TEST BANK for Educational Psychology, 15th Edition by Woolfolk and Usher | Complete 15 Chapters by ACADEMIAMILL

TEST BANK for Educational Psychology, 15th Edition by Woolfolk and Usher | Complete 15 Chapters Table of Contents Chapter 1: Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 1: Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Chapter 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 1.1. Describe the challenges facing teachers today, including increasing student diversity, requirements of the Every Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. [Q1] Addison has several years of experience teaching third graders from diverse backgrounds. As one student struggles to complete a math task, Addison wonders why the task seems so difficult. She gives the student a hint about solving the task, but the hint doesn’t help. She begins to reteach the basic skill required for the task. She reminds herself with certainty that she can help the student understand and succeed. Which of the teacher’s behaviors is most directly associated with a personal sense of efficacy? 1. She wonders why the task seems so difficult for the student 2. She gives the student a hint about solving the task 3. She begins to reteach the basic skill required for the task 4. She reminds herself with certainty that she can help the student [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A teacher may wonder about the level of difficulty of a task and yet lack a sense of efficacy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A teacher’s hint may help a student learn, but it is not a sign of the teacher’s sense of efficacy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Reteaching a skill may help a student learn, but it is not a sign of the teacher’s sense of efficacy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn is evidence of the teacher’s sense of efficacy. [Q2] According to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which of the following schools is considered a failing school? 1. A school in which students’ scores are in the bottom 12% of test scores 2. A school that graduates only 60% of its students [correct] 3. A school in which Native American students underperformed last year 4. A school in which African American students underperformed last year

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A school at the bottom 5% of test scores is considered failing. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A school that graduates less than two-thirds of its students is considered failing. Graduating only 60% is even worse. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If the subgroup of Native American students consistently underperforms, then the school is considered failing. The underperformance in one year needs to be addressed, but the school is not considered failing. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] If the subgroup of African American students consistently underperforms, then the school is considered failing. The underperformance in one year needs to be addressed, but the school is not considered failing. [Q3] Bryson teaches 29 sixth-grade students in a low-income school district. He begins every day with a sponge activity to review a concept from the previous day. He follows with a goal-directed activity in which each student writes a goal for doing a positive deed that day. The next item on his daily schedule involves a rapid review of the week’s spelling words. What activity or activities emphasize social and emotional learning? 1. Sponge activity at the beginning of the day 2. Goal-directed activity for doing a positive deed [correct] 3. Rapid review of the week’s spelling words 4. Sponge activity and goal-directed activity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The sponge activity emphasizes academic learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The goal-directed activity emphasizes doing a positive deed. Social and emotional learning builds self-awareness and social skills by doing activities such as a positive deed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The rapid review of the week’s spelling words emphasizes academic learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The sponge activity emphasizes academic learning. [Q4] Research suggests that the best way to evaluate whether individual teachers are likely to have a long-term effect on student academic and behavioral outcomes is to assess which of the following? 1. The quality of the student–teacher relationship [correct]

2. Student achievement in kindergarten and then again in eighth grade 3. The number of students who achieve proficiency on a standardized test 4. The annual progress of the school as a whole [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The connection between teacher relationships and student outcomes is widespread. In one study, researchers concluded that the quality of the teacher–student relationship in kindergarten predicted a number of academic and behavioral outcomes through the eighth grade, particularly for students with many behavior problems. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Researchers who follow children from kindergarten through eighth grade can see long-term changes in student outcomes—but the focus here is on how to evaluate individual teachers, so the researchers need to measure some feature or characteristics of teacher behavior along with achievement at different time periods. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The focus of this question includes behavioral outcomes, not just achievement on standardized tests. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Annual progress of the school relates more to a measure of academic achievement. The focus of this question includes behavioral outcomes. [Q5] Which of the following statements accurately represents diversity in schools today? 1. About 50% of students are Hispanic and live in poverty 2. About 30% of students have a developmental disability and go to special education classes 3. About 50% of students and 25% of teachers are Hispanic and live in urban areas 4. About 25% of students have immigrant parent/s and most have a White teacher [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Fewer than 50% of students in American classrooms are Hispanic, and Hispanic families are not among the highest minority of families living in poverty. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About 18% of American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability and spend most of their time in general education classes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A smaller percentage of American students and teachers are Hispanic. Predictions indicate that by 2045 half of the U.S. population will be members of some minority group, with about 25% being Hispanic. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] About 25% of U.S. students have at least one immigrant parent. About 80% of teachers are White, and this number is increasing. 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Outcome 1.2. Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do. [Q1] Taylor judges her success as a teacher by the accomplishments of her students. Taylor is most likely which of the following? 1. A student teacher 2. A first-year teacher 3. An experienced teacher [correct] 4. A retired teacher [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments. A student teacher is more likely to focus on the mechanics of teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments. First-year teachers are more likely to focus on their teaching and wonder how well they are doing. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments. Teachers typically achieve this level of expertise after several years of teaching. [Q2] According to research launched by the Gates Foundation, which of the following elements matters the most in determining teaching effectiveness? 1. Teachers [correct] 2. Technology 3. School facilities 4. Funding [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The research shows that teachers matter; they matter more than technology or funding or school facilities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Technology plays a key role in teaching and learning, but research shows that another element is more important in determining teaching effectiveness. 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] School facilities play a key role in teaching and learning, but research shows that another element is more important in determining teaching effectiveness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Funding plays a key role in teaching and learning, but research shows that another element is more important in determining teaching effectiveness. [Q3] Which of the following high-leverage practices identified by TeachingWorks is most likely to fit into Danielson’s Framework in the domain of Professional Responsibilities? 1. Implementing norms and routines for classroom discourse and work 2. Setting up and managing small group work 3. Analyzing instruction for the purpose of improving it [correct] 4. Setting long-term and short-term learning goals for students [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This practice fits better in Domain 2 of Danielson’s Framework, Classroom Environment (managing classroom practices). [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This practice fits better in Domain 2 of Danielson’s Framework, Classroom Environment (managing student behavior). [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Danielson includes reflecting on teaching as a component of Domain 4, professional responsibilities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This practice fits best in Domain 1 of Danielson’s framework, Planning and Preparation. [Q4] As a new middle school teacher, Damien is learning how he will be assessed as a teacher in his district. Based on requirements set forth in the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), Damien’s district will do which of the following in its teacher evaluation system? 1. Use TeachingWorks 19 High-Leverage Teaching Practices 2. Use Danielson’s Framework for Teaching 3. Use multiple measures of effectiveness [correct] 4. Use one method of the school board’s choosing [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The TeachingWorks 19 High-Leverage Teaching Practices is one of the options a district may choose, but this is not a requirement of ESSA.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Danielson’s Framework for Teaching is one of the options a district may choose, but this is not a requirement of ESSA. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] According to the ESSA, teacher evaluation systems must use multiple measrues of effectiveness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] One method of teacher evaluation is not enough. According to the ESSA, teacher evaluation systems must use multiple measrues of effectiveness. [Q5] As a new middle school teacher, Damien recognizes that teacher professionalism is important. Which of the following approaches to professional growth and teacher professionalism is most recommended? 1. Spend time in the teachers’ lounge talking with other teachers 2. Review the content in his discipline and grow in expertise in the field 3. Become a member of a teachers’ organization [correct] 4. Work with a mentor teacher for one semester [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Spending time talking with other teachers in the teachers’ lounge at school may or may not be insightful, but this is not a recommended approach to professional growth. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Reviewing content to become more of an expert in his field may help Damien teach effectively, but this is not a recommended approach to professional growth. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Professional growth relies on becoming a member of a community of practice. Organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of English or National Science Teachers Association are examples of professional communities of practice. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Working with a mentor teacher for one semester should help Damien learn teaching practices, but this is not a recommended approach to professional growth. Learning Outcome 1.3. Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address. [Q1] The principals of a middle school and a high school form a partnership to conduct a study of children's scientific reasoning as they progress from grades 5 through 12. The same students are studied on an annual basis. This type of research is referred to as: 1. cross-sectional

2. experimentation 3. longitudinal [correct] 4. microgenetic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Cross-sectional research focuses on different groups of children at different ages, not the same group at different ages (i.e., not over time). Longitudinal studies involve studying research participants over time as changes occur. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In experimental studies, the investigators introduce changes (i.e., treatments) and note the results. Longitudinal studies involve studying research participants over time as changes occur. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Longitudinal studies involve studying research participants over many years as changes occur. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Microgenetic studies take many detailed observations of subjects to track the progression of change. Microgenetic research is not considered longitudinal; it is conducted over a short period of time, and the goal is to study cognitive processes in close detail as the change is actually happening. Longitudinal studies involve studying research participants over time as changes occur. [Q2] Ethnographic research methods may involve which of the following studies? 1. A study of the effects of an intervention program by randomly assigning students to an experimental and a control group 2. Studies based on data gathered only from audio and video recordings 3. A study of the effects of a manipulated variable 4. A study of real teachers in their everyday teaching lives [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This describes experimental design. Ethnographic methods study the naturally occurring events in the life of a group. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ethnographic methods involve many types of data collection including recordings, interviews, and live observations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When researchers manipulate variables in a study, they are usually using an experimental design. Ethnographic methods study the naturally occurring events in the life of a group. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ethnography is a type of descriptive research that is designed to study the naturally occurring events in the life of a group. It focuses on understanding the meaning of events to the people involved. 7 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] Which one of the following is the best example of qualitative research? 1. Comparing average achievement test scores for students at three different schools 2. Interviewing middle school students about cliques at their school [correct] 3. Finding out how long it takes 6-year-olds to assemble challenging picture puzzles 4. Looking at school attendance records to identify potential school dropouts [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This research involves calculations (quantitative), not specific situations with interviews and observations (qualitative). [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Qualitative research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. Interviews and observations are key procedures. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This research involves calculations (quantitative), not specific situations with interviews and observations (qualitative). [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This research involves calculations (quantitative), not specific situations with interviews and observations (qualitative). [Q4] The research question, “Do students who take notes on laptops remember more from lectures than students who handwrite their notes?” is best addressed by: 1. an experimental study [correct] 2. a correlational study 3. an ethnographic study 4. a mixed methods study [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The question can be rephrased as, “Does type of note-taking affect memory for lecture content?” This is a cause-effect question and thus is best addressed with an experimental design. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This question addresses cause (note-taking) and effect (memory). Correlational studies don’t address cause and effect. A good example of a related correlational question is, “Do students who take MORE notes remember MORE of the lecture content?” This question shows the predictive nature of correlational studies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ethnographic studies involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. Although researchers can 8 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

observe note-taking practices, they can’t address whether one type of note-taking is more effective than another simply from observing and interviewing the participants. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A mixed methods study could provide data to answer this question (if it includes an experimental design as its quantitative component), but it’s not necessary. [Q5] Corrine wants to know whether the trait of shyness is stable over time among only children. Which of the following research designs would be most appropriate for this study? 1. Experimental 2. Longitudinal [correct] 3. Correlational 4. Ethnographic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Because Corrine is not introducing a treatment and cannot assign participants randomly to groups, an experimental study is not appropriate. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Because Corrine is interested in following the same individuals over time, she should conduct a longitudinal study. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Corrine does not seem interested in the relation between shyness and another variable. Rather, she plans to study the stability of one trait over time and therefore should conduct a longitudinal study. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ethnographic methods involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group and trying to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. Corrine’s research studies individuals who are only children. Learning Outcome 1.4. Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are related to educational practice. [Q1] In educational psychology, a theory can best be characterized as: 1. a description of the results of a particular research study 2. an objective measure of how a person behaves in a particular situation 3. an explanation of how and why learning or development occurs that can be used to make predictions [correct] 4. a statement that describes how a particular variable affects learning or development

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Theories are based on principles that are usually established through numerous studies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Theories are broader. They use interrelated concepts to explain bodies of data gathered during the research process and to make predictions about the results of future experiments. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Theories use interrelated concepts to explain bodies of data gathered during the research process and to make predictions about the results of future experiments. For example, theories explain how language develops. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Theories are broader. They explain how and why learning occurs and make predictions about future results. [Q2] When a teacher makes a prediction about what will happen in her research study about the effects of a new teaching strategy on her students’ learning, she develops which of the following? 1. A correlation 2. A hypothesis [correct] 3. A principle 4. An ethnography [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A correlation describes the relationship between two factors. The teacher first develops her research question and hypothesis that predicts what she expects to prove. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A hypothesis is a prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. The teacher’s research begins with her research hypothesis. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A principle is an established relationship between factors. The teacher first develops her research question and hypothesis that predicts what she expects to prove. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An ethnography is a particular type of research. This teacher first develops her research question and hypothesis that predicts what she expects to prove. [Q3] An “empirical question” is one that can be answered: 1. only with a quantitative study 2. only after multiple studies show the same results 3. only based on analysis of the evidence [correct] 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. only if the initial hypothesis is supported [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Empirical means “based on data,” but data can come from qualitative and from quantitative studies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Multiple converging studies can lead to the identification of principles, but an empirical question can be (at least tentatively) answered even with a single study. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Empirical means “based on data.” Empirical questions can be contrasted with hypothetical or theoretical questions, which don’t require collection and analysis of evidence to answer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sometimes the data suggest the original hypothesis was wrong, or even the exact opposite of the original hypothesis. In those cases, we might still have an answer to the empirical question, even if it’s not the answer we expected. [Q4] What is the main difference between a theory of teaching and a set of principles for teaching? 1. A theory is helpful for understanding but too vague to be used in the classroom. 2. A theory is subject to change and adaptation while a set of principles is established and inflexible. 3. A theory of teaching will help only advanced teachers; new teachers should stick to a set of principles. 4. A theory provides a broad guideline or explanation for how and why we teach. A set of principles provides specific rules for individual situations. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Theories are helpful for understanding, but they are also helpful for seeing classroom situations in new ways. A set of principles provides guidance for everyday classroom use. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Both theories and principles should be somewhat flexible, to allow for changing situations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A theory of teaching is an important tool for both advanced teachers and new teachers. Similarly, both advanced teachers and new teachers can benefit from a set of classroom principles. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A theory of teaching is like a mission statement for the broad goals and purposes of any one teacher, or of teachers in general. Principles help address specific problems.

[Q5] Which of the following statements is the best example of a hypothesis? 1. “Teachers who are paid more are more effective than teachers who are paid less.” [correct] 2. “This study includes both qualitative and quantitative data to explore whether the wholelanguage approach is better than the phonetics approach to reading for first-graders.” 3. “Which writing prompts seem to encourage the most creative writing in my class?” 4. “This research is designed to address whether older or younger adolescents are more influenced by television advertising.” [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This is a hypothesis because it is a prediction about the outcome of a study (e.g., comparing teachers with high salaries to those with low salaries). Remember that a hypothesis is a prediction, not a certainty—teacher pay may be entirely unrelated to teacher effectiveness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Hypotheses involve predictions about the outcome of a study. In this example, there’s no stated prediction about which approach is better, only a statement that a comparison will be made. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Hypotheses involve predictions about the outcome of a study. In this example, there’s no stated prediction about which prompts may encourage more creative writing, only a suggestion that a comparison may be made. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Hypotheses involve predictions about the outcome of a study. In this example, there’s no stated prediction about which group of adolescents would be more influenced, only a suggestion that a comparison may be made.

Chapter 1 Application Exercises Application Exercise 1.1: Students Today: Dramatic Diversity Learning Outcome 1.1. Describe the challenges facing teachers today, including increasing student diversity, requirements of the Every Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 INSERT in Students Today on p.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/powell/P_I01_School_Staff.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 to answer the following question: Identify at least six types of diversity mentioned in the first section of Chapter 1 that are found among students in today’s American schools. [Q1 Model Response] Types of diversity among students include languages, cultures, races, ethnicities, socioeconomic levels, ability levels, skill levels, varied disabilities, and families. Many other aspects of diversity exist, but this list identifies some of them. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 to answer the following question: What kinds of diversity must Whitewater Middle School (described in this video) address in order to teach their 853 students? [Q2 Model Response] Whitewater Middle School must provide effective learning for students with special needs including students in specialized classrooms such as students with autism and others with disabilities who are included in general education. The school must provide for the needs of students from a range of socioeconomic levels including students from struggling families. The school meets the needs of students who are performing at a wide range of levels of proficiency and students who have challenges outside school including behavioral challenges. The school addresses learning needs of English learners and students who lack prerequisite skills for grade-level proficiency. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 to answer the following question: To what extent does Whitewater Middle School seem to be representative of the normal diversity in American schools today? Explain. [Q3 Model Response] Whitewater Middle School seems to represent the middle of the curve or the normal range of diversity. Many of the types of diversity described in the textbook mirror the diversity described 13 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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by the Whitewater Middle School principal. Whitewater does not represent extremes on the scale of socioeconomic levels of students (not extreme poverty or wealth) or the extremes among cultural groups and languages (not all one race and language and not many different races, immigrant groups, and languages). Apparently students represent a range of academic abilities, and the school works with a range of exceptionalities. Application Exercise 1.2: Good Teaching Learning Outcome 1.2. Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 1.4 INSERT in TeachingWorks page 11 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationalpsychology/woolfolk/reasonablene ss_in_math_edit03252014.mp4 EDIT. Start at the beginning. End at TC 4:36 “…and that’s how we got it.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.4 to answer the following question: Based on the TeachingWorks 19 high-leverage teaching practices listed in Table 1.1 in the textbook, what does this math teacher do that aligns with item #13, “Setting short-term learning goals for students”? [Q1 Model Response] The teacher in this video opens her lesson with two goals. She reads and explains the goals to the students. As she proceeds through the lesson, she addresses both of the learning goals she set for students. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.4 to answer the following question: How does this math teacher’s approach to triad formation and triad activities relate to Table 1.1 items #3, 5, and 9? #3. Eliciting and interpreting individual students’ thinking #5. Implementing norms and routines for classroom discourse and work #9. Setting up and managing small group work [Q2 Model Response] The teacher forms triads on the basis of students’ language skills and math skills. She uses triads as a means of eliciting and interpreting students’ thinking (item #3). Students explain their thinking to the peers in their triads, and they are responsible for taking turns explaining their thinking. The teacher uses the triads frequently and smoothly as a routine part of classroom discourse and work (item 5). She simply tells students to get into their triads and talk, and the students waste no time following this routine. 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The teacher seamlessly sets up and manages small groups through triads (item 9). In addition to explaining their understanding in triads, students work problems together in these small groups. The teacher also works with a small group of English learners to “frontload” their understanding of the math vocabulary being used in the lesson. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 1.4 to answer the following question: In this video, the teacher asks students to explain their thinking to peers, and she also asks students to explain their thinking in whole-class discussions. Identify a high-leverage teaching practice from Table 1.1 that relates to this strategy and explain why good teachers do this? [Q3 Model Response] This math teacher checks student understanding during the lesson, a strategy that aligns with Table 1.1 high-leverage teaching practice item 15, “Checking student understanding during and at the conclusion of lessons.” She checks student understanding at the beginning by asking what is meant by the word reasonableness, for example, and she checks students’ understanding when they explain their thinking after completing story problems.

Chapter 1 Test Items Chapter 1 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 1.1: Describe the challenges facing teachers today, Multiple Choice: 1-6 including increasing student diversity, requirements of the Every Essay: 20 Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. Objective 1.2: Discuss the essential features of effective Multiple Choice: 7-9 teaching, including different frameworks describing what good Essay: 21 teachers do. Objective 1.3: Describe the methods used to conduct research Multiple Choice: 10-17 in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions Essay: 22 each method can address. Objective 1.4: Recognize how theories and research in Multiple Choice: 18-19 development and learning are related to educational practice. Essay: 23

Multiple Choice Questions 1. As a new teacher, you are eager for the first day of school when you will meet the 22 students who have been assigned to your class. You are interested in learning about the ethnic and cultural diversity of your students and the particular needs they bring with them to the classroom. If the diversity among your students matches national statistical norms, how many of your students have at least one immigrant parent? a. two b. three c. four d. five 2. The number of American children with a mild-to-severe developmental disability has been increasing in recent years. This number (of children with a developmental disability) is what percent of American school-age children? a. 5% b. 11% c. 18% d. 24% 3. Javier emigrated from Mexico with his family and is starting third grade with minimal ability to speak English. Mrs. Foster has worked with other students like Javier and can’t wait to see how much progress Javier will make in her class this year. Mrs. Foster’s attitude seems to be evidence of: a. the teacher’s sense of efficacy. b. overly optimistic beliefs. c. an underperforming school. 16 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. the teacher’s ability to speak languages other than English. 4. According to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), who has control of setting the academic standards for students’ proficiency? a. Federal government b. States c. Local schools d. Teachers 5. Many studies indicate that teacher-student relationships and the quality of teaching make a difference. Based on findings from such studies, which of the following second-grade students is likely to benefit most from good teaching? a. Jorge likes math but does not like to participate in reading group, though he’s a good reader. b. Kellie seems to be advanced for her age. She is reading and doing math above grade level. c. Dwayne loves school, especially when he gets to work in groups with his friends or at centers with hands-on activities. d. Johana has difficulty paying attention and performs at a first-grade level in reading and math. 6. Mr. Wilson is integrating a program of social and emotional learning (SEL) targets into his middle school English curriculum. Based on studies of SEL programs, what effects might Mr. Wilson expect this SEL program to have on his students? a. An increase in emotional distress for students with behavior problems b. An increase in the dropout rate for at-risk students c. Lower academic achievement scores d. Higher academic achievement scores 7. Mr. Tanaka has accepted a teaching job in a new district. In his interview, he learned that he will be evaluated on 22 components of knowledge and skills in four domains of teaching responsibilities. Which of the following models of good teaching is most likely being used in his district’s teacher evaluation system? a. The CLASS framework b. TeachingWorks high-leverage teaching practices c. Danielson’s Framework for Teaching d. The Every Student Succeeds Act blueprint for teachers 8. According to Robert Pianta’s research-based model of good teaching, three domains of teacher-student interactions in the classroom relate to development and learning. These domains include emotional support and instructional support. What is the other domain? a. Classroom organization b. Teacher content knowledge c. Teacher sensitivity 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Concept development 9. Experienced teachers often ask several of the following questions as they teach. Which question most likely expresses the reflective concern of a beginning teacher? a. How might I help my students become self-regulated learners? b. How well did I present the new concept? c. What might help my high achievers extend their learning? d. What does Student A need in order to learn this skill? 10. Which of the following questions is most likely addressed by knowledge of educational psychology? a. Does the textbook provide a test bank of questions for developing chapter and unit tests? b. Should the skill of summarizing be taught before students learn to identify the main idea? c. Do you want to explore the topic of slavery in the United States or slavery in other countries? d. Which of these books would you like to read during the unit about historical fiction? 11. From the beginning, psychology in the United States was linked to teaching. Among the early psychologists in this country, which leader is respected as the father of the progressive education movement? a. William James, author of Talks to Teacher about Psychology b. G. Stanley Hall, founder of the American Psychological Association c. John Dewey, founder of the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago d. E. L. Thorndike, founder of the Journal of Educational Psychology 12. In Austin Foley’s research, he is collecting data in high schools in 10 school districts. He is using surveys to learn the types of support APA physics students prefer from their teachers in physics lab. What type of research is Austin conducting? a. Experimental study b. Descriptive study c. Quasi-experimental study d. ABAB 13. Marisa Campala is conducting research for one semester with fifth grade teachers in diverse classrooms. One group of teachers is using English and Spanish to greet students each morning and other teachers maintain their regular greetings in English. What type of research is Marisa most likely conducting? a. Microgenic b. Descriptive c. Longitudinal d. Experimental

14. Dr. Casey studied the effects of a particular after-school tutoring program on the academic achievement of children living in extreme poverty in his state. He followed children from kindergarten through the fifth grade. What type of research is involved in such a study? a. Ethnographic b. Case study c. Longitudinal d. Action research 15. Dr. Sullivan conducts research that involves measuring the amount of change in student scores on state math tests at the beginning of the year and at the end of the year for students in top teachers’ classrooms. What type of research is Dr. Sullivan conducting? a. Qualitative b. Case study c. Quantitative d. Ethnographic 16. Ms. Markham is conducting a study of teaching methods in her classroom. She wants to determine whether students perform better on a concepts test after she uses a mini-lecture approach or after students engage in a group activity. What type of research is she conducting? a. Ethnographic b. Longitudinal c. Microgenetic d. Action research 17. Which of the following research designs involves ethnographic research? a. Measuring the increase in test scores on the state reading test when dyslexic children have additional time to take the test b. Collecting data about the inclusion of a child with vision impairment by conducting interviews with a child who has vision impaired, the child’s parents, his teachers, and his peers c. Changing teaching strategies to see whether the new strategy brings about more learning in the math unit about adding fractions d. Following a group of Hmong students who attend a public elementary school in Minneapolis to understand their acculturation at school 18. Mr. Grant, a reflective teacher, is always trying to improve his teaching practices to increase student learning. He has conducted several research projects and changed teaching strategies on the basis of the results. In his latest reflections, he predicted that his lowachieving students would complete their spelling tasks in less time and score higher on spelling tests if he began using a buddy system. In the research cycle, Mr. Grant has developed: a. a theory. b. a principle. 19 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. a hypothesis. d. a plan for data analysis. 19. Bethany has taught language arts at Sanchez Middle School for two years. As she reflects and plans for the coming year, she reads a note she made to herself when she taught the persuasive writing unit. The students struggled with persuasion, and Bethany wants to find a better way to teach the unit. She has two ideas and wants to put them to the test to see which is more effective. What do you recommend? a. Get the opinion of another teacher in her school. b. Conduct a single-subject experiment. c. Ask students which approach they would prefer. d. Conduct action research to answer her question.

Essay Questions 20. Stan Lorenz is a beginning teacher in suburban Houston. He will be teaching fifth grade math and science and wonders how the diversity of his class will compare to the diversity he experienced growing up in Chicago. His principal describes the school as a typical representation of the diversity found in schools across the United States. Describe the diversity Stan might expect based on national norms. Include ethnic, economic, and developmental diversity. 21. You’ve been teaching at the same high school for three years and are accustomed to being evaluated on the basis of the local district forms and procedures that include observations by the assistant principal and a collection of data about your attendance, punctuality, and professionalism. You are moving to a new district and have just learned that they use the Danielson Framework for Teaching in their evaluation process. Based on your knowledge of the Framework for Teaching and its domains of teaching responsibilities, describe how you might prepare for such evaluation. 22. McKenna Williams noticed an increasing number of students not completing their independent seatwork in language and spelling. She expects students to take responsibility for working independently while she works with small reading groups. Now she wonders whether she should start allowing students to work together in pairs or trios rather than continuing to require them to work quietly on an individual basis. Her common sense tells her that she should continue to require quiet individual work. Her colleague Cal Sitton disagrees. He allows his students to work in pairs. Explain why McKenna should not rely on her common sense as she solves this teaching problem. 23. McKenna Williams is a reflective teacher. She has noticed an increasing number of students not completing their independent seatwork in language and spelling. She expects students to take responsibility for working independently while she works with small reading groups. Now she wonders whether she should start allowing students to work together in pairs or trios rather than continuing to require them to work quietly on an individual basis. Her common sense tells her that she should continue to require quiet individual work. Her colleague Cal Sitton disagrees. He allows his students to work in pairs. McKenna respects her colleague Cal and knows he has more experience teaching than she does. But she doesn’t want to mirror his teaching without reason or evidence that his strategies are more effective. How might she research this question in her own classroom and produce evidence to support one approach over another?

Chapter 1 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: four Feedback for Correct Answer: About 25% of U.S. children under 18 have at least one immigrant parent. 25% of 22 students is 5.5. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

Correct Answer: 18% Feedback for Correct Answer: About 18% of American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or autism. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

Correct Answer: the teacher’s sense of efficacy. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers’ sense of efficacy is defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confident belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predicts student achievement. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

Correct Answer: States Feedback for Correct Answer: ESSA dropped the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date and returned most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

Correct Answer: Johana has difficulty paying attention and performs at a first-grade level in reading and math. Feedback for Correct Answer: Effective teachers who establish positive relationships with their students appear to be a powerful force in those students’ lives. Students who have problems seem to benefit the most from good teaching. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

Correct Answer: Higher academic achievement scores. Feedback for Correct Answer: A meta-analysis on the effects of SEL programs that measured academic achievement found that the average achievement of students in SEL programs was 13 percentile points higher than students in the control groups. In other studies, students in SEL programs had lasting benefits including higher rates of high school and college graduation. Mr. Wilson might expect positive results for his students, including higher academic achievement. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

or areas of responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is further divided into components. Each domain is further divided into 5 or 6 components, making a total of 22 components for the entire framework. Text Reference: What Is Good Teaching? 8.

Correct Answer: Classroom organization Feedback for Correct Answer: Pianta’s work has identified three domains of teacher-student interactions in the classroom that are related to development and learning—emotional support, instructional support, and classroom organization. Text Reference: What Is Good Teaching?

Correct Answer: How well did I present that new concept? Feedback for Correct Answer: With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their teaching success by the accomplishments of their students. Beginning teachers are more likely to be concerned with their teaching performance (more focused on self). Experienced teachers are able to shift from a focus on themselves to a focus on their students. Text Reference: What Is Good Teaching?

10.

Correct Answer: Should the skill of summarizing be taught before students learn to identify the main idea? Feedback for Correct Answer: Educational psychologists do research on learning and teaching. Educational psychology addresses topics such as learning and motivation, child and adolescent development, social and cultural influences on learning, and much more. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

11.

Correct Answer: John Dewey, founder of the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago Feedback for Correct Answer: G. Stanley Hall’s student, John Dewey, founded the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago and is considered the father of the progressive education movement. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

12.

Correct Answer: Descriptive study Feedback for Correct Answer: Descriptive studies collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods. Austin Foley’s research is a descriptive study using surveys to collect data. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

13.

Correct Answer: Experimental Feedback for Correct Answer: Experimental studies allow educational psychologists to go beyond predictions and actually study cause and effect. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

investigators introduce changes and note the results. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology 14.

Correct Answer: Longitudinal Feedback for Correct Answer: Many things that psychologists want to study, such as cognitive development, happen over several months or years. Ideally, researchers would study the development by observing their subjects over many years as changes occur. These are called longitudinal studies. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

15.

Correct Answer: Quantitative Feedback for Correct Answer: Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups. Both correlational and experimental types of research generally are quantitative because measurements are taken and computations are made. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

16.

Correct Answer: Action research Feedback for Correct Answer: Action research involves systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

17.

Correct Answer: Following a group of Hmong students who attend a public elementary school in Minneapolis to understand their acculturation at school Feedback for Correct Answer: Ethnography is a descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

18.

Correct Answer: a hypothesis. Feedback for Correct Answer: A hypothesis is a prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

19.

Correct Answer: Conduct action research to answer her question Feedback for Correct Answer: Action research involves systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 20.

Suggested Response: Stan might expect 1 in 4 students to have at least one immigrant parent. He might also expect that 2 in 10 live in poverty and perhaps even extreme poverty. Nearly 1 in 5 (or 18%) will have a mild-to-severe developmental disability. Text Reference: Learning and Teaching Today

21.

Suggested Response: The Framework for Teaching includes four domains of teaching responsibilities: planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities. In the domain of planning and preparation, teachers want to demonstrate content knowledge and knowledge of students. Teachers need to design instruction that flows and meets instructional outcomes, and they need to design assessments that correlate with lessons. In the domain of classroom environment, teachers need to establish a culture of learning in which they show respect for students and students show respect for the teacher and for one another. Teachers need to establish rules and procedures and manage student behavior effectively. Their use of the physical space should support learning. In the domain of instruction, teachers need to use a variety of teaching strategies to meet students’ learning needs. Instruction should be engaging and demonstrate flexibility in response to students’ needs. In the domain of professional responsibilities, teachers need to be reflective and take steps to improve their teaching. Teachers should maintain accurate records and communicate with parents and guardians to ensure that they know how their child is doing. Teachers also need to show professionalism by being involved in professional organizations, accessing professional resources, and participating in professional activities at school and in the community. Text Reference: What Is Good Teaching?

22.

Suggested Response: McKenna should not rely on common sense, because common sense is often wrong. As seen in this scenario, McKenna and Cal disagree in their approaches, and this is typical. Teachers often disagree about what constitutes common sense. Additionally, research often proves that common sense answers to questions about teaching and learning are not valid. Research often disproves common sense answers. Many strongly held beliefs about teaching and learning have no basis in research. The important point is not what sounds or seems sensible, but what is demonstrated to be effective and supported by research. Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

23.

Suggested Response: McKenna might conduct her own action research in her classroom. Action research involves systematic observations or tests of methods to improve teaching and learning. Her question might be to find out whether students learn more when they work in pairs or when they work independently. It might be to find out whether more students complete the assignments. For her observations or tests, McKenna could try pairing students for seatwork. She needs to give students guidelines and procedures to follow. She can compare the results of students’ work over a period of time. She might compare the number of 24 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

completed assignments she had with her old approach to the number of completed assignments with the new approach. She might also compare grades on specific tasks such as spelling tests, writing assignments, or worksheets. She would need to set up her study to answer her questions about effectiveness of the two approaches. Is more learning taking place when students work in pairs? Text Reference: The Role of Educational Psychology

Chapter 1 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 1.1 Describe the challenges facing teachers today, including increasing student diversity, requirements of the Every Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. Outcome 1.2 Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do. Outcome 1.3 Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address. Outcome 1.4 Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are related to educational practice. [Q1] LO 1.1 Novice teachers face numerous tasks and scenarios with which they have little prior experience. For teachers currently entering the field, which of the following is NOT a challenge they are apt to encounter? 1. Students who may exhibit superior technology skills as compared to their teachers 2. An increasingly diverse population of students and families 3. Students with intellectual disabilities who are denied inclusion [correct] 4. Students who face the challenges associated with living in poverty [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] About 18% of American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or autism. This number has been increasing since the early 2000s. Over half of these children spend most of their time in general education classes. [Q2] LO 1.1 Both students and teachers work harder and persist longer when they have a high sense of efficacy. Which of the following does not enhance self-efficacy in teachers? 1. Teaching only students who are free from learning challenges [correct] 2. Day-to-day success in achieving tasks 3. High expectations from those in the environment 4. Assistance from more knowledgeable partners [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Efficacy grows from real success with students. Teachers’ sense of efficacy is their belief that they can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.

Commented [I4]: GLOBAL: AU: We have made this change in all the chapter quizzes as the heading says “Learning outcomes”; please confirm if it’s fine.

[Q3] LO 1.2 Ms. Lopez is a new high school teacher who knows how much she benefited from her student teaching. However, after the first week of school, she realizes she is far from the level of professionalism of her experienced peers. She might increase her professionalism in which of the following ways? 1. Talk to her students about what they expect in a teacher 2. Discuss her teaching with the parents of students 3. Read educational publications [correct] 4. Review her notes from her college classes [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Reading educational publications is a good way to develop professionalism. Reading publications such as Education Week helps teachers learn about teaching practices, research, and creative strategies. [Q4 Short Answer] LO 1.3 Case Mr. Sims is a new middle school language arts teacher. At the end of his first quarter, his principal Ms. Thomas visited his classes and made notes about her observations. Ms. Thomas then met with Mr. Sims and presented an evaluation that included ratings on several aspects of Mr. Sims’ teaching. One of the principal’s recommendations stated that Mr. Sims needs to use evidence-based practices in his teaching. What are evidence-based teaching practices? [Feedback for Answer 4] Evidence-based teaching practices are teaching practices that have been tested through experimental processes and found to be effective. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 1.3 Case Mr. Sims is a new middle school language arts teacher. At the end of his first quarter, his principal Ms. Thomas visited his classes and made notes about her observations. Ms. Thomas then met with Mr. Sims and presented an evaluation that included ratings on several aspects of Mr. Sims’ teaching. One of the principal’s recommendations stated that Mr. Sims needs to use evidence-based practices in his teaching. Where might Mr. Sims learn about evidence-based teaching practices? [Feedback for Answer 5] The U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES) has established a What Works Clearinghouse with a series of Practice Guides that contain recommendations from experts about various challenges educators face—guides to action based on strong evidence from large scale welldesigned research studies (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/practiceguides). Each of the Practice Guides describes several strategies and rates the evidence supporting their use as “strong,” “moderate,” or “minimal.”

Commented [S5]: Check whether this changed text is correct or not (check for below instance also).

Chapter 2 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

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Table of Contents Chapter 2: Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 2: Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Chapter 2 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 2.1. Describe the meaning of culture and discuss how cultural diversity in American education today is related to learning and teaching. [Q1] When high school senior Guang, a third-generation Chinese American, met his calculus teacher, the teacher said, “I bet you’ll be the best in the class.” The teacher intended his comment to be a compliment. Guang recalled that his precalculus teacher said the same thing when she met him at the beginning of his junior year. These stereotypical comments are likely to make Guang feel which of the following? 1. Favored by the teacher 2. The same as any regular American student 3. Pressured and burdened [correct] 4. Like a model of success [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Even seemingly positive stereotypes can lead to problems. For example, Asians and Asian Americans have been stereotyped as “model minority” students—quiet, hardworking, passive students who universally succeed. Such comments are more likely to make Guang feel invisible to the teacher. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Even seemingly positive stereotypes can lead to problems. The teacher’s comment is more likely to make Guang feel like a perpetual foreigner. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Researchers have shown that teachers tend to refer to students like Guang as “Asian,” not “Asian American” or “American.” Too often, students who are the target of teachers’ cultural stereotypes take them to heart and feel pressured, burdened, or even as if they are invisible. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Asian Americans have been stereotyped as “model minority” students. Guang is less likely to feel like a model of success and more likely to feel like he is being stereotyped and not viewed as an individual. [Q2] Cultural intersectionality refers to which of the following? 1. Our overlapping social identities that shape us [correct] 2. Our view of the world as a great multicultural community

3. Our ties to our cultural value system 4. Our common view of our shared cultural experiences [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Intersectionality refers to our overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, age, etc.) that shape each of us in unique ways. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Intersectionality is more focused on the individual’s attributes and aspects of social identity rather than our world view. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Intersectionality is more focused on the individual’s attributes and aspects of social identity than our cultural value system. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Intersectionality is more focused on the individual’s attributes and aspects of social identity. The idea of a common view of shared cultural experiences doesn’t fit cultural intersectionality. [Q3] In a metaphor comparing culture to an iceberg, some aspects of culture could be described as the visible tip of the iceberg whereas many aspects are invisible (below the surface). Which signs of culture are part of the tip of the iceberg? 1. Your views about teaching and learning 2. Your ideas of justice and fairness 3. Your rules about making eye contact 4. Your music and clothing [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Many aspects of our cultural selves exist “below the surface.” Many of our cultural affiliations are not readily visible to others such as one’s ideas about teaching and learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Many aspects of our cultural selves exist “below the surface.” Many of our cultural affiliations are not readily visible to others such as one’s ideas about justice and fairness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Many aspects of our cultural selves exist “below the surface.” Many of our cultural affiliations are not readily visible to others such as rules about making eye contact when interacting with others. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] One’s music and clothing are visible to others and are seen as part of the tip of the iceberg. Just as most of the iceberg is out of sight and below the water line, so are most cultural differences invisible to others and even out of conscious awareness.

[Q4] A general definition of culture includes all of the following EXCEPT: 1. The tradition of having a parade on Independence Day 2. The number of rainy days in a year in the community [correct] 3. A common practice of wearing a hat to block the sun 4. The movement that supports Black Lives Matter [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A general definition of culture includes the traditions of a group of people. The tradition of having a parade on Independence Day is a cultural practice. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The number of rainy days in a year in the community is nature’s influence, not culture. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A general definition of culture includes the norms and practices of the group. Wearing a hat to block the sun is influenced by culture. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A general definition of culture includes the values and beliefs of the group. Supporting Black Lives Matter is influenced by cultural values and beliefs. [Q5] Luna is a nine-year-old Hispanic girl who lives in a middle-class neighborhood in Houston. How much of this information is included in Luna’s cultural identity wheel? 1. Her age 2. Her race 3. Her age, race, and gender 4. Her age, race, gender, and neighborhood [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Luna’s cultural identity wheel includes her age plus additional information about her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Luna’s cultural identity wheel includes her race plus additional information about her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Luna’s cultural identity wheel includes her age, race, and gender plus additional information about her. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Luna’s cultural identity wheel includes all of this information about her plus many more cultural features.

Learning Outcome 2.2. Discuss what defines social class and socioeconomic status, including how SES differences relate to school achievement. [Q1] Hayden teaches fifth grade in a poor community, and most of his students are from low-income families. Hayden, who implements the guidelines for teaching students in poverty, is most likely to do which of the following? 1. Teach basics without incorporating challenging concepts 2. Refrain from critiquing students’ low-quality work 3. Excuse students for submitting poor work 4. Set and maintain high expectations for all students [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to guidelines, Hayden and others who teach students who live in poverty should include challenging concepts and content. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to guidelines, Hayden and others who teach students who live in poverty should provide constructive criticism and believe the students can do quality work. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to guidelines, Hayden and others who teach students who live in poverty should communicate to students that they can succeed and that low-quality work is not acceptable. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] According to guidelines, Hayden and others who teach students who live in poverty should set and maintain high expectations for all students. They should not feel sorry for students and expect less. They should help students believe they can learn. [Q2] Ember lives in extreme poverty with parents who work minimum-wage jobs, and she attends a school with inadequate resources and ineffective teachers. Ember is tracked into vocational classes in high school. With such tracking, Ember is likely to experience which of the following? 1. Primarily opportunities for creative problem solving 2. Primarily passive learning that involves memorization [correct] 3. Primarily challenging academic work and higher grades 4. Primarily failure and encouragement to drop out of school [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The opportunities for creative problem solving and other academic challenges are more common for students who are not tracked into low-ability or vocational classes. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Students who are tracked into low-ability or vocational classes are actually taught differently and may be expected to memorize and to learn more passively than their advantaged peers. When 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

students like Ember receive a substandard education, they acquire inferior academic skills that limit their life chances. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students who are tracked in low-ability or vocational classes are taught differently and are not more likely to encounter challenging academic work and higher grades. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A forecast of failure and dropping out of school as a result of tracking is an extreme and negative prediction. Ember and other students who are tracked into vocational classes are likely to learn a vocation. [Q3] What was the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on childhood poverty and social and economic inequalities in the United States? 1. Increase in childhood poverty but no change in social and economic inequalities 2. Decrease in childhood poverty and greater social and economic equality 3. Increase in childhood poverty and greater social and economic inequalities [correct] 4. No change in childhood poverty or social and economic inequalities [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The COVID-19 pandemic brought about change in social and economic inequalities. The changes were worse for Latino children, African American children, and indigenous children and families. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The COVID-19 pandemic did not bring about a decrease in childhood poverty or greater social and economic equality. The changes that occurred had a greater effect on Latino children, African American children, and indigenous children and families. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The COVID-19 pandemic brought about an increase in childhood poverty and exacerbated social and economic inequalities. The changes were worse for Latino children, African American children, and indigenous children and families. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The COVID-19 pandemic brought about changes in childhood poverty and in social and economic inequalities. The changes had a more profound effect on Latino children, African American children, and indigenous children and families. [Q4] The index known as socioeconomic status (SES) that is commonly used in research by sociologists and psychologists combines which of the following factors to arrive at a ranking? 1. Wealth and occupation 2. Power, prestige, wealth, and control over resources [correct] 3. Occupation, income, and education level 5 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Social standing in the community, income, and family size [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Occupation is not one of the factors used by researchers to arrive at socioeconomic status (SES) rankings. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Researchers combine data on wealth, power, prestige, and control over resources into the index called socioeconomic status (SES). [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Occupation, income, and education level are characteristics of different social classes, but these factors are not used by researchers to arrive at socioeconomic status (SES) rankings. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] These factors affect social class standing, but they are not used by researchers to arrive at socioeconomic status (SES) rankings. [Q5] Theo is a ten-year-old boy who has been homeless for much of his life, and his single mother has relocated with Theo and his younger sister as often as three times in a single year. Theo is often hungry and doesn’t receive medical care he needs when he becomes ill. If Theo is like the majority of children who are homeless, what is his level of achievement in math and reading? 1. At grade level in math and below grade level in reading 2. At grade level in reading and below grade level in math 3. At grade level 4. Below grade level [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to the National Center on Family Homelessness, most students who were homeless performed below grade level in math as well as reading. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to the National Center on Family Homelessness, most students who were homeless performed below grade level in reading as well as math. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to the National Center on Family Homelessness, most students who were homeless performed lower than grade level in math or reading or both. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] According to the National Center on Family Homelessness, 75% of elementary students and 85% of high school students who were homeless performed below grade level in reading and math. Homelessness and high mobility contribute to chronic risks and problems in school, problems that are difficult to overcome.

Learning Outcome 2.3. Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype threat might affect student learning and achievement in schools. [Q1] Atsa and Tahoma are eight-year-old boys growing up together on a Navajo reservation, experiencing the traditions of the Navajo people, learning the Navajo language, and sharing a cultural heritage. This statement describes which of the following? 1. The boys’ race 2. The boys’ social standing 3. The boys’ ethnicity [correct] 4. The boys’ cultural norms [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Race is a socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry. The statement about Atsa and Tahoma does not describe physical appearances such as skin color or hair texture. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Social standing relates to one’s position in society. The statement about Atsa and Tahoma mentions their cultural heritage but not their social standing in their culture. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Ethnicity usually refers to a group’s shared common cultural characteristics such as history, homeland, language, traditions, or religion. The statement about Atsa and Tahoma describes aspects of their shared ethnicity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The statement about Atsa and Tahoma alludes to their cultural heritage but does not describe any cultural norms. [Q2] As a high school junior, Raven is comfortable with her racial identity as a Black teen. She wears her afro and doesn’t worry about the opinions of her White or Black friends. Based on the stages of Black racial identity development, Raven seems to exhibit which stage? 1. Pre-encounter 2. Encounter 3. Immersion/emersion 4. Internalization [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In the pre-encounter stage, African Americans may adopt certain beliefs of White Americans. Raven is not adopting White beliefs. She is comfortable in her Blackness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In the encounter stage, a Black person’s eyes are opened to the reality that race matters in society. Raven is not just having her eyes opened to the reality that race matters. She is comfortable with her Blackness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In the immersion/emersion stage, a person may be anxious about being the “right kind” of Black person. Raven is not anxious about her Blackness. She is comfortable with her Blackness and unconcerned about the opinions of her White and Black friends. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] At the internalization stage, individuals are firmly connected to and secure in their sense of racial identity. We can see that Raven is in the internalization stage of racial identity development because she wears her afro hair, is comfortable with being Black, and is not worried about the opinions of her White or Black friends. [Q3] According to research, what level of racial prejudice is found among teachers in the United States? 1. Teachers exhibit a greater degree of anti-Black bias than the general public 2. Teachers exhibit far less pro-White, anti-Black bias than the general public 3. Teachers and the general public exhibit similar pro-White, anti-Black biases [correct] 4. Teachers typically exhibit no bias or racial prejudice in their classrooms [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers do not exhibit a greater degree of anti-Black bias than the general public, but the evidence of racial bias is significant and damaging. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Unfortunately, this statement is false. Teachers are more likely to expect less of students from ethnic minority groups and to disproportionately refer them (particularly Black students) for special education or disciplinary interventions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] According to research, teachers hold similarly pro-White, anti-Black biases in roughly the same proportion as members of the general public. Teachers are more likely to expect less of students from ethnic minority groups and to disproportionately refer those from historically disadvantaged groups—and particularly Black students—for special education or disciplinary interventions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, this statement is false. Teachers typically exhibit racial bias in their classrooms. Teachers are more likely to expect less of students from ethnic minority groups and to disproportionately refer those from historically disadvantaged groups—and particularly Black students—for special education or disciplinary interventions.

[Q4] When researchers talk about opportunity gaps for many students of color, they refer to all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Differences in quality of available childcare 2. Differences in intelligence [correct] 3. Differences in affordable housing and health care 4. Differences in access to digital resources [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Researchers include the lack of quality childcare for families of color in their discussion of opportunity gaps. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Researchers do not include differences in levels of intelligence in their discussions about opportunity gaps. The opportunity gaps being discussed deal directly with opportunities such as access to quality education and good teaching with qualified teachers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Researchers include the lack of affordable housing and health care for families of color in their discussion of opportunity gaps. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Researchers include the lack of access to digital resources for families of color in their discussion of opportunity gaps. [Q5] According to recent data from the U.S. Department of Education, how do the math scores of Hispanic American, African American, and White fourth-grade students compare? 1. White students’ scores are higher than the other two groups, but the gap is narrowing [correct] 2. Scores of Black students and White students are equal and Hispanic student scores are lower 3. Scores of Hispanic students and White students are equal and Black student scores are lower 4. Differences in math scores among these groups are insignificant [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In recent years the gap between scores of White, Black, and Hispanic students have narrowed though the scores of White students remain higher than the scores of students from the other two groups. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Scores of Black students remain lower than scores of White students in mathematics.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Scores of Hispanic students remain lower than scores of White students in mathematics. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The differences in math scores indicate a significant gap though the gap is narrowing. Learning Outcome 2.4. Describe the development of gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation and discuss their role in teaching and learning. [Q1] Rani recently moved to the United States from Southeast Asia where most women remain at home serving their husbands and taking care of their children. Rani seems confused when she is asked to perform the same school tasks as her male classmates. Rani’s confusion most likely reflects which of the following? 1. Her prejudice 2. Her gender identity 3. Her gender bias 4. Her gender schema [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Rani’s confusion does not suggest that Rani is prejudiced against boys or against American culture or the culture of her homeland. Rani is confused, and her confusion doesn’t necessarily mean she has negative feelings. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Gender identity is a person’s self-identification as a gendered individual. Rani’s confusion is based on a cultural difference. She is not confused about her gender identity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Rani’s confusion is based on a cultural difference rather than a preference for one gender over the other. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Rani’s confusion is based on a cultural difference. Her gender schema—her cognitive structure for gender-related information—differs from the gender schema she encounters in her new classroom setting. [Q2] According to studies of gender bias in teaching, which of the following children will probably receive the LEAST amount of attention (positive or negative) from the teacher in class? 1. Kye, a low-achieving boy 2. Cassandra, a high-achieving girl [correct] 3. Davarko, a high-achieving boy 4. Monnie, a low-achieving girl

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to studies, teachers have more overall interactions with boys than with girls; however, this includes more negative interactions with boys but not more positive interactions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] According to studies, high-achieving White girls receive the least amount of teacher attention. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to studies, teachers have more overall interactions with boys than with girls; however, this includes more negative interactions with boys but not more positive interactions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] According to studies, teachers give more attention to low-achieving girls than to one other group of students. [Q3] Aubree teaches fifth-grade math and is highly aware of studies that reveal some of the reasons for the underachievement of boys in school. She intends to address this concern by focusing on gender bias in teaching. If Aubree follows the guidelines for avoiding gender bias in teaching, she is most likely to do which of the following? 1. Use teaching strategies that primarily appeal to male students 2. Check textbooks to make sure they present stereotypical gender role models 3. Monitor all teaching practices and identify unintended biases [correct] 4. Use primarily male-oriented language and examples [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers must realize that there are no boy- or girl-specific teaching strategies—good teaching is good teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] To avoid gender bias in teaching, teachers should check to see if textbooks and other media provide counter-stereotypical gender role models. Presenting stereotypical gender role models reinforces gender bias and doesn’t address the underachievement of boys in school. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Aubree might address gender bias by monitoring her teaching practices and identifying unintended biases. The guidelines make several other suggestions that all teachers should practice in their efforts to reduce or eliminate gender bias in teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Using primarily male-oriented language and examples is explicit gender bias. Aubree needs to avoid gender bias in her approaches to teaching boys effectively. [Q4] Jordan teaches high school history and is aware that several students in his classes are sexual minority youth who experience considerable stress and ridicule. In reaching out to help these

students of diverse sexual orientations, Jordan follows the suggestions of the Attic Speakers Bureau that include which of the following? 1. Addressing harassers by calling them out and insulting them in class 2. Asking that these students be transferred to a different class 3. Affirming the students and referring them to a trained expert [correct] 4. Following up with the parents of these students and giving them advice [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Addressing harassers by calling them out in class and insulting them would be irresponsible and create additional problems. Teachers must exercise control and deal wisely with the offenders in order to maintain a learning environment where all youth feel comfortable and welcome. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Asking that these students be transferred is detrimental and suggests that the teacher is being dismissive and avoiding responsibility. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Suggestions of the Attic Speakers Bureau include affirming the students, not judging them, letting them know they are not alone, and referring them to someone who is trained to deal with these issues. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers should follow up with the individual students (not their parents) and see if the situation has improved and if there is anything further the teacher can do to help. [Q5] Ian is a sixteen-year-old boy who is attracted to girls. Ian’s attraction to girls is most directly an explanation of which of the following? 1. His gender identity 2. His sexual orientation [correct] 3. His gender role 4. His gender neutrality [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Gender identity is the sense of self as male or female as well as the beliefs one has about gender roles and attributes. This statement about Ian focuses on his attraction not his sense of self as male or female or his beliefs about his roles. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Sexual orientation is the gender to whom a person is sexually or emotionally attracted. Ian’s attraction to girls is most directly an explanation of his sexual orientation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Gender roles are behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with being male or female. This statement about Ian focuses on his attraction to girls not his beliefs about his roles. 12 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ian’s attraction to girls does not represent gender neutrality. He is aware of his attraction to girls. He’s not neutral in his attraction. Learning Outcome 2.5. Define multicultural education and apply research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms. [Q1] Ms. Akana has students from many different cultural backgrounds in her sixth-grade class. Which of these assignments would be the best way for Ms. Akana to promote multicultural education successfully in her classroom? 1. Create a “cultural music day” and ask African American students to bring rap albums and Hispanic students to bring mariachi music. 2. For the class unit on nutrition, ask students to bring a recipe for their favorite food traditionally eaten by their family. [correct] 3. Ask students to think about what culture means and discuss it in their groups. 4. For the class unit on history, assign students to groups based on their ethnicity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The assignments in this case are based on stereotypes. A better choice would be to ask students to bring in their favorite song, or to study all types of music together as a class. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This is a good learning activity that will engage all students and promote equity among cultures. It does not require students to “represent their race” in a stereotypical way, but allows them to provide an individual and personal interpretation of their own cultural traditions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This assignment is too vague and deals with the concept of culture in general. It will not promote multicultural education. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This may seem like a good idea, but it will ultimately have the effect of segregating students. Additionally, some students may have mixed ethnicities or races and will not agree with their placement in one group over another. It would be better to assign groups randomly and then assign each group to investigate one culture and share their findings. [Q2] The concept of culturally relevant pedagogy is based on teaching that rests on three propositions. Which of the following practices is involved in one or more of these propositions of culturally relevant pedagogy? 1. Strategies that include testing of learning styles for children of all cultural backgrounds 2. Teaching that encourages students to read first in their native language before reading in English 3. School reform that includes hosting discrimination workshops for parents and civic leaders

4. Teaching that helps students develop a critical consciousness and question social inequities [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This pedagogy is not culturally relevant, is not supported by research, and may lead to cultural stereotyping. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Excellent teachers will get to know their students and the learning needs of their students, but not all students need to read first in their native languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This could improve parent involvement and help build resilience in the students, but it is not a component of culturally relevant pedagogy. Culturally relevant pedagogy is focused on teaching students rather than providing workshops for parents and civic leaders. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Culturally relevant pedagogy involves helping students to achieve academic success, developing and maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo with its social norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities. [Q3] Ms. Martin has decided that she will ask each of her fifth-grade students to interview a student in another class about a time when they felt left out or excluded because of their gender, age, race, or socioeconomic status (SES). Then, she will ask her students to share these stories, and she will lead a discussion about the everyday effects of discrimination. Which of the five dimensions of multicultural education posited by James Banks does this activity address? 1. Prejudice reduction [correct] 2. Content integration 3. Empowering school culture and social structure 4. Equity pedagogy [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] By asking her students to investigate specific experiences of prejudicial behavior, Ms. Martin is encouraging prejudice reduction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Content integration involves incorporating information about and examples from various cultures when teaching a subject. Ms. Martin’s assignment is focused on a different dimension of multicultural education. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Martin’s activity may help to create an empowering social structure indirectly, but it is focused on a different dimension of multicultural education.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Equity pedagogy refers to the need for teachers to use methods that are accessible to all students. Ms. Martin’s assignment is focused on a different dimension of multicultural education. [Q4] Mr. James has been assigned to teach second grade on a Native American reservation. Within his first 2 weeks of teaching, Mr. James is bemused because the group techniques he used with his students in Boston—who were mostly White and from the upper class—are not working with these particular children. He notices that the ways the children interact are different, and their social expectations for each other and for him seem to be different. Based on dimensions outlined by Tharp (1989), which dimension of his classroom should Mr. James modify to make it more culturally compatible? 1. Sociolinguistics 2. Social organization [correct] 3. Learning preferences 4. Students’ cultural values [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Sociolinguistics refers to the ways in which individuals in different societies communicate, which is only indirectly relevant here. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In this setting, the teacher’s organization of teaching, learning, and performance is not compatible with the social structures in which students are most productive, engaged, and likely to learn. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. James realizes his new students are socialized differently. He does not mention their learning preferences. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. James realizes his new students are socialized differently than his former students. He needs to focus on this realization to make the classroom more culturally compatible. [Q5] Which of the following teachers has the most culturally compatible classroom, based on the information given here? 1. Ms. Miller, whose class bookshelf has several books with African American children as the main characters and who celebrates Cinco de Mayo and St. Patrick’s Day with her class. 2. Mr. Britt, who asks his students for anonymous suggestions to improve the classroom atmosphere through a suggestion box on his desk, and asks parents what values their family embraces during parent–teacher conferences. [correct] 3. Mr. Studebaker, who lets the students who have been the most restless all morning go to lunch first, and who always says that it is more important for kids to learn to enjoy school than for them to learn specific information.

4. Mrs. Johannsen, who alternates calling on boys and girls in order to make sure they get equal representation in the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Although Ms. Miller no doubt has good intentions, addressing culture only through holidays and a few token books is not enough to create a culturally compatible classroom. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Soliciting feedback from students and parents, especially regarding the values and classroom activities that are most important to them, helps in creating a culturally compatible classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Studebaker is erring on the side of making sure his students do not feel uncomfortable. However, sensitivity should not mean that learning goals are forgotten. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This is a good start, but gender is only one divide in the classroom. Mrs. Johannsen should find more ways to include all students equally in order to create a culturally compatible classroom.

Chapter 2 Application Exercises Application Exercise 2.1: Ethnic and Racial Identity Learning Outcome 2.3. Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype threat might affect student learning and achievement in schools. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/multiculturaleducation/ME_03_167_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 to answer the following question: In the process of comparing the two books, Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters: An African Tale and Cendrillon: A Caribbean Cinderella, how might children develop a more multidimensional view of ethnicity? [Q1 Model Response] By being exposed to the literature and stories of people from other parts of the world, the children’s view of cultural characteristics and traditions is broadened. They learn about cultures that are different from their own, and at the same time they see characters with dark skin similar to their own. They are able to compare and contrast the two cultures represented in these books and make similar comparisons between these dimensions of ethnicity and their own. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 to answer the following question: Based on your observations of children in this classroom, identify their race and explain why stories of people with dark skin may resonate with them more than the traditional story of Cinderella. [Q2 Model Response] The children shown in this classroom are Black children. They are likely to identify more with the stories of dark-skinned Cinderella-like characters than with a White Cinderella despite the differences in cultural background between them and the girls in the stories from Africa and the Caribbean. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 to answer the following question: How might this lesson affect Black students who are in the pre-encounter stage of racial identity development? [Q3 Model Response] For Black students who are in the pre-encounter stage of racial identity development, reading about beauty in dark-skinned people can help them see beauty in themselves and broaden their view beyond the typical White American view they might see in the traditional Cinderella story.

Perhaps it helps them understand that they don’t need to accept everything about White culture or view it as superior. Application Exercise 2.2: Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Learning Outcome 2.5. Define multicultural education and apply research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 URL: http://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ELL_Culture/10-3_a.mp4 EDIT: Start at the beginning. END at TC 2:13 “…at what point in time.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 to answer the following question: How do Amy Wagner’s comments reflect the concept of culturally relevant pedagogy? [Q1 Model Response] Amy Wagner states that students will not be reprimanded for what they don’t know or what they don’t come with. This reflects the ideology of culturally relevant pedagogy by demonstrating an understanding that students must experience academic success rather than being evaluated on background knowledge they lack. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 to answer the following question: How do the comments of Miguel Arroyo reflect the “cultural competence” aspect of culturally relevant pedagogy? [Q2 Model Response] Mr. Arroyo states that the school helps students acclimate to the new culture and maintain their own culture. This shows respect for the children’s culture. He says that if you don’t know where you came from, you do not know who you are or where to go. This implies that they help the children develop and maintain their cultural competence. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 to answer the following question: Compare the messages represented in this video with the view of pedagogy described by Lisa Delpit (2003) when she states, “Teachers must learn who their students are and what legacies they bring.” [Q3 Model Response] The messages in this video, both stated and unstated, reinforce the importance of Lisa’s point. Mr. Arroyo’s comment about not knowing “who you are if you don’t know where you came from,” supports the idea that teachers must learn who their students are in order to teach them. The school system in this video involves parents and families in ways that promote culturally relevant pedagogy. The more teachers understand the culture of the children, the better they relate to the children and the more effectively they teach the children. 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Application Exercise 2.3: Culturally Relevant Teaching Learning Outcome 2.5. Define multicultural education and apply research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 2.8 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/math/Oklahoma/Diversityintheclassroom.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.8 to answer the following question: Sheila Brown, the teacher in this video, is experienced in teaching students who speak different languages and represent a wide variety of cultures. Using the “Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching” in the textbook, identify at least one practice she describes that aligns with the idea of providing “a range of ways to learn material to accommodate a range of learning preferences.” [Q1 Model Response] Sheila Brown describes using the smartboard for visual support to accompany an oral lesson. She provides pictures of academic vocabulary to help students learn new words, and she uses worksheets. She also mentions partner games as a learning strategy. In summary, the range of ways for students to learn material includes visual strategies, such as the smartboard and pictures, oral lessons, worksheets, and games with a partner. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.8 to answer the following question: Sheila Brown talks about frontloading lessons for English learners by preteaching vocabulary that will be used in the lesson. Which of the guidelines (Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching) most directly aligns with this practice? Explain. [Q2 Model Response] Sheila Brown’s practice of frontloading every lesson for English learners aligns with the guideline for emphasizing meaning in teaching. By teaching the academic vocabulary before the lesson, she helps her students from diverse languages/cultures understand the meaning of words before the concept lesson begins. The lessons take on greater meaning because the students know the words being used to discuss the concepts. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 2.8 to answer the following question: Sheila Brown refers briefly to her use of partner games, and she describes her approach to seating or grouping English learners among other students. How does this fit the guidelines for culturally relevant teaching? Explain. [Q3 Model Response] The first guideline states, “Experiment with different grouping arrangements to encourage social harmony and cooperation.” The practice of using partner games allows students from diverse

cultures to work together. Seating or grouping English learners among the other students encourages social harmony and cooperation among the heterogeneous group of students.

Chapter 2 Test Items Chapter 2 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 2.1: Describe the meaning of culture and discuss Multiple Choice: 1-5, 16-17 how cultural diversity in American education today is related to Essay: 26 learning and teaching. Objective 2.2: Discuss what defines social class and Multiple Choice: 6-11 socioeconomic status, including how SES differences relate to Essay: 27 school achievement. Objective 2.3: Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, Multiple Choice: 12-15 discrimination, and stereotype threat might affect student Essay: 28 learning and achievement in schools. Objective 2.4: Describe the development of gender, gender Multiple Choice: 18-21 identity, and sexual orientation and discuss their role in Essay: 29 teaching and learning. Objective 2.5: Define multicultural education and apply Multiple Choice: 22-25 research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant Essay: 30 classrooms.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Ayo’s parents are from Nigeria but emigrated to the U.S. before Ayo was born. Ayo’s dad is a medical doctor in a Houston suburb, and his mom has an art gallery in the city. Ayo attends an elite private high school and is one of the top players on his school’s basketball team. Based on this information and the textbook’s definition of culture, what is the best description of Ayo’s cultural affiliations? a. Ayo’s cultural affiliations are Nigerian. b. Ayo’s cultural affiliations are African American. c. Ayo’s cultural affiliations are American and Nigerian. d. Ayo’s cultural affiliations are Nigerian, American, upper class, and basketball. 2. Which of the following is an example of the invisible influence of culture? a. Darius is an African American boy who often wears a tee shirt bearing the name of his favorite baseball star. b. Mika is a Native American girl who shows respect by avoiding eye contact with her teacher. c. Kate is an Irish American girl who styles her hair like the lead singer of her favorite musical group. d. Stefano is a bilingual Mexican American boy who has darker skin than his best friend, a White American boy. 3. Mr. Chavez teaches high school science. After the first week of school, he talks with a friend about the diversity among his students. Which description is indicative of stereotypical thinking? a. An Asian American girl who is probably a model student 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. A Mexican American boy who says he wants to play professional baseball like his uncle c. A Native American girl who achieved low scores in science last year d. A tall African American boy who is competing for the position of starting wide receiver on the football team 4. Eight-year-old Charlie is the only Black student in his class in a private school. Though he is an excellent speller, Charlie anticipates that the color of his skin will cause his teacher to overlook him when she chooses class representatives for the grade-level spelling contest. Charlie is experiencing which of the following? a. Bias b. Prejudice c. Ethnic identity d. Stereotype threat 5. Discrimination is one of the elements of prejudice. Discrimination is the element that deals with a person’s: a. behaviors and actions toward others. b. beliefs about others. c. attitudes and feelings about others. d. impressions of others as outsiders. 6. A societal designation of upper, middle, working, or lower class based on income, power, background, and prestige is called: a. intersectionality. b. comprehensive social identity. c. socioeconomic status. d. cultural classification. 7. Based on statistics from the National Center for Homeless Education, how many students in the U.S. are homeless? a. Fewer than 500,000 b. About 700,000 c. Nearly 1 million d. More than 1.4 million 8. Which one of the following children of poverty is most likely to perform well in school? a. Amy’s teacher understands that she is embarrassed about being poor. He seldom calls on her during class, but provides scaffolding if Amy asks for help. b. Jeb’s teacher calls on him frequently and expresses high expectations of his academic performance. c. Natalie’s teacher knows how difficult it is for Natalie to do school work at home, and he accepts incomplete homework from Natalie.

d. Ding’s teacher allows him to sleep during class, knowing that he helps his younger siblings at home and stays up late most nights. 9. Jerita and her friends are from low-SES families, though most of their peers are from middle class families. Jerita has decided that school is a dead end, and she does not care about succeeding academically. Her Spanish teacher believes Jerita could make high grades in Spanish and some of her other classes. The teacher encourages Jerita to turn in homework and raise her grades, but Jerita does not want to sell out and act like the middle-class kids. She seems to have become part of: a. a rebel gang. b. a resistance culture. c. a self-imposed poverty culture. d. a school-imposed exclusion. 10. Chet, the seven-year-old son of Thai parents, is growing up in a Thai community in a large U.S. metro area. His family is poor and most of his friends come from poor families. Based on statistics, why is Chet less likely than children from wealthier families to succeed academically? a. Because he, more than children from wealthier families, is likely to lose ground academically during the summers. b. Because academic expectations are high for all children living in poverty. c. Because teachers in metro area schools are typically uncaring and unwilling to help children overcome the setbacks associated with poverty. d. Because his family, unlike wealthier families, is likely to encourage him to become a part of the resistance culture in the community. 11. Ms. Dominguez is the principal at a secondary school in an impoverished community. All students in her school come from low-income or poverty level families. What advice should Ms. Dominguez give her teachers to improve the effectiveness of teaching these students? a. Advise teachers to set low expectations and help students achieve success below their grade level. b. Advise teachers to show understanding of students’ home lives, avoid giving homework, and excuse incomplete work. c. Advise teachers to avoid correcting student work and focus on life skills such as interpersonal relationships. d. Advise teachers to set high expectations and maintain high standards for all students in their classes. 12. Which of the following terms relates to shared cultural characteristics such as common history, religion, traditions, and language? a. Race b. Minority group c. Socioeconomic status d. Ethnicity

13. Mr. Thibodaux teaches in a large middle school with students from all socioeconomic levels and a wide range of racial and ethnic diversity. He is examining the standardized test scores of his students in an effort to determine their areas of strength and weakness. If his students represent national averages, where will he find the greatest gaps in academic achievement? a. The gaps between scores of wealthy and poor students b. The gaps between scores of White and African American students c. The gaps between scores of White and Hispanic students d. The gaps between scores of White and Asian American students 14. What was the outcome of the famous 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka? a. Segregated seating on public transportation was ruled illegal. b. Segregated rest rooms for Black people in public establishments were ruled illegal. c. Segregation in neighborhood housing was ruled illegal. d. Segregated schooling for Black children was ruled illegal. 15. It is the second day of school. Which of the following teachers appears to stereotype Hispanic students in his or her class? a. Mrs. Ringwald instructs Renata to complete the first half of the problem set before going to her special education class. b. Ms. Sims tells Gorge to surprise her and complete the problems in the problem set without giving up. c. Ms. Caruthers asks Eduardo and his partner to complete the problem set before the bell rings. d. Mr. Montero tells Alicia to stop talking until she finishes the problem set. 16. Dana is nervous about the upcoming physics exam. She is the only girl in the class and has achieved higher scores on the assignments than most of the boys in class. She knows the boys think they’re smarter and better at applying principles of physics. In this situation, Dana’s nervousness is an example of: a. negative schema. b. resistance to feminism. c. stereotype threat. d. general test anxiety 17. Mr. Gloster teaches high school and calls on White students more than Latinx or Black students. Mr. Gloster’s actions clearly demonstrate which of the following? a. Anxiety b. Low expectations c. Stereotype threat d. Discrimination

18. KT is a sixteen-year-old girl who describes herself as someone who loves sports, sees herself as less feminine than the other girls, and hangs out with the jocks at school. This self-description is directly associated with her: a. sexual orientation. b. sexual identity. c. gender identity. d. sex. 19. Mrs. Kahn’s science text includes numerous references to male scientists and their contributions to scientific knowledge, but very few female scientists. For each unit of study in her curriculum, Mrs. Kahn researches and identifies female scientists to highlight in her teaching. Mrs. Kahn’s science text most directly demonstrates: a. gender bias. b. female dominance in the field of teaching. c. gender schema theory. d. gender orientation. 20. Which of the following teachers uses language that perpetuates gender bias? a. Mr. Kotts invites two firefighters to discuss fire danger. b. Ms. Arensen opens the floor for nominations for a committee chair. c. Mr. Goodeau talks to his students about the role of mail carriers. d. Mrs. Woodson asks her students if any of them know a policeman. 21. During the fourth week of school, Mrs. Brown noticed that Garrett, a student in her secondyear French class, was being ostracized by the other students. She continued to observe nonverbal behaviors, making sure that she treated all students equally. Two weeks later, Garrett met with Mrs. Brown after school and told her that he felt uncomfortable in class, suspected the other students recognized his attraction to another male student, and feared being discovered. Which of the following responses from Mrs. Brown is likely to help Garrett in this situation? a. Suggest that he tell other students about his true feelings. b. Affirm Garrett and refer him to a trained counselor. c. Give Garrett advice about changing his feelings for the other male student. d. Offer to conduct a class discussion on sexual orientation. 22. In culturally relevant pedagogy, which of the following teaching practices is LEAST effective? a. Make sure students experience success. b. Make sure students retain their cultural competence by using culture as a vehicle for learning. c. Make sure students develop a broad sociopolitical consciousness that allows them to critique social norms and values.

d. Make sure students avoid the use of culturally specific language and traditions in classroom learning applications. 23. Which of the following children is most likely to struggle with participation structures and experience cultural discontinuity in typical school situations? a. An African American girl who lives in a middle-class neighborhood b. A White American boy from a lower middle-class family c. A Latino boy who lives with extended family in an upper middle-class community d. A Native American boy who lives on a reservation 24. Which of the following teachers is most likely to struggle and fail to meet challenges of providing culturally connected instruction? a. A teacher who gives significantly more positive feedback to struggling students than to privileged students b. A teacher who places strong emphasis on academics and has high expectations combined with caring support c. A teacher who helps students detect racist and sexist messages in the curriculum d. A teacher who directly teaches the academic language for a unit before teaching new concepts 25. Mrs. O’Connor wants to use groups in her diverse fourth grade classroom. What should she do if she wants to follow the guidelines for culturally relevant teaching? a. Allow students to self-select their groups for each task b. Organize heterogeneous groups of four or five students c. Assign students to homogeneous groups on the basis of race/ethnicity d. Avoid using small groups to protect students against biases

Essay Questions 26. Explain the term cultural intersectionality and provide an example of one person’s intersectionality. 27. The greatest gaps in academic achievement in the United States are between students from low-income families and students of wealthier families. In the first part of this essay question, describe at least three factors that may explain the lower academic achievement of many students living in poverty. In the second part of this essay question, explain what teachers can do to help children from poor families succeed and narrow the gap. 28. Jamal is an African American high school junior. He likes his environmental science course but is one of only two African American students in the class. He makes good grades on homework and in-class activities, but the teacher, Mr. Cooke, seldom calls on him. Jamal told Mr. Cooke about conducting his own small projects out of class. Mr. Cooke indicated his surprise but didn’t reinforce Jamal’s interest. African American students seldom take the class or succeed in science classes at this high school. If Jamal is in the encounter stage of Nigrescence, what is he feeling?

29. Consider the following students in Mr. Hembre’s fifth grade class: LaNell is an average student who struggles with math concepts and needs help to improve her reading skills and basic study skills. Tanner is a good student, a high achiever in math and slightly above average in language arts and science. Stephanie is a very bright, high-achieving student who excels in every subject, and often helps her peers. Based on statistical findings, which of these students is most likely to receive the least amount of attention from the teacher? Which one is most likely to receive the most attention from the teacher? Explain what teachers can do to prevent this type of bias in the classroom. 30. Mrs. Evans is a new teacher in a diverse community. The students in her classroom come from a broad range of racial and ethnic groups. About one-fourth of her students are immigrants from other countries. Altogether they represent many cultural backgrounds. Her principal advises Mrs. Evans to use culturally relevant pedagogy. Mrs. Evans is not sure what the principal means, but she wants to learn. She comes to you for help. First, explain culturally relevant pedagogy. Then describe specific actions Mrs. Evans might take to apply guidelines for culturally relevant pedagogy.

Chapter 2 Test Answer Key Answer Key Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Ayo’s cultural affiliations are Nigerian, American, upper class, and basketball. Feedback for Correct Answer: Culture is the knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. Groups can be defined along regional, ethnic, religious, racial, gender, social class, or other lines. Each of us is a member of many groups—many different cultures. Ayo is influenced by the culture of his Nigerian parents, his American surroundings, his upper-class status, and the basketball team. Text Reference: Education Is Cultural

Correct Answer: Mika is a Native American girl who shows respect by avoiding eye contact with her teacher. Feedback for Correct Answer: Many cultural differences exist “below the surface.” Cultures differ in rules for conducting interpersonal relationships, for example. In some groups, listeners give a slight affirmative nod of the head and perhaps an occasional “uh huh” to indicate they are listening carefully. But members of other cultures listen without giving acknowledgment, or with eyes downcast, as a sign of respect. Text Reference: Education Is Cultural

Correct Answer: An Asian American girl who is probably a model student Feedback for Correct Answer: There are dangers in stereotyping any students. Stereotyping Asians and Asian Americans as model students— quiet, hardworking, and passive—can reinforce conformity and stifle assertiveness. The other statements about students in Mr. Chavez’s class are factual statements. Text Reference: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Correct Answer: Stereotype threat Feedback for Correct Answer: Stereotype threat is the extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. Text Reference: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Correct Answer: behaviors and actions toward others. Feedback for Correct Answer: Prejudice consists of rigid, irrational beliefs and feelings (usually negative) about an entire category of people. The third element of prejudice is a tendency to act, called discrimination. Discrimination is unequal treatment of particular categories of people. 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Text Reference: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 6.

Correct Answer: socioeconomic status. Feedback for Correct Answer: Sociologists and psychologists combine variations in income/wealth, power, background, and prestige into an index called socioeconomic status, or SES. In contrast to social class, most people are not conscious of their SES designation. SES is usually ascribed to people by researchers. Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences

Correct Answer: More than 1.4 million Feedback for Correct Answer: In the 2018–2019 school year, nearly 1.4 million students were homeless in the United States (National Center for Homeless Education, 2021). Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences

Correct Answer: Jeb’s teacher calls on him frequently and expresses high expectations of his academic performance. Feedback for Correct Answer: Poor students are at risk of being stigmatized by their teachers and peers. The teacher may avoid calling on them, assuming they don’t know the answer, set lower standards, place them in lower-ability groups, and accept poor work. Effective teachers set and maintain high expectations for poor students. Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences

Correct Answer: a resistance culture. Feedback for Correct Answer: Some researchers have suggested that students from low-income homes may become part of a resistance culture. To members of this culture, making it in school means selling out and trying to act “middle class.” To maintain their identity and their status in the group, these students reject the behaviors that would make them successful in school. Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences

10.

Correct Answer: Because he, more than children from wealthier families, is likely to lose ground academically during the summers. Feedback for Correct Answer: Students in poverty begin school about 6 months behind in reading skills compared to students from wealthier homes, but the skill difference between the groups grows to almost 3 years by 6th grade. One explanation for this growing gap is that the children from poorer homes, and especially those whose first language in not English, lose ground over the summer. Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences

11.

Correct Answer: Advise teachers to set high expectations and maintain high standards for all students in their classes. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers are advised to set and maintain high expectations when they teach students who live in poverty. 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

They should guard against feeling sorry for students, excusing poor work, and expecting less. Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences 12.

Correct Answer: Ethnicity Feedback for Correct Answer: Ethnicity usually refers to a group’s shared common cultural characteristics such as history, homeland, language, traditions, or religion. We all have some ethnic heritage, whether our background is Italian, Ukrainian, Hmong, Chinese, Japanese, Navajo, Hawaiian, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Hungarian, German, African, or Irish—to name only a few. Text Reference: Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning

13.

Correct Answer: The gaps between scores of wealthy and poor students Feedback for Correct Answer: A major concern in schools is that some ethnic groups consistently achieve below the average for all students. This pattern of results tends to hold for all standardized achievement tests, but the gaps have been narrowing since about the 1980s and are less than the gaps seen between wealthy and poor students. Text Reference: Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning

14.

Correct Answer: Segregated schooling for Black children was ruled illegal. Feedback for Correct Answer: In the1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, “separate but equal” schools for Black children were declared inherently unequal. Text Reference: Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning

15.

Correct Answer: Ms. Sims tells Gorge to surprise her and complete the problems in the problem set without giving up. Feedback for Correct Answer: In this question, Ms. Sims shows a negative stereotype by implying on the second day of class that Gorge might give up. She tells the student to surprise her, but on the second day of school, she has not had enough time to develop a true picture of the student’s classroom work patterns. Text Reference: Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning

16.

Correct Answer: stereotype threat. Feedback for Correct Answer: Stereotype threat is the extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. Dana is aware that the boys in her class stereotype girls as being less capable in applying principles of physics. She seems to feel threatened by this stereotype. Text Reference: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

17.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Discrimination refers to unequal treatment of particular groups of people. Text Reference: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 18.

Correct Answer: gender identity. Feedback for Correct Answer: Gender identity is the sense of self as male or female as well as the beliefs one has about gender roles and attributes. Text Reference: Gender in Teaching and Learning

19.

Correct Answer: gender bias. Feedback for Correct Answer: Gender biases are different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other. In this illustration, the science text favors males’ role in scientific discovery over females’ role. Text Reference: Gender in Teaching and Learning

20.

Correct Answer: Mrs. Woodson asks her students if any of them know a policeman. Feedback for Correct Answer: Gender-free language is free of gender bias. Teachers should use the terms “law-enforcement officer” and “mail carrier” instead of “policeman” and “mailman.” They should name a committee “head” instead of a “chairman.” Text Reference: Gender in Teaching and Learning

21.

Correct Answer: Affirm Garrett and refer him to a trained counselor. Feedback for Correct Answer: The teacher does not have to be the expert, but should listen, affirm, and refer. A referral to someone who is trained to deal with these issues is a gift the teacher is giving to that student, not a dismissal of responsibility. Text Reference: Gender in Teaching and Learning

22.

Correct Answer: Make sure students avoid the use of culturally specific language and traditions in classroom learning applications. Feedback for Correct Answer: Culturally relevant pedagogy includes academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as a vehicle for learning. Text Reference: Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

23.

Correct Answer: A Native American boy who lives on a reservation Feedback for Correct Answer: Some learners who arrive at school have difficulty finding their own values reflected in the school culture, which is predominantly based on White, middle-class norms. Consequently, some students “learn quickly that they are expected to divorce themselves from their culture in order to be academically

successful.” Text Reference: Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms 24.

Correct Answer: A teacher who gives significantly more positive feedback to struggling students than to privileged students

Feedback for Correct Answer: Sometimes, in an attempt to be compassionate or to relieve the stress on students at risk, teachers give struggling students more positive feedback than they would privileged students. This well-intended but overly positive feedback can contribute to lowering expectations and reducing the academic challenge for these students. Text Reference: Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms 25.

Correct Answer: Organize heterogeneous groups of four or five students Feedback for Correct Answer: Guidelines for culturally relevant teaching recommend that teachers experiment with different grouping arrangements to encourage social harmony and cooperation. Using heterogeneous groups is a good example of effective practice. Teachers are also encouraged to use “study buddies” and pairs for some classroom activities. Text Reference: Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 26.

Suggested Response: Cultural intersectionality is the overlapping, intersecting social identities that shape each of us in unique ways. These intersecting identities include gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, age, and more. An example of a realistic though fictitious person’s intersecting social identities: Rashawn is a fifteen-year-old Black boy from a large family living in a low-income neighborhood, active in his church, captain of the baseball team, member of the science club, has a girlfriend, and holds a part-time job at his local pharmacy. He has overlapping identities with family, gender, religion, neighborhood, sports, social class, work, and more. Text Reference: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

27.

Suggested Response: Part 1: •

Poor children often attend lower quality schools, giving them less access to high quality programs and other educational resources.

•

Children from low-income families generally have less access to good prenatal and infant health care and nutrition. The children are more likely to be exposed to toxins and harmful environmental conditions that increase their risk for cognitive delays.

•

Low-income families are more likely to be mobile and experience evictions. Their children are more likely to experience stress from mobility, 32 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

overcrowded living conditions, poor nutrition, inadequate clothing, inadequate health care, more school absences, and failure in their academic work. •

Teachers may have lower expectations of poor children. The lower expectations are likely to result in lack of effort and children’s assessment of themselves as dummies.

•

Summer setbacks are greater for poor children. With fewer financial resources, poor families are less likely to take vacations and visit museums and national monuments. They are less likely to have access to educational toys, games, and tools for learning.

Part 2: •

Teachers can educate themselves about the effects of poverty and develop a caring relationship with each child. Use inclusive language to help them feel as much a part of the school and the class as any other student. Treat students as individuals, building upon a child’s interests and strengths and providing support for areas of weakness.

•

Teachers can help poor students by maintaining high expectations of them, calling on them as often as other children, and scaffolding learning to help them succeed. Assess the student’s skill level and provide remediation as needed to help the child catch up, but do not keep the child at a lower level.

•

Teachers can help these children develop basic organization and selfregulation skills. These children are more likely to succeed if they are able to regulate their own behaviors and organize their approach to learning tasks. Helping them develop the ability to focus, for example, helps them complete their academic work rather than being distracted by the daily stressors of life.

•

Teachers can observe and respond to health issues such as fatigue and unmet medical needs. Teachers can observe a child’s eating habits and level of activity and model healthy eating and physical activity.

Text Reference: Economic and Social Class Differences 28.

Suggested Response: In the encounter stage of Nigrescence, Jamal feels the discrimination. He recognizes that he is not treated the same or respected the same as other students because he is Black—he’s different. He sees how race matters in society, and he feels it in his own classroom at school. He begins to recognize other ways in which he is treated differently in society. Text Reference: Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning

29.

Suggested Response: Based on statistical findings, Stephanie is most likely to receive the least amount of attention from the teacher, and Tanner is most likely to receive the most attention. Some boys, generally high-achieving White students, receive more than their share of teacher attention, whereas high-achieving girls receive the least teacher attention. To prevent this type of biased behavior, teachers can monitor their practices in the classroom. For example, a teacher might use a systematic approach for calling on students the same number of times. Avoid calling on one sex more than the other, one race or ethnic group more than others, or one academic level more than others. 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Highlight role models of both sexes in all subject areas and use gender-free language as much as possible. Teachers can rotate class and group roles and assignments to ensure that everyone gets to do every type of role and task. Provide helpful feedback and scaffolding equally according to students’ needs. Text Reference: Gender in Teaching and Learning 30.

Suggested Response: Ladson-Billings uses the term culturally relevant pedagogy to refer to excellent teaching that rests on three propositions: academic success for students of color, developing and maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. Mrs. Evans should help her diverse students develop academic skills. She might begin by setting and maintaining high standards for these students, providing scaffolding for struggling students, and teaching prerequisite skills as needed. She should use a variety of teaching methods to accommodate a range of learning preferences and experiment with heterogeneous groups for cooperative tasks. She might use direct instruction to teach students how to carry out class procedures and help them learn basic organizational skills and study skills. Mrs. Evans also needs to make sure students maintain their cultural competence. She might use cultural knowledge from the diverse cultures as a vehicle for learning. She may invite experts from various cultural backgrounds and incorporate information about the customs, skills, and values of the cultural backgrounds represented in her classroom. Mrs. Evans might provide the tools for students to critique and challenge the status quo. These students need to develop skills to recognize and investigate inequities in the curriculum materials, in the teaching/learning environment, and in their own communication. Text Reference: Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

Chapter 2 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 2.1 Describe the meaning of culture and discuss how cultural diversity in American education today is related to learning and teaching. Outcome 2.2 Discuss what defines social class and socioeconomic status, including how SES differences relate to school achievement. Outcome 2.3 Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype threat might affect student learning and achievement in schools. Outcome 2.4 Describe the development of gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation and discuss their role in teaching and learning. Outcome 2.5 Define multicultural education and apply research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms. [Q1] LO 2.2 Socioeconomic status (SES) and school achievement are often correlated. Which one of the following statements is NOT true regarding the relationship between SES and levels of achievement? 1. The longer a child lives in poverty, the greater the impact on achievement. 2. Children who are poor are no more likely to be kept back in school than children who are privileged. [correct] 3. Students of all ethnic groups with high SES generally show higher levels of achievement on test scores and stay in school longer than students with low SES. 4. Children who are poor are more likely to be behind other children when they start school. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Children who are poor are twice as likely to be kept back in school as children who are not poor. [Q2] LO 2.2 Educators often assume students are not bright because they have inadequate resources at home. Poor students are at risk of being stigmatized by their teachers and peers. For these students, what is the likely outcome? 1. These students work harder to prove themselves to their teachers. 2. The students will perform poorly because they will never catch up with their peers. 3. Teachers understand that not all students will be able to achieve academically. 4. Teachers have low expectations that negatively impact future academic success. [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When educators assume students are not bright, they may refrain from calling on them or accept poor work. Low expectations can lead to a lower-quality educational experience.

