods and influencing norepinephrine and serotonin. DRUG: antidepressant (lithium) 6. Stephanie has had schizophrenia spectrum disorder for 2 years and has tried many different types of medication. Her new therapist has prescribed a medication for her, but the side effects make her arms and legs twitch a lot. DRUG: antipsychotic (neuroleptic) 7. Abidemi has been on neuroleptics for a couple of months, but the tardive dyskinesia has been so bad, and he is embarrassed to go out in public. His therapist is switching him to a different medication that does not have the extreme side effects of the neuroleptics. DRUG: atypical antipsychotic

HANDOUT 5: WHICH FAM ILY THERAPY TECHNIQUE IS IT? ANSWER KEY

Read the scenarios below and identify which family therapy is being used and how you as the therapist would treat the individuals. 1. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have been having trouble with their teenage daughter. The daughter never seems to do her chores and throws a tantrum when she isn‘t allowed to go out with her friends to an unsupervised party. The daughter is constantly yelling at her parents, telling them they aren‘t fair and that she hates them. The therapist listens to the daughter‘s complaints and says he understands what she is saying. The therapist tells the daughter that it sure must be difficult not to be allowed to go over to her friend‘s house for a party. FAMILY THERAPY: validation 2. Mrs. Singh is tired of her son threatening her when he doesn‘t want to listen to her ask him to do something. She gets so frustrated because he sleeps until noon, gets up and makes breakfast and leaves a mess in the kitchen, and then sits around most of the afternoon watching TV and snacking on junk food. She repeatedly asks him to clean up his messes and help out around the house. He just yells at her and says it is her job and that if she doesn‘t stop nagging him he is going to knock her around. She is so fed up that the family goes to a therapist. The therapist asks Mr. Singh if he does any disciplining of the son, and he answers that he is away at work all day and doesn‘t want to deal with it when he gets home. The therapist suggests that Mr. Singh help with the son. She also suggests that maybe one or two nights a week, they (Mr. and Mrs. Singh) could go out to dinner by themselves and maybe to a movie to spend some quality time together. FAMILY THERAPY: structural change 3. Mr. and Mrs. Gomez have three small children and find that lately, they are arguing over everything concerning their children. They argue about when the children should go to bed, what foods they should eat, and what TV shows they should watch. They finally break down and go to see a therapist. The children say that their parents are accommodating and just enforce the rules. The therapist asks the parents about their relationship with each other. Mr. and Mrs. Gomez insist their relationship is fine, but they argue about the children and the children are the problem. FAMILY THERAPY: detriangulation 4. James has been missing a lot of school in the past 2 months. Both his parents work full-time jobs and leave the house before he does in the morning and get home after he does in the evening. They weren‘t even aware of his truancy until the school called one parent at work the other day to say that if James missed any more classes, he wouldn‘t pass the school year and would have to repeat the same grade again next year. The parents feel as though James is out of control and are at their wit‘s end. They all go into family therapy. The therapist tries to explain that what is occurring is not only James‘ fault, but it is also a family problem. She asks each parent if there is anything they could have done differently in their parenting to change the problem.

FAMILY THERAPY: reframing

Chapter 14 Social Psychology OPENING THEMES Social psychology is the scientific study of how people‘s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists consider the kinds and causes of the individual‘s behavior in social situations. They examine how the nature of situations in which we find ourselves influences our behavior in important ways. Unlike personality psychology, which focuses on individual differences, social psychology examines the role of the group, culture, and context on behavior. There are many applications of the material in this unit that you can make to the student‘s everyday life, ranging from headline news items to group processes in the classroom, dormitory, and activities in student life. Tying the topics in this unit to earlier topics, you can point out how social cognition provides a perspective on the fallacies in our judgments about people, as in the fundamental attribution error. Social psychology also helps students learn ways to fight common tendencies toward stereotyping, discrimination, blind obedience, and being swayed by commercials, advertisements, and high-pressure sales tactics. MODULE 43: ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 43-1

What are attitudes, and how are they formed, maintained, and changed?

43-2

How do people form impressions of what others are like and the causes of their behavior?

43-3

What are the biases that influence the ways in which people view others‘ behavior?

Celebrity endorsements in advertisements are designed to mold or change our attitudes. Such commercials are part of the barrage of messages we receive each day from sources as varied as politicians, sales staff in stores, and celebrities—all of which are meant to influence us. PERSUASION: CHANGING ATTITUDES The concept of attitudes is central in social psychology. Attitudes are evaluations of a person, behavior, belief, or concept. The ease with which we can change our attitudes depends on a number of factors, including: 

Message source: The characteristics of a person who delivers a persuasive message, known as an attitude communicator, have a major impact on the effectiveness of that



message. Communicators who are physically and socially attractive produce greater attitude change than those who are less attractive. Characteristics of the message: It is not just who delivers a message but what the message is like that affects attitudes. Generally, two-sided messages—which include both the communicator‘s position and the one they are arguing against—are more effective than one-sided messages, given the assumption that the arguments for the other side can be effectively refuted and the audience is knowledgeable about the topic. Characteristics of the target: Once a communicator has delivered a message, characteristics of the target of the message may determine whether the message will be accepted. For example, intelligent people are more resistant to persuasion than are those who are less intelligent.

ROUTES TO PERSUASION Recipients‘ receptiveness to persuasive messages relates to the type of information processing they use. Social psychologists have discovered two primary information-processing routes to persuasion: central route and peripheral route processing (see Figure 1). Central route processing occurs when the recipient thoughtfully considers the issues and arguments involved in persuasion. In central route processing, people are swayed in their judgments by the logic, merit, and strength of arguments. In contrast, peripheral route processing occurs when people are persuaded on the basis of factors unrelated to the nature or quality of the content of a persuasive message. Instead, factors that are irrelevant or extraneous to the issue, such as who is providing the message, how long the arguments are, or the emotional appeal of the arguments, influence them. Need for cognition is someone‘s typical level of thoughtfulness and cognitive activity. People who have a high need for cognition are more likely to employ central route processing. In contrast, people with a low need for cognition are more likely to use peripheral route processing. People who have a high need for cognition enjoy thinking, philosophizing, and reflecting on the world. THE LINK BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR Attitudes influence behavior. The strength of the link between particular attitudes and behavior varies, of course, but generally, people strive for consistency between their attitudes and their behavior. Furthermore, people hold fairly consistent attitudes. Ironically, the consistency that leads attitudes to influence behavior sometimes works the other way around: In some cases, our behavior shapes our attitudes. Cognitive dissonance is the mental conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes (Festinger, 1957; see Figure 2). Cognitive dissonance explains many everyday events involving attitudes and behavior. For example, smokers who know that smoking leads to lung cancer hold contradictory cognitions: (1) I smoke, and (2) smoking leads to lung cancer. The theory predicts that these two thoughts will lead to a state of cognitive dissonance.

SOCIAL COGNITION: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS One of the dominant areas in social psychology during the last few years has focused on learning how we come to understand what others are like and how we explain the reasons underlying others‘ behavior. UNDERSTANDING WHAT OTHERS ARE LIKE Social cognition is the way people understand and make sense of others and themselves. Schemas are sets of cognitions about people and social experiences. Schemas organize information stored in memory; represent in our minds the way the social world operates; and give us a framework to recognize, categorize, and recall information relating to social stimuli such as people and groups. We typically hold schemas for specific types of people. They help us predict what others are like on the basis of relatively little information because we tend to fit people into schemas even when we do not have much concrete evidence to go on. FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF OTHERS The earliest work on social cognition examined impression formation, the process by which an individual organizes information about another person to form an overall impression of that person. Central traits are the major traits considered in forming impressions of others. We form such impressions remarkably quickly. In just a few seconds, using what have been called ―thin slices of behavior,‖ we are able to make judgments of people that are accurate and that match those of people who make judgments based on longer samples of behavior. Of course, as we gain more experience with people and see them exhibiting behavior in a variety of situations, our impressions of them become more complex. However, because our knowledge of others usually has gaps, we still tend to fit individuals into personality schemas that represent particular ―types‖ of people. However, our schemas are susceptible to error. Even when schemas are not entirely accurate, they serve an important function: They allow us to develop expectations about how others will behave. Those expectations permit us to plan our interactions with others more easily and serve to simplify a complex social world. ATTRIBUTION PROCESSES: UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF BEHAVIOR Attribution theory considers how we decide, on the basis of samples of a person‘s behavior, what the specific causes of that behavior are. Unlike impression formation, which focuses on how people develop an overall impression of others‘ personality traits, attribution theory asks the ―why‖ question: Why is someone acting in a particular way? In seeking an explanation for behavior, we must answer one central question: Is the cause situational or dispositional? Situational causes are causes of behavior that are external to a person. In contrast, dispositional causes are causes of behavior brought about by a person‘s traits or personality characteristics. ATTRIBUTION BIASES: TO ERR IS HUMAN

Although attribution theory generally makes accurate predictions, people do not always process information about others as logically as the theory seems to suggest. In fact, research reveals consistent biases in the ways people make attributions. Typical biases include the following: 

The halo effect: The halo effect is a phenomenon in which an initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics. The opposite would also hold true.



Assumed-similarity bias: Most people believe that their friends and acquaintances are fairly similar to themselves. But this feeling goes beyond just people we know to a general tendency—known as the assumed-similarity bias—to think of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them for the first time.



The self-serving bias: The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort) and attribute failure to factors outside oneself.



The fundamental attribution error: The fundamental attribution error refers to a tendency to overattribute others‘ behavior to dispositional causes and minimize the importance of situational causes.

Behavioral economics is concerned with how individuals‘ biases irrationally affect economic decisions. Rather than viewing people as rational, thoughtful decision makers who are impartially weighing choices to draw conclusions, behavioral economists focus on the irrationality of judgments. KEY TERMS assumed-similarity bias The tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them for the first time. attitudes Evaluations of people, objects, ideas, and behavior. attribution theory The theory that considers how we decide, on the basis of samples of a person‘s behavior, what the specific causes of that behavior are. central route processing The type of mental processing that occurs when a persuasive message is evaluated by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade. central traits The major traits considered in forming impressions of others. cognitive dissonance The mental conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts (referred to as cognitions). dispositional causes (of behavior) Perceived causes of behavior brought about by a person‘s traits or personality characteristics.

fundamental attribution error A tendency to overattribute others‘ behavior to dispositional causes and minimize the importance of situational causes. halo effect A phenomenon in which an initial understanding that a person has positive or negative traits is used to infer other uniformly positive or negative characteristics. peripheral route processing The type of mental processing that occurs when a persuasive message is evaluated on the basis of irrelevant or extraneous factors. schemas Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled. self-serving bias The tendency to attribute personal success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort) and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself. situational causes (of behavior) Causes of behavior that are external to a person. social cognition The cognitive processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves. social psychology The scientific study of how people‘s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. LECTURE IDEAS Social Psychology: To begin the lecture on social psychology, ask students what social psychology means to them. Furthermore, ask them what sorts of topics social psychologists might discuss. Ask them how they think social psychology differs from sociology. WEBSITE: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY NETWORK The Social Psychology Network website contains links to information on all areas of social psychology, including specific topics, graduate programs, and careers: http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm. DEMONSTRATION: COGNITIVE DISSONANCE EXPERIMENT Below is another experiment I have taught using the format of ―Great Moments in the History of Psychology.‖ The Festinger experiment is recreated as described in the text. Participant #1 is given a boring task of turning pegs in a board. Then, that participant is paid $1 and told to explain it as interesting to the next participant. The enthusiasm of Participant #1 is compared to that of Participant #2, who is paid $20 to do the same thing. Each participant is then asked how much they actually enjoyed the boring task, and Participant #1 says it was truly more interesting than does Participant #2.