[Q3] LO 2.3 Damon, an African American student in Diane Collins’s math class, pushed his math test away after a few minutes and proclaimed, “This is stupid. I don’t know why we even have to do this.” What is Ms. Collins most likely to think? 1. Damon is exhibiting stereotype threat in the face of failure. [correct] 2. She should send Damon to the principal’s office for insubordination. 3. The test is too difficult for her African American students and she should make an easier test. 4. Damon’s high self-efficacy makes him think that testing is a waste of his time. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] When individuals are in situations in which a stereotype applies, they bear an extra emotional and cognitive burden—the possibility of confirming the stereotype, either in the eyes of others or in their own eyes. [Q4] LO 2.4 To avoid gender bias in his fourth-grade classroom, Mr. Bonner used gender-free language, provided positive role models, and ensured that all students had opportunities to engage in various activities by rotating classroom jobs and activities. His school was also experimenting with single-sex classrooms. Next year, Mr. Bonner thought he might opt to teach in one of those classrooms. Which of the following statements concerning single-sex classrooms is NOT true? 1. Girls experience a boost in their self-confidence in single-sex classrooms. 2. Studies of single-sex schooling lack statistical rigor. 3. Teaching strategies are geared specifically for students of a particular sex. [correct] 4. Single-sex education reduces opportunities needed for gender equity. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Teachers must realize that there are no boy- or girl-specific teaching strategies—good teaching is good teaching. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 2.5 Case Paulo Nzambi moved from his home in Angola to the United States in the fifth grade. Although Paulo’s English and schooling were adequate, his teacher Katie Wyant worried about his social adjustment. His quiet demeanor and soft voice were, in many ways, the opposite of his male peers. Paulo appeared hesitant when interacting with her, as if he was unsure about how to behave. As the year progressed, Katie noticed he had not made any progress in adjusting to the classroom. She decided she needed to be proactive in finding a solution. To acquire a better understanding of Paulo and make school a more positive experience, what three types of relationships would assist Paulo as well as Ms. Wyant?

[Feedback for Answer 5] Three relationships would assist in Paulo’s transition. A caring teacher–student relationship is consistently associated with better school performance, especially for students who face serious challenges. Effective peer relations are critical in connecting students to school. And effective home–school relationships are the final element in building a caring, connected network for students. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 2.5 Case Paulo Nzambi moved from his home in Angola to the United States in the fifth grade. Although Paulo’s English and schooling were adequate, his teacher Katie Wyant worried about his social adjustment. His quiet demeanor and soft voice were, in many ways, the opposite of his male peers. Paulo appeared hesitant when interacting with her, as if he was unsure about how to behave. As the year progressed, Katie noticed he had not made any progress in adjusting to the classroom. She decided she needed to be proactive in finding a solution. What aspects of culturally relevant teaching might Katie Wyant employ to assist Paulo Nzambi in his transition to an American classroom? [Feedback for Answer 6] Katie Wyant could take the following steps to create a culturally welcoming classroom and assist Paulo in becoming more comfortable with his classroom experience. •

Experiment with different grouping arrangements to encourage social harmony and cooperation.

•

Provide a range of ways to learn material to accommodate a range of learning preferences.

•

Teach classroom procedures directly.

•

Learn the meaning of Paulo’s behaviors by discussing them with Paulo and his parents.

•

Emphasize meaning in teaching by making sure Paulo understands the material.

•

Get to know Paulo’s customs, traditions, and values.

Chapter 3 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 3: Cognitive Development Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 3: Cognitive Development Chapter 3 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 3.1. Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. [Q1] Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concepts of nature and nurture in development? 1. Dr. Bass thinks that children develop in a steady and continuous fashion, whereas Dr. Fitzgerald believes that children mostly develop in stages, in which development is rapid at times and slow at times. 2. Dr. Martin believes that some developmental changes occur in almost every child, whereas Dr. Wood believes that developmental changes are highly unique from one individual to the next. 3. Dr. Ragan believes that 8-year-olds think in very different ways than 14-year-olds, whereas Dr. Ball believes that the two age groups are quite similar. 4. Dr. Hepburn thinks that the course of children’s development is largely predetermined at birth, whereas Dr. Tracy thinks that how children develop is influenced by their home lives and educational experience. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Dr. Bass is interested in quantitative change, whereas Dr. Fitzgerald is a stage theorist focused on qualitative change. Their respective positions on nature and nurture are not clear. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Dr. Martin is focused on universals, whereas Dr. Wood is focused on diversity across children. Their respective positions on nature and nurture are not clear. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Dr. Ragan believes in qualitative change, whereas Dr. Ball does not. However, their respective positions on nature and nurture are not clear. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Characteristics predetermined at birth are considered nature. Characteristics that develop through experience are considered nurture. [Q2] Five-year-old Ebony knows that a whole sheet of paper folded in half is still a whole sheet of paper. When she was younger, she thought a sheet of paper folded was not a whole sheet of paper. What type of development is illustrated by this change in Ebony? 1. Cognitive development [correct]

2. Physical development 3. Social development 4. Personal development [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Ebony’s mental processes have become more complex and sophisticated. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Physical development involves changes in body structure and function over time. This example illustrates cognitive development. Ebony’s mental processes have become more complex and sophisticated. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Social development involves changes over time in the ways we relate to others. This example illustrates cognitive development. Ebony’s mental processes have become more complex and sophisticated. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Personal development involves changes in personality that take place as one grows. This example illustrates cognitive development. Ebony’s mental processes have become more complex and sophisticated. [Q3] Of the following examples, which one best illustrates a qualitative change? 1. A child who grows six inches during fifth grade 2. A child whose vocabulary goes from 10 words to 100 words in two months 3. A child who learns to read in kindergarten [correct] 4. A child who makes another new friend in first grade [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is an example of a quantitative change. The child doesn’t develop something “new”; rather, the child develops “more of” something (i.e., more inches––gets taller). [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This is an example of a quantitative change. The child doesn’t develop something “new”; rather, the child develops “more of” something (i.e., more words). [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Qualitative change involves development of an entirely new ability. Learning to read in kindergarten is an entirely new ability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This is an example of a quantitative change. The child doesn’t develop a new skill; rather, the child develops “more of” something (more friends). Qualitative change involves development of a new ability.

[Q4] Which of the following is an example of continuous change? 1. Natalia went through puberty during middle school, and now her appearance is more adultlike. 2. Baby Erin has gained 3 pounds since arriving home from the hospital. [correct] 3. Hunter recently took his first step. 4. Chin zipped his own coat for the first time today. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Puberty involves a number of qualitative changes that cannot simply be measured in terms of continuous variables like height or weight. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Continuous change is a continuous process of adding to or increasing abilities. Baby Erin’s weight gain is an example of continuous change. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Learning to walk is a milestone that involves a new and qualitatively different motor skill. This is a discontinuous change. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Chin’s zipping his own coat for the first time is a qualitative or discontinuous change. [Q5] A “sensitive period” in child development is best described as: 1. A time during which environmental stimulation must occur or a key skill can never develop 2. A time when the child is especially ready for or responsive to experiences that result in developmental change [correct] 3. A period during which a child experiences both qualitative change and quantitative change 4. The time when a child shows qualitative change in emotional, cognitive, and social skills at the same time [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This option better describes the idea of a “critical” period. A developmental period is considered “critical” if environmental input is required during that period for a particular skill or characteristic to develop. With few exceptions, humans can develop most skills outside of a sensitive period; few periods are “critical.” [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Sensitive periods are windows of opportunity, but they are not “critical.” For most areas of development, even if a child does not receive environmental input during a sensitive period for a particular ability or characteristic, he or she can still develop that ability/characteristic.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] People experience both qualitative and quantitative change throughout their lifespans, not just in a sensitive period. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People experience these simultaneous changes throughout their lifespans, not just in a sensitive period. Learning Outcome 3.2. Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. [Q1] What is the effect of myelination in brain development during the early years? 1. Myelination increases the impulse-inhibiting capacities of the brain during the early years. 2. The process of myelination is dormant during the early years but active during later childhood. 3. Myelination increases brain efficiency with faster message transmission. [correct] 4. Myelination stimulates growth in the size of the brain during the early years. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The prefrontal cortex is the area of the brain associated with planning, decision making, and managing impulsive behaviors. Myelination increases brain efficiency, particularly in the parts of the brain involved with memory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] During early childhood, the process of myelination increases brain efficiency, particularly in the parts of the brain involved with memory. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more efficient and is important for brain functioning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The brain continues to grow more rapidly than other parts of the body during the early years, but myelination does not stimulate the growth of the brain. Growth of neural fibers and the coating of the fibers with fatty myelin—the process of myelination—increase brain efficiency, particularly in the parts of the brain involved with memory. [Q2] For most of us, the left hemisphere of the brain is a major factor in language processing, and the right hemisphere handles much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal information). This describes the brain’s: 1. lateralization [correct] 2. myelination 3. plasticity

4. neurogenesis [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Lateralization is the specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain. Lateralization is one aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive development. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Myelination is the process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Plasticity is the brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Neurogenesis is the production of new neurons. [Q3] Secondary teachers need to be aware that the prefrontal lobe takes longer to develop than the limbic system. Why is this relevant? 1. Teachers need to develop instruction that increases the limbic system’s rate of development. 2. Teachers need to develop instruction that increases the prefrontal lobe’s rate of development. 3. This explains teens’ lack of motivation to engage in group learning activities. 4. This helps to explain why teens have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The limbic system already develops faster than the prefrontal lobe, and instruction does not increase its rate of development. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Instruction may help teens learn strategies for dealing with emotional situations, but instruction does not increase the rate of development of the prefrontal lobe. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This explains teens’ risk-taking and impulsive behavior, but it does not explain their levels of motivation to engage in group learning activities. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] As the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. In emotional situations, thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated with the limbic system toward the end of adolescence.

[Q4] When neuroscientists and other researchers in the learning sciences argue that the brain is “plastic,” what do they mean? 1. Cognitive functions are associated with different parts of the brain. 2. There are cultural differences in brain activity. 3. Brain activity can be measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). 4. The structure of the brain can grow and change based on environmental input. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement refers to differentiation, not plasticity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It does appear that people from different cultures show different patterns of brain activity in part because the brain is plastic, but that is not what plasticity means. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It is true that fMRI can measure brain activity, but that is not what researchers mean by plasticity. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Plasticity is the brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Enriched active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults. [Q5] During the first few years of life, an infant has millions of brain cells––more than at any other time in life. If the environment stimulates certain cells, the connections between them will strengthen. If the environment does not, the cells will die. This summary best describes which of the following? 1. Experience-dependent overproduction in brain development 2. Experience-expectant overproduction in brain development [correct] 3. Synaptic plasticity in brain development 4. Neurogenesis in brain development [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Brain growth is experience-dependent if it occurs as a result of experience; it is not “expecting” that experience. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Infants are oversupplied with the neurons and synapses that they will need to adapt to a variety of different environments. Many of those neurons “expect”—are pre-programmed for—a particular type of environmental input and will continue to develop only if that input is received.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Plasticity refers to the dynamic nature of brain development—the brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Neurogenesis refers to the production of new neurons. Learning Outcome 3.3. Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. [Q1] Which of the following children exhibits behaviors that are characteristic of Piaget’s preoperational stage of development? 1. Jalen understands that half of a pizza may be divided into four pieces and still represent half of a pizza. 2. Harper thinks that four candies clustered next to each other are fewer than four candies spread out in a row. [correct] 3. Choi can solve abstract math problems in her head by visualizing the concepts and what they represent. 4. Liam thinks that the ball does not exist when he cannot see it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Jalen’s understanding is characteristic of the concrete operational stage of development. He is able to solve concrete problems in a logical fashion. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Harper is in the preoperational stage of development because she does not understand conservation. She does not realize that four candies are the same amount in any configuration. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Choi’s skill likely represents the formal operational stage of development. She is able to solve abstract problems without hands-on tools. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Liam is in the sensorimotor stage of development. As an infant, what he knows is what he can see. [Q2] Ethan is shown two balls of clay that he identifies as equal in quantity. When one of the balls is then rolled into a sausage link, Ethan says the sausage piece still has the same amount of clay as the ball. According to Piaget, Ethan’s thinking is representative of what developmental stage? 1. Preoperational 2. Concrete operational [correct] 3. Formal operational

4. Sensorimotor [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In the preoperational stage, a child fails to demonstrate conservation. Ethan understands conservation and recognizes that the amount of clay has not changed. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In the concrete operational stage, children master logical mental operations and can think about concrete objects and situations. They exhibit conservation of number, volume, and so on. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In the formal operational stage, children can effectively engage in mental tasks involving abstract thinking. Concrete operational thinking, not formal operational thinking, is required to understand conservation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ethan has developed well beyond the sensorimotor stage of development. He uses logic to understand conservation. [Q3] Three of the following tasks require the use of formal operations. Which one requires concrete operations? 1. Students identified a creature’s habitat on the basis of the creature’s physical characteristics. 2. Students develop hypotheses and systematically test variables to see if their hypotheses are true. 3. Students write about a utopian society in which they resolve the problem of hunger worldwide. 4. Students conduct experiments with objects of different weights to understand gravity. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] To succeed with this task, students must be able to infer relationships between physical characteristics and habitat. This level of thinking involves formal operations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] To succeed with this task, students must be able to think hypothetically (formal operations). They must be able to conceive of possibilities they can only imagine by generating different possibilities for a given situation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] To succeed with this task, students must be able to think abstractly (formal operations)—to create in their minds a world that does not exist and use imagined resources. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Conducting experiments with real objects of different weights and developing an understanding of gravity is characteristic of the concrete operational stage. It involves real objects, not

abstractions. The formal operations stage is characterized by abstract, hypothetico-deductive reasoning. [Q4] Which one of the following teachers is definitely keeping in mind Piaget’s idea that assimilation and accommodation are both necessary for cognitive development? 1. Mr. Ames presents brand new topics every day, expecting the continual novelty to keep students interested and motivated. 2. Ms. Gomez ensures that students learn one topic very well before moving on to another. 3. Ms. Doherty uses a lot of drill and practice exercises, encouraging students to work faster every time. 4. Mr. Chang shows students how a new topic is similar to the things they already know, but also different in certain ways. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Ames most likely isn’t allowing enough time for assimilation of the new material and may not be allowing enough time for accommodation either (changing theories to reflect that new information). [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Gomez is probably moving too slowly. Students need to be challenged regularly and experience disequilibrium to move to a new state of knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Doherty isn’t encouraging accommodation very much at all. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Focusing on the similarity reflects assimilation, whereas exploring the differences encourages accommodation. Students must be exposed to new information or situations to exercise accommodation. [Q5] The science of child development has evolved in the past century. Today’s research questions typically require multidisciplinary approaches. Current experts in child development criticize Piagetian theory for what reason? 1. It overly reflects the activities and expectations of Western cultures. [correct] 2. It does not provide information about cognitive development that is useful for teachers. 3. It places too much emphasis on organization and does not address adaptation. 4. It represents the inconsistencies in children’s thinking at the various stages. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Research across different cultures has generally confirmed that although Piaget was accurate about the sequence of the stages in children’s thinking, the age ranges for the stages vary. Western children typically move to the next stage about 2 to 3 years earlier than children in nonWestern societies. But careful research has shown that these differences across cultures 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

depend on the subject or domain tested and whether the culture values and teaches knowledge in that domain. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In fact, Piaget’s general ideas of assimilation, accommodation, and development of operations are quite useful for teachers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Piaget’s theory focuses heavily on adaptation. It provides a framework for how and why people adapt their thinking. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It is true that Piaget’s theory points out inconsistencies in children’s thinking; it is most accurate to say it describes and explains those inconsistencies. That is one reason that Piaget’s theory is valuable. Learning Outcome 3.4. Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. [Q1] Five-year-old Ellie is frustrated with the puzzle she is attempting to complete. Her teacher, Ms. Darby, joins Ellie and observes for a few moments. Then Ms. Darby provides support as she points, gives hints, and rearranges a piece of the puzzle. Ellie smiles when the puzzle is completed and wants to try it again. During the second attempt, Ms. Darby observes and gives less support. She intervenes only when she feels Ellie is clearly struggling. Which of the following best describes what Ms. Darby is doing? 1. Teaching Ellie reverse operations 2. Collaborating with Ellie 3. Scaffolding learning for Ellie [correct] 4. Monitoring Ellie’s play [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Reverse operations involve the ability to reverse thoughts or actions. Ms. Darby is involved in a different kind of teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Darby is functioning as a guide when she intervenes with hints and other help. She and Ellie are not collaborating, which involves working jointly to complete a task. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Scaffolding is providing assistance or support to help a child complete a task she can’t complete independently. Ms. Darby is scaffolding learning for Ellie as she gives hints and clues that help Ellie complete the puzzle. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Darby is doing more than monitoring Ellie’s play as she intervenes with hints and other help.

[Q2] Children in Mr. Anthony’s first grade are learning a new math skill. •

Isaac reads the worksheet, grasps the concept, and quickly completes the task.

•

Jaxon remembers learning this skill earlier and quickly completes the task.

•

Mateo struggles with the task, but Jaxon’s hint helps him understand and complete the task.

•

Loren struggles and fails to understand despite Mr. Anthony’s hints and guidance.

Which child or children are working in their zone of proximal development? 1. Isaac 2. Jaxon 3. Mateo [correct] 4. Isaac and Jaxon [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Isaac doesn’t need help or guidance from an adult or peers. This task is below Isaac’s zone of proximal development. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Jaxon doesn’t need help or guidance from an adult or peers. This task is below Jaxon’s zone of proximal development. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mateo is able to succeed only with the help of a peer who is more advanced in his understanding of the task than Mateo. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This task is below Isaac’s and Jaxon’s zone of proximal development. Neither of these children needs help or hints to complete the task. [Q3] Vygotsky’s theory suggests that with development, children acquire many cognitive tools of their culture. Which teacher is most clearly applying this idea? 1. Ms. Sanchez shows students how to graph their research results so they can more easily see trends in the data. [correct] 2. Mr. Shaw reminds his students that he will let them go to lunch only after they’ve put away their art supplies. 3. Ms. Norquist smiles to show her approval when students listen quietly and politely during a guest speaker’s visit. 4. Mr. Cabot demonstrates how to use a Bunsen burner safely. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Graphs are important cultural tools. By teaching children to use them correctly, Ms. Sanchez is helping to change the way the students think about research and about the concepts they are studying. 11 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cognitive tools encourage changes in thinking. Mr. Shaw’s students don’t seem to be engaging in much cognitive behavior in this scenario. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Norquist is providing reinforcement and is modeling good social behavior, but she doesn’t seem to be providing a tool that will facilitate cognitive development in her students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A Bunsen burner could be used as a tool, but in this situation it’s not a cognitive tool. It doesn’t appear that Mr. Cabot is using it to facilitate cognitive development in his students. [Q4] Mr. Kalb gives his kindergarten students some simple patterns to replicate with geometric blocks. He notices that the children work independently and talk a little to themselves as they solve the problems. Next, Mr. Kalb gives the children a more challenging pattern to make. According to Vygotsky, how will this affect children’s self-talk? 1. The self-talk may stop because as children become more capable on a task they also become self-conscious about talking to themselves. 2. The amount of self-talk is apt to decrease because children have to concentrate harder for the more challenging task. 3. The amount of self-talk will likely remain the same, because such private speech is a natural part of thinking that is unaffected by a change of tasks. 4. Children will engage in more self-talk because it facilitates problem solving, especially with difficult tasks. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vygotsky believed that children use self-talk to direct their own behaviors through difficult tasks and complex maneuvers. Thus, the amount of self-talk should increase as the challenge increases. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Vygotsky believed that children use self-talk to direct their own behaviors through difficult tasks and complex maneuvers. Thus, the amount of self-talk should increase as the challenge increases. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Although self-talk is a natural part of development, it is most common when children (or adults) are faced with difficult or complex tasks. Thus, Mr. Kalb can expect that his students’ self-talk will increase as the tasks become more challenging. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Although private speech is a natural part of development, it is most common when children (or adults) are faced with difficult or complex tasks. Thus, Mr. Kalb can expect that his students’ self-talk will increase as the tasks become more challenging.

[Q5] James has just received his driver’s license and is allowed to drive without an adult in the car. As he prepares to pull out of the driveway, he takes a deep breath, looks in the rearview mirror, and turns around to look behind him. He can almost hear his father’s voice telling him to keep two hands on the wheel and his eyes on the road. James’s behavior is an example of Vygotsky’s concept of: 1. self-talk 2. internalization [correct] 3. assimilation 4. an apprenticeship [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Self-talk is private speech. James doesn’t seem to be engaging in self-talk, but rather in recalling procedures co-constructed with his father. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] When ideas and processes are internalized by the child, they become part of that child’s cognitive development. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] James isn’t assimilating new information in this case. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Apprenticeships involve assisted or mediated learning. James is not engaged in assisted or mediated learning as he sits alone in the driver’s seat of the car. Learning Outcome 3.5. Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching. [Q1] Mr. Torres teaches third grade and implements the following strategies: He scaffolds learning for his students. He expects students to memorize lesson content. He asks students to explain their thinking when they solve problems. He challenges students to perform above their zone of proximal development (ZPD). He pairs students to quiz each other on spelling words. Which of his strategies most closely aligns with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development? 1. He scaffolds learning for his students. 2. He expects students to memorize lesson content. 3. He asks students to explain their thinking when they solve problems. [correct] 4. He pairs students to quiz each other on spelling words.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Scaffolding is not one of the concepts in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, though scaffolding is a constructivist strategy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Memorizing content is not a constructivist strategy and does not align with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Piaget taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by listening carefully and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand their thinking, we can provide more effective teaching. Mr. Torres is using a strategy that aligns with Piaget’s ideas by listening to students’ thinking as they solve problems. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Pairing students for quizzing each other on spelling words is a strategy that promotes memorization. This approach does not align with Piaget’s constructivist ideas. [Q2] Mr. Torres teaches third grade and implements the following strategies: He challenges students to perform above their zone of proximal development (ZPD). He asks students to explain their thinking when they solve problems. He pairs students to quiz each other on spelling words. He expects students to memorize lesson content. He scaffolds learning for his students. Which of his strategies most closely aligns with Vygotsky’s philosophy of helping children learn? 1. He challenges students to perform above their zone of proximal development (ZPD) 2. He expects students to memorize lesson content. 3. He asks students to explain their thinking when they solve problems. 4. He scaffolds learning for his students. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vygotsky believed children learn best when they are working within their zone of proximal development (ZPD). They are likely to become frustrated if they are attempting tasks that are above their ZPD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Memorizing content is not a tenant of Vygotsky’s constructivist approach. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Asking students to explain their thinking is closely aligned with another view of constructivism. Vygotsky focused more on the social aspects of learning.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Vygotsky believed children learn by interacting with teachers, family members, and others who assist and support children’s learning. This adult assistance or support for learning and problem solving is scaffolding. [Q3] The children in Jazmine’s kindergarten class are working together to create a play plan for their dramatic event that centers around finding their lost dog. The children draw a picture of their play plan and discuss it with Jazmine. She adds a note suggesting an additional scene in their play. This curricular strategy is an element of which of the following Vygotsky-based ideas? 1. Intrapsychological Level Learning 2. The Place of the Match 3. Magic Middle 4. Tools of the Mind [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vygotsky believed that every function in a child’s cultural development appears first between people and then inside the child (intrapsychological). The play strategy discussed in this scenario is an element of a different Vygotsky-based idea. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The place of the match is similar to the zone of proximal development and does not relate to the play strategy used in this scenario. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The magic middle is associated with children’s cognitive skill levels and does not relate to the play strategy used in this scenario. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The Tools of the Mind project includes curriculum ideas for young children and children with special needs—ideas aligned with Vygotsky’s belief that as children develop mental tools they cease being prisoners of their environment. A key element of the Tools of the Mind curriculum is play plans created by the students themselves. Through dramatic play children learn to focus attention, control impulses, follow rules, use symbols, regulate their own behaviors, and cooperate with others. [Q4] Three of the following teachers are using scaffolding to help their students learn. Which one is NOT necessarily providing scaffolding? 1. Ms. Applegate gives her students a structure to follow when they write their first essay. 2. Mr. Bernardo guides students through the correct movements to swing a softball bat effectively. 3. Ms. Chen gives her class some hints about how to solve an especially difficult word problem.

4. Mr. Donaldson takes his fourth-grade students on a field trip to the local art museum. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Giving the students a structure to follow provides scaffolding. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Guiding the students through the correct movement to swing a bat provides scaffolding for their learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Giving hints to help students solve difficult problems provides scaffolding. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement does not indicate any guidance on the part of the teacher or any strategies to help students learn. [Q5] Teaching in the magic middle was discussed by Berger (2019) as an important implication of constructivist approaches to teaching. This idea is most similar to Vygotsky’s idea of: 1. Assisted learning 2. The zone of proximal development [correct] 3. Psychological tools 4. Scaffolding [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Assisted learning is guided participation. The concept of the magic middle relates to children’s cognitive skill levels. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The magic middle is the place where children are neither bored nor frustrated. This is similar to the concept of the zone of proximal development in which children learn readily with a bit of assistance from other students, learning materials, or the teacher. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Vygotsky believed that higher-order mental processes are accomplished through and with the help of psychological tools, which allow children to reflect on and actively transform their thinking. The magic middle doesn’t address psychological tools. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Scaffolding helps children learn if they are in the magic middle, but scaffolding is not the same as the magic middle.

Chapter 3 Application Exercises Application Exercise 3.1: Conservation Learning Outcome 3.3. Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/mcdevitt.ormrod/conservation_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 to answer the following question: According to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, the two youngest children in this video demonstrate characteristics of what stage of development? Explain your answer. [Q1 Model Response] At the beginning of the video, the younger child exhibits characteristics of the preoperational stage of cognitive development. Her thinking is illogical when she recognizes that the identical glasses contain the same amount of juice but believes the juice increases when it is poured into a taller glass. Later in the video, the other young child’s thinking is equally illogical when, after recognizing that two rows of coins have the same number of items, she readily declares that the wider row has more coins( when they are spread out). These younger children do not understand tasks that involve the basic principle of conservation, and they are unable to reverse the steps in a task. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 to answer the following question: According to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, the older child in this video demonstrates characteristics of what stage of development? Explain your answer. [Q2 Model Response] The older child exhibits characteristics of the concrete operations stage of cognitive development. She is capable of the logical thinking involved in understanding conservation tasks and reversible thinking. She recognizes that the amount of juice does not change when the juice is poured into a taller container. She is able to decenter and focus on height and width of the containers at the same time. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 to answer the following question: Using Task B (conservation of weight) in Figure 3.4 in the eText, contrast the preoperational thinking of young children (like the youngest children in the video) with the concrete operational thinking of older children (like the older child in the video).

[Q3 Model Response] In Task B of Figure 3.4, the children begin with two balls of clay of equal weight. The youngest children, in their preoperational thinking, would be able to examine the balls of clay and conclude they are of equal weight. However, when one ball of clay is rolled out into a rope, these children would use preoperational thinking to assume the rope-like clay weighs more because it is longer. The older child, using concrete operational thinking and an understanding of conservation, would recognize that the property of weight is constant and unchanged by the shape of the clay. She would state that the two quantities of clay are still of equal weight. Application Exercise 3.2: Imitative Learning, Instructed Learning, and Collaborative Learning Learning Outcome 3.5. Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky ‘s theories for teaching. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 INSERT in Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? P.38 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/contentareareading/Scaffolded_Instruction_in _Geometry_iPad.mp4 EDIT video Begin at the beginning of the clip. End at TC 3:56 “…wait time in there for those students.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 to answer the following question: In imitative learning, one person tries to imitate the other. Identify at least one example in which imitative learning is present in this lesson. [Q1 Model Response] Ms. Swartz models how to create an isosceles triangle. She draws the triangle on the paper and folds the paper for drawing the congruent half. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 to answer the following question: In instructed learning, learners internalize the instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate. Identify at least one example in which instructed learning is present in this lesson. [Q2 Model Response] Most of this lesson is instructed learning. For example, Ms. Swartz provides instructions for folding and marking the triangle, and she states specifically, “In your notes, you’re going to write….” Students can internalize these instructions and then use them during their observations and in other learning contexts. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 to answer the following question: Why is the observation activity especially useful for a collaborative learning activity?

[Q3 Model Response] Collaborative learning happens when peers strive to understand each other. In an observational activity, all students encounter the same basic stimuli or events but they may each have different interpretations. Through collaborative learning, students explain their interpretations and construct new knowledge structures. Ms. Swartz applies collaborative learning effectively as she intentionally arranges the group composition so that students of different levels can learn from one another. Application Exercise 3.2: Scaffolding Learning Outcome 3.5. Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 INSERT in “The Role of Adults and Peers p. 39 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationalpsychology/chappuis/3_2_Offering _Effective_Feedback_Kindergarten_rs.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 to answer the following question: Table 3.5 in the eText lists strategies for providing scaffolding and assisted learning. Explain how Ms. Roberts demonstrates the strategy, “Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud…” [Q1 Model Response] Ms. Roberts thinks out loud with the student as she describes the steps the child took to put together the first small word and the second small word to make a compound word. In her scaffolding, Ms. Roberts pauses after she names the pictures in the example of cow and girl are not making sense. She prompts the child to point to each picture and say what the picture represents. The child follows the prompt and quickly sees her mistake. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 to answer the following question: Table 3.5 in the eText lists strategies for providing scaffolding and assisted learning. Explain how Ms. Roberts demonstrates the strategy, “Provide organizers or starters…” [Q2 Model Response] With the first group, Ms. Roberts provides word pictures in addition to a sheet with spaces for writing the compound words. With the second group, Ms. Roberts provides ladybug cutouts for children to write the small words and combine them in the middle. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 to answer the following question: How do these scaffolding strategies (illustrated in questions 1 and 2) promote independent thinking, learning, and internalization?

[Q3 Model Response] Ms. Roberts asks questions and provides hints that prompt the children to think about what they are doing and why. She doesn’t tell children what they did wrong or what they need to do differently. Rather, she asks questions or makes suggestions that require children to think and internalize their learning.

Chapter 3 Test Items Chapter 3 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 3.1: Provide a definition of development that takes Multiple Choice: 1-6 into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three Essay: 27 continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. Objective 3.2: Summarize research on the physical Multiple Choice: 7-14 development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. Essay: 28 Objective 3.3: Explain the principles and stages presented in Multiple Choice: 15-21 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of Essay: 29-30 his theory. Objective 3.4: Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s Multiple Choice: 22-24 theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. Essay: 31 Objective 3.5: Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Multiple Choice: 25-26 theories for teaching. Essay: 32

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Each of the following children is undergoing change. Which of these changes fits the description of cognitive development? a. Julius is working on his batting skills, and he hit the ball much farther today. b. Cait has the measles and is covered in red bumps. c. Mark is walking carefully on one foot while his sprained ankle heals. d. Davarko has learned enough English to introduce himself to other students. 2. Rachel has a hard time relating to other students. She is very independent but wants to have friends. She has tried to carry on conversations about the science concepts that interest her and information she learned from her dad who is a civil engineer. She’s trying to branch out and watch a TV show some of the students like so she can discuss it with them at school tomorrow. Rachel’s experiences target development in which of the following areas? a. Cognitive development b. Personal development c. Physical development d. Social development 3. Three key questions surrounding development elicit continuing debate among researchers and theorists. These three questions include which one of the following? a. Do people develop at the same rate? b. Does development take place gradually? c. Is development orderly? 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. What is the shape of development? 4. Kim heard her grandmother speak Mandarin from the time she was born. Her adopted brother never heard Mandarin as a baby or as a child. As Kim grows up, she is more likely than her adopted brother to produce native sounds in Mandarin. This illustrates which of the three ongoing debates surrounding development? a. Nature versus nurture b. Critical versus sensitive periods c. Continuity versus discontinuity d. Qualitative versus quantitative change 5. Mason grew one inch between sixth grade and seventh grade. What type of developmental change is this? a. Quantitative b. Qualitative c. Discontinuous d. Personal 6. Peyton’s language skills are developing rapidly, and he seems to add several new words to his vocabulary every day. What is responsible for this development in a two-year-old? a. Culture b. Environmental influences c. Coaction of nature and nurture d. Biology and maturation 7. Mr. Mills instructs his math students to practice the steps in the problem-solving process over and over. As a result of students’ practice, what is happening in their brains? a. Overproduction of neurons in the amygdala b. Strengthening of connections between neurons c. Pruning of neurons in the amygdala d. Increase in number of axons per neuron 8. What part of the brain has the information processing capacity of a small computer? a. Each neuron b. Cerebellum c. Thalamus d. Hippocampus 9. In her classroom, Mrs. Bollar created four centers that relate to sea life. Children accessed books, photographs, charts and posters, computer programs, mini-movies, and models. At the end of the unit, the students visited an aquarium. What type of synaptic production takes place as a child accesses such a rich learning environment? a. Neurogenesis

b. Myelination c. Experience-dependent d. Experience-expectant 10. As an adult, Sanya wants to learn Spanish and become a Spanish teacher. She is having trouble trilling the r and does not sound like a native speaker. What kind of synapse overproduction and pruning process is associated with Sanya’s difficulty? a. Neurogenesis b. Myelination c. Experience-dependent d. Experience-expectant 11. Mr. Benet gives his students an assignment that prepares them for their upcoming debate. The assignment involves the analysis of divergent perspectives on the issue, development of arguments to support the diverse perspectives, and efficient recall of resources and persuasive points during the debate. What part or parts of the brain are most likely functioning to complete this assignment effectively? a. Amygdala b. Right hemisphere of the cortex processing creatively c. Left hemisphere of the cortex processing analytically d. Many parts working simultaneously 12. “High horse power, poor steering,” is a common phrase describing adolescent brain maturity. Which of the following behaviors best illustrates the meaning behind this saying? a. Hansen had never skipped class before but decided it was worth skipping to spend the day on the lake with two buddies. b. Sophie studied harder and longer than usual and really wanted to ace the chemistry test, but she didn’t study the lab material. c. Carrington studied every day for the physics exam and felt good about his preparation, but his anxiety overwhelmed him when he started taking the test. d. DeLinda wanted to go to the football game on Friday night, but she decided to go to a movie with her dad instead. 13. What facts about brain development during adolescence explain their risk-taking impulsivity? a. The right hemisphere develops earlier than the left hemisphere. b. The left hemisphere develops earlier than the right hemisphere. c. The limbic system develops more slowly than the prefrontal lobe. d. The limbic system develops earlier than the prefrontal lobe. 14. Katie was watching a movie and heard the main character say, “You only use 10% of your brain, and you’re either right-brained or left-brained. Stop working at it. Your brain can’t change. Drink up. At least we know your drinking isn’t killing your brain cells.” What part of the character’s statement is true? a. You only use 10% of your brain. 23 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Your drinking isn’t killing your brain cells. c. You’re either right-brained or left-brained. d. Your brain can’t change. 15. According to Piaget, four factors interact to influence cognitive development. Factors include maturation, acting on the environment, and equilibration. What is the other factor? a. Synaptic pruning b. Social transmission c. Quality of parenting d. Quality of teaching 16. Bryan went to the zoo with his first-grade class. At the zoo, he saw alligators for the first time. He had never even seen pictures of alligators but called them big-mouthed snakes. What basic tendency of thinking is Bryan using? a. Conservation b. Assimilation c. Object permanence d. Reversible thinking 17. Which of the following children has most likely reached the concrete operational stage of cognitive development according to Piaget’s four stages? a. Bart dislikes carrots and tells his mom that his friend Doug doesn’t like carrots. b. Sara imitates her mother’s mouth movements and says, “Dad.” c. Pierre follows the pattern of brushing his teeth and changing his clothes before bedtime. d. Cori places the six colorful containers in order of size from smallest to largest. 18. Sherita is just beginning to grasp the concept of conservation. She is most likely in what stage of development? a. Formal operational b. Preoperational c. Sensorimotor d. Concrete operational 19. Dewayne is engaged in the following activities. Which of the activities illustrates conservation? a. Dewayne grouped the words according to their parts of speech by creating columns for nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. b. Dewayne subtracted 100 from 700 and then added it back to arrive at 700 again. c. Dewayne poured paint from the gallon bucket into his paint pan and realized it’s the same amount of paint but looks like less. d. Dewayne arranged the members of his favorite baseball team in sequential order according to height.

20. In which assignment does Ms. Carlson expect her students to use formal operational thinking? a. Ms. Carlson asked students to create mind maps representing their understanding of the organization of their state government. b. Ms. Carlson instructed students to use the note-taking strategy they learned earlier to make notes during a lecture. c. Ms. Carlson asked students to think of metaphors for the current state of the economy in the U.S. d. Ms. Carlson told students to share their summary of the story with their partner and compare perceptions. 21. Sierra walked into class late and felt quite embarrassed. To make matters worse, she was having a bad hair day and felt like all eyes were on her, judging her, and rejecting her. Sierra’s thinking can be described as: a. disequilibrium. b. adolescent egocentrism. c. adaptation by assimilation. d. accommodation. 22. Which theorist or group of theorists promoted the idea that knowledge is co-constructed during social interactions? a. Piaget b. Neo-Piagetian theorists c. Elkind d. Vygotsky 23. Paige talks out loud to herself as she gets her backpack ready for school. She doesn’t want to forget anything important. What would Vygotsky most likely say about Paige’s behavior? a. Paige’s inner speech is a sign of immaturity. b. Paige’s self-talk serves a positive self-guiding function. c. Paige’s private speech is a sign of instability. d. Paige’s private speech is egocentric and negative. 24. Nick is doing his sixth-grade homework in history. The task requires him to make two maps of his state and compare the two maps. One map represents the state in 1850 and the other represents the state in current times. Nick is working at the task, following the instructions, and feeling that he can complete it successfully. He does need to ask the teacher one question before he finishes. Which of the following terms best describes the relationship of this assignment to Nick’s level of performance? a. Above his zone of proximal development b. In his zone of proximal development c. Below his zone of proximal development d. Unrelated to his zone of proximal development 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

25. In which of the following situations does Mr. Cannon scaffold learning? a. Mr. Cannon assigned readings in the text about the period of history immediately following the Civil War in the U.S. b. Mr. Cannon gave a student a choice between two actions: return to his seat quietly and immediately or stay after school. c. Mr. Cannon showed a brief video with a close-up demonstration of the detailed steps he had explained to the class. d. Mr. Cannon divided students into groups to play their favorite game of trivial pursuit in history. 26. Mrs. Strasbourg made the following statement to her students. “Learning is an active, social process. Higher mental processes are co-constructed, so we will make discoveries together and engage in many cooperative tasks. I will scaffold learning to ensure your success in this class.” Which theorist or theorists most directly influenced Mrs. Strasbourg’s statement? a. Piaget b. Vygotsky c. Both Piaget and Vygotsky d. Current and past psychologists

Essay Questions 27. Lara’s two sons have completely different dispositions and behaviors though they have the same parents and are growing up in the same household. Explain the developmental principles that influence such differences—principles related to the age-old question about the source of development. 28. Riley is typically a rule follower who doesn’t cause trouble. He’s on the football team, has a good reputation, and likes school. In his tenth-grade year, he has started going out with the guys after football games on Friday nights. Now he’s breaking rules, taking risks, and doing things that his younger self labeled as stupid and reckless. Based on what we know about brain development, what explains Riley’s behavior? 29. Suppose that you have a new teaching job, and your students are all most likely in Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development. Describe strategies you will use to teach the concrete operational students effectively. 30. Five-year-old Ava and her family welcomed a new baby this week. Ava’s little sister was adopted a few days ago, and now Ava is a bit confused. Her little sister didn’t come from Mommy’s tummy. Her parents flew away and came home with her. But Ava remembers that her little brother came from Mommy’s tummy two years ago. Using Piaget’s conclusions about humans’ basic tendency toward adaptation, discuss how Ava must adapt her existing schemes to accommodate these changes in family structure. 31. Mr. Akana tells one of his third-grade students to talk to himself and tell himself to stay seated, stay focused, and complete the task. This third grader has been diagnosed with ADHD and needs to learn strategies to help him control his behavior and complete his work. What would Lev Vygotsky most likely say about Mr. Akana’s method of management? 32. Ms. Jacobs teaches 26 second-grade students who represent a wide range of diversity. Her students include six English learners, one student who just arrived from Mexico, three 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

students with special learning needs, students ranging from extreme poverty to middle class, and students from various ethnic groups. She has divided students into three reading groups and expects other students to work silently and independently as she works with reading groups. All students work on the same spelling tasks and worksheets during their independent seatwork. How might Ms. Jacobs’s teaching procedures during reading group time need to change if she followed Vygotsky’s ideas about the zone of proximal development?

Chapter 3 Test Answer Key Answer Key Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Davarko has learned enough English to introduce himself to other students. Feedback for Correct Answer: Cognitive development is defined as gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. As Davarko gradually learns English, his mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: Social development Feedback for Correct Answer: Social development involves changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Rachel’s different efforts relate to her social development. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: What is the shape of development? Feedback for Correct Answer: The question of the shape of development is also expressed as continuity versus discontinuity. Is human development a continuous process of increasing abilities, or are there leaps to new stages when abilities actually change? Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: Critical versus sensitive periods Feedback for Correct Answer: Are there critical periods during which certain abilities, such as language, need to develop? If those opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”? These are questions about timing and development. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: Quantitative Feedback for Correct Answer: Continuous or quantitative change is like walking up a ramp to go higher and higher: Progress is steady. Qualitative, discontinuous changes are like walking up steps. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: Coaction of nature and nurture Feedback for Correct Answer: Some psychologists assert that behaviors are determined 100% by biology and 100% by environment— they can’t be separated. Current views emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

Correct Answer: Strengthening of connections between neurons Feedback for Correct Answer: Connections between neurons become

stronger with use and practice, but they become weaker when not used. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development 8.

Correct Answer: Each neuron Feedback for Correct Answer: Each neuron has the processing capacity of a small computer. Neurons are specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. An infant brain contains billions of neurons with such capacity. The cerebellum, thalamus, and hippocampus are regions of the brain. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

Correct Answer: Experience-dependent Feedback for Correct Answer: Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place. Experience-dependent production occurs as synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. The brain doesn’t “expect” these behaviors, so new synapses form in response to these experiences. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

10.

Correct Answer: Experience-expectant Feedback for Correct Answer: Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are responsible for general development in large areas of the brain and may explain why adults have difficulty with pronunciations that are not part of their native language. This is called experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. If the expected experience (such as speaking Spanish) doesn’t occur during the specific developmental period, pruning takes place. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

11.

Correct Answer: Many parts working simultaneously Feedback for Correct Answer: Nearly any task, particularly the complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires simultaneous participation of many different areas of the brain in constant communication with each other. For example, the right side of the brain is better at figuring out the meaning of a story, but the left side is where grammar and syntax are understood. So, both sides of the brain have to work together in reading and other complex cognitive tasks. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

12.

Correct Answer: Hansen had never skipped class before but decided it was worth skipping to spend the day on the lake with two buddies. Feedback for Correct Answer: Adolescents often have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents’ brains have been described as “high horse power, poor steering”

Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development 13.

Correct Answer: The limbic system develops earlier than the prefrontal lobe. Feedback for Correct Answer: One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and impulsive behavior looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain—the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. The limbic system develops earlier; it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/risk-taking/sensationseeking behaviors. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop; it is involved with judgment and decision making. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

14.

Correct Answer: Your drinking isn’t killing your brain cells. Feedback for Correct Answer: Heavy drinking does not kill brain cells, but it can damage the nerve ends called dendrites. This causes problems with communicating messages in the brain. This damage is mostly reversible. Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development

15.

Correct Answer: Social transmission Feedback for Correct Answer: According to Piaget, our cognitive development is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others. Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by our culture. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

16.

Correct Answer: Assimilation Feedback for Correct Answer: Assimilation involves fitting new information into existing schemes. Bryan fit the new information of encountering alligators into his existing scheme for snakes. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

17.

Correct Answer: Cori places the six colorful containers in order of size from smallest to largest. Feedback for Correct Answer: Cori is demonstrating seriation—the ability to arrange objects in sequential order according to size (or weight or volume). Children typically develop the ability to handle operations such as seriation in the concrete operational stage. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

18.

Correct Answer: Concrete operational Feedback for Correct Answer: The basic characteristics of the concrete operational stage are the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world; the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and still conserve many of their original characteristics; and the understanding that these changes can be reversed.

Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 19.

Correct Answer: Dewayne poured paint from the gallon bucket into his paint pan and realized it’s the same amount of paint but looks like less. Feedback for Correct Answer: Conservation is the principle that the amount or number of something remains the same even if the arrangement or appearance is changed, as long as nothing is added and nothing is taken away. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

20.

Correct Answer: Ms. Carlson asked students to think of metaphors for the current state of the economy in the U.S. Feedback for Correct Answer: Formal operations are mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables. For students to think of metaphors for the current state of the economy, they must consider a number of variables about the economy and make abstract comparisons. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

21.

Correct Answer: adolescent egocentrism. Feedback for Correct Answer: Adolescent egocentrism is the assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns. This leads to the sense of an imaginary audience or the feeling that everyone is watching. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

22.

Correct Answer: Vygotsky Feedback for Correct Answer: Vygotsky assumed that higher mental processes, such as directing your own attention and thinking through problems, first are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another person. A co-constructed process is a social process in which people interact and negotiate to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Text Reference: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

23.

Correct Answer: Paige’s self-talk serves a positive self-guiding function. Feedback for Correct Answer: According to Vygotsky, private speech guides children’s thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. Text Reference: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

24.

Correct Answer: In his zone of proximal development Feedback for Correct Answer: The zone of proximal development is the phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support. Nick had appropriate instructions and needed only a small amount of additional support from the teacher. The work does not appear to be too difficult because he believes he can complete the task successfully. The task doesn’t appear to be too easy because he is 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

working at it and still needs a bit of help from the teacher. Text Reference: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 25.

Correct Answer: Mr. Cannon showed a brief video with a close-up demonstration of the detailed steps he had explained to the class. Feedback for Correct Answer: Scaffolding is support for learning and problem solving. The support could be verbal prompts and structuring, clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. According to Vygotsky, much of children’s learning is assisted or mediated by teachers or parents and tools in their environment, and most of this guidance is communicated through language. Text Reference: Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers

26.

Correct Answer: Vygotsky Feedback for Correct Answer: Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process. He explained how social processes form learning and thinking. He was most concerned with instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences that encourage another’s learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or collaboration as well. Thus, Vygotsky’s ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly, intentionally use modeling to teach, or create collaborative learning environments. Vygotsky believed the child was not alone in learning. Discovery is assisted or scaffolded. Text Reference: Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 27.

Suggested Response: What is the source of development? Is it nature or nurture? The answer to this age-old question relates to the explanation of the different dispositions and behaviors of Lara’s two sons. Current views emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviors are determined 100% by biology and 100% by environment—they can’t be separated. Though the two sons are influenced by similar environmental contexts, they are individuals with different genes and other biological factors. They also respond differently to their environment, and these differences influence their development as individuals and their behaviors. Text Reference: A Definition of Development

28.

Suggested Response: Based on what we know about brain development, the limbic system develops faster than the prefrontal cortex. The limbic system is the part of the brain involved with emotions and reward-seeking, sensation-seeking behavior and impulsivity. The prefrontal lobe is involved with judgment and decision making. At Riley’s age, he is dealing with a maturing limbic system that is more responsive to emotional stimulation. At the same time, his judgments are less mature and less controlling of the impulsive desires and reckless influences. 32 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Text Reference: The Brain and Cognitive Development 29.

Suggested Response: The concrete operational stage begins about first grade and continues to early adolescence (around 11 years of age). The following strategies should be effective: •

Use concrete objects in teaching when possible. Provide manipulatives and allow students to interact with these objects to develop understanding and to solve problems.

•

Make presentations and readings brief and well organized.

•

Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels.

•

Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking.

•

Incorporate activities that require application of the concepts of reversibility, compensation, and seriation.

Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 30.

Suggested Response: Ava had one scheme for getting a sibling, and that scheme was the birth of her brother. She saw her mother go through a pregnancy and get bigger every month until her little brother was born. Ava was able to assimilate the new information about a baby brother growing inside a mommy and then being born. That’s the same way she came into this family. Now she needs to accommodate, because flying away and bringing a baby home is a different way to become part of the family. Ava needs to create a new scheme for getting a baby, and that scheme is adoption. The idea of adoption doesn’t fit Ava’s existing scheme and can’t be assimilated. This new idea requires the development of a more appropriate mental structure. Text Reference: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

31.

Suggested Response: Lev Vygotsky believed that inner speech or private speech enables children to provide for auxiliary tools to overcome impulsive actions, solve problems, or self-regulate behavior. Thinking depends on speech, and language in the form of private speech guides cognitive development. Vygotsky would agree with Mr. Harper’s method. He would encourage a child to use such a strategy to regulate his own behavior. At an older age, the child will probably be able to self-regulate by speaking the reminders in his mind rather than speaking them aloud. Text Reference: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

32.

Suggested Response: The zone of proximal development is the area of learning in which a child can learn and master a task with help and support. The idea is that children are appropriately challenged with learning tasks. The tasks are not too easy, leading to boredom, and they are not too difficult, leading to frustration. In Ms. Jacobs’s class, students are at different levels. They need to be challenged differently. The English learners, for example, are not at the same level with spelling and independent seatwork as students who are native English speakers. In the same way that Ms. Jacobs provides reading instruction at different levels, she should also provide spelling and other language arts instruction at different levels. Additionally, she might consider ways to allow students to work with a partner as needed. Then the students who find the work easy can be challenged with helping another student learn. Students who struggle can be challenged more appropriately 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

by receiving the scaffolding needed to learn and succeed academically. Ms. Jacobs might also set up procedures for students to get the help they need by following steps to get help quietly. Text Reference: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers

Chapter 3 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 3.1 Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. Outcome 3.2 Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. Outcome 3.3 Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. Outcome 3.4 Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. Outcome 3.5 Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching. [Q1] LO 3.2 Mr. Winstel was worried about his former star student, Ramon. As the seventh-grade year progressed, Ramon was frequently called into the principal’s office for dangerous skateboard stunts that broke school rules. Recently, Ramon’s parents contacted Mr. Winstel to alert him that Ramon had been skipping school to hang out with some older boys in the neighborhood. Which of the following answers would typically best describe what is happening with Ramon? 1. Ramon’s culture demands that boys of his age engage in behaviors that reflect fearlessness. 2. Ramon is engaging in deviant behaviors as a cry for attention from his parents. 3. Ramon’s limbic system is maturing, but his prefrontal lobe has not yet caught up. [correct] 4. Ramon is experiencing synaptic pruning that causes him to engage in risk-taking behavior. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and impulsive behavior looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain—the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008). The limbic system develops earlier; it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviors. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop; it is involved with judgment and decision making. [Q2] LO 3.3 Ms. McClintock realizes that five of the children in her class are developmentally advanced. These students’ language skills are exploding. One child even solved conservation problems. Most of the students still have trouble sharing, yet a few seem to understand that sharing keeps everyone happy. According to Piagetian theory, Ms. McClintock’s students are likely in what stage of cognitive development? 1. Formal operations 2. Sensorimotor 3. Concrete operations 35 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Preoperational [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The preoperational stage is the stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Children develop language skills, but they typically do not understand conservation. [Q3] LO 3.3 Mr. Monroe asked his students to consider how life would be different if humans discovered a way to beam from one geographic location to another in a matter of seconds. He asked students to write a paper describing their conclusions about the effects of such a creation. What kind of thinking is involved in such an assignment? 1. Preoperational thinking 2. Reversibility 3. Classification 4. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is a formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. [Q4] LO 3.4 Ms. Lawrence gave students a list of rules to follow when they engage in group activities. She assigned roles to group members. She gave students materials to use in their task. She monitored their group work and provided tips about the task. What did she do that involved scaffolding? 1. Monitor group work and provide tips [correct] 2. Provide rules for group activities 3. Assign roles for group members 4. Provide materials for the task [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Scaffolding is support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, and other such supports. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 3.4 Case In planning instruction, Mr. Betts remembered that students should be neither bored nor frustrated. Although this made sense to him, he was unsure how he would compensate for the diverse group of students he had in his second-period language arts class. Some students had difficulty with the English language, and other students excelled. He knew that by grouping students of mixed ability, he could occasionally draw on the skills of advanced students to assist 36 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

struggling students. He also understood that without guidelines, students may not accomplish anything. Identify the theoretical concept guiding Mr. Betts and name the theorist who is responsible for discovering and articulating this concept. [Feedback for Answer 5] Mr. Betts is guided by the concept of a student’s zone of proximal development, part of Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 3.5 Case In planning instruction, Mr. Betts remembered that students should be neither bored nor frustrated. Although this made sense to him, he was unsure how he would compensate for the diverse group of students he had in his second-period language arts class. Some students had difficulty with the English language, and other students excelled. He knew that by grouping students of mixed ability, he could occasionally draw on the skills of advanced students to assist struggling students. He also understood that without guidelines, students may not accomplish anything. What example of scaffolding takes place in this scenario? List other strategies that involve scaffolding by peers. [Feedback for Answer 6] When the advanced students assist struggling students, they are engaged in scaffolding. Other strategies that involve peer scaffolding include: •

Model their thought processes

•

Work part of the problem

•

Give hints and cues

•

Connect the new learning to prior learning

•

Explain key vocabulary

Chapter 4 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 4: The Self, Social, and Moral Development Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 4: The Self, Social, and Moral Development Chapter 4 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 4.1. Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development through childhood and adolescence. [Q1] At 5 years of age, Marco favors his left hand for both drawing and throwing. Research suggests which of the following about Marco? 1. He will shift to a preference for his right hand once he begins to write. 2. He is more likely than right-handed peers to develop advanced math skills. [correct] 3. He may need special assistance to use his right hand correctly. 4. He has advanced development for both fine motor and gross motor skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Research suggests handedness is a genetically based preference that is apparent at this age. Marco is likely to use his left hand to write. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Some research indicates left-handed children are more likely than their right-handed peers to develop advanced verbal and mathematical skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] About 10% of students show a preference for their left hand by age 5. Being left-handed is fine and normal. There’s no reason to believe that Marco’s right hand is in some way delayed or that he needs any special assistance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Research suggests handedness is a genetically based preference that is apparent by age 5. We have no indication that handedness is tied to advanced development for fine motor and gross motor skills. [Q2] At 5 years of age, Marco has developed many skills. Which of his skills is an example of gross motor skill development? 1. Playing a video game 2. Drawing a picture 3. Hitting a baseball with a bat [correct] 4. Eating well with a fork and spoon [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Playing a video game uses fine motor skills involving the coordination of small movements. 1 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Drawing a picture uses fine motor skills involving the coordination of small movements. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Hitting a baseball with a bat uses large muscles and involves gross motor skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Eating well with a fork and spoon uses fine motor skills involving the coordination of small movements. [Q3] Emily is in middle school and struggles with body image. She habitually eats large portions and then takes laxatives to lose weight. Emily shows signs of which of the following? 1. Binge eating disorder 2. Bulimia nervosa [correct] 3. Anorexia nervosa 4. Obesity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Binge eating disorder is characterized by uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food, but taking laxatives to lose weight after binge eating is associated with a different eating problem. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Bulimia nervosa is described as binge eating followed by efforts to “undo” the binge (e.g., purging, fasting, use of laxatives, or excessive exercise). This description matches the pattern of Emily’s eating disorder. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Anorexia nervosa is described as restricting food intake for fear of weight gain. This doesn’t match Emily’s pattern of eating. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] We have no indication that Emily is obese. She obviously struggles with disordered eating. [Q4] Silas, a nine-year-old boy living in a rural area in Tennessee, is obese and struggles with body image. He doesn’t have friends and is unable to participate in sports. Additional consequences of his obesity likely include which of the following? 1. Learning disabilities 2. Greater risk of skipping puberty 3. Lower IQ 4. Greater risk of type 2 diabetes [correct]

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Learning disabilities are not a consequence of obesity. Silas is likely to encounter a number of consequences of obesity, but his obesity will not cause a learning disability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] All children go through puberty. Obesity is not linked to any notion of skipping puberty. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Silas’s obesity will not cause him to have a lower IQ. His IQ is not directly linked to his obesity. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The consequences of obesity are serious for children and adolescents: strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and a greater chance of heart problems, type 2 diabetes, and obesity as adults. [Q5] Mr. Harris offers his fourth-grade students 15 minutes of recess every morning and every afternoon. Mr. Kane gives his students a 10-minute rest room break but no recess. According to studies, how will the students in these two classes compare in performance? 1. Mr. Harris’s students are better behaved in class. [correct] 2. Mr. Kane’s students are better behaved in class. 3. There is no difference in performance. 4. Mr. Harris’s students have greater difficulty learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mr. Harris’s students would be better behaved in class. One study of 11,000 elementary students found that those who had daily recess of 15 minutes or longer every day were better behaved in class than students who had little or no recess. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Kane’s students have no recess, and studies indicate that this would not result in better behavior in class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to studies, the difference in recess time makes a difference. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Harris’s students are not likely to have greater difficulty learning. Physical activity promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain. Learning Outcome 4.2. Discuss how the components of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, especially the influence of families, parenting styles, peers, teachers, and technology. [Q1] Which one of the following actions fits the definition of relational aggression? 1. Ian shoved Nora into a snow bank 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Nora told Shandra that her new haircut looked bad 3. Tye cut in front of a dozen classmates in the lunch line 4. Nettie spread vicious lies about Corey’s family [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ian’s action is an example of physical aggression. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Nora’s comment is blunt, but it isn’t an act of relational aggression. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Tye’s action is rude and inappropriate, but it is not necessarily an act of aggression specifically directed at the classmates farther back in the line. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Relational aggression is an action (e.g., spreading a vicious rumor) that can adversely affect interpersonal relationships. [Q2] Maurice is a high school student who wants to style his hair and clothes like others in his peer group. His parents are opposed to Maurice’s desire to grow an Afro and wear his jeans really low on his hips, donning a chain on his belt loops. In this clash between peer culture and Maurice’s parents, who typically has the most influence? 1. Parents 2. Peers [correct] 3. Peers and parents have equal influence 4. Maurice as an individualist [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Parents typically have less influence on such matters than other sources. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Peers and peer cultures set the “rules” about how to dress, talk, style their hair, and interact with others. Peer cultures encourage conformity to their rules. Their influence on matters of fashion and hair is greater than the influence of parents. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Parents and peers typically have different levels of influence on such matters. One is dominant over the other in influence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Maurice is not trying to set his own independent style. He is influenced, and either parents or peer culture has greater influence.

[Q3] If you wanted to model your teaching style on authoritative approaches to parenting, you would be most likely to do which of the following? 1. Let students choose what they want to do with their class time 2. Establish strict classroom rules and control students’ behavior 3. Explain how the classroom rules you enforce will help students learn [correct] 4. Focus on academic achievement and disregard students’ personal concerns [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Allowing students to choose what they do with their class time is similar to permissive parenting. Authoritative teachers set parameters and guide learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Establishing strict classroom rules and controlling students’ behavior is similar to authoritarian parenting. Authoritative parents and teachers are not so controlling. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Authoritative parenting combines affection and respect for children with reasonable restrictions on behavior. One aspect of authoritative parenting is explaining why various behaviors are acceptable or unacceptable. Teachers who explain rules (and even take input from students when establishing rules) are modeling authoritative approaches to teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Authoritative parents are warm and caring and show regard for personal or emotional problems of their children. When teachers show no regard for students’ personal concerns, they are using approaches similar to those of neglecting parents. [Q4] Sadie is a four-year-old child. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, Sadie’s parents, preschool teacher, and favorite toys are all a part of what system? 1. Macrosystem 2. Exosystem 3. Chronosystem 4. Microsystem [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The macrosystem is the cultural and societal context in which Sadie’s experiences exist. Sadie’s parents, preschool teacher, and favorite toys are all a part of a system that is closer to the core of the model. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The exosystem is the social setting that affects Sadie, such as her local church and the school her brother attends, even if she is not explicitly aware of it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The chronosystem is the time period in which Sadie lives and has her day-to-day experiences. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A child’s immediate relationships and activities are all a part of her microsystem. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (nested systems including a microsystem) is a frame to map the many interacting social contexts that affect development. [Q5] Second-grade teacher Ms. Webb suspects that her student Joseph is abused at home. What should she do? 1. Talk to the class about abuse 2. Contact Joseph’s parents in person or on the phone 3. Contact the principal, school psychologist, or social worker [correct] 4. Nothing unless she has absolute proof [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Talking to the class about abuse at this point and at this grade level is inappropriate and ineffective in dealing with Joseph’s abuse. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Contacting the parents is a job for professionals who are specifically trained to handle abuse cases. Ms. Webb should not try to handle the suspected abuse on her own. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] As part of your responsibilities as a teacher, you must alert your principal, school psychologist, or school social worker if you suspect abuse. By law, teachers and other professionals who have frequent contact with children must report (mandated reporting) suspected child abuse and neglect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] By law, teachers and other professionals who have frequent contact with children must report (mandated reporting) suspected child abuse and neglect. Learning Outcome 4.3. Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. [Q1] Mr. Donovan teaches high school students. According to Erikson, what is the developmental task that most of Mr. Donovan’s high school students are trying to resolve? 1. Intimacy versus isolation 2. Identity versus role confusion [correct] 3. Industry versus inferiority 4. Initiative versus guilt

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The stage of intimacy versus isolation takes place during young adulthood. Adolescence is the time when students are trying to find out where they belong. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Adolescence is the time when students are trying different identities and trying to find out where they belong. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and religion. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The stage of industry versus inferiority takes place around the ages of 6 to 12 years. Adolescence is the time when students are trying to find out where they belong. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The stage of initiative versus guilt takes place around the ages of 3 to 6 years. Adolescence is the time when students are trying to find out where they belong. [Q2] Which one of the following best illustrates self-concept rather than self-worth or self-esteem? 1. Anne says, “I’m a fast runner, and I’m training to get faster.” [correct] 2. Brandi says, “I’m proud of my math grade; I’m the smartest in my class.” 3. Connor says, “It makes me sad that I’m the worst reader in the class.” 4. Darvin says, “I’m bad at sports, and I don’t like always being picked last for a team.” [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Self-concept generally refers to our perceptions of ourselves—how we see our abilities, attitudes, attributes, beliefs, and expectations. Anne sees herself as a fast runner but doesn’t make a judgment about her ability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement shows Brandi’s sense of self-esteem—an overall judgment of self-worth that includes feeling proud or ashamed of oneself as a person. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement shows Connor’s sense of self-esteem—overall judgment of self-worth that includes feeling proud or ashamed of oneself as a person. Connor expresses his judgment about his reading ability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement shows Darvin’s sense of self-esteem. He expresses his judgment about his ability in sports. [Q3] McKenna’s grandparents on both sides emigrated from Ireland to the United States. She describes her ethnicity as White and feels connected to what she considers American culture and values but not particularly to the culture and values of Ireland. This is true even though she

knows a lot about Irish history and traditions from her family. Which of the following terms best describes the outcome of her ethnic identity exploration? 1. Bicultural 2. Separated 3. Marginal 4. Assimilated [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An individual who is bicultural identifies with both the majority culture and his or her minority culture. McKenna identifies with the majority culture only, so this description does not match her views. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] An individual who is separated identifies with his or her own ethnic culture and rejects the majority culture. This description does not match McKenna’s views or experiences. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] An individual who is marginalized lives within the majority culture but feels alienated. McKenna does not feel alienated in any way from the majority culture of her country. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] McKenna identifies with the majority culture of her country and does not identify with the culture associated with her ethnic background. [Q4] Garrett is a senior in high school. Garrett’s dad has been encouraging him to go to college and major in business. His mom believes he would make a great lawyer. His AP history teacher, just like his mom, is encouraging him to pursue law. Garrett is the star on the tennis team and has thought about a career in tennis. He has been pulled in so many directions that he just wants to go to college and wait to figure out his future direction. What is Garrett’s current status of identity exploration? 1. Identity diffusion 2. Moratorium [correct] 3. Identity achievement 4. Identity foreclosure [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Identity diffusion is confusion about who one is and what one wants. This occurs when individuals do not explore any options or commit to any actions. Garrett is exploring and is committed to further exploration in college. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Garrett is in moratorium—suspension of choices because of struggle.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Identity achievement is a strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives. Garrett has not reached identity achievement. He is still exploring. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Identity foreclosure is the acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options. Garrett is exploring options rather than committing to what his parents or teachers recommend. [Q5] Mason is a ten-year-old boy whose global self-esteem is high. Mason’s global self-esteem is likely based on which of the following? 1. His parents’ view of his academic performance 2. Mason’s view of his abilities in math and science 3. Mason’s pride in himself as a person [correct] 4. Mason’s skill in playing basketball [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Global self-esteem, at the top of the hierarchical model of self-concept, is an overall judgment of self-worth and is not tied to parents’ view of Mason’s academic performance. Mason’s self-worth is based on his view of his worth. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Global self-esteem, at the top of the hierarchical model of self-concept, is an overall judgment of self-worth and is not tied to abilities in two academic subjects. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Global self-esteem, at the top of the hierarchical model of self-concept, is an overall judgment of self-worth that includes feeling proud or ashamed of yourself as a person. Mason obviously feels proud of himself as a person. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Global self-esteem is not tied to one area such as basketball. Mason is proud of himself as a person. If he values basketball and succeeds in basketball, the success contributes to feeling proud of himself but is not the basis of his global self-esteem. Learning Outcome 4.4. Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating. [Q1] During the fifth-grade class Halloween party, Ms. Yates asks Jacob to pass out the cookies that a mother of one of the students has provided. Jacob gives each child and his teacher one cookie apiece and finds that there are two cookies left over. “I think these extra cookies should go to James and Clementine,” he says, “because they came to school early today to help decorate for the party.” Which one of the following concepts best describes Jacob’s approach? 1. Social conventions

2. Moral realism 3. Preconventional moral reasoning 4. Distributive justice [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social conventions are agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation. Jacob is concerned about fairness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Moral realism is a stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute. Jacob’s approach doesn’t deal with rules. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In the preconventional stage of moral reasoning, judgment is based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions. Jacob is concerned with peers. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Distributive justice deals with beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group. It follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. [Q2] Which teacher’s approach is most likely to encourage cheating? 1. Ms. Lamb emphasizes that the goal of the class is to learn—for everyone to get better. 2. Mr. Hernandez helps his students take small but successful steps and build their confidence toward becoming effective writers. 3. Mrs. Goodeau tells her French students that making mistakes leads to learning. She encourages them to rework assignments to improve their grade. 4. Mr. Adams emphasizes to students that they need to make high grades on the science exam in order to earn a scholarship into a pre-med program. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Lamb’s approach discourages cheating by emphasizing learning rather than high grades. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Hernandez’s approach discourages cheating by helping students achieve small steps and build their confidence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mrs. Goodeau takes the pressure out of assignments with the chance to revise and the attitude of viewing mistakes as learning opportunities. Her students are less inclined to cheat. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Mr. Adams’s approach encourages cheating by emphasizing high grades rather than learning and by pressuring students to earn scholarships.

[Q3] By the time they are 2 or 3 years old, children are beginning to develop a theory of mind. A theory of mind is best described as an understanding that other people: 1. have feelings and intentions of their own [correct] 2. sometimes say things that aren’t true 3. have a sense of right and wrong 4. should be nice to each other [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] A theory of mind is an understanding that other people have their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Children who lie or try to mislead another person will have developed a theory of mind—they will understand they can create a false belief in that other person’s mind. But this isn’t a general description of a theory of mind. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Moral development is related to development of a theory of mind, but this isn’t a general description of theory of mind. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Prosocial behavior is related to development of a theory of mind, but this isn’t a general description of theory of mind. [Q4] Jody tells her class, “You should be loyal to your friends, even when they do something wrong.” Jody would most likely be categorized by Kohlberg as showing what stage of moral reasoning? 1. Preconventional, Stage 2 2. Postconventional, Stage 5 3. Preconventional, Stage 1 4. Conventional, Stage 3 [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] At the preconventional level, children focus on their own needs. Stage 2 is sometimes called the Rewards/Exchange Orientation—right and wrong are determined by personal needs and wants, not relationships with others. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The postconventional level is characterized by abstract principles of justice. Stage 5 is sometimes called the Social Contract Orientation—moral choices are determined by societal standards, not individual friendships.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] At the preconventional level, children focus on their own needs. At Stage 1, children obey rules to avoid punishment. Jody’s comment represents a higher level of moral reasoning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] At the conventional level, children focus on the expectations of society. Stage 3 is often described as the Being Nice/Relationships Orientation—being good means being nice and pleasing others. [Q5] In Mr. Samson’s class, Hazel cheated in a game with Robert. Immediately Robert blurted out, “That’s cheating. You’re a cheater.” And he shoved Hazel as he yelled. According to Haidt’s social intuitionist model of moral psychology, this scenario illustrates which of his three principles? 1. There is more to morality than fairness and harm 2. Intuition comes first, reasoning second [correct] 3. Morality binds and blinds 4. Reasoning comes first followed by blinding morality [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This principle focuses on values such as loyalty and authority. In Mr. Samson’s class, a different principle applies. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Moral reasoning is something we do only after a first automatic, emotional response (call it intuition) has pushed us toward a moral judgment of right or wrong. In Mr. Samson’s class, Robert exhibited an emotional response (intuition) first. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This is not a case of individuals following their leaders out of respect for their binding as a group. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Reasoning does not come first, according to Haidt.

Chapter 4 Application Exercises Application Exercise 4.1: Psychosocial Development Learning Outcome 4.3. Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 4.5 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/childdevelopment/CD09_38_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.5 to answer the following question: According to Erikson’s theory, what is this child’s stage of psychosocial development? [Q1 Model Response] This child is in Erikson’s industry versus inferiority stage. Students are beginning to see the relationship between perseverance and the pleasure of a job completed. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.5 to answer the following question: In this child’s responses to questions, what evidence do you hear to indicate that she will achieve positive resolution of her current psychosocial stage? [Q2 Model Response] •

She likes to do projects like making models and working in groups.

•

Math is her favorite subject, and she knows she is good at it.

•

She likes for teachers to start activities but let the students finish them.

•

She likes to do examples and activities that help her see how concepts work.

•

She wants to do well in school and not have to worry about grades.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.5 to answer the following question: What things do her teachers do that encourage positive resolution of this psychosocial stage of development? [Q3 Model Response] •

Her teachers start the activities and allow the kids to do most of the work. This allows them to show their independence.

•

They allow the students to do creative projects. This allows students to make and act on choices.

•

They explain concepts and then allow kids to do activities and see how it works. This also allows them to experience success.

Application Exercise 4.2: Search for Identity Learning Outcome 4.3. Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 4.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ELL_Culture/9-3_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.6 to answer the following question: In this video, young adolescent Lao Por describes how his life in the United States differs from his life in Thailand. According to Erikson’s theory, what developmental crisis faces Lao Por, and what is involved in resolving this crisis? [Q1 Model Response] As a young adolescent, Lao Por is facing the stage Erikson labels identity versus role confusion. To resolve this crisis, individuals must organize their many facts and history into a consistent image of self. The process involves deliberate choices and decisions about values, work, and commitments to people and ideas. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.6 to answer the following question: How does The Road of Life activity reflect the fundamental ideas of James Marcia’s theory of identity status? [Q2 Model Response] James Marcia’s theory of identity focuses on two essential processes in achieving a mature identity: exploration and commitment. The Road to Life activity involves exploration, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction. The “self-research” the teacher describes is the first step in exploration. She asks students to think about where they came from, where they are now, and what they expect to do and become in the future. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.6 to answer the following question: Why do you think the process of resolving this stage of identity versus role confusion may be more complicated for immigrant adolescents like Lao Por than for many who have always lived in the United States? [Q3 Model Response] The process of resolving the search for identity may be more complicated for immigrant adolescents like Lao Por because they experience so much change and less stability. For 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

example, they began life by learning a language and culture that they left behind. They continued life in a new country with a new language and the confusion of the differences. Application Exercise 4.3: Moral Development Learning Outcome 4.4. Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 4.8 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationalpsychology/EP_02_50_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.8 to answer the following question: Describe the reasoning of the first student who believes cheating is not permissible in the scenario described by the adult. What level of Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory does this student represent? [Q1 Model Response] The student’s judgment reflects a punishment–obedience orientation, focusing on the fact that the cheating student would be kicked out of the class (the punishment). Kohlberg would suggest that this student is responding in a way consistent with a preconventional level of moral development. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.8 to answer the following question: Compare the moral reasoning of the older students to that of the younger students. How would Carol Gilligan’s theory of moral reasoning explain the older students’ reasoning? [Q2 Model Response] The older students agree that cheating is wrong but not just because cheating is against the rules and will result in punishment. The first older student looks at the cheating by saying it is unfair for the student to get a grade that he did not earn. The second older student comments that the student “should have been paying attention earlier in the course.” This suggests that the older students are looking at the situation in terms of how the cheating affects everyone, perhaps as a fairness issue. They also recognize the extenuating circumstances of the student’s job to help his family. Carol Gilligan would suggest that the younger students are viewing the cheating in terms of selfinterest. The clear-cut line between right and wrong represents the child’s understanding of how consequences are enforced for breaking the rules. The older students are concerned about how cheating may affect relationships in the class but still recognize that Steve’s situation at home may influence his decisions. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 4.8 to answer the following question: 15 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Differentiate between moral and social conventional issues in the classroom. Although a teacher cannot force moral development, provide some strategies that can encourage a moral atmosphere in the classroom. [Q3 Model Response] Social conventional issues are agreed-upon rules in a domain, such as raising your hand in the classroom before speaking out. Moral issues deal with more abstract concepts of justice and fairness. Suggestions for teachers to encourage moral behavior include: •

Encourage perspective taking.

•

Establish a community within the classroom based on mutual respect.

•

Use a consistent application of the rules in the classroom.

•

Respond within the appropriate domain. For example, you would not respond to chewing gum (social conventional issue) in the same way you would respond to hitting another student (moral issue).

Chapter 4 Test Items Chapter 4 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 4.1: Describe general trends, group differences, and Multiple Choice: 1-6 challenges in physical development through childhood and Essay: 27 adolescence. Objective 4.2: Discuss how the components of Multiple Choice: 7-14 Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, Essay: 28 especially the influence of families, parenting styles, peers, teachers, and technology. Objective 4.3: Describe general trends and group differences Multiple Choice: 15-20 in the development of identity and self-concept. Essay: 29-30 Objective 4.4: Explain theories of moral development including Multiple Choice: 21-26 those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how Essay: 31 teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students— cheating.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which adult seems to be well informed and have the right idea about children’s handedness? a. “You don’t want Alissa to be left-handed. Encourage her to use her right hand.” b. “Stop trying to make Aden right-handed. Handedness is genetic.” c. “Up to the age of 7 you can change your child’s left-handedness.” d. “Teach Mark to use both hands equally. If you train him early, he’ll do well with both hands.” 2. Among the following students, which one is most likely to reach maximum height at the earliest age? a. Jon, a European American boy b. Chin, an Asian American boy c. Darla, an African American girl d. Carlos, a Mexican American boy 3. Based on general statistics, which one of the following students is most likely to have fewer problems associated with timing of maturation? a. Hayden, a broad-shouldered boy who experiences spermarche around age 11 b. Kelli, who is taller than other girls her age and is maturing earlier c. Dason, a boy who shows signs of maturity a bit later than other boys his age d. Claire, who experiences menarche just before her 15th birthday 4. Kim Carlton is a new fifth-grade teacher. She is surprised to learn that her school has reduced the amount of recess for all students and eliminated time for physical education in the fifth-grade curriculum. Kim believes that exercise and recess enhance academic 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

performance. Based on national trends, why is her school (like many other schools in the U.S.) most likely reducing recess and physical education? a. To reduce risks of accidents on the playground and in physical education classes b. To avoid the cost of hiring teachers for physical education c. To increase academic time for test preparation d. To reduce teacher responsibilities on the playground and in the gym 5. Child obesity and eating disorders are growing problems in the U.S. Several of Mr. Thomas’s middle school students fit these categories. Which of his students most likely shows signs of anorexia? a. Trey, a gymnast, is a fanatic about exercise and has lost a lot of weight during the six months since school started. Mr. Thomas rarely sees him at lunch. b. Brit seems to be on an emotional roller coaster. Mr. Thomas has noticed that one day she may gorge on her lunch, a friend’s lunch, and extra snacks, but other days she skips lunch. c. Carson is painfully thin. In class photos, he appears to be the thinnest boy in his class every year. When Mr. Thomas visits the lunchroom, he sees Carson eating a regular school lunch every day. d. Shawna is about thirty pounds overweight and is always on a diet. She tells Mr. Thomas that she has tried one diet after another, but nothing has worked for her. 6. Mr. Thomas has noticed that one of his students shows signs of anorexia and another shows signs of bulimia. If Mr. Thomas follows the guidelines for supporting positive body image, which of the following is he most likely to do? a. Compliment these students on their appearance to build their confidence in their body images b. Talk to their closest friends and try to get additional information or confirmation about his suspicions c. Avoid talking to the students, but ask the school counselor to make appointments with them and gather information about their eating habits d. Pose questions to these students privately about their eating habits and health and listen attentively to their answers 7. Selena’s parents divorced recently, and Selena is having difficulty adjusting to the changes in her life. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, which of Selena’s social/cultural systems is most directly affected? a. Exosystem b. Macrosystem c. Microsystem d. Chronosystem 8. Nine-year-old Connor is curious about technology and wants to become an engineer. Due to changes in federal legislation, his school received a large grant that funds a special technology program. Connor is particularly excited to be one of the participants in the

program. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, the legislative changes took place in which social/cultural ecosystem? a. Microsystem b. Macrosystem c. Chronosystem d. Mesosystem 9. Mr. Lytle called Brenna’s mother to discuss Brenna’s classroom behavior and get parental support to help Brenna learn self-control. Brenna uses aggressive behavior to get her way, and today she pushed Liam and caused him to fall. Mr. Lytle instructed Brenna to take time out from the group, and he talked to her privately. Brenna’s mother responded to Mr. Lytle by saying, “Brenna’s that way. She doesn’t realize how strong she is. She’s really a sweet girl. She’ll grow out of it.” The parenting style in Brenna’s microsystem is most likely: a. authoritarian. b. authoritative. c. neglecting. d. permissive. 10. Why do some researchers question the applicability of Diane Baumrind’s descriptions of parenting styles? a. Need for longitudinal studies to support her descriptions b. Cultural differences in parenting c. No research basis for conclusions d. Lack of parent-child respect in 21st century families 11. As a sophomore in high school, Caitlin is allowed to make a lot of decisions related to her style and personal preferences. She recently asked her parents to let her take two friends and drive to a concert in Atlanta, 90 miles from their home. Her parents said they could not allow it and explained that the three girls needed an adult presence. The parenting style of Caitlin’s parents most likely is: a. permissive. b. rejecting. c. authoritarian. d. authoritative. 12. One of the girls in Mr. Kent’s class is shy and has difficulty making friends. Her social skills are immature and awkward. She usually walks to class alone, holds her head down, avoids contact with other students, and tries not to speak up in class. Based on the categories of children’s popularity, this girl’s behavior fits which category? a. Neglected b. Rejected aggressive c. Rejected withdrawn d. Controversial 19 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

13. Devin watches TV several hours a day. In his favorite shows, key characters model aggressive behavior. Devin imitates the actions of these characters on the playground and in the classroom to get what he wants. He pushes other children aside to get the toy he wants or to claim the chair he wants. Devin demonstrates what type of aggression? a. Hostile b. Relational c. Instrumental d. Overt 14. After recess, Cooper tells Mrs. Morris that Jeremy has cigarette burns on his chest and goes on to say that Jeremy says his mom’s boyfriend did that to him last night. Mrs. Morris asks Jeremy to come with her to the nurse’s office, and there she confirms the cigarette burns and the story. What is the best way for Mrs. Morris to follow up at this point? a. Report the situation to the principal and discuss further follow-up. b. Call Jeremy’s mom and warn her that the school has noticed the burn marks. c. Call the police to the school and discuss the matter with the police. d. Tell Jeremy to let Mrs. Morris know if this happens again. 15. Levi is like most other children in elementary school, learning new skills and coming to some understanding of his abilities in comparison to the abilities of peers. Based on Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, which developmental crisis is Levi learning to resolve? a. Identity versus role confusion b. Initiative versus guilt c. Industry versus inferiority d. Generativity versus stagnation 16. Amanda has been interested in political parties during the election year and has decided that her ideas align with one party and its platform. She feels strongly about her beliefs and is becoming quite an advocate for one candidate in her state. Some of her high school friends are uncommitted and take no interest in politics. Amanda’s passion for this area of interest is helping her feel more decisive about other things such as subjects she wants to study in school. According to Erikson’s psychosocial model, Amanda is in what stage of psychosocial development? a. Generativity versus stagnation b. Identity versus role confusion c. Industry versus inferiority d. Autonomy versus doubt 17. Among his peers, Donivan is not a leader. He is having a hard time deciding which group of friends to follow. He is quite interested in all aspects of science and technology, but he doesn’t really want to be identified as a geek. His family has wealth, but he doesn’t like to risk getting into trouble by hanging out with the group of wealthy guys. Based on James Marcia’s categories, Donivan seems to be in what pattern of the search for identity? a. Achievement

b. Foreclosure c. Commitment d. Exploration 18. Which of the following adolescents has reached the identity status of foreclosure? a. Bennett doesn’t like school or care about professions. He says he might do oil field work or construction. His mom just warns him not to grow up and be like his dad who abandoned the family. b. Carlos loves sports and wanted to be a professional tennis player but has learned enough to recognize that he doesn’t want the hectic lifestyle that goes with it. He recently shadowed a tennis coach and looked at the requirements for a profession in coaching. Now Carlos plans to pursue coaching. c. Maliyah has a heart of compassion and wants to help people who are sick. She talks about medical school, but she doesn’t have high self-efficacy for mastering the complex knowledge required in the medical field. She is not deciding on a college major yet. d. Reggie is going to be a teacher. Her uncle and her grandmother are teachers and Reggie has never considered any other profession. She hasn’t thought about the academic skills required to be a teacher or the classroom management aspects of being an effective teacher. 19. Which of the following quotes is a statement of self-concept? a. I remember the first day of high school when I didn’t know anyone else or have a clue about what to do or where to go. b. I plan to go to college and major in music, but I don’t know what I’ll do after that. c. I don’t have very many books on my shelves because I don’t like to read paper copies. d. I’m not good at solving interpersonal conflicts, but I am good at solving math problems. 20. By definition, self-esteem is associated with: a. the academic skill set you are able to achieve. b. your perception of others’ opinions about you. c. your value judgment about your self-worth. d. the value you place on others’ opinions. 21. Which of the following children seems to have the most well-developed theory of mind? a. Stefano’s favorite flavor of popsicle is green, so he told his mom to give his friend a green popsicle too. b. Gina saved a seat for her friend, but the friend sat next to someone else. Gina didn’t really care. She was interested in the play. c. Darby realized that Bryson didn’t mean to step on her when he moved his desk into place for group work, so she didn’t make an issue of it. d. Grant apologized for breaking his friend’s toy after his friend threatened to tell his mom about the incident. Grant knew his mom would make him apologize. 22. Quin makes sure everyone follows the rules of the game exactly as they are written on the box. His sister insists that they can alter the rules to make the game go faster, but Quin 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

refuses to consider such a change. He tells her no one can win if they don’t follow the rules. According to Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, what level of moral development is Quin demonstrating? a. Conventional b. Amoral c. Postconventional d. Preconventional 23. Mrs. Fuller is dealing with a classroom management issue involving an argument in one of her groups. The second graders were working at the math center and discussing the best way to share the make-believe pizza. Tomas said he should have more than the other children because he is bigger. Mrs. Fuller is dealing with an issue that is best described as: a. social convention. b. distributive justice. c. personal choice. d. morality of cooperation. 24. In Jonathan Haidt’s research, he identified three key principles that comprise his Social Intuitionist Model. Which of the following statements represents one of his key principles? a. Reasoning comes first and intuition comes second in moral judgment. b. Moral judgment is based on justice and welfare. c. Moral values include loyalty, authority, sanctity, and liberty. d. Moral judgment binds groups with shared beliefs and makes them more open to moral beliefs of other groups. 25. Which of the following students is LEAST likely to cheat on the upcoming calculus test? a. Skylar is focused on performance goals in calculus class and is determined to make a good grade. b. Ramon’s dad cheats on his taxes, but he has taught his son to do his best, be satisfied with his best, and never cheat on tests. c. Jaclyn wants to get accepted into a special math program, so she’s interested in learning calculus as preparation for more difficult math challenges. d. Mark is taking calculus only because his mom insisted, but he doesn’t really care about his grade. 26. Ms. Costello suspects that several of her students cheat on assignments and tests. What actions might she take if she wants to reduce the temptation for students to cheat in her classroom? a. Keep pressure on students by maintaining specified time constraints on assignments and tests. b. Assign reasonable workloads that challenge students without causing them to feel overwhelmed. c. Avoid creating an environment of distrust that develops when teachers monitor students closely during tests. 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Encourage students to pursue performance goals and keep their grades high to increase the likelihood of acceptance into the university of their choice.