This experiment shows what happens when dissonance is created between behavior (completing a boring task and saying you liked it) and attitudes (the task really was boring). Other forms of dissonance are:      

Smoking (the example used in the text) Not voting but believing in the importance of voting Believing lying is wrong but lying to get out of an unwanted responsibility Giving money to a cause that you do not support because a friend asks you to do so Buying an expensive item, such as a digital camera or a computer, and then reading later that the item was not as highly rated as another item Paying more for an item (such as a computer) at one store and finding that it could have been bought for less at another store (the dissonance is there only if you believe that it is good to save money)

Ask students for other examples or use examples generated from the assignment above. ATTRIBUTION THEORY Attribution theory explains how we decide, on the basis of an individual‘s behavior, the specific cause of that person‘s behavior. The causes of behavior can be:  

Situational—elements of the environment or the context, or Dispositional—internal traits, abilities, or motivation.

Although these causes of behavior can be derived in a logical manner, most people are illogical when they make causal attributions. These are the mistakes they make: Self-serving bias: When explaining their own positive behavior, people tend to regard the cause as due to their abilities, but when explaining their own failures or errors, they attribute the cause to forces outside of themselves. Ask students for examples from their own lives. Fundamental attribution error: People have a tendency to exaggerate the importance of personal characteristics in producing others‘ behavior, minimizing the influence of the environment. When looking at their own behavior, people tend to exaggerate the influence of the environment, minimizing the influence of personal characteristics. Examples of the fundamental attribution error include:   

Believing a news anchor to be intelligent because they provide information on world situations Blaming a mother in a grocery store if her child misbehaves, but forgiving your cousin whose child engages in the same behavior because you know that the child needs a nap Cutting ahead of another student in line because you are late for class, but regarding as rude someone who does it to you



Complaining about people throwing a noisy party in their dorm room late at night, but regarding your own late-night social occasion as perfectly appropriate even though you and your friends were making noise in the hall

Halo effect: An initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other personality characteristics. Ask students for examples from their own lives. Assumed-similarity bias: Most people believe that their friends and acquaintances are fairly similar to themselves. This belief exemplifies the assumed-similarity bias. Ask students for examples from their own lives. Visual perception and attitudes: One reason we may make the fundamental attribution error is due to where our visual attention is drawn. When we are acting in a situation, we are visually focused on our current situational demands. Subsequently, when asked why we did what we did, we make situational attributions. When we are watching others, however, we are focused on them and not their situations. For this reason, we make dispositional attributions when we describe others. Ask students to consider how this is different in collectivist cultures. PERSUASIVENESS OF MESSAGES The factors that influence persuasiveness of message are: 

Message source: Characteristics of person giving the message, such as whether the source is a celebrity or an expert.



Characteristics of the message: One-sided versus two-sided argument. In a one-sided argument, only the pros or cons are presented. In a two-sided argument, both sides are presented.



Characteristics of the target: For example, intelligence, age, and gender. Who is the intended audience?

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS SELF-SERVING BIAS Ask the students to write down five examples of times when other people have probably used the self-serving bias. Next, break the class into groups, and have them share with each other the examples they came up with. They will learn from each other by examining the other students‘ examples. PERSUASION Have students imagine they work for a large advertising firm and have a project due for a new brand of toothpaste. Ask them to use the methods of persuasion described in this chapter to say how they would try to convince people to use the new toothpaste.

PERSUASION: ADVERTIS ING Have students choose and describe a television or magazine ad (attach the ad, if possible). Ask them to analyze the ad on the basis of the social psychology of persuasion (i.e., what methods of persuasion are being used), then describe the effect this ad had on them in terms of whether they were more or less likely to purchase the product. Persuade Me? An advertiser wants to sell a certain type of computer to a college audience. Break the class into groups, and have them answer the following questions: What might be one central route of persuasion the advertiser could try? What might be a peripheral route the advertiser could try? Finally, how might the advertiser use dissonance to change consumers' attitudes? The group must identify the four factors in persuasion: communicator, medium, target, and message. Finally, they must assess how persuasive the advertisement is. Ask them what they would change to make the advertisement more persuasive. Peripheral Versus Central Processing in Television Commercials: Show television ads that demonstrate these types of processes. GEICO commercials are good examples of peripheral processing because they have nothing to do with the product. An antismoking or anti-alcohol commercial is an example of central processing. You can also contrast one-sided with two-sided advertisements by showing these. Political advertisements that focus on issues also attempt to invoke central processing. ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT Have students work in groups to design a short attitude scale on some topic of interest. Have them list the questions on a scale and give the survey to a number of friends to respond to. Ask students to then answer these questions:   

What did you learn? How difficult is it to write effective questions? Did your subjects correctly interpret them? Do you think a survey can predict behavior? Why or why not?

Attitudes Predicting Behavior: Use Handout 2: Can You Change Their Attitude? The goal of this activity is for the students to choose an issue or topic that they will try to change someone else‘s attitude about. The students will use the four questions discussed in the chapter to demonstrate how they would go about changing someone‘s attitude. They should also discuss how people‘s attitudes are changed by using the four topics discussed in the chapter. Attitudes 1: Ask students to think about their attitudes on issues such as the right to bear arms, the growing scarcity of natural resources, health care, the death penalty, Social Security, and so on. Assign an essay detailing how their view on one of the above issues influences their behavior. This can also make for a lively class discussion.

Attitudes 2: Ask students to define an ―attitude.‖ This is often a difficult thing for students to do—they know what it is but find it hard to put into words. Next, ask them to provide a few examples of their own attitudes. Ask them how they developed their attitudes. This can help frame a discussion about attitudes and attitude formation. Attitudes 3: Ask students to reflect on their attitudes toward individuals of a different race or ethnic background than their own. Next, contrast and compare their attitudes with those of their parents. How do they compare, and why? COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Cognitive Dissonance: Use Handout 3: Attitude Survey. It is best to do this before beginning a lecture on cognitive dissonance. Ask students to complete the attitude survey first. Then, ask students to turn the handout over and complete the behavioral survey. Be sure you first present the side that says Attitude Survey. After they are done, ask students to view their answers. Are there any discrepancies in their attitudes and in their behaviors? Students generally get the point of this exercise very quickly. In most cases, a majority of students will agree with or show positive attitudes toward the issue, but only a small minority will actually report behavior consistent with those attitudes. Source: Carkenord, D. M., & Bullington, J. (1993). Bringing cognitive dissonance to the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 41–43. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Provide an example of cognitive dissonance from your own experience. Do you agree that cognitive dissonance can cause attitude change? Why or why not? In general, how important is cognitive dissonance in everyday life? Why? POLLING QUESTIONS Show students two advertisements (one depicting central processing and one depicting peripheral processing: see lecture suggestion above for an example). Poll students about which advertisement they think is more effective. This can be followed up by a discussion in which students explain their choice. Polling Question: Danger: Unskilled and Unaware The Dunning–Kruger effect is a cognitive bias in which "people reach erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices but their incompetence robs them of the metacognitive ability to realize it." The unskilled, therefore, suffer from illusory superiority, rating their own ability as

above average, much higher than in actuality; by contrast, the highly skilled underrate their abilities, suffering from illusory inferiority. Let‘s reflect on this! Put two options on the board: unskilled and unaware, or skilled and aware. Now, let everyone select which one they think is worse off. Who in this class has ever met someone who overrated their skills and when asked to perform something, wasn‘t able to? What about the opposite: Who knows someone who constantly underrates their skills and falls into the illusion of inferiority? Why do we think this happens? SUGGESTED MEDIA CrashCourse. (2014, November 11). Social influence: Crash course psychology #38 ([Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGxGDdQnC1Y. How to detect lies. http://www.blifaloo.com/info/lies.php. Insight Media. (2001). The power of persuasion, 55:00. Robert Cialdini outlines the principles of persuasion. Insight Media. (2001). Social cognition, 30:00. This piece highlights the principles of social cognition. Insight Media. (2001). Attitudes, 30:00. This video explores how attitudes are formed. Insight Media. (2008). Cognitive dissonance, 16:00. This piece illustrates cognitive dissonance. Learning Seed. (2007). Paul Ekman. Why we lie, 30:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGQf9O61cww. Persuasion in Everyday Life.https://www.learningseed.com/catalog/persuasion-in-everyday-life. This DVD explores the five mind shapers of persuasion in everyday life. Self-serving bias. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjfSuOq6ReA&feature=related. This brief clip illustrates the self-serving bias. Social Psychology Network. https://www.socialpsychology.org. This website is devoted to psychological research and teaching, and provides hundreds of links to other sources. The Simpsons. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQGwrK_yDEg&feature=youtu.be. Moe takes a lie detector test. TELEVISION COMMERCIALS Show a television commercial that perhaps exemplifies a ―bait and switch‖ method such as for used cars, furniture stores, electronic products, or jewelry. This is an excellent illustration of lowballing.

SPORTS BROADCASTS Show a brief segment of a televised sporting event (for educational uses, this does not present a copyright infringement) in which a player errs in a crucial play, showing the potentially negative effects of social facilitation. Of potential relevance is the ―home-choke hypothesis‖ of Baumeister, which predicts a loss of a playoff game played at home due to the negative effects of self-consciousness on performance (causing the player to ―choke‖). ADDITIONAL READINGS Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & O‘Sullivan, M. (1997). Smiles when lying. Haskins, J. (2015). The right to refuse service: Can a business refuse service to someone? LegalZoom. https://www.legalzoom.com/articles/the-right-to-refuse-service-can-a-businessrefuse-service-to-someone-because-of-appearance. Myers, D. (2012). Social psychology (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rosenberg, E. L. (Ed.) What the face reveals: Basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) (pp. 201–216). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Smith, J. R., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). Social psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stewart, D. W. (2015). The handbook of persuasion and social marketing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. MODULE 44: SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUPS LEARNING OBJECTIVE 44-1

What are the major sources and tactics of social influence?