Essay Questions 27. Mrs. Berry teaches fifth grade in an inner-city school. The students in the district have not performed well on standardized tests and the school board is proposing changes in order to increase the amount of academic time students spend in the classroom. If the changes are approved, Mrs. Berry’s fifth graders will no longer have a recess during the school day. Mrs. Berry opposes the changes. She has researched this matter and wants to address the school board. What points might she make from her research that are likely to influence the board’s decision? 28. Two of the students in your second-grade class exhibit aggressive behaviors. They use aggressive language, name calling, and threats to hurt others. One of these students instigates physical fights and has difficulty following your class rules about showing respect and keeping hands to self. Discuss sources that contribute to such aggression and describe how you might deal with such aggression in your classroom. 29. Mr. Li teaches fourth grade and expects his students to show a high level of independence about completing assignments, following procedures, and keeping up with homework and other daily responsibilities. School started two months ago, and Mr. Li is becoming increasingly frustrated with Teagan and her unwillingness to stick with difficult tasks. Teagan does not take risks or accept challenges. She prefers to work on assignments that are easy, and she stops when she faces a challenge. Rather than asking for help, she either turns in an incomplete assignment or hides it in her desk. During group work, she seldom speaks up and only wants to fill roles that are easy for her. She is intellectually capable of succeeding academically, but she is not successfully resolving the developmental crisis of her current stage of psychosocial development. Using Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, describe the developmental crisis Teagan must resolve. Suggest strategies Mr. Li might use to help Teagan resolve the crisis productively. 30. Ms. Greyson teaches freshman English and enjoys positive relationships with her students. She uses the following strategies and skills in her teaching: She shows respect for students and addresses them by name. She speaks politely and uses “please” and “thank you” when she calls on them during class discussions. She uses interactive teaching strategies that encourage all students to participate. Many of her tasks involve cooperative groups, and she seldom assigns competitive tasks. She uses encouragement to help students persevere with difficult tasks, and she does not use insults or putdowns at any time. With writing assignments, she uses portfolio assessment and helps students appreciate the progress they make during the year. Addressing all aspects of Ms. Greyson’s teaching (as described in this question), explain the effects of Ms. Greyson’s strategies and skills on her students’ self-concepts. 31. Cal and Nia are both in Ms. Morrow’s first-grade class, but they demonstrate different levels of moral development. Cal hits Nia when she accidentally bumps into his desk and causes his book to fall to the floor. Nia apologizes for the mishap and assures Cal she didn’t intend

to make his book fall. Cal argues that Nia did it on purpose. Later Cal sulks because Ms. Morrow called on another student, not him, to erase the white board. Explain theory of mind and describe Cal’s level of theory of mind. Then discuss one thing Ms. Morrow might do to help students like Cal develop higher levels of theory of mind.

Chapter 4 Test Answer Key Answer Key Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: “Stop trying to make Aden right-handed. Handedness is genetic.” Feedback for Correct Answer: By age 5, about 90% of students prefer their right hand for most skilled work, and 10% or so prefer their left hand, with more boys than girls being left-handed (Feldman, 2004; Hill & Khanem, 2009). Handedness is a genetically based preference and linked to brain development and organization, so adults should not try to make children switch. Text Reference: Physical Development

Correct Answer: Darla, an African American girl Feedback for Correct Answer: Girls reach their final height around ages 14 to 16, several years ahead of boys. Most boys continue growing until about age 19, but both boys and girls can continue to grow slightly until about age 25. Text Reference: Physical Development

Correct Answer: Claire, who experiences menarche just before her 15th birthday Feedback for Correct Answer: For girls, maturing way ahead of classmates can be a definite disadvantage. Later-maturing girls seem to have fewer problems. Recent research points to more disadvantages than advantages for early maturation in boys. Early maturing boys tend to engage in more delinquent behavior. Later-maturing boys may have a more difficult time initially. However, some studies show that in adulthood, males who matured later tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive. Text Reference: Physical Development

Correct Answer: To increase academic time for test preparation Feedback for Correct Answer: Unfortunately, physical education (PE) time in the United States is being cut to allow for more academic time focused on test preparation (Ginsburg, 2007; Zhu et al., 2010). Text Reference: Physical Development

Correct Answer: Trey, a gymnast, is a fanatic about exercise and has lost a lot of weight during the six months since school started. Mr. Thomas rarely sees him at lunch. Feedback for Correct Answer: Individuals with anorexia restrict food intake for fear of weight gain. Trey has lost a lot of weight in six months and does not regularly eat lunch. Text Reference: Physical Development

eating habits and health and listen attentively to their answers Feedback for Correct Answer: Guidelines recommend that teachers ask questions and listen to adolescents talk about their health in addition to providing resources related to body image issues. Text Reference: Physical Development 7.

Correct Answer: Microsystem Feedback for Correct Answer: Every person develops within a microsystem (family, friends, school activities, teacher, etc.). The divorce of Selena’s parents most directly affects her microsystem. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

Correct Answer: Macrosystem Feedback for Correct Answer: The macrosystem is the larger society— its values, laws, policies, conventions, and traditions. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

Correct Answer: permissive. Feedback for Correct Answer: Permissive parents (high warmth, low control, low expectations, high autonomy) are warm and nurturing, but they have few rules or consequences for their children and expect little in the way of mature behavior because “They’re just kids.” Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

10.

Correct Answer: Cultural differences in parenting Feedback for Correct Answer: It is a mistake to assume parenting practices are consistent within cultures. Research with Latino parents, for example, suggests that Baumrind’s parenting styles are not helpful in understanding Latino families, in part because respect for adult authority is not associated with cold parent–child relationships in these families. Instead, adult authority and caring go hand-in-hand. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

11.

Correct Answer: authoritative. Feedback for Correct Answer: Caitlin’s parents are firm, but not overly controlling. They allow her to make decisions about style and personal preference. They explain their reason for refusing to allow Caitlin’s request. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

12.

Correct Answer: Rejected withdrawn Feedback for Correct Answer: These children are timid and withdrawn, often the targets of bullies. They are often socially awkward and withdraw from social interactions to avoid being scorned or attacked. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

13.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Instrumental aggression involves strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege—not intended to harm, but may lead to harm. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 14.

Correct Answer: Report the situation to the principal and discuss further follow-up. Feedback for Correct Answer: As part of your responsibilities as a teacher, you must alert your principal, school psychologist, or school social worker if you suspect abuse. In all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories, the law requires mandated reporting. Certain professionals, usually including teachers, must report suspected cases of child abuse. Warning the mother or waiting for another incident may make the situation even worse for the child. Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

15.

Correct Answer: Industry versus inferiority Feedback for Correct Answer: This psychosocial challenge for the school years (age 6-12) is what Erikson calls industry versus inferiority. Students are beginning to see the relationship between perseverance and the pleasure of a job completed. The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept

16.

Correct Answer: Identity versus role confusion Feedback for Correct Answer: Amanda is an adolescent who is finding her identity in the area of politics. Based on the psychosocial model, teenagers must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and religion. If adolescents fail to integrate all these aspects and choices, or if they feel unable to choose at all, role confusion threatens. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept

17.

Correct Answer: Exploration Feedback for Correct Answer: In James Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, exploration is the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction. Donivan is exploring and has reached some conclusions but needs further exploration to make commitments. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept

18.

Correct Answer: Reggie is going to be a teacher. Her uncle and her grandmother are teachers and Reggie has never considered any other profession. She hasn’t thought about the academic skills required to be a teacher or the classroom management aspects of being an effective teacher. Feedback for Correct Answer: Identity foreclosure is commitment without exploration. Foreclosed adolescents have not experimented with 27 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

different identities or explored a range of options, but simply have committed themselves to the goals, values, and lifestyles of others. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept 19.

Correct Answer: I’m not good at solving interpersonal conflicts, but I am good at solving math problems. Feedback for Correct Answer: Self-concept is multidimensional. It is individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about themselves— their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept

20.

Correct Answer: your value judgment about your self-worth. Feedback for Correct Answer: Self-esteem is the value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept

21.

Correct Answer: Darby realized that Bryson didn’t mean to step on her when he moved his desk into place for group work, so she didn’t make an issue of it. Feedback for Correct Answer: Theory of mind is an understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. Children need a theory of mind to make sense of other people’s behavior and understand intentionality. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development

22.

Correct Answer: Preconventional Feedback for Correct Answer: Quin demonstrates preconventional moral development. He has an obedience orientation based on his own perceptions. One must follow the rules to avoid punishments and bad consequences. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development

23.

Correct Answer: distributive justice. Feedback for Correct Answer: Distributive justice involves beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group. It follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development

24.

Correct Answer: Moral values include loyalty, authority, sanctity, and liberty. Feedback for Correct Answer: Most theories of moral reasoning are grounded in the moral values of justice (fairness/cheating) and welfare (care/harm). According to Haidt, there is more to morality than fairness and harm. He identified four other moral values: loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, sanctity/degradation, and liberty/oppression. These moral foundations are present in all cultures. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

25.

Correct Answer: Jaclyn wants to get accepted into a special math program, so she’s interested in learning calculus as preparation for more difficult math challenges. Feedback for Correct Answer: Lower-achieving students are more likely to cheat than higher achievers. Students focusing on performance goals (making good grades, looking smart) as opposed to learning goals, and students with a low sense of academic self-efficacy are more likely to cheat. Students are more likely to cheat if they have models who cheat. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development

26.

Correct Answer: Assign reasonable workloads that challenge students without causing them to feel overwhelmed. Feedback for Correct Answer: When working under high pressure, with unreasonable workloads, and with little chance of being caught, many students will cheat. It is up to teachers and schools to avoid these conditions. Text Reference: Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 27.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Berry might make the point that there are good academic reasons for children to have recess and opportunities for exercise. Physical activity positively affects cognitive development and physical development. Exercise promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain, in addition to improving mood and helping students focus attention. Mrs. Berry might share information from research studies. Researchers note that students in Asian countries, who consistently outperform U.S. students on international reading, science, and mathematics tests, have more frequent recess breaks throughout the school day. One study of 11,000 elementary students found that those who had daily recess of 15 minutes or longer were better behaved in class than students who had little or no recess. Mrs. Berry might suggest that school administrators, teachers, and the board work collaboratively to find other methods for improving students’ test scores. She might point out that these inner-city children typically lack opportunities to play outside and get exercise. She may further point out the growing problem of obesity among children. Additionally, recess breaks may be especially important for students with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). Text Reference: Physical Development

28.

Suggested Response: Aggressive students tend to believe they will get what they want by being aggressive. There are several forms of aggression: instrumental aggression to get an object or privilege, hostile aggression to harm someone else, overt aggression to threaten or attack someone physically, relational aggression to damage social relationships, and cyber aggression using social media to do harm. The sources of the aggression may be models children encounter at home. Perhaps family members are aggressive and these children get their way at home by matching the aggression they see in others. 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Additional sources of aggression may be found in the TV shows children watch and the video games they play. These are common sources of aggression children are often exposed to on a daily basis in their homes. In order to deal with aggression effectively, teachers need to be armed with knowledge, skills, and strategies. •

Begin by being a model of nonaggression. A teacher who is able to remain calm and firm can deal with aggression more effectively than one who makes threats and uses aggression to combat aggression.

•

Teachers also need to establish classroom procedures that reduce the opportunities for students to show aggression. This includes procedures such as getting into groups and completing tasks without interfering with one another. It includes procedures for accessing materials, taking turns, and sharing.

•

Teachers need to make sure aggressive behavior is not rewarded. If one of the aggressive students pushes another to get to a specific chair, the teacher should not allow the aggressor to remain in the chair.

•

Teachers can address aggression by teaching social skills. A reading assignment, for example, might provide opportunities for discussing aggressive behaviors, contrasting prosocial and antisocial behaviors, and emphasizing the importance of taking the perspective of the other person.

•

Teachers help students learn prosocial, nonaggressive behaviors when they teach students how to work together in cooperative groups. Group procedures help students practice skills such as taking turns and listening.

•

Teachers need to be knowledgeable about the video games their students are playing.

Text Reference: Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 29.

Suggested Response: Teagan is in the fourth stage of psychosocial development, the stage in which she needs to resolve the developmental crisis of industry versus inferiority. To resolve the crisis productively, she needs to handle the academic demands of school, including perseverance with difficult tasks. She needs to understand that she will not continue to learn unless she faces challenges and takes risks. In her thinking, she is avoiding failure. She needs to recognize that her strategy actually results in failure. According to Erikson, students at this stage must master new skills and work toward new goals. They are being compared to other students and generally have a greater awareness of the risk of failure. Mr. Li might take these steps: •

Help Teagan set realistic learning goals. Mr. Li might begin by dividing assignments into smaller tasks and encouraging Teagan to set goals for completing small tasks and moving on to larger tasks.

•

Help Teagan experience successes. Trying new skills has intimidated Teagan. As she achieves successes with new skills, she is more likely to show willingness to take risks. As she takes risks and discovers that she has the ability to master new skills, she is more likely to persevere when tasks are difficult.

•

Encourage Teagan to ask for help. If Teagan follows procedures for getting help,

she is more likely to keep trying rather than giving up. Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept 30.

Suggested Response: Ms. Greyson realizes that high performance in a subject leads to a high self-concept in that area and also promotes positive overall selfconcept. She also realizes that students gauge their judgments of themselves—their self-esteem—on the basis of the verbal and nonverbal reactions of significant people such as teachers. •

Ms. Greyson’s positive relationships with her students help her students build positive concepts. She treats them with respect and speaks politely to them. These behaviors are likely to help students respect themselves and feel worthy of courteous treatment.

•

Ms. Greyson’s interactive teaching and encouraging all students to participate most likely show students that she wants them to learn and believes they are capable of contributing to the class. She helps them develop a growth mindset.

•

Her use of cooperative groups provides opportunities for building positive selfconcepts. Students are more likely to speak up in small groups and demonstrate prosocial behaviors that lead to higher self-concepts. They are cooperating rather than competing. They are less likely to feel that their individual efforts are being judged in comparison to efforts of others in the class. They are not pressured and are not focused on performance goals.

•

Ms. Greyson’s use of portfolios is an effective strategy for helping students see their progress over time (internal comparisons) and feel good about their learning. This approach helps them develop a positive self-concept about writing.

Text Reference: Identity and Self-Concept 31.

Suggested Response: Theory of mind is an understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. With a developing theory of mind, children are increasingly able to understand that other people have different feelings and experiences and therefore may have a different viewpoint or perspective. Cal is at a low level of perspective-taking ability (theory of mind). He doesn’t understand the intentions of others well enough to distinguish between intentional and unintentional actions. Cal doesn’t think about Nia’s perspective when he hits her for accidentally bumping his desk and causing his book to fall. Cal doesn’t seem to think about the other students in class when he sulks over not being chosen to erase the white board. Apparently, he thinks only of his perspective—his desire to be chosen for the task—and not about the fairness of taking turns. Ms. Morrow might help students develop greater perspective-taking ability. She might integrate coaching in perspective taking (“How would you feel if . . . ?” “Why do you think Nia. . . ?”) as she teaches and as she manages conflicts among students in class. Text Reference: Understanding Others and Moral Development

Chapter 4 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 4.1 Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development through childhood and adolescence. Outcome 4.2 Discuss how the components of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, especially the influence of families, parenting styles, peers, teachers, and technology. Outcome 4.3 Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. Outcome 4.4 Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating. [Q1] LO 4.2 Authoritative teaching strategies are associated with what students identify as “good teachers.” Which one of the following educators is demonstrating authoritative teaching? 1. Dina was allowed by her teacher to skip recess and play inside by herself because she did not have any friends. 2. On his first day, Elvin, a shy immigrant student, was reprimanded for speaking in Spanish. 3. When Marcus arrived late, Ms. Thomas reminded him of the rules and consequences. [correct] 4. Mr. Kraft allowed the students to have two free days at the beginning of the year to become acquainted with their peers in the classroom. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Authoritative teaching strategies, like authoritative approaches to parenting, lead to positive relationships with students and enhance motivation for learning. Students need teachers who set clear limits, are consistent, enforce rules firmly but not punitively, respect students, and show genuine concern. [Q2] LO 4.3 Colton knows that he must succeed with the new skill his friends are mastering or risk feeling like a failure. Colton’s struggle relates to what stage of psychosocial development? 1. Identity versus role confusion 2. Basic trust versus basic mistrust 3. Industry versus inferiority [correct] 4. Autonomy versus shame and doubt [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In the fourth stage of psychosocial development, a child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.

[Q3] LO 4.4 Mia quickly noticed that the boy seated next to her received a greater portion of manipulatives for the math task than she received. Feeling slighted, she blurted, “That’s not fair. Mason got more.” Mia’s moral issue relates to which of the following? 1. Relationships 2. Universal ethics 3. Social conventions 4. Distributive justice [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Distributive justice relates to beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group. [Q4 Short Answer] LO 4.2 Case Eliana Sharp entered Ms. Coco’s class in the fall without any friends. While many of the first graders engaged in collaborative games on the playground, Eliana stood on the periphery, and the other students did not include her. In class, her behaviors were more typical of a younger child, sucking her thumb when she became upset and refusing to share during group activities. By October, Ms. Coco decided to take steps to intervene. She called Mr. and Mrs. Sharp for a parent meeting. When the Sharps arrived, Eliana was with them. What then transpired was shocking to Ms. Coco. Eliana adamantly insisted that her parents not talk with her teacher in private. Yelling above the crying and screaming, the Sharps apologized and suggested they return on another day when Eliana was feeling more agreeable. Identify and explain the parenting style the Sharps appear to practice. [Feedback for Answer 4] The Sharps seem to be permissive parents. Eliana has trouble interacting with her peers, and her parents indulged her inappropriate behavior while meeting with Ms. Coco. Children of permissive parents also have trouble with impulse control. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 4.2 Case Eliana Sharp entered Ms. Coco’s class in the fall without any friends. While many of the first graders engaged in collaborative games on the playground, Eliana stood on the periphery, and the other students did not include her. In class, her behaviors were more typical of a younger child, sucking her thumb when she became upset and refusing to share during group activities. By October, Ms. Coco decided to take steps to intervene. She called Mr. and Mrs. Sharp for a parent meeting. When the Sharps arrived, Eliana was with them. What then transpired was shocking to Ms. Coco. Eliana adamantly insisted that her parents not talk with her teacher in private. Yelling above the crying and screaming, the Sharps apologized and suggested they return on another day when Eliana was feeling more agreeable. What strategies should Ms. Coco employ to assist Eliana with her emotional development?

[Feedback for Answer 5] Ms. Coco could assist Eliana with her social and emotional development in the following ways: •

Adopt an authoritative style with clear rules and expectations for mature behavior

•

Provide guidance and support in developing social skills

•

Discuss with Eliana’s parents the beneficial qualities of an authoritative environment as opposed to a permissive one

Chapter 5 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 5: Learner Differences and Learning Needs Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 5: Learner Differences and Learning Needs Chapter 5 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 5.1. Describe advantages and disadvantages of labeling, as well as the value of identity-first/person-first language in respecting the dignity of all students. [Q1] Ms. Reid has labeled her student Jordan as her autistic student. How does such labeling help? 1. Opens doors for special services Jordan needs [correct] 2. Tells the teacher precisely what strategies to use with Jordan 3. Tells the teacher how much to lower her expectations of Jordan 4. Establishes the type of guidance the counselor will give [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Diagnostic labels still open doors to some programs, useful information, adaptive technology and equipment, or financial assistance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The teacher needs to view Jordan as an individual and identify strategies that work effectively for Jordan rather than stereotyping students who are given a certain label. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The teacher still needs to maintain high expectations for Jordan and every student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The counselor needs to base guidance on the individual rather than stereotyping students who are given a certain label. [Q2] Vivian was born without hearing but is able to function in her fourth-grade classroom with the help of lip reading and an aide who signs for her. As Vivian learns in the classroom, having no hearing is which of the following? 1. A disadvantage in reading 2. An advantage in learning 3. A handicap in learning 4. An inability to hear [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vivian is able to function in the classroom. Her vision is not a problem; lack off hearing is her problem. She is likely able to read at grade level.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Having no hearing is likely not an advantage in Vivian’s learning in the classroom. In some ways it might be a disadvantage. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Vivian’s lack of hearing doesn’t seem to be a handicap in learning in the classroom. She is able to function with the help of her ability to read lips and the aide who signs for her. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Having no hearing is an inability. Vivian is not able to hear. In some situations, her disability may be a handicap, but Vivian is able to function in the classroom. [Q3] Vivian was born without hearing but is able to function in her fourth-grade classroom with the help of lip reading and an aide who signs for her. If Vivian’s teacher is using person-first language, which of the following will she say? 1. My deaf student 2. My student who is hearing impaired [correct] 3. My disabled student 4. My handicapped student [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] By labeling Vivian as the deaf student, the teacher is not using person-first language. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] To respect the dignity and uniqueness of all students, “person-first” language is used. This language places the emphasis on the student (the person) first. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] By labeling Vivian as the disabled student, the teacher is not using person-first language. Using person-first language places the emphasis on the student first. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] By labeling Vivian as handicapped, the teacher is not using person-first language. Using person-first language places the emphasis on the student first. [Q4] Some groups of students are overrepresented for some disability categories, and some groups of students are underrepresented for special services in general. To minimize such mistakes, what should teachers do before making a formal referral? 1. Use the student’s standardized test scores 2. Compare all students in the classroom to one another 3. Administer a classroom test and use the test results 4. Gather a wide range of information about the student [correct]

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Standardized test scores may not be helpful for many students, especially students who do not speak English [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Comparing the students with one another does not provide valid data for making a referral. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A classroom test does not provide sufficient information to help teachers make referral decisions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Before making a formal referral, teachers should gather a range of information about a student such as the student’s level of English proficiency and any unusual stressors such as being homeless. Having more knowledge about the student and his or her circumstances outside of school should help teachers make better decisions about what programs are appropriate. [Q5] Based on the following options, what is the best reason for using a diagnostic label to identify a child with a disability? 1. Help the child accept his or her limitations 2. Limit behavioral expectations for the child 3. Provide an exemption from taking standardized tests 4. Get the support of classmates [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The child may not feel that he or she has limitations as a result of a disability. Teachers want to help children reach their potential rather than accenting the disability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Having a disability is not necessarily associated with behavioral differences. Teachers should still hold high expectations for children with disabilities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students with a disability typically take standardized tests. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] If classmates know a student has a disability, they may be more willing to accept his or her behaviors and be supportive. Learning Outcome 5.2. Describe current theories of intelligence including hierarchical and multiple theories of intelligence, how intelligence is measured, what these measurements tell teachers, and emotional intelligence.

[Q1] Sam is a talented dancer. He also shows remarkable creativity in art class, loves to read, and is a great storyteller. Which view of intelligence is best reflected in this description of Sam’s abilities? 1. Spearman’s general intelligence (g) 2. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development 3. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence 4. Gardner’s multiple intelligences [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Spearman suggested there is one mental attribute, which he called g, or general intelligence, that is used to perform any cognitive test. Sam is demonstrating intelligence in several areas. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Piaget’s theory doesn’t describe a model of intelligence but a series of developmental milestones exhibited by people as they grow from infancy to adulthood. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Successful intelligence, according to Sternberg, is about setting and achieving personal goals based on your own definition of success in your particular cultural context. Successful intelligence requires three skills or ways of thinking: analytic, creative, and practical. Sam’s talents and areas of strength are not summed up in Sternberg’s view of intelligence. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Gardner asserted that there are several separate mental abilities (i.e., intelligences) that are biologically based and are impacted by culture. Strength in reading and storytelling reflect linguistic intelligence, creativity in art suggests spatial intelligence, and Sam’s creativity as a dancer suggests bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. [Q2] The science and math teachers at Bradbury Middle School look at their students’ IQ test scores to see who is likely to perform the best on state standardized tests. Is the approach of these science and math teachers effective? 1. Yes, performance on IQ tests is correlated with school achievement for children in all ethnic groups. [correct] 2. Not necessarily. Performance on IQ tests is correlated with school achievement only for children in certain ethnic groups. 3. Possibly. Performance on IQ tests depends on the child’s strengths in particular content areas. 4. No, performance on IQ tests is not correlated with school achievement. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to academic achievement for children in all ethnic groups. This shouldn’t be too surprising because Binet designed the first IQ test to predict school achievement, and it worked. 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to academic achievement for children in all ethnic groups. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The relations between IQ scores and school achievement are interesting, but standard IQ tests measure only analytic skills, not practical or creative thinking, or motivation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to academic achievement. [Q3] It seems your principal always knows how to solve tough problems. Her wisdom is amazing, and she is able to consider many contextual factors underlying the problem at the same time. Your principal, who has more than 30 years of experience in education, is demonstrating she has a high degree of: 1. creativity 2. crystallized intelligence [correct] 3. multiple intelligences 4. fluid intelligence [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Creativity is useful for problem solving, but in this case, it is her experience that is influencing her problem-solving ability. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Crystallized intelligence is the ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout the life span because it includes learned skills and knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In this case, it is her experience and knowledge that is influencing her problem-solving ability, not her ability to draw on multiple intelligences. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Fluid intelligence is mental efficiency and reasoning ability. In this case, it is her experience and knowledge that is influencing her problem-solving ability. [Q4] Seven-year-old Peyton is good at detecting his friends’ feelings. He can tell when his friend Shiloh feels offended, and Peyton stops teasing him. He knows when Cam feels hopeless during a basketball game, and Peyton lets up on the competition. Peyton demonstrates that he is high in which of the following? 1. Moral development 2. Emotional intelligence [correct] 3. Fluid intelligence

4. High IQ [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This scenario does not describe a situation of recognizing right and wrong. Consider what Peyton does and why. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor your own and other people’s feelings; to discriminate among different feelings; and to use this information to guide your own thinking, decisions, and actions. Peyton demonstrates emotional intelligence as he recognizes the feelings of others and uses that information to guide his own actions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Fluid intelligence is a measure of mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development. Peyton demonstrates a different type of intelligence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Peyton’s ability to detect his friends’ feelings and gauge his actions on that information is not a demonstration of high IQ. It is a demonstration of a type of intelligence. [Q5] Kennedy withdraws her name from the competition for class president. She recognizes that she lets power go to her head when she is in a leadership position, and she dominates her peers in very controlling ways. Kennedy knows her nature and admits her weaknesses. She realizes she needs to learn better collaboration skills before she can effectively hold the office of class president. Kennedy exhibits which of the following? 1. Naturalist intelligence 2. Intrapersonal intelligence [correct] 3. Interpersonal intelligence 4. Existential intelligence [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Naturalist intelligence is the ability to recognize plants and animals and use categories and systems to understand the natural world. Kennedy exhibits a different type of intelligence. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Intrapersonal intelligence is the knowledge of your own strengths, weaknesses, capabilities, and needs and ability to use these to guide your behavior. Kennedy exhibits this kind of intelligence by knowing herself well enough to withdraw from competition that will bring out her negative traits. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to read the moods and motivations of others. Kennedy exhibits a different type of intelligence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Existential intelligence is the ability to consider and examine deeper or larger questions about human existence and the meaning of life. Kennedy exhibits a different type of intelligence. 6 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Outcome 5.3. Explain how creativity is defined, assessed, and encouraged in the classroom. [Q1] Which of the following individuals is showing the most creativity, as psychologists define the term? 1. Alani is very smart and can quickly generate possible solutions to problems or brain teasers. 2. Emerson loves to dance and spends hours making videos of her dancing. 3. Ahmar’s hobby is woodworking, and he designs and builds hand-carved items to sell. [correct] 4. Colby accidentally developed a new recipe by measuring ingredients incorrectly. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Creativity requires imaginative, original thinking, and it’s not clear that Alani is doing that. She may have creative solutions, or she may simply be reporting knowledge that she has acquired. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Creativity requires putting a novel spin on things, and it’s not clear that Emerson is really doing that. Her dances may be original, or she may simply be replicating dances she has learned elsewhere. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Ahmar is showing originality with his designs, and he is being imaginative to produce something new. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Creativity is intentional. To be creative, the invention must be intended. Colby’s new recipe is an accident. [Q2] As part of a test for creativity, students were shown a spoon and were asked to suggest as many ways to improve it as they could. Zander immediately offered nine improvements, thought a few more minutes, and then offered two more, both of which were unusual and probably not possible. If all of his responses are similar to this response, we might predict that Zander’s overall creativity test score indicates which of the following? 1. Zander is good at convergent thinking. 2. Zander is low in originality. 3. Zander is low in flexibility. 4. Zander is good at divergent thinking. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Convergent thinking is narrowing the possibilities to a single answer. Zander is offering multiple possibilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] To be original, a response must be given by fewer than 5 or 10 people out of every 100 who take the test. Zander is showing a high level of originality in his responses about the spoon. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Flexibility is generally measured by the number of different categories of responses. If Zander’s responses on other items of the test produce as many different ideas as his improvements to a spoon, he will be high in flexibility. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] With nine possible improvements to a spoon, Zander is high in fluency, and fluency is a good predictor of divergent thinking. [Q3] When a group engages in brainstorming, group members are often told to state any and all ideas with no evaluation of their own or others’ ideas until all ideas are “on the table.” This strategy tends to encourage creative problem solving because: 1. wild ideas are ruled out 2. convergent thinking leads to one key idea 3. group members compete for the best idea 4. ideas are generated and shared without criticism [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Wild ideas are encouraged during brainstorming. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Brainstorming encourages divergent thinking. Group members generate as many different ideas as possible. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Brainstorming encourages group members to hitchhike on other ideas rather than competing for the best idea. This means that it’s okay to borrow elements from ideas already on the table, or to make slight modifications of ideas already suggested. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Brainstorming by definition involves generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them. No criticism is allowed until all the ideas are on the table. [Q4] Mr. Lane wants to encourage his students to be creative with their end-of-unit group projects. Based on guidelines for applying and encouraging creativity, Mr. Lane should do which of the following? 1. Encourage students to question their judgment and avoid risks 2. Allow students to argue and question assumptions [correct] 3. Encourage groups to identify one creative person in the group to generate ideas

4. Eliminate extraneous talk and encourage efficiency [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] To foster creativity, Mr. Lane should encourage students to take reasonable risks and trust their own judgment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] To foster creativity, Mr. Lane should ask students to support dissenting opinions and encourage them to identify and question their assumptions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] To foster creativity, Mr. Lane should encourage all students to think outside the box. He needs to emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some form. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] To foster creativity, Mr. Lane should encourage humor and allow students to play with ideas and combine quirky thoughts. [Q5] Based on research, which of the following high school students has traits that are most likely to encourage creativity? 1. Alan sticks to routines. 2. Dason speaks English only. 3. Emery follows rules. 4. Sierra is bilingual. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Creators have a desire to shake things up rather than sticking to routines. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Speaking more than one language can encourage creativity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] True innovators often break rules. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Being bilingual or being exposed to other cultures is believed to encourage creativity. Learning Outcome 5.4. Discuss the problems with the measurement and application of learning styles and the appropriate uses of students’ learning preferences. [Q1] Ms. Martinez, a fourth-grade teacher, asks her students to tell whether they feel they are visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners. Then, she breaks the class into three groups based on students’ learning styles and teaches each group the same lesson according to the style they selected. If the performance of Ms. Martinez’s students coincides with research on matching

teaching and learning styles, what effect will this method of teaching have on students’ learning? 1. Small negative effect 2. No effect [correct] 3. Strong positive effect 4. Strong negative effect [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Matching instructional methods to learning styles doesn’t seem to have a negative effect. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Matching instructional methods to learning styles has no effect on learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Matching instructional methods to learning styles doesn’t seem to have a positive effect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Matching instructional methods to learning styles doesn’t seem to have a negative effect. [Q2] Gavin believes he has a personal learning style that is innate and unchanging. According to statistics, how many educators share such a belief in the efficacy of learning styles? 1. None 2. About 90% of educators worldwide [correct] 3. All educators in the United States 4. About 20% of educators worldwide [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In the United States and other industrialized countries around the world, some educators believe in the efficacy of learning styles. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Almost 90% of educators around the world believe in the efficacy of learning styles. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The number of educators who believe in the efficacy of learning styles is significant, but not all educators in the United States share this belief. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Actually, more educators worldwide believe in the efficacy of learning styles. [Q3] Mr. Kade asks his middle school students to think about how they learn and identify their learning preferences. Is this beneficial? 1. Yes, students can use the information to develop greater self-awareness. [correct] 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Yes, students should always match their learning with their preferences. 3. No, students have no idea about their learning preferences. 4. No, students do not have learning preferences. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] By helping students think about how they learn, they can develop thoughtful self-monitoring and self-awareness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Matching learning with preferences is not effective and doesn’t improve learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Older students (more than young students) likely have an awareness of their learning preferences. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students may have learning preferences and may not be aware of alternative ways of learning. [Q4] What are the cautions about using learning styles instruments in education? 1. Gender bias 2. Ethnic bias 3. Studies have not examined the validity 4. Ineffectiveness [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Gender bias is not a factor in the cautions about using learning styles instruments in education. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ethnic bias has not been identified as a reason for caution in using learning styles instruments in education. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Studies have examined validity and found that using the instruments is not a valid approach to improving learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In an extensive examination of learning styles instruments, researchers found that their examination of reliability and validity strongly suggests that they should not be used in education in part because matching instructional methods to learning styles has no effect on learning. Learning Outcome 5.5. Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary education. [Q1] Which example best illustrates the idea of least restrictive environment (LRE)? 11 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Kevin, who has a hearing impairment, receives education in a class where there are no grades, achievement requirements, or other limits on his freedom. 2. Devante, who has emotional and behavioral problems, is allowed to choose whether he attends classes. 3. Amara, who has a visual impairment, attends a general education class but has special copies of the textbooks written in Braille. [correct] 4. Tao, who uses a wheelchair, is educated in a classroom with no desks or other furniture to constrain his movement around the room. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Eliminating educational expectations for students is not a valid interpretation of the least restrictive environment stipulation of IDEA. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] IDEA requires states to develop procedures for educating each child in the least restrictive environment (LRE), a setting that is as close to the general education class setting as possible. Being allowed to choose whether to attend classes is not the LRE. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The least restrictive environment is the one that is closest to the typical grade-level classroom. In this case, Amara is functioning in the general education classroom with special education support. This is the least restrictive environment for her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] IDEA requires states to develop procedures for educating each child in the least restrictive environment (LRE), a setting that is as close to the general education class setting as possible. Being educated in a different (specialized) classroom is not the LRE for a student in a wheelchair. [Q2] Twelve-year-old Ryder has a learning disability and receives special education services. His Individualized Education Program (IEP) includes which of the following? 1. A statement of exemption from state and district-wide assessments 2. His present level of performance and annual goals [correct] 3. A justification for his exemption from the transitional services plan 4. Life-long goals and special services available to him [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The IEP contains a statement about how the student will participate in state and district-wide assessments, particularly those required by the federal accountability procedures, what alternative assessments the student will take (if any), and a justification for these decisions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The IEP includes Ryder’s present level of academic achievement and functional performance and measurable performance goals for the year in academic and/or non-academic areas.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Beginning at age 14, the IEP will include a statement of needed transitional services to move the student toward further education or work in adult life. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The IEP includes goals, but these are not life-long goals. Ryder’s IEP is focused on his current education. [Q3] Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in any program that receives federal money, including public schools. Which of the following students is likely to receive accommodations under Section 504? 1. Jaxon has a drug addiction. [correct] 2. Asher has a broken arm. 3. June has a learning disability. 4. Autumn has a behavioral disorder. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Two major groups are considered for Section 504 accommodations: students with medical or health needs (e.g., diabetes, drug addiction or alcoholism, severe allergies, communicable diseases, or temporary disabilities resulting from accidents) and students with ADHD, if they are not already covered by IDEA. Jaxon is protected and provided accommodations under this law. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Asher’s broken arm is a temporary condition that limits his activity. He would not qualify for accommodations under Section 504. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] June would receive services under IDEA rather than Section 504. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Autumn would receive services under IDEA rather than Section 504. [Q4] Which of the following students can be denied a free public education in Minnesota schools? 1. A student who is blind and deaf 2. A student who has a history of disruptive behavior 3. A student who has cerebral palsy 4. No student can be denied [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Any student with a disability or multiple disabilities is entitled to a free public education in Minnesota or any other state in the United States.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A student who has a history of disruptive behavior is entitled to a free public education in Minnesota or any other state in the United States. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A student with cerebral palsy is entitled to a free public education in Minnesota or any other state in the United States. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Zero reject is a basic principle of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind or how severe, can be denied a free public education. [Q5] Ms. Gomez uses research-based instruction to teach effectively to the diverse learners in her inclusive third-grade classroom. Her district uses a three-tier RtI approach, and Ms. Gomez has students in each tier. Which students are in tier one? 1. Students with a learning disability 2. Students who do not improve in tier two 3. Students who require special education services 4. All students in her classroom [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with a learning disability spend time in tier one, but they are not the only students in tier one. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students who do not improve in tier two are likely to spend time in tier one, and they are likely to be recommended for interventions in tier three. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students who require special education services are likely to spend time in tier one (and may also spend time in other tiers), but they are not the only students in tier one. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The first tier is to use a strong, well-researched way of teaching all students. RtI is appropriate for all students—it is just good teaching consistent with differentiated instruction and universal design for learning (UDL). Learning Outcome 5.6. Understand and address the special educational needs of students with learning challenges. [Q1] Shane has been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). He is a high functioning individual who receives special education services. Based on this brief description of Shane, you might suspect that he has which of the following characteristics? 1. Below-average intelligence 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. No communication skills 3. Interest in new activities and changes 4. Poor social skills [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students who have a form of ASD and are high functioning usually have average or aboveaverage intelligence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Shane is described as high functioning. He likely has some communication skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] For students with ASD, change is quite disturbing. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students with autism spectrum disorders have difficulty forming in two main areas: social communications and repetitive/restrictive behaviors. Shane likely has poor social skills. [Q2] Carlos is a seventh-grade boy who has been diagnosed with a moderate learning disability. His tutor, Jackie, has noticed that lately Carlos seems depressed and doesn’t try as hard as he did earlier. In fact, Carlos hasn’t finished his homework in two weeks and usually gives up around the second or third question, muttering, “This is pointless. I can’t do it.” Jackie offers extra instruction and tries to encourage and help him, but Carlos still doesn’t put forth effort. What is the best explanation for Carlos’s actions? 1. Lack of direct instruction 2. Learned helplessness [correct] 3. Being held to high expectations 4. Too much verbal instruction [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Carlos is receiving direct instruction from a tutor. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Learned helplessness is the powerful misconception that all efforts will result in failure. Carlos exhibits this type of helplessness. He has quit trying. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] All students should be held to high expectations. Carlos is just giving up. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Carlos isn’t finishing his homework. When he’s doing homework, he isn’t receiving too much verbal instruction.

[Q3] According to statistics, which middle school student—based solely on gender and race/ethnicity—is most likely to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance? 1. LaToya, a White girl 2. DeMarcus, a Black boy [correct] 3. Phoebe, an Asian American girl 4. Rhett, a White boy [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] More boys than girls are diagnosed with emotional disturbance. LaToya is not the most likely among these four students to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] More boys than girls are diagnosed with emotional disturbance and Black students are twice as likely as White students to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] More boys than girls are diagnosed with emotional disturbance. Phoebe is not the most likely among these four students to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Black students are twice as likely as White students to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance. Rhett is not the most likely among these four students to be diagnosed with emotional disturbance. [Q4] Natalie is an 8-year-old student with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Which teacher practices are most likely to help Natalie and other students with ADHD to improve their academic performance? 1. Increase homework to provide extended learning opportunities 2. Increase the dosage of medication for the disorder 3. Exercise tolerance of their impulsive behaviors 4. Use visuals and graphic organizers in teaching [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An increase in homework is seen as punishment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers are not in a position to administer medication or increase a student’s dosage. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Tolerating disruptive behaviors is not conducive to an effective learning environment for all students in the class. Natalie and other students with ADHD need to be held to high expectations rather than having no behavioral expectations.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students with ADHD benefit from instruction that includes visuals and graphic organizers to help them learn. These students tend to be easily distracted and disorganized, and visuals and graphic organizers help address these limitations. [Q5] Thirteen-year-old Jude has a mild intellectual disability and spends most of his time in a general education classroom. According to guidelines for teaching students with intellectual disabilities, his teacher should do which of the following to help Jude learn? 1. Use a single form of presentation without variations 2. Present simple step-by-step instructions for tasks [correct] 3. Use elementary school materials to teach him 4. Avoid repetition of learning skills [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Jude’s teacher must be prepared to present the same idea in many different ways using different representations (verbal, visual, hands on, etc.). [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Jude’s teacher should present material in small, logical steps. Teachers should not skip any steps when they work with students who have an intellectual disability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Jude’s teacher should find materials that do not insult him. A middle school boy may need the low vocabulary of “See Spot run,” but will be insulted by the age of the characters and the content of the story. Age-appropriate materials should be used. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students with below-average intelligence must overlearn, repeat, and practice more than children of average intelligence. Jude’s teacher should repeat skills and provide extra practice. Learning Outcome 5.7. Recognize and respond to the special educational needs of students who are gifted and talented. [Q1] Fifteen-year-old Jasmine is gifted in mathematics. Based on recent research, she and other gifted teens may very well share which of the following characteristics? 1. Great popularity and charisma 2. Depression and isolation [correct] 3. Giftedness in all academic areas 4. Learning disabilities in other academic areas [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Great popularity and charisma are not typical characteristics of gifted teens.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Adolescents who are gifted, especially girls, are more likely to be depressed, and both girls and boys may be bored, frustrated, and isolated. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Gifted children are not necessarily gifted in all areas. Often they are gifted with extraordinary abilities in one area such as mathematics, music, or visual arts. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Adolescents who are gifted are not typically characterized as students with learning disabilities in other academic areas. Such combinations occur, but they are not typical. [Q2] The Benton school district is adopting a system for identifying gifted students and placing them in a gifted and talented program. According to studies, which of the following should they use in the identification process? 1. Group achievement tests 2. Oral presentation approach 3. Group intelligence tests 4. Case study approach [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Group achievement tests tend to underestimate the IQs of very bright children. Group tests may be appropriate for screening, but they are not appropriate for making placement decisions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students who are gifted may not have good oral presentation skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Group intelligence tests tend to underestimate the IQs of very bright children. Group tests may be appropriate for screening, but they are not appropriate for making placement decisions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Many psychologists recommend a case study approach. This means gathering many kinds of information about the student in different contexts: test scores, grades, examples of work, projects and portfolios, letters or ratings from community or church members, self-ratings, nominations from teachers or peers, and so on. [Q3] Within the three-part conception of giftedness specified by researchers Renzulli, Reis, and Renzulli, giftedness includes above-average general ability, a high level of creativity, and: 1. outstanding levels of verbal competence 2. high scores in at least two separate intelligences 3. high motivation to achieve [correct] 4. highest levels of achievement in all domains 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Only some gifted students have outstanding levels of verbal competence. Others may not show much interest in verbal skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Although individuals can have many different gifts, the three-part conception doesn’t directly associate “multiple intelligences” with giftedness. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In this model, a high level of task commitment or motivation to achieve is the third part. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Gifted students may be gifted in only one domain. The number of domains of giftedness is not a component of the three-part conception of giftedness specified by Renzulli, Reis, and Renzulli. [Q4] Ten-year-old Lance is a very creative and gifted student who excels in math, science, and reading. His teacher assesses Lance’s knowledge of instructional units, teaches only for the goals he hasn’t yet reached, and then moves to the next unit and repeats the process. Lance’s teacher is using which of the following approaches to meet his needs? 1. Acceleration 2. Enrichment 3. Curriculum compacting [correct] 4. Combination of acceleration and enrichment [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Acceleration involves moving quickly through the grades. Lance is staying in the same grade with the same teacher. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Enrichment involves giving students additional, more sophisticated, and more thought-provoking work but keeping them with their age-mates in school. Lance is not receiving enrichment such as more sophisticated work. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Curriculum compacting involves assessing students’ knowledge of the material in the instructional unit, then teaching only for those goals not yet reached. Lance’s teacher uses this model to meet his needs. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Lance is not being moved quickly through the grades, and he is not receiving enrichment materials and experiences. [Q5] Lance is a very creative and gifted student who excels in math, science, and reading. As he advances academically, his teachers should use which of the following recommended teaching methods? 19 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Promote concrete thinking 2. Promote abstract thinking [correct] 3. Promote group work 4. Encourage the learning of great quantities of facts [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Gifted students like Lance will become frustrated and bored with concrete thinking. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Teaching methods for students who are gifted should encourage abstract thinking (formal operational thought). Such thinking is more challenging than concrete thinking. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Group work is likely to seem frustrating and slow to gifted students like Lance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers are advised not to encourage the learning of greater quantities of facts. Such mundane tasks are likely to frustrate gifted students like Lance who are capable of abstract thinking (formal operational thought).

Chapter 5 Application Exercises Application Exercise 5.1: Least Restrictive Environment Learning Outcome 5.5. Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary education. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 5.2 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/inclusion/LRE_and_the_Continuum_of_Servic es_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.2 to answer the following question: Ms. Feldman defines least restrictive environment (LRE) in her own words. What does this aspect of IDEA require schools to do about the education of students who have a disability? [Q1 Model Response] This aspect of IDEA requires schools to create an appropriate learning environment for all students. Any students who have a disability should be educated alongside their peers in the general education classroom as much as possible. Inclusion in general education is the LRE for most students with disabilities. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.2 to answer the following question: The least restrictive environment (LRE) is part of the IDEA legislation. How do you think this legislation affects teachers in general education classrooms today? [Q2 Model Response] General education teachers must restructure the classroom to provide an appropriate learning environment for students with disabilities. This includes making accommodations for students who need assistive technology for learning. It means adapting instruction to meet diverse needs of children with disabilities. It means teachers must think about students’ differences and plan and instruct accordingly. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.2 to answer the following question: Ms. Feldman’s students include a boy with autism (not pictured), a girl with an intellectual disability (not pictured in this video segment), as well as the student pictured in the video—a boy who has artistic skills. As Ms. Feldman talks with the boy about copying the model five times, she says, “That’s enough for your brain.” Why do you think she emphasizes the words “YOUR brain” when she talks to that student?

[Q3 Model Response] Ms. Feldman knows the student and knows that copying the model five times will be sufficient to train his brain to draw the human proportions accurately. She is adapting her instruction for the range of students in her classroom. Application Exercise 5.2: IEP Annual Review Learning Outcome 5.5. Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary education. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 5.3 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/turnbull/partnershipstrust/01_IEP_00_Introduc tions.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.3 to answer the following question: Using what you know about the individualized education program (IEP), explain why teachers discuss Jack’s progress before setting goals for his upcoming IEP. [Q1 Model Response] The IEP includes a statement of annual goals for the academic year. These annual goals represent measurable performance and hold the teachers and the student accountable for the expected progress. Jack’s mom and all teachers and educational professionals who work with him need to see how well Jack met the previous goals in order to set reasonable new goals. If Jack made sufficient progress toward his previous goals, then everyone on the IEP team knows Jack is ready for goals that represent higher expectations during the next year. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.3 to answer the following question: For Jack’s IEP annual review, seven adults are assembled. Why do you think these particular individuals are involved in Jack’s IEP annual review meeting? [Q2 Model Response] An IEP is created by a team that includes the child’s parent, general education teacher, special education teacher, and other teachers and professionals involved in the child’s education and learning. In addition to the typical team members (parent, special education coordinator, special education teacher, and general education teacher), Jack also has an occupational therapist, speech/language therapist, and physical therapist. The presence of these members indicates that educating Jack involves this entire team to address his disabilities and help him make progress. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.3 to answer the following question: If Jack is NOT able to have all instructional needs met in the general education classroom, how will this be addressed in the IEP? 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3 Model Response] The IEP must include a statement of justification for how much of a student’s program will not be in the general education classroom. For example, if Jack cannot receive speech/language therapy in the general education classroom, the IEP must justify Jack’s time away from the general education setting. Application Exercise 5.3: Response to Intervention Learning Outcome 5.5. Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary education. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 5.5 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/edwards/Response_to_Intervention_Process_ in_Brief_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.5 to answer the following question: According to Jemma Conley, the teacher in this video, what is the purpose of the RtI team and the RtI team meetings? [Q1 Model Response] The RtI team in Jemma Conley’s school meets weekly to discuss interventions and strategies that are being used with specific students who are receiving RtI interventions. These meetings seem to be designed for exchanging ideas and addressing the progress of individual students. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.5 to answer the following question: In what ways is a grade-level team approach superior to an individual teacher approach in addressing interventions? [Q2 Model Response] General education teachers do not all have the same level of experience with the diverse learning needs of students in their classrooms. One teacher might have more experience with students who have dyslexia, for example, and be able to suggest additional strategies for the teacher to try in the classroom. Another teacher may have more experience with students who have autism and be able to suggest strategies that might help a teacher provide essential interventions that promote student learning. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 5.5 to answer the following question: How do you think the grade-level RtI meetings and the school-wide RtI team meetings affect teachers’ accountability for the interventions they use with a given student?

[Q3 Model Response] At the grade-level meetings, teachers must be ready to explain the interventions they have used to help a struggling student. At the school-wide RtI team meetings, the teacher needs to discuss the strategies that have been used to meet a struggling student’s needs and share suggestions made at the grade-level meetings. Obviously, teachers need to document the strategies they use and provide a complete record for the RtI team to make an appropriate decision about moving a student to tier 3.

Chapter 5 Test Items Chapter 5 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 5.1: Describe advantages and disadvantages of Multiple Choice: 1-3 labeling, as well as the value of identity-first/person-first language in respecting the dignity of all students. Objective 5.2: Describe current theories of intelligence Multiple Choice: 4-9 including hierarchical and multiple theories of intelligence, how Essay: 31 intelligence is measured, what these measurements tell teachers, and emotional intelligence. Objective 5.3: Explain how creativity is defined, assessed, and Multiple Choice: 10-12 encouraged in the classroom. Essay 32 Objective 5.4: Discuss the problems with the measurement Multiple Choice: 13-14 and application of learning styles and the appropriate uses of Essay: 33 students’ learning preferences. Objective 5.5: Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section Multiple Choice: 15-19 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary Essay: 34 education. Objective 5.6: Understand and address the special educational Multiple Choice: 20-28 needs of students with learning challenges. Essay: 35 Objective 5.7: Recognize and respond to the special Multiple Choice: 29-30 educational needs of students who are gifted and talented. Essay: 36

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Robyn is meeting her teachers on the first day of fifth grade. Based on questions they asked her, which one of Robyn’s teachers seems to understand appropriateness of the use of labels and language associated with differences in abilities and disabilities? a. “What happened to cause you to be confined to a wheelchair?” b. “How does being handicapped affect your day at school?” c. “What do you like to do during recess?” d. “Where would you like to sit to accommodate your handicap?” 2. Which of the following teachers uses person-first language? a. Ms. Dee has one autistic student and several special education students. b. Mr. Simms is teaching several learning disabled students. c. Ms. Marcus has four students with special needs in her classroom. d. Mr. Samson has taught epileptic children, so he’s familiar with their needs. 3. Reid says he is autistic, and autism is not detachable from who he is. He prefers which of the following? a. No reference 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Disability reference c. Person-first reference d. Identify-first reference 4. Fluid intelligence increases until late adolescence and then declines gradually with age. What brain functions are associated with fluid intelligence? a. Application of culturally approved problem-solving methods b. Mental efficiency c. Language and verbal skills d. Learned skills such as reading 5. Conrad notices that the new boy Stefano doesn’t know what to do when the bell rings for lunch. Conrad goes to Stefano and tells him that the students leave their books at their desks and go to the lunchroom to line up for lunch. Conrad invites Stefano to go with him and a couple of other boys in the fifth grade. Conrad demonstrates which one of Gardner’s multiple intelligences? a. Interpersonal b. Linguistic c. Spatial d. Intrapersonal 6. Which of the following tasks or processes primarily involves bodily-kinesthetic intelligence? a. Carlos writes song lyrics and music for his band. b. Paige demonstrates the steps for pitching a softball with precision. c. Monroe usually finishes his geometry assignments before anyone else in class. d. Simone draws the map for her group’s project. 7. In which of the following lessons does Mr. Carpenter incorporate several of the multiple intelligences? a. Students solved the two math problems and compared the logic required for each. b. Students wrote answers to the questions and summarized the main idea of the chapter. c. Students read poems by Robert Frost and wrote poems about their favorite settings. d. Students created clay models and made presentations to the class about their topic. 8. Dominique is considered to have average intelligence with an IQ test score of: a. 90. b. 100. c. 115. d. 120. 9. Which teacher seems to have the right idea about the interpretation and use of IQ test scores? a. Monnie’s score is 2 points higher than Phil’s, so I expect greater achievement from her. 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Deloris took the IQ test with her class in fourth grade, so I know I can trust the accuracy of her score. c. Germaine’s score of 94 suggests that he may struggle, but I need to look at other indicators as well. d. Kevin’s IQ is 97, so I know not to expect higher achievement from him than the measure of his innate intelligence. 10. In her small reading group, Mrs. Casey discussed new vocabulary words with the students. She explained that the new word dugout is used to describe a place in the hillside that was dug out by the pioneer family in the story and used for shelter. She asked students to draw a picture to represent the new vocabulary word dugout to help them remember the meaning. Which of the following students used divergent thinking to represent the word’s meaning? a. Maria drew a hole in the side of a hill with tall grass growing on top. b. Julio drew a bear curled up in a dugout at the side of a rocky mountain. c. Karmen drew a small opening in a hillside and put a door on it. d. Stan drew a cave in the side of a hill with trees growing around it. 11. Based on the following descriptions, which of these students seems to exhibit the highest degree of creativity? a. Julianna is usually the first one in her third-grade class to finish the math assignment every day. She likes to compete to be first, and she usually makes a perfect score on her math papers. b. Arial knows more facts about the solar system than anyone else in her fifth-grade class. During class discussions, she often tells something she has learned about one of the planets. c. Foster began taking piano lessons when he was four years old. His parents make sure he practices every day. Now he’s a senior in high school and plays with the philharmonic in his city. d. Leo often uses metaphors to explain things during class discussions and is curious about everything—construction of his desk, how a ball bounces on different surfaces, how vibrations make sounds. 12. Ms. Anderson wants to encourage creative thinking in her students. She uses all of the following strategies and responses. Which one promotes the LEAST creativity? a. Students work in groups to come up with their solutions to an ill-structured problem. b. Ms. Anderson teaches students the steps in a strategy for remembering a new concept. c. The class brainstorms ways to use their new knowledge to improve safety at school. d. Students think of situations during a war when it might have been appropriate for soldiers to break a certain rule. 13. Which of the following teachers seems to have the most appropriate understanding of learning styles? a. I try to present instruction in multiple modalities. For example, I use pictures, charts, and maps along with printed text and verbal instruction.

b. Every year I give my students a learning styles inventory to help them understand their best way of learning and to increase their learning. c. I divide my students into verbal and auditory groups on the basis of their learning styles and teach according to their styles. d. Based on research about learning preferences, I recommend that students use their preferred style and avoid their weaker styles in order to learn more. 14. What is the value of helping students think about how they learn or how they prefer to learn? a. Developing the illusion of understanding b. Finding reliable ways to learn without working at it c. Recognizing that new ways are not effective d. Developing self-monitoring and self-awareness 15. Delmar has been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder, and Shiloh has a visual impairment. What legislation guarantees a free public education to these and all other children with disabilities? a. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) b. Individualized Education Program (IEP) c. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) d. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 16. Mrs. Frasier describes her classroom. “I have 21 students. Seven are English learners. Four require special help with reading. One has a hearing impairment and works with a signer, and one has an autism spectrum disorder and hardly speaks.” Which of the following terms best fits Mrs. Frasier’s description of her class? a. Special education classroom b. Inclusion classroom c. Racially and ethnically diverse classroom d. Individualized classroom 17. Which of the following children in Ms. Fernandez’s class is probably protected by Section 504 (a part of civil rights law) but not covered by IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)? a. Afton has an emotional disturbance, cries often, and has vocal outbursts occasionally. b. Jeremy was born with intellectual disability and struggles to learn. c. Hal has a learning disability and needs to listen to recordings of his texts. d. Tatum broke her leg and can’t walk for several weeks. 18. DeWayne, a ninth-grade student, has a learning disability. The team that develops his individualized education program is most likely made up of: a. DeWayne and his teachers. b. his parents, teachers, school psychologist, and the principal. c. his parents and the special education teacher. 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. his general education teacher and the school psychologist. 19. Mr. Garcia teaches in a district that uses a 3-tiered system of Response to intervention (RTI). Mr. Garcia is currently teaching evidence-based curriculum for Tier 1 instruction. What students are involved in his Tier 1 instruction? a. Only students who receive special education services b. Only students who do not receive special education services c. All students in his class d. Any student who struggles with Tier 2 instruction 20. Ryan has a learning disability and is struggling in first grade. The psychologist told Ryan’s parents that Ryan has the most common learning disability. Ryan most likely has difficulties with: a. reading. b. math computation. c. math problem solving. d. organization. 21. When Deion was in second grade, he realized that he didn’t learn math as fast as most other children. He took tests, and the psychologist informed him and his mom that Deion had a learning disability and would likely continue to struggle with math. As a third grader now, Deion reads when it’s time to do math seatwork. He believes he is unable to learn math. He has developed: a. additional learning disabilities. b. learned helplessness. c. general intelligence deficit. d. learning style preferences. 22. Deion, who was diagnosed with a learning disability in math, continues to struggle as a third grader. His teacher wants to work effectively with him and help him experience some level of success with every lesson. Which of the following strategies is LEAST effective? a. Use direct instruction. Provide explanations and demonstrations. b. Provide multiple examples. Repeat the steps for mathematical processes. c. Avoid giving Deion feedback about his work. Feedback may discourage him. d. Use peer tutoring and pair Dieon with a student who excels in math. 23. Cass has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). She and two of the boys in her class have ADHD. Which of the following strategies should the teacher use to help these students in the classroom? a. Eliminate recess to reduce their level of activity. b. Increase the amount of homework and decrease the amount of seatwork. c. Explain to the class that these students are taking Ritalin and need to be allowed to walk around the classroom. d. Use visual cues to help them focus and teach them self-monitoring skills. 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

24. Tyler, a sixth-grade student, has emotional problems, and his aggressive behavior toward other students in class is particularly challenging for Ms. Ramsey today. Which of the following methods of dealing with Tyler’s behavior is recommended? a. Move Tyler’s desk into the hallway and tell him to work away from the other students for the remainder of the day. b. Assign demerits and tell Tyler he can’t do anything to clear the demerits this grading period, but he needs to learn from his mistakes. c. Use a behavior contract and ask Tyler to write the inappropriate behavior he exhibited and the appropriate behavior he should exhibit. d. Remove Tyler from the group, assign him a grade of zero, and tell him to complete a make-up assignment as homework. 25. Tess, a high school junior, is concerned. Her boyfriend has become depressed, acted reclusive, lied about using drugs, and started talking about his uncle’s suicide and his own thoughts about suicide. Tess realizes she needs to learn more about suicide and become aware of appropriate ways to deal with her boyfriend’s behavior. Tess needs to be aware of truths and myths about suicide. Which of the following is a MYTH about suicide? a. People who die by suicide usually talk about it first and leave clues or hints. b. Having a family history of suicide increases the risk that a person will contemplate or attempt suicide. c. You should not talk to someone about suicide if you suspect he or she is contemplating suicide. d. All types of people commit suicide, and students in rural areas are more likely than urban students to attempt suicide. 26. Mr. McKay teaches a total of 100 students in his senior English classes in a large high school. If his students match the national norms for twelfth graders, how many of his students probably used any illicit drugs in the past 30 days? a. 9 b. 12 c. 17 d. 22 27. In her inclusive classroom, Mrs. Dawson has one student with intellectual disabilities and an IQ just below 70. What approach to learning should she take with this student? a. Help the student develop depth in one area of learning. b. Avoid focusing on learning objectives and encourage the student in social skills. c. Skip steps and move to the next lesson if the student does not follow. d. Work on practical skills and concepts the student will need to use in adult life. 28. Alonso is a student in Ms. Carmike’s kindergarten class. The teacher has noticed that Alonso avoids eye contact, and she tells him to look at her when she talks to him. She also notices that he seems uninterested in the other children, always closes the classroom door when it is left open, and uses unusual speech patterns. She suspects that Alonso has: a. epilepsy. 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. an emotional disorder. c. an autism spectrum disorder. d. hearing impairment. 29. Mr. Tolosa is a new third grade teacher. He has no experience identifying gifted students but believes one of his students has exceptional abilities. What common characteristics might he observe in a gifted student? a. Convergent thinker, perceptive of others’ feelings, ambitious about projects b. Avid reader, advanced vocabulary, completes writing assignments quickly c. Advanced sentence structure, divergent thinker, creative, uses analogies d. Not very verbal, completes math tasks quickly, carefully follows steps in math procedures 30. Jazmine is a gifted student in Mrs. Warner’s class. Mrs. Warner uses the following approaches in her teaching. For Jazmine, which approach is most likely INEFFECTIVE? a. Independent projects in which students choose from a list of topics b. Step-by-step instruction for assignments in the grade-level curriculum c. Extension projects that allow students to go deeper into a topic d. Essay questions that require divergent thinking and elaboration on the topic

Essay Questions 31. Mr. Solinski is reviewing his students’ permanent files before school starts. He is making notes about their scores on standardized tests, their grade reports, and their portfolio items, and he is paying particular attention to their IQ scores. What is the value of knowing students’ IQ scores, and how might Mr. Solinski use the information to benefit students? 32. Mrs. Gomez is in her third year of teaching fourth grade. This year one student’s dad visited with Mrs. Gomez during the second week of school and described his son Gabe as very creative. He mentioned Gabe’s skill in crafting witty statements, his love of writing and creating characters and settings with distinctive traits, his insatiable curiosity and his intensity. Mrs. Gomez discussed with the dad some of the things she would like to do to encourage Gabe’s creativity and help him acclimate to classroom rules and procedures without feeling stifled. Gabe’s dad felt like she was on the right track. On the way home from school, Mrs. Gomez is reflecting on the conversation and realizing that she would like to encourage creativity in all of her students. She believes she can work effectively with Gabe and use some of the same ideas to help other students think outside the box. Describe at least four things Mrs. Gomez might do that will foster Gabe’s creativity and encourage other students to be creative. 33. Mrs. Turner has been using a learning styles inventory in her ninth grade English class. She gives students the inventory, tells them to identify their learning style, and instructs them to use their dominant learning style when they study and complete assignments. She groups students according to learning styles for some assignments and tries to teach to their learning styles. 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What seems to be lacking in Mrs. Turner’s knowledge of learning styles? If she were informed, what might she do differently in her teaching? 34. Your student Lucas was diagnosed recently with dyslexia, a learning disability covered under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Lucas’s mom is distraught to learn about her son’s disability, and she knows nothing about an IEP or special education. Explain the IEP process to Lucas’s mom, Mrs. Stone, and describe how she will be involved in her son’s education. Describe what’s included in an IEP. 35. Jacee is a student with attention deficit. The actual diagnosis is attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Her third-grade teacher noticed signs of the disorder such as Jacee’s disorganization, her tendency to be easily distracted and spaced out, and her forgetfulness. Jacee was falling behind and becoming discouraged about school. On the other hand, Jacee’s mom said she could spend hours building Lego villages and playing Internet games involving construction. Jacee was tested, diagnosed, and now the teacher needs to provide accommodations. What accommodations does the teacher need to make? What should the teacher do to prevent Jacee’s discouragement from turning into learned helplessness? 36. For the first time in his 14 years of teaching, Mr. Morrow has a gifted student in his American history class. Her name is Rylan, and her IQ score is around 140. She reads voraciously and delves headstrong into any topic that interests her. She seems to remember everything she reads, sees, or hears. She was accelerated in elementary school, skipping fourth grade. She has never taken an American history class, but she knows a lot of history. Mr. Morrow recognizes his need to learn what to do to challenge Rylan sufficiently and prevent her from becoming bored. He wants her to enjoy learning in his class. He realizes she will know a lot that he doesn’t know, but he is determined not to feel threatened by her abilities. What strategies and ideas do you recommend to Mr. Morrow that will benefit Rylan the most?

Chapter 5 Test Answer Key Answer Key Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: “What do you like to do during recess?” Feedback for Correct Answer: The use of labels is controversial. Teachers are advised to avoid the language of pity, as in “confined to a wheelchair.” It is important that we do not create handicaps for people by the way we react to their disabilities. Text Reference: Language and Labeling

Correct Answer: Ms. Marcus has four students with special needs in her classroom. Feedback for Correct Answer: To focus on the disability is to misrepresent the individual. An alternative is “person-first” language or speaking of “students with a behavior disorder” or “students placed at risk.” Here the emphasis is on the students first. Text Reference: Language and Labeling

Correct Answer: Identity-first reference Feedback for Correct Answer: Identity-first reference means using terms such as “autistic” or “deaf” to describe a person—some people prefer this reference because they “claim” the disability as their own and value it as a part of who they are. It is a source of pride to be part of that culture. Text Reference: Language and Labeling

Correct Answer: Mental efficiency Feedback for Correct Answer: Fluid intelligence is mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development. Crystallized intelligence is the ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. Text Reference: Intelligence

Correct Answer: Interpersonal Feedback for Correct Answer: Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand desires and needs of others and respond appropriately. Conrad understood Stefano’s need and not only explained the procedure, but also invited Stefano to join him and his friends. Text Reference: Intelligence

Correct Answer: Paige demonstrates the steps for pitching a softball with precision. Feedback for Correct Answer: Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to control body movements, know where your body is in space, and handle objects skillfully. Paige demonstrates the bodily movements and the ability to handle an object, a softball, with skill and precision. Text Reference: Intelligence

Correct Answer: Students created clay models and made presentations to the class about their topic. Feedback for Correct Answer: The creation of clay models requires spatial skills. Presentations use linguistic skills. The other examples use either linguistic skills or logical-mathematical skills. Teachers are advised to take the individual differences among students seriously, differentiate their instruction to connect with each student, and teach skills and concepts in several appropriate ways (multiple paths to knowledge). Text Reference: Intelligence

Correct Answer: 100. Feedback for Correct Answer: The average score on IQ tests is 100; 50% of the people from the general population who take the tests will score 100 or below, and 50% will score above 100. Text Reference: Intelligence

Correct Answer: Germaine’s score of 94 suggests that he may struggle, but I need to look at other indicators as well. Feedback for Correct Answer: IQ tests are only estimates of general aptitude for learning. IQ scores reflect a student’s past experiences and learning. They are predictors of school abilities, not measures of innate intelligence. Group scores are less accurate than individual scores. Be wary of IQ scores for minority students and for students whose first language is not English. Text Reference: Intelligence

10.

Correct Answer: Julio drew a bear curled up in a dugout at the side of a rocky mountain. Feedback for Correct Answer: Julio thought of the word’s definition in broader contexts than the narrow context of the dugout in the story. Text Reference: Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

11.

Correct Answer: Leo often uses metaphors to explain things during class discussions and is curious about everything—construction of his desk, how a ball bounces on different surfaces, how vibrations make sounds. Feedback for Correct Answer: Leo’s curiosity covers a range of areas and topics. His use of metaphor shows his divergent thinking. Apparently, he automatically sees relationships and wonders about cause-and-effect. Text Reference: Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

12.

Correct Answer: Ms. Anderson teaches students the steps in a strategy for remembering a new concept. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teaching students to follow steps in a specific learning strategy promotes convergent thinking. It involves procedural knowledge that conforms to a particular sequence of steps. Text Reference: Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

13.

Correct Answer: I try to present instruction in multiple modalities. For example, I use pictures, charts, and maps along with printed text and verbal instruction. Feedback for Correct Answer: Presenting instruction in multiple modalities is useful. The learning styles model can undermine good education. Teachers spend time assessing and tailoring teaching to individual learning styles, when it is more effective to use a variety of methods. Students may benefit from developing new—and perhaps more effective—ways to learn rather than always using a preferred way. Text Reference: Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution

14.

Correct Answer: Developing self-monitoring and self-awareness Feedback for Correct Answer: By helping students think about how they learn, you can develop thoughtful self-monitoring and self-awareness, as well as a willingness to try new ways. Text Reference: Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution

15.

Correct Answer: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Feedback for Correct Answer: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires states to provide a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) for all students with disabilities who participate in special education. There are no exceptions—the law requires zero reject. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law

16.

Correct Answer: Inclusion classroom Feedback for Correct Answer: Inclusion classrooms integrate all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law

17.

Correct Answer: Tatum broke her leg and needs crutches for several weeks. Feedback for Correct Answer: Section 504 accommodations protect students with medical or health needs (such as diabetes, drug addiction or alcoholism, severe allergies, communicable diseases, or temporary disabilities resulting from accidents) and students with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, if they are not already covered by IDEA. Accommodations for Tatum’s temporary disability are covered under Section 504. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law

18.

Correct Answer: his parents, teachers, school psychologist, and the principal. Feedback for Correct Answer: An IEP (individualized education program) is drawn up by a team that includes the student’s parents or guardians, a general education teacher who works with the student, a special education teacher, a representative of the school district (often the principal), a qualified person who can interpret the student’s evaluation

results (often a school psychologist), and (if appropriate) the student. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law 19.

Correct Answer: All students in his class Feedback for Correct Answer: Response to intervention (RTI) is a process to make sure students get appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible and that teachers are systematic in documenting the interventions they have tried with these students The first tier is to use a strong, well-researched way of teaching all students. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law

20.

Correct Answer: reading. Feedback for Correct Answer: Most students with learning disabilities have difficulties reading. Difficulties may include anxiety around reading, difficulty recognizing words or letters, poor vocabulary, and difficulty remembering what was read. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

21.

Correct Answer: learned helplessness. Feedback for Correct Answer: Learned helplessness is the expectation that one’s efforts will lead to failure. Students with learning disabilities may develop such beliefs—that they cannot control or improve their own learning. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

22.

Correct Answer: Avoid giving Deion feedback about his work. Feedback may discourage him. Feedback for Correct Answer: Deion’s teacher should give him immediate feedback as he works. The feedback lets him know how well he is doing. If he is doing problems wrong, he gets help before he gives up. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

23.

Correct Answer: Use visual cues to help them focus and teach them selfmonitoring skills. Feedback for Correct Answer: Students with ADHD benefit from having recess, less homework, and confidentiality about Ritalin. They need visual cues and self-monitoring skills to help them exercise control. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

24.

Correct Answer: Use a behavior contract and ask Tyler to write the inappropriate behavior he exhibited and the appropriate behavior he should exhibit. Feedback for Correct Answer: A written contract is a good idea. It documents the incident. It reminds Tyler of the appropriate behavior and gets him to recognize the inappropriate behavior. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

25.

Correct Answer: You should not talk to someone about suicide if you suspect he or she is contemplating suicide. Feedback for Correct Answer: Tess SHOULD talk to her boyfriend about suicide. Asking people if they are thinking about suicide does not give them the idea for suicide. One feeling shared by many people who attempt suicide is that no one cared enough to ask. Always, always take the student seriously. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

26.

Correct Answer: 22 Feedback for Correct Answer: Drug use has become a significant problem for students. Accurate statistics are hard to find but estimates from the Monitoring the Future survey (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021) indicate that 22.2% of twelfth graders reported using an illicit drug or a drug that is illegal at their age, including inhalants and marijuana, in the past 30 days. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

27.

Correct Answer: Work on practical skills and concepts the student will need to use in adult life. Feedback for Correct Answer: Students with intellectual disabilities need work on practical skills and concepts based on the demands of adult life. They need specific objectives, repetition of steps, no skipping of steps, focus on a few target behaviors or skills. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

28.

Correct Answer: an autism spectrum disorder. Feedback for Correct Answer: The characteristics Ms. Carmike notices in Alonso are typical of children with autism spectrum disorders. The medical community favors the term pervasive developmental disorder to describe autism spectrum disorders. Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges

29.

Correct Answer: Advanced sentence structure, divergent thinker, creative, uses analogies Feedback for Correct Answer: Gifted students have above-average general ability, a high level of creativity, and a high level of task commitment or motivation to achieve. They may generate ideas of a divergent nature. If they are gifted in areas of linguistic abilities, they may use metaphors, similes, and analogies and speak or write with elaborate vocabularies and advanced sentence structure. Giftedness in other areas is recognized with other specific characteristics. Text Reference: Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

30.

Correct Answer: Step-by-step instruction for assignments in the gradelevel curriculum Feedback for Correct Answer: Gifted students need accelerated assignments and tasks that develop skills beyond grade-level proficiency. 37 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

They benefit from enrichment opportunities and curriculum compacting. Text Reference: Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 31.

Suggested Response: Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to academic achievement. The IQ scores give Mr. Solinski information about the number of students who are likely performing at grade level, above grade level, and below grade level. IQ scores tell him something about the range of academic skills among the students in his classroom. Psychologists agree that intelligence, as measured by standardized tests, is related to learning in school. This information can be used to benefit students with instruction that meets their learning needs. Are some of the students gifted and in need of extra challenges? Are some students struggling in one or more areas and in need of extra support? Are students performing at their potential? The results of every assessment for every student should be used to support that student’s learning and development and to identify effective practices. Text Reference: Intelligence

32.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Gomez should provide opportunities for students to use divergent thinking. The process may involve asking questions that are not included in the teacher’s guides. Such questions ask students to think of additional solutions to problems and consider perspectives that are not presented in the lessons. She should use brainstorming regularly with her students. By engaging in true brainstorming, students learn to listen and consider others’ ideas without judging, to come up with ideas of their own, to build upon ideas of others, and to verbalize wild ideas. The process can be freeing and encourage students to take risks and express ideas that do not conform. Mrs. Gomez should provide a wide range of resources, supplies, and materials for students to use in the production of creative projects. Such projects allow children to demonstrate their learning in individualistic and creative ways. Mrs. Gomez should also be quick to tolerate diverse ideas and dissenting opinions. In doing so, she creates a learning environment in which diversity is respected. Students will not feel as though they are being poured into a mold of thinking and behaving a certain way. She might also capitalize on technology in the classroom. She might model innovative uses of technology and ask students for ideas about using technology. She might find free apps and programs that encourage divergent thinking and creative solutions. She might provide spaces in the classroom for students to do creative projects and explore. If her classroom has limited space, she might develop assignments that encourage students to make choices about creative projects they can do at home or at their desks during special work times. Text Reference: Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

33.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Turner may not be aware that the learning styles inventories are not based on valid and reliable research. The learning styles model 38 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

can undermine good education. Teachers spend time assessing and tailoring teaching to individual learning styles, when it is more effective to use a variety of methods. Students try to learn consistent with their “style,” even though the effort doesn’t help (APA, 2019). In addition, students may restrict their choices unnecessarily. If Mrs. Turner were more informed about the ineffectiveness of teaching to students’ learning styles, she would probably discontinue her use of the inventory and group instruction based on learning styles. She might help students think about how they learn and guide them to develop self-monitoring and self-awareness. She might note how individual students approach learning and use the information to accommodate student differences and differentiate instruction. She might use a wide variety of methods and provide more learning options. Students are likely to benefit from hearing, reading, seeing demonstrations and illustrations, and doing something engaging with material. Text Reference: Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution 34.

Suggested Response: A teacher might tell Mrs. Stone that her son’s learning disability is covered by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This law ensures that students with any disability receive a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) and the support they need to succeed. Over 7 million children are covered under this law. When IDEA was drafted, lawmakers recognized that each student covered by this law is unique and needs an individualized education program (IEP). The IEP is an annually revised program for an exceptional student, detailing present achievement level, goals, and strategies. He will remain in general education with his peers most of the time. The teacher might explain that she and the parent/s will be part of the team that designs the IEP. Others on the team are the school psychologist, the special education teacher, and the principal. Lucas will also be included in IEP meetings. The IEP provides detailed information needed for all of the team to help Lucas succeed. It includes: 1. It states his present level of academic achievement and functional performance. 2. Annual goals: The team will state short-term objectives that lead up to the annual goal. They will decide what strategies to use to achieve the goals. 3. The plan must tell how progress toward these goals and objectives will be measured. Parents will receive progress reports every grading period. 4. Special education plans: A statement of specific special education and related services to be provided to the student and details of when and where those services will be initiated and when they will end. 5. A justification for how much of the student’s program will not be in general education classroom and school settings. 6. A statement about how Lucas will participate in state and district-wide assessments 7. If Lucas has significant behavior problems, his IEP will have a behavior intervention plan. 8. Later the IEP will include a statement of transitional services if needed.

Every year the team will revise the program with new goals based on Lucas’s progress and needs. Text Reference: Individual Differences and the Law 35.

Suggested Response: Accommodations: •

Break assignments into steps or small segments. Jacee is more likely to be able to focus on one small part at a time and feel a sense of accomplishment.

•

Create a learning cubicle that blocks outside sight and sounds.

•

Post the schedule and give clear signals when transitions are coming.

•

Jacee has organization problems, and the teacher might help Jacee learn organization skills such as placing items in folders or notebooks and designating a place for items at her desk.

•

Combine instruction in learning and memory strategies with motivational training. Help her develop the “skill and will” to improve.

•

Teach Jacee to monitor her own behavior and be persistent—see herself as in control.

•

The teacher might use Jacee’s strength of building with Lego to encourage Jacee to build models of concepts or to use Legos and other construction items to demonstrate learning with projects rather than always requiring written work. Principle: Use the child’s strengths to conquer her problems.

•

When the teacher gives instructions or presents information, she needs to capture the attention of Jacee (and other students) by using visuals. She needs to present steps in writing in addition to telling them what to do.

Prevention of learned helplessness: •

To prevent learned helplessness, the teacher needs to monitor Jacee and give her frequent feedback. The feedback should encourage and inform and help Jacee succeed.

•

The process of teaching Jacee to self-monitor and see herself as “in control” is important.

•

She might provide a checklist or other means of self-monitoring and help Jacee learn to assess her own progress toward attention and organization.

Text Reference: Students with Learning Challenges 36.

Suggested Response: Teachers of gifted students need to encourage abstract thinking and creativity. •

Mr. Morrow needs to look at the units of study in his course and develop ideas for encouraging abstract thinking. He might develop specific questions that require analogies between different events in history or between historical events and current events. Abstract thinking may relate to historical figures and leaders in all aspects of American history from inventors, to entrepreneurs, to political leaders, and artists.

•

may include special projects, extended readings, and research. Activities should provide opportunities for Rylan to explore and use independent initiative. •

Mr. Morrow needs to look for resources beyond the school such as summer institutes, special programs at museums, universities, or other organizations. Special programs related to American history may allow Rylan to interact with other gifted students and experts around the country or around the world.

•

Mr. Morrow needs to go beyond teaching as usual and be creative and imaginative. He needs to make contacts that help him create the educational experience that will challenge Rylan and stretch her to use her giftedness.

Text Reference: Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

Chapter 5 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 5.1 Describe advantages and disadvantages of labeling, as well as the value of identity-first/person-first language in respecting the dignity of all students. Outcome 5.2 Describe current theories of intelligence including hierarchical and multiple theories of intelligence, how intelligence is measured, what these measurements tell teachers, and emotional intelligence. Outcome 5.3 Explain how creativity is defined, assessed, and encouraged in the classroom. Outcome 5.4 Discuss the problems with the measurement and application of learning styles and the appropriate uses of students’ learning preferences. Outcome 5.5 Discuss the implications of the IDEA, Section 504 protections, and Response to Intervention for contemporary education. Outcome 5.6 Understand and address the special educational needs of students with learning challenges. Objective 5.7 Recognize and respond to the special educational needs of students who are gifted and talented. [Q1] LO 5.2 Developmental psychologist Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory continues to have an impact on classrooms in the United States as evidenced by which current classroom practice? 1. Response to intervention 2. Problem-based learning 3. Direct instruction 4. Differentiated instruction [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teachers can address the individual differences among students and differentiate instruction to connect with each student. The language of multiple intelligences recognizes that every brain is unique and a complex collection of strengths and limitations. Teachers can promote strengths and use strengths to manage limitations. [Q2] LO 5.4 When a student has been identified as needing special education services, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Exclusion of immigrant students with a disability [correct] 2. Free, appropriate public education for all students with with disabilities 3. Education of each child in the least restrictive environment 4. Zero reject of any student with a disability or disabilities

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] IDEA does not exclude students who are from immigrant families. The legislation guarantees a free public education to all children regardless of disability. [Q3] LO 5.6 A student in Mr. Mouton’s class has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). What symptoms is Mr. Mouton likely to observe in this student? 1. Inability to read 2. Intellectual disability 3. Low intelligence 4. Impulsivity [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students with ADHD may be characterized by impulsivity, overactivity, and excessive difficulty sustaining attention. [Q4] LO 5.2 A student in Mr. Mouton’s class has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The student’s records indicate that this student’s IQ is 120. What does this mean? 1. The student’s IQ is below average 2. The student’s IQ is above average [correct] 3. The student’s IQ is average 4. The student’s IQ is in the genius range [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The average score is 100; 50% of the people from the general population who take the tests will score 100 or below, and 50% will score above 100. The score of 120 is above average. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 5.5 Case Many beginning teachers become overwhelmed when they discover they have numerous students in their class with special needs. First-year teacher Paige Morris is no exception. Of her 25 students, 7 are identified as needing special education services. Although Ms. Morris is certified in special education and elementary education, she feels ill-equipped to implement so many individualized education programs (IEPs). To make matters more concerning, three of her students are identified as having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ms. Morris is beginning to imagine herself trying to control a chaotic classroom without the tools she needs to succeed. List the parts of an IEP that must be in writing. Identify the aspect(s) of the IEP for which Ms. Morris is responsible.

[Feedback for Answer 5] The IEP includes: •

Student’s present level of academic achievement, functional performance

•

Annual goals

•

Plan for making progress toward goals and objectives

•

Statement of specific special education and related services to be provided

•

Justification for any part of student’s program that will not be in general education

•

Statement about student’s participation in state and district-wide assessments

•

Behavior intervention plan if student has significant behavior problems

•

Transitional services plan

Ms. Morris is responsible for implementing the IEP in the classroom. She is part of the team that writes the IEP and evaluates the student’s progress. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 5.5 Case Many beginning teachers become overwhelmed when they discover they have numerous students in their class with special needs. First-year teacher Paige Morris is no exception. Of her 25 students, 7 are identified as needing special education services. Although Ms. Morris is certified in special education and elementary education, she feels ill-equipped to implement so many individualized education programs (IEPs). To make matters more concerning, three of her students are identified as having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ms. Morris is beginning to imagine herself trying to control a chaotic classroom without the tools she needs to succeed. To what extent will the parents of these children with special needs be involved in their child’s education? [Feedback for Answer 6] Parents of students with special needs attend the IEP meetings. Parents receive written notice (in their native language) before any evaluation or change in placement is made. Parents have the right to challenge the program developed for their child, and they are protected by due process of law. Parents must get progress reports at least as often as report cards are sent home for all students.

Chapter 6 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 6: Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 6: Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education Chapter 6 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 6.1. Understand how language develops and know how to support emergent literacy. [Q1] Madison is concerned about Braden, her 3-year-old son, whose language skills seem to be regressing. He used to say “feet” and “teeth” but recently started saying “foots” and “tooths.” Should Madison be concerned? 1. No. Braden’s language pattern is an example of pragmatic interpretation. 2. Yes. Braden’s language pattern is a typical example of language delay. 3. No. Braden’s language pattern is a typical example of overregularization. [correct] 4. No. Braden’s language pattern is a typical example of literal interpretation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Braden’s language is typical of a young child’s speech patterns. He is applying regular rules to irregular words. Pragmatics relates to the use of language in social situations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Braden’s language is typical of a young child’s speech patterns. He is applying regular rules to irregular words. Madison does not need to be concerned. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Braden’s language is typical of a young child’s speech patterns. Braden is demonstrating overregularization. These “mistakes” show how logical and rational children can be as they try to apply rules to irregular words. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Braden’s language is typical of a young child’s speech patterns. He is applying regular rules to irregular words. [Q2] At a family gathering, seven-year-old Terrance waits for his older brother to finish talking, and then Terrance tells a story about a humorous event that took place at school. He begins, “Wait till you hear what happened at school today. We were all playing outside at recess, and my friend…” Terrance continues the story. What aspect of language is Terrance demonstrating? 1. Metalinguistic awareness 2. Pragmatic skills [correct] 3. Emergent literacy 4. Receptive vocabulary 1 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Around the age of 5, children begin to develop metalinguistic awareness. This means their understanding about language and how it works becomes explicit. They have knowledge about language itself. Terrance demonstrates a more social aspect of language. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Pragmatics involves the appropriate use of language to communicate in social situations. Terrance waited for his brother to finish talking, then Terrance began telling his story. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Emergent literacy refers to the skills and knowledge that prepare children to develop reading and writing skills. Terrance is telling a story, and at age seven, he already reads and writes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Receptive vocabulary consists of the words Terrance can understand when someone speaks to him or reads to him. [Q3] Joel began reading at a very early age and, because of this head start, always excelled in language arts and literacy. However, Joel’s daughter Bella is four and still does not show signs of interest in reading. According to research, what skills does Bella need to develop to prepare her for reading? 1. Know that letters are associated with sounds and understand and tell stories [correct] 2. Recognize each letter of the alphabet and write each letter 3. Separate vowels from consonants and identify letters in a given word 4. Distinguish naming words from describing words and use them correctly in spoken language [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Research has identified two broad categories of skills that are important for later reading: (1) skills related to understanding sounds and codes, such as knowing that letters have names, that sounds are associated with letters, and that words are made up of sounds; and (2) oral language skills such as expressive and receptive vocabulary. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to research, being able to write each letter is not as important as some other skills at this point in Bella’s preparation for later reading. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] These skills come later. According to research, other skills are more important to Bella’s preparation for later reading. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Distinguishing naming words from describing words is not a specific skill Bella needs in her preparation for later reading.