Pressures to conform to others‘ behavior can be painfully strong and can bring about changes in behavior that otherwise never would have occurred. Conformity pressures are just one type of social influence. Social influence is the process by which social groups and individuals exert pressure on an individual, either deliberately or unintentionally. Social influence is so powerful, in part because groups and other people generally play a central role in our lives. As defined by social psychologists, groups consist of two or more people who: (1) interact with one another; (2) perceive themselves as part of a group; and (3) are interdependent. Groups develop and hold norms, expectations regarding behavior appropriate to the group. Groups exert considerable social influence over individuals that ranges from the mundane to the extreme. CONFORMITY: FOLLOWING WHAT OTHERS DO

Conformity is a change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people. Subtle or even unspoken social pressure results in conformity. The classic demonstration of pressure to conform comes from a series of studies carried out in the 1950s by Solomon Asch (see Figure 1). CONFORMITY CONCLUSIONS Since Asch‘s pioneering work, literally hundreds of studies have examined conformity, and we now know a great deal about the phenomenon. Significant findings focus on: 

The characteristics of the group: The more attractive a group appears to its members, the greater its ability to produce conformity. Furthermore, a person‘s relative status, the social rank held within a group, is critical: The lower a person‘s status in the group, the greater the groups‘ power over that person‘s behavior.



The situation in which the individual is responding: Conformity is considerably higher when people must respond publicly than it is when they can do so privately.



The kind of task: People working on ambiguous tasks and questions (those with no clear answer) are more susceptible to social pressure. In addition, tasks at which an individual is less competent than others in the group make conformity more likely.



Unanimity of the group: Groups that unanimously support a position show the most pronounced conformity pressures. There are certain situations in which people with dissenting views have an ally in the group known as a social supporter, who agrees with them. Having just one person present who shares the minority point of view is sufficient to reduce conformity pressures.

GROUPTHINK: CAVING IN TO CONFORMITY Groupthink is a type of thinking in which group members share such a strong motivation to achieve consensus that they lose the ability to critically evaluate alternative points of view. Groupthink typically leads to poor decisions. Groups limit the list of possible solutions to just a few, and they spend relatively little time considering any alternatives once the leader seems to be leaning toward a particular solution. In addition, groups may fall prey to entrapment, a circumstance in which commitments to a failing point of view or course of action are increased to justify investments in time and energy that have already been made. COMPLIANCE: SUBMITTING TO DIRECT SOCIAL PRESSURE When we refer to conformity, we usually mean a phenomenon in which the social pressure is subtle or indirect. But in some situations, social pressure is much more obvious with direct, explicit pressure to endorse a particular point of view or behave in a certain way. Social

psychologists call the type of behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure compliance. Several specific techniques, including the following, represent attempts to gain compliance. The use of the foot-in-the-door technique begins when someone asks a target to comply with a small, trivial request. This technique works due to the consideration that the small request may lead to an interest in the topic of the request or issue; taking an action—any action—makes the individual more committed to the issue, thereby increasing the likelihood of future compliance. Another explanation revolves around people‘s self-perceptions. In the door-in-the-face technique, someone makes a large request, expects it to be refused, and follows it with a smaller one. This strategy, which is the opposite of the foot-in-the-door approach, has proven to be effective. The use of this technique is widespread and is easily implemented. In the that’s-not-all technique, a salesperson offers you a deal at an inflated price. But immediately after the initial offer, the salesperson offers an incentive, discount, or bonus to clinch the deal. Although it sounds transparent, this practice can be quite effective. If you ever receive a free sample, keep in mind that it comes with a psychological cost. Although they may not couch it in these terms, salespeople who provide samples to potential customers do so to bring the norm of reciprocity into play. This is the not-so-free sample in action. The norm of reciprocity is the social standard that we should treat other people as they treat us. Companies seeking to sell their products to consumers often use the techniques identified by social psychologists for promoting compliance. Industrial–organizational (I/O) psychology, a close cousin to social psychology, considers issues such as worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity. I/O psychologists also focus on the operation and design of organizations; they ask questions such as how decision making can be improved in large organizations and how the fit between workers and their jobs can be maximized. OBEDIENCE: FOLLOWING DIRECT ORDERS Compliance techniques are used to gently lead people toward agreement with a request. In some cases, however, requests aim to produce obedience, a change in behavior in response to the commands of others. Although obedience is considerably less common than conformity and compliance, it does occur in several specific kinds of relationships. For example, we may show obedience to our bosses, teachers, or parents merely because of the power they hold to reward or punish us. KEY TERMS compliance Behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure. conformity A change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people. group Two or more people who interact with one another, perceive themselves as part of a group, and are interdependent.

groupthink A type of thinking in which group members share such a strong motivation to achieve consensus that they lose the ability to critically evaluate alternative points of view. industrial–organizational (I/O) psychology The branch of psychology focusing on work- and job-related issues, including worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity. obedience A change in behavior in response to the commands of others. social influence The process by which social groups and individuals exert pressure on an individual, either deliberately or unintentionally. social supporter A group member whose dissenting views make nonconformity to the group easier. status The social standing of someone in a group. LECTURE IDEAS STUDY ON ―THE POWER OF THE SITUATION‖— PHILIP ZIMBARDO‘S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT Stanford University students were arbitrarily divided into ―prisoners‖ and ―guards.‖ The experiment had to be called off because the subjects all perceived it too realistically. CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT—SOLOMON ASCH The subject was asked to judge the length of a line and compare it to three lines, A, B, and C (see Figure 1). The line was clearly the length of line A in this array, but confederates of the experimenter said it was the length of another line. The real subjects were more likely to conform to the judgments of the confederates. Groupthink is a variant of conformity. OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT—STANLEY MILGRAM A ―teacher‖ was told by the experimenter to shock the ―learner‖ for making mistakes. The learner was not seen by the teacher, but the learner made many mistakes in the experiment. Most of the ―teachers‖ penalized the learners with the maximum level of shock. Ethics and Milgram: Remind students about the APA‘s ethical rules for experimentation. Ask students if they think that this study, exactly as it was conducted, would be allowed today. Why or why not? If they feel this was unethical, how would they suggest studying obedience? GRAPH WITH RESULTS OF MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS To remember the differences among these experimenters, use these hints: 

Asch—He studied ―conformi—tree‖ (an ash is a type of tree).



Milgram—The finding that people were willing to torture others because they were following orders was pretty ―grim.‖



Zimbardo prison study—Prisons have ―bars,‖ as in his name.

COMPLIANCE WITHOUT PRESSURE Methods used to influence others to comply with requests, suggestions, or sales tactics include:  



The foot-in-the-door technique—Ask for a small favor and the person will be more likely to perform the large favor. The door-in-the-face technique—In this tactic, called the door-in-the-face technique, someone makes a large request, expects it to be refused, and follows it with a smaller one. This strategy is the opposite of the foot-in-the-door approach. The that‘s-not-all technique—Offer a product at an inflated price and then give an incentive, discount, or bonus that will make the deal seem more attractive when that was the original price anyway. The not-so-free sample technique—Offer a free sample and through the norm of reciprocity, the person will feel obligated to make a purchase.

Each of these methods relies on consistency of commitment that people want to appear as though they are rational and make well-thought-out decisions. Have students think of examples of each technique from their own lives.

DEMONSTRATION: COMPLIANCE METHODS Four methods of compliance can be illustrated in a ―Deal or No Deal‖ format. Each one is acted out in an improvisational skit mode, and then students in the class have to guess which method they have just seen. To make the task more difficult, either illustrate only three of them or add lowballing, which is not included in the book, but which occurs when the participant agrees to the small favor (or amount of a purchase) and then before they actually engage in the behavior (e.g., does not buy the item but has only agreed to do so), the salesperson raises the price after ―checking with my manager.‖ Once the game has begun, put the compliance methods up on the screen as an overhead so students know the choices. Examples of each method are as follows: 

Foot in the door: A small favor is requested such as wearing a button endorsing a political candidate. After that, the person is more likely to spend hours making phone calls to raise money for that candidate.



Door in the face: As is done in my university‘s annual fund campaign, alums are called and asked to donate $1,000 when the desired contribution is $40.



Not-so-free-sample: At a local grocer‘s, small cheese samples are handed out with the intention that recipients will buy the cheese.



That‘s not all: A salesperson heaps on discounts for jewelry, arriving at a final price that is what was originally desired by the manager.



Lowballing: The salesperson quotes a price that the consumer agrees to, but then the salesperson finds, after checking with the manager, that the final price will actually be higher (see any sales catalog such as Macy‘s, which offers an enormous number of ―discounts.‖)

Theft Report: Come into the classroom to prepare for the day‘s lecture. Then, tell the students you forgot something and will be back in a few minutes, leaving your purse or briefcase on the desk or lectern. Have an accomplice then come in and take what you left. Return to the room and see how long it takes students to report the theft. Student Response: Begin your lecture for the day. About 10 min into the lecture, arrange for an accomplice to make noises outside the classroom as if they fell off their skateboard or tripped, and so on, and hurt themselves. Continue lecturing as if nothing happened and see how long it takes for students to respond. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON PERFORMANCE

Social facilitation—The tendency to perform better on an easy task in front of an audience but to perform more poorly on a difficult task. Social loafing—The tendency to put in less effort when there are several people working together. Diffusion of responsibility—The belief that responsibility for taking action is shared, or diffused, among those present. Point out that social loafing applies to the amount of effort and diffusion of responsibility applies to the giving of help. Social Facilitation of Cockroaches: Students get a kick out of hearing about Zajonc, Heingartner, and Herman‘s (1969) social facilitation study with cockroaches. See Suggested Readings for a full citation. Social Loafing on Group Projects: Ask students for examples of when they have loafed or have been the victim of someone else‘s social loafing. Have them think about group work and group projects in class. Do they like this type of work? Why or why not? IN-GROUP–OUT-GROUP BIAS People have a tendency to give members of their own group a positive evaluation and members of another group a negative evaluation. Examples of these can be derived from the student assignment on this topic. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS ASCH‘S CONFORMITY STUDY Have students complete the activity on this website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOBhKR4MK3w. Then, ask them the following questions:   

At what point did you start to question your judgment? Do you think it was more or less convincing to have a computer provide feedback rather than peers? Why? How does the conformity experiment translate to real life? What does it say about human nature?

DEMONSTRATION: CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT Ask students the following questions: What is conformity? Why do you think some people conform and others do not? Can you think of a time when you conformed? Can you think of a time when you did not conform?

Asch‘s experiment lends itself very well to the ―Great Moments in the History of Psychology‖ format. Run the experiment as described, the first five people all agreeing on the erroneous judgment and the actual subject showing great conflict until he finally goes along with the majority. Ask students if they think that American society overemphasizes physical appearance and thinness. Ask them to defend their answers. If they answered yes, ask them how these values are conveyed to children, adolescents, and adults. What pressures might young men and women experience if they do not conform to the idealized image? CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT Have students design a test for conformity: Arrange for several friends to do something unique and observe the reaction of others in the group. For instance, you might ask them to place their books on the floor rather than on their desks. Or they might hum a tune, giggle, stick their tongues out, look out the window, or, replicating the famous Candid Camera example, turn and face the rear in an elevator. Then, have students answer these questions:   

What percentage of bystanders conformed? Why do you think they did or did not? What did you learn about conformity?

Conformity: Prior to class, cut a piece of string about 108 inches long. Before discussing conformity, tape the string to the wall or board. It is best to stagger the string and not hang it straight. Ask students to write down how long they think the string is in inches. Tell students not to put their names on their papers. Collect their papers. Ask a student volunteer to read the guesses while you write them on the board. There will most likely be a wide variety of answers. Next, ask students to publicly tell you how long the string is in inches. Write down their responses. There is typically a wide range of answers with those that are the most bizarre and different from the norm dropping out. This is a nice way to demonstrate public and private responses in a conforming situation. SOCIAL FACILITATION EXPERIMENT Have students complete this experiment on social facilitation: Print a series of letters (including consonants and vowels) on a sheet of paper. Make several copies. Ask half of your subjects to cancel (cross out) each of the vowels when seated in front of a group of people and the rest of the subjects to do it when alone. Time each subject until they cancel all of the vowels on the page. Then, have them record the performance of the students in the alone versus the social group.

Next, have students perform a difficult task—patting their heads while rubbing their stomachs, again, alone or in front of a group. Note in which condition students performed more effectively. According to social facilitation theory, the subjects in front of a group should complete the first task in less time than those alone because it was easy, but they should perform more poorly on the second task in front of others rather than alone (with just an observer) because it is a more difficult task. An alternative to the head–stomach condition is shooting foul shots in a basketball hoop or juggling three small balls. GROUP INFLUENCE Group Influence: Break the class into groups, and have each group come up with an example of each of the following: deindividuation, social contagion, group performance, social facilitation, social loafing, and group interaction and decision making. After completing this assignment, have one member of each group come to the front of the class and discuss with the other students the examples their group decided on. Groupthink: Have the students search on the Internet and in newspapers or magazines for examples of situations they believe reflect the concept of groupthink. Deindividuation: This is a classic in social psychology classes. Ask students to anonymously write down their response to this question. ―If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?‖ Have students turn in their papers. After a discussion of deindividuation, read the responses to the class. You will probably get a variety of answers from antisocial to prosocial. In my classes, I seem to get far more antisocial answers. Robbing a bank is always a very common response! Source: Dodd, D. (1985). Robbers in the classroom: A deindividuation exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 12(2), 89–91. METHODS OF COMPLIANCE Send students on a field trip in which they investigate methods of compliance. Have them visit several mall stores, including a department store, a jewelry store, an electronics store, and one ―other‖ store. For each store, they should write down at least two examples of one of the sales compliance techniques. Then, have them complete Handout 4: Methods of Compliance. OBEDIENCE Milgram’s Obedience Experiments: Show the class the video of Milgram‘s obedience experiments and then have the students write a one- to two-page summary of their views regarding the experiment. They should discuss the ethical concerns raised by the experiment. Obedience: This exercise should be done prior to covering obedience in the social psychology class. You can do this yourself, or have another professor walk into class and start moving

students to different seats, then move them again, and give a student some money and ask them to go get you a soda. Do the students do what you ask or the other professor asks? They typically do. Ask them why this happens. They usually say, ―Because you are the professor!‖ You can also use this as a lead into social psychology. Source: Hunter, W. J. (1981). Obedience to authority. In L. T. Benjamin & K. D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 149–150). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Milgram’s Study: Facilitate a class discussion on conformity and obedience with the following: Think of a time when you resisted conformity or obedience. What were the reasons behind resisting conformity or obedience? Ask students if they would have obeyed in Milgram‘s study. Why or why not? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS SOCIAL LOAFING Social loafing sometimes occurs in group work. When you are working with other students on a project, how do you get all group members to participate equally? Ask students for examples of when they have loafed or have been the victim of someone else‘s social loafing. Have them think about group work and group projects in class. Do they like this type of work? Why or why not? IN-GROUP–OUT-GROUP BIAS In what situations have you felt that you were the in-group and others were the out-group? How did you and the rest of your group treat the out-group? In what situations have you felt that you were the out-group and others were the in-group? How did you feel at being a member of the out-group? An excellent example is pedestrians and motorists on campus. While crossing the street at a crosswalk, you resent the cars rushing past, but as a motorist, you wish the pedestrians would walk a little faster! CONFORMITY AND OBEDIENCE Are there ways that conformity and obedience can be beneficial for a society? How might they be dangerous? When was the last time you stood up against group pressure and why?

Do you think participants were treated ethically in the Milgram study? Why or why not? How does your behavior change when you are with a particular group of people and why? What social movements have influenced your life and how? Ask students why they think some people conform and others do not. Can they think of a time when they conformed? Can they think of a time when they did not conform? How did they feel in those situations? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Refusing to Do Group Work in Class Understanding group dynamics, groupthink, and group polarization, let‘s work through the notion that many students don‘t like to do group work in class. How many of you ever experienced group work in a class that was unproductive and didn‘t actually get anything accomplished? In a group, how many of you feel like your thoughts and opinions get overshadowed by the group‘s decision? How many of you can describe a time when you experienced groupthink? Who has participated in a group experience that went well? Of those who answered, what characteristics of the group made it a positive experience? After describing the Milgram experiment but before showing the results, ask students the following question: 

If you were a participant in this study, do you believe you would give the maximum level of shock? or



If you were a participant in this study, what is the highest level of shock you would be willing to administer?

Have you experienced prejudice or discrimination within the past 6 months? What is the best way to make people aware of their prejudices? SUGGESTED MEDIA ABC News. (2003). Kindness of strangers, 15:00. This show explores bystander intervention in terms of when people will and will not help another in need. ABC News. (2006). Lab conformity, 15:00. Preview available at https://www.films.com/ecTitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=12729&r=SR Conformity is discussed in this DVD along with classic and modern studies. ABC News. (2007). Obeying or resisting authority, 36:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnYUl6wlBF4. Jerry Burger, a professor from Santa Clara University, recreates the Milgram experiment with the help of Prime Time.

Annenberg/CPB Collection. (1990). Discovering psychology: The power of the situation, 30:00. https://www.learner.org/series/discovering-psychology/the-power-of-the-situation/. The role of situational factors in influencing our beliefs and behaviors is discussed. Asch Conformity Study. Footage from this classic experiment can be found at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyDDyT1lDhA. Brain Games: Conformity (Standing Ovations). (2017, April 17) [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ft7mwyiPyIo. Bystander Effect. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JozmWS6xYEw. Cherry, K. (2019, March 10). The Standford prison experiment. https://www.verywellmind.com/the-stanford-prison-experiment-2794995. Dateline NBC (2010, April). What were you thinking? http://www.nbcnews.com/id/36787261/ns/dateline_nbcthe_hansen_files_with_chris_hansen/t/what-were-you-thinking/#.XPRhnC3MzOS. This documentary replicates several social psychology experiments. Harper & Row. (1975). Invitation to social psychology, 26:00. This is a dated but classic DVD that provides an overview social psychology and introduces the viewer to reenactments of Asch‘s conformity experiment, Milgram‘s work on obedience, and Zimbardo‘s prison study. Insight Media. (2000). The critical issues: Obedience and ethics, 30:00. This video highlights the ethical issues of Milgram‘s study. Insight Media. (2001). Group Influence, 30:00. This video discusses the Asch and Milgram‘s studies. Insight Media. (2002). Conflict 60:00. This video highlights the Stanford Prison Experiment. Insight Media. (2008). Conformity, 19:00. This program examines conformity and highlights everyday factors that affect conformity. The DVD also discusses the cognitive process of groupthink. Insight Media. (2008). Bystander intervention/diffusion of responsibility, 15:00. This piece discusses the paradox of bystander intervention. Jonestown—The Life and Death of the People’s Temple. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IY3cx3U0gYE. Milgram’s obedience study and Ghostbusters introduction. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aB_lljnqkDw.

Obedience. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwqNP9HRy7Y. This brief clip discusses obedience to authority. Replication of Milgram’s Experiment by the BBC. https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xb8dmu. Stanford Prison Experiment movie website. https://www.prisonexp.org. A 2015 film based on the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment conducted by Dr. Philip Zimbardo. Trailer available at https://youtu.be/7LviGTHud5w. Steel, S. (Let‘s Talk About Sects). (2018, December 19). Grace J. Adams and Poia Alpha, former Branch Davidians [Audio podcast]. https://www.ltaspod.com/12. POPULAR MOVIE: GROUP NORMS The movie Mean Girls includes a number of scenes in which group norms are explicitly discussed and enforced: trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDU84nmSDZY. POPULAR MOVIE: STANLEY MILGRAM The movie Experimenter is a depiction of the life and research of Milgram. The Milgram obedience experiments play a large role in this film: trailer available at http://www.magpictures.com/experimenter/. DAILY SHOW EPISODE You can view Zimbardo‘s interview with The Daily Show’s Jon Stewart in which he discusses his book The Lucifer Effect: http://www.cc.com/video-clips/xsg52i/the-daily-show-with-jonstewart-philip-zimbardo. Stewart also makes comic remarks about his experience as a psychology major. ADDITIONAL READINGS Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgements. In Mary. Cialdini, R. (2009). Influence: Science and practice. New York, NY: Pearson. Cook, K. (2014). Kitty Genovese: The murder, the bystanders, the crime that changed America. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Darley, J. M., Lewis, L., & Teger, A. (1973). Do groups always inhibit individuals‘ responses to potential emergencies? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 395–400. Elias, S. M., & Pratkanis, A. R. (2006). Teaching social influence: Demonstrations and exercises from the discipline of social psychology. Social Influence, 1, 147–162.

Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58(2), 203. Getlen, L. (2014, February 16). Debunking the myth of Kitty Genovese, New York Post, https://nypost.com/2014/02/16/book-reveals-real-story-behind-the-kitty-genovesemurder/. Haney, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1998). The past and future of U.S. prison policy: Twenty-five years after the Stanford prison experiment. American Psychologist, 53(7), 709–727. Hardy, C., & Latané, B. (1986). Social loafing on a cheering task. Social Science, 71(2–3), 165– 172. Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343–356. Latané, B., & Darley, J. (1969). Bystander ―apathy.‖ American Scientist, 57, 244–268. Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (2006). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. In J. M. Levine & R. L. Moreland (Eds.). Small Groups (pp. 297–308). New York: Psychology Press. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371–378. Moore, R. (2009). Understanding Jonestown and Peoples Temple. Westport, CT: Praeger. Riggio, H., & Garcia, A. L. (2009). The power of situations: Jonestown and the fundamental attribution error. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 108–112. MODULE 45: PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 45-1

How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ?

45-2

How can we reduce prejudice and discrimination?