[Q4] Miguel and Corina are 3-year-old Spanish-speaking children in immigrant families. Based on research, which of the following is the best predictor of their success in early reading? 1. Growth in expressive language 2. Speaking equally in English and Spanish 3. Growth in receptive language [correct] 4. Being expected to speak only in English [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Based on research, growth in expressive language is not as important as growth in a different area. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Speaking (expressive language) is not as important as growth in a different area. According to research, it doesn’t matter whether children speak in English or Spanish. Another factor is a better predictor of children’s success in early reading. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] According to research, growth in receptive language in general predicts early reading outcomes. In the study, it didn’t matter whether children spoke English or Spanish from birth. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] According to research, it doesn’t matter whether children speak in English or Spanish. Another factor is a better predictor of children’s success in early reading. [Q5] Maya travels extensively and wants her son to learn to speak Mandarin without an accent. She wants him to be able to distinguish the consonant and vowel sounds used in the Mandarin language and reproduce those sounds like a native speaker. At what age should Maya introduce her son to the Mandarin language? 1. Around the age of five 2. Around the age of three 3. Before his first birthday [correct] 4. His age makes no difference [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Maya’s son needs to be introduced to Mandarin earlier. Around the age of five, Maya’s son will no longer be able to distinguish sounds in all different languages. Due to perceptual narrowing, his will not be able to distinguish the distinctive sounds of Mandarin. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Maya’s son needs to be introduced to Mandarin earlier. Around the age of three, Maya’s son will no longer be able to distinguish sounds in all different languages. Due to perceptual narrowing, his will not be able to distinguish the distinctive sounds of Mandarin.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Infants can discriminate nearly every phonetic (speech sound) contrast, even those they have not heard before. However, babies quickly begin to focus on and practice speech sounds they hear in their environment, and by 12 months are no longer able to distinguish sounds in all the world’s languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Age makes a big difference. At some point, children experience perceptual narrowing and are no longer able to distinguish sounds in all the world’s languages. Learning Outcome 6.2. Discuss what happens when children develop two languages, including the role of basic face-to-face communication and academic language. [Q1] Nadine grew up in France until she was 12, then moved to Virginia with her family. Nadine is now in college and considers English her primary language but still speaks French with her extended family and maintains fluency in French. What is the proper term for Nadine’s language identity? 1. English language learner 2. Monolingualism 3. Subtractive bilingualism 4. Additive bilingualism [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] English language learner was Nadine’s language identity when she first moved to the United States, but that identity no longer applies to her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Nadine is fluent in two languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If Nadine had forgotten French or stopped speaking it completely, she would have experienced subtractive bilingualism. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Nadine has added a second language but has maintained her native language. [Q2] As an adult, Julien wants to learn French. His mother’s grandparents came to the United States from France, and Julien wants to visit the place where his grandparents were born. What does research indicate about a critical period for Julien to learn French as a second language? 1. The critical period was from birth to one year of age. 2. The critical period was from birth to adolescence. 3. There is no critical period. [correct] 4. The critical period was from birth to three years of age. 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Birth to one year of age is not a critical period for Julien to learn French. Consider the distinction between critical periods and sensitive periods. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Birth to adolescence is not a critical period for Julien to learn French. Consider the distinction between critical periods and sensitive periods. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] There is no critical period that limits the possibility of language learning by adults. Julien is not limited by a critical period for learning French. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Birth to three years of age is not a critical period for Julien to learn French. Consider the distinction between critical periods and sensitive periods. [Q3] Ms. Guidry teaches the following students: Santiago is an immigrant student from Panama and is just beginning to learn English. Gianna’s parents moved to the United States when she was two and she is fluent in English and Italian. Diego is learning Spanish after school with his Spanish-speaking grandmother. Elsa speaks English, and English is the only language she has heard in her life. Based on language backgrounds, which student is likely to have the most advanced metalinguistic understanding? 1. Santiago 2. Gianna [correct] 3. Elsa 4. Diego [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Santiago is just beginning to learn English. Apparently he is fluent in Spanish, but another student is likely to have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Gianna is bilingual, and bilingual children have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Elsa has not been exposed to languages other than English. Another student is likely to have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Diego is learning Spanish and should develop greater metalinguistic understanding as he continues to learn. At this point, another student is likely to have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works. [Q4] Mr. Almanza teaches in a multicultural community and has four students who recently immigrated from a Spanish-speaking country in South America. As these students learn English as a second language, how long will it take for them to become proficient in academic language? 1. 2 years 2. 3 years 3. 4–6 years 4. 6–9 years [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Learning English as a second language takes 2–3 years for oral proficiency or basic conversation skills. Academic language proficiency takes longer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Learning English as a second language takes 2–3 years for oral proficiency or basic conversation skills. Academic language proficiency takes longer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Learning English as a second language takes 2–3 years for oral proficiency or basic conversation skills. Academic language proficiency typically takes longer than 4–6 years. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Proficiency in a second language has two separate aspects: face-to-face basic communication and conversation skills and academic language. Becoming proficient in academic language typically takes 6–9 years. [Q5] Mr. Almanza teaches in a multicultural community and has four students who recently immigrated from a Spanish-speaking country in South America. Following recommended guidelines for promoting language learning, Mr. Almanza should do all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Create situations in which these students talk at length 2. Learn about these students’ schooling in their home country before they immigrated 3. Allow these students to refrain from participating until they are proficient in English [correct] 4. Challenge these students with higher-order questions and allow wait time for them to answer [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Guidelines recommend that teachers create situations where students talk at length. This keeps students involved and engaged and promotes language learning. 6 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Guidelines recommend that teachers learn about students’ personal and language background and about the schooling they received in other countries. This shows authentic respect for the students and their culture and language. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Guidelines recommend that teachers keep students involved and engaged. If students refrain from participating, they will lose significant opportunities to improve their language learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Guidelines recommend that teachers challenge students with clear higher-order questions and allow them time to think and write out answers, maybe in pairs. Learning Outcome 6.3. Address whether dialect differences affect learning and discuss what teachers can do. [Q1] Eight-year-old Cam uses code switching when he talks to his older brother about school. They both speak Spanish primarily at home and English primarily at school. What does his code switching indicate about Cam’s language skills? 1. Language deficits in English 2. Language disorder 3. Language deficits in Spanish 4. High-level language skills in both languages [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Cam’s code switching is not indicative of a language deficit in English. His English is not a problem. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Believing that code switching is an indication of a language disorder is a myth. Cam’s code switching is not associated with a language disorder. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Cam’s code switching is not indicative of a language deficit in Spanish. His Spanish is not a problem. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Code switching indicates high-level language skills in both L1 and L2. Cam’s code switching indicates high-level language skills in English and Spanish. [Q2] Audrey moved a thousand miles away from her home state to begin her first teaching job in a community where students speak a dialect unfamiliar to her. After dealing with her negative stereotype of her students, what should she do in her teaching role? 1. Accept students’ language as a valid system and teach more formal forms of English [correct] 7 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Correct students’ language and teach that dialects are unacceptable and invalid 3. Initiate a school-wide effort to eliminate the local dialect from students’ speech 4. Learn to use the dialect and incorporate the dialect in oral and written communication [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The best teaching approach seems to be first to focus on understanding the students and accepting their language as a valid and correct system, but then to teach the alternative forms of English (or whatever the dominant language is in your country) that are used in more formal work settings and writing so that the students will have access to a range of opportunities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A dialect is a valid system and acceptable in certain settings. Audrey should not focus on correcting every incidence of students’ use of dialect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Audrey should not reject students’ dialect or try to eliminate it. She should value it without ignoring her need to teach more formal English. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students need to learn more formal English that is used in work settings and formal writing. Audrey needs to teach her students more formal English. [Q3] An example of genderlects might include which of the following? 1. Girls are more emotional than boys. 2. Girls are more intelligent than boys. 3. Girls tend to talk more than boys. [correct] 4. Girls have higher pitched voices than boys. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This example relates to an affective characteristic. Genderlects relate to differences in the ways males and females talk. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Genderlects relate to the ways males and females talk. This statement is untrue and clearly not an example of a genderlect. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Girls tend to be slightly more talkative, and they tend to be more affiliative in their speech. This difference in the way males and females talk is a genderlect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This example relates to a physical characteristic. Genderlects relate to differences in the ways males and females talk.

[Q4] Sawyer tells his friend Damien, “I ain’t tellin’ no teacher.” When he talks to his teacher, Sawyer says, “I don’t want to tell what Damien did.” This difference in Sawyer’s speech illustrates which of the following? 1. Dialect 2. Genderlect speech 3. Code switching [correct] 4. Academic language [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] To his friend, Sawyer speaks a dialect. To his teacher, Sawyer speaks more formally. The question asks what this difference in speech illustrates. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Genderlects are different ways of talking for males and females. Sawyer’s speech illustrates his use of different forms of speech. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Code switching is moving between two speech forms. Sawyer moves between dialect and more formal English. The setting or context determines which form he uses. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Academic language is the entire range of language used in schools. Sawyer’s speech forms illustrate a different concept. [Q5] Sofia is from Madrid, Spain, and moved to the United States for graduate school. When she has a conversation with friends, she often uses a Spanish phrase if she can’t think of the English words to express her thoughts. This combination of speaking in Spanish and English is called: 1. Genderlect language 2. Code switching [correct] 3. Pragmatics 4. Syntax [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Genderlects are different ways of talking for males and females. Sofia is combining two different languages. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Code switching is moving between two speech forms. Sofia is intertwining English and Spanish words and phrases in her conversation. She is switching from English to Spanish and back to English.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Pragmatics involves the appropriate use of language to communicate in social situations. The focus of this question is Sofia’s habit of combining two different languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Syntax is the order of words in phrases or sentences. The focus of this question is Sofia’s habit of combining two different languages. Learning Outcome 6.4. Compare and contrast immigrant and refugee students, including their learning characteristics and needs. [Q1] Today educational psychologists often use what metaphor to refer to the inclusion of immigrants and refugees into the larger society in the United States? 1. Melting pot 2. Fish pond 3. Whirlwind 4. Salad bowl [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Today educational psychologists are more likely to use a different metaphor. The melting pot idea no longer applies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Educational psychologists use a relevant metaphor for the inclusion of immigrants into the larger society. Fish pond has not been a commonly used metaphor. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Educational psychologists use a relevant metaphor for the inclusion of immigrants into the larger society. A metaphor of a whirlwind does not apply. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Today educational psychologists compare the inclusion of immigrants and refugees to a salad bowl filled with many ingredients. This metaphor is more accurate than the prior melting pot idea. [Q2] Ichiro is an immigrant student who can speak, read, and write well in his first language and in English. He might accurately be described by which of the following terms? 1. Limited bilingual 2. Assimilated immigrant 3. Balanced bilingual [correct] 4. English learner

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Limited bilingual students can converse well in both languages, but for some reason they have trouble learning academically. They may have underlying challenges such as learning disabilities or emotional problems. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Assimilation involves the absorption of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish. No information about Ichiro’s level of assimilation is provided in this scenario. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Students like Ichiro who are described as balanced bilinguals can speak, read, and write well in their first language and in English. They have the academic knowledge needed to continue learning in both languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] English learners are in the process of learning English. Ichiro can speak, read, and write in English. [Q3] In recent years, the cultural deficit model of school achievement for immigrant students has been replaced by which of the following ideas about immigrant students? 1. They can maintain their cultural identity while being accepted in the larger society [correct] 2. They do not succeed if they become a part of mainstream American society 3. They should assimilate into American society in order to succeed academically 4. They can succeed in American schools if they have no cultural ties [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Today, educational psychologists reject the idea of cultural deficits. The idea of cultural deficits explained school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming that their culture is inadequate and does not prepare them to succeed in school. Current thinking suggests that immigrant students may maintain their culture and identity while still being a respected part of the larger society. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Immigrant students should be able to succeed whether they maintain their cultural ties or become a part of mainstream American society. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The cultural deficit model was linked to the idea that immigrant students should assimilate into American society in order to succeed academically. This idea has been replaced. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Everyone has cultural ties. Immigrant students should be able to succeed in American schools regardless of their cultural ties.

[Q4] According to recent statistics, how many children and adolescents in the United States live with at least one immigrant parent? 1. About 20% 2. About 25% [correct] 3. About 35% 4. Nearly 50% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Actually, more than 20% of children and adolescents in the United States are living with at least one immigrant parent. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In 2019, children living with at least one immigrant parent made up about 26% of children and adolescents under the age of 18 in the United States. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Actually, fewer than 35% of children and adolescents in the United States are living with at least one immigrant parent. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Actually, far fewer than 50% of children and adolescents in the United States are living with at least one immigrant parent. [Q5] Maylin is an immigrant from Honduras who converses well in Spanish and English but struggles academically in her middle school classes in a U.S. school. She seems to have underlying challenges that hinder her progress in reading, writing, and content areas. Maylin would be described as which of the following? 1. A limited monolingual student 2. A balanced bilingual student 3. A monolingual student 4. A limited bilingual student [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Maylin converses well in two languages. She is not described as a limited monolingual. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A balanced bilingual student is able to speak, read, and write well both in their first language and in English. This description does not fit Maylin. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Maylin converses well in two languages. She is not described as a monolingual student.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A limited bilingual student can converse well in both languages but struggles with academic learning. This description fits Maylin’s language learning profile. Learning Outcome 6.5. Describe Generation 1.5 students and teaching methods for English learners including English immersion, bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Explain the affective considerations, including trauma, that can impact these students and how family involvement can help. [Q1] Sierra is a fifth-grader who moved from Mexico to Texas with her family last year. She is in a sheltered instruction class for social studies where she will likely experience all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Instruction in social studies using simplified English vocabulary and grammar 2. Conversation with fellow students in English to practice speaking skills 3. Immersion in English along with native English-speaking students [correct] 4. Simultaneous instruction in social studies and English [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Sheltered instruction classes use simplified language but still convey all the content of a typical class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Sierra will be encouraged to do group and partner work in order to improve her English skills. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Sheltered instruction classes do not immerse students in English. They are typically composed of English learners who do not necessarily speak the same native languages. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sheltered instruction classes are taught using simple English. Strategies include using gestures and visuals, real-life supports, and examples. [Q2] Which one of these students would be labeled as a Generation 1.5 student? 1. Polina, who is 16 and emigrated from Russia with her family when she was 4 years old [correct] 2. Kami, who was adopted from Japan by an American family when she was 6 months old 3. Aref, a high school student who recently moved from Libya with his family 4. Alejandro, who was born in the United States but left 1 year later when his parents returned to Mexico [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Polina would be considered a Generation 1.5 student because she spent her early languagelearning years in another country but has lived most of her life in the United States. 13 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Kami would not be considered a Generation 1.5 student, because she left Japan before she began to talk or interact with the culture. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Aref would not be considered a Generation 1.5 student because he is a recent immigrant. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Alejandro isn’t likely to be considered Generation 1.5, even in Mexico, because his educational experiences and language fluencies probably reflect very little of his time in the United States. [Q3] Ms. Garza teaches in a multicultural community and has students from several different countries. She asks her fourth-grade students to bring artifacts from home that show their family’s history and traditions. Based on information presented in Chapter 6, the purpose of this specific assignment is most likely which of the following? 1. Help students assimilate into the classroom culture 2. Support Generation 1.5 students 3. Foster the development of English language skills 4. Build on cultural funds of knowledge [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Assimilation relates to fitting into an existing scheme—for example, students from immigrant families fitting into the culture in which they now live. In this scenario, the students bring information from their heritage cultures, so they’re not simply assimilating. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The students in the class may be recent immigrants, Generation 1.5 students, or students who were born and raised in the United States. Ms. Garza’s assignment supports all students, not just Generation 1.5. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] All students have some cultural background—including students who were born in the United States to middle-class English-speaking parents. It’s important to honor all students’ family traditions. Bringing artifacts to school does not foster English language development, but it does serve a distinct purpose. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Family history and tradition comprise funds of knowledge, information students gain from their families and cultures. When students bring artifacts, Ms. Garza can build on their cultural funds of knowledge. [Q4] Ms. Garza teaches in a multicultural community and has students from several different countries. Ten-year-old twin brothers in her class fled their homeland and got separated from their parents at the border. The trauma of their experiences as refugees lingers. Recommendations for helping children like these twins include which of the following? 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Avoid communicating learning expectations to these twins 2. Teach a unit about the trauma experienced by refugees 3. Create a caring, respectful classroom community [correct] 4. Help these students forget their homeland and native language [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers should still hold high expectations for all students to learn. These expectations need to be communicated clearly and supported by all available resources. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Focusing on the trauma will only exacerbate the feelings of fear and insecurity. These students might be terrified to talk about their fears or focus on the past. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The first step is to create a classroom community that is caring and respectful. This includes strategies for providing emotional support and increasing self-esteem. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers and schools should provide native language support. Students like these twins who have experienced extreme trauma at such a young age need to feel safe and supported. Connections with the only language they know are likely to help them cope. [Q5] Mr. Monroe teaches a SIOP lesson using the strategy called “chunk and chew.” Using this lesson structure, Mr. Monroe will do which of the following? 1. Pose a reflection question after a lesson and ask students to circulate and discuss with peers 2. Show a video and ask students to write a headline for the video and share with a partner 3. Pause the lesson, give a prompt, and ask students to discuss it with a partner [correct] 4. In small groups, ask students to plan a talk show about the unit topic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This SIOP strategy is called “roam and review.” Mr. Monroe uses a strategy labeled “chunk and chew.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This SIOP strategy is called “writing headlines.” Mr. Monroe uses a strategy labeled “chunk and chew.” [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] With the chunk and chew SIOP strategy, teachers pause every ten minutes during the lesson and direct students to talk with a partner or in a small group about what they have learned. The partner talk begins with a prompt from the teacher.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This SIOP strategy is called “TV talk show.” Mr. Monroe uses a strategy labeled “chunk and chew.” Learning Outcome 6.6. Discuss how teachers can recognize special learning needs and talents when they do not speak their students’ first language. [Q1] Ms. Medina teaches as many as five or six English learners in her fourth-grade class each year. She has learned the questions that experts recommend to determine whether a struggling English learner needs special education or struggles primarily as a result of limited English. These questions include all of the following EXCEPT: 1. How much has the child moved around and attended different schools? 2. What is the IQ of the student’s parents? [correct] 3. What is the educational background of the student? 4. Were there complications during the mother’s pregnancy? [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Children who move around a great deal are more likely to struggle with language learning as a result of the inconsistency in their education. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Asking about parents’ IQ is not an appropriate question and is not recommended as an approach to determining whether a struggling EL student needs special education. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Knowing the student’s educational background helps a teacher understand the student’s prior level of learning in his or her first language. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Asking about complications during the mother’s pregnancy is suggested as a means of learning about possible sources of learning problems. [Q2] Ms. Medina teaches as many as five or six English learners in her fourth-grade class each year. What approach might she successfully use to identify bilingual students who are gifted? 1. IQ test administered to the student in English 2. Personality of the student 3. Portfolio of the student’s work and assessments [correct] 4. Standardized test results for tests given in English [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Any test administered in English may provide skewed results.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The personalities of gifted students run the full gamut of differences. Personality is not likely to provide evidence that helps to identify giftedness. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] To identify bilingual students who are gifted, teachers can use a case study or portfolio approach in order to collect a variety of evidence, including interviews with parents and peers, formal and informal assessments, some in the student’s first language, samples of student work and performances, nonverbal assessments, tests of creativity, and student self-assessments. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Tests administered in English are likely to provide skewed results. If test results are used, some of the tests should be administered in the student’s first language. [Q3] Ms. Medina teaches as many as five or six English learners in her fourth-grade class each year. One EL student, Rodrigo, is easily frustrated with math tasks. He learned English faster than other EL students and enjoys initiating conversations with his English-speaking friends. Based on this information about Rodrigo, what characteristic or characteristics might suggest that he is a gifted student? 1. Nothing about Rodrigo suggests that he is gifted 2. He learned English faster than other EL students 3. He enjoys initiating conversations with his English-speaking friends 4. He learned English fast and enjoys initiating conversations [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Rodrigo is easily frustrated with math tasks, but other information may suggest that he is a gifted student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This is one characteristic that may indicate Rodrigo is a gifted student. However, this is not the only bit of information supporting the possibility of giftedness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This is one characteristic that may indicate Rodrigo is a gifted student. However, this is not the only bit of information supporting the possibility of giftedness. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Learning English faster than a typical rate and initiating conversations with native English speakers are two characteristics that may indicate Rodrigo is a gifted student. [Q4] Which of the following characteristics is most likely to suggest that a bilingual student has gifts and talents? 1. Spoke a second language before coming to the United States 2. Makes up jokes and puns in English [correct] 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Prefers to work with students who have lower proficiency in English 4. Never seems to become bored with routine tasks [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Speaking a second language before coming to the United States is not generally recognized as an indicator of gifts and talents. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Students who are able to use English in a creative way, for example, make puns, poems, jokes, or original stories in English, may be gifted and talented. This is included on the list of characteristics for identifying bilingual students with gifts and talents. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A student who prefers to work with students whose level of English proficiency is higher than theirs is more likely to have gifts and talents. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A student who becomes easily bored with routine tasks is more likely to have gifts and talents. [Q5] What’s the first step for a teacher to take in deciding whether to refer a struggling EL student for testing? 1. Administer extra tests to the student in English 2. Use the best teaching approaches and include sheltered instruction [correct] 3. Interview the student’s parents to learn their attitudes about school 4. Recommend that the child speak only English at school [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Administering extra tests to the student in English may not help in any way. The process may further frustrate the student and provide little diagnostic information for the teacher. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The first step is to use the best teaching approaches, incorporating sheltered instruction to develop both subject matter learning and English language skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A teacher’s first step in deciding whether to refer a struggling EL student for testing is not related to parents’ attitudes about school. The first step relates more directly to the student’s classroom learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A teacher’s first step in deciding whether to refer a struggling EL student for testing relates directly to teaching.

Chapter 6 Application Exercises Application Exercise 6.1: Academic Language Learning Outcome 6.2. Discuss what happens when children develop two languages, including the role of basic face-to-face communication and academic language. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 6.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ell/MN/SE_MATH_Grade02_01MathTalkDigit sValuePart1.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.4 to answer the following question: In this culturally diverse classroom, why does the teacher spend time discussing the words value and digits? [Q1 Model Response] The teacher spends time discussing the words value and digits because these words—this academic language—may be new or vague to students, particularly ELs. Students must understand these academic vocabulary words in order to make sense of the math lesson and understand the content. In addition to teaching content and establishing content learning targets, teachers who have English learners in their class must teach the English and establish language learning targets. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.4 to answer the following question: What things does this teacher do to monitor students’ learning of the academic vocabulary she is teaching? [Q2 Model Response] As she teaches, she asks questions and listens to students’ responses. She asks students to talk to their partners and answer questions about the academic vocabulary. She even asks students to give examples. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.4 to answer the following question: Who benefits from this discussion and exposure to the academic vocabulary that is being taught before the lesson? [Q3 Model Response] Every student benefits, but the English learners probably benefit most. This is good teaching— introducing academic vocabulary before beginning to teach the math content in the lesson.

Application Exercise 6.2: Sheltered Instruction Learning Outcome 6.5. Describe Generation 1.5 students and teaching methods for English learners including English immersion, bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Explain the affective considerations, including trauma, that can impact these students and how family involvement can help. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 6.9 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ell/MN/ES_MATH_LessonPlanning.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.9 to answer the following question: Using Figure 6.4 (Some Examples of the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol—SIOP) in chapter 6 of the textbook, identify items under the heading “Preparation” that you observe during these teachers’ planning session. Cite specific examples. [Q1 Model Response] The preparation section of the SIOP form specifies these six areas: 1. Content objectives: The teachers discuss a math content objective of breaking down place value. 2. Language objectives: The teachers identify the terms value, place value, digits, and represent. 3. Content concepts: The teachers discuss the math concepts of breaking down numbers into parts and showing how much each part is worth (place value). 4. Supplementary materials: To supplement, the teachers will use sentence strips. 5. Adaptation of content: The teachers discuss beginning with something students relate to by talking about their chores at home and the value placed on their chores. They plan to use signs for understand and show. Teachers plan to model breaking down three-place numbers. 6. Meaningful activities: Students will discuss chores in a turn-and-talk activity. Teachers mention a worksheet students will complete. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.9 to answer the following question: Describe how the learning for English learners might be far more limited if these teachers were not using sheltered instruction? [Q2 Model Response] If these teachers were not using sheltered instruction, they likely would not have a language objective in addition to the content objective. They would begin with an assumption that students understand the terms value, digits, and represent. For ELs, the lesson would be confusing and frustrating if teachers jumped into the content without frontloading by previewing and teaching academic vocabulary. If these teachers were not using sheltered instruction, they 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

may not begin with an activity that helps students relate the concept of value to their everyday lives. For ELs, the lesson would seem much more abstract. Without the turn-and-talk, the ELs would not have opportunities to use the new words in conversation. Application Exercise 6.3: Immigrant Students and Trauma Learning Outcome 6.5. Describe Generation 1.5 students and teaching methods for English learners including English immersion, bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Explain the affective considerations, including trauma, that can impact these students and how family involvement can help. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 6.11 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/CrossCultural_Communication/Week04Segment05_DescribingCultureShock_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.11 to answer the following question: Explain the affective impact many (perhaps most) immigrant students feel when they enter schools in the U.S. [Q1 Model Response] The dominant affective impact expressed by students in this video is fear. They also feel alone because they don’t see students like themselves, particularly at the beginning. They may feel frustration because they don’t understand the language and can’t make sense of their school environment. They may even feel anger when others don’t understand them and when others (students or teachers) don’t want ELs to speak their native language. Immigrant students may feel anger and disappointment when teachers don’t understand where they have come from, how hard it is for them to leave their homeland, or how hard life was in their homeland. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.11 to answer the following question: Identify explicit and implicit suggestions these students offer to teachers and show how these suggestions align with guidelines (Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELs) in Chapter 6 of the textbook. [Q2 Model Response] •

Teachers should learn about an immigrant student’s culture. They should ask the student or search online to find information. This suggestion aligns loosely with the guideline for connecting teaching to relevant knowledge from students’ lives.

•

Teachers should not get angry when they hear immigrant students speaking their first language. This suggestion aligns with the guideline for providing native language support.

•

Teachers should address students’ fears and feelings of being alone. Teachers should make students feel welcome, and teachers might foster relationships between new immigrant students and other students. This suggestion is loosely aligned with the guideline for actively involving learners and the guideline for using different grouping strategies. 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

•

Teachers should recognize that new immigrants may not understand any English and may need help to understand what is expected. This suggestion aligns with the guideline for providing native language support.

•

Teachers should create caring and respectful environments. This suggestion aligns with the guideline for involving family and community members. One example of this guideline states, “Create a welcome center for your class.”

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 6.11 to answer the following question: Using guidelines presented in the “Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations” section of Chapter 6, create a writing task for ELs in middle school or high school. Design the task to provide emotional support and increase self-esteem for these students. [Q3 Model Response] Responses will vary. As with any task, teachers should be sensitive to the conditions in students’ home countries and each student’s socioeconomic status. For example, students who fled a war-torn country may have difficulty writing about some aspects of their native culture. Students with very limited resources may have difficulty writing about topics that involve things they can’t access (for lack of financial resources, limited transportation, limited Internet) such as entertainment, sports, or cultural events. One task might involve asking ELs to write a journal entry that describes something they miss about their home culture, then share it on a teacher-monitored class page, and ask American students to write responses suggesting something that might substitute for what the ELs miss. Another task might involve asking ELs to write about their favorite food in America (or their favorite food in their homeland) and discuss their writing with a peer. Another task might involve asking ELs to choose an American game or a sport they find interesting and write briefly about their interest. A similar writing task might involve favorite American singing group or entertainer or favorite new hobby.

Chapter 6 Test Items Chapter 6 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 6.1: Understand how language develops and know Multiple Choice: 1-5 how to support emergent literacy. Essay: 24 Objective 6.2: Discuss what happens when children develop Multiple Choice: 6-11 two languages, including the role of basic face-to-face Essay: 25 communication and academic language. Objective 6.3: Address whether dialect differences affect Multiple Choice: 12-13 learning and discuss what teachers can do. Essay: 26 Objective 6.4: Compare and contrast immigrant and refugee Multiple Choice: 14-15 students, including their learning characteristics and needs. Objective 6.5: Describe Generation 1.5 students and teaching Multiple Choice: 16-21 methods for English learners including English immersion, Essay: 27-28 bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Explain the affective considerations, including trauma, that can impact these students and how family involvement can help. Discuss teaching methods for English language learners including English immersion, bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Objective 6.6: Discuss how teachers can recognize special Multiple Choice: 22-23 learning needs and talents when they do not speak their Essay: 29 students’ first language.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Colton is almost four years old and has an expressive vocabulary of about 1000 words. Based on milestones in early childhood language, what should Colton’s parents be doing to encourage Colton’s language development? a. Repeat new words and name body parts such as feet, hands, and tummy. b. Talk about his interests and ask numerous “why” questions. c. Help him tell stories and encourage him to play with other children. d. Talk with him as they would talk to an adult. 2. Three-year-old Alexa yelled to her mother in the grocery store, “I want Cheerios.” Her mother told her to use her small, indoor voice at the store. Alexa shows that she does not yet understand: a. expressive vocabulary. b. receptive vocabulary. c. metalinguistic awareness. d. pragmatics of language.

3. Ken believes reading is very important and is teaching his four-year-old son the letters of the alphabet. Knowing the letters of the alphabet is what type of foundational skill for reading? a. Oral language skill b. Skill in understanding codes c. Knowledge of syntax d. Metalinguistic awareness 4. Two broad categories of skills help literacy emerge. Which child is using oral language skills? a. Randy thinks of all the words he knows that rhyme with the word “glad.” b. Mariana tells a story about going to a baseball game with her dad. c. Charlie tells his granddad what sounds the letters make in the word “bed.” d. Trinity tries to write her name though she leaves out two of the letters. 5. Daniela is in first grade. Her family left Mexico and moved to Texas one year ago. Daniela is having difficulty learning to speak and read in English. Based on bilingual emergent literacy research, what should her teachers prioritize to help Daniela at this stage of literacy? a. Focus on growth in expressive language and speaking English only. b. Focus on growth in literacy in Spanish first. c. Focus on language growth in receptive vocabulary. d. Focus on inconsistencies and irregularities in English language. 6. Which of the following situations is an example of subtractive bilingualism? a. Maurice grew up in New Orleans. He heard a lot of French dialect spoken around him and on the radio, but he only speaks English. b. Kim heard English and Mandarin from the time she was born. She speaks both languages fluently. c. Marco learned Spanish as a child growing up in Mexico. He later learned English, moved to California for college, and continued to use his Spanish. d. Jasmina learned Croatian as a child. When her family moved to Minneapolis, she became fluent in English and eventually left Croatian behind. 7. The debate about critical periods and sensitive periods of development is not completely resolved. What is the predominant belief about the critical period for language learning? a. There appears to be a critical period for learning language pronunciation. b. There appears to be a critical period for mastering the syntax of a language. c. There is a critical period for vocabulary acquisition in a second language. d. There is a critical period for English speakers to learn Mandarin and other tonal languages.

8. Elvin speaks Spanish with his grandmother and English with everyone else at home, but he is starting school and needs to use English at school. Based on research about bilingualism, what should Elvin be encouraged to do about developing skills in both languages? a. Develop English only. Bilingual students fall behind. b. Speak Spanish only. English will interfere with his ability to read and write. c. Avoid Spanish. Develop English and teach his grandmother to speak English. d. Keep developing skills in both languages. Being bilingual increases cognitive abilities. 9. Reese is a one-year-old child with hearing impairment. Her parents have been learning and using signed language since Reese’s birth. What might they expect about their daughter’s language skill development? a. Reese’s receptive language will be delayed and will likely fall six months behind hearing children. b. Reese will probably “say” her first words at a much later time than hearing children speak their first words. c. Reese will develop language skills at the same rate hearing children develop language skills. d. Reese will experience different milestones and develop language on a different schedule than children with normal hearing. 10. 13-year-old Polina is a Russian immigrant. She has no problems talking to her friends in English, but she struggles to understand concepts in content areas when they are presented in English. How long does it typically take for students like Polina to become proficient in the academic language of English? a. 2 years b. 3-4 years c. 4-5 years d. 6-9 years 11. Ms. Akana has three EL students in her fourth-grade class. She wants to help her ELs progress with language skills and succeed academically. Which of the following strategies is LEAST likely to help? a. Ms. Akana thinks aloud as she models using a new procedure. b. Ms. Akana teaches EL students new vocabulary before teaching unit concepts. c. Ms. Akana involves EL students in group work and working in pairs. d. Ms. Akana gives no feedback to EL students but praises their efforts. 12. Jaylen speaks an African American English dialect. In the history lesson today, he answers a question by stating, “They didn’t have no GPS on their ships.” What is the best way for his teacher to deal with Jaylen’s answer? a. The teacher should correct Jaylen’s grammar and ask him to repeat the rule about double negatives. b. The teacher should instruct Jaylen to speak formal English at all times in the classroom and at school. 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. The teacher should recognize that double negatives are part of the grammatical structure of Jaylen’s dialect. d. The teacher should provide special instruction for Jaylen and help him recognize the negative stereotype associated with his dialect. 13. Based on information about genderlects, which of the following statements is most likely made by 14-year-old Calli and not one of the boys in her class? a. I want to beat that other team and regain our status as the best in the league. b. I saw your adorable little brother sporting his classy purple jersey at the game. c. It’s unfair for the other groups to get more time to work on their projects. d. I have a right to sit in this chair. I got the top score on the test last week. 14. Mr. Torrence teaches high school English in a typical urban area. About one-fourth of his students speak a language other than English at home, and their immigrant parents maintain the values and traditions of their heritage cultures. Which of the following metaphors most appropriately applies to these students and their families today? a. Oranges and apples b. Homogeneous whole c. Melting pot d. Salad bowl 15. Nine-year-old Shin and his family recently moved to California from South Korea. Shin was a star student, very well educated in his native country. In the U.S., he feels confused. He speaks very little English, but his curiosity and love of learning make him feel determined. Based on this description, Shin fits which of the following categories of ELs? a. Monolingual/preliterate student b. Balanced bilingual c. Monolingual/literate student d. Limited bilingual 16. All but one of the following students is part of the large group often called Generation 1.5. Based on the characteristics of Generation 1.5, which student does NOT fit? a. Rico was born in the U.S. and lives with his grandmother who immigrated to the U.S. as a child. b. Ciera spends most of her time in the U.S. but goes back to Mexico with her family when her dad is out of work. c. Tino was born in Serbia, but his parents sent him to the U.S. to get an education when he was in high school. d. Giani was born in Puerto Rico and lives in a Latin community in Los Angeles where everyone speaks Spanish.

17. Damian is an EL student in high school. He is able to converse enough to make friends and play games, but he does not understand academic language very well. Based on guidelines for providing emotional support for EL students, which one of his teachers seems to be most effective in working with Damian? a. “Damian, you will probably do best working on this assignment alone while other students work in groups.” b. “This is science class. I don’t want you to worry about English in this class. Just try to get the science concepts.” c. “Who can help Damian learn how to punctuate sentences correctly? He needs help from someone who is good in English.” d. “I talked to Damian about this event in history, and he created a timeline that compares events in his country with events in the US at that time.” 18. Mr. Karnes scheduled individual meetings with parents of each of his immigrant students and asked them about the jobs, skills, traditions, religion, and other information that was important to them in their heritage countries. Later Mr. Karnes used this information in the classroom to help students relate their new learning to things that were familiar. Mr. Karnes is using which of the following? a. Student-led conferencing b. Sheltered instruction c. Funds of knowledge d. Welcome center for immigrant parents 19. Ms. Fonteneau has six ELs in her fifth-grade classroom. For science and social studies lessons, she introduces new vocabulary to these students, provides extra background information in simple terms, uses real-life examples, and often gives them handouts with graphics and summaries to help them learn English as they learn content. Ms. Fonteneau is most likely using: a. structured English immersion. b. language maintenance. c. sheltered instruction. d. two-way immersion. 20. In which of the following situations is the SIOP model being used? a. Native English speakers and EL students are mixed for instruction in two-way immersion. b. A checklist is used during observation to assess teaching of EL students. c. EL students are paired with a native English-speaker for math lessons. d. Bilingual teachers teach EL students in the content areas. 21. In Courtney’s elementary school, more than 35% of the students speak Spanish as a first language. Courtney is an English speaker, but she is learning Spanish in the two-way immersion classes that include native speakers of one language and native speakers of the other, with instruction in both languages. What is the purpose of such a program? a. Limited bilingualism 27 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Preliterate monolingualism c. Balanced bilingualism d. Reverse cultural experience 22. Mrs. Adams is going to refer an EL student for testing. The girl’s progress in second grade reading is much slower than expected, and Mrs. Adams suspects the child may have a learning disability. What information probably tipped Mrs. Adams and helped her identify the need to refer the student? a. The child had access to books in Spanish as a toddler but not books in English. b. The child contracted a serious illness as a baby but recovered after several weeks. c. The child’s parents both speak Spanish and very little English. d. The child attended a bilingual program as a preschooler but not in first grade. 23. Ms. Novak works with several gifted students who are English learners. She likely sees which of the following characteristics in these students? a. With only a small English vocabulary, they communicate constantly in their first language. b. They practice new English words and phrases by themselves and commit them to memory. c. They frustrate easily when feedback from the teacher indicates lack of understanding. d. They never use code switching between English and their first language.

Essay Questions 24. Mattie is the four-year-old daughter of Nicole, a single mom living in poverty in an urban community. When Mattie enrolled in preschool, she didn’t talk to the teacher or the other children. At snack time, she used one word to ask for more. When her mom filled out the enrollment form, she checked boxes indicating that Mattie has no books, watches TV a lot, and doesn’t play with other children. As the teacher, you are prepared to give the mom activities to do at home to help Mattie develop the emergent literacy skills she will need in order to learn how to read next year. Describe Mattie’s current state of language development. Explain at least five activities you recommend to Mattie’s mother and describe how each activity supports emergent literacy. 25. Josh speaks English, but also learned Choctaw from his grandmother. She grew up on a reservation, but now she lives with Josh and his parents. His parents do not speak Choctaw, though Josh’s dad learned Choctaw as a child. Josh’s parents believe it’s important for Josh to assimilate into mainstream culture and leave the heritage language and culture behind. Why should Josh be encouraged to maintain the heritage language he’s learning from his grandmother? Present key points that someone might present to Josh’s parents to convince them that Josh benefits from being bilingual and that his heritage language is important. 26. Ms. LeBlanc teaches middle school in a large inner-city school where all students in her class speak dialects rather than formal English. Describe appropriate attitudes and approaches for teaching these students effectively.

27. Mr. Munro teaches middle school science in a highly diverse city on the west coast. His classroom composite looks like many other classrooms in America. Two of his students are refugees from Syria. Many are immigrants from Asia, Mexico, and Eastern Europe. Others represent a range of racial and ethnic groups. Altogether, seven are EL students. All are able to converse and make friends, but they struggle with academic language. Mr. Munro has found that using a sheltered instruction approach to teach science content and language skills works best with these students. Describe specifically how Mr. Munro might teach his content area of science using sheltered instruction. Incorporate ideas for science-related and language-related instruction and support for the eight elements of sheltered instruction. 28. (Scenario from question 26) Mr. Munro teaches middle school science in a highly diverse city on the west coast. His classroom composite looks like many other classrooms in America. Two of his students are refugees from Syria. Many are immigrants from Asia, Mexico, and Eastern Europe. Others represent a range of racial and ethnic groups. Altogether, seven are EL students. All are able to converse and make friends, but they struggle with academic language. Mr. Munro has found that using a sheltered instruction approach to teach science content and language skills works best with these students. Describe at least four specific things Mr. Munro is doing or might do to provide affective and emotional/social support for these middle school students during science class. Explain how each of these actions or strategies provides affective, emotional/social support. 29. Identifying students who have a learning disability or students who have giftedness can be very difficult when the students do not speak English. Describe steps teachers might take to identify each of these groups of students before referring them.

Chapter 6 Test Answer Key Answer Key Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Help him tell stories and encourage him to play with other children. Feedback for Correct Answer: Between 3 and 4, help the child tell stories using books and pictures. Encourage the child to play with other children. Talk about places you’ve been or will be going and discuss how objects are the same or different. Text Reference: The Development of Language

Correct Answer: pragmatics of language. Feedback for Correct Answer: Pragmatics involves the appropriate use of language to communicate in social situations—how to enter a conversation, tell a joke, interrupt, keep a conversation going, or adjust your language (even your voice level) for the listener. Text Reference: The Development of Language

Correct Answer: Skill in understanding codes Feedback for Correct Answer: One category of skills important for later reading is the category related to understanding sounds and codes such as knowing that letters have names, that sounds are associated with letters, and that words are made up of sounds. Learning the letters precedes the decoding involved in reading. Text Reference: The Development of Language

Correct Answer: Mariana tells a story about going to a baseball game with her dad. Feedback for Correct Answer: Oral language skills are emergent literacy skills such as expressive and receptive vocabulary, knowledge of syntax, and the ability to understand and tell stories. Mariana demonstrates the skill of understanding and producing narrative. Text Reference: The Development of Language

Correct Answer: Focus on language growth in receptive vocabulary. Feedback for Correct Answer: One implication of research is that teachers and parents should focus on continuing language development and not worry about rushing children into speaking English exclusively. One key factor may facilitate literacy development—growth in receptive language. Text Reference: The Development of Language

Correct Answer: Jasmina learned Croatian as a child. When her family moved to Minneapolis, she became fluent in English and eventually left Croatian behind. Feedback for Correct Answer: Jasmina left her first language behind as she gained proficiency in her second language. She experienced 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

subtractive bilingualism. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development 7.

Correct Answer: There appears to be a critical period for learning language pronunciation. Feedback for Correct Answer: Even though there is no critical period for learning a language, there appears to be a critical period for learning language pronunciation. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development

Correct Answer: Keep developing skills in both languages. Being bilingual increases cognitive abilities. Feedback for Correct Answer: Bilingualism has many benefits, one of which is increased cognitive abilities in concept formation, creativity, theory of mind, understanding the perspectives of others, cognitive flexibility, attention and executive functioning, phoneme awareness, and understanding that printed words are symbols for language. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development

Correct Answer: Reese will develop language skills at the same rate hearing children develop language skills. Feedback for Correct Answer: The milestones for signed language are the same as for spoken language. For example, children “say” their first words at about the same time, around 12 months, with both spoken and signed languages. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development

10.

Correct Answer: 6-9 years Feedback for Correct Answer: Learning English as a second language takes 2–3 years for oral proficiency and 6–9 years for academic language use. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development

11.

Correct Answer: Ms. Akana gives no feedback to EL students but praises their efforts. Feedback for Correct Answer: Ms. Akana should give feedback that is focused on meaning, not grammar, syntax, or pronunciation. She should give frequent, brief, clear feedback and use words from the student’s first language when she can. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development

12.

Correct Answer: The teacher should recognize that double negatives are part of the grammatical structure of Jaylen’s dialect. Feedback for Correct Answer: Dialects differ in their rules about pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, but it is important to remember that these differences are not errors. Each dialect is logical, complex, and rule governed. In many versions of American English, the double-negative construction, such as “I don’t have no more,” is incorrect. But in many 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

dialects such as some varieties of Black English and in other languages (e.g., Russian, French, Spanish, and Hungarian), the double negative is part of the grammatical rules. Text Reference: Dialect Differences in the Classroom 13.

Correct Answer: I saw your adorable little brother sporting his classy purple jersey at the game. Feedback for Correct Answer: Boys and girls have some small differences in their speech. Girls use more polite words such as please and good-bye, descriptive words such as adorable, lovely, and sweet, and a fuller range of terms for colors. Girls tend to be slightly more talkative and affiliative in their speech (affiliative speech is talk intended to establish and maintain relationships). Boys are more competitive and talk about rights and justice. These differences are genderlects. Calli would most likely make the statement that is more affiliative. Text Reference: Dialect Differences in the Classroom

14.

Correct Answer: Salad bowl Feedback for Correct Answer: Immigrants often do not want to assimilate completely into mainstream American society. Rather, they want to maintain their culture and identity while still being a respected part of the larger society. Multiculturalism is the goal—more like a salad bowl filled with many ingredients. Text Reference: Teaching Immigrant Students

15.

Correct Answer: Monolingual/literate student Feedback for Correct Answer: Monolingual/literate students are literate in their native language (at or above grade level when working in their native language) but speak limited English. Text Reference: Teaching Immigrant Students

16.

Correct Answer: Rico was born in the U.S. and lives with his grandmother who immigrated to the U.S. as a child. Feedback for Correct Answer: Generation 1.5 is students whose characteristics, educational experiences, and language fluencies are somewhere in between those of students born in the United States and students who are recent immigrants. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

17.

Correct Answer: “I talked to Damian about this event in history, and he created a timeline that compares events in his country with events in the US at that time.” Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers are advised to actively involve ELs and connect teaching to relevant knowledge from students’ lives. The history teacher involves Damian and finds a way to show respect for him, his knowledge, and his cultural background. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

18.

Correct Answer: Funds of knowledge Feedback for Correct Answer: Knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life are called funds of knowledge. These funds of knowledge can become the basis for teaching. These funds of knowledge help teachers capitalize on the resources of immigrant students rather than their limitations or cultural deficits. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

19.

Correct Answer: sheltered instruction. Feedback for Correct Answer: Sheltered instruction teaches content to EL students by putting the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable. Strategies include simplifying and controlling language, giving attention to the relevant grammar and forms of English—helping students “crack the code,” using visuals and gestures, and including real-life supports and examples. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

20.

Correct Answer: A checklist is used during observation to assess teaching of EL students. Feedback for Correct Answer: Researchers developed an observational system to check that each element of sheltered instruction is present for a teacher. The system is called the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol or SIOP. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

21.

Correct Answer: Balanced bilingualism Feedback for Correct Answer: Students in the United States need to master both conversational and academic English to achieve at high levels, but they should not sacrifice their native language in the process. The goal of schools should be balanced bilingualism. One approach to reaching this goal is to create two-way immersion classes. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds

22.

Correct Answer: The child contracted a serious illness as a baby but recovered after several weeks. Feedback for Correct Answer: If progress seems much slower than usual, a teacher might ask questions such as: Has the child experienced any serious injuries or illnesses? With the child in Mrs. Adams’ classroom, other information about the child does not alert the teacher to possible explanations for the child’s slow progress in reading. Text Reference: Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts

23.

Correct Answer: They practice new English words and phrases by themselves and commit them to memory. Feedback for Correct Answer: Gifted children typically Acquire a new language faster than a typical rate. They practice English skills by 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

themselves and initiate conversations in English. They do not frustrate easily. They take risks in trying to communicate in English. They use code switching or translate at an advanced level. Text Reference: Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 24.

Suggested Response: Mattie is behind her peers in the development of emergent literacy skills. At the age of four, a child would be expected to have an expressive vocabulary of 1,000 to 1,500 words and make sentences using 4-5 words at a time. Mattie should be able to tell a story using a book or picture. She should be playing with other children and exhibit the ability to interact. And Mattie should be developing emergent literacy skills. One might instruct Nicole, Mattie’s mom, to do the following activities regularly: •

Borrow books from the school and from the library on a regular basis. (Guide her to choose simple books with illustrations and minimal text at first.) Read a book with Mattie every day. Show Mattie the words on the page and help her understand that we read words from left to right. We start at the front and read one page at a time. Get Mattie involved in turning the pages.

•

Get Mattie involved in describing the pictures as you read with her. Model for her. Describe a person or object using one or two adjectives. Help Mattie use words to name and describe.

•

Guide Mattie to tell what happened at school each day. Write a short sentence about school and read the sentence with her. Guide her to point to the words and read the sentence. Encourage her to draw a picture to illustrate the school day.

•

Purchase or make a set of letters of the alphabet. Begin teaching Mattie the letters of the alphabet. You might try teaching a new letter every week.

•

Teach Mattie the letters in her name. Help Mattie learn to say the name of the letter and draw it with a crayon and with a pencil. Help her write her name after she learns the letters in her name. Then help her sound out her name. This develops letter-sound knowledge and emergent writing.

•

As you read with Mattie, point out familiar letters in words.

Text Reference: The Development of Language 25.

Suggested Response: 1. Higher degrees of bilingualism are correlated with increased cognitive abilities in such areas as concept formation, creativity, theory of mind, understanding the perspectives of others, cognitive flexibility, attention and executive functioning, phoneme awareness, and understanding that printed words are symbols for language. Bilingual children have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works. 2. Many Native American languages have been lost and others are in danger of extinction. With the loss of a language, the culture of its people is lost. Every culture is of value and should be respected. 34 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Heritage schools exist to support heritage languages in the United States. Their purpose is to preserve the language, customs, and as much of the people’s culture as possible. This focus helps communities respect the diversity from which we have come. Text Reference: Diversity in Language Development 26.

Suggested Response: Teachers like Ms. LeBlanc should have an attitude of acceptance and be sensitive to their own possible negative stereotypes about students who speak a different dialect. A dialect is a part of a group’s collective identity. These differences are not errors. Each dialect is logical, complex, and rule governed. Teachers can repeat instructions using different words to ensure comprehension. Teachers need to focus on understanding the students and accepting their language as a valid and correct system, but then to teach the alternative forms of English that are used in more formal work settings and in writing. Teachers need to prepare their students to access a range of opportunities (jobs, higher education). Text Reference: Dialect Differences in the Classroom

27.

Suggested Response: Mr. Munro is building science knowledge and language skills simultaneously. Instruction needs to support all eight elements of sheltered instruction. 1. In preparation for the lesson, he will develop clear science objectives and clear language objectives. He will review these orally with the students and present them in writing on the board. He will prepare supplementary materials and adapt content for all levels of student proficiency in his classroom. 2. Building background for the lesson, Mr. Munro will review prior knowledge and make sure students know key science words and concepts that were introduced in previous lessons and link to the new lesson. He will choose vocabulary words from the new lesson and teach these words before presenting the lesson. Students will define words, write them, and draw a picture or give an example. They might practice finding words in a glossary or discussing them with a partner. 3. To make the content comprehensible, Mr. Munro will speak at a slower rate and use simple sentence structure. He will incorporate the new science vocabulary intentionally in the lesson and use illustrations, gestures, models, and diagrams. If procedures are involved, he will model procedures rather than just describing them. Science concepts can be difficult and complex. Mr. Munro will present small amounts of new information in a lesson. 4. He will use strategies that provide ample opportunities for students to use learning strategies. He will scaffold learning and ask questions that promote higher-order thinking skills. 5. He will use interaction in pairs and groups and give students opportunities to explain science concepts to one another, solve problems together, and learn from one another. He’ll clarify concepts and help them use their language skills. When he poses questions, he will allow sufficient wait time for students to articulate a response. 35 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Mr. Munro will provide practice and application using hands-on materials as much as possible. In science, he may incorporate experiments and demonstrations. His group activities will actively engage students. These will involve reading, listening, and speaking in English as they work with science. He will give students feedback during activities and prompt them to use their new vocabulary. 7. When he delivers his lesson, Mr. Munro will make sure he is meeting the science content objectives and the language objectives. He will highlight his use of new words. He will make sure students are tracking with the lesson and keep the pace appropriate for them. When students are confused, he will repeat and explain using numerous examples or ask a student to repeat. 8. After the lesson, he will review and assess. The review should engage the students and use their language skills. Allow them to repeat the vocabulary words and key concepts from the lesson. Field their questions. Ask questions and give feedback on their answers. He will assess their understanding throughout the lesson rather than waiting until the lesson is over, and his assessment will address all lesson objectives. Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 28.

Suggested Response: •

In science class, Mr. Munro is using pairs and groups that allow students to work together and learn from one another. This provides emotional/social support by helping them use their language around other students rather than remaining quiet and reclusive. It probably helps them establish relationships and feel more connected.

•

Mr. Munro is using learning activities that promote reading and writing success. He focuses on vocabulary in every lesson and asks students to read and write definitions. He engages students in reading the objectives for each lesson. In their groups, they do activities that involve reading, writing, and listening. These actions and strategies provide affective and emotional support by helping these students feel successful. They have the support they need to take risks without penalty. They are likely to feel more positive in their judgment of their own abilities.

•

Mr. Munro provides opportunities for plenty of practice. He monitors students and gives valuable feedback. He provides scaffolding when students struggle. They are likely to feel that they have the support they need to persist rather than giving up. This should add to their feelings of success.

•

Mr. Munro can be intentional about providing a classroom community that is caring and respectful. He might learn students’ strengths and recognize them for those strengths. He might create opportunities for individual students to shine by using their strengths in the context of science or relevant life applications. This strategy should make students feel valued.

•

Mr. Munro must hold high expectations for these students to meet the content and language objectives in lessons. He can provide a variety of ways for students to represent their learning (not just paper and pencil tests). With sheltered instruction, he is scaffolding learning and providing constructive feedback to help students experience success in meeting learning goals. 36 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Text Reference: Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 29.

Suggested Response: In identifying EL students with a learning disability, teachers use best teaching practices, incorporating sheltered instruction to develop both subject matter learning and English language development. If a student doesn’t make appropriate progress, then teachers interview parents and ask questions about educational background, family background, when the student came to the U.S., whether there were complications during mother’s pregnancy, or whether the child incurred serious illnesses or injuries earlier. Bilingual instruction also helps in the identification process. Teachers might identify areas of giftedness by observing carefully and using the list of more than 20 ideas for identifying bilingual students with gifts and talents (Table 6.6 in the textbook). Teachers might also use a portfolio approach to collect evidence, including interviews with parents and peers, formal and informal assessments (some in the student’s first language), self-assessments, tests of creativity, and student work samples and performances. Text Reference: Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts

Chapter 6 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 6.1 Understand how language develops and know how to support emergent literacy. Outcome 6.2 Discuss what happens when children develop two languages, including the role of basic face-to-face communication and academic language. Outcome 6.3 Address whether dialect differences affect learning and discuss what teachers can do. Outcome 6.4 Compare and contrast immigrant and refugee students, including their learning characteristics and needs. Outcome 6.5 Describe Generation 1.5 students and teaching methods for English learners including English immersion, bilingual instruction, and sheltered instruction. Explain the affective considerations, including trauma, that can impact these students and how family involvement can help. Outcome 6.6 Discuss how teachers can recognize special learning needs and talents when they do not speak their students’ first language. [Q1] LO 6.3 Four students in Mr. Compton’s class are English learners. Which of the following practices is recommended for Mr. Compton and other teachers who teach in linguistically diverse classrooms and wish to promote language learning? 1. Focus on independent assignments and seatwork 2. Lower the expectations for learning 3. Create situations in which these students talk at length [correct] 4. Request that students speak only English at school [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mr. Compton and other teachers who teach in linguistically diverse classrooms and wish to promote language learning should provide opportunities for English learners to stay engaged and practice using their language skills. Such practices include creating situations for students to talk at length and using small group and pairs work. [Q2] LO 6.2 Sierra is a bilingual student who speaks Spanish at home and English at school and other settings. As a bilingual student, Sierra likely exhibits which of the following characteristics at school? 1. Deficits in metalinguistic understanding 2. Lower levels of creativity 3. Limited understanding of the perspectives of others 4. Advanced metalinguistic understanding [correct]

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Bilingual children have more advanced metalinguistic understanding of how language works; for example, they are more likely to notice grammar errors. [Q3] LO 6.2 Ms. Walton teaches fourth grade in a culturally and linguistically diverse school, and eight of her students are from immigrant families. If these students are typical in their language acquisition, how long will it take for them to become proficient in the use of academic language? 1. 1–2 years 2. 2–4 years 3. 4–5 years 4. 6–9 years [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Learning English as a second language takes 2–3 years for oral proficiency and 6–9 years for academic language use. [Q4 Short Answer] LO 6.4 Case Nick Takis was delighted that his portfolio had helped him land his first teaching job in Texas. Although he had never been to that state, he was excited about the prospect of his own classroom. When he arrived for his 2-week induction period in August, his sunny mood began to wane. He learned that several of the students in his class were not fluent in English. To prepare for the challenge ahead, Nick is gathering information about English learners. What are the four general profiles of students who are English learners in today’s classrooms? [Feedback for Answer 4] The four general profiles are (Echevarria & Graves, 2011): •

Balanced bilingual

•

Monolingual/literate students

•

Monolingual/preliterate students

•

Limited bilingual

[Q5 Short Answer] LO 6.2 Case Nick Takis was delighted that his portfolio had helped him land his first teaching job in Texas. Although he had never been to that state, he was excited about the prospect of his own classroom. When he arrived for his 2-week induction period in August, his sunny mood began to wane. He learned that several of the students in his class were not fluent in English. To prepare for the challenge ahead, Nick is gathering information about English learners. What recommendations would help Nick promote language learning in his class? 39 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer 5] • Provide structures, frameworks, scaffolds, and strategies. • Support verbal explanations with visual cues. • Teach relevant background knowledge and key vocabulary concepts. • Give focused and useful feedback. • Keeps students involved and engaged. • Show authentic respect for students’ culture and language.

Chapter 7 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 7: Behavioral Views of Learning Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 7: Behavioral Views of Learning Chapter 7 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 7.1. Define learning from a behavioral perspective, including ties to neuroscience and the processes involved in learning through contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. [Q1] Ariel walked more carefully on the ice after seeing her friend Natalie slip and fall. From his bicycle, Grayson saw Natalie fall, tried to brake, and quickly noted that his brakes don’t work on the ice. Nearby, Grayson’s big brother advised Grayson to walk his bicycle. Based on the definition of learning, what person or persons in this scenario are learning? 1. Ariel 2. Grayson 3. Grayson’s brother 4. Ariel and Grayson [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ariel is learning, but she is not the only person who experiences something that causes a change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Grayson is learning, but he is not the only person who experiences something that causes a change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Grayson’s brother is not learning from this experience. He has already learned about bicycles on ice and is sharing his knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ariel and Grayson are both learning. They both experienced something that causes a change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. [Q2] Learned behavior is illustrated in three of the following examples. Which example does NOT reflect learning? 1. After hours of debate, Alex changes her position on the topic. 2. DeShawn recognizes that 6 ´ 4 is the same as 4 ´ 6. 3. Carli cries when she jams her finger in the door. [correct] 4. Shiloh runs from dogs ever since a dog bit him last year.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Alex has a (probably) long-lasting change in her beliefs as a result of her experiences discussing the issues. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] DeShawn’s understanding is learned and reflects his experience with multiplication. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Learning is usually defined as a permanent or long-lasting change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior caused by experience. In this scenario, Carli doesn’t show a long-lasting change but rather reacts to circumstances with a response (crying) that is reflexive. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Shiloh’s response to encountering dogs is long-lasting and based on his experience of being bitten. [Q3] Which view of learning emphasizes the effects of external events on an individual? 1. Constructivism 2. Cognitive learning theory 3. Mentalism 4. Behavioral learning theory [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Constructivism focuses on the individual’s processing of information and construction of meaning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cognitive learning theory focuses on the brain’s thought processes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mentalism focuses on mental or thought processes. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The behavioral view focuses on changes in behavior and emphasizes the effects of external events on the individual. [Q4] Ms. Wilks establishes rules for her classroom on the first day of school. She expects students to stay seated and quiet at all times and punishes students for talking to peers during class, even if their talk relates to learning. Recently, Harper and Ava talked with each other briefly in an attempt to understand a new concept, and Ms. Wilks punished them by having them stay after class and miss the first five minutes of their next class. Harper and Ava are now complaining to their parents and to the school counselor about Ms. Wilks’ rules and punishment. The students’ concerns most directly relate to which of the following? 1. Religion

2. Ethics [correct] 3. Students’ respect for teachers 4. Common Core State Standards [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Religious issues are not part of the picture in this setting. The students are concerned about the teacher’s use of rules to control the students. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ethical issues related to behavioral views of learning include concerns about teacher control. Is too much control given to the teacher? How does it affect students and learning? Harper and Ava have ethical concerns about the teacher’s rules and punishment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students’ respect for teachers is not the issue in this setting. The students are concerned about their learning and the teacher’s use of rules to control the students to the extent that they are late to their next class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Common Core State Standards are not part of the picture in this setting. The students are concerned about the teacher’s use of rules to control the students. Learning Outcome 7.2. Explain early views of learning through contiguity and classical conditioning and describe their implications for teaching. [Q1] Dylan’s older sister helps him write his name and spell it aloud, and eventually Dylan writes and spells his name without help. At preschool, he usually asks his teacher if he spelled his name correctly, and she always says, “Y-E-S, yes.” After two weeks of this routine, his preschool teacher asks Dylan to spell the word yes, and he spells it correctly. What (if any) aspect of Dylan’s learning can be attributed to contiguity? 1. Spelling his name correctly 2. Spelling yes correctly [correct] 3. Writing his name correctly 4. No learning in this scenario can be attributed to contiguity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Spelling his name correctly is the result of direct instruction from Dylan’s sister and a lot of practice. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Quite a bit of classroom learning can be attributed to contiguity (i.e., learning by association). Dylan frequently heard his preschool teacher spell the word yes in conjunction with saying the word yes. Consequently he associated the word with its spelling.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Writing his name correctly is the result of direct instruction from Dylan’s sister and a lot of practice. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Quite a bit of classroom learning can be attributed to contiguity (i.e., learning by association). In this scenario, Dylan demonstrated that he learned something by association. [Q2] Landon has always had difficulty with test taking. As he entered the classroom for his biology exam, he began to shake. This is an example of the principles of: 1. operant conditioning 2. neutral stimuli 3. classical conditioning [correct] 4. negative reinforcement [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents. No antecedents or consequences are mentioned here. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The biology classroom, which may originally have been neutral, now provokes an anxiety response, which was learned. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or psychological responses such as fear or salivation, which are automatic responses to stimuli. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Negative reinforcement is a principle of operant conditioning in which taking away a negative stimulus serves to increase a particular behavior. But in this scenario, Landon’s anxiety is an example of a different principle. [Q3] Rodrigo is a third-grader who moves to a new school district after the first month of school. When he arrives at his new third-grade classroom in October, they are working on multiplication tables. This is something that he has never done before, and he fails the first several quizzes. Rodrigo is very frustrated because math used to be his favorite subject. Now, whenever he sees multiplication tables on a test, he becomes anxious. What is the unconditioned response in this situation? 1. Failing a quiz 2. Moving to a new school 3. Being anxious whenever he sees multiplication tables on a test 4. Frustration at failure in math [correct] 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The unconditioned stimulus (not response) is failing a math quiz. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Moving to a new school is not a response in this situation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Rodrigo’s conditioned stimulus (not unconditioned) is seeing multiplication tables, and his conditioned (not unconditioned) response is anxiety. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The unconditioned stimulus is failing at math, and the unconditioned response is frustration after failure in math. His conditioned stimulus is seeing multiplication tables, and his conditioned response is anxiety. [Q4] Which of the following teachers is best applying principles of classical conditioning in the classroom? 1. Mr. Rossi, who recognizes that his students love social media and develops a statistics lesson that allows them to collect data from a social media site. [correct] 2. Ms. Winston, who recognizes that her students love candy and so rewards them with chocolate bars when they successfully complete a new math unit. 3. Mr. Martin, who knows students like games and so often has classroom competitions where the top student wins a small but desirable prize. 4. Ms. DeLucca, who knows that her AP Calculus students do not like homework and so she makes it optional, as long as they continue to do well on tests. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mr. Rossi’s students will associate something they already like (using social media) with learning and so will develop positive feelings (i.e., a conditioned response) toward the learning tasks and statistics in general. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Winston is applying a principle of operant conditioning here: rewarding desired behavior when it occurs. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Martin is rewarding individual behaviors and as such is applying principles of operant conditioning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. DeLucca is removing something that the students find averse with the hope that doing so will lead to a desired behavior (continued good test performance). Ms. DeLucca is applying principles of operant conditioning.

[Q5] At the end of recess, Mrs. Wilson alerts her students to come back inside by blowing a train whistle. As soon as the students hear the train whistle, they form a line to come back inside. What is the train whistle in this situation? 1. Neutral stimulus 2. Conditioned response 3. Neutral response 4. Conditioned stimulus [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The students have learned to associate the sound (a previously neutral stimulus) with the end of recess. The whistle is no longer a neutral stimulus. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In this situation, the train whistle is not a response. The children’s behavior when they hear the whistle is a response. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In this situation, the train whistle is not a response. The children’s behavior when they hear the whistle is a response. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In this situation, the students have learned to associate the sound of a train whistle (a previously neutral stimulus) with the end of recess. The train whistle is now a conditioned stimulus. Learning Outcome 7.3. Explain operant conditioning, particularly the differences and similarities between positive and negative reinforcement and presentation and removal punishment and how reinforcement schedules affect learning. [Q1] If you saw your students engaging in a risky behavior, you would want to use the reinforcement schedule with a fast response rate and the greatest persistence, so you would use: 1. a fixed-ratio schedule 2. a variable-ratio schedule [correct] 3. a fixed-interval schedule 4. a variable-interval schedule [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In order to encourage persistence of response, fixed schedules are not the best option. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] If you are interested in fast response and persistence, you should use a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with your students. In order to encourage persistence of response, variable schedules are most appropriate. A ratio schedule is preferable to an interval schedule

because risky behaviors occur sporadically. It is necessary to reinforce each behavior regardless of the interval between behaviors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A fixed schedule is not the most effective approach because risky behaviors occur sporadically. It is necessary to reinforce each behavior regardless of the interval between behaviors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A variable schedule is not preferable because risky behaviors occur sporadically. It is necessary to reinforce each behavior regardless of the interval between behaviors. [Q2] Martin works the lights for his high school theater group. One day, when climbing a ladder to change a bulb, he slips and falls. He is not hurt, but the girl he has been trying to impress sees him fall and laughs at him. He feels humiliated. For a week afterward, whenever he sees that girl, he blushes and leaves the room. A month later, he still feels nervous, but does not blush. Eventually he overcomes the humiliation and is able to spend time in the same room with her again. In classical conditioning, what is this called? 1. Antecedent 2. Stimulus control 3. Extinction [correct] 4. Cueing [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In operant conditioning, the antecedent is the event preceding the behavior. This example deals with classical conditioning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In operant conditioning, stimulus control is the capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors. This example deals with classical conditioning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is the girl laughing at Martin. The unconditioned response is humiliation. The conditioned stimulus is seeing the girl. The conditioned response is being so embarrassed that he has to leave the room. The conditioned response of acute embarrassment gradually decreases and eventually disappears. This is called extinction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] By definition, cueing is the act of providing an antecedent stimulus just before a specific behavior is supposed to take place. This applies to operant conditioning, but this example deals with classical conditioning. [Q3] Mr. Jackson assigns homework every day and collects the homework every day. He scores and returns the homework the day after collecting it. For the students who are successful in Mr. Jackson’s class, this practice best illustrates:

1. a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule [correct] 2. a continuous reinforcement schedule 3. a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule 4. a variable-interval reinforcement schedule [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mr. Jackson’s homework assignments are given on a predictable schedule. The student is reinforced when the homework is returned the following day. This is a fixed-interval schedule. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It may appear that Mr. Jackson’s students are on a continuous schedule, but a continuous schedule implies that every “doing homework” behavior is being reinforced. This is not the case. For example, a student might do some homework during class, some after school, and some more at night. In Mr. Jackson’s class, the students are reinforced only when the homework is returned. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] With a ratio schedule, reinforcement is based on the number of responses between reinforcers. Mr. Jackson’s schedule is based on time (i.e., he returns homework the next day), thus, not a ratio schedule. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In a variable-interval schedule, Mr. Jackson would return homework unpredictably—sometimes the next day, and sometimes later. That is not the case here; he is very predictable. [Q4] Every time Camila blurts out answers, she is required to sit at the back of the classroom for the remainder of the discussion. This is an example of: 1. type II punishment 2. removal punishment 3. continuous reinforcement 4. presentation punishment [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Type II punishment involves removal of a pleasant stimulus following a behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Removal punishment involves removal of a pleasant stimulus following a behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Continuous reinforcement involves presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior is presentation punishment.

[Q5] Ms. Carlson teaches kindergarten. On the first day, she tells her students, “When I blink the lights three times, like this, you should sit down on your carpet square in the circle area, put your hands in your lap, and remain quiet. Okay, ready? Let’s try. Here go the lights. Go sit down, put your hands in your lap, and shhhh.” What behavioral technique is Ms. Carlson using? 1. Ms. Carlson is using negative reinforcement. 2. Ms. Carlson is using positive reinforcement. 3. Ms. Carlson is pairing a cue with a prompt. [correct] 4. Ms. Carlson is shaping students’ behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Negative reinforcement involves removing a stimulus that has a negative effect in order to encourage a particular behavior to reoccur. In this case, Ms. Carlson isn’t removing a negative stimulus. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Positive reinforcement involves presenting a desirable stimulus after a desired behavior, to encourage the behavior to reoccur. In this case, Ms. Carlson isn’t presenting a desirable stimulus. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In a short amount of time, students in Ms. Carlson’s class will associate the antecedent behavior—blinking lights—with the prompt to sit quietly in the circle area. She can then simply blink the lights to elicit the behavior from her students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Shaping involves a method of successive approximation—reinforcing progress toward the final goal. If Ms. Carlson rewarded moving to the circle area alone, and then later rewarded sitting on the carpet squares, then later rewarded sitting and putting their hands in their lap, she would be shaping the students’ behavior. Learning Outcome 7.4. Apply behavioral approaches to modifying behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. [Q1] Mr. Paulson is teaching his biology class about reproduction in mammals. He has a readingbased worksheet for them to fill out, and he also has a movie about baby animals for them to watch. He knows they will enjoy the movie, because every class has loved it in the past. Which of the following strategies would be the best use of the Premack principle? 1. Ask the class whether they prefer to complete the worksheet first or watch the movie first. 2. Show the movie first to get the students excited about the lesson and then assign the worksheet. 3. Have students complete the worksheet and then show the movie as a reward. [correct] 4. Tell students the movie is boring so they will fill out their worksheets first. 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to the Premack principle, a preferred activity can be used as a reinforcer for a lesspreferred activity. If the students choose to watch the movie first, Mr. Paulson has lost the opportunity to use it as a reinforcer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to the Premack principle, a preferred activity can be used as a reinforcer for a lesspreferred activity. Consider which activity is preferred and use it as a reward. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This is an appropriate example of the Premack principle. The students first complete the work they do not want to do and then get a reward in the form of the movie. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Deceiving the students is not the best strategy and is not an application of the Premack principle. [Q2] Dr. Jenkins works with students who are out of control in the classroom. She wants to set up a token reinforcement system to encourage her students to complete tasks and treat one another with respect. When she is just beginning the program, how should she provide tokens to her students to encourage maximum effectiveness of the system? 1. She should give tokens on an intermittent schedule regardless of students’ behavior. 2. She should give tokens on an intermittent schedule for good behavior and limit the opportunities to exchange tokens for rewards. 3. She should give tokens on a fairly continuous schedule regardless of students’ behavior. 4. She should give tokens on a fairly continuous schedule with frequent opportunities to exchange tokens for rewards. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The token system will fail if rewards are not based on behavior—in this case, completing tasks and treating one another with respect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] An intermittent schedule is not effective until the token reinforcement system is well established. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The token system will fail if rewards are not based on behavior—in this case, completing tasks and treating one another with respect. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In order to establish a token reinforcement system, a continuous reinforcement schedule helps students understand the system and feel motivated at the beginning. As time goes on, tokens should be distributed on an intermittent schedule and saved for longer periods of time before they are exchanged for rewards.

[Q3] Which of the following teachers is using group consequences most effectively? 1. Mr. Garnier takes away one minute from recess every time a student in his first-grade class talks out of turn. 2. Mr. Chen has his fifth-grade students write a reflective essay when their behavior negatively affects others in the class. 3. Mr. Perez gives out plastic coins each time the children in his kindergarten share toys with each other. He promises a special reward once every student has earned 3 tokens. [correct] 4. Mr. Okoro has a poster in front of his third-grade class where he posts gold stars every time any student earns 100% on a quiz. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Group consequences are not recommended as punishment for individual behaviors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In this example, the individual is asked to think about the consequences of his/her behavior on the whole class. That can be an effective class management technique, but it does not involve group consequences. The teacher is not offering any type of reward based on the behavior of the whole class. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Group consequences are most effective when students can support and encourage one another to perform the desired behaviors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When a teacher uses group consequences, he or she offers some type of reward or punishment to the whole class. No such system is apparent here. [Q4] Ms. Reyes has one fourth-grader named Jeffrey who thrives on attention and frequently exhibits distracting attention-getting behaviors. Which of the following strategies is most recommended for dealing with Jeffrey’s behavior? 1. Use response cost and deny privileges when Jeffrey gets two marks for negative behavior 2. Put Jeffrey in time out 3. Reprimand Jeffrey in front of the class 4. Set up a contingency contract with Jeffrey [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Denying privileges is a form of punishment, and punishment is not the most recommended strategy for handling negative behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Time out or social isolation is a form of punishment, and punishment is not the most recommended strategy for handling negative behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Research has shown that when reprimands are loud enough for the entire class to hear, disruptions increase or continue at a constant level. Some students enjoy public recognition for misbehavior. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A contingency contract between Ms. Reyes and Jeffrey specifies what Jeffrey must do to earn a particular reward or privilege. This approach involves the student in setting goals and abiding by the terms of the contract. Such approaches are preferred over strategies that involve punishment. [Q5] By the end of the first week of school, Ms. Carlson’s kindergarten class has learned to put away their toys and go sit in their circle when she blinks the lights at the end of the school day. The most effective way for Ms. Carlson to ensure that the children continue to follow this routine is for her to: 1. provide some type of reward occasionally [correct] 2. praise the class when they follow the routine 3. remind the children that the blinking lights mean cleanup time 4. promise the children something desirable if they clean up quickly [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] After new behaviors are established, teachers are advised to give reinforcement on an unpredictable schedule. A variable-ratio schedule tends to encourage persistence of a desired behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Continuous praise isn’t the best strategy, because it’s time consuming for the teacher and, if she misses several days, the children may stop behaving in the desired way. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Cuing is a good idea to help establish the behavior in the first place, but it’s not necessary to maintain it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Promising the children something desirable if they clean up quickly is a good strategy to help establish the behavior in the first place, but it’s not necessary to maintain it. Learning Outcome 7.5. Apply functional behavioral assessment, positive behavioral supports, and self-management techniques. [Q1] Cody, a boy in Ms. Boyd’s fourth-grade class, often acts out by throwing things or pestering his classmates. Ms. Boyd wants to use functional behavioral assessment to address Cody’s behavior. What is the first question Ms. Boyd should ask as she begins the functional behavioral assessment? 1. What is Cody’s favorite reward for good behavior? 12 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. What does Cody like or dislike about school? 3. What is Cody getting out of the inappropriate behavior? [correct] 4. What is Cody’s family situation? [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The question about Cody’s favorite reward would be a better question to answer later in the process of functional behavioral assessment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cody’s likes and dislikes about school may be relevant, but this is not the first question to ask in a functional behavioral assessment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Teachers have had success with an approach that begins by asking, “What are students getting out of their inappropriate behaviors—what functions do these behaviors serve?” The focus is on the why of the behavior, not on the what. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Cody’s family situation may be relevant, but this is not the first question to ask in a functional behavioral assessment. [Q2] Elise is misbehaving in class on an almost daily basis, so Mr. Conrad conducts a functional behavioral assessment. He notes that Elise tends to get out of her seat or speak out of turn most often when another student has the attention of the teacher’s aide. He also notes that Elise settles down when she receives attention from one of the adults in the classroom, but not from one of her peers. Based on his assessment, Mr. Conrad decides the best strategy to address Elise’s behavior is to: 1. provide adult attention when Elise is not misbehaving, not when she is misbehaving [correct] 2. remove Elise from the classroom when she is misbehaving 3. immediately respond when Elise begins to misbehave to stop the behavior from progressing 4. encourage Elise to work cooperatively with classmates who can give her attention she needs [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In this example, the antecedent to Elise’s behavior is adult attention given to another student, and the consequence is attention from an adult, which is serving as a reinforcer. In other words, Elise seems to be acting out to draw the teacher’s (or aide’s) attention, and it’s been working. Having identified the function of the behavior (desire for adult attention), the teacher can now address the behavior by providing attention in an appropriate way. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Remember that reinforcement by definition causes a behavior to increase, so the teacher doesn’t want to reinforce misbehavior by giving Elise the attention involved in removing her from the classroom. Moreover, because it seems that the function of the misbehavior is to gain adult attention, removing Elise from the class won’t address Elise’s need.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Because Elise settles down once she gets attention, this strategy may seem appealing as a class management strategy. However, attention seems to be reinforcing for Elise—she is likely to misbehave again when she wants attention next time. The teacher needs a better strategy to address the reason for Elise’s behavior (her desire for attention). [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The assessment suggests Elise wants adult attention, but it also appears that attention from peers isn’t the type of attention she wants. The teacher needs a better strategy to address the reason for Elise’s behavior (her desire for attention from the adults). [Q3] Aiden has several problem behaviors that his teacher, Ms. Harris, wishes to correct. For example, he talks to his friends constantly during lessons, and even whispers and passes notes to them during quizzes. What should be Ms. Harris’s approach if she wants to use positive behavioral supports (PBS) to correct Aiden’s behavior? 1. Move Aiden away from his friends and tell him he will miss recess if he continues to talk 2. Turn Aiden’s talkativeness into a positive by having him give a news report in class every day 3. Ask Aiden’s friends to help his behavior improve by ignoring him during class 4. Move Aiden away from these friends and reward his behavior when it improves [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is an example of punishment for misbehavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This approach does not relate to the context of Aiden’s misbehavior and is unlikely to reduce Aiden’s talking during class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This approach has the effect of making Aiden’s friends responsible for his misbehavior rather than helping Aiden take responsibility and learn new behaviors. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Using positive behavior supports (PBS) , Ms. Harris needs to identify the context for Aiden’s misbehavior, modify the situation to make this behavior less likely, and reward him for positive behaviors in the new context. [Q4] Whitney is on the school tennis team and in the choir, and she maintains a B average in school. She wants to improve her grades to be eligible for college scholarships, so she decides to use a program of self-management to use her time more efficiently and practice better study habits. To reach her goal, Whitney should use all of the following strategies EXCEPT: 1. Goal setting 2. Monitoring and evaluating progress 3. Behavioral assessment [correct] 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Self-reinforcement [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Goal setting is the first step in developing a self-management program. It is important to identify the end goal of the modifications implemented. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Monitoring and evaluating progress are important elements of a self-management program. These procedures will help Whitney know whether she is succeeding. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Behavioral assessment is not a step in developing a self-management program. Behavioral assessment is part of the functional behavioral assessment process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Self-reinforcement is the last step in a self-management program. Whitney might identify a reward to give herself when her grades improve. Perhaps the promise of the reward can provide extra incentive for work. [Q5] Positive behavior supports (PBS) help students with disabilities succeed in inclusion classrooms because they: 1. help teachers understand why a student is having trouble 2. punish negative behaviors 3. teach students new, more appropriate behaviors [correct] 4. focus on rules Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is the goal of a functional behavioral assessment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Positive behavior supports (PBS) involve interventions rather than punishment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Positive behavior supports (PBS) are the actual interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Positive behavior supports (PBS) focus on the individual student’s problem behavior and the interventions the student needs. Learning Outcome 7.6. Evaluate contemporary challenges to behavioral theories of learning and address concerns about their application. [Q1] Albert Bandura criticized behavioral views of learning in his early work and focused on: 1. acquisition of knowledge 15 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. observable performances 3. principles of reinforcement and punishment 4. observational learning [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Bandura’s work was more focused on the process of learning than on the specific knowledge acquired. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Bandura was interested in the unobservable cognitive processes. He distinguished between the acquisition of knowledge (learning) and the observable performance based on that knowledge (behavior). We all may know more than we show. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Reinforcement and punishment are behaviorist principles. Bandura felt that the traditional behavioral view of learning had many limitations, and his focus provided an alternative to behavioral theories. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Social learning theory has its roots in Bandura’s early criticisms of behavioral views of learning and his emphasis on observational learning—how people learn by observing others’ successes and failures. [Q2] Micah is sent to time-out for throwing an eraser at his friend Remi. She thought it was funny at the time, and she was about to throw an eraser back at Micah when she saw Micah being sent to time-out. Using Bandura’s social learning theory, predict Remi’s future behavior after seeing Micah being punished. 1. She will throw erasers, because she was not punished. 2. She won’t throw erasers because she learned vicariously from Micah’s punishment. [correct] 3. She won’t throw erasers because she doesn’t want Micah to feel bad if she gets caught. 4. She will throw erasers, because she thinks it is funny. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Enactive learning is learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions. But social learning focuses more on observational learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation of others—vicarious learning. Remi has learned by observing what happened to Micah. She is not likely to throw erasers after seeing her friend punished for this behavior. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Remi may not throw erasers, but social learning theory suggests different reasoning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Social learning theory suggests a different prediction based on observational learning. 16 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] Dominic sees that a good friend in his class is caught cheating on a homework assignment, but the friend suffers no consequences for doing so, even though cheating is in clear violation of school policy. From a social learning perspective, which one of the following predictions can we make about Dominic’s future behavior? 1. Dominic’s behavior will be unaffected. 2. Dominic will be less likely to cheat on homework in the future. 3. Dominic will decide to cheat on the next test. 4. Dominic will be more likely to cheat on homework in the future. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to social learning theory, individuals learn by observing others. Dominic’s behavior may be affected by his observation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Dominic will not be less likely to cheat, because he has learned though this vicarious experience that there are no undesirable consequences for breaking the rules in this class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Dominic won’t necessarily cheat on the next test after observing that his friend was not punished for cheating on homework. He is likely to recognize that cheating on homework and cheating on a test may have different consequences. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This is an example of vicarious learning. Dominic has observed that there were no negative consequences for cheating on the homework in this class, so he may now be more likely to cheat on homework in the future if there is an incentive to do so. [Q4] Which one of the following instances of learning can be explained more easily by social learning theory than by behavioral theories? 1. Brad discovers that to get his teacher’s approval, he must turn in his writing assignments without a single error in grammar, spelling, or punctuation. 2. Playing the role of a German butler in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he’s heard in movies. [correct] 3. Craig finds that he gets one “special” girl’s attention when he shows off on the playground. 4. Darren has stopped trying in school because he seems to get low grades no matter what he does. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The teacher’s approval here is a reward for a task (behavior or performance). This scenario suggests behavioral learning.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Behavioral theories focus on rewards and consequences or contingencies. In this case, Andy seems to be using observational learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The girl’s attention is Craig’s reward for his showing off (behavior). This scenario suggests behavioral learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The low grades have served as a punishment for Darren. He is focused on what he does (behavior). This scenario suggests behavioral learning. [Q5] Ms. Moreno uses observational learning effectively in her fifth-grade classroom. She most likely does all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Pair students who do well in math with students who struggle 2. Use continuous reinforcement of positive behaviors [correct] 3. Emphasize positive consequences heroes experience as a result of their positive behavior 4. Call on a class leader to model a positive behavior for the entire class [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students doing well can serve as models for their peers. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Continuous reinforcement isn’t necessary for learning, especially observational learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students can learn vicariously from stories about heroes and the effects of their deeds. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Modeling is a key principle of social learning theory.

Chapter 7 Application Exercises Application Exercise 7.1: Cueing Learning Outcome 7.3. Explain operant conditioning, particularly the differences and similarities between positive and negative reinforcement and presentation and removal punishment and how reinforcement schedules affect learning. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 7.2 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/literacy/folklore/Clip02.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.2 to answer the following question: Ms. Martin teaches a number of English learners (ELs) in her classroom. At the beginning of the lesson, she states, “So I’m going to scan for eyes.” In operant conditioning, how does this cue provide an antecedent stimulus? [Q1 Model Response] Ms. Martin’s cue is an antecedent stimulus for students to look at her, pay attention, and engage in the lesson. Her cue helps to capture every student’s attention at the beginning of the lesson. Ms. Martin recognizes that getting students’ attention is necessary for the intended learning to take place. Her cue sets the stage for behaviors that are conducive to learning and reduces the possibility that students will engage in distracting behaviors. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.2 to answer the following question: Why is it important for the students to imitate Ms. Martin’s cue when they take turns standing in front of the class and teaching the lesson? [Q2 Model Response] Oscar and other students who take turns teaching need to capture their peers’ attention in order for learning to continue. When these students stand before their peers to teach, they need to scan the room for eyes, making sure all eyes are on them and engaging in the lesson as they begin to teach. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.2 to answer the following question: What behavior does Ms. Martin elicit when she says, “I say, you say,” followed by the word, “apostrophe”? [Q3 Model Response] Ms. Martin is cueing students again. She expects students to follow the cue and repeat the new word to reinforce their learning.

Application Exercise 7.2: Using Praise Appropriately Learning Outcome 7.4. Apply behavioral approaches to modifying behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 7.3 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_960x540_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/heward/exceptionalchildren/01_Literacy_05_r etelling.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.3 to answer the following question: What is the role of praise in this learning setting? [Q1 Model Response] Praise is a reinforcer for the students in this classroom. The teacher compliments students for correct responses, uses phrases such as “nice thinking” and “that’s exactly right,” and to Katrina she praises her use of her voice. The teacher’s praise is really reinforcing because it is based on recognition of specific efforts of the students. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.3 to answer the following question: How does this teacher’s praise take into account each individual student’s abilities and limitations? [Q2 Model Response] The teacher in this video praises accomplishment in relation to the individual student’s ability. For example, the teacher recognizes that Katrina has difficulty using her voice and being understood. The teacher prompts Katrina and then praises Katrina’s accomplishment. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.3 to answer the following question: Based on the section of chapter 7 titled, “Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately,” evaluate this teacher’s use of praise and support your points. [Q3 Model Response] •

The teacher gives immediate praise. As soon as a student gives an answer to her question, she tells the student it is a great choice.

•

She uses praise sincerely, not in a controlling or evaluative way. After complimenting Katrina, the teacher states, “I know that’s hard for you.”