A stereotype is a set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a specific group and its members. Stereotypes, which may be negative or positive, grow out of our tendency to categorize and organize the vast amount of information we encounter in our everyday lives. Stereotypes can lead to prejudice, a negative (or positive) evaluation of a group and its members. For instance, racial prejudice, also called racism, occurs when a member of a racial group is evaluated in terms of race and not because of their own characteristics or abilities. Common stereotypes and forms of prejudice involve race, religion, ethnicity, and gender. Over

the years, members of various groups have been called ―lazy‖ or ―shrewd‖ or ―cruel‖ with varying degrees of regularity by those who are not members of that group. Acting on negative stereotypes results in discrimination—behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group. Discrimination can lead to exclusion from jobs, neighborhoods, and educational opportunities, and it may result in lower salaries and benefits for members of specific groups. Discrimination can also result in more favorable treatment to favored groups. Stereotyping not only leads to overt discrimination, but also can cause members of stereotyped groups to behave in ways that reflect the stereotype through a phenomenon known as the selffulfilling prophecy. Self-fulfilling prophecies are expectations about the occurrence of a future event or behavior that act to increase the likelihood the event or behavior will occur. The consequences of prejudice and discrimination can be profound with respect to victims‘ psychological functioning, leaving them feeling hurt, inadequate, and anxious. It can even negatively impact their cognitive functioning. THE FOUNDATIONS OF PREJUDICE According to observational learning approaches to stereotyping and prejudice, the behavior of parents, other adults, and peers shapes children‘s feelings about members of various groups. Likewise, young children learn prejudice by imitating the behavior of adult models. Moreover, the bias people encounter does not need to be overt. Even subtle and ambiguous forms of discriminatory behavior can send a message of discrimination. Mass media also transmit information about stereotypes, not just for children but for adults as well. Even today, media portrayals can be found that depict Italians as Mafia-like mobsters, Jews as greedy bankers, and black Americans as promiscuous or lazy. Newspaper articles overrepresent black and Hispanic individuals as associated with low-skills jobs, crime, and poverty. According to social identity theory, we use group membership as a source of pride and selfworth. Social identity theory suggests that people tend to be ethnocentric, viewing the world from their own perspective and judging others in terms of their group membership. However, the use of group membership to provide social respect produces an unfortunate outcome. In an effort to maximize our sense of self-esteem, we may come to think that our own group (our in-group) is better than groups to which we do not belong (our out-groups). Consequently, we inflate the positive aspects of our in-group—and, at the same time, devalue out-groups. The most recent approach to understanding prejudice comes from an increasingly important area in social psychology: social neuroscience. Social neuroscience seeks to identify the neurological basis of social behavior. It looks at how we can illuminate our understanding of groups, interpersonal relations, and emotions by understanding their neuroscientific underpinnings. In one example of the value of social neuroscience approaches, researchers examined activation of the amygdala, the structure in the brain that relates to emotion-evoking stimuli and situations,

while people viewed white and black faces. The amygdala showed more activation when participants saw a black face than when they saw a white one, suggesting that culturally learned societal messages about race led to the brain activation. NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION ON BRAIN CONNECTIVITY Experiencing discrimination has many negative effects on a person‘s health and well-being. A recent study of Black older adults demonstrated how discrimination affects functional connectivity, the ways in which activity in two or more brain regions correlate with each other. It‘s not surprising that experiencing discrimination would affect a person‘s emotional processes and sense of trust. However, this might be especially salient for Black older adults, who have lived through decades of racial injustices, including racial terror related to lynchings, Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation, redlining that prohibited Black Americans from buying homes and building equity, and continual racial disparities in the criminal justice and health-care systems. MEASURING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION: THE IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST Could you be prejudiced and not even know it? Probably yes, according to the researchers who developed a test that reveals hidden prejudice. The Implicit Association Test, or IAT, is an ingenious measure of prejudice that permits a more accurate assessment of people‘s discrimination between members of different groups. The IAT uses the fact that people‘s automatic, instant reactions often provide the most valid indicator of what they actually believe. Having an implicit bias does not mean that people will overtly discriminate, which is a criticism that has been made of the test. Yet it does mean that the cultural lessons to which we are exposed have a considerable unconscious influence on us. The good news is that certain types of implicit bias are on the decline. Using responses from 4.4 million online implicit bias test-takers, researchers found that implicit bias declined from 2007 through 2017. The reductions in implicit bias suggest changes in societal prejudice that are reflected in individuals‘ attitudes in a positive way. REDUCING THE CONSEQUENCES OF PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Following are the strategies that have proved effective in diminishing the effects of prejudice and discrimination: 

Increasing contact between the target of stereotyping and the holder of the stereotype: Research consistently shows that increasing the amount of interaction between people can reduce negative stereotyping. But only certain kinds of contact are likely to reduce prejudice and discrimination. Situations in which contact is relatively intimate, the

individuals are of equal status, or participants must cooperate with one another or are dependent on one another are more likely to reduce stereotyping. 

Making values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous: Sometimes just reminding people about the values they already hold regarding equality and fair treatment of others is enough to reduce discrimination.



Providing information about the targets of stereotyping: Probably the most direct means of changing stereotypical and discriminatory attitudes is education: teaching people to be more aware of the positive characteristics of targets of stereotyping.



Reducing stereotype threat: Social psychologist Claude Steele suggests that many African Americans suffer from stereotype vulnerability, obstacles to performance that stem from their awareness of society‘s stereotypes regarding minority group members.



Increasing the sense of social belonging of ethnic minority students: Although almost every college student faces feelings of inadequacy and uncertainty about belonging at the start of college, such feelings are especially strong for members of groups who are underrepresented and have been the targets of prejudice and discrimination. However, research shows that a simple intervention in which members of minority groups are made to understand that feelings of inadequacy are not unique to them—and that such feelings usually diminish with time—can help minority students increase their sense of social belonging.

KEY TERMS discrimination Behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group. prejudice A negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members. social neuroscience The subfield of social psychology that seeks to identify the neurological basis of social behavior. stereotype A set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members. LECTURE IDEAS THE ―ISM‘S‖ Summarize the most common forms of ―ism‘s‖ or prejudice. Some of these have possible ―other‖ targets as well. Type of Ism

Usual Target

Possible Other Targets

Sexism

Females

Males, if females exclude them from jobs or social organizations

Ageism

Older adults

Teenagers and college students, who may be treated as children or as irresponsible

Racism

Racial and ethnic minorities

Racial and ethnic nonminorities, who are regarded as narrowminded, uncaring, or prejudicial even when their behavior does not warrant this treatment

Heterosexism

The LGBTQ community

Ableism

People who have physical disabilities

Fatism

People experiencing obesity

Classism

Working-class people

Multiple ―ism’s‖

People who are targets in more than one category

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Ask students for examples of when they might have been the victims of prejudice or discrimination. A common example that students may have experienced is poor service at a restaurant because the wait staff did not think they would be good tippers, or trying to rent an apartment from a landlord that does not allow cosigners. Evolution and Attitudes: Evolutionary forces explain certain inborn attitudes, but many of our attitudes come from experience. Ask students what attitudes they may have that they learned from others and which are evolutionarily predisposed. Ask students to share their experiences. Have students discuss what a typical member of each of the following categories is like: men, women, teenagers, Republicans, Democrats, and any other category you feel is relevant. Explain to them that all their answers represent stereotypes that can potentially lead to prejudice and discrimination. U.S. EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION (EEOC) Visit the website of the EEOC to receive the most current information on U.S. government policies and procedures to combat discrimination against targeted groups: http://www.eeoc.gov/.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS CAMPUS RESEARCH PROJECT ON DISCRIMINATION Have students visit the Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employment office of your campus. Alternatively, they could visit campus offices related to diversity or multicultural affairs. If possible, they should speak with one of the staff people or at least read their brochures and other information. Ask students these questions:   

What are the methods they use to limit the extent to which employees are not the targets of discrimination? Do you feel these are the best methods to use? Why or why not? If you were the head of this office, what psychological principles would you use to attempt to reduce discrimination?

Prejudice: Break the class into groups. Each group will draw a piece of paper out of a hat. On each piece, you will have written some prejudice such as age, sex, religion, race, and so on. Give the students about 15–30 min to come up with different phrases and actions they can use to demonstrate that type of prejudice. After the allotted time, have the students perform the prejudice in front of the class. The other students in the class should try to figure out what type of prejudice the group is performing. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Show the film Crash (2004; R rated) or a variety of segments that show stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. While the students are viewing this film, have them identify on paper the stereotype and/or the prejudice portrayed and say how these have caused the discrimination. Discuss these observations in class. Finally, have the students brainstorm ways to overcome or change the negative attitudes, halt discrimination, and improve gender and interethnic relations. Improving Interethnic Relations: Use Handout 5: Robber’s Cave and the Jigsaw Classroom as a way for the students to further understand how these activities can improve interethnic relations between various cultures. The students will develop their own version of both the Robber‘s Cave experiment and the Jigsaw Classroom study. IMPLICIT ATTITUDES TEST Implicit Bias Test: Ask students to find out if they hold subtle and implicit prejudices by going to the website developed by Banaji, Greenwald, and Nosek: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/, then to the ―Demonstrations Tests‖ link. Ask them to read the general information and then follow the ―I wish to proceed‖ link, where they should choose one or more from many different forms of the IAT: race, religion, gender-science, sexuality, Arab-Muslim, age, and skin tone. Each one takes only about 10 min to complete. After

they complete one version of the test, they will be provided with general results of how they did. Ask them if they think it is accurate. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS THE ―ISM‘S‖ Choose an ―ism‖ about which you feel strongly (racism, sexism, ageism, heterosexism, etc.). Describe why this is an important area of discrimination. What do you think accounts for this area being an ―ism?‖ How would you attempt to reduce discrimination against targets of this prejudice? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: I’m Not Biased… You’re Biased Cross-cultural psychologists examine ―VARIABILITY IN BEHAVIOR AMONG THE VARIOUS SOCIETIES AND CULTURAL GROUPS AROUND THE WORLD‖ (Smith & Bond, 1998). This has become extremely influential in the controversial topic of cultural bias in psychology over the past few decades as it has changed psychologists‘ views of and ways in which they study culture today. Conducting cross-cultural studies enables psychologists to compare their studies to others and test for cultural biases as well as the existence of variations within cultures. Hundreds to thousands of cultures and traditions can be seen throughout the world today, and it is important not to generalize in terms of their similarities, but rather to highlight their uniqueness and distinctiveness. Given what you have learned about social psychology, let‘s apply it to our awareness of cultures. How many of you wish you were more knowledgeable about cultures other than your own? Who thinks that understanding the processing behind stereotyping and discrimination makes it harder for someone to act in a biased or discriminatory manner? Who has acted in a biased manner recently and didn‘t even realize they were doing so? SUGGESTED MEDIA Breaking the Prejudice Habit. http://breakingprejudice.org. This site includes activities and information about prejudice. Insight Media. (1984). The Wave, 46:00. This is a dramatized fictional account of a teacher who recreates his own ―Third Reich‖ in a high school to demonstrate how Hitler gained power in Germany. Jigsaw Classroom. https://www.jigsaw.org. This site presents applications of the jigsaw technique for reducing prejudice and discrimination.

Robber’s Cave experiment. https://www.age-of-thesage.org/psychology/social/sherif_robbers_cave_experiment.html. This page describes Sherif‘s Robbers Cave experiment and provides detailed account of the experiment.

Stereotype Threat. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjn6ZSU_zS0. This clip presents an overview of the research on stereotype threat theory. The Brain (1997). Teaching module #24: Aggression, violence, and the brain [Video file]. https://www.learner.org/series/the-brain-teaching-modules/aggression-violence-and-the-brain/. Aggression and the brain are discussed. Understanding Prejudice. https://secure.understandingprejudice.org. This site includes classroom activities, discussion springboards, and tips for instructors dealing with prejudice. PBS FRONTLINE: A CLASS DIVIDED The original Brown Eyes–Blue Eyes ―experiment‖ is shown on this PBS Frontline video: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/. TELEVISION AND POPULAR MOVIES: AGGRESSION, VIOLENCE, LOVE, AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Aggression and violence are themes of many television shows and popular movies. For example, the television show Law & Order often depicts violent crimes (and often presents these in a controversial manner). The movie Bowling for Columbine presents a view of violence in contemporary American society. Scenes from these shows or movies can be shown in class. Full movie available at http://watchdocumentaries.com/bowling-for-columbine/. Types of love are also illustrated in television shows and popular movies. Examples of friendship, romantic love, infatuation, empty love, and passion can readily be found in the current media. Examples of prosocial behavior may also be found in movies and news documentaries such as NBC Nightly News ―Making A Difference‖ segments. Histories Mysteries-Silent Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Murder (Peter David Documentaries). (2018, December 14). [Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPSLmQ5QLS0. Solomon, J. (In Crime). (2017, January 23). The witness [Video file]. This documentary follows Kitty Genovese‘s younger brother, Bill, as he attempts to find out for himself what actually took place on March 13, 1964. http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/films/witness/. ADDITIONAL READINGS Hassan, Y., Bègue, L., Scharkow, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2012). The more you play, the more aggressive you become: A long-term experimental study of cumulative violent video

game effects on hostile expectations and aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Jackson, L. (2011). The psychology of prejudice: From attitudes to social action. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kahn, K. B., Spencer, K., & Glaser, J. (2013). Online prejudice and discrimination: From dating to hating. The Social Net: Understanding Our Online Behavior, 201. Kernahan, C., & Davis, T. (2010). What are the long-term effects of learning about racism? Teaching of Psychology, 37, 41–45. Lawson, T. J., McDonough, T. A., & Bodle, J. H. (2010). Confronting prejudiced comments: Effectiveness of a role-playing exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 257–261. Melchiori, K. J., & Mallett, R. K. (2015). Using Shrek to teach about stigma. Teaching of Psychology, 42, 260–265. Morris, K. A., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2010). The Implicit Association Test as a class assignment: Student affective and attitudinal reactions. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 63–68. Steele, C. (2011). Whistling Vivaldi: How stereotypes affect us and what we can do. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. MODULE 46: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR LEARNING OBJECTIVES 46-1 Why are we attracted to certain people, and what progression do social relationships follow? 46-2

What factors underlie aggression and prosocial behavior?

Like philosophers and theologians, social psychologists have pondered the basic nature of humanity. Is it represented mainly by the violence and cruelty we see throughout the world, or does something special about human nature permit loving, considerate, unselfish, and even noble behavior as well? LIKING AND LOVING: INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIONSHIPS Nothing is more important in most people‘s lives than their feelings for others. Consequently, it is not surprising that liking and loving have become a major focus of interest for social psychologists. Known more formally as the study of interpersonal attraction or close relationships, this area addresses the factors that lead to positive feelings for others. HOW DO I LIKE THEE? LET ME COUNT THE WAYS

By far the greatest amount of research has focused on liking. Research has given us a good deal of knowledge about the factors that initially attract two people to each other. The important factors social psychologists consider are the following: 

Proximity: This is one of the more firmly established findings in the literature on interpersonal attraction: Proximity leads to liking.



Mere exposure: Repeated exposure to a person is often sufficient to produce attraction. Interestingly, repeated exposure to any stimulus—a person, picture, song, or virtually anything—usually makes us like the stimulus more. Becoming familiar with a person can evoke positive feelings; we then transfer the positive feelings stemming from familiarity to the person. Similarity: We tend to like those who are similar to us. Discovering that others have similar attitudes, values, or traits promotes our liking for them. Furthermore, the more similar others are, the more we like them. Because we experience a strong reciprocityof-liking effect (a tendency to like those who like us), knowing that someone evaluates us positively promotes our attraction to that person. Physical attractiveness: For most people, the equation beautiful = good is quite true. As a result, physically attractive people are more popular than physically unattractive ones, if all other factors are equal.



These factors alone, of course, do not account for liking. For example, in one experiment that examined what people desired from a same-sex friendship, the top-rated qualities included sense of humor, warmth and kindness, expressiveness and openness, an exciting personality, and similarity of interests and leisure activities. But men and women differed. FRIENDSHIP AND SOCIAL NETWORKING The newest forms of friendship are found on social network sites. For college students, the primary motivation in using social network sites is to keep in touch with their friends. Facebook and other social networking sites, such as TikTok, X, Instagram, YouTube, and SnapChat provide many people with their understanding of the news and current events. But how do social network sites affect users‘ nonvirtual social lives? Maintaining social connections with people you can‘t see in person seems like a good thing, but it may be detrimental if someone spends so much time maintaining online distant or superficial friendships that they sacrifice time spent on intimate, face-to-face interactions. In addition, social media often presents a sanitized version of others‘ lives, which can lead observers to feel that their lives, in comparison, are deficient. Some research shows that high users of social media experience greater anxiety, loneliness, depression, and body image problems. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY DO YOU HAVE GOOD CHEMISTRY?

Chances are very good that you‘ve described yourself or someone else as having really good ―chemistry‖ with another person or perhaps with an entire group of people, such as a sports team that has good ―chemistry‖ together. The experience of chemistry has been rarely studied in psychological research, despite perceptions that it can explain the quality of romantic relationships, both at their start and as they progress, as well as nonromantic friendships and relationships between team members, musicians, and even coworkers. Social psychologist Harry Reis and colleagues have laid out a more precise model of interpersonal chemistry that seeks to explain what it is, how it arises, and what it does. They suggest that chemistry entails both subjective experience and behavior. Reid and colleagues acknowledge in their model that other factors influence chemistry, such as the traits and goals and expectations of the interacting persons. They also emphasize that chemistry doesn‘t come from any one interacting person. They hope that their model will facilitate further research and theorizing on chemistry, especially given the potential it has to help us better understand some of our deepest and most important kinds of interpersonal relationships. HOW DO I LOVE THEE? LET ME COUNT THE WAYS As a first step to studying love, researchers tried to identify the characteristics that distinguish between mere liking and full-blown love. They discovered that love is not simply a greater quantity of liking but a qualitatively different psychological state. For instance, at least in its early stages, love includes relatively intense physiological arousal, an all-encompassing interest in another individual, fantasizing about the other, and relatively rapid swings of emotion. Similarly, love, unlike liking, includes elements of passion, closeness, fascination, exclusiveness, sexual desire, and intense caring. We idealize partners by exaggerating their good qualities and minimizing their imperfections. Other researchers have theorized that there are two main types of love: passionate love and companionate love. Passionate (or romantic) love represents a state of intense absorption in someone. It includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another. In contrast, companionate love is the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved. The love we feel for our parents, other family members, and even some close friends falls into the category of companionate love. Psychologist Robert Sternberg makes an even finer differentiation between types of love. He proposes that love consists of three parts (see Figure 1):   

Decision/commitment: The initial thoughts that one loves someone and the longer-term feelings of commitment to maintain love. Intimacy component: Feelings of closeness and connectedness. Passion component: The motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance.

According to Sternberg, these three components combine to produce the different types of love. He suggests that different combinations of the three components vary over the course of relationships. What are people seeking in a mate? Across the world, differences between the sexes tend to be remarkably consistent. In the 1940s, heterosexual Americans met their future partners most often through family and friends. Now the Internet is by far the most frequent

matchmaker (see Figure 2). The likelihood of meeting online is even greater for same-sex couples; some 70% of gay couples report meeting online. AGGRESSION AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: HURTING AND HELPING OTHERS Mass shootings, carjacking, and abductions are just a few examples of the violence that seems all too common today. Yet, we also find examples of generous, unselfish, thoughtful behavior that suggest a more optimistic view of humankind. HURTING OTHERS: AGGRESSION Depending on the way we define the word, many examples of inflicted pain or injury may or may not qualify as aggression (see Figure 3). Most social psychologists define aggression in terms of the intent and the purpose behind the behavior. Aggression is intentional injury of, or harm to, another person. Not only do we hurt others through direct physical or verbal attacks, but we also can hurt people indirectly by doing such things as spreading rumors or by purposely ignoring someone. The aggression we encounter in our daily lives can take many forms. In fact, some research finds that microaggressions—small, daily slights, put-downs, and insults—may be more harmful in the long run than are highly visible acts of aggression. Many microaggressions are unintentional, sometimes couched as compliments or questions. The amount of microaggressions some members of some groups experience is substantial. The negative impact of microaggressions seems obvious; however, the degree and extent to which they influence recipients' behavior, emotions, and physical health are not fully understood. Clearly, more research needs to be done to understand their impact. INSTINCT APPROACHES: AGGRESSION AS A RELEASE Instinct theories, which note the prevalence of aggression not only in humans but in animals as well, propose that aggression is primarily the outcome of innate—or inborn—urges. Sigmund Freud was one of the first to suggest, as part of his theory of personality, that aggression is a primary instinctual drive. Konrad Lorenz, an ethologist, expanded Freud‘s notions by arguing that humans, along with members of other species, have a fighting instinct. Lorenz‘s instinct approach led to the controversial notion that aggressive energy constantly builds up in an individual until the person finally discharges it in a process called catharsis. However, little research has found evidence for the existence of a pent-up reservoir of aggression that needs to be released. FRUSTRATION–AGGRESSION APPROACHES: AGGRESSION AS A REACTION TO FRUSTRATION According to frustration–aggression theory, frustration (the reaction to the thwarting or blocking of goals) produces anger, which leads to a readiness to act aggressively. Whether actual

aggression occurs depends on the presence of aggressive cues, stimuli that have been associated in the past with actual aggression or violence and that will trigger aggression again. The stimuli that act as aggressive cues range from the most explicit, such as the presence of weapons, to more subtle cues, such as the mere mention of the name of an individual who behaved violently in the past. Frustration does lead to aggression—at least when aggressive cues are present. However, psychologists have come to realize that physical pain, verbal insults, unpleasant experiences, and even a rise in temperatures can also lead to aggression. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING APPROACHES: LEARNING TO HURT OTHERS Taking an almost opposite view from instinct theories, which focus on innate explanations of aggression, observational learning theory emphasizes that social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive. The theory sees aggression not as inevitable, but rather as a learned response that can be understood in terms of rewards and punishments. According to observational learning theory, people observe the behavior of models and the subsequent consequences of that behavior. Models are individuals who provide a guide to appropriate behavior through their own behavior. If the consequences are positive, the behavior is likely to be imitated when observers find themselves in a similar situation. HELPING OTHERS: THE BRIGHTER SIDE OF HUMAN NATURE Helping behavior, or prosocial behavior as it is more formally known, has been considered under many different conditions. Those who engage in acts of prosocial behavior enjoy a number of benefits that go beyond the satisfaction of being helpful. There are certain factors that lead someone to help a person in need: One critical factor is the number of others present. When more than one person witnesses an emergency situation, a sense of diffusion of responsibility can arise among the bystanders. Diffusion of responsibility is the belief that responsibility for intervening is shared, or diffused, among those present. The more people who are present in an emergency, the less personally responsible each individual feels—and therefore the less help they provide. Although most research on helping behavior supports the diffusion-of-responsibility explanation, other factors are clearly involved in helping behavior. According to a model of the helping process, the decision to give aid involves four basic steps (see Figure 4):   

Noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help. Interpreting the event as one that requires help: Even if we notice an event, it may be sufficiently ambiguous for us to interpret it as a nonemergency situation. Assuming responsibility for helping: It is at this point that diffusion of responsibility is likely to occur if others are present. Moreover, a bystander‘s particular expertise is likely to play a role in determining whether they help.



Deciding on and implementing the form of helping: After we assume responsibility for helping, we must decide how to provide assistance. Helping can range from very indirect forms of intervention, such as calling the police, to more direct forms, such as giving first aid or taking the victim to a hospital. Most social psychologists use a rewards–costs approach for helping to predict the nature of the assistance a bystander will choose to provide.

After determining the nature of the assistance needed, the actual help must be implemented. A rewards–costs analysis suggests that we are most likely to use the least costly form of implementation. However, this is not always the case: In some situations, people behave altruistically. Altruism is behavior meant to help another without regard for self-interest. People who intervene in emergency situations tend to possess certain personality characteristics that differentiate them from nonhelpers. For example, helpers are more self-assured, sympathetic, and emotionally understanding, and they have greater empathy (a personality trait in which someone observing another person experiences the emotions of that person) than are nonhelpers. BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: DEALING EFFECTIVELY WITH ANGER At one time or another, almost everyone feels angry. The anger may result from a frustrating situation, or it may be due to another individual‘s behavior. Social psychologists who have studied the topic suggest several good strategies to deal with anger that maximize the potential for positive consequences. Among the most useful strategies are the following:      

Calm down. Take a walk or engage in some other physical activity in order to cool down your emotional arousal. Look again at the anger-provoking situation from the perspective of others. By taking others‘ points of view, you may be able to understand the situation better. Minimize the importance of the situation. Reinterpret the situation in a way that is less bothersome. Use language effectively by saying ―I,‖ not ―you.‖ Don‘t say ―you did______ wrong.‖ Instead, say ―I felt hurt when you did ____.‖ Fantasize about getting even—but do not act on it. Fantasy provides a safety valve. Relax. By teaching yourself the relaxation techniques used in systematic desensitization, you can help reduce your reactions to anger. In turn, your anger may dissipate.

No matter which of these strategies you try, above all, do not ignore your anger. People who always try to suppress their anger may experience a variety of consequences, such as selfcondemnation, frustration, and even physical illness. KEY TERMS aggression The intentional injury of, or harm to, another person.

altruism Behavior meant to help another person without regard for self-interest. catharsis The process of discharging built-up aggressive energy. companionate love The strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved. diffusion of responsibility The belief that responsibility for intervening is shared, or diffused, among those present. interpersonal attraction (or close relationship) Positive feelings for others; liking and loving. passionate (or romantic) love A state of intense absorption in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another. prosocial behavior Helping behavior. reciprocity-of-liking effect A tendency to like those who like us. LECTURE IDEAS ATTRACTION Ask students whether they think ―opposites attract‖ or ―birds of a feather flock together.‖ Ask why and then explain that usually it is the latter. BIOGRAPHY OF LEONARD BERKOWITZ Leonard Berkowitz was born on August 11, 1926. He earned his PhD in social psychology from the University of Michigan in 1951. After graduating, he went to the U.S. Air Force Human Resources Center in San Antonio, Texas, where he was involved in applying social psychology to real-life situations. However, after several years, Berkowitz decided he really wanted an academic career, and in 1953 he accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin. He continued there until his retirement in 1993. Berkowitz is well known for his studies of human aggression. He also studied the other side of human nature, helping behavior. He served as editor for a series of books called Advances in Experimental Social Psychology from 1962 until 1987. Berkowitz‘s books include Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis (1962) and Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control (1993). Source: Pettijohn, T. E. (1998). Psychology: A ConnecText (4th ed.). Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. AGGRESSION

Instinct approaches:  

Inborn, innate fighting urges Buildup is released through catharsis.

Frustration–aggression approaches:  

When a person is frustrated, this leads to a readiness to act aggressively. In the presence of aggressive cues, aggressive acts are more likely to be carried out. (Frustration  anger  readiness to act aggressively) + aggressive cues  aggression

Observational learning approaches:  

Social and environmental conditions influence readiness to respond aggressively. Aggression is a learned response through the observation of others.

Aggression and Environmental Influences: Aggression results from the interaction between genetic and social forces. Ask students what environmental factors have led them to aggressive actions. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Diffusion of responsibility leads individuals to keep from helping others during an emergency situation. However, we know that many people do engage in prosocial behavior. What factors might lead individuals to take action when needed to help? Ask students how many of them have taken CPR classes. Ask them about the first thing they are taught to say to the ―victim‖ (i.e., the dummy). Usually it‘s ―Are you all right? Are you OK? YOU call 911‖ (said while pointing to one person). Why do we specify that one person is responsible for calling 911? Because if you don‘t, then people tend to look around for who is supposed to act, leading no one to act. This uncertainty is the result of diffusion of responsibility. Ask students when the last time they helped someone was. Today? Yesterday? A week ago? Who did they help? Why? What did they do? You can also ask when the last time they received help was. Ask students if they think altruism really exists. Ask for examples. Watching someone you love experience pain activates components of physical pain circuitry in the brain. Ask students what they would find more painful: having each one of their toes broken or watching the person they love most in the world having their toes broken? CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS ATTRACTION

Attractiveness: Use Handout 1: What Do You Consider Attractive? The goal of this activity is for students to examine their own ideas about what they consider attractive, average, and unattractive. The students will go through magazines and find various pictures of people they consider attractive, average, and unattractive. They will then have other students look at the pictures and place them into three piles of attractiveness. Evolutionary Approaches: Discuss with the class the evolutionary approach to attraction and how males have historically wanted to find as many young females as possible to reproduce and carry on their species and how females have wanted to find the best quality male to support and take care of them and their offspring. Next, divide the class into groups, and have them discuss whether times have really changed that much or whether males and females are still following the ways of their ancestors.

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Truly Altruistic: Write a variety of behaviors on the board and have the students discuss in groups whether these behaviors are altruistic or not. Are You Altruistic? Use Handout 6: Are You Altruistic? This activity is designed to have students determine whether or not some of their behaviors are really altruistic in nature. The students should see how difficult it is to be truly altruistic and not gain anything personally from helping another person. Altruistic Behavior: Show the class the documentary Silent Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Story (2006, in History’s Mysteries) and then have them write a one- to two-page paper summarizing the documentary. They should also discuss whether times have changed since the Kitty Genovese incident or whether the same results would occur today. The students should also discuss how they feel about helping behavior and whether or not they have ever been guilty of not helping someone because they thought someone else would help. Altruism: Ask students to perform an act of kindness. Following the act, have students write a brief paper describing the act, the recipient‘s reaction, and their own reaction. Ask students to share their reactions with the class. This can provide a good discussion of prosocial behavior. Source: Radmacher, S. (1997, January 19). Social psychology projects. Teaching in the psychological sciences (TIPS-Online Discussion Group). Altruism: To begin the discussion, ask students what was the last act of altruism they did and why. Next, facilitate a class discussion with the following: Is altruism a puzzle to be solved or a natural expression of human nature? As a homework assignment extension to this discussion, have students find research to support their opinion. NEWSPAPER RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT Have students find an example of prosocial behavior from a newspaper article. Ask the following questions:   

What was the behavior involved in this example? Why do you think the individual involved engaged in the behavior? What can we learn from this example that might encourage others to behave in a prosocial manner as well?

AGGRESSION Aggression: Use Handout 7: What Is the Cause of Aggression? In this activity, the students will read various scenarios of aggressive behavior and determine whether a biological, psychological, or sociocultural cause is behind that behavior.

Aggression: Instruct students to bring an article dealing with violent video games. In share-pair dyads, small groups, or class discussion, ask the following: What is your opinion of people who play violent video games and why? How do you think these games influence their thoughts and feelings? Would you allow your children to play violent video games? Why or why not? If the share-pair dyad and small group option was used, ask representatives to share their results with the rest of the class. LOVE AND LONELINESS Types of Love: Have students complete Handout 8: Identifying Types of Love. Building Close Relationships Virtually: Engage your students in a dialogue about the use of technology in finding a mate and how technology has helped or hindered them in building close relationships. How do they define close in terms of relationship building? The Ideal Relationship: Have students design their ideal relationship (not their ideal partner), and ask them to identify which models of close relationships they incorporated in their ideal situation. What Makes a Happy Relationship? Ask students to interview the happiest couple they know. Have them ask the partners individually about the things that they think help make their relationship work. Then, have students examine their notes and determine how the characteristics of their ―ideal‖ couple‘s relationship compare with the findings of research on close relationships. Social Isolation and Transitions: Ask the students to write about a time in their lives when they went through a transition and felt isolated. Have them discuss whether they used any of the strategies discussed in the chapter to overcome the feelings of loneliness. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ATTRACTION Ask students whether they think ―opposites attract‖ or ―birds of a feather flock together.‖ Ask why, and then explain that usually it is the latter. Ask students if they believe that ―beauty is in the eye of the beholder.‖ Ask them to defend their answer. AGGRESSION Which theory of aggression is most useful in helping to control violence? Why? Analyze a news story in which an aggressive act occurred according to the theories of aggression.