•

She takes into account each individual student’s abilities when she gives praise. To Katrina, she specifically praises her use of her voice. To other students, she provides sufficient prompts for them to produce responses she can praise sincerely. 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Application Exercise 7.3: Token Reinforcement Learning Outcome 7.4. Apply behavioral approaches to modifying behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 7.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/sciencemethods/CT/04_NM_Interview_classr oommanagement_part01.mp4 EDIT: Begin at the beginning. Stop at TC 2:15 “…stay on task and get their work done. And they love it.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.4 to answer the following question: Based on the program of Michael money described by the teacher in this video, what is accomplished by using a token reinforcement system? [Q1 Model Response] The token reinforcement system helps to motivate students to turn in their homework, complete academic tasks, and behave appropriately. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.4 to answer the following question: In this video, what type of reinforcement schedule does the teacher seem to use in rewarding tokens? [Q2 Model Response] The teacher in this video seems to distribute tokens for rewards on a variable-interval schedule. She awards tokens for specific achievements (turning in homework, completing tasks) and for recognition of good behavior. We don’t know whether some or all homework assignments and academic tasks are rewarded. Is the schedule the same for every student in the classroom, or does it vary on the basis of students’ needs for reinforcement? We don’t know. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 7.4 to answer the following question: In this video, what type of reinforcement schedule does the teacher seem to use in allowing students to exchange their tokens for rewards at Michael’s Market? [Q3 Model Response] The teacher in this video seems to use a fixed-interval schedule for allowing students to exchange tokens for rewards. She states that students have the opportunity to trade their tokens (Michael money) for prizes every Friday. The schedule is predictable, and students know they may spend their tokens every Friday. 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 7 Test Items Chapter 7 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 7.1: Define learning from a behavioral perspective, Multiple Choice: 1-3 including ties to neuroscience and the processes involved in Essay: 27 learning through contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Objective 7.2: Explain early views of learning through Multiple Choice: 4-7 contiguity and classical conditioning and describe their Essay: 28 implications for teaching. Objective 7.3: Explain operant conditioning, particularly the Multiple Choice: 8-13 differences and similarities between positive and negative Essay: 29 reinforcement and presentation and removal punishment and how reinforcement schedules affect learning. Objective 7.4: Apply behavioral approaches to modifying Multiple Choice: 14-21 behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral Essay: 30 analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. Objective 7.5: Apply functional behavioral assessment, positive Multiple Choice: 22-24 behavioral supports, and self-management techniques. Essay: 31 Objective 7.6: Evaluate contemporary challenges to behavioral Multiple Choice: 25-26 theories of learning and address concerns about their Essay: 32 application.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Learning is a process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. Which of the following examples of change illustrates learning? a. A child came down with the measles yesterday and her appearance is changing. b. A boy experiments with drugs and his behavior changes; he becomes moody. c. A girl’s shoe size changes as she grows taller and her feet grow longer. d. A child burned his hand on the iron last week and now stays away from the hot iron. 2. In her research, Dr. Benton examines change in children’s performance of skills with and without the external support of the teacher. Her research seems to be based on: a. cognitive learning theories. b. behavioral learning theories. c. contingency contract. d. theory of mind.

3. Which teacher seems to apply behavioral techniques in an ethical manner and with appropriate emphasis? a. “You will receive a reward for finishing your work on time. I hope everyone gets the reward at the end of the day.” b. “This is an infraction of the rules. You will be punished every time you break this rule or any other classroom rule.” c. “You need to sit still, raise your hands, and wait for me to recognize you. Stop blurting out spontaneous responses.” d. “Stay in your seat until you finish the task and meet your goal. It will help you focus on the material and learn.” 4. Mrs. Sanchez wants her students to learn to start their seat assignment and stop talking when the second morning bell rings. By pairing this stimulus-response sequence, Mrs. Sanchez is applying which of the following principles of learning? a. Contiguity b. Observational learning c. Theory of mind d. Operant conditioning 5. Bryson was three when his neighbor’s house burned down. He heard the loud sirens and saw the fire and trembled with fear. Now he’s starting preschool. He hears the loud school bell ring, and he associates it with the fire and the fire truck sirens. Bryson begins to tremble. In this setting, the sound of the bell is: a. a neutral response. b. a neutral stimulus. c. an unconditioned response. d. a conditioned stimulus. 6. Ms. Cardot wants her students to enjoy math. In order to help students associate math with pleasant thoughts, she introduces new manipulatives at the math center each week for students to use in solving math problems. Often the manipulatives involve edible snacks the children like. Ms. Cardot’s approach is an example of: a. operant conditioning. b. unconditioned response. c. classical conditioning. d. neutral response. 7. Lily does not like conflict. When her parents argue and raise their voices, Lily feels frightened. She has seen her dad strike her mom after yelling at her. At school, Mr. Nash raises his voice and Lily begins to tremble. Lily’s trembling is: a. a conditioned stimulus. b. a neutral response. c. a conditioned response.

d. an unconditioned response. 8. Michael often gets out of his seat in the classroom. His buddy has noticed a pattern. Any time the teacher leaves the room, Michael gets out of his seat. When the teacher returns, she reprimands Michael. What is the antecedent of Michael’s behavior? a. The teacher leaves the room. b. Michael gets out of his seat. c. Michael’s buddy observes Michael’s behavior. d. The teacher reprimands Michael. 9. Ms. Castello has tried several configurations for students to practice the Spanish conversations they memorize from their textbook. Students seem to enjoy the task most when they work in pairs scattered around the classroom, and they dread the task when they are required to perform in front of the class. How might Ms. Castello use this information to provide negative reinforcement? a. Reward students by allowing them to work in pairs if they complete written assignments in a timely manner. b. Punish students when they fail to participate in the whole class activity by taking away the privilege of working in pairs. c. Remove the requirement to perform in front of the class if students focus and perform well in pairs. d. Assure students that they will be allowed to work in pairs after they perform in front of the class. 10. Samantha habitually blurted out answers to questions during class discussion. Mr. Hargrove repeatedly called Samantha by name and told her to wait her turn, but Samantha repeated her behavior day after day. Mr. Hargrove finally realized that his strategy was not working. He thought he was using a form of punishment by calling Samantha by name and telling her to wait, but his strategy turned out to be: a. negative reinforcement of the behavior. b. positive reinforcement of the behavior. c. the antecedent for the behavior. d. the unconditioned stimulus. 11. In the teachers’ workroom, Mrs. Jackson boasted that she squelched Martin’s name-calling by making a video of him in the act of name-calling and sending it to his parents. Mrs. Jackson’s method is an example of: a. negative reinforcement. b. removal punishment. c. positive reinforcement. d. presentation punishment. 12. Luana is learning to stay in her seat and work on her language arts tasks without talking to friends around her. She has been working on this new behavior for a week. During the first week, Ms. Kalani reinforces Luana every time Luana completes one of the tasks without talking. Now Ms. Kalani wants to use the reinforcement schedule that is most likely to result 24 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

in the greatest persistence from Luana. What reinforcement schedule will be most effective in meeting her goal? a. Fixed-ratio schedule b. Continuous schedule c. Variable-ratio schedule d. Extinction schedule 13. Which of the following teachers is using cueing? a. “We are having a quiz, and I expect everyone to have read the chapter and prepared sufficiently.” b. “First, remember to put your heading on your paper. Here’s the reminder of the proper paper heading on the board.” c. “Many of you heard my instructions and got ready for lunch. We are still waiting for about four students to respond.” d. “Why are you doing that part of the task first? I hope you remember the steps in the process.” 14. Cristal rushes through her spelling assignments and her seatwork. She likes to finish first and read, but she makes careless mistakes and turns in incomplete work. Her teacher has tried several strategies that have not worked with Cristal. Now she plans to use applied behavior analysis. She tells Cristal that the goal is for her to complete the seatwork with fewer than three errors and no incompletions. She tells Cristal she will give her a token each time she meets the goal. If she achieves five tokens in a week, she will choose a reward from the surprise basket. Now what does the teacher need to do? a. Change the goal every time Cristal earns a token. b. Alter the intervention every week and apply punishment if it is unsuccessful. c. Keep a record of Cristal’s results and modify the plan if necessary. d. Offer the same intervention and incentives to all children in the class. 15. Praise is more effective if used appropriately. Based on guidelines for giving praise, which teacher seems to understand and use praise appropriately? a. You are a good boy. You did a much better job in class today, Felipe. b. I see that you did better than the others in your group today. Good work, Amanda. c. I am glad you used the correct heading and turned in a very neat paper today, Marquis. d. Everyone should be watching LeVonne and doing exactly what she is doing when the bell rings. 16. When Mr. Kato’s high school students asked him to allow them to get into their groups and talk about the upcoming field trip rather than discussing the chapter, Mr. Kato said, “I’m going to invoke the Premack principle.” What did he most likely do? a. Tell students to promise to do a good job of discussing the chapter if he allowed them to talk about the field trip first. b. Tell students to discuss the field trip in groups and agree to do the chapter questions for homework. 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. Tell students to stop asking for class time to talk about the field trip if they still want to go on the field trip. d. Tell students they must discuss the chapter first and then get into groups to talk about the field trip. 17. Estefan has problems with penmanship. His fine motor skills are not well developed, and Mrs. Finch believes that he will never perform well enough to gain reinforcement. Mrs. Finch breaks the task of forming letters with long stems into small steps. First, she expects Estefan to make straight stems. She will reinforce his efforts when he makes straight stems on his writing assignment. In this case, she is using: a. cueing. b. the Premack principle. c. shaping. d. extinction. 18. Haley confuses the words there, they’re, and their in her writing. As Mr. Morrow monitors students during writing assignments, he often catches Haley’s incorrect use of these words. If he wants to implement a system of positive practice, what will he do? a. Mr. Morrow will ask the rest of the class to tell Haley which spelling she needs to use in her sentence. b. Mr. Morrow will expect Haley to rework the lesson about the spellings of these homonyms. c. As soon as Mr. Morrow notices the mistake on Haley’s paper, he will mark the paper, return it to Haley, and ask her to redo the assignment. d. As soon as Mr. Morrow sees the mistake, he tells Haley to say and write the correct spelling several times. 19. In her fifth-grade classroom, Ms. Latimer has several students who don’t cooperate when she tells the class to get into group formation. These students are vocal about disliking group work. Ms. Latimer told them today that they may shorten their group task time by getting into groups quickly and completing cooperative tasks according to the ten-minute schedule she has planned. Ms. Latimer is using which of the following methods to get her students to cooperate? a. Negative reinforcement b. Reprimands c. Response cost d. Social isolation 20. Russ broke the rule about using outdoor equipment outdoors only. He threw the baseball and put a dent in the trashcan. Russ loves to play baseball, but now he is giving up his baseball privileges for two weeks as a result of his infraction. What method of punishment is being used? a. Social isolation b. Response cost c. Negative reinforcement 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Premack principle 21. Punishment is often ineffective. Based on studies about the use of punishment, why is it typically ineffective? a. It fails to apply classical conditioning. b. It fails to use reinforcement as a means of discouraging the behavior. c. It fails to teach children what they did wrong and what they should stop doing. d. It fails to teach children what to do in place of the behavior being punished. 22. Mr. LeDoux is gathering information about the perpetual misbehavior of Nicolas in French class. In several instances, he recorded the antecedent of the behavior and the consequences following the behavior. He is trying to understand why Nicolas repeats the negative behavior. What process is Mr. LeDoux using? a. Positive behavior supports b. Self-management c. Functional behavioral assessment d. Task analysis 23. Jailyn has dyslexia and withdraws from her group when the task involves oral reading. When her teacher realizes the function of this behavior, she tells Jailyn to ask one of the other students to read in her place. This intervention allows Jailyn to skip the oral reading without withdrawing from her group. This type of intervention is called: a. positive behavior supports. b. positive reinforcement. c. positive practice. d. functional behavioral assessment. 24. Hunter got into a habit of watching TV and using social media to keep up with all of his friends before starting homework. He was embarrassed when he turned in an incomplete history paper and fell asleep during science class last week. He set a goal of doing his homework as soon as he gets home from school every day. What system is most likely to help him make the behavior change he wants to make and meet his goal? a. Behavior modification b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive behavior supports d. Self-management 25. A first grader was able to arrange names of group members alphabetically by watching the strategy used by her teacher and imitating the teacher’s actions. This example supports which of the following theories about learning? a. Enactive learning b. Vicarious learning c. Classical conditioning d. Operant conditioning 27 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

26. Why are behavioral methods criticized? a. Students readily repeat behaviors that are ignored. b. Teachers usually use reinforcement to recognize appropriate behavior. c. Reinforcement and punishment are often used irresponsibly. d. Teachers typically try to teach students to be more self-managing.

Essay Questions 27. On the first day of school, Mr. Dodd informs his high school math students that he expects them to enter the classroom and be seated before the bell rings, raise their hands to be recognized before speaking, and refrain from talking to other students in class at all times. He also states that he uses a variety of punishments when students violate his rules. Based on your knowledge of behavioral learning methods, what ethical concerns are raised by Mr. Dodd’s message to his students? 28. Mrs. Blue wants to help her young daycare children calm down after lunch recess and rest for thirty minutes. These children are between the ages of 3 and 4. They eat lunch, play outside for a short time, and then come indoors for a rest period. Explain how Mrs. Blue might use contiguous pairing of a song and the room’s lighting to develop a conditioned response from these young children in order to create a calm, quiet environment for their afternoon rest period. Explain how classical conditioning is involved. 29. Jerrod is a fifth-grade boy who loves to make people laugh. He invokes laughter in the classroom by making a small sound, a facial expression, a witty comment, or using a vivid metaphor. Based on what you know about operant conditioning, explain how the following consequences likely influence Jerrod’s behavior. First consequence: Everyone laughs at Jerrod’s behavior. Second consequence: Everyone ignores Jerrod’s behavior. 30. Ms. Karnes teaches eighth grade social studies. She knows her students well, knows their likes and dislikes, and knows their capabilities. Her students like to get her off on a tangent during a lesson, and they enjoy every opportunity to work together and talk. Ms. Karnes assigned a big project that involves group work and independent work. How might she use the Premack principle to encourage her eighth-grade students to focus and complete their task efficiently? 31. Mr. Halbert teaches middle school language arts. One of his students, Carli, has attention deficit problems and gets distracted easily. Mr. Halbert uses effective strategies when he presents lessons, and his lessons hold Carli’s attention with the use of visuals, modeling, and engaging the students. However, during independent tasks, Carli often disengages from the task and creates elaborate architectural drawings on her paper. Mr. Halbert has tried cues and prompts, but they are not sufficient. He does not want to use punishment and feels certain it would not be effective anyway. Carli is in middle school, and Mr. Halbert wants to try a self-management approach. Describe how Mr. Halbert might set up a self-management program with Carli. Explain the steps involved. 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

32. Ryan is on a baseball team with other 8-year-olds in a community league. On the first day of practice, Ryan’s buddy hit the ball and threw his bat aside as he ran to first base. The coach reprimanded the player for throwing the bat and told him to sit on the bench for the rest of the practice. Ryan saw what happened to his buddy and determined that he would always drop the bat at his feet when he got a hit. How might Bandura describe Ryan’s learning in this situation, and what label might he apply to Ryan’s learning?

Chapter 7 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: A child burned his hand on the iron last week and now stays away from the iron. Feedback for Correct Answer: Learning is the process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. The child’s learning from an experience caused him to change his behavior and stay away from the hot iron. Text Reference: Understanding Learning

Correct Answer: behavioral learning theories. Feedback for Correct Answer: Behavioral learning theories are explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors. Dr. Benton is examining changes in students’ performance (observable). She is comparing performance with and without teacher support (external event). The basis for her research appears to be behavioral learning theories. Text Reference: Understanding Learning

Correct Answer: “Stay in your seat until you finish the task and meet your goal. It will help you focus on the material and learn.” Feedback for Correct Answer: This teacher’s technique focuses on learning and achieving academic goals. The teacher uses behavioral methods to help the student change a behavior in order to learn. Text Reference: Understanding Learning

Correct Answer: Contiguity Feedback for Correct Answer: The principle of contiguity states that whenever two or more sensations occur together often enough, they will become associated. Later, when only one of these sensations (a stimulus: the bell ringing) occurs, the other will be remembered too (a response: stop talking and start seat assignment). Text Reference: Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Correct Answer: a conditioned stimulus. Feedback for Correct Answer: A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning. Text Reference: Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Correct Answer: classical conditioning. Feedback for Correct Answer: Classical conditioning is the association of automatic responses with new stimuli. The new manipulatives (new stimuli) for solving math problems at the math center elicit a response (automatically) of pleasant feelings about math. 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Text Reference: Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning 7.

Correct Answer: a conditioned response. Feedback for Correct Answer: A conditioned response is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Lily associates a raised voice with escalating conflict and becomes fearful. This is a learned response. Text Reference: Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Correct Answer: The teacher leaves the room. Feedback for Correct Answer: Antecedents are events that precede an action. The teacher leaves the room and then Michael takes action. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

Correct Answer: Remove the requirement to perform in front of the class if students focus and perform well in pairs. Feedback for Correct Answer: Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs. Ms. Castello strengthens the behavior of performing well in pairs by removing the aversive stimulus—the requirement to perform in front of the class. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

10.

Correct Answer: positive reinforcement of the behavior. Feedback for Correct Answer: Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior occurs. Mr. Hargrove’s attention (calling Samantha’s name and telling her to wait her turn) strengthened Samantha’s behavior rather than stopping it. To Samantha, the attention was positive reinforcement. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

11.

Correct Answer: presentation punishment. Feedback for Correct Answer: Presentation punishment decreases the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior. Sending the video to Martin’s parents was an aversive stimulus. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

12.

Correct Answer: Variable-ratio schedule Feedback for Correct Answer: A ratio schedule is based on the number of responses learners give between reinforcers. To encourage persistence of response, variable schedules are most appropriate. Persistence in performance depends on unpredictability. Continuous reinforcement and both kinds of fixed reinforcement (ratio and interval) are quite predictable. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

13.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Cueing is the act of providing an antecedent stimulus just before a specific behavior is supposed to take place. Cueing is particularly useful in setting the stage for behaviors that must occur at a given time but are easily forgotten. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 14.

Correct Answer: Keep a record of Cristal’s results and modify the plan if necessary. Feedback for Correct Answer: Applied behavior analysis is the application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. The teacher has taken the necessary steps to specify the behavior to be changed, establish the goal and the desired behavior, and plan the intervention. Now the teacher needs to carry out the step of keeping track of the results. As she tracks the results, the teacher will know whether to alter the plan or keep it the same. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

15.

Correct Answer: I am glad you used the correct heading and turned in a very neat paper today, Marquis. Feedback for Correct Answer: This teacher was specific in giving praise and told Marquis privately what he did well rather than using him as an example for the class to follow. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

16.

Correct Answer: Tell students they must discuss the chapter first and then get into groups to talk about the field trip. Feedback for Correct Answer: The Premack principle states that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity. The students prefer talking about the field trip. This becomes a reinforcer for the class discussion about the chapter. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

17.

Correct Answer: shaping. Feedback for Correct Answer: Shaping is a process that involves reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

18.

Correct Answer: As soon as Mr. Morrow sees the mistake, he tells Haley to say and write the correct spelling several times. Feedback for Correct Answer: Mr. Morrow is using positive practice overcorrection, which involves practicing correct responses immediately after errors. This approach is especially appropriate for dealing with academic errors like Haley’s mistake. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

19.

Correct Answer: Negative reinforcement Feedback for Correct Answer: Negative reinforcement uses the subtraction of an aversive stimulus to bring about the desired response. In 32 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

this case, group time is the aversive stimulus. The aversive stimulus of group time will be reduced after students provide the proper response (getting into groups quickly and completing the cooperative task). The focus is on strengthening the behavior of getting into groups quickly and cooperatively completing the task quickly. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis 20.

Correct Answer: Response cost Feedback for Correct Answer: Russ’s punishment involves the loss of a reinforcer. Not being allowed to play baseball for two weeks is the loss of a reinforcer. Two weeks without baseball is the cost of Russ’s rule breaking. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

21.

Correct Answer: It fails to teach children what to do in place of the behavior being punished. Feedback for Correct Answer: Study after study shows that punishment by itself, as usually practiced in homes and schools, just doesn’t work. It tells children what to stop doing, but it does not teach them what to do instead. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

22.

Correct Answer: Functional behavioral assessment Feedback for Correct Answer: Functional behavioral assessment is a set of procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior. Text Reference: Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management

23.

Correct Answer: positive behavior supports. Feedback for Correct Answer: Positive behavior supports are the actual interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student. Jailyn skips oral reading in her group but remains in the group rather than withdrawing. Text Reference: Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management

24.

Correct Answer: Self-management Feedback for Correct Answer: Self-management is management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. It is the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior. Hunter is already taking the first step of a self-management system by setting a goal. Text Reference: Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management

25.

observing others, so it often is called observational learning. Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation of others. Text Reference: Challenges and Criticisms 26.

Correct Answer: Reinforcement and punishment are often used irresponsibly. Feedback for Correct Answer: Behavioral strategies are often implemented haphazardly, inconsistently, incorrectly, or superficially. The indiscriminate use of even the best tools can lead to difficulties. Text Reference: Challenges and Criticisms

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 27.

Suggested Response: Ethical concerns surrounding the use of behavioral methods are based on goals and strategies. A teacher’s goals should be focused on academic learning, and strategies should center around positive approaches rather than punishment. Mr. Dodd appears to use behavioral methods as a way of controlling students’ behavior. He seems all too focused on behavior control, even to the point of threatening with punishments, and not focused on the use of behavioral strategies for learning and meeting academic goals. Text Reference: Understanding Learning

28.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Blue might do the following. Begin singing a quiet song and lead the children to their mats. Then dim the lights in the room. These contiguous actions set the tone for the children to be calm and quiet. Repeat the same song and dimming of the lights as children are led to their mats every day after recess. After several days of following this procedure, the children are likely to follow the steps automatically. They are likely to experience a slower heart rate and a lower energy level. The quiet song and dim lights become associated with sitting or lying quietly on their mats. Initially the song and the dim lighting are neutral stimuli. In time, they become the conditioned stimuli. The slower heart rate, lower energy level, and calming are the conditioned response. Text Reference: Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

29.

Suggested Response: Based on what we know about operant conditioning, consequences influence behavior. First consequence: If everyone in the classroom laughs at Jerrod’s behavior, their laughter is positive reinforcement. Jerrod is likely to repeat his behavior, because positive reinforcement strengthens behavior.

Second consequence: If everyone ignores Jerrod’s behavior, then the behavior is not reinforced. Jerrod is likely to stop the behavior. The others in the classroom are not providing the desired stimulus in response to his behavior. He is not getting positive reinforcement to strengthen the behavior. Text Reference: Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 30.

Suggested Response: The Premack principle states that more-preferred activities can serve as reinforcers for less-preferred activities. This is also called grandma’s rule: First do what I want you to do, then you may do what you want. Ms. Karnes knows her students well. She can identify things they want to do. For example, they like to do group work more than independent work. Ms. Karnes might view this aspect of the project as the more-preferred activity and the independent work as the less-preferred activity. By getting students to complete a segment of the independent work before they work on an aspect of the group task, Ms. Karnes uses the Premack principle. For the strategy to succeed on such a big project, Ms. Karnes needs to set up the assignment as chunks of independent work and chunks of group work. Then she is able to use the Premack principle day by day rather than lumping all independent work at the beginning and all group work at the end. Text Reference: Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

31.

Suggested Response: Self-management is based on the idea that the student takes responsibility for learning and for achieving goals. No one else can learn for the student. In Carli’s case, she is easily distracted, but she pays attention during lessons that are presented effectively. Teaching Carli to use a process of self-management involves several steps. 1. Goal setting: Mr. Halbert might begin by helping Carli set goals about paying attention and staying focused on a task. The goals should be realistic and achievable. By sharing the goals with the teacher, Carli is more likely to approach them seriously and achieve them than she would if she kept them to herself. 2. Monitoring: Mr. Halbert might suggest a format for recording Carli’s attention and task completion behaviors. He might encourage her to design a form that works best for her. Mr. Halbert has seen Carli’s elaborate drawings, and she may prefer to design her own form. She will be responsible for recording her progress every day or for every activity. 3. Evaluating progress: Carli needs to evaluate her own progress. Mr. Halbert might discuss ways to evaluate on the basis of the goals Carli set. 4. Self-reinforcement: Carli will likely want to reward herself for meeting her goals. She chooses the reward. The reward must be something she denies herself until she meets her goal. Text Reference: Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management

32.

person, his buddy, receive punishment for the behavior of throwing his bat. As the observer, Ryan learned vicariously. He recognized that he didn’t want to perform the same behavior as his buddy and receive the same punishment. Bandura labels this vicarious or observational learning. Text Reference: Challenges and Criticisms

Chapter 7 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 7.1 Define learning from a behavioral perspective, including ties to neuroscience and the processes involved in learning through contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Outcome 7.2 Explain early views of learning through contiguity and classical conditioning and describe their implications for teaching. Outcome 7.3 Explain operant conditioning, particularly the differences and similarities between positive and negative reinforcement and presentation and removal punishment and how reinforcement schedules affect learning. Outcome 7.4 Apply behavioral approaches to modifying behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. Outcome 7.5 Apply functional behavioral assessment, positive behavioral supports, and selfmanagement techniques. Outcome 7.6 Evaluate contemporary challenges to behavioral theories of learning and address concerns about their application. [Q1] LO 7.2 Every time the principal observes Mr. Kent’s teaching for his quarterly review, Mr. Kent becomes unusually rigid and strict with the students. By the end of the school year, when Mr. Kent announces to his students that the principal is coming to visit, the students experience anxiety. What explains the students’ anxiety? 1. Operant conditioning 2. A neutral stimulus 3. Negative reinforcement 4. Classical conditioning [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of an involuntary emotional response such as the students’ anxiety. [Q2] LO 7.3 After monitoring students in their practice of a new math skill, the teacher assigns seatwork for independent practice. Dominic looks at the task and starts talking to the students seated nearby. He doesn’t complete his work, and he interferes with others who are trying to focus. What is the antecedent of Dominic’s disruptive behavior? 1. Seatwork for independent math practice [correct] 2. Dominic’s talking to students seated nearby 3. Dominic’s failure to complete his math task 4. There is no antecedent for Dominic’s disruptive behavior 37 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The antecedent is the event that precedes an action. The event that precedes Dominic’s disruptive behavior is the assignment of independent math practice. [Q3] LO 7.3 Mr. Camp gave his students tokens every time they lined up quietly. He was proud of their cooperation and continued to give tokens every time students lined up without disruptions. After two weeks of complete cooperation, students initiated some of the negative behaviors that had exhibited at the beginning of the year. What type of reinforcement schedule should Mr. Camp have used after students mastered lining up quietly? 1. Continuous 2. Fixed-interval 3. No reinforcement 4. Intermittent [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Mr. Camp used continuous reinforcement by giving students tokens every time they lined up appropriately—even after students mastered the behavior. He should have used an intermittent reinforcement schedule—presenting a reinforcer after some successful behavior but not every time. [Q4] LO 7.4 Applied behavior analysis requires several steps for a behavior to be changed. These steps include all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Interventions based on behavioral principles to change the behavior 2. Concrete reinforcement for good behavior [correct] 3. Clear specification of the behavior to be changed and careful measurement of the behavior 4. Analysis of antecedents and reinforcers that might maintain inappropriate behavior [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Concrete reinforcement for good behavior is not a step in the applied behavior analysis process. The other step is careful measurement of changes. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 7.3 Case Shanice Williams sat in Dr. Karr’s office, once again, having to explain why she could not get along with her teacher. “I don’t know why she picks on me in front of the class. All I know is that when she starts to yell at me, I lose my temper. I’m not even sure what I am supposed to do. It seems like everything I do is wrong according to Ms. Frost. I know we have talked about getting along and how that would be better for everyone, but Dr. Karr, I just don’t like her, and she does not like me. Can’t I be switched to another class?” Is Ms. Frost doing anything that actually contributes to Shanice’s poor behavior? Explain your answer. 38 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer 5] Ms. Frost is doing several things that could actually contribute to Shanice’s behavior. Teachers should avoid reprimanding students in front of their peers. Ms. Frost should let Shanice know what she wants her to do instead of just reprimanding her. Ms. Frost should also let Shanice know when she is behaving in an acceptable manner, using praise that is specific to a certain behavior. Ms. Frost needs to also understand that her interaction with Shanice is having a negative effect on their relationship, which can impact the learning process. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 7.3 Case Shanice Williams sat in Dr. Karr’s office, once again, having to explain why she could not get along with her teacher. “I don’t know why she picks on me in front of the class. All I know is that when she starts to yell at me, I lose my temper. I’m not even sure what I am supposed to do. It seems like everything I do is wrong according to Ms. Frost. I know we have talked about getting along and how that would be better for everyone, but Dr. Karr, I just don’t like her, and she does not like me. Can’t I be switched to another class?” Shanice’s negative behavior has not decreased as a result of consequences (the teacher’s yelling). What might you conclude about the yelling? [Feedback for Answer 6] If a behavior does not decrease after a teacher applies a consequence, such as yelling, one could assume that the consequence (yelling) may actually be reinforcing the student’s behavior.

Chapter 8 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 8: Cognitive Views of Learning Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 8: Cognitive Views of Learning Chapter 8 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 8.1. Differentiate between behavioral and cognitive views of learning, including the role of knowledge in the cognitive view. [Q1] Gabriel wants to learn how to throw a baseball accurately, and his dad is demonstrating and trying to teach him. What area or areas of Gabriel’s brain are activated when he watches his dad throw the ball? 1. Only the area of his brain that receives the visual stimulus 2. Only the area of his brain that would be involved if her were throwing the ball 3. Only the area of his brain that perceives the process 4. The area that perceives and the area that would be involved in throwing the ball [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The area of Gabriel’s brain that receives the visual stimulus is involved, but this is not the only part of the brain at work. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The area of his brain that would be involved in throwing the ball is only one part of the brain that is firing during the observation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The area of his brain that perceives is only one part of the brain that is firing during the observation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When you observe someone perform an action, a mirror system is activated in the brain such that the area that perceives and the area that would be involved in performing the action are both firing. [Q2] The primary difference between older and newer cognitive views of learning is that: 1. Older views focused on acquisition of knowledge; newer views focus on construction of knowledge. [correct] 2. Older views emphasized how behavior changes as a result of external influences; newer views emphasize the importance of internal influences. 3. Older views were influenced by ancient Greek philosophy; newer views are more influenced by behaviorist traditions. 4. Older views focused on cognitive science; newer views focus on acquisition of knowledge.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] All cognitive views, both older and newer, assume that humans are active information processors. The emphasis has changed in recent years, however, to emphasize the active role of the individual in construction of knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Behaviorist tradition focuses on external influences; cognitive views both older and newer focus more on (internal) mental processing. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This isn’t inaccurate, but it’s not the best choice. All cognitive views of learning are influenced by the ancient Greeks. It is true that current cognitive theories arose in part as a response to behaviorist traditions, but this isn’t the primary difference in newer and older views. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The study of cognitive science is relatively recent. Older views focused on acquisition of knowledge. [Q3] Avery consistently doodles on her geography homework. While her answers are often correct, she seems distracted. Which of the following strategies for helping Avery demonstrates a cognitive approach? 1. After a warning, begin deducting points from each paper Avery hands in that has doodling on it. 2. Develop a system of rewards that encourages Avery not to doodle. 3. Find activities for Avery that encourage her to use her artistic skills to help her learn geography. [correct] 4. Verbally encourage the entire classroom not to doodle on their papers, hoping that Avery will specifically internalize the general warning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This strategy is more consistent with a behaviorist approach. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This strategy is more consistent with a behaviorist approach. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Cognitive approaches emphasize students’ active engagement with their own learning. Integrating Avery’s current interests with material that needs to be learned is a good strategy for engaging her in the learning process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This strategy is more consistent with a behaviorist approach.

[Q4] Logan tells his dad the names of the planets in the solar system. What type of knowledge is he demonstrating? 1. General knowledge 2. Knowledge acquired from the environment 3. Domain-specific knowledge [correct] 4. Procedural knowledge [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] General knowledge is information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks and applies to many situations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Knowledge acquired from the environment, or stimuli from the environment, include the information registered by our senses. This question asks what type of knowledge Logan is demonstrating as he names the planets. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Logan demonstrates domain-specific knowledge. This knowledge applies mainly to one specific topic. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Logan is not telling his dad how to do something. He is naming the planets. [Q5] Which of the following tasks requires the students to demonstrate procedural knowledge? 1. Explain why water evaporates when it reaches the boiling point. 2. Draw a graph that shows the correlation between height and weight. [correct] 3. Provide one example of a simile and one example of a metaphor. 4. Define the terms superficial, perfunctory, and desultory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This task assesses declarative knowledge––“knowing that” about something. The students are asked to explain why, but they’re not asked to show how to do something. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Procedural knowledge is “knowing how” to do something. Students demonstrate procedural knowledge when they perform the task of drawing a specified graph (showing that they “know how”). [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This question taps students’ understanding that similes are different from metaphors (declarative knowledge) but doesn’t require them to demonstrate how to do something.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This question taps students’ knowledge of the words but doesn’t require them to show how to do anything. Learning Outcome 8.2. Explain early information processing models of memory and recent cognitive science models, including working memory, cognitive load theory, and individual differences in working memory. [Q1] Zach is doing his homework at a coffee shop. Which of the following examples illustrates his goal-directed attention? 1. Zack hears a conversation between two teens arguing nearby. 2. Zach intentionally reads the text and makes notes. [correct] 3. Zach sees a flash of light and notices that a police car is pulling up outside. 4. Zack hears a notification on his phone as he sees his phone light up. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Hearing a conversation nearby is stimulus-driven attention. Sounds of people talking alert Zach to the conversation and his attention is drawn to the arguing. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Goal-directed attention is intentional. Zach intentionally focuses his attention on reading the text and making notes. In the coffee shop, Zach must be intentional to achieve goal-directed attention and block out sensory stimuli such as sights and sounds and smells that would distract him. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Seeing a flash of light and noticing the police car is an example of stimulus-driven attention. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Hearing the notification and seeing the light on his phone are both examples of stimulus-driven attention. [Q2] Brooklyn is a high school student who considers herself a terrific multitasker. She frequently texts, plays music, checks social media, and studies at the same time. She believes that her attention is better when she feels connected to the world outside her quiet room. Which of the following statements represents an evidence-based assumption that applies in Brooklyn’s case? 1. Brooklyn, like most high school students, learns more efficiently when she multitasks. 2. Brooklyn’s experience with multitasking makes her learn efficiently when she multitasks. 3. Brooklyn’s habit of multitasking makes her unable to focus only on one thing. 4. Brooklyn is less efficient when she multitasks than when she focuses on one task. [correct]

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to studies, it can take up to 400% longer to do a homework assignment if you are multitasking. Brooklyn’s learning is not more efficient when she multitasks. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] As Shalena Srna and her colleagues (2018) said, “Although the term [multitasking] refers to the concurrent execution of multiple tasks, most tasks that require attention cannot be done simultaneously” (p. 1942). Brooklyn’s multitasking experience does not make her learn efficiently when she multitasks. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Brooklyn’s brain is still capable of focusing attention on one task. It is safe to presume that Brooklyn doesn’t multitask all the time. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Performance on tasks suffers when Brooklyn tries to multitask. According to studies, it can take up to 400% longer to do a homework assignment if you are multitasking. [Q3] Matteo is in first grade and just learning to read. For most words, he sounds out each letter, then pronounces the entire word—“Buh, Ah, Tuh. Bat.” From an information-processing point of view, Matteo is best described as specifically engaging in which of the following? 1. Conceptually driven processing 2. Bottom-up processing [correct] 3. Information processing 4. Contextual processing [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] During conceptually driven (top-down) processing, features and patterns are analyzed in light of the context of the situation and existing knowledge. Using context to figure out the meaning of a novel word is an example. Matteo is using a different method. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Bottom-up processing involves breaking things into component parts (such as letters), analyzing the parts, and assembling a meaningful “whole” (e.g., the word). [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Information processing is a general description of the human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information. This question asks for a description of the specific method of Matteo’s processing. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Using the context to make sense of information is part of top-down processing. Matteo is focusing on each letter rather than looking at the whole context.

[Q4] When Kali solves word problems in math, she uses cognitive processing to figure out what the problem is asking. The amount of cognitive processing required for her to “figure out what the problem is asking” is which of the following? 1. Extraneous cognitive load 2. Germane cognitive load 3. Intrinsic cognitive load [correct] 4. Visuo-spatial sketchpad [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Extraneous cognitive load is the cognitive capacity one uses to deal with problems not related to the learning task. Figuring out the problem is, of course, related to the learning task. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Germane cognitive load redistributes Kali’s working memory resources away from extraneous activities and toward activities that help her learn. This question concerns cognitive processing used to figure out what the problem is asking. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the essential processing needed to attend to and make sense of the material. The amount of cognitive processing required for Kali to “figure out what the problem is asking” is the intrinsic cognitive load. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The visuo-spatial sketchpad is part of working memory. It is not a measure of the amount of cognitive processing Kali uses to figure out what the problem is asking. [Q5] Younger children remember less than older children and appear to have limited working memory capacity compared to older children. What is the best explanation for younger children’s limitations? 1. Visual/spatial memory appears to develop later than verbal memory. 2. Younger children do not understand causal relations as well as older children. 3. Younger children cannot engage in abstract reasoning. 4. Younger children have fewer strategies and less knowledge. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Visual/spatial memory appears to develop early and does not limit young children’s working memory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Older children have a better understanding of causal relations than younger children, but this truth does not explain why younger children remember less and have more limited working memory capacity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Older children are better at abstract reasoning than younger children, but this truth does not explain why younger children remember less and have more limited working memory capacity. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] One reason younger children remember less than older children is that younger children rely more on verbatim encoding than on gist or meaning encoding. Everyone forgets verbatim information faster. Young children may rely on verbatim encoding because they have fewer strategies and less knowledge to use for encoding the meaning. Learning Outcome 8.3. Describe current views of long-term memory, particularly the contents and types of long-term memory, individual differences, and the processes of retrieving information from long-term memory. [Q1] Alonso is trying to memorize Tino’s phone number so he can call Tino about the homework assignment for math. What kind of memory is Alonso using? 1. Implicit memory 2. Episodic memory 3. Long-term memory 4. Explicit memory [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Implicit memories do not require our awareness or attention, and we tend to remember them without trying. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Episodic memory is the memory for specific events. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Long-term memory is the well-known knowledge the individual’s brain stores for permanent, long-term use. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In order to form an explicit memory, Alonso needs to make a conscious effort to remember the information by paying attention to it. [Q2] The following teachers taught the same lesson. Based on current views of Allan Paivio and psychologists who agree with his theory, which teacher presents the information in such a way that it is easiest to learn? 1. Ms. Rodriguez describes the parts of the brain and asks students to use their own words to describe the parts of the brain to a partner. 2. Mr. Delgado shows students a diagram of the brain and asks students to trace a copy of the diagram.

3. Mr. Gardner describes the parts of the brain as he shows a diagram of the brain with each part labeled. [correct] 4. Mrs. Hampton asks students to read the description of the brain in their textbook, and then she explains the description in greater detail. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Rodriguez used only verbal units in her teaching about the brain. If she uses a method that involves dual coding, her teaching is easier to learn. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Delgado used only a visual image in his teaching. If he uses a method that involves dual coding, his teaching is easier to learn. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mr. Gardner used dual coding by providing both visual and verbal information. Psychologists who agree that our brains use dual coding (information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images, verbal units, or both) believe that information coded both visually and verbally is easiest to learn. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mrs. Hampton used only verbal units in her teaching about the brain. This is not the method of teaching that is easiest to learn. [Q3] Chloe describes her museum field trip to her parents and relies on her memories and expectations, filling in her memory gaps with logical missing parts of the experience. In this example, Chloe is engaging in which of the following? 1. Spreading activation 2. Deep processing 3. Retrieval 4. Reconstruction [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When a particular proposition or image is active, other closely associated knowledge can be triggered as well, and activation can spread through the network. Spreading activation can contribute to the construction process. Chloe is using memories, logic, and existing knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Deep processing usually refers to more elaborative processing as a way of encoding new information, not recalling information. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In general, researchers think of retrieval as a more reliable and/or accurate recall of stored information. When gaps are filled with logical information, the process is not called deep processing.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Reconstruction is re-creating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge. [Q4] Sanjay is 8 years old, and although he can’t remember much from when he was in preschool, he has a very clear and pleasant memory of his fifth birthday party. That memory would be considered: 1. A flashbulb memory 2. An implicit memory 3. An episodic memory [correct] 4. A semantic memory [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Memories for dramatic or emotional moments in your life are called flashbulb memories. Sanjay’s memory is described as pleasant, and nothing in this scenario indicates that it was dramatic and emotional. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Implicit memories are unconscious memories. Sanjay has a clear, conscious memory of this event. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Long-term memory for information tied to a particular place and time, especially memory of events in one’s own life, is called episodic memory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Semantic memory is memory for meaning including words, facts, theories, and concepts. Sanjay’s memory is based on an event rather than memory of the meaning of facts or concepts. [Q5] Mr. Francisco is teaching his biology students about algae, a concept that has no agreed-upon definition. He presents images of prototypes of algae, names them, and describes their key features. In teaching the concept of algae or any other concept in biology, what could Mr. Francisco do to make his lesson more effective and help students develop a clearer picture of the concept? 1. Provide only exemplars that reflect the prototypical features of algae 2. Present non-examples and attributes that distinguish those examples from algae [correct] 3. Give students both concrete and abstract examples of algae 4. Provide a theory-based explanation for why biologists have no clear definition of algae [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Providing only exemplars will not help students recognize non-prototypical types of algae. Mr. Francisco needs to use a strategy that guides students in finding the “fuzzy edges” of the concept. 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In teaching concepts, provide the name of the concept and a definition, but don’t stop there. Students also need a description of relevant and irrelevant attributes as well as examples and nonexamples. They need guidance in finding the “fuzzy edges” of the concept. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In theory, teachers should provide both concrete and abstract examples of new concepts. However, it is hard to see how a teacher can provide an abstract example of something that is concrete, such as algae. Mr. Francisco needs to use a strategy that guides students in finding the “fuzzy edges” of the concept. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A theory-based explanation isn’t likely to help students understand algae or develop a clearer picture of the concept of algae. Mr. Francisco needs to use a strategy that guides students in finding the “fuzzy edges” of the concept. Learning Outcome 8.4. Describe strategies for supporting students’ construction of long-lasting knowledge. [Q1] Which of the following children is at the associative stage in the development of an automated skill? 1. Sophia is peeling an apple while she talks to her friend on the phone. She is engrossed in the conversation and doesn’t need to pay attention to the apple peeling. 2. Tyler is building a new model airplane. This is his first time building a model, so he follows the directions carefully. 3. Nora is trying to set up a new e-mail account. She tries to follow the on-screen prompts but keeps running into problems with her trial-and-error approach. 4. Hunter is making cookies for his team. He combines the first few ingredients, then checks the recipe. He measures and adds the dry ingredients, checks the recipe again, and bakes the cookies. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Sophia illustrates the autonomous stage. The whole procedure can be accomplished without much attention. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Tyler illustrates the cognitive stage. At the cognitive stage, when we are first learning, we rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving strategies to accomplish our goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Nora illustrates the cognitive stage. At the cognitive stage, we rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving strategies to accomplish our goal. The task may involve a bit of trial-and-error learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] At the associative stage, individual steps of a procedure are combined or “chunked” into larger units. One step smoothly cues the next. 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q2] Greek mathematician Archimedes was instructed to determine whether a beautifully crafted crown was composed of pure gold, without cutting the crown. One day, as Archimedes sat down in his bathtub, he noticed that, as always, a certain amount of water was displaced. By applying the general schema that “objects of different densities displace different amounts of water,” he solved the crown problem. Archimedes’ application of his previous knowledge to a new domain might be described most accurately as which of the following? 1. Chunking 2. Dual coding 3. Elaboration [correct] 4. Mnemonics [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Chunking is putting small bits of information into larger, more meaningful chunks and has little to do with the application of previous knowledge to new domains. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] With dual coding, visual and verbal materials are processed in different systems. Archimedes added new meaning to a problem by connecting it with already existing knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Adding meaning to new information by connecting with already existing knowledge is called elaboration. Archimedes successfully elaborated his existing knowledge and created new meaning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mnemonics are systematic procedures for improving memory. They include techniques for remembering. Archimedes applied previous knowledge to a new domain. [Q3] Riley is trying to remember all of the objects in her locker at school. “Let me think . . . pens, pencils, markers . . . um, math book, science book, notebooks . . . my coat, hat, and gloves . . . I can’t remember any more.” What learning strategy does Riley’s response illustrate? 1. Organization [correct] 2. Maintenance rehearsal 3. Elaboration 4. Chain mnemonics [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] By organizing the objects into groups—writing utensils, books, clothes—Riley has facilitated remembering. Organization is a useful way to learn and recall groups of related facts.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the information in your phonological loop or refreshing information in your visuospatial sketchpad. Riley is not repeating the objects; she’s recalling each of them only once. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Elaboration is adding meaning to new information by connecting with already existing knowledge. Riley is using a strategy to remember rather than a method of making meaningful connections. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Chain mnemonics are methods of connecting the first item to be memorized with the second, the second item with the third, and so on, by association. Riley is using a different approach to remember the items in her locker. [Q4] Owen is reading a story to himself about a family going to a fast-food restaurant for lunch. The story never mentions that the family members order and pay for their meals at the counter before they sit down. Nevertheless, Owen assumes that they do these things. How can you best explain Owen’s processing? 1. Dual coding, processing the visual and verbal information 2. Visual processing of details in the story’s illustration that are not included in the text 3. Elaboration, using a previous script he had constructed about fast-food restaurants [correct] 4. Using a mnemonic procedure to draw on knowledge about fast-food restaurants [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Owen is reading, not processing verbal information in addition to visual information. A different process is involved as Owen makes his assumption. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] There is no mention of illustrations in Owen’s reading material. Owen uses a different process as he makes his assumption. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Scripts related to common events often help learners fill in missing details. This process is called elaboration. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mnemonics are techniques for remembering or memorizing information. Owen uses a different process as he makes his assumption. [Q5] Hannah is writing a 5-page essay. Her teacher provided a rubric that helps to differentiate between an okay essay and an exemplary essay, which Hannah consults occasionally as she writes. After she finishes her first draft, Hannah asks her mother to read it and provide comments. Later she reviews the comments and works on her next draft. Hannah is engaging in: 12 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Massed practice 2. Automated basic skills 3. Deliberate practice [correct] 4. Interleaved practice [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Studying for an extended period is called massed practice. Hannah may be working on her essay for a long time, but she is distributing the effort over multiple sessions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Skills that are applied without conscious thought are called automated basic skills. Handwriting and typing may be automated basic skills, but the process of essay writing involves thinking about the content and explaining one’s ideas. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Deliberate practice involves self-reflection and metacognition—comparing your performance to a high standard, monitoring how well you are doing, seeking and using feedback, and focusing on areas that need improvement. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Interleaved practice is mixed up—students do one problem of one type, then a problem of a different type, then perhaps two more of the first type and then one of a third type. Hannah’s work on her essay is more specifically focused.

Chapter 8 Application Exercises Application Exercise 8.1: Dual Coding Learning Outcome 8.3. Describe current views of long-term memory, particularly the contents and types of long-term memory, individual differences, and the processes of retrieving information from long-term memory. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 8.4 [URL] http://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/sciencemethods/SCMET_005_183_iPad.mp4 EDIT: Start at the beginning. End at TC 1:31 “…where these specifically pump to.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.4 to answer the following question: In this lesson, what does the teacher do that is likely to result in dual coding by the students? [Q1 Model Response] The teacher provides 3-D models and diagrams (visual coding). He also sets up groups for students to work together and interact with one another and the printed material (verbal and visual coding). The teacher interacts with students to explain concepts and help students understand (verbal coding). These resources and strategies are likely to result in visual and verbal information storage in long-term memory. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.4 to answer the following question: What kind of memory are students developing as they form concepts about the heart and other body systems? [Q2 Model Response] The students are developing semantic memory as they form concepts about the heart and other body systems. Semantic memory, very important in schools, is memory for meaning, including words, facts, theories, and concepts. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.4 to answer the following question. What is dual coding theory and what is the value of dual coding? [Q3 Model Response] dual coding theory suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both. Psychologists who agree with this point of view believe that information coded both visually and verbally is easiest to learn. In this video, the students are receiving both visual images and verbal units of information about the heart and other body systems. Dual coding helps students learn and remember what they learn.

Application Exercise 8.2: Teaching Concepts Learning Outcome 8.3. Describe current views of long-term memory, particularly the contents and types of long-term memory, individual differences, and the processes of retrieving information from long-term memory. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 8.5 INSERT THIS VIDEO between the section for Concepts p.25 and the section titled Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories on p.25. [URL] https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/powell/DR_C02_IntroFigTerms.mp4 EDIT: Begin at TC 1:58 “Let’s look at the definition of alliteration.” End at TC 4:40 “…but it still makes the same sound. Right?” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.5 to answer the following question: In this lesson, the teacher introduces the concept of alliteration. Compare her approach to teaching a concept with the steps presented in the textbook in Table 8.2, Teaching the Concept of Chair (name concept, define it, describe relevant attributes, describe irrelevant attributes, give examples and nonexamples). [Q1 Model Response] In introducing the concept of alliteration as a literary element, the teacher writes the word alliteration (naming the literary element) and then defines it. Next, she highlights relevant or defining attributes—repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza. Then she gives examples and discusses the examples with her students. The teacher does not provide nonexamples. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.5 to answer the following question: A prototype is the best representative of its category. Categories have fuzzy boundaries. In this video, what does the teacher do to help students deal with the fuzzy edges of the concept of alliteration? [Q2 Model Response] The teacher’s first two examples of alliteration include words that begin with the same letter and therefore produce the same initial sound. These two examples are easily identified on the basis of the definition and what students know about initial sounds of words. By adding the third example, “city by the sea,” the teacher helps students recognize examples that differ from the prototype (initial sounds made by the same letter). By introducing the third example, the teacher helps students identify instances of alliteration that are not like the prototype. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.5 to answer the following question:

Using Figure 8.4 near the beginning of the section titled “Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory” in the textbook, identify the memory system and the subsystem that are involved in students’ learning about the concept of alliteration. Explain your answer. [Q3 Model Response] In this video, the teacher is helping students create explicit (declarative) memory, and the memory is semantic rather than episodic. The students are consciously learning a concept (explicit memory) and giving meaning to the attributes of that concept (semantic). Application Exercise 8.3: Elaboration Learning Outcome 8.4. Describe strategies for supporting students’ construction of long-lasting knowledge. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 [URL] https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ell/MN/SE_MATH_Grade02_01MathTalkDigit sValuePart1.mp4 EDIT: Begin at the beginning of the video. End at TC 5:41 “…how much that part is worth.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 to answer the following question: During the math talk in this lesson, how does the discussion about chores and value promote elaboration? [Q1 Model Response] Elaboration involves adding meaning to new information by connecting with already existing knowledge. The teacher’s discussion with students about doing chores to receive money or something of value to them adds meaning by connecting students’ existing knowledge with new information. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 to answer the following question: In this video, the teacher asks students to turn and talk to a partner several times. What is accomplished with this strategy in terms of constructing declarative knowledge? [Q2 Model Response] In this video, students are asked to turn and talk to their partner about an idea or question the teacher asks. For example, they talk to a partner about chores at home, and later they talk to a partner about digits in response to the question, “What is a digit?” Students are asked to test their understanding by telling a partner how many digits are in a given number. This strategy of turning and talking to a partner promotes elaboration. Learning is improved when students elaborate by creating their own answers rather than just recognize or recall answers from the textbook or the teacher.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 to answer the following question: In this video, what other teacher strategies promote elaboration by helping students make connections between existing knowledge and new information? [Q3 Model Response] The lead teacher uses a Smart Board with an illustration of two hands to connect the idea that ten digits on our hands correspond to the ten digits that make up numbers. The second teacher makes a connection between using the letters of the alphabet to form words and using digits to form numbers. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 to answer the following question: If the teacher in this video wants students to make meaningful connections and keep this declarative knowledge in long-term memory, what other elaboration strategies might she use? Explain. [Q4 Model Response] Answers will vary. To help students create long-lasting knowledge, the teacher might also ask students to draw their hands and label each digit. She might ask students to work in pairs and create two-digit and three-digit numbers for their partner to identify. The teacher might engage students in practice and monitor students’ progress to ensure proper understanding. During the year, the teacher might revisit the concept and test students’ skill in using the information.

Chapter 8 Test Items Chapter 8 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 8.1: Differentiate between behavioral and cognitive Multiple Choice: 1-3 views of learning, including the role of knowledge in the Essay: 27 cognitive view. Objective 8.2: Explain early information processing models of Multiple Choice: 4-11 memory and recent cognitive science models, including working Essay: 28 memory, cognitive load theory, and individual differences in working memory. Objective 8.3: Describe current views of long-term memory, Multiple Choice: 12-22 particularly the contents and types of long-term memory, Essay: 29 individual differences, and the processes of retrieving information from long-term memory. Objective 8.4: Describe strategies for supporting students’ Multiple Choice: 23-26 construction of long-lasting knowledge. Essay: 30

Multiple Choice Questions 1. In the following learning situations, which one is described in a way that illustrates a cognitive view of learning? a. Deidra’s teacher complimented the way she created a Venn diagram in her notebook. b. Montie’s coach demonstrated the correct way to hold the bat and stand at the plate. Then Montie moved his hands down on the bat and practiced the correct stance. c. Carla listened to the lesson about fractions and remembered learning similar information about time signature in her piano lesson. d. Sybil’s teacher gave her a gold star for getting the correct answers on all of the practice problems in the math assignment. 2. There are different kinds of knowledge in the cognitive perspective. For example, Marcelo is using knowledge that reminds him to focus his attention, block out distractions, and think about what he is reading in order to understand his high school subjects. What kind of knowledge is Marcelo using? a. Abstract knowledge b. Domain-specific knowledge c. General knowledge d. Reinforcement 3. Hank is learning the names of the states that border his home state. What kind of knowledge is Hank learning? a. Procedural b. Self-regulatory c. Conditional d. Declarative 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Raj smelled the familiar aroma of the dinner rolls baking in the cafeteria down the hall from his classroom. What memory system is at work as Raj processes this stimulus? a. Sensory b. Phonological loop c. Visuospatial sketchpad d. Mirror systems 5. Ms. Van Dale is trying to read Joe’s essay, but the handwriting is really small and letters are crunched together. She can make out the pattern of some of Joe’s letters and is guessing at the others. What type of processing is Ms. Van Dale using? a. Top-down processing b. Bottom-up processing c. Phonological loop d. Episodic buffer 6. Which of the following students is probably most efficient in his multitasking? a. Kobe is listening to his favorite country songs and memorizing the conversation he needs to recite in Spanish class. b. Darren is driving to football practice and conversing with his dad about the budget for his birthday party. c. Owen is listening to Mozart and reading his literature assignment. d. Rudy is texting his girlfriend and driving to work after school. 7. Based on guidelines for gaining and maintaining students’ attention, which of the following teachers is using an effective strategy? a. Mr. Gains is demonstrating a procedure at the front of the room and pauses to say loudly to a student in the back row, “Put away the iPad.” b. “Let’s read our lesson objectives on the board. This lesson is important because it helps us count money.” c. Ms. Thornton moves back and forth as she presents a new concept. She never stands still when she makes a presentation. d. “This is Monday. Do the same spelling activity we always do on Monday – write each word ten times.” 8. A child listens to the sound of the letter k and watches the teacher write the letter k on the chart paper. Then the teacher tells the child to recall the name of the character in yesterday’s story—a name that begins with the sound made by the letter k. Which of the following best describes the element or process of working memory being used? a. Phonological loop b. Visuospatial sketchpad c. Automaticity d. Episodic buffer

9. If Rhonda wants to use maintenance rehearsal to keep information in working memory, which of the following will she do? a. “I need to write down the tracking number as soon as I find a pen to copy it.” b. “The number has part of my phone number plus my favorite number and 89.” c. “The tracking number is 805589, 805589, 805589, 805589.” d. “Two plus 6 is 8 and that helps me remember the first part of the number.” 10. Kele has a history assignment that requires her to recall key events of World War II taking place in the Pacific and in Europe over a specified period of time. She plans to sketch a timeline showing the timing of major battles on both fronts, their duration, and their overlapping time frames. Which kind of cognitive load is unavoidable if she is to complete the learning task? a. Intrinsic b. Extraneous c. Maintenance d. Episodic 11. Which of the following middle school students is using the element of working memory known as the phonological loop to hold information? a. Jerita is drawing a map of the counties in her state and highlighting the counties that produce the most corn. b. Marcus is writing an essay on the topic of his choice, and he chose to write about global warming. c. Suri is solving an algebra problem using the model presented in her text. d. Darrin is working with his partner to create harmony on a new song for choir. 12. Rico, eager to see his final grades for the semester, accesses his school’s secure Web site almost without thinking about the steps he’s taking to log in. What kind of implicit memory is he using? a. Procedural b. Classical conditioning c. Episodic d. Sensory 13. During the standardized test, which student demonstrates semantic memory? a. Dan reads question five and it reminds him of an article he read recently about the same topic. b. Shaylee begins the second section of the test and recalls how she always runs out of time on tests. c. Jeremy reads the first few questions and is able to answer them quickly with confidence that they are right. d. Haley’s hands shake as she begins the test, just like her hands shook when she took the SAT. 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

14. As a seven-year-old boy, Dean likes to catch butterflies and moths. He is fascinated by the colors and patterns on their wings. Today he saw several monarchs and caught one in his net. In his mental representations of butterflies and moths, the monarch he caught today is: a. a concept. b. a defining attribute. c. a prototype. d. an exemplar. 15. As a ten-year-old girl, Kate likes to catch butterflies and moths. She is fascinated by the colors and patterns on their wings. She has caught many different butterflies and moths and pinned them to her display board. She looks up each one she catches and records specific information about it. She can explain their life cycles and numerous facts about them. What is her knowledge structure for organizing all of this information? a. Story grammar b. Prototype c. Schema d. Visuospatial sketchpad 16. Mr. O’Malley assigns a task in math. The task requires students to remember theorems they memorized earlier and match each theorem to a problem that illustrates the theorem. What kind of long-term memory do students use to complete this task? a. Priming b. Episodic c. Semantic d. Classical conditioning 17. Eight years ago, when Lucas was in third grade, he and a friend tried to light a cigarette in Lucas’s tree house. They started a fire that burned down the tree house, but his mom and the neighbors were able to extinguish the fire quickly. Lucas, now a junior in high school, recalls the event and still remembers every detail as though it happened yesterday. What kind of memory is Lucas recalling? a. Procedural b. Semantic c. Implicit d. Flashbulb 18. A teacher asks students to compare two leaders, identifying similarities and differences in their leadership styles. What type of memory do the students need to use to complete this task? a. Extraneous b. Semantic c. Implicit d. Episodic 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

19. Students are working in groups. In one group, students make the following comments. Which student uses episodic memory in a comment? a. “We remember the facts the teacher wrote on the board. We can use that information.” b. “Look in the glossary to find the definition. I’ll check the index for the reference I saw when I was reading.” c. “Remember the information from chapter 7. Try to use that information to answer the question.” d. “This is like the time we came up with a skit for Mr. Meeks in speech class and we all missed the point.” 20. When Imani took algebra, she was really quick about solving two-step equations. She hasn’t taken a math course in over a year, and she’s struggling on the standardized test. She knows it’s worth taking the time to figure out the steps again and solve the equations. She is using: a. spreading activation retrieval. b. reconstruction retrieval. c. implicit retrieval. d. episodic retrieval. 21. Mr. Anthony has set up the lab many times for the experiment with acids and bases using litmus paper. In fact, he says he can practically do it with his eyes closed. He follows the same steps in the same order every time. What kind of memory is Mr. Anthony using to set up the lab for this experiment? a. Production b. Script c. Priming d. Explicit 22. Stefano worked at his desk preparing his presentation for English class. He finished his rough draft and sent it to the printer. His printer only printed the first page and signaled that it was out of paper. Stefano decided to make a list of what he needed to get at the store in addition to printer paper. Then he realized that his route to the store takes him past his girlfriend’s house. He thinks about stopping for a minute, but then remembers that he borrowed a tool from her dad. He needs to return the tool. This type of memory retrieval is: a. spreading activation. b. reconstruction. c. a script. d. procedural. 23. Ms. Cicardo wants her students to remember the material they are covering in language arts. They will need the information in units they studied throughout the year. To support their learning, she creates diagrams on chart paper and posts them on the wall for students to see. She provides a handout with printed instructions and explains the material as students look at their handouts. What is Ms. Cicardo using to help students learn and store the information and retrieve it later? 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. Generative learning b. Dual coding c. Elaboration d. Reconstruction 24. Celeste is trying to learn the series of steps involved in a lengthy procedure she needs to use in chemistry class. She takes the first letter of a keyword in each step and puts the combination of letters together to form a contrived word she can remember. What process is Celeste using to remember the steps? a. Chain mnemonics b. Keyword method c. Mnemonic technique using the loci method d. Mnemonic technique of creating an acronym 25. Griffin has been cast as the lead character in the school play. He has a lot of lines to memorize and about three weeks before rehearsals begin. He plans to memorize about five pages per night, making sure he has memorized Act I by the end of the first week. What method of memorization is Griffin using? a. Massed practice b. Serial effect c. Distributed practice d. Loci method 26. Mrs. Thomas is a new fourth-grade teacher. In the third week of school, she is introducing a new science unit that includes several words that will probably be new to most of the students. The unit involves extensive declarative knowledge, and Mrs. Thomas has chunked the information into small segments that her students can grasp. Now she is in the classroom and ready to begin the introduction with the students. What is the first thing she must do in order to meet her goal of helping students learn? a. Present visual information b. Present verbal information c. Gain students’ attention d. Use dual coding

Essay Questions 27. Sofia has been helping her mother cook since she was a preschooler. In cooking, she has learned to use various measuring tools. She has doubled recipes and halved recipes using measuring cups and spoons and has learned to use fractions in this context. Her twin brother Mateo is just as smart as Sofia, but he has never used fractions. Yesterday, the teacher started the unit about fractions in math class. Compare the learning process for Sofia and Mateo during the unit on fractions in math class. From a cognitive perspective, explain the differences. 28. Stephen listened to the agent explain the process of filing a claim with the company, getting an estimate on the damage, and getting his car repaired. He counted about six steps as the 23 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

agent talked. He made mental notes about the steps he needed to follow and repeated them to the agent. Now he is trying to keep these steps in his working memory as he drives his damaged car home. He doesn’t have his phone or other electronics for making notes and he’s tight on time. Describe two different procedures Stephen might use to keep the information activated in his working memory. Explain pros and cons of each strategy. 29. After the first month of school, Mr. Lennox places a suggestion box in his classroom and encourages students to drop suggestions anonymously into the box. He opens the box at the end of the week and reads a note suggesting that he stop lecturing. The student says that lectures put him or her to sleep. Mr. Lennox wants students to learn history. He realizes the value of the declarative knowledge he is presenting, and he wants it to hold meaning for his students. Mr. Lennox shows you the suggestion and asks for recommendations. As his colleague, you are in a position to help. What, besides lecturing, might Mr. Lennox do in his teaching to help students create semantic memory of historical events? What might Mr. Lennox do in his teaching to help students create episodic memory of historical events? 30. You are teaching third-grade students, and you are preparing a lesson about the features of informational text. To make sure the lesson will be effective, you follow the guidelines for helping students understand and remember. First, describe what you will do to gain students’ attention. Continue with your plan for maintaining their attention, helping them connect new and previous learning, managing cognitive load, and helping them focus on meaning rather than memorization. Consider how you will ensure that students remember the information for use throughout the remainder of the school year (and beyond).

Chapter 8 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Carla listened to the lesson about fractions and remembered learning similar information about time signature in her piano lesson. Feedback for Correct Answer: Carla is using what she remembers and making associations—extending and transforming what she learned previously. In the cognitive view, learning is seen as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. The other learning situations relate to behavioral views. Text Reference: Elements of the Cognitive Perspective

Correct Answer: General knowledge Feedback for Correct Answer: General knowledge is information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations. Marcelo’s general knowledge reminds him to focus his attention, block out distractions, and think about what he is reading. Text Reference: Elements of the Cognitive Perspective

Correct Answer: Declarative Feedback for Correct Answer: Declarative knowledge is verbal information, facts, any knowledge that can be declared. It is “knowing that” something is the case. Text Reference: Elements of the Cognitive Perspective

Correct Answer: Sensory Feedback for Correct Answer: Sensory memory is the system that holds sensory information very briefly (smells, sights, sounds, tastes, touch) Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

Correct Answer: Bottom-up processing Feedback for Correct Answer: Bottom-up processing is perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

Correct Answer: Owen is listening to Mozart and reading his literature assignment. Feedback for Correct Answer: Complex tasks, such as driving and talking on the phone (or discussing budget or texting) require some of the same cognitive resources – paying attention to traffic and paying attention to what the caller is saying. Although the term [multitasking] refers to the concurrent execution of multiple tasks, most tasks that require attention cannot be done simultaneously. Bottom line—performance on the tasks suffers when you try to multitask. In complicated situations and with less automatic tasks, the brain prioritizes and focuses on one thing. You may 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

be able to listen to quiet instrumental music in the background while you study, but favorite songs with words will steal your attention away and it will take time to get back to what you were doing. Shifting attention burns the very kind of glucose fuel in your brain that you need to stay focused. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory 7.

Correct Answer: “Let’s read our lesson objectives on the board. This lesson is important because it helps us count money.” Feedback for Correct Answer: Guidelines for gaining/maintaining students’ attention recommend that teachers present and discuss the objectives of the lesson and explain reasons for learning the skill or concept. Teachers should reach out rather than calling out to a student, avoid distracting behaviors such as moving back and forth, and use variety and surprise. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

Correct Answer: Episodic buffer Feedback for Correct Answer: The episodic is where information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long-term memory is integrated together to create meaningful representations based on all these sources. In this situation, the child needs to process the sound of the letter (phonological loop) and the shape of the letter (visuospatial sketchpad), and then remember the names of characters in the story to identify the name that starts with the k sound (long-term memory). Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

Correct Answer: “The tracking number is 805589, 805589, 805589, 805589.” Feedback for Correct Answer: Maintenance rehearsal involves keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

10.

Correct Answer: Intrinsic Feedback for Correct Answer: Intrinsic cognitive load is unavoidable and productive. It is the resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli. It might be described as the amount of cognitive processing required to figure out the material. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

11.

Correct Answer: Darrin is working with his partner to create harmony on a new song for choir. Feedback for Correct Answer: The Phonological loop is part of working memory. It is a speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory

12.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Procedural memory is the implicit memory used for motor skills, habits, if-then productions—knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that influences behavior or thought without our awareness. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory 13.

Correct Answer: Jeremy reads the first few questions and is able to answer them quickly with confidence that they are right. Feedback for Correct Answer: Semantic memory, very important in schools, is memory for meaning, including words, facts, theories, and concepts. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

14.

Correct Answer: an exemplar. Feedback for Correct Answer: An exemplar is an actual memory of a specific object. The monarch Dean caught is an exemplar of the category of butterflies he knows as monarch butterflies. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

15.

Correct Answer: Schema Feedback for Correct Answer: Schemas are abstract knowledge structures that organize vast amounts of information. A schema (the singular form) is a mental framework that guides our perception and helps us make sense of our experience based on what we already know and what we expect to happen. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

16.

Correct Answer: Semantic Feedback for Correct Answer: Semantic memory, very important in schools, is memory for meaning, including words, facts, theories, and concepts. Sematic memories are not tied to particular experiences and are represented and stored as propositions, images, concepts, and schemas. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

17.

Correct Answer: Flashbulb Feedback for Correct Answer: Memories for dramatic or emotional moments in your life are called flashbulb memories. These episodic memories are vivid and complete, as if your brain demanded that you “record this moment.” Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

18.

Correct Answer: Semantic Feedback for Correct Answer: Semantic memory is the memory for meaning, including words, facts, theories, and concepts—declarative knowledge. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

19.

Correct Answer: “This is like the time we came up with a skit for Mr. Meeks in speech class and we all missed the point.” Feedback for Correct Answer: Episodic memory is long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person’s life. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

20.

Correct Answer: reconstruction retrieval. Feedback for Correct Answer: Retrieval using reconstruction involves recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge. Imani is reconstructing knowledge by using memories, existing knowledge, and logic. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

21.

Correct Answer: Script Feedback for Correct Answer: A script is a schema, or expected plan, for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza. Mr. Anthony is using procedural knowledge represented as a script to set up the lab. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

22.

Correct Answer: spreading activation. Feedback for Correct Answer: Spreading activation is the retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

23.

Correct Answer: Dual coding Feedback for Correct Answer: Ms. Cicardo uses dual coding by presenting both visual and verbal materials that are processed in different systems. She wants students to store the visual (diagrams) and verbal (material presented orally and in text) information and develop deeper understanding. Text Reference: Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications

24.

Correct Answer: Mnemonic technique of creating an acronym Feedback for Correct Answer: An acronym is a technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word. It is a form of abbreviation. Celeste can remember the word she contrived and recall the step that goes with each letter of the word. Text Reference: Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications

25.

Correct Answer: Distributed practice

Feedback for Correct Answer: Griffin is using the distributed practice method of memorization. He is spreading out the learning over a period of three weeks rather than trying to memorize all at once. Text Reference: Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications 26.

Correct Answer: Gain students’ attention Feedback for Correct Answer: The detailed lesson preparation may not be relevant unless Mrs. Thomas is able to gain students’ attention when she starts the unit. One approach is to begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic. Text Reference: Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 27.

Suggested Response: Sofia will find it much easier than Mateo to understand the math lessons about fractions. She already uses the vocabulary and has developed a concept of fractions in hands-on, real-world applications. From a cognitive perspective, she enters the math lesson with more knowledge of fractions than Mateo. One of the most important elements in the learning process is what the individual brings to new learning situations. Sofia already has a foundation of domain-specific knowledge on which to construct additional knowledge. She likely brings more interest to the learning situation than Mateo. An effective teacher is likely to provide examples that draw upon diverse interests, but Sofia’s interest is already based on the utility and relevance of the knowledge. Text Reference: Elements of the Cognitive Perspective

28.

Suggested Response: Stephen has six steps in the process and needs to carry out every step. He might use maintenance rehearsal to keep the information activated in his working memory. With this type of rehearsal, Stephen repeats the six steps over and over. As long as he revisits the six steps, he will be able to retain the information until he can make written notes or record them in some way. Stephen might use elaborative rehearsal to keep the information activated in his working memory. With elaborative rehearsal, he connects the information to something he already knows and stores in long-term memory. He might connect each step to a part of the car and let the parts represent steps. He might connect the steps logically to similar steps in a process that is familiar to him. He might connect the steps to the people he contacts to accomplish the steps. The maintenance rehearsal process presents an obstacle. How well will Stephen be able to continue rehearsing the steps while he drives and navigates traffic? The point in favor of maintenance rehearsal is that it’s simple. Stephen doesn’t need to come up with associations. He just repeats the steps. The elaborative rehearsal process presents an obstacle. Stephen will need to come up with a quick way to connect the steps to something familiar. However, after coming 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

up with the connection between the steps and something familiar, Stephen can easily recall the information when he gets home. Text Reference: Cognitive Views of Memory 29.

Suggested Response: Mr. Lennox might apply dual coding theory to help students build semantic memory. Rather than representing information in spoken word only, he might add visual information by using pictures, videos, drawings, timelines, and other visual stimuli. Information coded both visually and verbally is easier to learn. It uses two processing systems and is likely to be stored in long-term memory with meaning. It is also likely to hold students’ attention longer than straight lecture. Mr. Lennox might help students build episodic memory of historical events by creating assignments that involve skits, acting, re-enactment, and role-playing as historical characters in significant events. Episodic memories are tied to particular times and places. Some form of acting out the events of history may help students remember the times, places, and characters involved in the events. They might visit museums and historical locations as a way of building semantic and episodic memories. Text Reference: Long-Term Memory

30.

Suggested Response: The following plan describes one approach. Gain students’ attention by having everyone hold up an informational text. Present the objective of the lesson by asking a student to read it from the board. Then discuss why this learning is important and relevant. Ask a question that helps students think about facts they already know about informational text. Call on three or four different students to keep everyone’s attention. Introduce the main point of the lesson, present specific examples, and ask students for examples. Remind students of specific situations when this aspect of informational text might have helped in the past and when it might help them learn in the future. Ask students to do something with informational text, such as, using the table of contents or index to find something. Maintain attention by allowing students to compete against the clock to locate something in particular. Let students get into pairs and practice using the feature of informational text that was discussed. Then introduce the next feature of informational text and follow a similar pattern of maintaining attention, giving examples, and asking students to do something with it. Manage cognitive load by working with two or three main features of informational text rather than trying to include everything in one lesson. Summarize after each feature is presented. At the end of the lesson, get students to help summarize the lesson in their own words. Revisit the objective and ask students to tell a partner how the class met the objective today. Over the coming weeks, ask students to continue to use the features of informational text that were discussed. Make sure students have opportunities to practice using the 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

knowledge periodically. Text Reference: Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications

Chapter 8 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 8.1 Differentiate between behavioral and cognitive views of learning, including the role of knowledge in the cognitive view. Outcome 8.2 Explain early information processing models of memory and recent cognitive science models, including working memory, cognitive load theory, and individual differences in working memory. Outcome 8.3 Describe current views of long-term memory, particularly the contents and types of long-term memory, individual differences, and the processes of retrieving information from long-term memory. Outcome 8.4 Describe strategies for supporting students’ construction of long-lasting knowledge. [Q1] LO 8.3 Learning is improved when students elaborate. Which of the following activities involves elaboration? 1. Asking students to write their spelling words ten times each 2. Asking students to write a list of states and capitals they memorized 3. Asking students to explain a concept in their own words [correct] 4. Asking students to practice the counting by tens [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Elaboration occurs when we connect new information to existing knowledge. Elaboration is a form of rehearsal that leads to deeper levels of processing because the information is thoroughly analyzed and connected with existing information. [Q2] LO 8.2 Cognitive load refers to the amount of cognitive resources required to perform a particular task. Which of the following factors relates directly to intrinsic cognitive load? 1. Cognitive load involved in solving a task without knowing the terms used in the task 2. Cognitive load involved in understanding a new concept despite misinformation 3. Cognitive load involved in trying to block out noise from the TV to complete homework 4. Cognitive load involved in implementing the strategy to identify nouns in a sentence [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Intrinsic cognitive load is the essential processing needed to attend to and make sense of the task. Implementing the strategy to identify nouns in a sentence uses intrinsic cognitive load, that is, the resources required to make the identifications. Other stimuli such as not knowing terms, not understanding a concept, or blocking out noise contribute to extraneous cognitive load.

[Q3] LO 8.4 Nathan uses silly sentences to help him remember the names of the first two rows of elements on the periodic table. What approach is Nathan using to help him remember information he needs to learn and use in his class? 1. Mnemonics [correct] 2. Extraneous cognitive load 3. Interleaved practice 4. Rote memorization [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mnemonics are systematic procedures for improving memory. When information has little inherent meaning, mnemonic strategies help to create meaning by connecting what is to be learned with established words or images. [Q4] LO 8.3 Ms. Bergen is teaching students the concept of alliteration. Which approach or approaches are effective in beginning to teach the concept? 1. Ask students to identify examples in a poem 2. Define the term alliteration 3. Give examples and nonexamples 4. Define the term and give examples and nonexamples [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In teaching the new concept, Ms. Bergen needs to define the term and give examples and nonexamples. Asking students to identify examples before they understand the concept is ineffective. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 8.1 Case Reflecting on his first year as an algebra teacher, Mr. Beech was a bit embarrassed about how little he understood the teaching and learning process when he began teaching. He remembered handing back a math test and admonishing his students because they performed poorly. Some of his students didn’t seem to know the algebraic terminology or the steps to use in solving the problems. They didn’t watch the time and finish all of the problems. Explain the three types of knowledge Mr. Beech’s students needed to use during their algebra test. [Feedback for Answer 5] The three types of knowledge Mr. Beech’s students had to use while taking their algebra test were declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and self-regulatory knowledge. Declarative knowledge is knowledge that can be declared through words and symbol systems of all kinds, including mathematical symbols. Procedural knowledge is “knowing how” to do something such 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

as solving an equation. Self-regulatory knowledge is knowing how and when to use one’s declarative and procedural knowledge. It takes self-regulatory knowledge to determine which formula to use in an equation. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 8.4 Case Reflecting on his first year as an algebra teacher, Mr. Beech was a bit embarrassed about how little he understood the teaching and learning process when he began teaching. He remembered handing back a math test and admonishing his students because they performed poorly. Some of his students didn’t seem to know the algebraic terminology or the steps to use in solving the problems. They didn’t watch the time and finish all of the problems. Teachers like Mr. Beech must learn not to overload their students with new concepts and skills. How might Mr. Beech assist his students in understanding and remembering in the future? [Feedback for Answer 6] Mr. Beech can assist his students in understanding and remembering the information in the following ways: •

Make sure he has the students’ attention.

•

Help students separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important information.

•

Help students make connections between new information and what they already know.

•

Space out learning and provide for repetition and review of information.

•

Present material in a clear, organized way.

•

Continue to manage cognitive load.

•

Focus on meaning, not memorization.

•

Use multiple examples, cases, and stories to teach.

•

Remember the power of practice.

Chapter 9 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 9: Complex Cognitive Processes Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 9: Complex Cognitive Processes Chapter 9 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 9.1. Discuss the roles of metacognition in learning and remembering. [Q1] As she reads her social studies assignment, Ellen asks herself, “Did I actually understand that paragraph, or should I read it again?” What, if any, metacognitive skill is Ellen using? 1. Monitoring her cognition [correct] 2. Evaluating her cognition 3. Planning her cognition 4. Ellen is not using any metacognitive skills. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Monitoring is the real-time awareness of how one is doing. Ellen is thinking about her reading comprehension as she reads—real-time awareness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ellen is thinking about her reading as she reads. Evaluating involves making judgments about the outcome of thinking and learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Planning involves deciding how to do a cognitive task—how much time it will take, what strategies to use, what resources are needed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ellen is using one of the essential metacognitive skills as she reads and questions her understanding. [Q2] Which one of the following students is most clearly engaging in metacognition? 1. LaDonna often daydreams as she completes boring spelling worksheets. 2. Hideo repeats each new word his teacher introduces in Spanish class. 3. Danielle occasionally pauses to make sure she understands what she is reading. [correct] 4. Carlos developed fear of dogs after being bitten by a neighbor’s German shepherd. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There is no evidence that LaDonna is “thinking about her thinking,” which is the essence of metacognition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If Hideo were consciously thinking about and monitoring his learning, he would be engaging in metacognition. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Danielle is “thinking about her thinking,” which is the essence of metacognition. In particular, she is engaging in comprehension monitoring. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] There is no evidence that Carlos is “thinking about his thinking,” which is the essence of metacognition. [Q3] At the end of every content unit, Mr. Warren asks his students to write a self-reflection in which they describe what they learned, what they had difficulty learning, and how they might change their study strategies for the next unit. Mr. Warren is most clearly asking his students to engage in: 1. both planning and monitoring 2. both planning and evaluating [correct] 3. both monitoring and evaluating 4. planning, monitoring, and evaluating [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The students are planning for the next unit, but they’re not monitoring because they’re reflecting AFTER the learning unit is complete, not during the learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The students are evaluating when they think about what was hard to learn, and they are planning when they think about how to do things differently in the future. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The students are not monitoring because they’re writing their reflections at the end of the unit. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The students are not monitoring because they’re writing their reflections at the end of the unit. [Q4] A good way to encourage young students to become more evaluative is to ask them questions like: 1. What kinds of questions are you going to ask before you begin reading? 2. What do you want to know about the topic we are about to learn? 3. What did you learn today that you can do again and again and again? [correct] 4. What are you doing right now, as you study, that is helping you?

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This question is most likely to help students with the planning aspect of metacognition. Evaluation focuses attention on the outcomes of learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This question is more likely to help students with the planning aspect of metacognition. Evaluation focuses attention on the outcomes of learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Evaluating involves making judgments about thinking processes and outcomes of learning. Students are evaluating their learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This question is more likely to help students with the monitoring aspect of metacognition. Evaluation focuses attention on the outcomes of learning. [Q5] Lydia has trouble grasping new concepts in science. She has developed a strategy in which she quizzes herself after reviewing her notes and the contents of the readings. What metacognitive skill is she practicing? 1. Elaboration 2. Monitoring 3. Planning 4. Evaluating [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Elaboration involves connecting new information to existing information during the process of constructing declarative knowledge. Lydia is using a metacognitive skill. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Monitoring is the real-time awareness of “how I’m doing.” Monitoring is asking, “Is this making sense? Am I trying to go too fast? [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If Lydia were planning, she would make decisions such as how much time to spend on the reading and what sources she need to gather to learn. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Lydia is making judgments about the information she is reading and how well she has learned the information presented in class. Learning Outcome 9.2. Describe several learning and study strategies that help students develop their metacognitive abilities. [Q1] Maurice plans to attend college and pursue a business degree, but his GPA is not stellar. His high school economics teacher, Ms. Lee, convinced Maurice that he needs to focus on learning 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

strategies and study skills to improve his grades. Maurice is good at taking notes, but he needs to learn strategies that help him organize and remember what he’s learning. Such learning strategies are likely to include which of the following? 1. Setting goals and creating timetables 2. Identifying what doesn’t make sense 3. Self-testing and self-questioning 4. Creating flowcharts and using analogies [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Learning strategies that help students organize and remember are different from strategies that focus on planning. Setting goals and timetables are learning strategies that focus on planning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Learning strategies that help students organize and remember are different from strategies that focus on cognitive monitoring. Identifying what doesn’t make sense is a learning strategy that focuses on cognitive monitoring. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Learning strategies that help students organize and remember are different from strategies that focus on practice. Self-testing and self-questioning are learning strategies that focus on practice. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Creating flowcharts and using analogies are two types of learning strategies that focus on organization and remembering. Examples include various types of organizational charts, Venn diagrams, mnemonics and imagery, and analogies to build structures for knowledge. [Q2] One of the most powerful learning strategies is called the “testing effect,” and this strategy involves which of the following? 1. Creating summaries that highlight big ideas and supporting evidence 2. Actively trying to recall key ideas from readings [correct] 3. Elaborating on content with ideas from one’s own life 4. Transforming important ideas into one’s own words [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Creating summaries that highlight big ideas and supporting evidence is a good learning strategy but is not related to the testing effect. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Active recall of information is retrieval practice, also called the testing effect. Frequent tests and quizzes, even ungraded ones, are a form of retrieval practice, which leads to better learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Elaborating on content with ideas from one’s own life supports learning but does not lead to the testing effect. 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students should transform information into their own words, but the testing effect involves different procedures and leads to long-lasting knowledge. [Q3] As he studies for a history test, Jamil makes a chart of various events and draws lines between related items. He labels each connecting line with a word or phrase that describes the relationship. Jamil is using what specific learning strategy? 1. Creating an algorithm 2. PARS 3. Concept mapping [correct] 4. CAPS strategy [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An algorithm is a set of step-by-step directions that guarantees a correct problem solution. Jamil’s strategy may or may not work for him depending on how many relationships he identifies and whether he labels them correctly. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] PARS is a reading strategy often used with young readers. It involves previewing, asking questions, reading for answers, and summarizing (PARS). [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge and relationships within a particular field or on a given topic. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] CAPS is a strategy that can be used in reading literature to help the reader organize information about characters, aim of story, problem, and solution (CAPS). Jamil is using a strategy that helps him identify relationships among items in history. [Q4] Mr. Lincoln teaches high school science classes and finds that his students struggle with reading comprehension. According to research studies of students from grades three through twelve, which of the following strategies is likely to be most effective for Mr. Lincoln’s students? 1. Teach students to create Venn diagrams and make comparisons as they read 2. Conduct whole-class instruction that teaches students the CAPS strategy 3. Teach students to set reading goals and be aware of their purpose for reading [correct] 4. Conduct whole-class instruction that teaches students the PARS strategy for reading [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Venn diagrams show how ideas or concepts overlap. Mr. Lincoln wants to use a strategy that helps his students comprehend what they read in their science text.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to studies, teaching the whole class to apply reading strategies is not beneficial for high school students. The PARS strategy helps younger students preview, ask questions, read for answers, and summarize (PARS). [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Setting reading goals is an important type of strategy in task-oriented reading, the kind of reading required in Mr. Lincoln’s science classes and other content-area classes. Researchers concluded that teachers should “make their students think and be aware of their purpose for reading and ask questions that elicit such awareness.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The PARS strategy is used effectively with elementary age students or students who lack experience in reading textbooks. The whole-class approach is more effective with young students but not beneficial for older students. [Q5] Sadie, an eighth grader, was excited when she learned a new strategy for taking notes in her language arts class. She now uses her new note-taking skills every day in language arts. Her other teachers have not taught comparable learning strategies, and Sadie is struggling to keep up in social studies. She is confused during mini-lectures and doesn’t follow any specific strategies for taking notes or organizing the information. Sadie’s note-taking experience illustrates which of the following? 1. Testing effect 2. Production deficiency [correct] 3. Retrieval practice 4. Reflection [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The testing effect involves active retrieval of information for the purpose of determining how well the information is learned. Sadie’s problem involves the failure to use a skill she has learned. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A production deficiency occurs when students learn problem-solving strategies but do not apply them when they could or should. Sadie should transfer her learning about note-taking in language arts to her learning in other classes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Retrieval practice involves retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying the notes. Sadie’s problem involves the failure to use a skill she has learned. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sadie’s problem is not a failure to reflect, but a failure to apply her notetaking skills in all content areas.