In general, which theory of aggression makes the most sense to you? Why? Compare and contrast how various cultures view aggression. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR What would make a person more likely to help in an emergency? How can diffusion of responsibility be lessened? How does diffusion of responsibility differ from other group effects such as conformity and compliance? How is it the same? POLLING QUESTIONS Polling Question: Purely Altruistic, I Swear Consider what you know about altruism and human motivation. How many of you think that pure altruism is possible? Who has ever done an act that really was altruistic and was not selfserving in any way? Have students share their acts of kindness. How many of you think that altruism is not really possible, and that everyone is out to benefit themselves? How many of you think older generations are more altruistic than younger ones? SUGGESTED MEDIA ABC News. (2008). Lookism, 42:00. This program explores how important physical attractiveness is in U.S. society. Various situations and hidden-camera experiments are used to illustrate the beauty bias. Attractiveness. Science of Attraction video series: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuometYfMTk. This clip illustrates the halo effect. Insight Media. (2005). Attraction, 50:00. This piece explores the principles of attraction. POPULAR MOVIES The movie Shrek deals with issues of attractiveness and appearance in contemporary society. Movie trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CwXOrWvPBPk. Another excellent and powerful movie that focuses on ―fitting in‖ is Boys Don’t Cry. Movie trailer available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxWt9rxNzjg. ADDITIONAL READINGS

Patzer, G. L. (2011). The power and paradox of physical attractiveness. Irvine, CA: Brown Walker Press. Young, L., & Alexander, B. (2012). The chemistry between us: Love, sex, and the science of attraction. England, UK: Penguin. CONNECT The following are assignable via Connect:

PRACTICE QUIZZES  Pre-Test  Reading Assignment Quizzes (one per module)  Terminology Quiz  Post-Test CONCEPT CLIPS  Cognitive Dissonance  Conformity and Obedience  Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination  Aggression VIDEOS  Candid Conformity  Milgram‘s Obedience Experiment Revisited  Neuroscience of Love INTERACTIVITIES  Cognitive Dissonance  Fundamental Attribution Error  Explicit and Implicit Bias  First Impressions and Attraction NEWSFLASH  Community Psychology Principles for Asset-Based and Citizen-Driven Actions Can Help Immigrants Thrive  Vaccinating Children Against the Virus of Racism  When Watching Footage of Police Brutality Begets Trauma  Do DEI Guidelines Conflict With Clinical Theory?  Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion: Are DEI Initiatives Working?  Ageism is one of the last socially acceptable prejudices. Psychologists are working to change that

                

Amid Growing Anti-Asian Racism: A Call for More Research Into Its Health Effects Dena Simmons: How Students of Color Confront Imposter Syndrome How Bystanders Can Shut Down Microaggressions How Misogynoir Is Oppressing Black Women Athletes John Biewen: The Lie that Invented Racism Monique Morris: Why Black Girls Are Targeted for Punishment at School—and How to Change That Psychology‘s Urgent Need to Dismantle Racism Some Black Women Want to Keep Working from Home Because it‘s MicroaggressionFree ―But Daddy, Why Was He Shot?‖: How to Talk to Children about Race Today Anti-Oppression: Anti-Ableism Black Panther and the Power of Representation Despite ADA exemption, Pittsburgh-area houses of worship highlight accessibility efforts — and remaining shortfalls During Pandemic, Racism Puts Additional Stress on Asian Americans Heather‘s Interview as part of the Parenting without Pity Series from Rooted in Rights How Racial Bias Works and How to Disrupt It How to Discuss Race with Black Teens and Their Families How to Resolve Racially Stressful Situations

HANDOUTS HANDOUT 1: WHAT DO YOU CONSIDER ATTRACTIVE? Choose 15 pictures out of magazines or from the Internet of various people. Five of the pictures should be of attractive people, five of average-looking people, and five of unattractive people. Place the pictures in three piles: attractive, average, and unattractive. Ask 10 people to rankorder the pictures from most attractive to least attractive in each of the piles. After completing this assignment, write a short summary of what you discovered and what your thoughts now are on what people consider attractive.

HANDOUT 2: CAN YOU CHANGE THEIR ATTITUDE? Choose a topic or issue that interests you, such as not smoking in restaurants, not drinking and driving, capital punishment, or the like. Using the three questions listed below, which were also listed in the chapter on how attitudes can predict behavior, describe how you would go about changing someone‘s attitude about your issue.   

Question 1: Are the person‘s attitudes strong? Question 2: Is the person showing a strong awareness of their attitudes, and are they rehearsing and practicing them? Question 3: Does the person have a vested interest in the issue?

You should also use in your descriptions the following four ideas that were discussed in this chapter:    

The Communicator The Message The Medium The Target

HANDOUT 3: ATTITUDE SURVEY Attitude Survey Please indicate your attitudes on the four statements below. Please rate the items on the following scale: (1) strongly disagree; (2) disagree; (3) neutral; (4) agree; and (5) strongly agree. 1. World hunger is a serious problem that needs attention. 2. Our country needs to address the growing number of homeless. 3. The right to vote is one of the most valuable rights of American citizens. 4. Our government should spend less money on nuclear weapons and more on helping citizens better their lives. Behavior Survey Please indicate whether or not you perform each of the stated behaviors below on a regular basis by answering yes or no. 1. Do you personally do anything to lessen world hunger (e.g., donate money or food or write your political representatives)? 2. Do you personally do anything to help the homeless (e.g., volunteer at a homeless shelter or donate money)? 3. Did you vote in the last election for which you were eligible? 4. Do you personally convey your feelings to the government (e.g., by writing your political representatives or by participating in protests or marches)?

HANDOUT 4: METHODS OF COMPLIANCE Visit several mall stores, including a department store, a jewelry store, an electronics store, and one ―other‖ store. For each store, write down at least two examples of one of the sales compliance techniques and provide your reaction to that technique below. Type of Store

Advertising or Sales Tactic Used (Specific Example)

Type of Compliance Method This Represents

Department store

Jewelry store

Electronics store

Other

Your Reaction

HANDOUT 5: ROBBER‘S CAVE AND THE JIGSAW CLASSROOM Use the concepts behind the Robber‘s Cave experiment to design an experiment for fifth-grader students on the playground.

Also, use the concepts in the Jigsaw Classroom to have a classroom of tenth-grade students learn about the Bill of Rights.

HANDOUT 6: ARE YOU ALTRUISTIC? 1. Think of a time when you helped someone. Explain in the space below what occurred in that situation.

2. Was your ―good deed‖ (helping out the other person) truly a good deed? Were you in fact acting altruistically, meaning that you got nothing in return for helping out?

3. Can you think of hearing about a situation through the media where someone helped someone out and it was or was not altruistic in nature? What was the situation?

HANDOUT 7: WHAT IS THE CAUSE OF AGGRESSION? Read the scenarios below and then determine what the cause of the aggression is: biological, psychological, or sociocultural. 1. Researchers worked on breeding an aggressive strain of cats and a calm strain of cats. When the kittens were born, there were some that were aggressive and some that were calm. CAUSE: 2. Julia is usually a kind and generous woman, but when she drinks alcohol, she becomes this stranger who is angry and tries to start fights with everyone. CAUSE: 3. Beth is a gang member and is very upset that one of her fellow gang members was killed by a rival gang. She went out that night and killed two of the rival gang members in retaliation. CAUSE: 4. Both Greg and Filippo like to play video games. Filippo‘s favorite game is Drive-by Shooter and Greg‘s favorite game is Race Car Driver. They both have been playing for a couple of months, and lately Filippo has been acting up in school and getting into more trouble, whereas Greg‘s personality has not changed. CAUSE: 5. Dr. Sy is a social psychologist at the local university who has been conducting research on aggressive behavior of children on the playground. He realized that when the children in Room 12, the only classroom with a window to the playground, were in class while the fifth graders were outside in gym class practicing boxing, the children in Room 12 more were active and aggressive on the playground than children who had class in other classrooms. CAUSE: 6. Jenny is at the pet store to buy some new fish for her fish tank. She is checking out all the fish and notices some fish that live by themselves and come aggressively up to the sides of the tank when she approaches. She is told by the employees at the pet store that the fish are betta fish and are very aggressive and will fight with all other fish. CAUSE:

HANDOUT 8: IDENTIFYING TYPES OF LOVE For each of the following scenarios, indicate the type of love as described in Sternberg‘s theory that seems closest to the example. NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR: Answers are shown in parentheses. A couple has been together for several years, still feel very close and connected emotionally, but do not always feel the same passion toward one another as they once did. (Answer: Companionate love) They have a strong sexual drive and a need for physical and romantic contact with each other, but do not feel very close to each other. They have not planned for their future together and have not even thought about any form of long-term commitment. (Answer: Infatuation) They have been married for a long time and still verbally proclaim their love for each other, but they admit to having lost much of the emotional connectedness, as well as the sexual desire that they once had. (Answer: Empty love) After more than 6 years together, this couple is as ―in love‖ as ever. They remain close and connected, very sexually and romantically in sync, and are completely committed to each other and to their relationship. (Answer: Consummate love) This couple has been together for only a couple of months, and although they feel they have become close and are connected emotionally, they have yet to become passionately involved or think about their future commitment. (Answer: Liking) They are in love and both have a strong sexual desire for one another and are very close and connected emotionally. But they have yet to discuss any future plans that would include a decision to commit only to each other. (Answer: Romantic love) They have been together for a while and are planning on staying together. They continue to maintain a healthy and satisfying sex life but say they do not feel very closely connected emotionally. (Answer: Fatuous love)

ANSWER KEY TO VARIOUS HANDOUTS HANDOUT 2: CAN YOU CHANGE THEIR ATTITUDE? ANSWER KEY Choose a topic or issue that interests you, such as not smoking in restaurants, not drinking and driving, capital punishment, and so on, and using the four questions listed below, describe how you would go about changing someone‘s attitude about your issue.    

Question 1: Are the person‘s attitudes strong? Question 2: Is the person showing a strong awareness of their attitudes, and is the person rehearsing and practicing them? Question 3: Are the attitudes relevant to the behavior? Question 4: Does the person have a vested interest in the issue?

You should also use in your descriptions the following four ideas that were discussed in this chapter:    

The Communicator The Message The Medium The Target Correct answers should include some of the following information. The Communicator (source): Expertise, credibility, trustworthiness, power, attractiveness, similarity, and likability are important. The Message: emotional versus logical appeals; elaboration likelihood model, foot-in-the-door strategy; door-in-the-face strategy. The Medium: Live images, television, and video are generally more persuasive than reading an article. The Target (audience): Younger people and individuals with weak attitudes are more likely to change.

HANDOUT 5: ROBBER‘S CAVE AND THE JIGSAW CLASSROOM ANSWER KEY Use the concepts behind the Robber‘s Cave experiment to design an experiment for fifth-grader students on the playground. Correct answers should include: different groups, competition, cooperation Also, use the concepts in the Jigsaw Classroom to have a classroom of tenth-grade students learn about the Bill of Rights.

Correct answers should include: different groups, individual assignments given to each participant, pulling all the individual assignments together to get the ―big picture‖