Learning Outcome 9.3. Explain the processes involved in problem solving and the factors that can interfere with successful problem solving. [Q1] For the science fair, Stella wants to enter a project about photosynthesis, and she begins by breaking the project into steps or subgoals that include planting seeds in a glass container, observing and noting the growth of roots and stems, creating a poster with photos and definitions, and drawing conclusions with explanations. She will figure out the details of each part as the project unfolds. Stella is using which approach in the representation stage of her problem? 1. Verbalization 2. Analogical thinking 3. Means-ends analysis [correct] 4. Working-backward strategy [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The verbalization process involves putting your problem-solving plan into words and explaining reasons for selecting it. Stella lays out a plan with a series of logical steps rather than explaining reasons for doing her project. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Analogical thinking is a type of heuristic that uses analogies. Stella is not using an analogy to plan her project. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In means-ends analysis, the problem is divided into a number of intermediate goals or subgoals, and then each intermediate subgoal is addressed. Stella broke her project into parts and will work on one part at a time. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Stella’s approach follows a linear plan from start to finish. She does not start with the goal and move backward in her planning. [Q2] Colton thinks there are more clothing stores than restaurants in the mall near his house, because he can easily list 15 clothing stores at his mall but can list only 5 or 6 food stands or restaurants. How is Colton determining this answer? 1. Availability heuristic [correct] 2. Representative heuristic 3. Belief perseverance 4. Confirmation bias

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Colton draws on his own memories or experiences to arrive at a conclusion. He is using conclusions based on memory or available information, and such conclusions are not always accurate. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Representative heuristics are based on our prototypes and what is representative of the category. Colton is making a comparison based on his memories. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Belief perseverance is the tendency to hold on to beliefs even when evidence supports a different belief. Colton is drawing a conclusion without confronting evidence that confirms or denies his belief. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A confirmation bias is a situation in which a person searches for evidence that confirms a preexisting idea. Colton isn’t dealing with evidence. He is simply drawing a conclusion based on his memories. [Q3] Hailey faces the problem of writing an essay for her history class. This is not difficult for Hailey, because she has written essays in her English classes and has established procedures for essay writing. Hailey’s approach is best described as which of the following? 1. Heuristic-based problem solving 2. Schema-driven problem solving [correct] 3. Embodied cognition 4. Problem solving with an algorithm [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Hailey is using her knowledge and experience to approach a familiar problem. She is not using a general strategy that might lead to the right solution. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The solution to a new problem that is like an old problem requires activation of an old schema, rather than development of a new solution. Hailey has a schema for writing essays, and she employees this familiar approach to the new problem of writing an essay for history class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Embodied cognition means that cognitive processes develop from real-time-goal-directed interactions between humans and their environment. Hailey is using her knowledge and experience rather than interacting with objects in the environment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem. Hailey is using her knowledge and experience to approach a familiar problem.

[Q4] Bryan is a novice electrical engineer, and his dad is an expert with years of experience in this field. Bryan and his dad are presented with a specific, well-defined problem in the electrical system in a jet engine. Why will Bryan’s dad be better at solving the problem than his son? 1. Experts rely on general strategies that do not need to be monitored 2. Experts focus on surface details that point to the simplest solutions 3. Experts rely on working memory and do not need to analyze the problem 4. Experts have flexible knowledge they can apply to many situations [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Novices rely on general strategies that are often filled with errors and result in failure. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Novices focus on surface details and fail to see the structure of underlying principles. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Novices rely on working memory that quickly gets filled. Experts take time to analyze the problem. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Experts have flexible knowledge they can apply to many situations. They take time to analyze the problem and then quickly apply domain-relevant reasoning strategies to identify accurate solutions. [Q5] For the first six weeks of school, Ms. Nguyen follows recommended guidelines in teaching her students to become good problem solvers. Her students are familiar with the process and are skilled at solving complex problems at this point. Ms. Nguyen presents a problem and asks students if they are sure they understand the problem. Based on recommended guidelines, what does she do next? 1. Suggest solutions to the problem 2. Give clues to help students arrive at the correct solution quickly 3. Prompt students to look at the problem from different angles [correct] 4. Monitor students and give explicit instructions about problem solving [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students should do the thinking, and Ms. Nguyen should resist the temptation to give too many suggestions and clues. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Nguyen’s students are familiar with the process and are skilled at solving complex problems. The students should do the thinking, and Ms. Nguyen should resist the temptation to give too many suggestions and clues. If clues are needed, they are given later—after another important step.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] After checking for students’ understanding of the problem, Ms. Nguyen should encourage students to see the problem form different angles. Students should attempt to see different possibilities or even defend different points of view on an issue. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Nguyen’s students are skilled at solving complex problems at this point. They should selfmonitor and reflect on their problem-solving process, and the teacher should not monitor for them. They should no longer need the teacher’s explicit instructions about problem solving. Learning Outcome 9.4. Identify factors that influence students’ abilities to think critically and to form and support arguments. [Q1] Various students in Ms. Meyer’s class made the following comments. Ryker said, “The author discusses recycling but doesn’t explain how the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.” Muriel said, “Everyone knows the advantages of recycling and why recycling is important for keeping our community clean.” Diego said, “The author knows that everyone recycles and no one needs to have explanations about the reasons.” Which student or students provide the best examples of critical thinking? 1. Ryker and Muriel 2. Muriel and Diego 3. Diego 4. Ryker [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] One of these students is using critical thinking skills and the other is offering an opinion. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] One of these students offers a surface-level opinion and the other makes an unqualified presumption. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Diego makes an unqualified presumption about the author’s intent. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ryker is evaluating the material in the textbook rather than simply reading and accepting the content. [Q2] Piper is a junior in high school. She wants to get a summer job and continue working during the school term to save money for college. Her mom thinks Piper should not get a job, because she

claims Piper will not keep up her grades, stay focused, and get enough sleep. What skills does Piper need to use in approaching her mother and changing her mother’s mind? 1. Corroboration skills 2. Contextualization skills 3. Argumentation skills [correct] 4. Positive transfer skills [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Corroborating her mother’s points does not achieve her goal. Piper’s goal is to change her mother’s mind. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Contextualizing is used when information about people, places, times, or events is integrated in order to represent the entire context. Piper’s goal is to change her mother’s mind. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Piper needs to use argumentation skills and construct her own argument, support her position, and refute her mother’s argument. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Positive transfer involves application of previously learned skills to new situations. Piper’s goal is to change her mother’s mind. [Q3] Based on the definition of critical thinking provided by the author in Chapter 9, critical thinkers do all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Evaluate conclusions 2. Logically examine the problem 3. Systematically examine the evidence 4. Trust current knowledge and beliefs [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Critical thinkers evaluate conclusions rather than assuming conclusions are faultless. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Critical thinkers logically and systematically examine the problem. They engage in thought processes that involve analysis and evaluation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Critical thinkers systematically examine the evidence. They engage in thought processes that involve analysis and evaluation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] An individual’s current knowledge and beliefs may be faulty and may reflect biases. Critical thinkers openly explore other possibilities.

[Q4] Mr. McKay wants his students to think critically about online resources when they search for information and select evidence for their presentations in public speaking. In teaching his students recommended guidelines to follow, Mr. McKay is most likely to include which of the following? 1. Examine the clarity of images included in the source 2. Evaluate the source of the information [correct] 3. Judge the information on the basis of visual appeal 4. Assess the amount of detail included in the article [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The clarity of images included in the source is a superficial quality that affects readability but does not help students determine the reliability of the content. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] One critical skill Mr. McKay’s students need to develop is the ability to evaluate the source of information. Students learn this skill by asking questions about authorship, motivation of the author, accuracy, and time and place of publication or posting. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Visual appeal does not verify the quality of the source of information. Students need to be more concerned about qualities such as authorship and accuracy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Amount of detail may be relevant but does not ensure the validity and trustworthiness of the source of information. Students need to be more concerned about qualities such as authorship and accuracy. [Q5] Which one of the following statements most clearly shows effective disputative argumentation? 1. “We have two different theories, but when we compare them, we can see that only one is right.” 2. “Now that we’ve brainstormed ideas, let’s reject the ones we think are unrealistic.” 3. “There’s a lot of evidence to support my position.” 4. “Your position sounds reasonable on its surface, but the evidence proves you wrong.” [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement suggests deliberative argumentation in which the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement suggests deliberative argumentation in which the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. 12 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement would likely be part of a disputative argument—especially that of a child or adolescent. However, effective disputative argumentation involves also reflecting on the opponent’s claims, and that isn’t present here. Children don’t pay very much attention to the claims and evidence of the other person in the debate. Adolescents understand that their opponent in a debate has a different position, but they tend to spend much more time presenting their own position than they do trying to understand and critique their opponent’s claims. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The heart of disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process in which the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. Learning Outcome 9.5. Discuss how, why, and when knowledge learned in one situation might be applied to new situations and problems. [Q1] Emma uses a mathematical principle when she completes a math problem on her final exam, and she later applies that same principle when she plays a card game. Emma’s application illustrates which of the following? 1. Automaticity 2. Negative transfer 3. Positive transfer [correct] 4. Concrete knowledge [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Automaticity involves overlearning a skill until you can perform it without consciously thinking about it. Emma’s application of the math principle doesn’t imply automaticity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Negative transfer occurs when someone tries to apply familiar but inappropriate strategies to a new situation. Emma is applying appropriate strategies to a new situation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Positive transfer occurs when skills that are learned in one situation are transferred to other authentic situations. Emma is applying appropriate strategies to a new situation by using the mathematical principle she learned at school in the authentic situation with a card game. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Emma’s application of a mathematical principle may involve concrete knowledge. This example of her application of the principle in different settings is not defined as concrete knowledge. [Q2] Kat thinks computer programming has something in common with geometry because both involve problem solving in some way.

Luis’s first language is Spanish, and he is learning French at school. He uses his knowledge of Spanish grammar to understand French grammar. Connor uses the mnemonic, “King Philip comes over for good spaghetti,” to help him remember the biological classification system: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. In these situations, which student or students are most likely using mindful abstraction? 1. Kat and Connor 2. Connor and Luis 3. Kat 4. Luis [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Kat’s thinking involves a recognition that two different domains involve problem solving. This is not an example of mindful abstraction because her thinking does not involve overlap in content. Connor’s use of a mnemonic device does not involve overlap of content. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Connor’s use of a mnemonic device does not involve overlap of content. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Kat’s thinking involves a recognition that two different domains involve problem solving. This is not an example of mindful abstraction because her thinking does not involve overlap in content. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Mindful abstraction is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Luis recognizes an overlap between grammar principles that apply to his first language and also apply to his learning of French. [Q3] Ms. Lopez teaches language arts and provides instruction in ways that are intentional about developing students’ positive transfer. Ms. Lopez is focusing on which of the following? 1. Abstract applications 2. Knowledge-to-go [correct] 3. Problem solving 4. Learning skills [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Lopez is intentional about developing positive transfer. Some of the transfer might involve abstract applications, but the focus is positive transfer. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The information, skills, and understandings schools offer are knowledge-to-go, not just to use on site. Ms. Lopez is teaching students knowledge and skills to apply to new situations in life— positive transfer.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This scenario doesn’t address problem solving. Ms. Lopez is intentional about developing positive transfer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This scenario doesn’t address specific content such as learning skills. Ms. Lopez is intentional about developing positive transfer. [Q4] Hutton practiced the steps involved in his carefully choreographed drama presentation. He practiced them several times every day to make sure he would make no mistakes when he performed in front of the class. Hutton’s approach results in which of the following? 1. Overlearning [correct] 2. General transfer 3. Modeling 4. Negative transfer [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Hutton is practicing his presentation past the point of mastery. He is overlearning to achieve automaticity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] General transfer is the application of a general principle of learning (time management, selfmotivation, and such) to new contexts. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] No one is modeling behavior for Hutton, and Hutton is not modeling behavior for anyone. Hutton is practicing beyond the point of superficial learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Negative transfer involves the inappropriate application of strategies to a new situation. [Q5] The second week of school, Mrs. Johansen gives her second-graders a list of new vocabulary words. She asks them, “What is the best way for you to learn and remember the definitions?” As she expected, one student says they should repeat them aloud over and over. Mrs. Johansen teaches them a better strategy by showing them how to write the word, then the definition, and then two sentences using the word meaningfully. She then asks every student to contribute one sentence that uses one of the words meaningfully. In this example, the students are in which stage of developing strategic transfer? 1. Transfer 2. Acquisition [correct] 3. Generalization 4. Retention

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In the transfer phase, students should be given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface. Mrs. Johansen’s students are just beginning to work with their new list of words. They are not ready for new problems. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In the acquisition phase, students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it but also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Generalization is not a stage in the development of strategic transfer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In the retention phase, more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. Mrs. Johansen’s students are just beginning to work with their new list of words. They are not ready for the retention phase. Learning Outcome 9.6. Explain what characterizes robust knowledge, how to recognize it, and how teaching can develop robust knowledge. [Q1] What are the important characteristics of robust knowledge? 1. Knowledge that is general and relative 2. Knowledge that is deep, connected, and coherent [correct] 3. Knowledge that is specific and detailed 4. Knowledge that is new, retrievable, and procedural [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Robust knowledge is not general. Robust knowledge, for example, is the kind of knowledge that allows experts to see the similarities in seemingly different problems. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The study of expertise points to three important characteristics of robust knowledge—it is deep, connected, and coherent. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Robust knowledge can be specific and detailed, but these are not the important characteristics. Robust knowledge, for example, is the kind of knowledge that allows experts to see the similarities in seemingly different problems. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Robust knowledge would typically be embedded, not new knowledge, and it may or may not be procedural knowledge.

[Q2] Mr. Lorenz has been teaching a unit about persuasive speeches that involves focusing on presentation skills and critiquing students’ brief persuasive speeches. Now he wants students to develop greater expertise and prepare a speech for an audience of civic leaders. He provides videos of three excellent persuasive speeches for students to watch and emulate. He also provides one strong speech that is unfinished—needs to be completed with an effective conclusion. What strategy is Mr. Lorenz using to help students move from novice to expert skill level? 1. Analogies 2. Analogies and practice 3. Practice 4. Worked examples [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Lorenz does not use analogies or make comparisons in his approach to helping students move from novice to expert skill level. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Lorenz does not use analogies or make comparisons. The practice with brief persuasive speeches helped students develop basic presentation skills. Mr. Lorenz uses a different strategy to help students move from novice to expert skill level. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The practice with brief persuasive speeches helped students develop basic presentation skills. Mr. Lorenz uses a different strategy to help students move from novice to expert skill level. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The videos of three excellent persuasive speeches and the unfinished speech are work examples. These will help students to manage cognitive load and dedicate working memory to the development of persuasive speeches with key features and expert qualities. [Q3] When Ms. Amery teaches her third-grade students a new concept in math, she asks them to turn to their learning partners and describe the concept. When students apply the new concept to problems or math tasks, Ms. Amery requires them to tell their learning partners what they did to solve the problem and why. What strategy is Ms. Amery using to build robust knowledge? 1. Mindful abstraction 2. Self-explanation [correct] 3. Overlearning 4. Worked examples [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mindful abstraction is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Ms. Amery’s approach requires students to turn and talk to a learning partner. 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] To build robust knowledge, the big winner is self-explanation. Ms. Amery’s students explain to a peer what they understand about the concept. After completing tasks using the new concept, students explain what they did to solve the problem and why they did it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Overlearning is practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Ms. Amery’s approach requires students to turn and talk to a learning partner. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] No worked examples are mentioned in this scenario. Ms. Amery’s approach requires students to turn and talk to a learning partner. [Q4] Experts, when presented with a novel problem in their field, quickly apply domain-relevant reasoning strategies to identify accurate solutions. This fluid problem-solving ability best reflects what characteristic of robust knowledge? 1. Isolated disciplines or domains 2. Problem-based learning 3. Practice 4. Connected knowledge [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Experts must be able to integrate knowledge and problem-solving skills from different disciplines or domains. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Problem-based learning is not a characteristic of robust knowledge but rather an approach to teaching that involves authentic, real-world learning and problem solving. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Practice helps experts acquire robust knowledge, but it is not a characteristic of robust knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked—problem-solving steps are linked automatically within a problem, abstract principles are linked to specific features of a problem, concepts are linked to appropriate procedures, and principles are connected across different disciplines and domains. [Q5] For their final projects in social studies, Mr. Leland wants students to provide evidence of deep understanding of their topics. To achieve this goal, what should his assignment require students to do? 1. Integrate multiple sources [correct] 2. Quote the writer’s exact words 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Use current sources of information 4. Present evidence with creativity [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Integrating multiple sources in the study of a topic leads to better understanding. Without the ability to critically integrate information, students fall back on their own biases or are swayed by the most appealing or dramatic presentation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Quoting writers may be a good writing or presentation technique, but Mr. Leland wants students to provide evidence of deep understanding. Quoting a writer may represent superficial understanding rather than deep understanding. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Current sources are important, but it is possible for students to use current sources without exhibiting evidence of deep understanding. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Creativity does not necessarily provide evidence of deep understanding. Creativity can be present when understanding of a topic is shallow.

Chapter 9 Application Exercises Application Exercise 9.1: Developing Metacognition Learning Outcome 9.1. Discuss the roles of metacognition in learning and remembering. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 9.1 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/math/Oklahoma/Class_MorningMeeting.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.1 to answer the following question: Why do you think Ms. Brown asks students to solve this problem in their heads rather than using pencil and paper? [Q1 Model Response] Ms. Brown is challenging students to think and picture the process in their minds as they try to solve the problem. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.1 to answer the following question: What does Ms. Brown do that helps students develop their metacognitive abilities? [Q2 Model Response] Ms. Brown asks students to explain their thinking and describe the strategies they used to solve the problem. If she only asked for the correct answer, students would not think as much about the thought processes involved in finding a solution. As two students describe the strategies they used to arrive at the correct answer, the other students think about the steps in the process. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.1 to answer the following question: Why is it important for Ms. Brown to call on two students to describe their strategies rather than asking only one student? [Q3 Model Response] By calling on two students, everyone tracks the steps involved in two different strategies for solving the problem. This process helps students recognize that different approaches can be used to solve problems. There are multiple ways to think about the problem and arrive at the correct answer. In other words, students are developing metacognitive skills as they think about their thinking. Application Exercise 9.2: Problem Solving Learning Outcome 9.3. Explain the processes involved in problem solving and the factors that can interfere with successful problem solving. 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 9.3 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/PG112_Week4_Seg ment1_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.3 to answer the following question: Explain what kinds of problems can and cannot be solved using Mr. Stepien’s problem-solving model. [Q1 Model Response] Mr. Stepien’s problem-solving model is useful in solving ill-structured problems. These are problems that do not have one right answer such as real-life problems that involve using the imagination to develop hunches and brainstorm possible solutions. This model may not be as useful in solving well-structured math problems, for example, that have one right answer. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.3 to answer the following question: In Mr. Stepien’s problem-solving model, what purpose is served by having students use their imaginations to form hunches and identify relevant questions? [Q2 Model Response] Problem solving is usually defined as “formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules to achieve a goal.” Using the imagination to form hunches helps students think outside the box and avoid making assumptions that may be faulty. It helps students distinguish between what they know and what they need to know. It helps them look at a problem from different perspectives rather than diving into a solution with a superficial understanding or a single point of view. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.3 to answer the following question: Chapter 9 briefly discusses the debate between the view that problem-solving strategies are specific to the problem area and the view that some problem-solving strategies are useful in many areas. Which side of this debate would be more likely to affirm Mr. Stepien’s problemsolving model? Explain. [Q3 Model Response] Mr. Stepien’s problem-solving model is more likely to be affirmed by the side of the debate that claims that there are some general problem-solving strategies that can be useful in many areas. As Mr. Stepien states in the video, this model is useful in solving real-life problems such as illstructured problems that may be approached analytically and may have multiple appropriate answers. This approach to problem solving does not use strategies such as algorithms to achieve the goal.

Application Exercise 9.3: Teaching for Transfer Learning Outcome 9.5. Discuss how, why, and when knowledge learned in one situation might be applied to new situations and problems. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 9.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/math/Oklahoma/Class_MultiplicationDivision. mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.6 to answer the following question: In the video, what does Ms. Brown do to support teaching for positive transfer? [Q1 Model Response] Whenever something previously learned influences current learning or when solving an earlier problem affects how you solve a new problem, transfer has occurred. In this class, Ms. Brown presents a problem about cookies and then asks the students to generate possible solutions, requiring them to transfer a procedure they’ve already learned to this situation—splitting a larger number into smaller, more recognizable numbers and then using both multiplication and addition to find the answer. She then has them consider their own classroom of students and transfer the procedures again to solve a similar problem. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.6 to answer the following question: For basic skills like multiplication and division, greater transfer can be ensured by overlearning. Does it appear that the students have overlearned this material? [Q2 Model Response] Not yet. Overlearning involves practicing a skill past the point of mastery. The students in this class are not automatic in their responses—they are still consciously reasoning as they use the mathematical procedures and often make errors, which they can recognize and correct. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 9.6 to answer the following question: Researchers suggest there are three stages in developing strategic transfer. What stage of transfer does this lesson seem to emphasize? [Q3 Model Response] This is most likely part of the retention phase. In the retention phase, more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. It is probably not part of the transfer phase, in which students are given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface. The “cookie problems” used in this lesson are similar on the surface.

Chapter 9 Test Items Chapter 9 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 9.1: Discuss the roles of metacognition in learning Multiple Choice: 1-3 and remembering. Essay: 22 Objective 9.2: Describe several learning and study strategies Multiple Choice: 4-8 that help students develop their metacognitive abilities. Essay: 23 Objective 9.3: Explain the processes involved in problem Multiple Choice: 9-14 solving and the factors that can interfere with successful Essay: 24 problem solving. Objective 9.4: Identify factors that influence students’ abilities Multiple Choice: 15-17 to think critically and to form and support arguments. Essay: 25 Objective 9.5: Discuss how, why, and when knowledge learned Multiple Choice: 18-19 in one situation might be applied to new situations and Essay: 26 problems. Objective 9.6: Explain what characterizes robust knowledge, Multiple Choice: 20-21 how to recognize it, and how teaching can develop robust Essay: 27 knowledge.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The following students are engaged in learning. Which student’s processing is metacognitive? a. “The teacher assigned roles for our group work. My role is to make sure everyone in the group participates. Who read the chapter?” b. “I believe the second question on the review sheet is going to be on the test tomorrow. We spent a lot of class time on that topic.” c. “I think I need to focus my attention on the overarching point about the cause of the conflict rather than being distracted by unrelated events.” d. “The main character in the story is the man who led the group of civilians out of the country, and his actions are highlighted as the story unfolds.” 2. Which teacher is helping third-grade students to develop metacognitive skills in writing? a. “After you choose your topic, come up with three points you want to communicate about the topic.” b. “You should choose a topic that is very familiar to you. Then you will be able to write about it in a way that holds your reader’s interest.” c. “Write a topic sentence first. Your topic sentence should introduce your reader to the topic and capture the reader’s attention.” d. “Ask yourself what helped you remember the boy’s appearance, then use that knowledge to come up with descriptive words.”

3. Morris is a high school student preparing for the SAT. As he studies vocabulary for the test, he knows that he needs to stay focused rather than multitasking. He knows he will take longer and spend more time revisiting the words if he texts friends and checks email. What kind of metacognitive knowledge does Morris demonstrate about himself as a learner? a. Self-regulatory knowledge b. Declarative knowledge c. Self-evaluating knowledge d. Motivational knowledge 4. Erika is doing her homework for her middle school classes. In which assignment is she using learning strategies—a special kind of procedural knowledge? a. In my literature assignment, I need to read the next two chapters in the fiction book we’re studying and then answer the questions. b. For algebra, I have already worked the even-numbered problems that were assigned and attempted the brainteaser for extra credit. c. In my summary of the science reading, I write my topic sentence, list the big ideas, and include the main supporting information for each big idea. d. For band, if I practice playing the new piece four times, I will not only get credit for practicing, but I’ll also earn a star on the chart for this week. 5. Maurice is reading his notes from science class. He wants to organize information the teacher presented about erosion—the causes, the effects, and relationships between weather conditions and erosion. He needs an effective learning strategy. Which of the following tools seems most likely to help Maurice meet his goal? a. Venn diagram b. Concept map c. Flashcards d. Cornell notes 6. Ms. Gromberg taught her students how to use the CAPS strategy for reading literature. Teo learned the strategy, but it takes extra time. As he reads the assignment for tomorrow, Teo wants to hurry and decides to skip the strategy. He hopes Ms. Gromberg doesn’t give a quiz tomorrow. Teo’s situation is an example of: a. a heuristic. b. analogical thinking. c. distributed practice. d. production deficiency. 7. Mr. Soria wants to teach his students new strategies that will improve their metacognitive knowledge and skills. Based on guidelines for teaching such strategies to students, which of the following approaches should Mr. Soria use? a. Encourage students to disregard strategies they have used in the past. b. Allow students to figure out where and when to use the strategies. c. Emphasize the importance of speed rather than reflection. 24 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Model, explain, and re-explain the strategies. 8. To encourage students to use learning strategies effectively, teachers must design learning tasks that are appropriate rather than tasks that require memorization. Which of the following tasks is appropriate for practicing complex learning strategies? a. Compare the settings and characters of the two stories. b. Recall the day and year of these main events in history. c. List the names of the states and capitals in this region of the country. d. Tell what the author said about the main character’s motives. 9. Gianna noticed her bicycle making a new sound as she rides it in the neighborhood. She doesn’t know much about bicycles, but she believes she can use general problem-solving strategies to approach the problem. What step should she take first in her general problemsolving approach? a. Create a path to reach her goals b. Identify possible solutions c. Identify the problem d. Analyze subgoals 10. A new student just arrived at Northside Elementary. The principal led the student to Mrs. Kimble’s class and motioned for the student to take a seat. When Mrs. Kimble spoke to the student, he didn’t answer. He was wearing sneakers, and he carried a backpack. He had dark hair and wore glasses. If Mrs. Kimble is a problem solver, what information about this student will receive her attention? a. The student’s backpack b. The student’s eyeglasses c. The student didn’t answer her. d. The principal led the student. 11. Carrie is preparing her school lunch and sees leftovers in the refrigerator. She doesn’t remember when her mom cooked the meal, so it may not have been very recently. She’s running late and needs to make a quick decision. She says to herself, “When in doubt, throw it out” and chooses something else. What problem-solving method is she using? a. Functional fixedness b. Algorithm c. Heuristic d. Means-end analysis 12. During history class, one of the students rolled a baseball on the floor toward the front of the classroom. Ms. Durango saw the rolling ball as she turned from the front marker board. She saw the direction from which the ball rolled, determined that she needed to identify the disruptive student immediately, and quickly called the name of the only boy sitting on that row. Her identification was not correct. What probably hindered her from solving the problem of identifying the disruptive student? a. Representativeness heuristic 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Functional fixedness c. Response set d. Analysis paralysis 13. The students in Mr. Walker’s class are engaged in a creative activity designed to help them become effective problem solvers. Mr. Walker held up a large rubber band and told students to list as many ways to use the rubber band as possible. He is giving them 90 seconds to create their lists. How is this activity most likely intended to increase students’ problemsolving effectiveness? a. Help students learn to apply response set in problem solving b. Help students learn to practice functional fixedness in problem solving c. Help students learn to develop problem-solving algorithms d. Help students avoid factors that hinder problem solving 14. Matthew is a brilliant student who seems rather arrogant about his intelligence and academic success. He corrected a comment made by his English teacher in class yesterday. The teacher complimented him for his analytical thinking and provided information to support her comment. After class, Matthew told his buddy that the teacher was wrong. His buddy said, “Well she gave you the source of her information. I don’t think you have a leg to stand on.” What specific problem-solving attribute is Matthew demonstrating? a. Representativeness heuristic b. Functional fixedness c. Availability heuristic d. Belief perseverance 15. Based on what you know about critical thinking, which of the following students seems to be thinking critically? a. Grace presented her dogmatic opinion about the value of the research and the conclusions of the study. b. After the tennis match, Reid asked the line judge why she called the ball out when it was in. c. Emma evaluated the writer’s argument and recognized the false assumption the writer was making. d. In chemistry class, Gil drew conclusions before finishing his experiment with the two substances. 16. In the geography unit about the continents, Mr. Reyna asked students several discussion questions. Which of his questions requires students to think critically? a. Based on your knowledge of the geography and culture of Greenland, explain why you would or would not place it in the North American continent. b. What are the names and locations of the continents? c. Based on information from your text, what events took place that geologists believe brought about the formation of the continents we have today?

d. Compare the continents. Which one has the most countries, and which one has the largest land mass? 17. High school students are engaged in an activity in which they work collaboratively to compare arguments for and against the use of iPads in their classroom. They have been tasked with arriving at a constructive conclusion to determine which idea is right or best. What type of argumentation are they using? a. Disputative b. Deliberative c. Metacognitive d. Oppositional 18. Ms. Kovak works with her third-grade reading groups to teach her students the skill of identifying the main idea when they read a passage. She wants the students to transfer the skill to reading in content areas. Which of the following approaches is recommended for achieving the goal of teaching for transfer? a. Teach students different skills to use in understanding content area reading. b. Ask parents to identify the main idea for their child when the child reads assignments for homework. c. Provide practice with the skill to the point of overlearning the strategy and repeating it. d. Teach students how to write a topic sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. 19. Students in Mr. Lester’s class are practicing the strategy of organizing lecture information by using Cornell notes. Mr. Lester is circulating the classroom and giving students feedback about their notes. Some of the students have used the strategy effectively, and the feedback from Mr. Lester is positive. Others are struggling, and the feedback provides additional instruction. Mr. Lester’s class is at what stage of transfer of this strategy? a. Acquisition phase b. Transfer phase c. Retention phase d. Expert phase 20. Ms. Penya wants students to use their textbook and Internet sources in writing term papers on a given topic. Which student uses an approach that is most likely to demonstrate the development of robust knowledge on the topic? a. One student focuses on surface details to create a summary of information about the topic. b. One student focuses primarily on information from the textbook that fits his particular perspective on the topic. c. One student applies general strategies for reading and organizing information from her main Internet source. d. One student integrates information from multiple sources and presents pros and cons of one point of view.

21. Mr. Compton wants to implement the best strategies of teaching to help students build robust knowledge and move from novice to expert skill level. Which of the following strategies is likely to be the most successful? a. Ask students to work several examples of the new type of problem before receiving feedback. b. Ask students to provide self-explanations of their work on problems in class. c. Show worked examples to students after they have tried to solve several sample problems on their own. d. Avoid teaching and practicing skills to the point of overlearning.

Essay Questions 22. Ms. Garza wants her students to use metacognitive skills to guide their reading and inquiry. She is beginning a unit in social studies about the industrial revolution and plans to introduce the lesson with a KWL chart. Describe how she might effectively use a KWL system to encourage students to use metacognitive skills. 23. At the beginning of the year, Mr. Doniphan taught his eighth graders a strategy for comprehending their history lessons when they read the chapters in their text. He has found over his three years of teaching that many of the students get bogged down in the details and fail to understand how one event relates to another. The class is working on chapter four and Mr. Doniphan is leading discussion about the assigned reading. He finds that most of the students are unable to participate. They are getting bogged down again and are not applying the strategy they learned earlier. What does Mr. Doniphan need to do when he teaches the learning strategy in order for students to continue using it all year? 24. Mick has always done very well in math. Through elementary school, he was one of the first to answer the teacher’s questions, solve the new types of problems, and turn in assignments. Now he’s in the seventh grade and is having trouble with math. He recognizes that the concepts are more complex, but he feels certain he is capable of understanding and performing better. He believes he has identified the problem. He doesn’t approach his homework with the same focus he did in the past. He has a habit of multitasking when he does his homework. Based on Mick’s identification of the problem, describe the steps he might take to use a general problem-solving strategy to solve the problem. Explain specifically what he needs to do at each step. 25. Develop an assignment for students to debate the following question: Should schools teach critical thinking and problem solving? Use the deliberative argumentation style for this assignment. 26. In the second grade, Danielle was identified as a student with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Throughout her elementary school years, she had such a busy brain that she failed to learn some of the strategies that have become automatic for her friends. Now Danielle is in high school and has made up her mind to be a medical doctor. She realizes some of the demands of the profession because her mom is a doctor. Danielle is serious about learning and determined to teach herself some learning strategies to improve her academic achievement.

Identify at least one learning strategy that will transfer to many of the subjects Danielle will take in high school and college. Describe the stages in developing strategic transfer that she will experience as she teaches herself the strategy and develops the ability to transfer its use to new learning situations. 27. Carlos is trying to complete a math assignment involving word problems. He still doesn’t understand when to add, when to subtract, and when to do both. Mrs. Tam wants to teach in ways that help Carlos and other students develop robust knowledge in this level of math. In addition to providing practice opportunities, what strategies might she use to support the development of robust knowledge? Explain.

Chapter 9 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: “I think I need to focus my attention on the overarching point about the cause of the conflict rather than being distracted by unrelated events.” Feedback for Correct Answer: Metacognition is knowledge about our own thinking processes and how to control them, along with the skills to regulate your thinking. The student who demonstrates metacognition is the student who is thinking about where to focus his or her attention. Text Reference: Metacognition

Correct Answer: “Ask yourself what helped you remember the boy’s appearance, then use that knowledge to come up with descriptive words.” Feedback for Correct Answer: This teacher is helping students think about their thinking. Using a question to prompt them to recall their thinking helps them create a mental picture. Text Reference: Metacognition

Correct Answer: Declarative knowledge Feedback for Correct Answer: Declarative knowledge about yourself as a learner includes the factors that influence your learning and memory, the strategies and resources needed to perform a task, and the value of applying strategies—knowing what to do. Morris demonstrates declarative knowledge about himself as a learner. One fact he knows about his learning is that texting and emailing distract him and slow him down. Text Reference: Metacognition

Correct Answer: In my summary of the science reading, I write my topic sentence, list the big ideas, and include the main supporting information for each big idea. Feedback for Correct Answer: Learning strategies are a special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to do something. Erika describes procedural knowledge when she explains the use of the learning strategy of summarizing her science reading. Text Reference: Learning Strategies

Correct Answer: Concept map Feedback for Correct Answer: Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge and relationships within a particular field or on a given topic. This learning strategy helps Maurice organize information about erosion—causes, effects, and relationships. Text Reference: Learning Strategies

research on learning strategies is what are known as production deficiencies. Students learn problem-solving strategies but do not apply them when they could or should. Text Reference: Learning Strategies 7.

Correct Answer: Model, explain, and re-explain the strategies. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers should use direct teaching and model strategies. They should explain and re-explain using different words. There is an order for developing learning strategies. Teach surface-level strategies, then strategies such as retrieval practice, and finally strategies for deep learning. Text Reference: Learning Strategies

Correct Answer: Compare the settings and characters of the two stories. Feedback for Correct Answer: Complex learning strategies are not needed when tasks require memorizing, listing, and recalling information. Tasks that require understanding and higher-order thinking are more appropriate for using complex learning strategies. Text Reference: Learning Strategies

Correct Answer: Identify the problem Feedback for Correct Answer: General problem-solving strategies usually include the steps of identifying the problem, setting goals, exploring possible solutions and consequences, acting, and finally evaluating the outcome. Gianna needs to begin by identifying the problem. Text Reference: Problem Solving

10.

Correct Answer: The student didn’t answer her. Feedback for Correct Answer: Representing the problem often requires finding the relevant information and ignoring the irrelevant details. The important information about the student is that he didn’t answer the teacher. Does he speak English? Is he extremely shy? Did he hear her? Mrs. Kimble needs to represent the problem by focusing on what is relevant. Text Reference: Problem Solving

11.

Correct Answer: Heuristic Feedback for Correct Answer: A heuristic is a general strategy that might lead to the right answer. Many of life’s problems (careers, relationships, what to eat from the fridge, etc.) are not straightforward and have ill-defined problem statements and no apparent algorithms. For such problems, the discovery or development of effective heuristics is important. Text Reference: Problem Solving

12.

Correct Answer: Representativeness heuristic Feedback for Correct Answer: Representativeness heuristic is judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category. To Ms. Durango, boys represent baseball more than girls, and boys represent this 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

type of disruptive behavior more than girls. She automatically applied a heuristic based on her stereotypes. In this problem-solving setting, her heuristic failed her. Text Reference: Problem Solving 13.

Correct Answer: Help students avoid factors that hinder problem solving Feedback for Correct Answer: Factors that hinder problem solving include functional fixedness, response set, and stereotypes. This creative activity is most likely intended to help students avoid such hindering approaches to problem solving. Text Reference: Problem Solving

14.

Correct Answer: Belief perseverance Feedback for Correct Answer: Belief perseverance is the tendency to hold to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Text Reference: Problem Solving

15.

Correct Answer: Emma evaluated the writer’s argument and recognized the false assumption the writer was making. Feedback for Correct Answer: Critical thinking involves evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution. Emma is the only student in these scenarios who uses such an evaluative process. Text Reference: Critical Thinking and Argumentation

16.

Correct Answer: Based on your knowledge of the geography and culture of Greenland, explain why you would or would not place it in the North American continent. Feedback for Correct Answer: Students must synthesize information (data, facts, experiences, etc.) to make inferences and judgments based on key concepts or ideas, all leading to their answers from their points of view. Text Reference: Critical Thinking and Argumentation

17.

Correct Answer: Deliberative Feedback for Correct Answer: With deliberative argumentation, the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right. Text Reference: Critical Thinking and Argumentation

18.

Correct Answer: Provide practice with the skill to the point of overlearning the strategy and repeating it. Feedback for Correct Answer: One of the best ways for teachers to help students transfer learning strategies is to get students to practice the skill past the point of mastery. This involves overlearning the skill until it is almost automatic. Text Reference: Teaching for Transfer

19.

Correct Answer: Retention phase Feedback for Correct Answer: The retention phase follows the acquisition phase. Retention is the phase when more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. They have passed the acquisition phase, because they are at the point of practicing. They are not yet ready for the transfer phase in which they are given new problems that can be solved with the same strategy. Text Reference: Teaching for Transfer

20.

Correct Answer: One student integrates information from multiple sources and presents pros and cons of one point of view. Feedback for Correct Answer: Novices focus on surface features, whereas experts focus on the structure and larger concepts underlying the problem. Experts can recall from their long-term memory many important details about the problem domain. The flexible, deep, connected, coherent knowledge of experts gives them abundant useful knowledge to transfer to new situations and problems. Text Reference: Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge

21.

Correct Answer: Ask students to provide self-explanations of their work on problems in class. Feedback for Correct Answer: To build robust knowledge, the big winner is self-explanation. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer (especially creating a drawing and explaining it to someone), providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge. Text Reference: Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 22.

Suggested Response: Ms. Garza might introduce the KWL by drawing a chart on the board and asking students to replicate the chart on a clean piece of paper in their notebooks. An alternative is to provide students with a handout of a blank KWL chart. She needs to explain each column of the chart, telling students the questions represented by the letters KWL. She might pose the first question to the class as a group, asking them to volunteer information they already know about the industrial revolution. As Ms. Garza writes these items on the board in the K column, students write them on their papers. Ms. Garza might repeat the process with the W column by asking students what they are curious about and what they want to learn as they read. She might ask students to add more items to their lists individually. Ms. Garza might then explain that, following the reading, students will complete the L column by writing what they learned from reading. She should check to see how well students completed the task. She might conduct a brief class discussion about the KWL process and ask students how the KWL helps them think about their learning. Text Reference: Metacognition 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

23.

Suggested Response: Mr. Doniphan seems to have made the mistake of failing to provide sufficient practice and feedback after introducing the learning strategy. •

When he or any other teacher introduces a learning strategy, the teacher needs to model the strategy and make sure students understand when and how to use it. Then the teacher needs to provide appropriate tasks in which students use the strategy. In Mr. Doniphan’s case, he needs to make sure the discussion questions require students to have used the strategy and gained understanding of the relationship of events to one another rather than asking questions that require recall of details.

•

After introducing the strategy, Mr. Doniphan must provide plenty of opportunities for students to practice the strategy. He might provide feedback that helps students use the strategy more effectively.

•

He should encourage students to monitor their use of the strategy by determining how well they are able to answer the comprehension questions. The selfmonitoring might involve asking one or two simple questions to check understanding.

•

He should help students value the use of the strategy by comparing how much better they do when they use the strategy to how much difficulty they have when they do not use the strategy.

•

He might also encourage students to be reflective about checking their understanding and avoid distractions such as multitasking and losing focus.

Text Reference: Learning Strategies 24.

Suggested Response: Mick might use the general problem-solving strategy that involves identifying the problem, setting goals, exploring solutions and consequences, acting, and evaluating the outcome. •

Mick has identified the problem. He multitasks, and multitasking keeps him from focusing on his math homework.

•

Based on the problem he identified, Mick’s goal is to improve his focus when he does his homework. He needs to articulate his specific goal.

•

Now he needs to explore solutions, select a solution, and anticipate the consequences. He needs to try stopping his multitasking during math homework time. If his multitasking involves chatting with others, then he should try turning off his phone and his iPad/computer when he works on his math homework. If his multitasking involves watching TV or listening to favorite music, he should try turning off these distractors. Consequences might include being left out of the loop with friends during math homework time or getting behind temporarily on TV shows.

•

Next, Mick needs to act (implement his solution). Is he willing to take the steps of turning off his electronic devices or the TV and other distractors long enough to focus on his math homework? If he is motivated enough, he will take these steps.

•

After trying a more focused approach that involves no multitasking, Mick needs to evaluate the outcome. Does he understand the math concepts better? Is his performance in math improving? If so, he probably identified the problem accurately and solved it effectively. Now he needs to continue to follow his new 34 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

and improved homework plan. If not, he should go back to the first step of identifying the actual problem. Text Reference: Problem Solving 25.

Suggested Response: The deliberative argumentation style involves collaboration. All students will explore the question by gathering information (rather than taking a position and supporting claims with evidence). They will try to gain an understanding of the reasons for and against teaching critical thinking and problem solving in schools. In groups of four, they will work collaboratively to compare and contrast their findings, evaluate alternatives, and arrive at a constructive conclusion. Their group goal will be to determine which idea is best or right. The overall goal is for students to use critical thinking. Text Reference: Critical Thinking and Argumentation

26.

Suggested Response: Danielle and all learners benefit from learning strategies that help them organize and remember. Suppose Danielle is teaching herself to use visual tools such as concept maps to organize and remember information. These strategies transfer to many topics across many domains of study. The first stage of learning the strategy is the acquisition phase. Danielle needs to read instructions about using the strategy, find examples on the Internet or from other sources, and learn when and how to use the strategy. She needs to rehearse by using the strategy as she reads academic material. The next stage is the retention phase. Danielle needs to keep practicing and overlearn the strategy until it becomes automatic for her to organize material using concept mapping or a similar visual tool. She might find another student who uses concept mapping to compare notes and give her feedback. She might also ask a teacher to look at her concept maps and give her feedback. The third stage is called the transfer phase. In this phase Danielle develops strategic transfer and tries to use the strategy with new learning situations. Until now she used the strategy successfully to organize material she read from her texts. Now she branches out to new learning problems. For example, she might take a complex concept that is covered in an entire chapter and boil it down to a concept map. She might take her notes from lectures about one of the body systems and turn her notes into a concept map. She might even merge concepts across chapters to solve problems of recognizing relationships among concepts. If Danielle teaches herself this strategy and practices it until it becomes automatic, she should make academic gains. Text Reference: Teaching for Transfer

27.

Suggested Response: In addition to providing opportunities for Carlos and other students to practice, Mrs. Tam can provide worked examples, use analogies, and require self-explanations. Worked examples help students understand the various types of problems and compare their work to the worked samples. They can use the worked samples to explain why each operation is needed to solve the problem. 35 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Analogies help students make comparisons and distinguish among different types of problems. They develop deeper understanding of the underlying principles by examining processes that are used in different situations. Mrs. Tam might also encourage Carlos and other students to integrate their knowledge from classroom lessons with real-life experiences. Such integration of contexts helps students value learning. Self-explanations help students think about and explain their own thinking about a problem. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge. Text Reference: Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge

Chapter 9 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 9.1 Discuss the roles of metacognition in learning and remembering. Outcome 9.2 Describe several learning and study strategies that help students develop their metacognitive abilities. Outcome 9.3 Explain the processes involved in problem solving and the factors that can interfere with successful problem solving. Outcome 9.4 Identify factors that influence students’ abilities to think critically and to form and support arguments. Outcome 9.5 Discuss how, why, and when knowledge learned in one situation might be applied to new situations and problems. Outcome 9.6 Explain what characterizes robust knowledge, how to recognize it, and how teaching can develop robust knowledge. [Q1] LO 9.1 Metacognition is knowledge about our own thinking. In which of the following situations is Bentley most clearly using metacognitive skills? 1. He daydreams about the field trip to a state park next week 2. He reads a section of text and pauses to consider how well he grasped the content [correct] 3. He goes through the automatic process of copying answers from the text to his paper 4. He listens to music while he completes his homework [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Bentley is thinking about his thinking by monitoring his comprehension as he reads. This is one aspect of metacognition. [Q2] LO 9.2 Grace has read her chapter in social studies but does not understand how one concept relates to another. She makes a chart with the main idea of the chapter in the center and then begins to make branches from the center to the ideas that support the main idea. Eventually she makes sense of the relationships among aspects of the chapter. What process is she using? 1. Retrieval practice 2. Goal setting 3. CAPS reading strategy 4. Concept map [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Grace uses a visual tool for organizing information called a concept map. Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge and relationships within a particular field or on a given topic.

[Q3] LO 9.3 Waylon missed the bus after school and is trying to decide what to do. If he calls his dad to pick him up, his dad will be unhappy about the inconvenience. If he walks home, it will take nearly an hour, and his dad will get home and worry. He needs to make a quick decision using his best judgment. What kind of problem-solving process or processes is Waylon using? 1. Algorithm 2. Schema-driven 3. Heuristic [correct] 4. Both algorithm and schema-driven [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A heuristic is a general strategy that might lead to the right answer (Schoenfeld, 2011). Because many of life’s problems (careers, relationships, etc.) are not straightforward and have no apparent algorithms, the discovery or development of effective heuristics is important. [Q4] LO 9.4 Ms. Marler wants to incorporate critical thinking skills into her history unit. Which of the following processes is most likely to help students think critically? 1. Ask students to memorize specific content in the unit 2. Ask students to outline the chapter and highlight key ideas 3. Ask students to identify and define key terms in the unit 4. Ask students to debate different points of view on a topic [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ms. Marler encourages students to think critically by asking them to debate a topic or issue from different points of view. Dialogue through debate is one of the best ways to help students develop critical thinking. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 9.3 Case Karen Slagle walked away from her friends on the playground. She had just had an argument over who would win the spot as class president. “I know my brother will win. He has more friends, and that equals more votes.” “Karen, you can’t be serious. What about the issues, such as school policies and procedures?” “Those issues don’t matter. Regina Hoyt won because she was popular last year. The only real issue is popularity.” “What about the year before last, when the captain of the football team lost because his campaign did not deal with anything but sports issues?” “That was a fluke. Look at our freshman year. That popular basketball player won.” What problem-solving approach is being used by the students in this discussion?

[Feedback for Answer 5] The students in this discussion are using a heuristic. They are making a judgment based on information available in their memories. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 9.3 Case Karen Slagle walked away from her friends on the playground. She had just had an argument over who would win the spot as class president. “I know my brother will win. He has more friends, and that equals more votes.” “Karen, you can’t be serious. What about the issues, such as school policies and procedures?” “Those issues don’t matter. Regina Hoyt won because she was popular last year. The only real issue is popularity.” “What about the year before last, when the captain of the football team lost because his campaign did not deal with anything but sports issues?” “That was a fluke. Look at our freshman year. That popular basketball player won.” How is Karen Slagle’s argument an example of confirmation bias? [Feedback for Answer 6] Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that confirms one’s ideas and beliefs. This arises from our eagerness to get a good solution. Karen continues to cite examples of popular students who have won the presidency and ignores information that runs contrary to her belief.

Chapter 10 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 10: Constructivism and Interactive Learning Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 10: Constructivism and Interactive Learning Chapter 10 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 10.1. Explain different perspectives on constructivism as a theory of learning and teaching. [Q1] Chase is playing and finds an earthworm on the sidewalk. The earthworm doesn’t move until Chase places it on the dirt nearby. Then the worm wiggles into the ground. Chase concludes that the earthworm was dead and is now alive because he helped it. He explains his learning experience to his dad, and his dad doesn’t correct Chase’s misconception. Chase’s learning experience seems to fit which of the following views of learning? 1. Behaviorism 2. Piaget’s constructivism 3. Radical constructivism [correct] 4. Information processing theories [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behaviorists view learning as more of a passive process. Chase is actively constructing knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Piaget’s special focus was on logic and the construction of universal knowledge. Chase has arrived at erroneous conclusions that don’t fit universal knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] At the extreme end of individual constructivism is the notion of radical constructivism. This perspective holds that each of us constructs meaning (knowledge) from our own experiences as we try to explain to ourselves what we perceive, but we have no way of understanding or “knowing” the knowledge constructed by others or even whether our knowledge is “correct.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Information processing focuses on constructing accurate internal representations of the outside world. Chase did not build an accurate internal representation of the outside world. He constructed a unique and individual understanding. [Q2] Chase is playing and finds an earthworm on the sidewalk. The earthworm doesn’t move until Chase places it on the dirt nearby. Then the worm wiggles into the ground. Chase concludes that the earthworm was dead and is now alive because he helped it. Chase’s experience will likely evolve into an example of social constructivism if which of the following takes place next? 1. Chase goes back outside and finds another earthworm on the sidewalk 2. Chase tells his preschool teacher what he learned 1 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Chase’s preschool teacher brings an earthworm to class 4. Chase’s dad explains that the worm wasn’t dead [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social constructivism involves social interaction. Chase is not having social interaction with anyone when he finds another earthworm on the sidewalk. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Telling his teacher what he learned does not change Chase’s understanding. Social constructivism involves social interaction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] What happens when Chase’s teacher brings an earthworm to class? We don’t have enough information to suspect that social constructivism is going to follow, but we think it might. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] From the perspective of social constructivism, learning is a socially mediated process in which learners construct knowledge through interaction. If Chase and his dad interact about Chase’s earthworm experience and the dad explains that the earthworm couldn’t have been dead, then learning becomes a socially mediated process. [Q3] Ms. Kato presents a lesson about volcanoes, plays a short video of a volcano erupting, and gives students a handout with facts and illustrations related to the lesson. In this example of Ms. Kato’s approach to teaching, what is the source of knowledge? 1. Internal sources 2. Both internal and external sources 3. External sources [correct] 4. Neither internal nor external sources [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] If sources were internal, knowledge would be constructed by transforming or reorganizing previous knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If sources were both internal and external, knowledge would be constructed through social interactions and experience in addition to the teacher’s presentation of information. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] When sources are external, knowledge is acquired by constructing a representation of the outside world. Ms. Kato is giving students a representation of the outside world as she presents a lesson, video, and handout. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Kato uses either internal or external sources. She presents a lesson, plays a video, and gives students a handout.

[Q4] Which of the following examples illustrates situated learning? 1. Darbi likes to sit in the same seat in every class, convinced that it improves her learning. 2. Justin uses a calculator to assist him with lengthy and confusing calculations. 3. Ava can calculate percentages in class but can’t calculate a 15% discount at a store. [correct] 4. Kye is so overwhelmed by the vocabulary in a Shakespeare play that he can’t grasp the plot. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This seating preference may or may not affect Darbi’s learning. She is not trying to apply previous learning from one setting to a new setting in which that prior learning would be appropriate. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This is an example of distributed cognition. Situated learning occurs when a student can perform a task in one context, but is unable to apply that same skill in another context. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Situated learning occurs when a student can perform a task in one context, but is unable to apply that same skill in another context. Ava can perform calculations correctly in class but not in a real life situation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Kye’s difficulty is an example of cognitive load. Situated learning occurs when a student can perform a task in one context, but is unable to apply that same skill in another context. [Q5] Mr. Wells is a proponent of constructivist perspectives. He tells his students they must construct their own understanding rather than memorizing meaningless facts. This is central idea 1 in a constructivist approach. How might he represent central idea 2 to his students? 1. Assign group work in which students learn from one another [correct] 2. Use direct instruction to present information to students 3. Give students a rubric for gauging their progress on a project 4. Encouraging students to engage in self-evaluation [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Central idea 2 states that social interactions are important in knowledge construction. By asking students to work together in groups, Mr. Wells is representing the social interactions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Direct instruction doesn’t illustrate the social part of a constructivist approach. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Giving students a rubric for gauging their own progress is a better representation of central idea 1. 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Encouraging students to engage in self-evaluation is a better representation of central idea 1. Learning Outcome 10.2. Identify the common elements in most contemporary constructivist theories. [Q1] In an afterschool science enrichment program, seven students collaborate with established scientists working at industries in the community. The students visit a different lab or business each week and work with the professionals to design and conduct science experiments. What aspect of constructivist teaching is central to this program? 1. Singular perspective 2. Corrective feedback 3. Fact-based learning 4. Social negotiation [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Shared perspectives(rather than a singular perspective) seem to be the focus in this setting. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Collaboration rather than corrective feedback is the focus of learning in this setting. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Constructivist teaching does not focus on the learning of facts. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Social negotiation is an aspect of the learning process that occurs during collaboration with others. This program features collaborative work in designing and conducting experiments. [Q2] Ms. Clemente presents a complex math problem and tells students to solve the problem using any strategies that work for them. She sees some students using manipulatives, others drawing diagrams, some using technological tools, and others making calculations in their heads and on paper. After allowing time for students to solve the problem, Ms. Clemente asks students to share their solutions and the processes they used. Ms. Clemente is encouraging which of the following constructivist ideas? 1. Spiral curriculum 2. Multiple representations [correct] 3. Self-awareness 4. Teacher-centered learning [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Spiral curriculum is a method that involves introducing the fundamental structure of a course early in the year and revisiting each part in greater detail during the year. Ms. Clemente is focused on students’ processes for arriving at solutions. 4 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] By asking students to solve the complex problem using any strategies that work for them, Ms. Clemente is encouraging students to develop multiple representations. As students share their diverse approaches to a solution, the entire class is introduced to multiple representations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Clemente is not focused on students’ self-awareness in this scenario. She wants students to use their own thinking to solve a problem and present their processes and solutions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students are at the center of their problem solving. They choose how they wish to solve the problem. [Q3] Bryson asks his mom several questions about clouds, that is, what they’re made of, why they have different shapes, why they are different colors, and what makes them move. He shows his great curiosity and interest in learning. If Bryson’s mom uses a deep learning approach (rather than a traditional approach), what will she do first? 1. Find a fact sheet about clouds and tell Bryson facts about different kinds of clouds 2. Tell Bryson how wind moves clouds, and tell what clouds are made of 3. Find an article online and read an explanation about how clouds form 4. Ask Bryson to recall the different clouds they saw while flying across the United States [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Telling Bryson facts is more of a traditional approach and does not lead to deep learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If Bryson’s mom is telling him information, she is using a more traditional approach. If she tells him about wind moving clouds and then tells what clouds are made of, she may be presenting disconnected bits of knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If Bryson’s mom is reading an explanation to him from an article, she is beginning with a more traditional approach. She is relying on experts as her source of knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] For deep learning, Bryson’s mom will begin by connecting the new learning with something familiar to Bryson by asking him to recall the different clouds they saw when they flew across the country. This helps Bryson relate new understandings to what he already knows. Then he is ready to comprehend deeper learning and perhaps figure some things out for himself. [Q4] Mr. Tyler teaches history and wants his students to own their learning. Which of the following strategies is compatible with Mr. Tyler’s goal? 1. Begin a lesson by asking students to read the chapter content for homework

2. Begin a lesson by assigning a worksheet that highlights the main ideas of the chapter 3. Begin a lesson by asking students to tell what they already know about the topic [correct] 4. Begin a lesson by telling students to take notes on the lecture he presents about the topic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Asking students to begin by reading a chapter does not honor the knowledge they already have about the topic. Students are not taking ownership of learning. They are following the teacher and the text. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Presenting the main ideas on a worksheet encourages students to depend on the teacher for knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] If students are to own their learning, they need to be directly involved with the learning. By asking students what they already know about the topic, Mr. Tyler honors their knowledge and supports students’ agency. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Telling students to listen to a lecture and take notes encourages students to depend on the teacher for knowledge. [Q5] Which of the following assignments is student-centered? 1. Reproduce the Preamble to the Constitution 2. Learn the definitions of the key terms for the unit 3. Make a claim and defend your position [correct] 4. Follow the analytic procedure we learned in class [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Reproducing information that has been memorized is a traditional approach to learning. Students are not applying their own new thinking. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Learning definitions involves memorization and is a traditional approach to learning. Students are not applying their own new thinking. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Asking students to make a claim and defend their position requires the learners to use what they know and apply their own thinking. Students need to use what they know to come to new understandings. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Following a procedure students learned in class is a traditional approach to learning. Students are not applying their own new thinking. They are following a set procedure.

Learning Outcome 10.3. Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. [Q1] Ms. Freed is teaching a class on theories of learning and wants her students to be able to connect the theories to the real world and to understand their importance in the real world. She gives her students the following assignment. Small groups of students select a topic from a learning theory (e.g., operant conditioning, observational learning, or the development of memory strategies) and interview or observe two “learners” in the real world. Students are responsible for filming their observations and interviews and explaining, in an introduction to their film, the concept they are going to discuss and how their filmed examples illustrate the concept in the real world. Ms. Freed 's approach illustrates which teaching strategy? 1. Cognitive apprenticeship 2. Inquiry-based learning [correct] 3. Deep questioning 4. Scaffolding [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A cognitive apprenticeship is a relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. Ms. Freed’s students are not working individually with an expert. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Inquiry-based learning is an approach in which the teacher presents a question and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions. Ms. Freed presented a problem and her students must gather data and share it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Deep questioning involves posing deep questions that generate productive discussion. Ms. Freed is not using a questioning strategy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers use scaffolding to support students’ learning. Ms. Freed is not providing students with support for making meaning. She expects students to find evidence that supports their conclusions. [Q2] Which one of the following scenarios is the best example of how scaffolding is used in a constructivist learning environment? 1. Mr. Cole gives a detailed description about the events leading up to the terrorist attack in the United States on September 11, 2001. 2. Before Ms. Rodriguez’s students begin the new problem set, she provides a graphic organizer to help them complete the steps in order. [correct] 3. Mr. Michels has his fifth-grade students write a research paper on the topic of their own choosing.

4. Ms. Maldonado equips her special education classroom with a variety of games that students can use during free time. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Cole is not necessarily providing any guidance or support to help students master the material. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ms. Rodriguez scaffolds learning by providing a prompt to help students successfully execute a new and challenging task. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Michels is not necessarily providing any guidance or support to scaffold learning for his students as they write their papers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Maldonado is not necessarily providing any guidance or support to help students use the supplies effectively. [Q3] Mr. Iona instructs his students to find evidence in the text to support their claims about a certain character’s perspective. As students identify a character’s perspective and share their responses, Mr. Iona prompts with additional probes such as, “How does this part of the text prove that the character believes what you say she believes?” He continues to probe to make students think about character perspectives. Mr. Iona is using which of the following? 1. Advance organizers 2. Direct instruction 3. Problem-based learning 4. Deep questioning [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Iona does not provide any organizer to help students complete this task. Students need to find evidence in the text and support their thinking. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Iona is not using direct instruction to teach students the character’s perspective. The students are expected to identify the character’s perspective and find evidence to support their claims. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Iona does not present students with an ill-structured real-world problem. The students are expected to identify the character’s perspective and find evidence to support their claims. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Mr. Iona uses deep questioning to encourage students to think and explain their thinking. He challenges students’ thinking by asking probing questions and insisting on evidence from the text that supports their claims.

[Q4] Ms. McClain teaches fifth grade. Which of her practices involves an advance organizer? 1. Giving students manipulatives to use in solving math tasks 2. Asking students to form groups and discuss key questions about the lesson 3. Providing a Venn diagram template to use in comparing two characters’ traits [correct] 4. Assigning learning partners to prepare for an upcoming spelling bee [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Advance organizers help students organize information. The manipulatives are tools for solving the math task. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Advance organizers help students organize information. Forming groups for discussion achieves other purposes. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Advance organizers help students organize information. The Venn diagram helps students organize information to compare the traits of two characters. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Advance organizers help students organize information. Assigning learning partners to prepare for a spelling bee helps students practice spelling skills. [Q5] In Mr. Conrad’s class, students work in groups to determine possible causes of variations in corn production on farms in a given area. Mr. Conrad is using what approach to learning? 1. Cognitive apprenticeship 2. Problem-based learning [correct] 3. Deep questioning 4. Social negotiation [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A cognitive apprenticeship is a relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. Mr. Conrad’s students are working in student groups. They are not working under the guidance of an expert. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In problem-based learning, students work in groups to confront a real-world, ill-structured problem that has no single correct solution. Mr. Conrad’s students are working in groups to confront the real-world, ill-structured problem of identifying possible causes of variations in productivity. Students are likely to find diverse answers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Conrad’s students are working in groups to confront a real-world, ill-structured problem. They are not responding to questions. 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Social negotiation focuses on collaboration and respecting different perspectives. Mr. Conrad’s students are working in groups to confront a real-world, ill-structured problem. Learning Outcome 10.4. Appropriately incorporate collaboration and cooperative learning in your classes. [Q1] Which one of these teachers is using the Jigsaw strategy? 1. Ms. Trent’s third-grade class is learning about nouns in an integrated English and social studies unit. Each day the class gets a new list of nouns associated with their social studies unit. They work in groups of four and quiz one another on the new nouns and take turns finding and reading the sentences in the social studies text that include the new nouns. 2. Mr. Wilfred’s third-grade class is learning to multiply by hundreds. Some of the students grasp the concept and master the skill quickly. Others struggle to understand. Students are divided into groups with two strong students working with two struggling students. The strong students use kid language to guide the struggling students. 3. Ms. Aquino’s third-grade students are learning about solids, liquids, and gases. She has set up centers around the room to help students experiment and learn about the different states of matter. In groups of four, the students conduct experiments at each center and draw conclusions. 4. Mr. Santana’s third-grade class is studying about Native Americans. The students are working in groups of four to learn about Navajo, Sioux, Chickasaw, and Seminole Indians. Each member of a group takes one Indian tribe, learns about the tribe’s traditions, and then teaches the other group members. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This teacher uses cooperative groups, but students are not involved in a Jigsaw activity, because they do not divide the material to learn it and teach one another. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Wilfred uses groups for peer tutoring. Students are not involved in the Jigsaw approach. With Jigsaw, group members divide the learning material. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Aquino uses groups and students work at centers. They are not involved in the Jigsaw approach. With Jigsaw, group members divide the learning material, and each group member becomes the expert in one part of the content. The experts then take turns teaching their group members. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When teachers use the Jigsaw strategy, they assign part of the material to each member of a group. Each member becomes the expert on his or her part and teaches other group members. Mr. Santana’s students used the Jigsaw approach to learn about the traditions of various Indian tribes and share their learning with their group members.

[Q2] Mrs. Kowalski divides her science students into groups of 5 to conduct a lab experiment. She assigns each student a role, asking Stella to make sure that all students in the group have at least one chance to participate in mixing chemicals and asking Emilio to make sure that all students in the group understand what happens when the chemicals are mixed. The best description of the student roles is that: 1. Stella is the taskmaster, and Emilio is the reflector 2. Stella is the coach, and Emilio is the question commander 3. Stella is the gate keeper, and Emilio is the checker [correct] 4. Stella is the encourager, and Emilio is the recorder [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A taskmaster keeps the group on task rather than equalizing participation, and a reflector keeps the group aware of their progress toward the goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A coach helps with academic content rather than equalizing participation, and a question commander makes sure all students’ questions are asked and answered. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A gate keeper equalizes participation, and makes sure no one dominates. A checker assesses student understanding. In this scenario, Stella makes sure all students participate equally, and Emilio checks for understanding. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An encourager’s primary role is to embolden shy students to participate, not monitor all the students’ participation. A recorder writes down ideas, decisions, and plans. [Q3] Mrs. Kowalski divides her science students into groups of 5 to conduct a lab experiment. She wants to support students’ learning and social skill development as they work in groups. Which of the following approaches to group composition is recommended? 1. Students that have the same level of intelligence 2. Students that are diverse in many ways [correct] 3. Separate groups for girls and boys 4. Students that are making the same grade in the class [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Grouping students by intelligence is not recommended when teachers want to support learning and social skills. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In general, heterogeneous groups—those that are diverse in multiple ways—are best for supporting learning and social skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Separating girls and boys is not recommended when teachers want to support learning and social skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Grouping students on the basis of their grades in the class is not recommended when teachers want to support learning and social skills. [Q4] When students are engaged in cooperative learning tasks, a competitive atmosphere with extrinsic rewards can be most helpful if: 1. the task requires extensive interaction and elaborative thought 2. all students are expected to rotate through leadership positions 3. group members experience positive interdependence 4. the task is highly structured, such as reviewing or skill building [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When the task is ill-structured or requires creative problem solving and elaborative thought, competition and extrinsic rewards can inhibit interaction and interfere with progress toward the goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Rotating through leadership positions can be effective when students engage in tasks that require communication and social skills, but rewards may get in the way of student progress toward social interaction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Positive interdependence occurs when all members believe they can attain their goals only if the others in the group attain their goals as well. So, students need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Extrinsic rewards do not typically enhance feelings of positive interdependence. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When the task is highly structured, extrinsic rewards for the group can lead to enhanced motivation, greater effort, and persistence. [Q5] Which one of the following teachers has planned an effective cooperative learning activity? 1. Ms. Robertson, who separates her students into mixed-ability groups, asks each group to identify a leader, and presents a research topic that all students should contribute toward 2. Mr. Davis, who selects a broad topic for his social studies class, assigns each student a subtopic to research, and collects the individual reports into a single classroom display on the topic 3. Mr. Escobar, who pairs students for a task, gives them a series of lab experiments they should complete by working together, and provides a set of prompts they can ask each other [correct] 12 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Ms. Saito, who allows students to select their own 3-person groups and asks each group to select one book and write a joint book report about it [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Robertson’s lesson would be more effective as a cooperative lesson if she provided some guidelines to ensure that the students worked together. If she only presents a topic with vague instructions that everyone should contribute, the students could simply divide the tasks and never actually cooperate with one another. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Davis’s lesson is not cooperative; the students do not work together. Each student works independently toward a single goal. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Effective cooperative learning requires students working together to achieve a shared learning goal. Providing a set of prompts helps to ensure that students work together toward a shared goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Saito’s lesson would be more effective as a cooperative lesson if she provided some guidelines to help students work together. Though she specifies a “joint book report,” the students are likely to divide the chapters and work independently rather than cooperatively. Learning Outcome 10.5. Describe positive and negative influences of technology-mediated instruction on how children and adolescents develop and learn. [Q1] Ms. Carpenter wants to choose a developmentally appropriate program to use with her firstgrade class to help them learn basic concepts in science. She is interested in the multimedia features of the programs she has reviewed. Which question should Ms. Carpenter prioritize? 1. Do the multimedia features entertain and hold students’ attention? 2. Do the multimedia features add to learning? [correct] 3. Do the multimedia features promote social interaction? 4. Do the multimedia features interfere with other students? [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] All multimedia features should hold attention, but entertainment shouldn’t be a primary goal. Other issues are more important. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Teachers need to focus on software that adds to learning. Ms. Carpenter wants her students to learn basic concepts. This learning should be her priority. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The multimedia features are typically not designed to encourage social interaction, although sometimes that’s a part of the experience. Other issues are more important.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Distractions can be a concern, but teachers can reduce those problems and focus on more important issues. For example, children can wear earbuds or headsets to block the sound from interfering with other students. [Q2] Students in an eighth-grade science class work in small groups to collect data about bacteria and pollutants in a local lake. They use a computer software program that allows them to share and interpret their findings and to critique and add to one another’s conclusions. What positive effects is this instructional strategy likely to provide? 1. No positive effects 2. Increased skill with tutorial programs 3. Skill in a virtual learning environment 4. Active engagement and authenticity [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The strategy clearly provides positive effects. Computers are likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to deep learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Tutorial programs are not involved in this activity. Students use a program that allows them to share and interpret their findings and critique and add to one another’s conclusions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students are not working in a virtual environment. The data represent real-world information about a local lake. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to deep learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and real-world connection, and more. This strategy provides the positive effects of active engagement as students collect data, share and interpret their findings, and critique one another’s conclusions. It provides authenticity as students work with real-world data about bacteria and pollutants in a local lake. [Q3] What happens in a flipped classroom? 1. Students spend class time reading the textbook and taking notes 2. Homework includes searching for online resources and engaging in collaborative discussion 3. Direct instruction occurs at home, and class time involves application of content [correct] 4. Classroom activities and homework involve multimedia as the standard pedagogical tool [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This approach matches what happens in a traditional classroom.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In a flipped classroom, students are more likely to be responsible for learning the content at home. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A flipped classroom flips the teaching model by using video to deliver lecture material and using class time for more interactive work. In a flipped classroom, what has traditionally happened in classrooms—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, and direct teaching—is moved outside class to be completed independently online. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Multimedia may be used in a flipped classroom, but it is generally not the standard pedagogical tool. [Q4] Mr. Monroe wants his students to be media literate and critically assess print and online materials. To support the development of media literacy, Mr. Monroe should do all of the following EXCEPT: 1. Use media to follow current events and discuss these events with peers 2. Use media to promote interest in a new topic 3. Use media to practice critical thinking and perspective taking 4. Use video to show entire films or programs as case studies [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] To support the development of media literacy, teachers are advised to encourage students to follow current events, including tracking a single story across diverse media sources. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers are encouraged to use media to stimulate interest in a new topic. They might have students work in small groups to read, analyze, and discuss a controversial magazine, newspaper, or online article about the new topic. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teachers are encouraged to use media to practice critical thinking, perspective taking, analysis, and communication skills. They might ask students to think critically about news programs or have students produce their own media on a topic they are studying. Such activities support the development of media literacy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teachers are advised NOT to show whole films or programs. To use video effectively, teachers might show short segments and encourage active viewing and discussion. [Q5] According to recommended guidelines, developmentally appropriate computer-based activities for preschool children should do which of the following? 1. Provide solitary drill-and-practice activities

2. Include attractive visuals and sound effects 3. Foster distractibility and add extraneous cognitive load 4. Encourage creativity and problem solving [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Solitary drill-and-practice activities are a boring waste of time. Children should be challenged to learn with computer-based activities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Attractive visuals and sound effects often distract from the point of the story or the learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] These characteristics are harmful. These are the very things developmentally appropriate computer-based activities for preschool children should NOT do. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Software for young children should include simple spoken directions; the activities should be open-ended and encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, understanding of cause and effect, and social interaction.

Chapter 10 Application Exercises Application Exercise 10.1: Facilitating Deep Learning Learning Outcome 10.3. Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 10.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/literacy/dayton/Classroom_GraphicOrganizer GroupDiscussion2.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.4 to answer the following question: In Mr. Bull’s class, students have read a novel and are now making claims about a character’s perspective. How does this process promote deep learning? [Q1 Model Response] Students are doing more than making claims about a character’s point of view. They are proving that they understand a character’s point of view by providing specific evidence from the text to support their claims and then explaining in their words how the text proves their claims. They are making fine distinctions between connotations of words. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.4 to answer the following question: What is the role of the teacher in this process of facilitating deep learning? [Q2 Model Response] The teacher’s role as facilitator involves processing students’ claims and asking probing questions that encourage students to explain their evidence. He doesn’t allow students to simply read a line of text to support a claim. He expects students to explain in their own words. He facilitates by insisting that students think deeper, identify specific words, and explain the inference they are making from the text. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.4 to answer the following question: According to the guidelines for facilitating deep questioning, to what extent does Mr. Bull ask questions that “…require an explanation, not just reciting facts or repeating from the text, to answer.” [Q3 Model Response] Students take turns making a claim, but in each case, Mr. Bull probes until students give their own explanations. Students are not permitted to just read or quote a line from the text.

Application Exercise 10.2: Inquiry-Based Learning Learning Outcome 10.3. Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 10.5 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/education/amplifire/educational_psychology/MrSwope_0001_i Pad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.5 to answer the following question: Describe what Mr. Swope does to launch this lesson using inquiry-based learning, and explain how you know this is an example of an inquiry format. [Q1 Model Response] Mr. Swope projects a picture of a fish and tells students to identify the fish. For students, this is their first time to encounter this fish. This is an example of an inquiry format because students must solve the problem of identifying the fish, investigate by using observation and the dichotomous key, draw conclusions, and defend their answers and their process of making the identification. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.5 to answer the following question: Using Erin Furtak’s categorization structure, what kind of inquiry processes take place during Mr. Swope’s lesson? [Q2 Model Response] Conceptual processes occur as students draw upon their prior knowledge of fish parts (such as barbels) and examine their mental models of fish characteristics. Social processes occur as students discuss their ideas and perceptions in their groups at lab tables. They argue about definitions and observations and defend their thinking among their peers. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.5 to answer the following question: Using a constructivist perspective, explain why Mr. Swope does not give students answers to their questions right away. [Q3 Model Response] Mr. Swope encourages students to be active participants in their own learning. By looking up the definitions and doing research to develop understanding of terms, students take an active role in their learning. Mr. Swope uses scaffolding to help students reach their learning goals. He states that he probes and pushes students to make them construct their own knowledge.

[Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.5 to answer the following question: Explain why Mr. Swope feels that arguing is good and how such an approach encourages deep learning? [Q4 Model Response] Mr. Swope thinks arguing helps students learn from one another and develop confidence in their own thinking. Such an approach encourages deep learning because students question one another and question their own thinking until they are able to explain and defend their conclusions. Application Exercise 10.3: Technology and Learning Learning Outcome 10.5. Describe positive and negative influences of technology-mediated instruction on how children and adolescents develop and learn. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 10.8 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/education/amplifire/educational_psychology/MsLaufenberg_00 01_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.8 to answer the following question: How does technology support learning in Ms. Laufenberg’s classroom? [Q1 Model Response] •

Students work with the most current representation of the global finance systems graphic. Each student has access to the graphic the teacher found on the front of a current periodical. Everything is current, and students are not limited to older graphics from textbooks.

•

Students use multiple technological resources to analyze the illustration and make sense of the items on the global finance graphic. They have access to vast resources to enrich their learning.

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Students work together (groups of 2 or 3) to develop a shared document. They are not limited to sharing a paper document. Groups are able to see what other groups are doing by utilizing Google docs.

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Students are using technology to engage in inquiry. They must access and critically assess the materials they find in their searches and choose relevant information about all names, places, and events on the graphic.

[Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.8 to answer the following question: In Chapter 10 of the textbook, review the Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy. How does Ms. Laufenberg’s approach to this lesson support media literacy?

[Q2 Model Response] The first item in the guidelines states, “Use media to practice general observation, critical thinking, analysis, perspective taking, and communication skills.” Ms. Laufenberg’s students are using media to practice analysis of content. They must access the image the teacher made available electronically and conduct online searches to identify and analyze the specific items in the graphic. Another item in the guidelines states, “Use media as a standard pedagogical tool.” Students develop media literacy by creating a shared Google doc with their group, adding the specified content, and using online resources to fill in the details including photos. As they find nuggets of information, they are able to add, edit, delete, and revise their Google docs. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 10.8 to answer the following question: How does the use of technology increase student achievement in Ms. Laufenberg’s classroom? [Q3 Model Response] Computers are likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to deep learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and realworld connection, scaffolding support, problem-solving opportunities, and productive group work. Ms. Laufenberg’s assignment offers all of these features that lead to deep learning.

Chapter 10 Test Items Chapter 10 Objectives Objective 10.1: Explain different perspectives constructivism as a theory of learning and teaching.

Relevant Test Items on Multiple Choice: 1-2 Essay: 24

Objective 10.2: Identify the common elements in most Multiple Choice: 3-5 contemporary constructivist theories. Essay: 25 Objective 10.3: Apply constructivist principles to classroom Multiple Choice: 6-?? practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and Essay: 26 cognitive apprenticeships. Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice, especially collaboration and cooperation. Objective 10.4: Appropriately incorporate collaboration and Multiple Choice: ??-19 cooperative learning in your classes. Essay: Objective 10.5: Describe positive and negative influences of Multiple Choice: 20-23 technology-mediated instruction on how children and Essay: 27 adolescents develop and learn.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Constructivist theories of learning usually agree on two central ideas. One central idea states that social interactions are important in the process of constructing knowledge. What is the other central idea? a. Individuals do not construct knowledge; groups construct knowledge. b. Learners must be taught to construct knowledge. c. The role of the teacher is important in the process of constructing knowledge. d. Learners are active in constructing their own knowledge. 2. Mr. Hester uses cooperative group activities every week in his middle school language arts classes. He believes that the social interactions involved in such activities shape students’ learning. Which of the following theorists most likely influenced Mr. Hester’s thinking? a. Information processing theorists b. Piaget c. Vygotsky d. Bruner 3. Which of the following teachers incorporates one or more of the common elements of constructivist student-centered teaching? a. Mr. Tindal gives the students additional homework questions for extra credit when he covers complex new concepts in science. b. Ms. Fowler writes the assignments on the board and has seatwork ready for students when they arrive each morning. 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. Mr. Franks rewards his students with extra points when they complete their spelling assignments and make a perfect score on the test. d. Ms. Kim’s math center has containers with colored beads, building blocks, and play money for children to use when they solve tasks together. 4. The principal at Bragg Elementary School held a meeting in which he reminded teachers to create learning environments that represent constructivist perspectives. Which of the following environments is LEAST likely to meet the principal’s expectations? a. One teacher created a simulation in which students carry out tasks that would be performed on a space station. b. One teacher sets aside a time every day for students to suggest ways they might take something they learned at school and use it away from school. c. One teacher provides a checklist format for students to keep track of their progress and take responsibility for turning in assignments on time. d. One teacher puts his notes on PowerPoint and lectures from them to help students take precise notes that capture content accurately. 5. The students in Ms. Lemley’s class are working on a project in which their collaborative groups take different positions on an issue related to the world economy. They conduct research and discuss ideas that support their positions. After each group presents its position and defense, the entire class discusses pros and cons of proposed positions. Students learn to respect different perspectives. These students are involved in: a. scaffolding. b. social negotiation. c. a community of practice. d. Piaget’s idea of assimilation. 6. In the following classrooms, which teacher’s plan provides a complex learning environment for students? a. The teacher opens the lesson with a series of factual questions over the chapter students should have read in preparation for class. b. The teacher opens the lesson with a lecture over a complex concept in the new unit of study. c. The teacher opens the lesson by having students take turns reading aloud through the new chapter in their history text. d. The teacher opens the lesson with an ill-structured problem that ties prior learning to the new unit of study. 7. Which conditions are most likely to result in meaningful learning and deep conceptual knowledge? a. Corey reflected on his analysis of the problem and realized he overlooked one significant factor. b. For homework, Vanessa answered the questions at the end of the chapter in her science text.

c. Brock took notes over the lecture in psychology and wrote definitions for the new vocabulary words in the unit. d. Larenda memorized the information in her notes about the conservation of energy. 8. Mr. Reese conducted a concept lesson in math and assigned a challenging task. He expected some of his students to grasp the concept and complete the task with moderate effort, but he knew other students would not. He monitored their progress, stopping to prompt with questions or drop hints to help students connect prior learning with this new concept. Mr. Reese was providing: a. cognitive constructivism. b. social negotiation. c. scaffolding. d. spiral curriculum. 9. Ms. Angelo provided support students needed to get started on a multifaceted assignment. She circulated, answering questions, making suggestions, and encouraging students to review the instructions. On the second day, she monitored students as they continued to work on the project. Now she is certain that everyone is on the right track. Students’ understanding has deepened, and they have very few questions. On day three of this assignment, what level of scaffolding is appropriate? a. Fading support b. Differentiation c. Contingency support d. Transfer of responsibility to students 10. In science class, the teacher posed the question, “Can photosynthetic plants live without sunlight?” Students planted seeds, provided water and sunlight, and watched them grow. Now they are formulating hypotheses about the teacher’s question, denying sunlight to their plants, and collecting data day by day. At this point they are ready to discuss their evidence and draw conclusions. What teaching approach is being used in this classroom? a. Problem-based learning b. Direct teaching c. Unassisted discovery d. Inquiry learning 11. Students in Mr. McKay’s class are generating ideas about ways to deal with the problem of limited resources for the homeless high school students in their area. They are consulting a variety of sources and experts to represent multiple perspectives on the topic. They want their conclusions to be plausible and plan to invite the mayor to give feedback about their ideas. What approach is Mr. McKay using in this setting? a. Scaffolded learning b. Problem-based learning c. Discovery learning d. Inquiry learning

12. What types of problems do students confront in problem-based learning? a. Highly structured problems b. Ill-structured problems c. Skill-building problems d. Scientific problems 13. Tye got behind in physics after his basketball injury. He talked to his physics teacher and worked out a plan to get tutoring from the lab assistant. The tutor helped Tye catch up on understanding of concepts and also guided him through the experiments in the lab. Tye’s approach to learning in this situation is an example of: a. a cognitive apprenticeship. b. problem-based learning. c. reciprocal teaching. d. inquiry learning. 14. Ms. Moreno works with students at the upper elementary school level who are struggling to comprehend what they read in the content areas. Today, a group of her students is watching a geography presentation. After the presentation, students create questions over the material from question stems provided by Ms. Moreno. Then they take turns asking and answering. What procedure are these students using? a. Inquiry learning b. Reciprocal questioning c. Cognitive apprenticeship d. Embodied cognition 15. Mrs. Warner believes that students need to learn to respect differences, share authority, and build on knowledge each person can contribute to a group effort. She wants students to develop skills that will help them relate to others throughout life. In general, what kind of assignments will help her students gain these skills? a. Cooperative group assignments b. Highly structured assignments c. Collaborative group assignments d. Reciprocal learning assignments 16. Nicole excitedly describes her group activity to her mentor teacher. She explains that students will get into groups of three and take turns calling out new vocabulary words to the others in the group. They will earn points for spelling the word correctly, defining it, and using it in a sentence. What kind of group work is Nicole describing? a. Reciprocal questioning b. Inquiry learning c. Cooperative learning group d. Small group work

17. Mr. Phillips is grouping his fifth-grade students for a cooperative learning project that will span class periods for two weeks. He has 5 groups of four plus one group of three. He balanced the number of boys and girls in the groups and made sure the students who are perceived by their peers to be different were placed in a group together. What does he need to change about his groups? a. He has grouped them appropriately and needs to change nothing. b. Increase the size of the groups to five or six students per group. c. Group boys and girls separately at this age. d. Place a student who is different in a group with a student who is tolerant. 18. Teachers often assign roles for students to perform in their cooperative groups. Which role is typically responsible for explaining concepts and helping the group understand academic content? a. Taskmaster b. Gate keeper c. Coach d. Question commander 19. You are teaching a unit that includes a large amount of information the students need to understand. The material is not complex, but students should have working knowledge and be able to apply it in future lessons. Rather than lecturing to present the information, you want to use some form of cooperative learning for students to encounter the information. Which of the following strategies fits your goal in this situation? a. Reciprocal questioning b. Jigsaw learning c. Inquiry learning d. Structured controversy 20. Ms. Wade wants to use the computers in her classroom to help her second-grade students improve their math skills and increase achievement. Based on reviews about technology and learning, which of the following plans is most likely to help Ms. Wade meet her goal with her students? a. Animated characters talking about math with sound effects and music b. Simulation of a classroom activity that involves using math in a fun way c. Program requiring active engagement and frequent interaction with feedback d. Examples of story problems read and worked by an expert 21. The preschool children in Ms. Anderson’s class love to use technology—everything from computers to smartphones and tablets. Parents of several children talk with pride about their child’s techno savvy ways. Based on your knowledge of studies about the use of technology with young children, which parents are boasting about technology use that is NOT good for the child? a. Devan’s parents talk about his skill in learning to turn gadgets on and off and listen to voicemail messages.

b. Jazz’s parents talk about the way she can sit for an hour by herself and do the drill-andpractice program about numbers. c. Larena’s parents talk about her following simple spoken instructions that lead her through games of rhyming words. d. Malik’s parents talk about his skill in using the iPad’s camera to capture plants and animals that interest him. 22. As a case study, Mr. Hanson uses a historical fiction film in his history class. He believes the film helps students understand westward expansion and the role of various cultural groups and key events. Mr. Hanson prefaces the film by giving students a list of concepts and events to focus their attention. During class, Mr. Hanson shows the entire film, leaves the lights on for notetaking, and pauses periodically to provide opportunity for brief questions and discussion. Based on guidelines for supporting the development of media literacy, what aspect of this plan, if any, does Mr. Hanson need to CHANGE? a. Mr. Hanson’s plan is good and does not need to be changed. b. Wait until after the showing of the film to conduct discussion. c. Turn off lights and ask students to use memory strategies rather than taking notes. d. Show parts of the film rather than the entire film. 23. Which of the following approaches to learning fits the profile of a traditional classroom but not a flipped classroom? a. Students complete practice activities at home for homework b. Students listen to a podcast and take notes at home c. Students lead activities in their small groups d. Students learn a new concept at home from a video tutorial

Essay Questions 24. Many psychologists and educators use the term constructivism, yet they often mean very different things. Although there is no single constructivist theory, most constructivist perspectives do agree on two central ideas. First, identify these two central ideas. Then describe at least two practices in traditional classrooms that seem inconsistent with these ideas. 25. Many constructivist approaches to learning recommend five conditions for learning. In light of these five conditions, contrast traditional classroom teaching with teaching based on these constructivist conditions. 26. Describe an advance organizer you might develop for a lesson in social studies in which students make a comparison. Explain the purpose of the advance organizer and describe how you would use it. 27. Mr. Holland claims to use cooperative learning. He groups students, gives them math assignments in the book, and allows them to decide whether they work with group members or work independently. Mr. Holland needs your help to understand true cooperative learning and revise his practice to achieve it. Describe how Mr. Holland should set up his groups for cooperative learning.

What does Mr. Holland need to do to turn his math assignments into true cooperative learning? Be sure to include all five elements of cooperative learning in your answer. 28. Students in Mrs. Davis’s high school media class are designing instructional videos. Their target audience is students in grades 3-5. Their goal is to help these younger students use technology safely, wisely, and abide by rules of netiquette. After they finish developing a video lesson, they arrange to go into the classrooms in grades 3-5 and present the lesson to the children. Is Mrs. Davis’s class an example of a flipped classroom? Explain.

Chapter 10 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Learners are active in constructing their own knowledge. Feedback for Correct Answer: Central Idea #1 states that learners are active in constructing their own understanding. They create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: Vygotsky Feedback for Correct Answer: Vygotsky emphasized Central Idea 2, that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning. Mr. Hester’s belief about social interactions and cooperative groups may have been influenced by Vygotsky’s views. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: Ms. Kim’s math center has containers with colored beads, building blocks, and play money for children to use when they solve tasks together. Feedback for Correct Answer: Ms. Kim provides for social negotiation and shared responsibility in the math center. She also provides a variety of materials for multiple representations of the content. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: One teacher puts his notes on PowerPoint and lectures from them to help students take precise notes that capture content accurately. Feedback for Correct Answer: This teacher uses traditional methods of teaching. They are not student-centered. Students are not actively involved in constructing their learning. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: social negotiation. Feedback for Correct Answer: Social negotiation is an aspect of the learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Students talk and listen and work together to negotiate or co-construct meaning. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: The teacher opens the lesson with an ill-structured problem that ties prior learning to the new unit of study. Feedback for Correct Answer: Complex learning environments present students with problems and learning situations that mimic the il-structured nature of real life. The teacher who opens the lesson with an ill-structured problem is providing a complex learning environment. Students must think and apply rather than absorbing information and memorizing.

Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism 7.

Correct Answer: Corey reflected on his analysis of the problem and realized he overlooked one significant factor. Feedback for Correct Answer: To develop deep conceptual knowledge, students need to reflect—thoughtfully analyze their own work and progress. Corey’s process of reflection helped him recognize something about his work that he had missed earlier. The other students engaged in activities that result in superficial learning. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Correct Answer: scaffolding. Feedback for Correct Answer: Scaffolding is the practice of providing students with support for meaning making and independent thinking. Mr. Reese scaffolds as he monitors and asks questions and gives hints to help students connect with the learning. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments

Correct Answer: Transfer of responsibility to students Feedback for Correct Answer: At this point students are ready to assume more and more responsibility for their learning and completing the project. The teacher began by providing contingency support and differentiating as needed. Then she gradually faded or withdrew support. Now she can allow students to assume more responsibility. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments

10.

Correct Answer: Inquiry learning Feedback for Correct Answer: Inquiry learning is an approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation or question, and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions. Inquiry is often used with science curriculum. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments

11.

Correct Answer: Problem-based learning Feedback for Correct Answer: In problem-based learning, students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process. They generate ideas about solutions, gather information from multiple sources, refine ideas, get feedback, and go public with their conclusions. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments

12.

Correct Answer: Ill-structured problems Feedback for Correct Answer: Problem-based learning methods pose real-world problems that are ill-structured and don’t necessarily have a “right” answer. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments

13.

Feedback for Correct Answer: A cognitive apprenticeship is a relationship in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. In this case, the lab assistant is the expert providing guidance for Tye, the less experienced learner. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments 14.

Correct Answer: Reciprocal questioning Feedback for Correct Answer: Using reciprocal questioning, students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material. This process has proved more effective than traditional discussion groups because it seems to encourage deeper thinking about the material as well as forming connections between the lesson and previous knowledge or experience. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination

15.

Correct Answer: Collaborative group assignments Feedback for Correct Answer: Collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination

16.

Correct Answer: Small group work Feedback for Correct Answer: Group work is simply several students working together. They may or may not be cooperating. It can be useful, but true cooperative learning requires much more than simply putting students into groups to work. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination

17.

Correct Answer: Place a student who is different in a group with a student who is tolerant. Feedback for Correct Answer: If a group includes some students who are perceived as different or who are often rejected, then it makes sense to be sure that there are group members who are tolerant—patient and kind. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination

18.

Correct Answer: Coach Feedback for Correct Answer: The role of coach is the person responsible for explaining concepts and helping with the academic content. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination

19.

Correct Answer: Jigsaw learning Feedback for Correct Answer: Jigsaw learning allows students to deal with large amounts of information. Each student is part of a group, and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

the others in their group. This strategy is appropriate for introducing material, especially if deep learning is not the objective of the group activity. Text Reference: Collaboration and Coordination 20.

Correct Answer: Program requiring active engagement and frequent interaction with feedback Feedback for Correct Answer: Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to deep learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity, and more. Text Reference: Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments

21.

Correct Answer: Jazz’s parents talk about the way she can sit for an hour by herself and do the drill-and-practice program about numbers. Feedback for Correct Answer: Computers should not be used to do solitary drill-and-practice activities. Developmentally appropriate ways to use computers with 3- and 4-year-olds are different from the ways we use computers in kindergarten and the primary grades. Software for young children should include simple spoken directions; the activities should be open-ended and encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, understanding of cause and effect, and social interaction. Text Reference: Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments

22.

Correct Answer: Show parts of the film rather than the entire film. Feedback for Correct Answer: Showing short segments of the film is recommended and considered to be more effective than using class time to show an entire film. Text Reference: Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments

23.

Correct Answer: Students complete practice activities at home for homework Feedback for Correct Answer: In a flipped classroom, what has traditionally happened in classrooms—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class to be completed independently online. Then, what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. Teachers in traditional classrooms typically assign homework that involves completing practice activities at home. Text Reference: Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 24.

Suggested Response: Central Idea 1: Learners are active in constructing their own understanding—they create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given. Central Idea 2: Social interactions are important in this knowledge construction 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

process. Traditional classrooms often implement practices that involve memorizing facts and developing superficial learning. Much of the learning comes from one source, a textbook, rather than a variety of rich resources. These practices do not help students actively engage in constructing their own understanding or using information, resources, and even help from others to build understanding. Teachers often present material in lecture format. Students often lack engaging opportunities to interact. Many learning activities are designed to help students succeed on achievement tests, and students may not find relevant connections between their classroom learning and the purpose for gaining the knowledge and skills. Students might progress through traditional classrooms without increasing their abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture. Text Reference: Cognitive and Social Constructivism 25.

Suggested Response: Complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments: In a traditional teaching environment, students sit in desks, listen to content being presented, and read from texts to learn information. Students often find material irrelevant. Tasks are typically contrived rather than mimicking the real world. Social negotiation and shared responsibility as part of learning: Students are often passive receivers rather than active participants. Students typically count on the teacher to take responsibility for teaching them rather taking responsibility for their own learning. The learning is geared toward individual tasks and independent learning rather than socially negotiated. Multiple perspectives, multiple representations of content: Often material is presented in one way from one point of view. Students may not feel free to express dissenting opinions or diverse perspectives, and they may not be challenged to discover multiple perspectives. On traditional assessments, students are expected to respond with the perspective that was presented in the lesson via text and/or teacher. Self-awareness, understanding that knowledge is constructed: Students typically don’t share their own beliefs and ideas as much as they listen to ideas that are constructed for them and presented to them. It’s more a matter of memorizing content than a matter of constructing knowledge. Students may not be aware of the influences that shape their thinking in traditional classrooms. Ownership in learning: Students are often dependent rather than independent about learning. They may wait for a teacher to tell them what to do and what to think rather than generating ideas. They are more comfortable listening to a teacher give them knowledge and information than with digging to find their own answers, exploring, and solving new problems. Text Reference: Common Elements of Learner-Centered Teaching

26.

Suggested Response: An advance organizer is a statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows. For a lesson about different cultures, an advance organizer might ask students to use a Venn diagram to compare the foods and traditions of one culture with the foods and traditions of another culture. The purpose of the advance organizer would be for students to compare cultures and see what they have in 32 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

common and what is unique to each culture. A teacher might use such a comparative approach to sum up learning from previous lessons and prepare for the next lesson. Text Reference: Designing Constructivist Learning Environments 27.

Suggested Response: Setting up cooperative groups: Mr. Holland needs to set up groups that encourage interaction and participation. For most math assignments, groups of three or four should work well. The mixed-ability groups should be balanced in the number of boys and girls, and shy or non-participative students should be mixed with patient and kind students. 1. Positive interdependence: Tasks should require students to work together to solve the problems. They develop interdependence by sharing knowledge and coming to conclusions together. 2. Promotive interaction: Tasks should promote interaction among group members. Assigning roles may help students learn and ensure everyone’s participation. Students are likely to hold one another accountable for carrying out assigned tasks for their roles. Group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. 3. Individual accountability: Mr. Holland needs to hold students accountable for learning by assessing them individually. The assessments might be tests taken individually or other demonstrations of learning. With individual assessments, students are less likely to “loaf.” 4. Collaborative and social skills: Tasks need to provide opportunities for students to collaborate. The collaborative aspects of the process require social skills that Mr. Holland needs to teach and reinforce. These skills include paying attention and listening even if you don’t agree, disagreeing and sharing your ideas respectfully, taking turns, doing your fair share, working with partners even if they are not your choice, asking for/providing help, giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, and more. 5. Group processing: The group task needs to involve group processing in which members monitor their progress and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively. Students need to engage in co-regulated learning—the process of distributing the responsibility for regulating learning, motivation, behaviors, and emotions to all members of the group. Text Reference: Collaboration and Cooperation

28.

Suggested Response: Yes, Mrs. Davis’s class is an example of a flipped classroom. In many ways, the flipped classroom is a good example of constructivist teaching. Teachers are no longer just providers of information. Mrs. Davis is not just providing information for students to absorb. During class time, students interact with material and technology and with each other. Mrs. Davis is supervising students as they complete the project of creating a product that demonstrates their learning. Mrs. Davis’s role is that of facilitator and scaffolder of learning. Groups and individuals can work on activities at their level, allowing teachers to differentiate instruction to students’ needs. Text Reference: Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 10 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 10.1 Explain different perspectives on constructivism as a theory of learning and teaching. Outcome 10.2 Identify the common elements in most contemporary constructivist theories. Outcome 10.3 Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. Outcome 10.4 Appropriately incorporate collaboration and cooperative learning in your classes. Outcome 10.5 Describe positive and negative influences of technology-mediated instruction on how children and adolescents develop and learn. [Q1] LO 10.1 Ms. Moreau uses the following approaches to teaching in her language arts lesson. Which approach involves student-centered learning? 1. In their reading groups, students take turns reading the lesson. 2. In pairs, students practice spelling their new spelling words. 3. In groups, students discuss the point of view of the main character. [correct] 4. As a whole group, students listen to Ms. Moreau’s minilecture about point of view. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] When students engage in open discussion in groups, they are engaged in student-centered learning. They are actively involved in sharing ideas and making meaning. [Q2] LO 10.2 In Mr. Lawrence’s small class, students are engaged in learning to use shop tools. They watch Mr. Lawrence model techniques, receive hints and feedback from him on their performance, and are encouraged to put into words the new skills they are practicing. This type of learning is best referred to as which one of the following? 1. Reciprocal teaching 2. Cognitive apprenticeship [correct] 3. Cooperative learning 4. Inquiry learning [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A cognitive apprenticeship is a relationship in which a less-experienced learner or learners acquire knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert.

[Q3] LO 10.4 Group activities must be well planned. Students need to be prepared to work in groups, and teachers have to be explicit in stating their expectations. Which one of the following strategies is NOT an element that defines true cooperative learning? 1. Positive interdependence and individual accountability 2. Group processing 3. Competition [correct] 4. Collaborative and social skills [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] David and Roger Johnson (2009a) described five elements foundational to successful cooperative learning groups. These include positive interdependence, promotive interaction, individual accountability, collaborative and social skills, and group processing. [Q4] LO 10.4 Research demonstrates that constructive controversy can lead to greater learning, openmindedness, seeing the perspectives of others, creativity, motivation, and engagement. Which one of the following is a setup for activities that engage students in constructive/structured controversies? 1. Each student is part of a group, and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become experts on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. 2. Students intuitively understand the design that helps them think deeply about what they read. 3. Students role play scripts that relate to the content of their chapter in social studies. 4. Students work in cooperative groups to research a particular argument. [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Individuals trying to exist in groups will have interpersonal conflicts, which can lead to learning. In structured controversies, students work in cooperative groups to research a particular controversy. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 10.4 Case To infuse her class with constructivist strategies, Brenda Rhodes planned several problembased learning scenarios. One of the scenarios required students to find a solution to their city’s homeless population. Over the past few years, the number of homeless individuals and families had grown alarmingly quickly. Social service agencies, shelters, and businesses in the central city were struggling to deal with the challenge. Brenda believed that her students would find the topic interesting and that it met the criteria for problem-based learning. Does Brenda Rhodes’s activity of finding a solution for the city’s homeless population meet the requirements for problem-based learning? Explain your answer.

[Feedback for Answer 5] Brenda Rhodes’s activity meets the requirements for problem-based learning. In true problembased learning, the problem is authentic, and the students’ actions matter. The problem is illstructured and has no single correct answer. Finding a solution to the city’s homeless population is authentic, and the students’ actions and research might actually make a difference. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 10.4 Case To infuse her class with constructivist strategies, Brenda Rhodes planned several problembased learning scenarios. One of the scenarios required students to find a solution to their city’s homeless population. Over the past few years, the number of homeless individuals and families had grown alarmingly quickly. Social service agencies, shelters, and businesses in the central city were struggling to deal with the challenge. Brenda believed that her students would find the topic interesting and that it met the criteria for problem-based learning. What is the teacher’s role in problem-based learning? [Feedback for Answer 6] The teacher’s role in problem-based learning is to identify engaging problems and appropriate resources; orient students to the problem by describing objectives and rationales; organize the students by helping them set goals and define tasks; support, coach, and mentor students as they gather information, craft solutions, and prepare artifacts (e.g., models, reports, videos, PowerPoints, portfolios); and support student reflection on their own learning outcomes and processes.

Chapter 11 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 11: Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 11: Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation Chapter 11 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 11.1. Distinguish between social learning theory and social cognitive theory, including an explanation of triadic reciprocal causality. [Q1] What forces are constantly interacting in the system called triadic reciprocal causality? 1. Choices, verbal statements, individual actions 2. Personal, cognitive, motivational 3. Resources, consequences of actions, other people 4. Personal, behavioral, environmental [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] These three elements are among the behavioral factors that make up one part of the triad. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Personal factors include cognitive and motivational elements. Personal factors make up one part of the triad. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Resources, consequences of actions, and other people are factors of the social environment. Social and environmental factors make up one part of the triad. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In the system called triadic reciprocal causality, personal social/environmental, and behavioral factors are in constant interaction. [Q2] Mr. Lanham rewards students when they follow procedures and complete difficult academic assignments. What is the basis of Mr. Lanham’s approach? 1. Social cognitive theory 2. Behavioral theories [correct] 3. Self-directed learning 4. Modeling [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social cognitive theory emphasizes learning through observation of others. Mr. Lanham is using rewards to get students to follow procedures and complete academic tasks.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Mr. Lanham is using behavioral theories. A system of rewards and punishments is founded on behaviorism. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Self-directed learning requires the individual to take charge of his or her learning. Mr. Lanham is using rewards to get students to do what he expects them to do. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] With modeling, an individual learns by observing a model. Mr. Lanham is using rewards to encourage students to follow procedures and complete tasks. [Q3] Social cognitive theory is based on the ideas of which of the following theorists? 1. B. F. Skinner 2. Jean Piaget 3. Lev Vygotsky 4. Albert Bandura [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] B. F. Skinner is known for his work with behavioral theory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Jean Piaget is known for his work with constructivist theory. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Lev Vygotsky is known for his work with sociocultural theory. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Albert Bandura is known for ideas that he labeled social cognitive theory. His earlier theory was labeled social learning theory. [Q4] Graham received negative feedback from his teacher after giving his speech. Based on the negative feedback, he no longer feels confident enough to pursue his goal of being on the debate team. Using the system of triadic reciprocal causality, identify the environmental factor at play in this scenario? 1. Graham’s goal 2. Teacher’s feedback [correct] 3. Graham’s loss of confidence 4. The debate team [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Graham’s goal is a personal factor at play in this scenario.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The teacher’s feedback is an environmental factor at play in this scenario. The negative feedback interacted with Graham’s personal and behavioral factors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Graham’s loss of confidence is a personal factor in his decision. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The debate team is not an interacting factor in Graham’s decision. The debate team might be viewed as the object of his decision. [Q5] Graham received negative feedback from his teacher after giving his speech. Based on the negative feedback, he no longer feels confident enough to pursue his goal of being on the debate team. As Graham makes a decision not to join the debate team, what personal factor is affecting his behavior? 1. Others’ beliefs about him 2. The teacher’s beliefs about him 3. Beliefs about himself [correct] 4. Resources available to him [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Others’ beliefs about Graham are environmental factors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The teacher’s beliefs about Graham are environmental factors. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Graham’s beliefs about himself are personal factors affecting his behavior. Because of his personal feelings of low confidence, Graham is deciding not to join the debate team. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Resources are environmental factors. Learning Outcome 11.2. Discuss the roles of observation and modeling in learning, including factors that support learning by observation. [Q1] Fourteen-year-old Jayden didn’t study for his science test and is contemplating how he might cheat to improve his grade. Right after the test started, the science teacher noticed another student looking at cheat notes under his test paper. The teacher took the cheat notes and informed the class that cheating automatically reduces a student’s grade to zero. Jayden stopped contemplating how he might cheat. What factor likely has the greatest influence on Jayden’s observational learning in this setting? 1. Self-reinforcement 2. Direct reinforcement 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Vicarious reinforcement [correct] 4. Both direct reinforcement and self-reinforcement [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] No self-reinforcement occurs in this setting. With self-reinforcement, Jayden would have controlled his own reinforcers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Jayden does not receive direct reinforcement in this scenario. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Jayden experiences vicarious reinforcement. Rewards and punishments can be vicarious reinforcers for an observational learner. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Jayden’s observational learning is influenced by only one kind of reinforcement. The reinforcement relates to what he observed. [Q2] Nika pretends to cast a fishing line and reel in a fish while the teacher reads a story to the class after lunch. Which of the following reactions is most likely to lead to a ripple effect? 1. A quiet girl laughs 2. A boy with a bad reputation laughs 3. Nika’s best friend laughs 4. The teacher laughs [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A quiet girl’s reaction is not likely to lead to a ripple effect. Others in class are more likely to follow behavior that is modeled by someone else in class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The reaction of a boy with a bad reputation is not likely to lead to a ripple effect. Others in class are more likely to follow behavior that is modeled by someone else in class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The reaction of Nika’s best friend is not as likely to lead to a ripple effect as the reaction of another person in class. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] If the teacher reacts by laughing, the students in class are likely to follow the teacher’s modeling. The ripple effect is based on modeling, and students are likely to imitate a person of high status such as the teacher.

[Q3] All of the following teachers facilitate the retention element of modeling EXCEPT: 1. Mr. Anson says, “Watch as I write a capital J; you make a fishhook with a line across the top.” 2. Mr. Caruso says, “Follow these 3 steps and rehearse them mentally to remember them.” 3. Mr. Duffy says, “Now repeat these words as you throw the ball: back, up, thrust, release.” 4. Mr. Byers says, “I’ll play the radio as I show you how to measure your oil level.” [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Retention can be facilitated by combining both verbal information and visual imagery that reinforces the information. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Verbal and mental rehearsal can aid retention, so encouraging students to repeat the steps to themselves as they work, either out loud or silently, will facilitate retention. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Verbally repeating a sequence of actions is a way of rehearsing the information and encoding them both verbally and through movement. Encoding the information in more than one mode reinforces the learning and facilitates retention. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Mr. Byers is introducing an irrelevant and distracting element to the situation, which does not facilitate retention. [Q4] Ms. Lewis talks to her students about children who crossed the U.S. border without parents and are being held in detention centers. She and the students read stories about these children’s fears and the trauma they experience without their families to support them. One story tells about a group of high school students who collect toys for the children. Ms. Lewis’s students want to write letters and send books to children at one of the centers. The observational learning in Ms. Lewis’s class is based on which of the following? 1. Emotional response [correct] 2. Weakening inhibitions 3. Learning new behaviors 4. Direct reinforcement [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Hearing about the children in the detention centers and the students sending toys is a powerful form of observation for Ms. Lewis’s students. This is a case of observational learning in which students develop emotional reactions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students’ inhibitions are not a factor in their observational learning in this setting. No inhibitions are suggested. 5 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students are not being taught new behaviors in this scenario. They are responding to stories. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Direct reinforcement is reinforcement given after the successful completion of a task. The students in this scenario are not receiving direct reinforcement. [Q5] Which of the following teachers is using observational learning in the classroom? 1. Mr. Dupont always starts the day with a sponge activity 2. Ms. Wilson always gives students a worksheet after a lesson 3. Mr. Morales always shows enthusiasm for science [correct] 4. Ms. Rubio always ends class with an exit activity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Dupont assigns a sponge activity, but observational learning is not involved in this aspect of his teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Wilson gives students a worksheet, but observational learning is not involved in this aspect of the lesson. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mr. Morales models the behavior and attitude he wants his students to learn. His modeling is an example of observational learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Rubio assigns an exit activity, but observational learning is not involved in this aspect of her teaching. Learning Outcome 11.3. Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish these concepts from selfconcept and self-esteem, explain the sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching. [Q1] Which one of the following children most clearly shows a LOW level of self-efficacy? 1. Alana doesn’t think she has the ability to do her art project successfully. [correct] 2. Harrison knows he’s smart but feels that he has no control over his class grades. 3. Daisy knows the material for her test, but she’s running late and feeling rattled. 4. Jonah thinks his teacher doesn’t like him, so he doesn’t trust his teacher. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Self-efficacy is a person’s beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. Alana has a low level of self-efficacy about her ability to do her art project.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Harrison’s confidence in believing he is smart suggests that he has high self-efficacy for academic work despite his lack of control over his grades. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Daisy seems to have a high level of self-efficacy about taking her test. Feeling rattled doesn’t necessarily lower her self-efficacy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Jonah’s situation doesn’t relate anything specific about his self-efficacy or his sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. [Q2] Kendra has very little confidence in her ability to do well in her English literature class. She has not mastered skills that her peers have mastered. She hasn’t experienced success on any of the assignments. Based on research about the effects of self-efficacy, we can reasonably predict that Kendra is likely to do which of the following? 1. Exert great effort to catch up with her peers 2. Focus on mastering one skill at a time 3. Succeed in one small task and raise her level of self-efficacy 4. Put forth little effort and give up easily [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Self-efficacy influences motivation and performance. If students have a low sense of efficacy, they are not likely to exert great effort to catch up with peers. Their motivation is low. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Self-efficacy influences motivation and performance through goal setting. If students’ sense of efficacy is low, they are likely to avoid tasks and set no goals or low goals. Kendra is not likely to set goals or focus on mastering skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Kendra is not likely to succeed at a task. Self-efficacy influences motivation and performance through goal setting. Kendra’s failures are likely to inhibit her goal setting. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] With a low sense of efficacy, Kendra is likely to avoid her literature assignments and give up easily. She doesn’t believe her efforts will pay off. [Q3] Ms. Freeman tells her students, “You can do this! You can have this play ready by the Friday opening-night performance.” According to social cognitive theory, this type of social persuasion is likely to: 1. have no effect—not influence students’ self-efficacy beliefs 2. have a significant and enduring impact on her students’ self-efficacy beliefs 3. reinforce any self-doubt among the students 7 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. encourage the students to feel confident as they put out a strong effort [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social persuasion is one source of self-efficacy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] There is no direct link between pep talks and long-term changes in self-efficacy, but Ms. Freeman’s encouragement is likely to have a positive effect on the students’ confidence about Friday’s performance of the play. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The opposite is true, because social persuasion can counter occasional setbacks that may have instilled self-doubt and interrupted persistence. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ms. Freeman’s social persuasion alone cannot create enduring increases in self-efficacy, but this type of pep talk can lead her students to make an effort, attempt new strategies, or try hard enough to succeed. [Q4] You watch another teacher successfully teach her students how to use the new digital scanning device in the physics lab, and you say, “If she can do it, I can do it.” This indicates that your selfefficacy is influenced by which of the following? 1. Vicarious experiences [correct] 2. Social persuasion 3. Mastery experiences 4. Reciprocal causality [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Vicarious experiences are accomplishments that are modeled by someone else and influence self-efficacy beliefs, especially when the other person is perceived to be a model. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Social persuasion can be a “pep talk” (given by another person) or specific performance feedback. In this case, you are watching someone else (and giving yourself a bit of a pep talk). [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mastery experiences are our own direct experiences. In this case, you are watching someone else (and giving yourself a bit of a pep talk). [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Triarchic reciprocal causality is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral. In this scenario, that type of reciprocal interplay is not apparent, although it may be part of the situation.

[Q5] You are an eighth-grade teacher in the middle of leading your students through a complicated science experiment. The students are beginning to seem discouraged and are starting to lose interest because the procedure is difficult. Which of the following approaches is best for increasing your students’ sense of self-efficacy? 1. Increase their self-esteem, which will lead to increases in self-efficacy 2. Make sure they have mastery experiences, or personal experiences of success [correct] 3. Give them difficult tasks so they will become resilient in the case of failure 4. Use social persuasion or a pep talk that says, “You can do it” [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There is no direct relationship between self-esteem and self-efficacy. Approaches that focus on self-esteem are different from approaches that focus on self-efficacy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. It is a strong predictor of behavior. The most powerful source of self-efficacy information is mastery experiences, or personal experience of success. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If students fail repeatedly, even at difficult tasks, they are unlikely to show an increase in selfefficacy. The most powerful source of self-efficacy information is mastery experiences, or personal experience of success. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Social persuasion alone cannot create enduring increases in self-efficacy, but a persuasive boost in self-efficacy can lead a student to make an effort. The most powerful source of selfefficacy information is mastery experiences, or personal experience of success. Learning Outcome 11.4. Describe important components of self-regulated learning. [Q1] Ms. Campos is a third-grade teacher with one student, Levi, who cannot seem to do his work without constantly talking and getting out of his seat. Ms. Campos decides to implement a program of cognitive behavior modification with Levi. Under this system, which of the following will Ms. Campos do? 1. She will teach Levi to improve his planning, working, and proofing skills. 2. She will ask a peer to remind Levi to stop talking and remain seated to do his work. 3. She will teach Levi to engage in self-talk to regulate his own behavior. [correct] 4. She will train Levi to reduce anger and aggression. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In cognitive behavior modification, students are taught directly how to use self-instruction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cognitive behavior modification can be used to help students improve these skills, but they are not a direct part of the process of cognitive behavior modification. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In cognitive behavior modification, students are taught directly how to use self-instruction. Selftalk is one self-instruction strategy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Levi’s situation does not indicate that he needs to reduce anger and aggression. Ms. Campos is concerned about his constant talking and getting out of his seat. [Q2] Ayden says to himself, “I really don’t want to do my homework now. It’s Friday night, but I know I’ll feel good on Saturday when I don’t have any homework left. Then, I can play soccer and not worry about anything. I guess I will go ahead and do it now.” The process he uses to activate his thoughts, behaviors, and emotions to reach his goals is referred to as: 1. self-regulation [correct] 2. self-evaluation 3. self-efficacy 4. self-esteem [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Self-regulated learners transform their mental abilities, whatever they are, into academic skills and strategies. Ayden is regulating his own behavior by thinking through the consequences of his actions and choosing the best strategy to achieve what he wants. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Self-evaluation is the process by which individuals generate evaluation criteria and apply those criteria to their own work. Ayden is using a specific process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Self-efficacy involves judgments of capabilities specific to a particular task. This scenario doesn’t say anything about Ayden’s judgment of his own capabilities. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Self-esteem relates to one’s judgments of his or her self-worth. The example doesn’t say anything about Ayden’s sense of self-worth. Ayden is demonstrating a specific process. [Q3] The five core social and emotional skills and competencies essential to emotional self-regulation include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and: 1. self-efficacy 2. responsible decision making [correct] 3. cognitive behavior modification

4. volition [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. It may be very helpful to feel self-efficacy about your ability to regulate your emotions, but this is not a core skill or competency essential to emotional self-regulation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Responsible decision making involves making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of various actions. It also involves applying these decision-making skills to academic and social situations and contributing to the well-being of one’s school and community. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Cognitive behavior modification is a set of procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Volition is willpower or self-discipline. It may be very helpful to have volition to support the development of emotional self-regulation, but volition is not a core skill or competency essential to emotional self-regulation. [Q4] According to Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning, which of the following students is clearly demonstrating the forethought phase? 1. Iris performed poorly on her speech and looks back at ways she can improve next time. 2. Grant is becoming overwhelmed with his senior thesis, so he sets intermediate goals for himself. 3. Alexia doesn’t understand geometry and intentionally chooses the simplest topic option for her project. [correct] 4. Xavier recalls how he prepared for his last science test when he made the highest grade in class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Iris is looking back on her last speech and considering how she can improve next time. She demonstrates reflection. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Grant is setting up a strategy to monitor how things are going, so he is engaged in the performance phase of self-regulated learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Forethought involves analyzing the task and setting goals. It usually includes a component of self-evaluation. Alexia needs to set clear, reasonable goals and plan how she can succeed. She begins by recognizing her limits and intentionally selecting the simplest topic.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Xavier is engaged in self-reflection. He recalls how he prepared when he made the highest grade. Now he can repeat his process in preparation for future tests. [Q5] Asia has an important English exam in 2 days, but she has not completed the reading. She knows what she needs to read and study. She knows that if she does not do well on this exam, her chances of getting an “A” will vanish, and she may even get a “B” or a “C” in the class. Still, Asia cannot seem to make herself sit down and do her work. Which of the following is likely to be the case for Asia? 1. Her self-efficacy is low. 2. She doesn’t know what to study. 3. She lacks self-esteem. 4. She lacks volition. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Asia may or may not have high self-efficacy; we can’t tell from this scenario. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In this scenario, Asia knows what she needs to read and the material she needs to study. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The scenario does not give us information to gauge Asia’s self-esteem as either high or low. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Volition is another word for willpower. Asia is somewhat motivated by grades, and she knows what she needs to do, but she does not have the volition necessary to complete the tasks. Learning Outcome 11.5. Apply your knowledge to teach for self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. [Q1] Mr. Kato wants his high school students to develop self-regulatory skills and efficacy for setting and reaching long-term goals. To help students achieve this level of skill, Mr. Kato should do which of the following? 1. Assign brief daily tasks, each focused on one learning target 2. Assign weekly tasks for students to complete at home at their own pace 3. Assign complex tasks with multiple learning targets that extend for several weeks [correct] 4. Assign group tasks that require collaboration and focus on group goals [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Daily tasks are not likely to promote the development of skills that help students set and reach long-term goals.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Kato wants to help students develop skills that help them set and reach long-term goals. Mr. Kato’s plan is more likely to succeed if students work on tasks that extend over a longer period of time. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Inviting students to engage in complex, meaningful tasks that are properly scaffolded can help them develop self-regulatory skills and a sense of efficacy for long-term goals. Such tasks should challenge but not overwhelm. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Kato wants his students to develop self-regulatory skills and self-efficacy. Group tasks that involve collaboration and group goals may not be as effective in developing self-regulatory skills as one of the other approaches. [Q2] One of your fellow teachers, Mrs. Morales, is having trouble managing her classroom. She says, “I am tired of always having to keep everyone in line. How do you get your students to selfregulate?” You might suggest to Mrs. Morales that one way teachers can encourage student self-regulation is to: 1. provide students with choices about what and how they will learn [correct] 2. create frequent opportunities for students to engage in cooperative learning 3. give students ill-structured problems that have multiple correct answers 4. introduce activities that are challenging and complex [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] When actions and choices are self-determined and not controlled by others, students are more likely to self-regulate. So, providing the students with choices about what and how they will learn could help students self-regulate and reduce the need to “keep everyone in line.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] No evidence suggests that cooperative learning and self-regulation are directly related. Cooperative learning may be a fine addition, but it does not address the goal of encouraging more self-regulation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] No evidence suggests that solving ill-structured problems is directly related to self-regulation. Illstructured problems might increase frustration and contribute to lack of self-regulation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students actually may need more scaffolding with complex activities. They may be less likely to engage in self-regulation. [Q3] One of the best ways to prevent or reduce teacher burnout is to: 1. encourage them to assign collaborative activities that reduce the teacher’s role

2. help teachers enhance their emotional self-regulation skills [correct] 3. show them how to help students develop a love for learning 4. provide opportunities for self-regulated learning [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is only a useful strategy for managing stress and preventing burnout if the students know how to collaborate successfully. Peer collaborative activities can easily become sources of great stress if they’re not managed carefully. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Those teachers who are most effective at handling stressors in the classroom demonstrate both the high levels of teaching self-efficacy discussed earlier and a positive level of emotional selfregulation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It’s great to help students develop positive attitudes toward learning, but this isn’t clearly related to reducing teacher burnout. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Certainly, teachers continue to learn even as they teach, and much of that learning is selfregulated. However, opportunities for self-regulated learning aren’t the best way to reduce teacher burnout. [Q4] Which teacher’s practice is most effective in supporting student self-regulation in learning? 1. Mrs. Carson establishes clear criteria for grading the essays. 2. Ms. Alcon uses the rubric in the text for grading essays 3. Mr. Sutton’s students help develop the rubric for grading their essays. [correct] 4. Mr. Dover uses his own set of criteria for grading students’ essays. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mrs. Carson’s students are not involved in self-regulation. They do not have a voice in the evaluation of their work. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Alcon’s students are not involved in self-regulation. They do not have a voice in the evaluation of their work. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Involving students in establishing the criteria for grading their essays helps them learn selfregulation. It gives students a sense of control over the outcome and encourages selfevaluation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Dover’s students are not involved in self-regulation. They do not have a voice in the evaluation of their work.

[Q5] Assessment practices that best support the development of self-regulated learning are: 1. primarily informal evaluations 2. nonthreatening opportunities that encourage additional learning [correct] 3. always designed by the students themselves 4. standardized testing situations [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Both formal and informal evaluations can encourage self-regulation if they are nonthreatening and encourage metacognition, intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Evaluations that help students to interpret errors as opportunities for learning to occur reduce anxiety and increase both self-efficacy and self-regulation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students’ involvement in the design of assessments does encourage self-regulation because it gives students a sense of agency, but it is not always practical and certainly does not always have to be the case. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Standardized tests do not have many of the characteristics of assessments that support the development of self-regulation. They tend to evoke anxiety, offer few opportunities for student involvement, and generally not encourage new learning. Learning Outcome 11.6. Explain the meaning and different applications of four basic theories of learning. [Q1] The learning theory that is most likely to emphasize the importance of self-efficacy and selfregulation is: 1. behaviorist theory 2. information processing theory 3. social cognitive theory [correct] 4. individual constructivist theory [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behaviorist theories focus more on external, observable behaviors, not internal psychological processes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Information processing theories focus more on how we pay attention, store, and recall information.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Social cognitive theory is most likely to emphasize the importance of self-efficacy and selfregulation. According to social cognitive theory, students must take charge of their own learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Individual constructivism focuses more on the social world. [Q2] Various learning theorists have different views of the role of the student in learning. Which theorists are more similar in their views of the student’s role? 1. Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura 2. Lev Vygotsky and Albert Bandura [correct] 3. B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura 4. Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Bandura, unlike Piaget, addressed the role of the student as an active social participator in learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Vygotsky and Bandura both viewed the student as an active co-constructor with others and self, an active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner, and an active social participator in learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Skinner viewed the student as a passive recipient of information. Bandura addressed the role of the student as a co-constructor, an active social participator in learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Vygotsky, unlike Piaget, addressed the role of the student as an active social participator in learning. [Q3] Constructivist theorists see the teacher’s primary role in the classroom as which of the following? 1. Classroom manager 2. Model for students 3. Motivator of students 4. Facilitator and guide [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behavioral theorists are more likely to expect teachers to take a managerial role. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Social cognitive theories are more likely to expect teachers to serve as models.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Social cognitive theories are more likely to expect teachers to serve as motivators. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A facilitator provides resources and indirect assistance, allowing students to construct their own activities and knowledge. [Q4] What theory most clearly proposes that learning involves application of effective strategies to acquire a fixed body of knowledge? 1. Behaviorism 2. Individual constructivism 3. Social cognitive theory 4. Information processing theory [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behaviorists generally argue that learning occurs through drill and guided practice and not the application of learning strategies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Proponents of individual constructivism do not see knowledge as fixed, but rather argue for a changing body of knowledge, individually constructed in a person’s unique social world. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Proponents of social cognitive theories do not see knowledge as fixed, but rather argue for a changing body of knowledge, individually constructed in a person’s unique social world. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] According to information processing theory, learning (acquisition of facts, skills, concepts, and strategies) occurs through the effective application of strategies. [Q5] According to which of the following learning theories do peers serve as models and as a necessary part of knowledge construction? 1. Behavioral theory 2. Cognitive theory 3. Social cognitive theory [correct] 4. Constructivist theory [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behavioral theory addresses knowledge acquisition and the practice and application of new skills and understanding.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cognitive theory (information processing) addresses remembering what is learned and being able to access the learning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Social cognitive theory addresses the active construction of knowledge based on observation, physical and social interaction, and developing agency—becoming more self-regulating. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Constructivist theory addresses the process of understanding and actively constructing knowledge. There’s no emphasis on peers serving as models or serving as a necessary part of knowledge construction.

Chapter 11 Application Exercises Application Exercise 11.1: Modeling Learning Outcome 11.2. Discuss the roles of observation and modeling in learning, including factors that support learning by observation. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 11.2 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/PG112_Week3_Seg ment3_a.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.2 to answer the following question: When Ms. Kern gathers the students around her and uses the overhead projector to discuss the writing project, how is she applying Bandura’s social cognitive theory? [Q1 Model Response] Ms. Kern applies Bandura’s social cognitive theory by giving the students a model to imitate. Students see, hear, and discuss the design for the big book writing project. Ms. Kern models putting together a table of contents, and she models enthusiasm for the project. She combines learning and motivation with a high level of expectancy. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.2 to answer the following question: Which of Bandura’s essential elements of observational learning come into play in the video? [Q2 Model Response] Ms. Kern focuses on two of the elements of observational learning: •

The element of attention: She captures students’ attention as she gathers them around her, engages them in discussion, and uses the overhead and her chart to demonstrate the steps.

•

The element of retention: She helps students remember the parts of a book and engage in a type of rehearsal about the different kinds of pages, their purpose, and the purpose of a table of contents. Her chart shows the various types of pages they will develop as they write their books. Her demonstration with the overhead helps them retain information about developing a table of contents. The word wall adds to the element of retention by helping students recall prior learning.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.2 to answer the following question: After students complete the writing of their books, how might Ms. Kern give students direct reinforcement?

[Q3 Model Response] Specific praise is one of the common ways for teachers to give direct reinforcement. Ms. Kern might provide direct reinforcement in the form of compliments about students’ work. She might comment about the way they followed her model for their table of contents or comment about their originality on their information pages. She might compliment the way they organized ideas by using the word wall. She might provide additional direct reinforcement by posting the students’ products where everyone can see them, or she might invite parents to visit and see the students’ products. Application Exercise 11.2: Self-Efficacy Learning Outcome 11.3. Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish these concepts from selfconcept and self-esteem, explain the sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 11.5 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationaltechnology/Chappuis/1_3_Develo ping%20a%20Learning%20Culture%20in%20the%20Classroom_rs.mp4 EDIT: START at the beginning. END at TC 5:49 “…when they face these challenges.” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.5 to answer the following question: How does Ms. McDaniel use mastery experiences to help foster her students’ sense of selfefficacy? Use specific examples from the video to support your answer. [Q1 Model Response] Mastery experiences are a person’s direct experiences—a very powerful source of efficacy information. Ms. McDaniel tells the students that they may struggle, but that is a good thing because hard work leads to mastery. As students struggle, they learn how to deal with frustration, choose better strategies, and set clear intermediate learning targets. She also makes it clear that they can take assessments “when they’re ready”—thus focusing on students’ own sense of readiness and their efforts in preparing. A sense of pride in their work is one of the rewards the students in this class receive. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.5 to answer the following question: How does Ms. McDaniel use vicarious experiences to help encourage student self-efficacy? [Q2 Model Response] According to Danielle, the first student interviewed, Ms. McDaniel lets current students know about past students—how they struggled too and how they went on to achieve. Current students can easily identify with the past students, and so hearing about past successes helps raise current students’ self-efficacy and motivation.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.5 to answer the following question: How does Ms. McDaniel use social persuasion to help encourage student self-efficacy? [Q3 Model Response] Social persuasion involves encouragement, informational feedback, and useful guidance from a trusted source. Shelli points out that Ms. McDaniel “was always there for me,” encouraging her to see math as more than “a chore” and to feel more confident in her abilities. Ms. McDaniel herself says she confronts them immediately about their efficacy, so they can recognize their own confidence levels and monitor their efficacy as they progress and develop. Mason, for example, points out how she sensed his lack of confidence at the start of the class and encouraged him. It’s also clear from all the students and from Ms. McDaniel herself that she emphasizes the importance of effort. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.5 to answer the following question: How would you describe the teacher’s sense of her own efficacy? [Q4 Model Response] Ms. McDaniel projects very high efficacy. She seems to know that she has developed a classroom climate that works for her students, and she emphasizes strategies (such as homework for practice and self-evaluation) that research has shown are effective to support student learning. The number of students passing the AP test shows they are learning advanced math, but Ms. McDaniel seems to know she can go even further and help them to develop a new mindset about learning in general. She states, “Teaching becomes very personal to me,” and it is clear that her students agree. Application Exercise 11.3: Self-Regulation Learning Outcome 11.4. Describe important components of self-regulated learning. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 11.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/PG205/Week5_Segment3_iPad.mp4 EDIT: BEGIN at TC 0:53 “We’re gonna talk about how we can be a more focused learner in class....” [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.6 to answer the following question: Self-regulated learners need knowledge about themselves. How does Ms. Swartz’s wheel activity help students know themselves as learners? [Q1 Model Response] The wheel activity requires each student to evaluate his or her view of self as a learner in math class. Students evaluate their attitudes and behaviors based on the descriptions on the wheel. 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

They also examine the level of effort they exert and the level of success they achieve (based on their grade) in the class. The wheel activity engages students in self-evaluation that helps them confront the real picture of themselves as learners. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.6 to answer the following question: Three major factors influence the development of self-regulation: knowledge, motivation, and volition. When students reflect on their level of focus, evaluate their effort, and acknowledge where they stand in math class, how might this process influence their motivation? [Q2 Model Response] Ms. Swartz wants students to become independent learners—not waiting for a teacher or an adult to tell them how they’re doing and what they need to do. Independent learners are knowledgeable about themselves. The process that involves reflecting, evaluating, and acknowledging helps students acknowledge who they are as learners and take responsibility for their learning. As they reflect and self-evaluate, they realize they don’t need a teacher to tell them where they stand. They know that their own level of focus and commitment to learning affects their grade. They themselves are in charge, and this knowledge should motivate them as they set goals for change. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.6 to answer the following question: Ms. Swartz asks students to turn to the back of their paper, describe the kind of student they have been in math class, and then describe the kind of student they want to be in the future (specifying what they need to do differently). How does this relate to self-regulated learning? [Q3 Model Response] Ms. Swartz is guiding students to set goals for their focus and commitment to learning in math class. Setting goals is one characteristic of self-regulated learners. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 11.6 to answer the following question: When students state what they will do differently and share their goal with one buddy, what phase of Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning are they demonstrating? Explain. [Q4 Model Response] This aspect of the activity in Ms. Swartz’s class leads to setting goals for the future. Goal setting is part of phase 1 of Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning. In this phase, students are motivated to look ahead with forethought and establish a goal with specific strategies for moving forward.

Chapter 11 Test Items Chapter 11 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 11.1: Distinguish between social learning theory and Multiple Choice: 1-3 social cognitive theory, including an explanation of triadic Essay: 26 reciprocal causality. Objective 11.2: Discuss the roles of observation and modeling Multiple Choice: 4-8 in learning, including factors that support learning by Essay: 27 observation. Objective 11.3: Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish Multiple Choice: 9-14 these concepts from self-concept and self-esteem, explain the Essay: 28 sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching. Objective 11.4: Describe important components of self- Multiple Choice: 15-20 regulated learning. Essay: 29, 31 Objective 11.5: Apply your knowledge to teach for self-efficacy Multiple Choice: 21-23 and self-regulated learning. Essay: 30, 32 Objective 11.6: Explain the meaning and different applications Multiple Choice: 24-25 of four basic theories of learning.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Mr. Zimmer wants to discourage Mario’s disruptive behavior. Mario often drums his pencil on his desk while Mr. Zimmer is reading aloud to the class from a chapter book every day after lunch. Other students are distracted by Mario’s behavior. Based on social cognitive theory, which of the following is most likely to help Mr. Zimmer reach his goal of discouraging Mario’s disruptive behavior? a. Allow students to take turns reading aloud to the class. b. Dismiss Mario to the hallway whenever Mr. Zimmer reads a book aloud to the class. c. Let Mario see Mr. Zimmer punish Mario’s friend Carlos when Carlos makes disruptive noises. d. Ignore Mario’s behavior and read loudly to keep the other students’ attention on the reading rather than on Mario. 2. Six-year-old Ana saw her big brother take cookies from the cookie jar without permission. He didn’t get caught or scolded. Ana decided she wanted cookies too and copied her brother’s behavior. The children’s mother has told them to ask before getting cookies, but they took cookies without asking. Based on triadic reciprocal causality, what three kinds of influences are working together to explain Ana’s behavior? a. The influence of Ana’s own beliefs, expectations, and attitudes b. The influence of beliefs, cognitive abilities, and knowledge c. Personal, environmental, and behavioral influences d. The consequences of actions, models, and attitudes

3. Which of the following theorists is most closely associated with social cognitive theory? a. Jean Piaget b. Lev Vygotsky c. Albert Bandura d. B. F. Skinner 4. Mrs. Russo wants her students to learn how to summarize as they read. She models the behaviors for the students and talks about each step she uses to summarize part of a story. For Mrs. Russo’s students to begin to learn by observing her modeling, what elements of observational learning do they need to exhibit? a. Pay attention and remember the process b. Focus on the model’s tone of voice and gestures c. Evaluate steps in the process and authenticity of teacher as model d. Focus on behavioral influences 5. Jimar is a six-year-old African American boy who wants to learn how to dribble a basketball and do it so well that his eight-year-old brother can’t steal the ball from him when he runs up the driveway to shoot a basket. Observational learning is a good way for him to begin to reach his goal. Which of the following people is probably the best model for him? a. An attractive African American middle school girl who plays basketball better than most of the other girls in the neighborhood b. An Asian boy about his age who plays basketball better than any of the other kids his age c. An African American high school boy who plays basketball better than other kids in the neighborhood d. An African American boy his age who plays basketball but struggles to beat Jimar 6. Staci stopped running in the hallway at school after seeing two other students receive afterschool detention for running. What aspect of observational learning is illustrated by her stopping this behavior? a. Production or performance b. Vicarious reinforcement c. Self-reinforcement d. Direct reinforcement 7. Ms. Moreno uses observation learning effectively in her fifth-grade classroom. She most likely does which of the following? a. Pair students who struggle in math with other students who struggle b. Point out positive consequences experienced by story characters as a result of their positive behavior c. Call on a shy student from another class to model a positive behavior for her fifth grade d. Reward students privately but not publicly for positive behavior 24 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8. Educational psychologists talk about five possible outcomes of observational learning. Which of the following scenarios most directly illustrates one of the outcomes of observational learning? a. Alena read a true story about girls in an African community who are not allowed to go to school, and she developed anger toward the girl’s culture. b. Joe studied the multiplication tables and memorized the facts for multiples of eight. c. Clarissa opened her chapter book and began reading where she left off yesterday, but she didn’t stop until she finished reading the rest of the book. d. Corey and Dez took their allowance to the hardware store and picked out a tool to give their dad for his birthday. 9. Ian is a student in Mr. Dumas’s ninth grade class. When Mr. Dumas announces that there will be a science test on Friday, Ian begins to dread Friday. He wonders whether he will be able to pass the science test. He didn’t do well on the previous test, and he struggled with the concepts in this chapter about natural selection. Ian’s doubt about his ability to do well on the science test is representative of his: a. low self-esteem. b. low self-efficacy. c. anxiety disorder. d. lack of self-regulation. 10. Nadia has high self-efficacy for completing her assignments and making good grades in German class. Which of the following is likely to contribute LEAST to her self-efficacy in German class? a. Hearing her father speak German b. Doing well on previous assignments in German class c. Seeing her older brother do well on his German assignments d. Taking first place in a painting contest 11. Mrs. Hernandez wants to help her fourth-grade students improve their performance and increase their self-efficacy for conveying emotion in their personal narrative writing. With this objective in mind, she is most likely to: a. set long-term goals for judging progress. b. give rewards for being engaged in the process. c. set short-term goals related to the task. d. integrate the task with a focus on incorporating facts. 12. Much research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy. Based on the information provided in the following descriptions of four teachers, which of them most likely has the highest sense of efficacy? a. Mr. Gimenez has worked with a small group of English learners and helped them raise their reading level from grade 2 to grade 4. b. Ms. Germaine has two gifted students in her class who say she is their favorite teacher because she gives them choices about their extended activities in science. 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. Mrs. Sloane has been teaching kindergarten for eight years and feels that her current group of students began the year with a higher level of preparedness than any class she has ever taught. d. Mr. Hargrove’s students have been working with the music teacher to perfect their singing, and they have been chosen to sing at a community event honoring one of the city’s heroes. 13. Many factors influence motivation. Which of the following students is most likely to have the highest motivation to achieve in the given situation? a. Ryan doesn’t think he will be able to make a significant contribution to his group, but he believes the other students will make up for his lack of skill. b. Jeanene is struggling with a math assignment again, but she feels pressure from her parents to finish the task. c. Connor overestimates his ability to bat left-handed, but his self-efficacy is high, and he is optimistic about helping his team win. d. Karmen has never done well in spelling or believed it was important, but she made 100 on her last spelling test. 14. Ms. Porter is the favorite teacher of tenth grader Alejandro. During today’s writing assignment, she reminds him how well he did on the previous essay and helps him set goals for each step of the new writing task. She assures him that he can succeed with this essay. This is an example of: a. modeling. b. physiological arousal. c. vicarious experiences. d. social persuasion. 15. Miranda missed the class period when her teacher introduced the steps for analyzing a speech. During class students practiced the skill and got feedback from the teacher to help them perform the skill with competence. Now Miranda needs to teach herself and catch up with the rest of the class. This self-regulated learning will involve which of the following factors? a. Feedback from others b. Efficacy c. Humility d. Volition 16. Alan’s art project is due tomorrow. He and all other fifth graders in his school have the opportunity to submit drawings, and one of them will be chosen as the yearbook cover. Alan loves to draw and wants his picture to be chosen. He knows his idea is good and that he has the drawing skills to submit one of the best drawings, but he keeps playing his video game. What is lacking in Alan’s case? a. Self-esteem b. Efficacy c. Knowledge 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Volition 17. A few days ago, Mr. McKelvain worked with students to develop a rubric for assessing their projects in the n / historical fiction unit. The class has worked on the unit for more than a week, and students know the expectations for their projects. Today Mr. McKelvain paired students to work together and review their work using the rubric as a guide. Students are engaged in which of the following? a. Co-regulation b. Modeling c. Shared regulation d. Self-instruction 18. In Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning, the first phase, forethought, involves task analysis, motivation, planning and goal setting. What occurs in the second phase? a. Reflection b. Performance c. Attributions of success or failure d. Revision of strategies and beliefs 19. Which of the following teachers is encouraging emotional self-regulation? a. A teacher creates a classroom climate of evaluation of others’ intentions b. A teacher encourages middle school students to suppress their emotions c. A teacher shows that all cultures express emotions the same ways d. A teacher helps her young students recognize and express their feelings 20. Which of the following teachers is most likely to model and encourage emotional selfregulation in the classroom? a. Mrs. Tallchief prompts students to keep working on the task in science lab and to ignore the two students who burned their fingers during the experiment. b. Mr. Starnes doesn’t listen to students’ complaints about the difficulty of the math task and encourages them to keep their feelings to themselves. c. Ms. Travis avoids listening to Melba’s tattle tales about a classmate during a group activity and encourages Melba to focus on performing her role in the group. d. Mrs. Gomez saw Jeff throw his eraser at Kendal, but Mrs. Gomez expects both students to bury the issue and deal with it after school. 21. Which of the following posters is most likely to promote cognitive behavior modification? a. “Why study history?” b. “Together we are strong.” c. “Respect others.” d. “Does this make sense?”

22. When teachers want to influence students to develop self-regulation and efficacy for learning, they should do which of the following? a. Design basic tasks that are completed in a short time b. Give students choices and teach decision making about choices c. Inform students of evaluation criteria and evaluate their progress often d. Assign individual tasks and encourage competition in the classroom 23. Mr. Barclay uses all of the following evaluation practices. Which one is LEAST likely to support self-regulated learning? a. Students create group projects that demonstrate their knowledge of a new concept in science b. Students take a unit exam that includes multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay questions c. Students use a checklist to judge their own progress on their individual projects for the history unit d. Students help create a rubric for evaluating the quality of their persuasive essays 24. Various perspectives on learning are represented in the diverse views and theories that form the four pillars for teaching: behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, and social cognitive. Which perspective views the teacher’s role as one of model, motivator, and facilitator of learning as well as model of self-regulated learning? a. Behavioral b. Cognitive c. Constructivist d. Social cognitive 25. Which of the following views of learning mirrors the social cognitive view in its perception of the role of the student? a. Cognitive b. Individual constructivist c. Social constructivist d. Behavioral

Essay Questions 26. Explain Bandura’s view of the shortcomings of behavioral theories. 27. Mr. Winn wants to teach his third-grade students to use a three-step process for summarizing as they read. He believes observational learning is the best method. Albert Bandura identified four elements essential for observational learning. Explain what Mr. Winn needs to do for each element to be incorporated into his teaching plan for this lesson. 28. Tyrone is a student in Ms. Long’s sixth grade class. Tyrone loves to read and always has several library books checked out, but he does not like to write. He believes he is incapable of writing. In fifth grade, he missed school during the unit about the parts of a letter, and his attempts to write letters for assignments were weak and unimpressive. He was present 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

when the class studied how to write the opening, closing, and body of an essay, but he wasn’t interested and didn’t make an effort to complete assignments. His grades on writing assignments have been poor for two years. Explain the probable sources of Tyrone’s low self-efficacy for writing assignments. 29. Mrs. Evans believes her middle school students are too dependent. They wait for teachers to tell them every step to take day by day, task by task. She wants them to become selfregulated learners. Describe what she might do to reach this goal and explain the model she might use in coaching students to become self-regulated learners. 30. Cassidy often fails to complete homework before bedtime. As a fifth grader she knows she needs to do homework when she gets home, but she gets on her computer and plays video games with her friends and other random players. When her mom gets home from work, it’s time to help with dinner and chores. Her mom, believing Cassidy is old enough to take responsibility for her homework, doesn’t like to hassle with Cassidy over homework before bedtime. How might Cassidy’s mom use cognitive behavior modification to improve this situation? In your answer, include specific quotes the mom might use. 31. Suppose you are an elementary school teacher, and your student, Joe Don, has problems managing his anger. He gets angry during recess if he doesn’t win the game he’s playing. He gets angry in the classroom if a student nearby tells him to be quiet during seatwork. Today, he pushed another child causing the child to fall and scrape her elbow on the pavement. How might you use the “Guidelines for Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation” to teach coping strategies, to make sure your other students feel safe, and to help Joe Don learn self-regulation skills? 32. A growing body of research offers guidance about how to design tasks and structure classroom interactions to support students’ development of and engagement in selfregulated learning. This research indicates that students develop academically effective forms of self-regulated learning and a sense of efficacy for learning when teachers involve them in complex, meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time. Further development occurs if teaching incorporates these features: student control over their learning processes and products (choices), involvement in self-management and selfevaluation, and opportunities to work in collaboration with peers and seek feedback from them. Mr. LeBlanc, in designing a unit on crustaceans, has planned complex, meaningful tasks for his students to do over a 3-week period to meet learning goals in science. How might he incorporate the other 3 features for promoting self-regulated learning?

Chapter 11 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Let Mario see Mr. Zimmer punish Mario’s friend Carlos when Carlos makes disruptive noises. Feedback for Correct Answer: Social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation of others. By observing the consequences of his friend’s disruptive behavior, Mario may learn not to engage in similar behavior. Text Reference: Social Cognitive Theory

Correct Answer: Personal, environmental, and behavioral influences Feedback for Correct Answer: Triadic reciprocal causality is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral. It is an explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other. Text Reference: Social Cognitive Theory

Correct Answer: Albert Bandura Feedback for Correct Answer: Most of what we know today as social cognitive theory is based on the work Albert Bandura began in the 1950s at Stanford University. Text Reference: Social Cognitive Theory

Correct Answer: Pay attention and remember the process Feedback for Correct Answer: To learn new behaviors or refine current abilities, Bandura (1986) proposed that four elements of observational learning are essential: paying attention, retaining information or impressions, producing behaviors, and being motivated to repeat the behaviors. Mrs. Russo’s students need to begin by paying attention and retaining information about the process. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others

Correct Answer: An African American high school boy who plays basketball better than other kids in the neighborhood Feedback for Correct Answer: All students need to see successful, capable models who look and sound like them, no matter what their ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or gender. Observers pay greater attention to competent, high-status models. The African American high school boy is the best model for Jimar. He is skilled and looks and sounds more like Jimar than the other options. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others

Correct Answer: Vicarious reinforcement Feedback for Correct Answer: Vicarious reinforcement is the increase in the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior. Punishment can also be vicarious: you 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

may slow down on a stretch of highway after seeing several people get speeding tickets there. Staci’s behavior illustrates vicarious reinforcement to stop a behavior after observing other students’ punishment. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others 7.

Correct Answer: Point out positive consequences experienced by story characters as a result of their positive behavior Feedback for Correct Answer: Ms. Moreno is likely to make sure students see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others

Correct Answer: Alena read a true story about girls in an African community who are not allowed to go to school, and she developed anger toward the girl’s culture. Feedback for Correct Answer: Through observational learning, people may develop emotional reactions to situations they have never experienced personally. Hearing and reading about situations (like the true story about girls in an African community) are forms of observation. Alena’s emotional response to her reading is an example of this kind of observational learning. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others

Correct Answer: low self-efficacy. Feedback for Correct Answer: Ian has low self-efficacy for doing well on the science test over a unit he does not understand. Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

10.

Correct Answer: Taking first place in a painting contest Feedback for Correct Answer: Sources of self-efficacy include modeling, vicarious experiences, and mastery experiences, but they do not include success on tasks in other areas. Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

11.

Correct Answer: set short-term goals related to the task. Feedback for Correct Answer: Research indicates that performance in school is improved and self-efficacy is increased when students (a) adopt short-term goals so it is easier to judge progress; (b) are taught to use specific learning strategies such as outlining or summarizing that help them focus attention; and (c) are made aware of their own achievements, rather than simply praised for their engagement, because achievement signals increasing competence. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

12.

Correct Answer: Mr. Gimenez has worked with a small group of English learners and helped them raise their reading level from grade 2 to grade 4. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers’ sense of efficacy about teaching is their belief that they can reach even the most difficult students and help 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

them learn. Mr. Gimenez worked with English learners and succeeded in helping them make significant progress in their reading ability. Research shows that teachers’ sense of efficacy grows from real success with students. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy 13.

Correct Answer: Connor overestimates his ability to bat left-handed, but his self-efficacy is high, and he is optimistic about helping his team win. Feedback for Correct Answer: Self-efficacy influences motivation and performance through goal setting. If we have a high sense of efficacy in a given area, we will set higher goals, be less afraid of failure, and find new strategies when old ones fail. A higher sense of self-efficacy supports motivation, even when the efficacy is an overestimation. Children and adults who are optimistic about the future are more mentally and physically healthy, less depressed, and more motivated to achieve. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

14.

Correct Answer: social persuasion. Feedback for Correct Answer: Social persuasion is a “pep talk” or specific performance feedback—one source of self-efficacy. Social persuasion that highlights prior successes (mastery) in similar tasks, identifies short-term goals and accomplishments, or focuses on the importance of effort are more likely to promote success in boosting self-efficacy and initiating successful performance. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

15.

Correct Answer: Volition Feedback for Correct Answer: Three factors influence skill and will: knowledge of self and the task, motivation, and self-discipline or volition. Efficacy may be an outcome of Miranda’s self-regulated learning, but it is not a factor contributing to her self-regulated learning process. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

16.

Correct Answer: Volition Feedback for Correct Answer: Volition is willpower (self-discipline), an internally-driven, intentional decision to reach valued goals by applying selfregulated learning. Alan has the knowledge and efficacy to submit a drawing, but he lacks the self-discipline to stop playing his video game and work on it. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

17.

Correct Answer: Shared regulation Feedback for Correct Answer: Shared regulation happens when students work together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

18.

Feedback for Correct Answer: After thinking about the task at hand, selfregulating learners flow into the second phase—performance phase. This phase involves the use of strategies to remain engaged, self-talk, and selfmonitoring. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will 19.

Correct Answer: A teacher helps her young students recognize and express their feelings Feedback for Correct Answer: Helping students recognize and express their feelings is one good approach to encouraging emotional selfregulation. This may include providing a vocabulary of emotions, describing emotions of characters in stories, and having students write about their own feelings in journals. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

20.

Correct Answer: Ms. Travis avoids listening to Melba’s tattle tales about a classmate during a group activity and encourages Melba to focus on performing her role in the group. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers need to create a climate of trust in the classroom. Ms. Travis models trust when she avoids listening to “tattle tales” that create distrust. Teachers also need to help students learn strategies for coping with emotions and keeping the focus on academic work as much as possible. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

21.

Correct Answer: “Does this make sense?” Feedback for Correct Answer: Cognitive behavior modification involves both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction. Cognitive self-instruction can help students learn important skills such as listening, planning, working, and checking in school. Using a poster that reminds students to ask, “Does this make sense?” is a good way to prompt students to use cognitive selfinstruction to develop these skills and improve their learning. Text Reference: Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning

22.

Correct Answer: Give students choices and teach decision making about choices Feedback for Correct Answer: When students have choices about what to produce, how to produce it, where to work, and such, they are more likely to anticipate a successful outcome (increased self-efficacy) and increase their effort and persist when difficulty arises. Text Reference: Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning

23.

Correct Answer: Students take a unit exam that includes multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay questions. Feedback for Correct Answer: Evaluation practices that support self33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

regulated learning are nonthreatening. They are embedded in ongoing activities, emphasize process as well as products, focus on personal progress, and help students to interpret errors as opportunities for learning to occur. The unit exams pose a greater threat and emphasize the end product of learning rather than the processes. They don’t prompt students to self-assess. Text Reference: Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 24.

Correct Answer: Social cognitive Feedback for Correct Answer: Social cognitive theory illustrates the powerful learning opportunities afforded through modeling and observational learning and highlights the important role of agency and selfdirection. The teacher’s role is to model, motivate, and facilitate learning in addition to modeling self-regulated learning. Text Reference: Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning

25.

Correct Answer: Social constructivist Feedback for Correct Answer: Both social cognitive and social constructivist views describe the student’s role as active co-construction with others and self, active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner, and active social participator. Text Reference: Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 26.

Suggested Response: Albert Bandura believed that explanations of human learning and thinking were too complex to be represented by theories that attributed learning to our responses to rewards and punishments. He saw a need to place humans in social contexts to understand thinking and learning. He did not completely discount behavioral views but added the elements of enactive learning (reinforcement and punishment of your own behaviors) and observational learning (observing the modeling of others). Text Reference: Social Cognitive Theory

27.

Suggested Response: Mr. Winn needs to incorporate the following four elements of observational learning: 1. Attention: He must get students’ attention and hold their attention while he explains each step of the three-step process. He needs to use a chart or other visual that specifies the steps. He needs to model the process and allow students to observe each step of the process. It will be more effective if Mr. Winn involves the students by asking brief questions or engaging students in dialogue about the steps as he carries out the process and models. 2. Retention: Mr. Winn needs to make sure students can remember the steps. He might use a graphic organizer and give each student a copy. He might also use the example he modeled and post it on the wall where everyone can see it. 3. Production: He needs to give students opportunities to practice the process right away. As students practice, Mr. Winn should walk around the room, monitoring 34 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

and giving feedback. As he gives feedback, he should refer back to the model. 4. Motivation and Reinforcement: Mr. Winn also needs to reinforce students. As he monitors, he might give direct reinforcement to students who succeed quickly while prompting students who need a tip. He might get the attention of everyone in the class and verbally reinforce one or more class leaders who model the process accurately. This provides vicarious reinforcement and helps motivate the class to persist. Text Reference: Modeling: Learning by Observing Others 28.

Suggested Response: Albert Bandura identified four sources of self-efficacy expectations: mastery experiences, physiological and emotional arousal, vicarious experiences, and social persuasion. 1. Tyrone has not had mastery experiences in writing assignments. He has not successfully completed writing assignments and met the goals of the task. This is clearly a source of low self-efficacy for writing for Tyrone. 2. Tyrone is not interested in writing. He puts little effort into writing assignments. He lacks emotional arousal and does not light up or get excited about writing. Feeling psyched up and ready to do a task increases self-efficacy, but feeling disinterested reduces self-efficacy. 3. We are uncertain about Tyrone’s vicarious experiences with writing success. Vicarious experiences could help Tyrone increase his self-efficacy for writing. After all, he loves to read, and the books he reads are written by authors. He might be prompted to think about the writing success of one or more authors whose works he reads. 4. We are also uncertain about feedback Tyrone has received other than low grades in writing. Has anyone tried to persuade him to write effectively? The low grades on his half-hearted efforts to complete writing tasks are obviously another source of low self-efficacy. When Tyrone missed school in fifth grade, he needed help to catch up and guidance to achieve mastery experiences. He still needs mastery experiences. He needs help to frame writing assignments in ways that interest him. He needs connections to the successes of others and feedback that encourages him to reach writing goals. Text Reference: Agency and Self-Efficacy

29.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Evans might begin by introducing the concept of selfregulated learning. She might conduct class discussions about the meaning of selfregulation and give examples. Some of the examples might be drawn from her own students. As a model, Mrs. Evans could use Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning. 1. Forethought: Analyze the learning task. Teach students to ask questions and make sure they clearly understand the task. When they have doubts or lack knowledge and information, they may ask for help. Teach students to set their own learning goals and devise plans to reach them. Goal setting includes things like what resources to use, how to gather information, what steps to take, the amount of time they will spend, the level of detail expected, and the order in which to

approach the steps of a task. 2. Performance: Volition (self-control) is a factor in performance. Students need to learn strategies that help them accomplish tasks, and they need to stay focused on using the strategies. Their strategies may include things such as making a list or outlining steps to be completed, taking notes, organizing information, recognizing information overload, and checking their understanding against that of peers. 3. Reflection: Regulate learning by reflecting on the process. Students can learn to reflect on their progress and decide whether they need to change their goals and plans or change their strategies to succeed. They can consider ways to keep from being distracted and ways to make the task more efficient. Mrs. Evans might model the phases of the cycle of self-regulated learning and ask students to look for examples they see in people around them – at home, at school, and in the community. Then she might coach the students to be intentional in practicing procedures of selfregulated learning. Throughout the year she might remind students of these selfregulatory skills and keep the phases posted in the classroom. Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will 30.

Suggested Response: Cassidy’s mom might teach her daughter to use cognitive behavior modification to become self-regulated about completing homework after school. The process involves self-talk and self-instruction for managing one’s own behavior. The mom needs to model the process by showing Cassidy how she uses self-talk to complete important tasks. She might use the example of planning meals for the week. She might say, “What meals will I prepare for dinner each school night? Do I have the items I need to make each meal? What groceries do I need to get on Saturday? What time do I need to start cooking each meal?” She might show Cassidy how she makes lists to help her regulate her actions and complete tasks on time. Next, Cassidy’s mom might roleplay the questions Cassidy could ask herself every day after school. “What homework do I have? Which task should I do first? I’ll make a list and check off everything before I play video games. If I finish before dinner, I can reward myself with game time.” Cassidy’s mom might ask Cassidy to make a list of the questions she’ll ask herself every day after school. Then she might follow up, checking with Cassidy after school the next day and periodically over the next few weeks. The mom might ask Cassidy how Cassidy thinks this procedure is working. Text Reference: Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning

31.

Suggested Response: Developing competence in social and emotional selfregulation is critical for both academic and personal development. Joe Don needs to learn coping strategies to contain his anger in social and learning situations. His anger is disrupting learning in the classroom and damaging relationships. The episodes on the playground also become barriers to learning in the classroom. Joe Don needs to work on all five of the core social and emotional skills: selfawareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. •

Don displays anger. This helps maintain a climate of trust and helps the other students feel safe in your classroom. •

You might build into your curriculum time for journal writing and encourage Joe Don and other students to express feelings and emotions in their writing. Teach them vocabulary to use to express their feelings of anger, delight, sadness, and happiness.

•

Talk specifically to Joe Don about his anger and the need to manage it. Help him recognize that others have emotions. Guide him to think about how his peer felt when Joe Don pushed her down and caused her pain. Find a story that addresses anger and other emotions and conduct an analysis of the feelings of the characters in the story.

•

Teach Joe Don to recognize his feelings of anger and stop and think before acting. Give him prompts for self-talk such as, “Stop and think.” Take him through the steps of walking away from a scene when he feels angry. Teach him to say to himself, “Get it together,” and diffuse or prevent emotional outbursts with centering practices.

•

Help Joe Don and other students recognize cultural differences in the way people show emotions in their families, among friends, and among peers at school. Teach Joe Don to notice how others react and how they feel.

Text Reference: Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will 32.

Suggested Response: Mr. LeBlanc has already taken an important step toward promoting self-regulated learning by designing complex, meaningful tasks that extend over a 3-week period. Additionally, he should allow students to have some control over their learning. He might offer choices in things such as the types of activities and products students do, the types of resources they use, and the media they use to demonstrate their learning. He needs to guide students to be good self-managers by using self-monitoring and self-instruction. Self-management skill instruction should emphasize listening (“Does this make sense?”), planning (What order do I do things?”), working (“Am I working fast enough?”), and checking (“What do I need to recheck?”). Mr. LeBlanc needs to involve students in the evaluation process. He might ask students to help design a rubric or checklist that specifies criteria for assessing their work and progress. Using the rubric or a checklist, students might take responsibility for monitoring and evaluating their own progress during the project. Mr. LeBlanc also needs to involve students in collaborative processes to promote selfregulation and co-regulation. This might take the form of working in collaborative groups. Mr. LeBlanc might begin by teaching students routines and procedures for participating, taking turns, and sharing tasks. He might teach students how to give and receive constructive feedback and how to interpret and respond to peers’ suggestions. After routines and patterns of interaction are established, students can focus on learning together. By incorporating these features in his plans, Mr. LeBlanc is well on his way to promoting self-regulated learning. Text Reference: Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning

Chapter 11 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 11.1 Distinguish between social learning theory and social cognitive theory, including an explanation of triadic reciprocal causality. Outcome 11.2 Discuss the roles of observation and modeling in learning, including factors that support learning by observation. Outcome 11.3 Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish these concepts from self-concept and self-esteem, explain the sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching. Outcome 11.4 Describe important components of self-regulated learning. Outcome 11.5 Apply your knowledge to teach for self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. Outcome 11.6 Explain the meaning and different applications of four basic theories of learning. [Q1] LO 11.3 “I know that my skills in English are great,” Chris declared to her brother. “I received a perfect score on the verbal part of the SAT, and I have always excelled in my literature classes.” Chris is demonstrating which of the following? 1. High self-esteem 2. High levels of empathy 3. High values 4. High self-efficacy in English [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Self-efficacy is a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. It includes beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. Chris has a sense of being competent in English, verbal skills, and literature. [Q2] LO 11.2 Modeling is defined as changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person (who serves as a model). Which theory and theorist are associated with learning through observation? 1. Social learning theory, Bandura [correct] 2. Behaviorist theory, Skinner 3. Constructivist theory, Piaget 4. Sociocultural theory, Vygotsky [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Albert Bandura’s social learning theory is a theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Over time, Bandura’s explanations of learning included more attention to cognitive (personal) factors such as expectations and beliefs in addition to the social influences of models. 38 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] LO 11.2 Ms. Brown wants Maurice to realize that he will be praised and not reprimanded if he enters the classroom, takes his seat, and begins working on the morning sponge activity. This morning, after all students except Maurice were seated, Ms. Brown complimented Maurice’s buddy Charlie for being seated and focusing on the sponge activity. What approach is Ms. Brown using to teach Maurice an appropriate behavior? 1. Direct reinforcement 2. Self-reinforcement 3. Vicarious reinforcement [correct] 4. Intermittent reinforcement [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Vicarious reinforcement involves increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior. Ms. Brown is increasing the chances that Maurice will copy Charlie’s behavior by reinforcing Charlie for his appropriate behavior. [Q4] LO 11.5 Teachers can do many things to help students develop self-management. Which of the following approaches most effectively promotes self-management and self-regulation? 1. Telling students how to complete a difficult assignment 2. Encouraging students to set their own goals and make plans accordingly [correct] 3. Providing prompts for students when they struggle with problem solving 4. Reinforcing students directly when they comply with rules [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] By encouraging students to set goals and make plans, teachers help students develop selfmanagement skills. Students can engage in four self-management skills to increase their learning: listening, planning, working, and checking. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 11.3 Case “Antonio. Look how well you did on your spelling test.” Mr. Bonner smiled at Antonio, who beamed in response. “I knew when we started to chart your progress you would really do well. You have had three perfect scores on the last three tests. It just goes to show, you studied every night for a few minutes, and your grade has gone up, up, up. I am looking at the chart we made at the beginning of the year, and I think it really helped.” “Mr. Bonner, I would like to do the same thing in math. I think if I practice every night and chart my progress, I will get perfect grades in math too. I will make a chart and pick out some math games I can play at home to improve.” How is Mr. Bonner encouraging Antonio’s self-efficacy?

[Feedback for Answer 5] Mr. Bonner is encouraging Antonio’ self-efficacy in the following ways: •

He is emphasizing his students’ achievements in a particular area.

•

He set learning goals for Antonio.

•

He made specific suggestions for improvement.

•

He stressed the connection between effort and accomplishment.

[Q6 Short Answer] LO 11.4 Case “Antonio. Look how well you did on your spelling test.” Mr. Bonner smiled at Antonio, who beamed in response. “I knew when we started to chart your progress you would really do well. You have had three perfect scores on the last three tests. It just goes to show, you studied every night for a few minutes, and your grade has gone up, up, up. I am looking at the chart we made at the beginning of the year, and I think it really helped.” “Mr. Bonner, I would like to do the same thing in math. I think if I practice every night and chart my progress, I will get perfect grades in math too. I will make a chart and pick out some math games I can play at home to improve.” How is Antonio’s response to Mr. Bonner an example of self-regulated learning? [Feedback for Answer 6] Antonio’s response to Mr. Bonner is an example of self-regulated learning because Antonio has taken what he has learned about how he can improve and applied it to another subject, math. He is suggesting that he chart his progress and study in the evening because it has worked well for him in spelling. Self-regulated learning involves analyzing learning tasks, setting goals, applying skills, and making adjustments about how learning is carried out.

Chapter 12 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 12: Motivation in Learning and Teaching Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 12: Motivation in Learning and Teaching Chapter 12 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 12.1. Define motivation and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, including four kinds of extrinsic motivation. [Q1] Which one of the following settings most likely represents intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation? 1. Fernando is showing his friends his baseball trophy. 2. Jerome is studying with a goal of making the highest score in science. 3. Dorinda is complimenting everyone she sees in order to get their vote for class president. 4. Martina is reading a chapter book by her favorite author. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Fernando seems to be motivated by the reward of impressing his friends and may have been motivated by the reward of winning the trophy. Actions associated with receiving a reward are extrinsically motivated. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Jerome is motivated by the reward of making the highest score in science. Working to receive a reward is extrinsic motivation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Dorinda’s actions are motivated by her desire to win a school election for class president. Her actions are extrinsically motivated. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Martina is most likely intrinsically motivated. She seems to be pursuing her personal interests and is not motivated by an external reward. Reading a book by her favorite author is probably satisfying to her. The activity itself is the reward. [Q2] Which one of the following students best exhibits extrinsic motivation? 1. David participates in the science fair because he loves science. 2. Antonio tells the truth because he knows he’ll be punished if he lies. [correct] 3. Bianca finishes her homework because it helps her learn. 4. Sonya does community service to help others. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] David’s motivation is associated with his personal interests—an intrinsic motive.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Antonio’s motivation is associated with avoiding punishment—an extrinsic motive. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Bianca is motivated by personal values—intrinsic motivation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sonya is motivated by personal values. Her reason for doing community service is internal. [Q3] Which theories of learning are most directly associated with extrinsic motivation? 1. Cognitive theories 2. Social cognitive theories 3. Behaviorist theories [correct] 4. Sociocultural theories [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Cognitive views stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency are central factors in motivation. These are more internal. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sociocultural views emphasize engaged participation and maintaining your identity within a community. These views are not directly externally motivated. [Q4] Liam has no interest in soccer and has no intention of learning new strategies, improving his skills, or helping his team win. What is his motivation? 1. Extrinsic 2. Amotivation [correct] 3. Intrinsic 4. Somewhat intrinsic and somewhat extrinsic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] If Liam were extrinsically motivated, he likely would be more interested in winning. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Sometimes students have no intention to act at all. Researchers have referred to this as amotivation—no engagement at all. 2 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If Liam were intrinsically motivated, he likely would want to improve his skills or learn new skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Liam doesn’t seem to be motivated by internal factors or external factors. [Q5] Ms. Whitten’s students were not interested in the unit about the Civil War until she offered extra credit for participating in a dramatic reenactment of specific battles. Now they are showing interest and actually trying to learn as they earn extra credit. What is the students’ motivation for participating? 1. Intrinsic motivation 2. Amotivation 3. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation [correct] 4. Extrinsic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students were not interested in the topic until Ms. Whitten offered extra credit for participating. This is not a simple case of intrinsic motivation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students appear to be motivated as they show interest and learn. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Students appear to participate out of interest in the extra credit (extrinsic motivation), and eventually, the actual learning (intrinsic motivation). [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students appear to participate out of interest in the extra credit (extrinsic motivation), but this is not their only motivation. Learning Outcome 12.2. Explain how learners’ needs—including the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence their motivation to learn. [Q1] Fourteen-year-old Jessica doesn’t feel loved and doesn’t feel safe while her parents are going through a divorce. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, love and safety are considered which of the following? 1. Trust needs 2. Deficiency needs [correct] 3. Being needs 4. Esteem needs [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Maslow didn’t have a category of needs that he described as “trust” needs. 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Deficiency needs include survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem. Maslow believed they are critical to physical and psychological well-being. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Being needs include the need to know and understand things, to appreciate beauty, and to become self-actualized. Jessica’s needs are more basic. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In Maslow’s hierarchy, self-esteem, love/belonging, and safety are separate levels, but all three are considered deficiency needs. [Q2] Kristi, a middle school student, wants to get a computer. She spends all of her spare time reading about technology and tinkering with computers in the school lab. Her parents have told her to wait until she’s in high school to get a job and earn money for her own computer. But Kristi has found ways to save money without a job. She skips lunch and goes hungry to save her lunch money. She packs snacks from home into her backpack and sells them to friends at school. How does Kristi’s situation fit into Maslow’s hierarchy? 1. Kristi’s situation proves Maslow’s idea that students must have their self-esteem needs met. 2. Kristi’s situation fits Maslow’s idea that students need to have their deficiency needs met. 3. Kristi’s situation does not fit Maslow’s theory. [correct] 4. Kristi’s situation proves that being needs are more important than deficiency needs. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Kristi’s situation proves that a person may be motivated to pursue being needs even when deficiency needs are not met. Kristi’s situation doesn’t seem to relate to self-esteem. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Kristi’s situation proves that a person may be motivated to pursue being needs even when deficiency needs are not met. In Kristi’s situation, she is working against meeting her deficiency needs. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Kristi is denying herself the basic need for food in order to pursue a desire that is higher on the hierarchy. Kristi’s situation defies Maslow’s hierarchy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Kristi’s situation proves that it is possible for a person to be motivated to pursue being needs even when deficiency needs are not met. Though Kristi is prioritizing being needs, deficiency needs must be met. [Q3] Luana plans to visit Ecuador some day because that is where her cousins live. When she gets to junior high school, she finally has a chance to take Spanish, a language she will need when she travels to South America. But she decides to enroll in French instead so that she can be

with her best friend. Based on this information, we can guess that Luana has a high need for which of the following? 1. A sense of belonging [correct] 2. Autonomy 3. Competence 4. Self-worth [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Luana places a high priority on being with her friend, suggesting a strong need to feel socially connected—a sense of belonging. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Luana has autonomy. She chooses the class she wants to take. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Need for competence is the individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Although Luana most likely wants to master French (or Spanish), a need for competence is not her primary motivation here. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] We see no evidence that Luana’s self-worth is low. Her decision to take French is related to a different need. [Q4] Mr. Rawlins is the faculty advisor a high school service club. He attends every meeting, and he regularly provides the support students need to carry out their activities. During group discussions, however, he typically sits in the back of the room and offers advice only if club members ask for it or if he thinks the club’s planned activities are in some way inappropriate. Mr. Rawlins’s approach most likely does which of the following? 1. Promote debilitating anxiety about club leadership 2. Decrease club members’ sense of competence 3. Enhance club members’ sense of self-determination [correct] 4. Reduce club members’ interest in public service [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Rawlins allows the students to exercise leadership. This should not promote anxiety. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Rawlins allows the students to exercise leadership and demonstrate their competence. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mr. Rawlins’s approach puts students in the decision-making role and shows that he has confidence in their ability to plan and carry out activities. This approach gives the students a sense of self-determination. The adult advisor is not controlling their actions and decisions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Increasing students’ control actually increases their intrinsic motivation. The students are more likely to have increased interest in their service activities rather than reduced interest. [Q5] In the classroom, teachers must decide what level of controlling behavior and controlling communication they use. What most likely happens to students’ intrinsic motivation when teachers use controlling behaviors and controlling language? 1. Intrinsic motivation most likely increases. 2. Intrinsic motivation is most likely unaffected. 3. Intrinsic motivation increases for some and decreases for others. 4. Intrinsic motivation most likely decreases. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students need autonomy and some sense of control. If the teacher increases control over students, their intrinsic motivation is not likely to increase. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students need autonomy and some sense of control. If the teacher increases control over students, their motivation will be affected. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students need autonomy and some sense of control. If the teacher increases control over students, their intrinsic motivation is not likely to increase. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students need autonomy and some sense of control. If the teacher increases control over students, their intrinsic motivation will most likely decrease. Learning Outcome 12.3. Describe the different kinds of goal orientations and examine their influences on motivation. [Q1] Noah is a senior in high school and has a number of goals. Which one of the following is the best example of a performance goal? 1. Wanting to major in information technology because that’s his area of highest interest 2. Making good grades so his transcript looks good to the college admissions committee [correct] 3. Taking classes in the summer to be ready for the job market sooner 4. Memorizing his new music quickly so he can spend time playing ball with friends [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A performance goal is focused on demonstration of ability to others and to oneself. This goal focuses on outcomes and benefits, rather than on simply “looking good.” Noah wants to major in information technology because it matches his interests, not because it will impress others. 6 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A performance goal is focused on demonstration of ability to others and to oneself, and students with performance goals may be concerned about how they appear to others. Noah’s emphasis on looking good to the college admissions committee is a performance goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A performance goal is focused on demonstration of ability to others and to oneself. This goal focuses on outcomes and benefits, rather than on simply “looking good.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A performance goal is focused on demonstration of ability to others and to oneself. This goal focuses on outcomes and benefits. Noah sets a goal that offers him a specific benefit. [Q2] Mr. Thomas volunteers to mentor at-risk children at his local high school every Friday afternoon. When asked by a local reporter why he is giving up an afternoon of pay each week to work with teenagers, he responds, “I want to make a difference in someone’s life. Maybe if they can see that I am successful, and I can show them a way out (of the ghetto), then I will have paid it forward.” Which one of the following concepts best characterizes Mr. Thomas’s motivation in this situation? 1. Feeling a need for self-determination 2. Working from high extrinsic motivation 3. Working toward a social goal [correct] 4. Sensing a need for autonomy [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Thomas appears to be volunteering at the school of his own free will, and so he probably has a sense of self-determination. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Thomas appears to be intrinsically motivated to work at the high school. There is no evidence here that such work will have payoffs aside from intrinsic satisfaction about possibly making a difference in other people’s lives. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Social goals take many forms; in some cases, they involve contributing to the welfare of others. Mr. Thomas volunteers to contribute to the welfare of at-risk children. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Thomas clearly has autonomy. He chooses to work with at-risk children. No one makes the decision for him or forces him. [Q3] Ms. Brady teaches algebra in middle school. She wants her students to set mastery goals in math. Which of the following should she do? 1. Create assignments that are easy for her students and ensure their success

2. Create challenging tasks that focus on learning a specific skill in a short period of time [correct] 3. Avoid giving specific feedback. It might discourage struggling students and lead to frustration 4. Create tasks that are challenging and offer incentives for achieving top scores [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Learning tasks should not be too easy or too difficult. Moderate challenges help students work toward mastery goals. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Students are more likely to work toward clear, specific goals that are attainable within a relatively short period of time. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students need specific, accurate feedback to achieve mastery. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This action encourages students to set performance goals, not mastery goals. [Q4] Ms. Brady teaches algebra in middle school. She wants to enhance students’ self-efficacy and encourage them to persist with difficult tasks as they pursue mastery goals. Which of the following teaching approaches is most likely to help her achieve her goal? 1. Give feedback that compares a student’s work to the work of peers 2. Give feedback that highlights how far the student is from reaching mastery goals 3. Avoid giving feedback to students about their progress 4. Give feedback that highlights the student’s progress [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Comparing a student’s work to that of peers does not promote mastery or enhance self-efficacy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Feedback that highlights deficits is discouraging and does not enhance self-efficacy or encourage persistence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The right kind of feedback helps students reach mastery goals and enhances students’ selfefficacy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When feedback is designed to highlight progress (e.g., “You are 25% of the way to accomplishing your goal!”) rather than deficits (“You still have 75% of your goal left to complete!”), students’ self-efficacy and perseverance are enhanced.

[Q5] Mr. Jones is a basketball coach and a social studies teacher in a small high school. He uses the following strategies. Which one is most likely to encourage students to adopt performance goals in his social studies classes? 1. Students help one another as they work to complete a complex class project 2. Students work in groups to create posters about their current topic of study 3. Students compete to see who can get the most points in their mock game show [correct] 4. Students work independently to improve their grasp of the unit concepts [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] As students help one another, their goal is mastery, not performance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Working in groups, students are creating posters about the current topic. This seems more mastery oriented than performance oriented. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In a highly competitive classroom environment, students are more likely to adopt performance goals. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students are working toward mastery-oriented goals as they try to improve their grasp of concepts. Learning Outcome 12.4. Discuss how students’ beliefs about expectations for success, value of the task, and costs can influence motivation. [Q1] Kayla hasn’t prepared well for the persuasive speech she is giving tomorrow, but she believes she will make a good grade. She knows her teacher likes her and always gives her high scores on her delivery of speeches. In this scenario, Kayla is high in which of the following? 1. Self-efficacy 2. Academic self-concept 3. Expectancy for success [correct] 4. Self-efficacy and academic self-concept [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Kayla’s self-efficacy may not be high. She expects to make high scores on her delivery, but she attributes her past successes to her teacher’s opinion of her skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Kayla may not feel particularly competent in this situation. Her academic self-concept may not be high. She expects to make high scores on her delivery, but she attributes her past successes to her teacher’s opinion of her skills. She anticipates making high scores on her delivery tomorrow because her teacher likes her. 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Kayla is high in expectancy for success. She believes she will make high scores on her delivery. She attributes this success to her teacher’s opinion of her skills. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Kayla may not be high in self-efficacy or academic self-concept. She anticipates making high scores on her delivery tomorrow because her teacher likes her. [Q2] Brody has a personal goal of being viewed as one of the most skilled athletes in his middle school. He participates in football in the fall and baseball in the spring. He always makes it to practice and even puts in extra practice at home with his friends and his dad. Brody’s level of commitment to athletics is most closely tied to which of the following? 1. The attainment value of the task [correct] 2. The utility value of the task 3. The intrinsic value or enjoyment of the task 4. Both utility and intrinsic value of the task [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Brody’s level of commitment seems to be most closely tied to attainment value. Brody wants to be viewed as one of the most skilled athletes in his school. He puts forth extra effort to attain this goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Utility value is the usefulness of a task. Brody has a personal goal, and his efforts are tied to the value of that personal goal. His values are more closely tied to a different value. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Brody has a personal goal and bases his commitment on that personal goal. His level of commitment is more closely tied to a different value. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Brody has a personal goal and bases his commitment on that personal goal. His level of commitment is tied to a different value. [Q3] Athena likes to sing and is excited when she is invited to a karaoke party. Athena asks who else will be coming and quickly begins to lose some of her excitement. She feels very uncomfortable around the most popular students at school and fears what her clique will think of her if she parties with the popular clique. Athena’s concerns are most closely related to which of the following? 1. Emotional cost 2. Effort cost 3. Social cost [correct] 4. Sunk cost 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Emotional cost focuses on emotions like the risks of failure. Athena is not concerned about failure. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Effort cost focuses on the amount of effort required for the task. Athena is not concerned about the amount of effort or energy involved in participating in the party. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Social cost focuses on what others will think. Athena is most concerned about what her friends in her clique will think about her participation in the party with a different clique. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Sunk cost focuses on how much energy has been expended already. Athena is not concerned about the energy she has expended. She has a different concern. [Q4] Jayce is enrolled in an honors section of American history, which is his only honors class. Honors classes carry bonus points toward overall GPA (e.g., an A is worth 4.5 instead of 4.0), but honors classes have a higher workload than the comparable (non-honors) classes in the same content area. Jayce tells his dad, “This class makes me miss out on other things I care about.” His statement most clearly indicates which of the following? 1. Jayce thinks the intrinsic value of the class is too low 2. Jayce thinks the utility value of the class is too low 3. Jayce thinks the attainment value of the class is too high 4. Jayce thinks the cost of the class is too high [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Intrinsic value is not the big concern. Jayce doesn’t want to miss out on other things he cares about. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The class has high utility value for Jayce, but he expresses a different concern. Jayce doesn’t want to miss out on other things he cares about. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Attainment value is the importance of doing well on a task. If the attainment value were very high, Jayce would not mind missing out on other things to take the honors class. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The cost of a task refers to what has to be sacrificed in the pursuit of the task. In this case, Jayce doesn’t like sacrificing other valued activities. [Q5] Valeria is a student in Mr. Westin’s fourth-grade class. Mr. Westin believes Valeria can learn to read at grade level by the second semester of fourth grade, though she reads at a secondgrade level now. Valeria’s self-efficacy for making that much improvement is very low, because 11 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

she has faced significant obstacles in the past. Valeria’s motivation first depends on which of the following? 1. The amount of effort involved 2. Her value in the task 3. Her belief that she can succeed [correct] 4. Her teacher’s belief in her ability [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Valeria’s motivation first depends on another factor. The amount of effort may be a consideration later. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Valeria’s motivation first depends on another factor. We don’t have an indication of how much she values the task. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Valeria’s motivation first depends on her belief in her ability to succeed. Students must first believe that they can succeed before they will value a task, but it takes both expecting to succeed and valuing a task to maintain a high level of performance and persistence. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Westin’s belief in Valeria’s ability to succeed is important, but Valeria’s motivation first depends on a different factor. Learning Outcome 12.5. Discuss how students’ beliefs and attributions about school experiences and their ability mindsets can influence motivation. [Q1] Which of the following students attributes success to internal factors? 1. Emiliano says good coaching is the reason he and his team won the trophy. 2. Arya realizes her hard work made the difference in her high grade. [correct] 3. Gemma believes her success in the spelling bee was sheer luck. 4. Adam says his partner’s talent helped them win the tennis competition. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Attributing success to another person is an external attribution. Emiliano attributes success to good coaching. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] By attributing success to her own hard work, Arya believes internal factors caused her success. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Attributing success to luck is an external attribution. Gemma doesn’t give credit to her own efforts or her own talent.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Attributing success to another person is an external attribution. Adam attributes success to his partner’s talent. [Q2] Which one of the following students is attributing success or failure on a geology test to an internal source and thinks the cause is unstable and controllable? 1. Kara said she failed the test because it was too difficult. 2. Emily said she did well on her test because she is smart in science. 3. Brenden said he studied hard, but he failed because he is just not good in geology. 4. Duncan said he did well on the test because he studied hard. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Kara attributes failure to a difficult test (external cause). [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Emily attributed her success on the test to her intelligence (internal cause). She implies that her intelligence is a stable factor that she can control. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Brenden attributes failure to lack of ability (stable cause). He implies that success is beyond his control (uncontrollable). [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Duncan believes his study (internal source) brought his success. Study is a controllable cause. Doing well this time because he studied means he believes his success is unstable—it can change over time if he does not study. [Q3] Which of the following students has a fixed mindset? 1. Cole believes his efforts and his intelligence help him succeed. 2. Rachel believes that the harder she works at math the smarter she becomes. 3. DeShawn believes he isn’t smart enough to pass and he can’t help it. [correct] 4. Cammie believes she will always make average grades because she doesn’t care about school. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with a fixed mindset don’t recognize that their efforts help them succeed. Cole has a growth mindset. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Rachel has a growth mindset. She believe her hard work makes a difference.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] DeShawn exhibits a fixed mindset. He doesn’t believe he’s smart enough, and he doesn’t believe he can do anything about it. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Cammie seems to believe she has some control over her grades. She will make average grades because she doesn’t care. This is not a fixed mindset. [Q4] Ms. Preston teaches the following students: 1. Beau claims he doesn’t care about his grade and doesn’t do his homework. 2. Amir procrastinates and says his low grade is not bad considering how little he studied. 3. Damian sets low expectations for himself and isn’t surprised when he fails. Which student or students exhibit self-handicapping strategies in their approaches to learning in Ms. Preston’s class? 1. Beau 2. Amir 3. Damian and Beau 4. All of these students exhibit self-handicapping strategies [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Beau exhibits self-handicapping strategies by claiming not to care and not doing his homework. He is not the only student who exhibits self-handicapping strategies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Amir exhibits self-handicapping strategies by procrastinating, but he is not the only student who exhibits self-handicapping strategies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Damian and Beau exhibit self-handicapping strategies, but they are not the only students who set up roadblocks and use self-defeating excuses. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] All three of these students exhibit self-handicapping strategies. They set up roadblocks and use self-defeating excuses. [Q5] Ms. Preston teaches students with varying abilities and varying levels of commitment to learning. If she wants to encourage a growth mindset, which of the following statements might she use? 1. Your work on this project is subpar and you can do better. 2. You may not be smart in math, but you should give your best effort. 3. You didn’t succeed, and you didn’t use the strategies we discussed.

4. You succeeded on this problem, and that proves you are capable. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] If Ms. Preston criticizes the student rather than giving constructive feedback, the student is likely to maintain a fixed mindset. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If Ms. Preston concedes that the student isn’t smart in math, the student is likely to maintain a fixed mindset. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If Ms. Preston criticizes the student rather than giving constructive feedback, the student is likely to maintain a fixed mindset. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ms. Preston helps the student experience success and build on the success. This encourages a growth mindset by helping the student believe he or she is capable. Learning Outcome 12.6. Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, emotions, and anxiety in motivation. [Q1] Which one of the following students exhibits individual interest rather than situational interest? 1. Trent is wrapped up in the new adventure novel he began reading during free time. 2. Andre can’t wait to see what’s in the big box his teacher brought to school. 3. Victoria loves ballet and wants to become a ballerina when she grows up. [correct] 4. Jenna is fascinated by the experiment she is doing in the chemistry lab. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Trent has situational interest in a novel. His interest is not a sustained, long-lasting personal interest. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Andre has situational interest in the box. His interest is not a sustained, long-lasting personal interest. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Victoria has a long-lasting interest that she maintains over time—a personal interest. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Jenna exhibits situational interest that arises from the fascinating lab experiment she’s doing. [Q2] Which teacher allows fun to get in the way of learning? 1. Ms. Hershey shows pictures of her visit to the Tower of London as she talks about the 16th and 17th centuries in English history.

2. Mr. Cook includes elaborate details about the exotic habits and lavish tastes of French monarchs as he lectures about French history. [correct] 3. Mr. Sims tells students to bring a favorite photo or small souvenir to use as a story starter for their written and oral presentations. 4. Ms. Constantine invites a wind turbine cowboy to answer students’ questions about wind and share scientific information about wind energy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This teacher supports instruction with relevant personal experiences that enlighten students about the historical site and events. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Mr. Cook’s irrelevant details get in the way of learning the relevant information. While students focus on the seductive details, they miss the overall picture of the French people, the rulers, and key issues of the time period. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This teacher supports learning by relating content objectives to students’ experiences. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This teacher creates surprise and curiosity by bringing an expert to answer questions and provide relevant information about the science unit on wind. [Q3] Ms. Bronson notices that several of her students seem to have test and performance anxiety. Whenever they are evaluated, these students get upset or perform poorly because of nerves. To keep students’ anxiety at a facilitative level, Ms. Bronson should do which of the following? 1. Criticize students’ ineffective study skills 2. Evaluate students’ performance based on explicit, predetermined criteria [correct] 3. Evaluate students’ performance in vague, general terms 4. Avoid extra practice after students learn a new skill [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This strategy is unlikely to keep students’ anxiety at a facilitative level. Criticism has a negative impact on students’ self-efficacy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This strategy is likely to keep students’ anxiety at a facilitative level. Students know exactly what is expected [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This strategy is unlikely to keep students’ anxiety at a facilitative level. Evaluation is often a source of anxiety for students, but they can handle evaluative feedback more effectively if they know specifically what they are doing well and poorly, in part because such feedback enables them to improve their performance in the future.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The extra practice might keep students’ anxiety at a facilitative level. [Q4] Finn was reading his physics chapter and drawing up plans for his experiment with intense interest and enjoyment. He became so engrossed that he didn’t realize his class was dismissed until his friend closed Finn’s physics book and laughed. Finn was experiencing which of the following? 1. Deactivation 2. Cold cognition 3. Flow [correct] 4. Fixed mindset [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Finn is activated as he reads his chapter and draws up plans. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Finn is reading with emotion. Cold cognition doesn’t involve emotion. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Flow is a mental state in which one is fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Finn is experiencing flow as he reads and plans with intense interest and becomes engrossed in his work. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Finn is reading with intense interest. We don’t know his mindset, but his intense interest may indicate that he has a growth mindset. [Q5] Ms. Brokaw is demonstrating a complex technique for identifying the impurities in pond water. Her students watch the demonstration with varying emotions as they anticipate using the technique during an upcoming project. According to Pekrun’s taxonomy of achievement emotions, which of the following students exhibits deactivating emotions during the demonstration? 1. Dean is relaxed as he watches [correct] 2. Reggie enjoys the demonstration 3. Lauren is angry as she watches 4. Andrea is frustrated as she watches [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Relaxed emotions are among the emotions that deactivate the physiological system. Relaxed emotions during activities are positive, but they are deactivating.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Enjoying the demonstration is activating in a positive way. Activating emotions may be positive/pleasant or negative/unpleasant. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Emotions of anger are activating. Anger is negative, yet it is activating. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Emotions of frustration are activating. Frustration is negative, yet it is activating. Learning Outcome 12.7. Explain how teachers can influence and encourage students’ motivation to learn. [Q1] The following teachers use different approaches when they assign academic tasks. These teachers want to encourage students’ motivation to learn. In which class are students likely to be UNMOTIVATED? 1. Mr. Perez asks students to get into pairs and take turns spelling the words and making sentences or writing a story with the words. 2. Ms. Armstrong tells her students they must first write each spelling word ten times and then write one complete sentence using each word. [correct] 3. Ms. Lindell gives students a checklist to use in evaluating the quality of the sentences they write with their spelling words. 4. Mr. O’Dell asks each student to come up with one extra spelling word they encounter in their reading that they want to learn to spell. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Perez allows students to work together to complete their tasks with spelling words. Allowing students to interact is likely to increase motivation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ms. Armstrong gives the students the boring task of writing each word ten times and gives them no autonomy in choosing the order in which they complete the two tasks. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Lindell gives students concrete criteria with which they can evaluate the quality of their own writing. Self-evaluation procedures tend to increase motivation. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. O’Dell gives students autonomy to come up with an extra word. Allowing students to make choices and set goals improves motivation, especially intrinsic motivation. [Q2] Which of the following tasks is an authentic task? 1. Students use a number line to learn to add numbers in the first grade. 2. Students memorize the definitions of terms related to their science unit. 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Students develop skits to demonstrate conflict resolution in high school. [correct] 4. Students complete drills over spelling words they learned earlier in the year. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An authentic task has some connection to the real-life problems and situations that students will face outside the classroom. The number line is a good tool for learning to add, but the task is not an authentic task. It does not tie real-world problem solving to an academic task. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] An authentic task has some connection to the real-life problems and situations that students will face outside the classroom. Asking students to memorize definitions is not authentic. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] An authentic task has some connection to the real-life problems and situations that students will face outside the classroom. Skits that demonstrate the resolution of conflict are tied to realworld problem solving. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An authentic task has some connection to the real-life problems and situations that students will face outside the classroom. Assigning drills over spelling words students learned earlier is not authentic. [Q3] Which of the following activities supports autonomy? 1. Assign roles for students to carry out in their cooperative groups 2. Pair students and ask them to practice the conversations they memorized in French 3. Give students a strategy for outlining the chapter and ask them to practice using it 4. Provide a list of debate topics and ask students to choose one that interests them [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers support autonomy by providing choices and allowing students to make their own decisions. When the teacher assigns roles, the students don’t have choices. The task doesn’t support autonomy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers support autonomy by providing choices and allowing students to make their own decisions. Pairing students and telling them what to practice does not support autonomy. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teachers support autonomy by providing choices and allowing students to make their own decisions. Giving students a strategy to practice does not support autonomy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teachers support autonomy by providing choices and allowing students to make their own decisions. An activity that involves providing a list of topics and allowing students to choose on the basis of their interests supports autonomy.

[Q4] Mr. Meyers wants to build confidence and positive expectations in his students. To meet his goal, he should encourage students to compare their work to which of the following? 1. The work of students who perform at a higher level 2. Their own previous level of work (self-comparison) [correct] 3. The work of students who perform at a lower level 4. The work of other students at their level [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When students compare their work to the work of students who perform at a higher level, they are likely to feel discouraged. Mr. Meyers wants to build confidence and positive expectations in his students. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Teachers should emphasize self-comparison, not comparison with others. Students build confidence by focusing on their own work, seeing the progress they have made, and learning to correct their errors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students need to focus on their own level of work rather than making comparisons to the work of students who perform at a lower level. Mr. Meyers wants to build confidence and positive expectations in his students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Meyers wants to build confidence and positive expectations in his students. They need to focus on their own level of work rather than making comparisons to the work of other students. [Q5] Which of the following structures supports progress and helps students succeed? 1. Emphasize grades; remind students of the connection between grades and success 2. Simplify tasks and eliminate risks and possibilities of failure 3. Provide many opportunities for students to demonstrate skills [correct] 4. Grade on the curve to increase competition for grades [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] De-emphasizing grades supports progress. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Oversimplifying tasks to eliminate risks and possibilities of failure doesn’t support progress. Teachers should reduce the task risk without oversimplifying. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Teachers should give students frequent opportunities to respond through questions and answers, short assignments, or demonstrations of skills. These opportunities provide evidence

of levels of understanding and allow teachers to help students correct misunderstandings early in the learning process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers should avoid emphasizing competition. Such structures make students feel anxious; they don’t support progress.

Chapter 12 Application Exercises Application Exercise 12.1 Learning Outcome 12.2. Explain how learners’ needs—including the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence their motivation to learn. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 12.3 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/PG101_Week7_Seg ment2_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.3 to answer the following question: What does Ms. Kersten do that most likely satisfies these students’ need for relatedness (belonging) in this classroom? Come up with at least five items. [Q1 Model Response] •

Ms. Kersten talks to her students and shows that she respects them.

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She asks questions that relate to them as individuals and gets students to respond and selfdisclose.

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She compliments them and reinforces their ideas. She accepts them without judging.

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She shares humor and acts like she enjoys being their teacher.

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She talks about the class as “our class” and creates a sense of community.

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She creates tasks that include peer discussions. Students have opportunities to share with peers and relate to peers.

[Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.3 to answer the following question: To what extent do the events in Ms. Kersten’s classroom provide a need-supportive (rather than a need-thwarting) environment? Explain. [Q2 Model Response] Ms. Kersten’s classroom is a need-supportive environment. According to self-determination theorists, classroom events have two aspects: controlling and informational. If an event is highly controlling—if it pressures students to act or feel a certain way—then students will experience less control, and their intrinsic motivation will be diminished. If, on the other hand, the event provides information at the appropriate level and without coercion, this can increase students’ sense of competence and intrinsic motivation. Ms. Kersten provides information in a noncontrolling manner. She solicits and appreciates students’ ideas, an aspect of the event that helps students feel that their needs for competence and autonomy are being met. She provides opportunities for students to work together, share ideas, and recognize things they have in common. These aspects of the learning event support students’ need for relatedness.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.3 to answer the following question: How might these students’ sense of self-determination be affected if Ms. Kersten created a controlling environment in her classroom? Justify your answer. [Q3 Model Response] Students’ motivation would likely decline. Students would have less autonomy. Controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote recall tasks. Students would likely be less interested in the subject, less creative in their reflections and projections, less involved in the activities, and less likely to participate. They would not be as willing to answer questions and self-disclose. They would be more likely to engage minimally and become bored. Their motivation would likely be extrinsic—trying to make the highest grade possible without putting out great effort. Application Exercise 12.2: Mastery Goals Learning Outcome 12.3. Describe the different kinds of goal orientations and examine their influences on motivation. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 12.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationalpsychology/chappuis/4_2_SelfAssessment_and_Goal_Setting_with_Test_Corrections_rs.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.4 to answer the following question: Provide evidence that students in Ms. McDaniel’s AP calculus class set mastery goals. [Q1 Model Response] The students want to master the skills in AP calculus. They are not just biding time or working toward a performance goal. They make statements like, “I have an opportunity to do better and actually learn from it.” [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.4 to answer the following question: Explain how Ms. McDaniel’s use of test corrections encourages mastery goals over performance goals? [Q2 Model Response] With test corrections, students reflect on their mistakes, describe what they did wrong, and actually learn the correct way to solve problems they missed. Mastery learning is more important than the test grade, though students can raise their grades by completing test corrections.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.4 to answer the following question: What goal structure or structures are used when students receive their graded tests and complete their test corrections? [Q3 Model Response] The goal structure is both cooperative and individualistic. The test correction activity is cooperative in that students discuss their mistakes and corrections with peers. They learn from one another. The structure is individualistic in that students recognize they must want to learn enough to go through the week-long process of completing the test corrections. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.4 to answer the following question: For many students who receive their graded tests, the feedback highlights deficits rather than progress—a process that typically reduces self-efficacy and perseverance. What happens in Ms. McDaniel’s class to enhance self-efficacy and perseverance after highlighting deficits? [Q4 Model Response] Students in Ms. McDaniel’s class know how to deal with the deficits. Their teacher implements a system of recovery through the test correction process. Students know their perseverance will pay off when they complete their test corrections. The payoff comes in the form of additional learning and a higher grade…and self-efficacy restored. Application Exercise 12.3: Role of Anxiety in Motivation Learning Outcome 12.6. Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, emotions, and anxiety in motivation. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 12.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/PG104_Week4_Seg ment4_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.6 to answer the following question: Why do you think Mr. Scherrer creates a problem that relates to creating a play area for a puppy rather than asking students to create a generic rectangle? [Q1 Model Response] Mr. Scherrer is tapping into students’ interests by building the concept lesson around creating a play area for a puppy. He wants the problem to seem authentic and relevant and hold students’ interest. For some students, this idea of building a fence for a puppy increases their motivation to engage in the task.

[Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.6 to answer the following question: Some students develop anxiety about math, and their anxiety affects their motivation and their performance. What strategies does Mr. Scherrer use in this lesson that are likely to reduce students’ anxiety? [Q2 Model Response] •

Mr. Scherrer begins with a review of terms. He asks students to recall what they know about rectangles. By tapping into prior knowledge in an intentional way, he prepares students to feel competent about starting this lesson.

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He does not use a competitive task structure. Competition tends to increase anxiety. Instead, Mr. Scherrer uses a cooperative structure and encourages students to learn from one another.

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Mr. Scherrer makes sure students understand the task. He gives students a copy of the task, asks one student to read the task, repeats the task himself, and asks students to describe the task in their own words.

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He gives students familiar time constraints with the 5, 10, 15 strategy. Students work by themselves for 5 minutes, work with their group for 10 minutes, and then discuss it as a whole class for 15 minutes. Students know they have opportunities to ask questions and get clarification and guidance from two teachers who are monitoring students’ progress.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 12.6 to answer the following question: Based on Pekrun’s taxonomy of achievement emotions, what are the activation level and the emotional valence of Mr. Scherrer’s students during this activity? Explain. [Q3 Model Response] The activation level seems to be activating—students are enjoying the task. The emotional valence seems to be positive and pleasant. Students are actively engaged and working together productively without signs of anxiety.

Chapter 12 Test Items Chapter 12 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 12.1: Define motivation and contrast intrinsic and Multiple Choice: 1-5 extrinsic motivation, including four kinds of extrinsic motivation. Essay: 31 Objective 12.2: Explain how learners’ needs—including the Multiple Choice: 6-11 needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence Essay: 32 their motivation to learn. Objective 12.3: Describe the different kinds of goal orientations Multiple Choice: 12-15 and examine their influences on motivation. Essay: 33 Objective 12.4: Discuss how students’ beliefs about Multiple Choice: 16-17 expectations for success, value of the task, and costs can Essay: 34 influence motivation. Objective 12.5: Discuss how students’ beliefs and attributions Multiple Choice: 18-20 about school experiences and their ability mindsets can Essay: 35 influence motivation. Objective 12.6:

Multiple Choice: 21-24 Essay: 36

Objective 12.6: Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, Multiple Choice: 25-28 emotions, and anxiety in motivation. Essay: 37 Objective 12.7: Explain how teachers can influence and Multiple Choice: 29-30 encourage students’ motivation to learn.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following students appears to be intrinsically motivated? a. Marty likes to watch her cousin go parasailing but is afraid to go up with him. After much persuasion, she agrees to try it once to please her cousin. b. Alfonso studies for the spelling bee every night and wants to win the trophy to make his dad proud of him. c. Shonda takes her mystery book to all of her classes and reads a few more pages whenever she gets a chance. d. Len competes with his best friend to make the highest grade in algebra class. 2. Braden is worried about the grade he’ll receive on his essay. Mr. Tompkins encourages him not to worry about his grade. He tells Braden to focus on learning from his past mistakes and improving his writing on the essay. Mr. Tompkins is encouraging which type of motivation? a. Amotivation b. Intrinsic c. Externalized 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Extrinsic 3. Ms. Zabek encourages her first graders to complete their reading assignment before lunch in order to receive a sticker. Which view of motivation influences her approach to the assignment? a. Sociocultural view b. Cognitive view c. Social cognitive view d. Behavioral view 4. Which student’s behavior appears to be motivated by internal locus of causality? a. Karla spends extra time in the lab in order to gain the attention of the lab assistant. b. Evan practices at the batting cage every day with the goal of being named most valuable player. c. Annie wants to play the piece flawlessly and enjoy the sound she creates with the piano. d. Dylan completes his homework as soon as he gets home from school in order to get privileges from his parents. 5. Camila mowed the lawn to get paid and to avoid punishment. What kind of motivation does Camila exhibit? a. Extrinsic b. Intrinsic c. Both extrinsic and intrinsic d. Amotivation 6. In Maslow’s hierarchy, what are the deficiency needs? a. Belonging, survival, self-esteem, self-actualization b. Survival, cognitive, belonging c. Survival, safety, belonging, self-esteem d. Belonging, mastery, safety 7. Eight-year-old Miguel moved to a new school around Thanksgiving. He is shy in class and has not made any friends by Valentine’s Day. What unmet need is likely interfering with his learning? a. Autonomy b. Relatedness c. Competence d. Safety 8. Think about students’ needs in the classroom. Based on studies about classroom environments that support student self-determination, which of the following high school teachers is most likely to have students with greater conceptual learning and higher school attendance?

a. Mr. Delaney weaves personal experience stories into every lecture. Even if the stories are not relevant, they are entertaining. b. Mrs. Mason expects her students to be in their seats with their books open when the bell rings every day. c. Ms. Romine gives clear instructions and plenty of advance notice for the book report students will present to the class next week. d. Mr. Andrus allows his students to choose among three types of projects they will do as a culminating activity in the history unit. 9. According to self-determination theorists, which of the following classroom events is most likely to increase students’ intrinsic motivation to learn? a. Mrs. Hebert tells students they will receive demerits for talking during guided reading time. b. Mr. Pace repeats the assignment about students’ reports and warns them they will be penalized for late work. c. Ms. Carlson presents valuable guidelines for science fair projects and suggests that students record the information for their benefit. d. Mr. Dixon informs students of guidelines for the essay and checks to make sure they all copy the guidelines into their notebooks. 10. Ms. Strauss made the decision to delay the class field trip. Students verbalized their frustration and disappointment. Which teacher response supports student self-determination and autonomy? a. I am the teacher, and it is my responsibility to make decisions that are best for you. b. Delaying the field trip is a big decision and should be made by the teacher. c. I recognize your frustration with my decision to delay the field trip. d. You are allowed to make a lot of decisions, but this is a teacher decision. 11. Sanya spent hours preparing her presentation for Tuesday’s assignment in speech class. When she gave her speech to her group, she failed to make eye contact with her audience, and she fidgeted with her hair. She had reminded herself to make eye contact and avoid fidgeting but lost points for failing to follow through during her presentation. She had the same problem with previous speeches. What basic need is not being met? a. Competence b. Autonomy c. Belonging d. Self-actualization 12. Which type of goal is most likely to enhance motivation and persistence? a. Goals that are easy and unchallenging b. Goals that are difficult and may be unattainable c. Goals that are specific and moderately difficult d. Goals that are vague and easily altered

13. Kai’s goal for her history assignment is to learn as much as she can about Navajo Indian culture by reading books and Internet sources and then visiting the reservation near her hometown in New Mexico. Kai’s goal orientation for this assignment is: a. social. b. performance approach. c. mastery. d. performance avoidance. 14. Which of the following students appears to demonstrate performance-avoidance goals? a. Deon skimmed the first page and decided on a comment he could make during group discussions tomorrow. He doesn’t want to read the material, but he also doesn’t want to look stupid in his group. b. Lanea works the problems as quickly as she can. She wants to be the first student to complete the assignment in math. c. Deloris struggled with one of the science questions. She read and re-read the section of the chapter to understand the concept. She’s a perfectionist and wants to get it right. d. Ron is taking French and got into a study group with two of his friends. They both do well in every subject, and he thinks they’re cool. He likes to hang out and have fun stumbling over French pronunciations. 15. The following teachers all assigned essay writing in their middle school English classes. Today they returned the second draft of students’ papers. Based on the following information, which of these teachers is most likely to have students who are motivated to set and pursue learning goals in the classroom? a. Mr. Angelo returned the papers and complimented students on their essays. He said the class as a whole is submitting good work. b. Mrs. Dominguez returned the essays and told the class they needed to write another draft. She said she knew they could do better work. c. Mr. Lindsey returned students’ essays and said they lacked interest. He reminded students of the standard and said the essays fell short of his expectations. d. Ms. Compton returned the essays and asked students to compare this draft with their first draft to see how much progress they had made. 16. Dominique knows he can run faster than all the other students in his class. He’s raced them many times, and beating them in running means nothing to him. When his buddies line up to race during recess, they beg Dominique to join them. What is Dominique’s level of motivation for running this race? a. Medium b. Zero c. High d. Very high 17. Riley is weighing her options for the weekend. She has a project due on Monday in French class and wants to present a topnotch product. She has an invitation to an out-of-town event with friends. She wants to go and knows her friends will be disappointed if she declines, but 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

she wouldn’t return until late Saturday night. She has time-consuming reading to do for her literature class, and she never goes to class unprepared. If she goes with friends, she will disappoint herself and settle for lower quality on her French project; she will disappoint herself and go unprepared for literature discussion. If she doesn’t go with friends, she will disappoint them. What part of the motivation equation is Riley weighing? a. Expectancy b. Performance c. Work avoidance d. Cost 18. In which of the following situations is success attributed to stable causes? a. Success attributed to hours of practice b. Success attributed to inherited intelligence c. Success attributed to having a good coach d. Success attributed to a partner’s help 19. Jana practiced her lines for the play and watched movies in which gifted actors portrayed characters similar to her character in the high school play. After her performance, her teacher and other adults and students told her she gave a stellar performance. She said she worked really hard to develop the character’s wacky disposition. She attributed her success to: a. external causes b. stable causes c. uncontrollable causes d. internal causes 20. Judging from their personal attributions of their success or failure, which student is most likely to be motivated to choose more difficult academic tasks in the future? a. Alexus believes her mistake in the chemistry lab was caused by her lack of preparation. b. Duke said he didn’t study for the algebra test. He said he’s just good at math. c. Camille said she made the highest grade because she was lucky enough to get the easier version of the test. d. Stan thinks he failed the literature test because he is not capable of understanding poetry. 21. Which of the following students views ability as a controllable cause of success or failure? a. Kiara is trying different strategies for learning her vocabulary words. She is sure she will find a strategy that works for her. b. Devon knows his dad did well in math when he was a student, but Devon believes he got his mom’s genes and can’t do as well as his dad. c. Staci makes good grades in literature, but she doesn’t understand science. She knows there’s nothing she can do to make high grades in science.

d. Colin’s teacher asked him if he wanted to use the tutorial on the computer. He said it wouldn’t help and that he doesn’t have a mind for math. 22. Mr. Darnell walks around the classroom monitoring students as they work on the new skill of adding fractions. He stops at Ada’s desk and praises her effort and persistence. Ada has been struggling to understand fractions but is using the manipulatives to try to get the right answers. Her answer is wrong, but her explanation of her process is on target. Why does Mr. Darnell praise Ada even though her answer is wrong? a. He views intelligence as stable. b. He exhibits a fixed mindset. c. He exhibits a growth mindset. d. He believes the ability to learn is innate. 23. Brenden is a student in Mrs. O’Donnell’s high school algebra class. He barely passed math last year and knows he won’t be able to succeed in algebra. He says he doesn’t have the brains to do math no matter how much he works at it. The teacher offers to help him after school, but Brenden says it won’t help. He’s tried tutors before. Brenden’s beliefs about himself illustrate: a. controllable causes of failure. b. adaptive mindset. c. an unstable view of ability. d. learned helplessness. 24. Nika exhibits failure-avoiding tendencies in all academic areas. Her teachers have different ways of dealing with her. Which one of her teachers helps her maintain her sense of stability and avoid risks? a. Mr. Simmons tells Nika how he failed math one grading period and then learned new strategies that helped him succeed. b. Mr. Levitz says failure is diagnostic and tells Nika what she needs to do to improve. c. Mrs. Rollins helps Nika set performance goals to make a low passing grade in health class. d. Ms. Carmike coaches Nika to ask specific questions about the aspects of science she doesn’t understand. 25. Which of the following strategies is LEAST likely to build student interests and curiosity in the subject? a. Mr. Brown relates content objectives to his own experiences in his science class. b. Mr. Varner incorporates students’ personal interests into his literature class discussions. c. Ms. Whiteside uses humor and personal experience to illustrate concepts in social studies. d. Ms. Fox uses the actual notes and diagrams drawn by inventors when she teaches history.

26. Mr. Jacobs has noticed that his students often act bored during social studies activities. In order to increase positive achievement emotions and decrease boredom, he should do which of the following? a. Raise the challenge of tasks above students’ skill levels b. Use performance goal orientation and promote competition c. Encourage students to focus on the outcome—their grades d. Allow students to choose among several activities that focus on lesson content 27. When is Evan MOST likely to experience academic anxiety in the classroom? a. When he recognizes the source of his anxious feelings and accurately interprets them b. When he attributes successes and failures to things he can control c. When he uses self-regulation strategies to complete an academic task d. When he sets performance goals 28. Which teacher is most likely to INCREASE anxiety for students who experience academic anxiety? a. Mr. Carlisle often uses competition and encourages students to see who can complete the most problems correctly in the shortest amount of time. b. Ms. Germaine often uses group learning activities and asks students to report their findings within their groups. c. Mrs. Shebester develops different types of assessments in addition to written and oral tests. d. Mrs. Cole gives clear written and oral instructions to make sure students do not face uncertainty about expectations. 29. Ms. Castella uses portfolio assessment in language arts. She collects students’ best work throughout the year and reviews their portfolios at the end of each grading period. Ms. Castella instructs students to look for ways their writing has improved each grading period by comparing their recent best work to previous work. What aspect of her approach is most likely to increase student motivation to learn? a. Ms. Castella uses portfolio assessment b. Ms. Castella collects student work throughout the year c. Student portfolios are reviewed at the end of each grading period d. Students make their own comparisons and look for improvement 30. Which of the following teachers is using strategies that encourage student motivation to learn? a. In Mrs. Blalock’s class, students work on the easy problems in the math chapters and skip the hard problems. b. At Ms. Thomas’s centers, students use measuring cups and measuring spoons to learn about volume. c. Mr. Copeland uses competition to encourage students to answer the most questions correctly and accumulate points.

d. Mr. Franks helps students master facts by using rote memory to prepare for standardized tests.

Essay Questions 31. Mr. Cardot has been using a behavioral approach to motivation in his second-grade classroom. He gives stickers for completing assignments, for answering questions correctly, and for other things such as working quietly. He recently noticed that none of his students could answer questions about the setting of a story, but he had taught lessons about the setting and discussed the settings of several stories. Students had eagerly answered questions and received stickers. Now that he is revisiting the topic, his students don’t remember what they learned. Suggest how Mr. Cardot might alter his approach and promote intrinsic motivation. 32. Ms. Rios went to a professional development seminar and learned about meeting students’ need for autonomy. She realizes that she has used controlling teaching behaviors with her fourth-grade students. Now she understands that students’ motivation is influenced by their need for autonomy. Suggest specific things she might do to provide appropriate levels of autonomy for her students. 33. Mr. Chen is beginning his second year of teaching sixth grade in a low-income area. He has always been driven by goals and is trying to help his students learn to set and achieve goals, but his students didn’t respond well to his performance goal orientation last year. Mr. Chen recently revisited his educational psychology text from college and read the chapter about motivation. Now he wants to change the goal orientation for his teaching and help his students work toward mastery goals. What might he do to establish a pattern of mastery goal orientation? 34. Lance likes playing basketball with his buddies and hanging out to compete on video games, even if he seldom beats his peers. He also values learning and plans to be an engineer. He takes his school work seriously, wants to succeed, and often chooses school projects over time with buddies. In light of the expectancy-value-cost equation, explain Lance’s motivation in situations when he makes choices between school work and time with friends. 35. Suppose you are teaching eighth grade math to a small class of nine students who perform below grade level. In this particular case, all nine students believe their failure in math is inevitable, and consequently, they have low motivation to learn. Explain how these students most likely view the three dimensions of attributed causes for successes or failures to learn. 36. Consider the same scenario described in the previous question: Suppose you are teaching eighth grade math to a small class of nine students who perform below grade level. All nine students believe their failure in math is inevitable, and consequently, they have low motivation to learn. They exhibit self-handicapping strategies and function in failure-avoiding mode. You want to help them change their thinking and keep them from reaching a state of failure acceptance. Describe what you might do to achieve this goal. In your response, address students’ mindsets and beliefs about ability. 37. Several students in Mrs. Ford’s high school English classes exhibit high anxiety about tests and other graded work. Mrs. Ford occasionally hears students mention their fear and dread about taking college entrance exams such as the SAT. Mrs. Ford talked with other teachers and discussed how to help these students deal with anxiety in her classes with the intention that students transfer the coping strategies to other assessment settings, such as the SAT. What would you suggest about helping students cope with anxiety about classroom tests and graded work? 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 12 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Shonda takes her mystery book to all of her classes and reads a few more pages whenever she gets a chance. Feedback for Correct Answer: Intrinsic motivation is associated with activities that are their own reward. Reading her mystery book is rewarding to Shonda. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

Correct Answer: Intrinsic Feedback for Correct Answer: Intrinsic motivation is associated with activities that are their own reward. Learning and improving are their own rewards and are internally motivated. Being worried about the grade is externally motivated. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

Correct Answer: Behavioral view Feedback for Correct Answer: A behavioral view is based on extrinsic incentives, rewards, and punishments. Ms. Zabek is using stickers as reinforcers to reward the students’ behavior. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

Correct Answer: Annie wants to play the piece flawlessly and enjoy the sound she creates with the piano. Feedback for Correct Answer: The locus of causality for behavior is the location of the cause of behavior—internal or external. Annie’s behavior appears to be motivated by internal causes. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

Correct Answer: Extrinsic Feedback for Correct Answer: Camila’s behavior is extrinsically motivated. She is not interested in the activity for its own sake. She wants to earn a reward and avoid punishment. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

Correct Answer: Survival, safety, belonging, self-esteem Feedback for Correct Answer: Maslow (1968) called the four lower-level needs—for survival, then safety, followed by belonging, and then selfesteem—deficiency needs. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

Correct Answer: Relatedness Feedback for Correct Answer: The need for relatedness is the desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Miguel’s need for friends, a social group, and a sense of

belonging is likely to interfere with his learning. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination 8.

Correct Answer: Mr. Andrus allows his students to choose among three types of projects they will do as a culminating activity in the history unit. Feedback for Correct Answer: Classroom environments that support student self-determination and autonomy are associated with greater student interest and curiosity (even interest in homework assignments), sense of competence, creativity, conceptual learning, grades, school attendance and satisfaction, engagement, use of self-regulated learning strategies, psychological well-being, and preference for challenge. By giving students choices of types of projects, Mr. Andrus supports student selfdetermination. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

Correct Answer: Ms. Carlson presents valuable guidelines for science fair projects and suggests that students record the information for their benefit. Feedback for Correct Answer: Ms. Carlson provides information that increases students’ competence without becoming controlling. Students need to perceive that they have autonomy. If an event provides information at the appropriate level and without coercion, this can increase students’ sense of competence and intrinsic motivation. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

10.

Correct Answer: I recognize your frustration with my decision to delay the field trip. Feedback for Correct Answer: Acknowledging students’ negative emotions in reaction to teacher control is a good way to support selfdetermination and autonomy. Such negative feelings are valid reactions to teacher control. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

11.

Correct Answer: Competence Feedback for Correct Answer: Sanya needs to master the specific skills of making eye contact and controlling her movements. She has exhibited these problems in previous speeches and needed to learn strategies for mastering the skills. Then she needed to practice to achieve mastery. The need that is not being met is the need for competence or mastery. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

12.

Correct Answer: Goals that are specific and moderately difficult Feedback for Correct Answer: The types of goals we set influence the amount of motivation we have to reach them. Goals that are specific, elaborated, moderately difficult, and proximal (likely to be reached in the near future) tend to enhance motivation and persistence. Text Reference: Goals and Goal Orientations

13.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Kai is invested, and her goal seems to be intrinsically motivated. She has set a goal to learn as much as possible by tapping various resources including a visit to a reservation. A mastery goal is defined as a personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers or how awkward you appear. Text Reference: Goals and Goal Orientations 14.

Correct Answer: Deon skimmed the first page and decided on a comment he could make during group discussions tomorrow. He doesn’t want to read the material, but he also doesn’t want to look stupid in his group. Feedback for Correct Answer: When students have performanceavoidance goals, they want to keep from looking dumb or keep from losing. They are not as concerned about learning as a person with mastery goals. Text Reference: Goals and Goal Orientations

15.

Correct Answer: Ms. Compton returned the essays and asked students to compare this draft with their first draft to see how much progress they had made. Feedback for Correct Answer: One of the factors that makes goal setting effective in the classroom is feedback. In order to be motivated by a discrepancy between “where you are” and “where you want to be,” you must have an accurate sense of both your current status and how far you have to go. There is evidence that feedback emphasizing progress is the most effective. Ms. Compton emphasized progress by asking students to compare their first and second drafts. Text Reference: Goals and Goal Orientations

16.

Correct Answer: Zero Feedback for Correct Answer: Motivation is a product of expectancy and value (expectancy x value), because if either factor is low, then there is little motivation to work toward a goal. Dominique has zero motivation to run the race, because winning means nothing to him—has no value. Text Reference: Expectancies, Values, and Costs

17.

Correct Answer: Cost Feedback for Correct Answer: Riley is weighing the cost of each option. She values all of the activities, but she needs to determine whether the cost is worth the possible benefit of each option. Text Reference: Expectancies, Values, and Costs

18.

Correct Answer: Success attributed to inherited intelligence Feedback for Correct Answer: Attributing success or failure to unchangeable causes such as inherited intelligence is stable. The outcome is not believed to change over time and across different situations. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

19.

within the person (rather than external to the person) is internal cause. Jana’s attribution of success to hard work and effort is internal. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs about Ability 20.

Correct Answer: Alexus believes her mistake in the chemistry lab was caused by her lack of preparation. Feedback for Correct Answer: Feeling in control of your own learning seems to be related to choosing more difficult academic tasks, putting out more effort, using better strategies, and persisting longer in school work. Alexus feels that her success or failure is in her control. She attributes her mistake to her own lack of preparation—something in her control. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

21.

Correct Answer: Kiara is trying different strategies for learning her vocabulary words. She is sure she will find a strategy that works for her. Feedback for Correct Answer: Kiara has a personally held belief that abilities are improvable, controllable, and unstable—a growth mindset. She believes she will find a strategy that works for her, improves her ability. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

22.

Correct Answer: He exhibits a growth mindset. Feedback for Correct Answer: Holding a growth mindset is associated with greater motivation and learning. Believing that you can improve your ability helps you focus on the processes of problem solving and applying good strategies, instead of on the products of test scores and grades. Mr. Darnell believes students can improve their learning, and he reinforces progress. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

23.

Correct Answer: learned helplessness. Feedback for Correct Answer: Learned helplessness is based on the belief that failure is inevitable and the events and outcomes that lead to failure are uncontrollable. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

24.

Correct Answer: Mrs. Rollins helps Nika set performance goals to make a low passing grade in health class. Feedback for Correct Answer: Mrs. Rollins helps Nika maintain a sense of stability without taking risks. She encourages Nika to accept an attitude that success is out of her control. Teachers who help Nika realize that she can learn and can find new strategies are the teachers who encourage taking risks and viewing failure as unstable (something Nika can change). Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

25.

Correct Answer: Mr. Brown relates content objectives to his own experiences in his science class. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers are more likely to build student interests and curiosity in the subject if they relate content objectives to 37 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

students’ experiences (not the teacher’s experiences). Text Reference: How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions 26.

Correct Answer: Allow students to choose among several activities that focus on lesson content Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers are more likely to increase positive achievement emotions and decrease boredom by using mastery goal orientation, getting students to focus on the learning rather than grades and competition, matching task challenge to students’ skill level, and giving them some sense of control. Text Reference: How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions

27.

Correct Answer: When he sets performance goals Feedback for Correct Answer: Students are more likely to be anxious when they set performance goals. They need to set mastery goals and focus on improving. Text Reference: How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions

28.

Correct Answer: Mr. Carlisle often uses competition and encourages students to see who can complete the most problems correctly in the shortest amount of time. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers help students cope with anxiety by using competition carefully. Mr. Carlisle increases anxiety by asking students to compete against one another and work under time pressure. Text Reference: How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions

29.

Correct Answer: Students make their own comparisons and look for improvement Feedback for Correct Answer: Student motivation increases when students perceive that they have some level of control. Ms. Castella should also allow students to be involved in selecting and collecting the work for the portfolios. Text Reference: Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn

30.

Correct Answer: At Ms. Thomas’s centers, students use measuring cups and measuring spoons to learn about volume. Feedback for Correct Answer: By using real-world tools and authentic tasks, Ms. Thomas increases student motivation to learn. Teachers encourage student motivation by designing authentic tasks and relevant instruction. Text Reference: Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 31.

Suggested Response: Mr. Cardot is using a behavioral approach with extrinsic rewards, yet he wants his students to achieve long-term learning. Mr. Cardot’s students appear to be working for the stickers, i.e., extrinsic motivation, as evidenced by their eagerness to answer questions and receive stickers. Mr. Cardot might try an approach to motivation that taps into students’ interest in learning. Intrinsic motivation is likely to result from participating in a task because it is interesting, and because the learning provides its own reward. To hold student interest, he might get students involved in creating a story setting (hands-on engagement). He should revisit the topic occasionally and reinforce students for remembering and applying what they learned with the story setting they created. He might ask students to create the setting of every story in their minds. Text Reference: What Is Motivation?

32.

Suggested Response: Ms. Rios might meet students’ need for autonomy by implementing several strategies. 1. Design learning activities that offer students the opportunity to make choices. For example, she might offer three choices of ways to learn the new vocabulary words each week. She might allow students to choose a partner to work with and to choose whether they work on their independent work alone at their desks or with a partner. 2. Provide rationales for the rules and constraints she enforces. Rules are necessary, but teachers reduce the controlling nature of rules when they involve students in developing the rules and exploring possible consequences. Conduct discussions about the reasons for rules. Constraints such as time limits on a project are sometimes necessary, but teachers can provide reasons students understand. 3. Give feedback that is not controlling. Avoid using terms such as “must” and “have to.” Give specific feedback that helps students want to improve. Communicate by providing information in non-controlling, unpressured language. 4. Help students set their own goals and develop their own plans for achieving their goals. Fourth graders should be able to set reasonable short-term goals for themselves, and they may be able to set a few long-term goals. Use goal cards or other written methods of having students record their goals and their progress toward achieving goals. 5. Recognize that students’ negative emotions are valid reactions to teacher control. Be patient. Acknowledge that it is normal to get frustrated when the work seems hard. Avoid criticizing students for the frustration. And avoid modeling frustration by becoming frustrated and impatient with students. Text Reference: Needs and Self-Determination

33.

Suggested Response: Mr. Chen is making an important and significant philosophical change. •

The point of a mastery goal is to improve and learn, not to receive a reward or please others (performance goal orientation). Mr. Chen might explain this distinction and use mastery-oriented rhetoric when he talks about tasks and 39 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

learning in the classroom and when he responds to students during the tasks. •

He might shape learning goals that are specific and elaborated with subgoals. The task and the method of completing the task should be very clear to students and help them master skills (not just memorize). The goals and task should place students at the center—students have autonomy and take responsibility for learning.

•

His learning tasks should be moderately difficult for his students – not too easy or too hard – and they should be goals that can be met in a relatively short period of time. Mastery-oriented goal structure challenges and supports all students.

•

During instruction, Mr. Chen might focus on the learning and the value of that learning for students. His rhetoric should exclude comments that focus on grades or competition and include comments that focus on learning and making progress.

•

Feedback should compare students to themselves, not to others in the class.

Text Reference: Goals and Goal Orientations 34.

Suggested Response: The strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation that we can succeed, the value of that success to us, and the cost of pursuing the goal. Lance values both time with friends and learning, so the motivation is not zero for either choice. He seems to value school work higher, because he has often chosen school projects over time with buddies. In making choices between school work and time with friends, he obviously counts the cost, determining whether time with friends poses a risk for completing his school work and meeting his personal expectations for excellency. If the cost of spending time with friends is too high (jeopardizes his goal of succeeding in school), he is motivated to choose school projects over friends. If spending time with friends poses no threat to Lance’s school success, the cost (of spending time with friends) is acceptable to him. Text Reference: Expectancies, Values, and Costs

35.

Suggested Response: People with a low sense of self-efficacy tend to attribute their failures to lack of ability (out of their control), and this seems to be the case with these nine students in eighth grade math. The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. The students in this eighthgrade math class likely have the following view of the three dimensions of attributed causes: 1. Locus: failure attributed to external causes (beyond the individual) 2. Stable causes (the same no matter what they do, they can’t change) 3. Uncontrollable causes (out of their control, nothing they can do) Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability

36.

Suggested Response: To address self-handicapping strategies in students, help them develop a growth mindset. A teacher might begin by teaching about the brain and how new connections are formed whenever you learn. Use the analogy of lifting weights to build muscles. Help students see the difference between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset. A teacher might act as a learning coach, helping students learn new strategies and focus on improvement rather than wrong answers. Help students master skills and recognize that ability is unstable and controllable (in the student’s 40 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

control). A teacher might help students set mastery goals and experience successes. Use failure as a place to begin understanding what the student still needs to master. Give constructive feedback focused on improvement. Encourage students to seek help appropriately rather than giving up, doing only simple tasks, or cheating. With these teaching strategies, the nine students are likely to change their mindset and develop some sense of efficacy with math skills. Text Reference: Attributions and Beliefs About Ability 37.

Suggested Response: Anxiety has both cognitive and affective components. To address the cognitive component: For classroom tests and graded work, teachers might begin by teaching test-taking skills, allowing students to practice the skills, and providing guidance for test preparation. Teachers might include different types of assessment questions on their tests and different types of graded activities, making sure instructions are very clear and students are familiar with formats and expectations. Provide examples and models of new types of tasks and keep the focus on mastery of skills rather than on grades. To address the affective component: Teachers might ask students to investigate the relationship between good sleep and positive arousal (in contrast to negative anxiety) before tests. Teachers might introduce (or remind students about) emotion regulation strategies such as planning a study schedule, finding an appropriate place to study, using relaxation exercises, and staying focused. Teachers might help students adopt attributional styles that recognize that they have control over their learning and performance. Teachers can help highly anxious students to set realistic goals and encourage wise choices. They might limit environmental triggers for anxiety in the classroom by using mastery-oriented classroom goal structures and modeling enthusiasm for academic content. Text Reference: Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety

Chapter 12 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 12.1 Define motivation and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, including four kinds of extrinsic motivation. Outcome 12.2 Explain how learners’ needs—including the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence their motivation to learn. Outcome 12.3 Describe the different kinds of goal orientations and examine their influences on motivation. Outcome 12.4 Discuss how students’ beliefs about expectations for success, value of the task, and costs can influence motivation. Outcome 12.5 Discuss how students’ beliefs and attributions about school experiences and their ability mindsets can influence motivation. Outcome 12.6 Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, emotions, and anxiety in motivation. Outcome 12.7 Explain how teachers can influence and encourage students’ motivation to learn. [Q1] LO 12.1 In which of the following scenarios does the student exhibit intrinsic motivation? 1. Gabriella copied her notes and gave a copy to Jason to impress him 2. Jose tried to win the batting competition because he wanted to show off the trophy 3. Aubrey tried to make high grades to increase her chances of getting a scholarship 4. Jon read his physics chapter and made his own concept map because he loves physics [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Intrinsic motivation is motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. Jon’s love of physics motivated him to read the chapter and make his own concept map. The activities were his reward. [Q2] LO 12.2 Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which student’s need is a deficiency need? 1. Willow struggles to understand the assignment for science 2. Aria organizes the book shelves in the classroom to make them look nice 3. Brock studies with Michelle because she explains math concepts he doesn’t understand 4. Andrew eats lunch alone because he doesn’t have friends [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Maslow’s four lower-level needs—for survival, then safety, followed by belonging, and then selfesteem—are called deficiency needs, because when these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. 42 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] LO 12.5 Students in Ms. Kim’s class made various attributions concerning their successes and failures in chemistry class. Which student comment attributes success to internal factors? 1. I made a good grade because I got lucky and guessed right on a lot of questions. 2. I made a low grade because there was too much noise in the hallway. 3. I made the top grade because I read the material and studied my notes. [correct] 4. I made a good grade because I have a good teacher. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Internal attributions are explanations of success or failure based on one’s own efforts or talents/skills. The student who attributed the grade to reading and studying made an internal attribution. [Q4] LO 12.6 Mr. Lewis recognizes that several of his geometry students exhibit test anxiety when he gives tests. What might he do to help students cope with test anxiety? 1. Provide oral rather than written instructions before giving the test 2. Reduce the amount of time students have to take the test 3. Give fewer tests and increase the weight of each test 4. Provide a variety of ways for students to demonstrate their learning [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] To help students cope with test anxiety, teachers might develop alternatives to written tests. Alternatives might include projects, performances, and portfolios. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 12.2 Case Stephanie Wilson had been educated in “old-school methods.” Her teachers insisted on straight rows of seated students who did not talk during lectures nor complain about assignments. While Stephanie had been successful in this model, not all of her past classmates flourished in such a rigid environment. As a new teacher she wanted a more student-friendly environment. She envisioned a classroom where students were stimulated by the activities and worked collaboratively. “I want my students to look forward to coming to school. I want them to be agents in the learning process, not just passive recipients of my curriculum.” She imagined designing learning situations in which her students could all achieve. Step by step, they could all learn. As her students would progress, she would provide early remediation as needed. In this way, Stephanie thought, none of her students would be failures. What student needs are being met in Stephanie’s imaginary classroom? [Feedback for Answer 5] In Stephanie’s imaginary classroom, students’ need for autonomy is met by the studentcentered activities and collaborative work. Students’ need for belonging is met by creating an 43 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

environment that makes students want to come to school. Students’ need for competence is met by making sure students learn and make progress. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 12.2 Case Stephanie Wilson had been educated in “old-school methods.” Her teachers insisted on straight rows of seated students who did not talk during lectures nor complain about assignments. While Stephanie had been successful in this model, not all of her past classmates flourished in such a rigid environment. As a new teacher she wanted a more student-friendly environment. She envisioned a classroom where students were stimulated by the activities and worked collaboratively. “I want my students to look forward to coming to school. I want them to be agents in the learning process, not just passive recipients of my curriculum.” She imagined designing learning situations in which her students could all achieve. Step by step, they could all learn. As her students would progress, she would provide early remediation as needed. In this way, Stephanie thought, none of her students would be failures. How can Stephanie Wilson support self-determination and autonomy in her classroom? [Feedback for Answer 6] Stephanie Wilson can take the following actions to support self-determination and autonomy in her classroom. •

Allow and encourage students to make choices.

•

Help students plan actions to accomplish self-selected goals.

•

Hold students accountable for the consequences of their choices.

•

Provide rationales for limits, rules, and constraints.

•

Acknowledge and accept negative emotions.

•

Use noncontrolling, positive feedback.

•

Display patience.

Chapter 13 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 13: Organizing Learning Environments Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 13: Organizing Learning Environments Chapter 13 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 13.1. Relate academic learning time and student cooperation to creating and maintaining a classroom climate conducive to academic achievement and socio-emotional well-being. [Q1] For teachers to maintain order so that learning takes place, they must do which of the following? 1. Give clear directions 2. Teach classroom procedures 3. Tell students the classroom rules 4. Gain students’ cooperation [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Giving clear directions is important, but clear directions don’t ensure order in the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teaching classroom procedures is important but teaching the procedures does not ensure order in the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Telling students the classroom rules is a step toward maintaining order, but another task is essential. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The basic organizational task for teachers is to achieve order and harmony by gaining and maintaining student cooperation in class activities. [Q2] Which of the following teachers is addressing one of the major goals of classroom management? 1. Mr. Hinson established rules focused on compliance to maintain control of students’ behavior. 2. Mrs. Dominguez gives rewards and punishments with a goal of maintaining a quiet classroom. 3. Ms. Kim began using more efficient group formation procedures to increase time on task. [correct] 4. Mr. Holloway avoids rules and encourages students to speak out in class.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] If teachers focus on student compliance, they will spend much of the teaching/learning time monitoring and correcting. In that environment, students come to perceive the purpose of school as just following rules, not constructing deep understanding of academic knowledge. Additionally, one goal of any management system is to help students become better able to manage themselves. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Having a goal of maintaining a quiet classroom is inconsistent with the purpose of classroom management. Classroom management should be designed to maintain a positive, productive learning environment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] One goal of classroom management is to increase the time students are actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Ms. Kim addresses this goal and increases time on task by changing her group formation procedures and making the process more efficient. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] For everyone to have access to learning, classrooms need participation structures. Abandoning structure by avoiding rules does not ensure access for everyone. It is more likely to contribute to disorder. [Q3] According to studies, most states mandate 126 hours of school time for a high school year. What percent of the 126 hours is typically spent in academic learning time? 1. About 75% or 95 hours 2. About 66% or 83 hours 3. About 50% or 63 hours [correct] 4. Only about 33% or 42 hours [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 75% is close to the amount of time students spend in the academic setting (excluding recess, lunch, and transitions) but greater than the time spent in actual academic learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] 66% is close to the amount of time students spend engaged in academic work, but the amount of time they spend in actual academic learning is different. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The 126 hours of time mandated for a high school year boils down to only 62 hours (about 50%) of quality academic learning time for a typical student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] 33% is a low figure for the percentage of time students spend in academic learning. In the annual 126 hours of high school mandated by most states, most students spend more time actually learning academic content.

[Q4] Ms. O’Connor gave Wyatt a form for keeping track of his outbursts. He draws a star on the form each time he remembers to raise his hand to be recognized during whole group or small group discussions rather than blurting out answers. Ms. O’Connor is specifically helping Wyatt develop which of the following? 1. Time on task 2. Friends 3. Cooperation 4. Self-management [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Time on task is the time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Wyatt seems engaged because he participates by blurting out answers. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Controlling the outbursts is not directly tied to making friends. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. O’Connor’s approach is specifically designed to help Wyatt develop a different skill. Ms. O’Connor is helping Wyatt change the way he participates. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ms. O’Connor’s approach is specifically designed to help Wyatt develop self-management skills. Teaching students how to take responsibility for their own behavior is an investment well worth the effort. [Q5] Mr. Simms has the following rules for his fourth graders: Raise your hand and be recognized to speak. Respect others and their property. Do your best work at all times. Which rule or rules support the reasons for working hard to manage the classroom? 1. All of the rules [correct] 2. The rule about raising your hand and being recognized 3. The rule about respecting others and their property 4. The rule about doing your best work at all times [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mr. Simms’s rules address access. The participation structure addresses access to learning. Respect helps everyone feel emotionally and physically safe and manages relationships. The commitment to do their best work helps everyone focus on learning. These rules combined are designed to increase learning time.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The participation structure addresses access to learning, but this is not the only rule that supports the reasons for working hard to manage the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The rule about respecting others and their property helps everyone feel emotionally and physically safe, and it helps to manage relationships. However, this is not the only rule that supports the reasons for working hard to manage the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The rule about doing your best work at all times supports the learning environment and helps all students cooperate in their focus on learning. However, this is not the only rule that supports the reasons for working hard to manage the classroom. Learning Outcome 13.2. Summarize the research on the roles of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class, including the differences in requirements between in-person and remote learning. [Q1] Mr. Hernandez teaches high school science in a remote learning environment. Based on recommended guidelines, what should he do about group work in this setting? 1. Form groups on the basis of specific criteria [correct] 2. Avoid group work in a remote learning environment 3. Assign groups randomly 4. Allow students to choose whether to work in groups [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Based on recommended guidelines, Mr. Hernandez should create connection with small group and breakout sessions, but he should decide on criteria for forming groups. The criteria may relate to characteristics such as interests, goals of the task, or level of skills required for the task. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Based on recommended guidelines, teachers should create connection with small group and breakout sessions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Guidelines recommend that teachers create connection with small group and breakout sessions. However, teachers should not group randomly. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Based on recommended guidelines, teachers should create connection with small group and breakout sessions. Working in groups helps students learn more about one another, and teachers need to make special efforts to create community and build relationships in the remote learning environment.

[Q2] Based on guidelines for stating rules, which of the following elementary classroom rules is a good rule? 1. Do not forget your homework 2. Be happy 3. Respect the property of others [correct] 4. Don’t leave your books on the floor [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Rules should be observable and positive. Rather than telling students what they should NOT do, rules should state behaviors students SHOULD do. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Telling students to be happy is vague. Rules should be observable and positive. Rules should also relate to student behaviors that help the teacher teach effectively. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Guidelines state that classroom rules should be observable and stated positively. The rule, “Respect the property of others,” is observable and stated positively. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Rules should be observable and positive. Rather than telling students what they should NOT do, rules should state behaviors students SHOULD do. [Q3] Mrs. Baylor has a class policy that when a student needs help during seatwork, he or she should first ask one peer for assistance. If the peer can’t help, the student should ask a second peer. If the student still needs assistance, he or she should raise a hand with two fingers extended, so Mrs. Baylor knows that two peers were consulted but help is still needed. Experts suggest that teachers establish routines in six areas. Mrs. Baylor’s policy covers which of these areas? 1. Student movement and lesson-running routines 2. Student movement and housekeeping routines 3. Talk among students and interactions between teacher and student [correct] 4. Lesson-running routines and administrative routines [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Student movement applies to procedures for entering and leaving the classroom. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Student movement applies to procedures for entering and leaving the classroom.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Routines that cover talk among students include giving help or socializing. Routines that cover interactions between teacher and student include how to get the teacher’s attention when help is needed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Lesson-running routines deal with collecting assignments or returning homework. [Q4] Mr. Franks is a new middle school teacher. He and his students have discussed classroom community and established five rules for their learning environment. What should Mr. Franks do about consequences for students who break rules? 1. Determine the consequences at the time a rule is broken 2. Establish consequences for breaking a rule at the time the rules are established [correct] 3. Vary the consequences on the basis of the student’s behavior patterns 4. Vary the consequences on the basis of the academic record of the student breaking a rule [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] After a rule is broken, it is too late to determine consequences. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The consequences should be determined and communicated to students at the time the rules are established and discussed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Consequences should be applied consistently to all students. Basing consequences on behavior patterns of the student who breaks a rule is inconsistent and unfair. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Consequences should be applied consistently to all students. A student’s academic record should not affect the consequences for breaking a rule. [Q5] Ms. Dupont frequently assigns tasks that allow her third-grade students to share materials, talk about the task, and help one another complete the assignment. Which of the following seating arrangements is most likely to provide an effective setting for such tasks? 1. Groups of ten desks 2. Horizontal rows of desks 3. A fishbowl circle 4. Clusters of four students [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Groups of ten desks are too large, particularly for third-grade students. Groups this size would have difficulty sharing materials and working productively.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Horizontal rows of desks are useful for independent seatwork and teacher, student, or media presentations; they encourage students to focus on the presenter. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A fishbowl circle is useful for a brief demonstration or a whole group brainstorming session. In this formation, students in the back may actually stand for the demonstration or activity. Ms. Dupont needs to use a different arrangement. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Clusters of four students are best for student interaction. Clusters permit students to talk, help one another, share materials, and work on group tasks. Learning Outcome 13.3. Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. [Q1] Mr. Martinez, a seventh-grade teacher, is explaining an assignment. He notices two students passing notes to one another. While continuing to discuss the assignment, he moves toward the students and confiscates the written notes. Then he walks back to the front of the class, still continuing his explanation, and asks Karla, who is daydreaming, to answer a question. This scenario best illustrates which classroom management strategy? 1. Group focus 2. Creative problem solving 3. Withitness [correct] 4. Teacher-facilitated conflict resolution [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Group focus is the teacher’s ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Mr. Martinez notices student distractions and uses a particular strategy to regain students’ attention. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Creative problem solving is a good skill for teachers to acquire but doesn’t apply to this scenario. Mr. Martinez notices student distractions and uses a particular strategy to regain students’ attention. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Mr. Martinez demonstrates withitness. He scans the classroom as he explains the assignment and is aware of what students are doing. He is able to deal with the distracting and unfocused behaviors of students without allowing their behavior to disrupt class. Mr. Martinez prevents bigger problems by arresting students’ inappropriate behaviors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teacher-facilitated conflict resolution is used when students have a conflict and need help to resolve their conflict. In this situation, Mr. Martinez notices distracted behaviors and uses a particular strategy to regain students’ attention. 7 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q2] Mrs. Harlin is a new high school science teacher. Her transitions between topics are abrupt. She has a hard time giving clear directions or stating her expectations, and her students are often confused about what to do. What classroom management skill is Mrs. Harlin lacking? 1. Overlapping 2. Movement management [correct] 3. Group focus 4. Content mastery [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When teachers exhibit the skill of overlapping they effectively supervise several activities at once. Mrs. Harlin lacks a different skill. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Movement management means keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. Mrs. Harlin needs to develop the ability to deliver clear, well-timed directions, make smooth transitions, and state expectations precisely in order to keep lessons and the group moving together. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Group focus is the teacher’s ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Mrs. Harlin lacks skill in transitions and in her delivery of information related to directions and expectations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In this scenario, we’re unaware of Mrs. Harlin’s level of content mastery. We do know she lacks skill in transitions and in her delivery of information related to directions and expectations. [Q3] The following middle school math teachers begin class in different ways. Teacher A begins with a reminder about entering quietly and using time wisely Teacher B begins with a warm greeting and enthusiastic statement about the lesson Teacher C begins with students reading learning targets in unison Teacher D begins with sponge activity and review of previous day’s lesson Based on studies of teacher connections, whose students are likely to exhibit the highest levels of engagement and math achievement? 1. Teacher A 2. Teacher B [correct] 3. Teacher C 4. Teacher D

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Studies of teacher connections and teacher-student relationships find higher levels of student engagement and higher math achievement when teachers take a different, less rigid approach with students. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Students reported working harder, enjoying math more, and sharing ideas and materials with each other more when teachers were warm, caring, and responsive to student needs. Studies reveal that teacher warmth influences student engagement and math achievement. One study showed that when teacher warmth declined and conflict went up, student engagement decreased along with math achievement. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Studies of teacher connections and teacher-student relationships find higher levels of student engagement and higher math achievement when teachers take time to connect with students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Studies of teacher connections and teacher-student relationships find higher levels of student engagement and higher math achievement when teachers take time to connect with students. [Q4] Seven-year-old Mila struggles with anger and a desire to control all situations. However, she feels a sense of belonging at school. Which of the following factors is likely to have the strongest influence on her feelings of belonging at school? 1. Having an older sibling at school 2. Receiving attention from playground monitors 3. Being interested in several academic subjects 4. Having a positive relationship with her teacher [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Having an older sibling at school may help Mila feel a sense of safety and a sense of having an ally. However, the sense of belonging at school is influenced to a greater extent by a different factor. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Receiving attention from playground monitors may be more negative than positive. Mila’s anger and desire to control may cause conflicts on the playground. Such attention is not likely to have the strongest influence on her feelings of belonging at school. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mila’s interest in several academic subjects likely serves her well in the areas of engagement and achievement, but the sense of belonging at school is influenced to a greater extent by a different factor. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Positive relationships with teachers are the strongest influence on student belonging. Students who believe “their teachers are caring, empathic, and fair and help resolve personal problems, are more likely to feel a greater sense of belonging.” 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q5] Seven-year-old Mila struggles with anger and a desire to control all situations. Mila’s teacher, Mr. Adams, is targeting specific social skills to help Mila develop more appropriate behaviors such as taking turns and allowing others to lead sometimes. Mr. Adams should include which of the following in his social skills lesson design? 1. Description of other children’s behavior 2. Punishment plan for each failure 3. Isolation from other students 4. Demonstrations of the skills [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Describing other children’s behavior will not help Mila learn new social skills. Mr. Adams should use other elements in his lesson design. The lesson should be designed to help Mila know and understand the new behaviors that are expected of her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A punishment plan for each failure should not be part of the lesson design. The lesson should be designed to help Mila know and understand the new behaviors that are expected of her. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Isolation is a form of punishment. The lesson design should not include isolation. The lesson should be designed to help Mila know and understand the new behaviors that are expected of her. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The lesson design should include demonstrations and modeling of the skills Mr. Adams wants Mila to exhibit. Such demonstrations or modeling will help Mila understand and imitate appropriate behaviors that are expected of her. Learning Outcome 13.4. Identify strategies (especially penalties and alternatives, restorative justice, and student self-discipline) for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. [Q1] In which one of the following situations would it be best to ignore a student’s behavior? 1. Cooper and Logan throw paper airplanes across the room 2. Gary tapes a “kick me” sign on Shasta’s back during history lesson 3. Nikki asks a classmate to clarify an assignment and then returns to her work [correct] 4. Leah writes notes to other students and quietly passes them across the room [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The boys’ behavior disrupts learning in the classroom. The teacher should not ignore these behaviors, because they may escalate and become bigger, more disruptive problems.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Gary’s behavior disrupts learning in the classroom. The teacher should not ignore such behaviors, because they may escalate and become bigger, more disruptive problems. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The teacher does not need to correct Nikki’s behavior, because it does not interfere with the flow of learning in the classroom. Nikki needed clarification, and she knew how to get the help she needed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Leah’s behavior disrupts students’ learning. The teacher should not ignore such behaviors, because they may escalate and become bigger, more disruptive problems. [Q2] Amelia intermittently raps her pencil on the edge of her book as she takes notes and listens to the teacher present a concept lesson. Amelia’s rapping is distracting, but the teacher suspects Amelia is unaware. According to the suggestions of experts, what is the teacher’s least intrusive way to stop Amelia’s rapping? 1. Pause the lesson and tell the class to put down their pencils 2. Tell Amelia to stop making noise 3. Move closer to Amelia and stop her pencil [correct] 4. Ask Amelia if she realizes that she is rapping her pencil [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Pausing the lesson is a disruptive approach to stopping the problem and may be more intrusive to everyone than Amelia’s rapping. Experts suggest a less intrusive approach. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Calling Amelia by name and telling her to stop the noise is intrusive and interferes with the lesson. Such an approach takes everyone’s attention away from the concept lesson. Experts suggest a less intrusive approach. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The least intrusive way to stop Amelia’s rapping noise is to move closer to her, make eye contact, point to the pencil, or use a nonverbal cue to get Amelia’s attention without disrupting the flow of the lesson. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When the teacher stops the lesson to ask Amelia if she realizes she is making noise, the teacher takes everyone’s attention away from the concept lesson. Experts suggest a less intrusive approach. [Q3] Mr. Price uses a number of penalties when students break a rule or behave inappropriately. Which of his approaches is most likely to alienate the student? 1. Reduce the student’s grade in the class [correct]

2. Take away the privilege of free time at the computer 3. Require the student to write a reflection paper about the behavior problem 4. Express disappointment in the student for the behavior [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Caring, effective teachers do not use grade reduction as a means of discipline. This strategy is unfair, ineffective, and serves to alienate the student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Loss of privileges is a fairly nonintrusive penalty for breaking a rule or exhibiting negative behavior, and it is not likely to alienate the student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Requiring the student to write a reflection paper about the behavior problem is a fairly nonintrusive penalty for breaking a rule or exhibiting negative behavior, and it is not likely to alienate the student. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Expressing disappointment in the student for breaking a rule or exhibiting negative behavior is the mildest form of penalty and is unlikely to alienate the student. [Q4] Many schools in our country and other countries are seeking alternatives to punitive, rigid zerotolerance systems by adopting restorative justice. A program of restorative justice includes all of the following principles EXCEPT: 1. Having students take responsibility for the harm they caused 2. Meeting needs of students who exhibit negative behaviors 3. Building respectful communities and strengthening relationships 4. Increasing police involvement to address negative behaviors [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The principle is that students take responsibility for the harm they caused in a supportive community. They are held accountable for their harmful behavior, but the situation is addressed with compassion. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The principle is based on the assumption that behaviors, even negative behaviors, have goals. Students are trying to meet some need, even if their way of reaching the goal or meeting the need is a problem. Schools try to identify the need and provide support. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Beyond responding to misbehavior, restorative justice builds respectful communities where relationships are strengthened.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, repair the harm to victims, but still hold misbehaving students accountable while supporting them and reintegrating them into the community. [Q5] Ms. Hall is aware of several instances of bullying by students in her middle school language arts classes. The incidents include teasing a large girl, physically bullying a boy who “walks like a girl,” and posting altered photos of kids on social media. Based on studies about classroom approaches that decrease bullying, what should Ms. Hall do? 1. Ignore the bullying reports and teach language arts effectively 2. Incorporate cooperative learning activities in her teaching [correct] 3. Humiliate the bullies in class 4. Remind students of the school-wide bullying prevention program [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers should respond immediately when they are aware of bullying incidents. They should not ignore bullying; bullying is not harmless, and it is not just part of growing up. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] One classroom approach that has proved helpful in decreasing bullying is prevention though cooperative learning. Cooperative activities that create positive interdependence to reach mutual goals can support forming new friendships and including all students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Humiliation is not advised. Consequences for the bullies should be clear, stated in advance, escalate if the bullying continues, include a reflection on the situation (talking to the teacher or writing in a journal), and not be meant to humiliate the bully, but rather teach better ways of dealing with the reasons for bullying. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, the results are mixed on the effectiveness of many school-wide bullying prevention programs. Ms. Hall needs to take a more active role in addressing bullying in her classes. Learning Outcome 13.5. Characterize successful teacher–student and student–student communication through such approaches as empathetic listening, I-messages, and problem solving. [Q1] Ms. Constantine responds to Eric’s disruptive behavior by saying, “When you talk while I’m explaining instructions, I have to repeat what I’ve said, and that’s frustrating to me.” What approach is Ms. Constantine using to address Eric’s disruptions? 1. Hostile response 2. Confrontation 3. Negotiation 13 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. “I” message [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A hostile response involves “you” statements that condemn the student. Ms. Constantine is not condemning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Constantine is being descriptive about the situation rather than confrontational. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Negotiation involves making an offer. Ms. Constantine didn’t make an offer. She described the situation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] An I-message is a clear, non-accusatory statement of how something is affecting the speaker. Ms. Constantine is describing the situation and how it affects her. [Q2] Which one of the following teachers is using assertive discipline in response to misbehavior? 1. Sandy, you know not to yell in class. Did you forget the class rule? 2. Marco, hitting someone is not okay behavior. How would you feel if your friend hit you? 3. Viktor, put all four legs of the chair on the floor and face forward while you’re working. [correct] 4. Copying from a friend is wrong. You know better. That’s cheating. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is a passive response to Sandy’s behavior. The teacher reminds Sandy of the class rule but doesn’t state what she should do differently. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This teacher focuses on what Marco did wrong without addressing what Marco should do differently. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Assertive discipline involves stating directly what the child should be doing, rather than focusing on what the child is doing but should NOT be doing. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This teacher focuses on what the student did wrong without addressing what the student should do differently. [Q3] In which of the following examples is the teacher listening empathetically? 1. I hear you saying that you’re overwhelmed by the homework. Is that how you’re feeling? [correct] 2. We need to talk about this problem but not when you’re so angry. 14 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Would you like to hear my reasons for giving such a severe punishment for skipping class? 4. I feel threatened when you raise your voice and speak in that angry tone. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Empathetic listening involves capturing the emotions, intent, and meaning of what is said and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. In this example, the teacher’s paraphrase shows that he or she recognized the student’s emotions of feeling overwhelmed and also understood the student’s intent and meaning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Though this teacher (listener) recognizes the student’s feelings of anger, the teacher’s response does not include paraphrasing and reflection. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This teacher is communicating with the student by offering to present reasons for punishment rather than listening to the student’s feelings or paraphrasing the student’s thoughts. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This teacher is using an I-message, presenting his/her own feelings but not asking about or listening to the student’s feelings. [Q4] Which of the following examples best illustrates a teacher’s use of a passive response style after a student has misbehaved? 1. Your behavior disappointed me today. I know that next time you will focus and listen. 2. I expect you to follow the rules. I care about your success in school and want you to learn. 3. I am frustrated with your behavior. If another student is picking on you, you need to tell me. 4. I see that you’re upset. Maybe later you’ll try to do better. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This response isn’t passive because it provides directions on what to do “next time,” telling the student to focus and listen. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The teacher here is more assertive than passive. The teacher is direct in stating an expectation and in communicating caring. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This response isn’t passive because it provides some direction regarding appropriate behavior. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Using a passive response style, a teacher suggests that the student try to behave appropriately without addressing the problem behavior or telling the student what to do differently. [Q5] Mr. Freed has a problem with Teagan, a student who took over discussions and alienated others in her group during a cooperative learning assignment today. After class, Mr. Freed met 15 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

with Teagan, reminded her that she has had a good relationship with her teachers and other students, and asked her to explain what happened. Then he asked, “Did your behavior help you and others?” Teagan admitted that her behavior was not helpful. Mr. Freed asked Teagan what she might do differently under similar circumstances and what he and other students needed to do. Teagan responded and committed to acting differently, and Mr. Freed agreed to assign group roles on future cooperative group tasks. What approach did Mr. Freed use in resolving the conflict? 1. He imposed a solution 2. He used a problem-solving method [correct] 3. He gave in to the student’s demands 4. He used assertive discipline techniques [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Mr. Freed engaged the student in a discussion, followed specific steps in a procedure, and closed with a plan that he and the student agreed to follow. He did not impose a solution. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Problem solving allows both teacher and student to have input into a solution. Mr. Freed followed problem-solving steps in dealing with Teagan’s behavior. He asked her about her behavior, asked whether it helped, asked what he and other students need to do and what Teagan needs to do differently. He and the student agreed on a plan of action and change. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mr. Freed engaged the student in a discussion, followed specific steps in a procedure, and closed with a plan that he and the student agreed to follow. He did not give in to the student’s demands, and the student didn’t make demands. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Assertive discipline involves a clear, firm, nonhostile response that communicates expectations and caring. Mr. Freed engaged the student in a discussion, followed specific steps in a procedure, and closed with a plan that he and the student agreed to follow. Learning Outcome 13.6. Explain the need for and approaches to culturally relevant classroom management. [Q1] Urban school districts are increasingly concerned about violence in their schools. Based on evidence, why is a zero-tolerance policy an ill-advised approach? 1. It reinforces racial inequality [correct] 2. It favors Black students 3. It only punishes Latino/a students 4. No one enforces zero-tolerance [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] One major concern is that zero-tolerance policies and other harsh codes are enforced in ways that reinforce racial inequality. 16 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Enforcing zero-tolerance policies and other harsh codes results in unequal punishment of Black students, especially males. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Enforcing zero-tolerance policies and other harsh codes results in unequal punishment of Latino/a students, especially males. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Evidence supports the notion that some schools and districts have enforced zero-tolerance policies and other harsh codes. Evidence finds that when such policies are enforced, they cause problems for certain groups. [Q2] Ms. Kim teaches in a culturally diverse community and has students from a range of racial and ethnic backgrounds in her classroom. She is committed to understanding and addressing her own culturally influenced stereotypes, and she is determined to build a caring learning environment. What additional dimension of culturally responsive classroom management should Ms. Kim incorporate? 1. Reflect the community’s views of culture and race 2. Discover the cultural biases of her students’ parents 3. Punish her students for their cultural biases 4. Develop knowledge of her students’ cultural backgrounds [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Kim should understand the broader views of culture and race in the community, but she should not reflect them unless they are unbiased. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Kim is right to understand and address her own biases and stereotypes, but discovering the cultural biases of her students’ parents is not a dimension of culturally responsive classroom management. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Kim is right to understand and address her own biases and use culturally appropriate management strategies, but punishing her students for their cultural biases is not a dimension of culturally responsive classroom management. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In addition to Ms. Kim’s current culturally responsive classroom management practices, she should also develop knowledge of her students’ cultural backgrounds. Such knowledge will help her use culturally appropriate strategies. [Q3] Which of the following statements about punishment of students is supported by evidence? 1. White male students are punished more severely than other students

2. African American and Latino/a students are punished most often [correct] 3. Upper-income students receive harsh punishment more often than other students 4. Black and poor students are punished less frequently than other students [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] White students in general are punished less frequently than students of one or more other racial or cultural groups. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students. These students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. Black students are two to three times more likely to get an office referral or be suspended compared to White students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Schools with higher concentrations of Black and poor students tend to have harsher discipline policies than schools with more White, Asian, or middle and upper-income students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Schools with higher concentrations of Black and poor students tend to have harsher discipline policies than schools with more White, Asian, or middle and upper-income students. [Q4] The following teachers work in African American communities, and most of their students are Black. Ms. Brown is described as strict and mean. Mr. Davis is described as warm and demanding. Mr. Williams is described as friendly and understanding. Ms. Jackson is described as upbeat and lenient. Based on studies of teachers who are especially effective with African American students, which teacher or teachers are most likely to be effective? 1. Ms. Jackson and Mr. Williams 2. Mr. Williams 3. Ms. Brown 4. Mr. Davis [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers who are especially effective with African American students are likely to communicate high expectations for their students. Ms. Jackson and Mr. Williams don’t seem to demonstrate this characteristic.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mr. Williams is friendly and understanding. Teachers who are especially effective with African American students are likely to communicate high expectations for their students. Mr. Williams doesn’t seem to be known for this quality in his teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Brown is strict and mean. Teachers who are especially effective with African American students are likely to show caring and focus on helping students succeed even if they appear mean at times. They are not just strict and mean. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teachers who are warm and demanding (warm demanders) are “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful.” They show both high expectations and great caring for their students. [Q5] Ms. Ward notices that her second-grade storybooks tend to portray boys as assertive leaders, whereas girls are more often portrayed as timid, obedient, and cooperative partners. She also notices that on the playground at the school, the girls from her class are just as assertive as the boys, and the boys are just as cooperative as the girls. Which one of the five dimensions of culturally responsive classroom management is Ms. Ward most clearly considering? 1. Her own beliefs and stereotypes 2. The broader context of classroom teaching [correct] 3. The willingness to use culturally appropriate management strategies 4. Her awareness of the students’ uniqueness [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There’s nothing in the scenario that directly suggests that Ms. Ward is thinking about her own beliefs, although you might conclude that she has beliefs about gender stereotyping. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] One of the five dimensions of culturally responsive classroom management is understanding the broader social, economic, and political context of classroom teaching. Ms. Ward is demonstrating her understanding of the social context of her students’ behaviors and interactions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The scenario doesn’t address any of Ms. Ward’s management strategies. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ms. Ward notices differences between portrayals of gender traits in her storybooks and the gender traits of her students. This is a recognition of stereotyping in the storybooks rather than an awareness of students’ uniqueness.

Chapter 13 Application Exercises Application Exercise 13.1: Routines and Procedures Learning Outcome 13.2. Summarize the research on the roles of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class, including the differences in requirements between in-person and remote learning. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/educationalpsychology/woolfolk/MorningRouti ne_52314.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 to answer the following question: How do you think the routines in this classroom affect engaged time? Explain. [Q1 Model Response] The classroom routines increase engaged time. Students efficiently put away their coats and backpacks, stash their lunch boxes, turn in homework and meal money, and get started on the morning work. The process takes only a few minutes for the entire group of students in the class. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 to answer the following question: Describe positive ways this routine might affect students’ movements and behaviors in this classroom. [Q2 Model Response] •

They have few opportunities for conflicts to occur because their movements are structured.

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The structure encourages students to begin the day in an orderly manner with an awareness of their purpose for being in school.

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The room is safe. Everything has a place. The walkways are unobstructed, and the teacher is able to walk among students, monitor their activity, and talk to them.

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Students have jobs that rotate on a weekly basis. This helps them take pride and responsibility.

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The procedure for turning in homework and money is efficient for teacher and students. The teacher doesn’t interrupt students by calling their names and collecting these items during class time.

[Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 to answer the following question: What did this teacher most likely do to get her students to follow these routines? 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3 Model Response] The teacher most likely established these routines at the beginning of the year. She probably talked to students about each routine and demonstrated each step. She may have asked students to practice each step to make sure they knew what to do. Then she most likely reminded students of the routines when they failed to follow them. She also wrote up and posted the steps in the routine. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 to answer the following question: How might the beginning of the school day be different if this teacher had not organized her classroom with these particular routines? [Q4 Model Response] •

The students would probably enter the classroom and take items to their desks. These might block passageways, become a safety hazard, and keep the teacher from being able to reach each student.

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Students would have more opportunities for conflicts over things such as places to put their backpacks and lunch boxes.

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They might continue conversations that began outside and fail to give the teacher their attention.

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Students would not get to work as quickly on academic tasks.

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They would probably ask the teacher many questions about what to do with their meal money or their homework and notes from home.

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The result would probably be chaotic.

Application Exercise 13.2: Encouraging Engagement Learning Outcome 13.3. Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 13.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/PG112_Week3_Seg ment3_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.4 to answer the following question: In Ms. Kern’s lesson introduction on the rug, what evidence do you see that students are engaged? [Q1 Model Response] On the rug, Ms. Kern captures students’ attention as she first introduces the writing task. She keeps their attention by explaining each step and involving them in the discussion. Students 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

listen attentively and participate as Ms. Kern provides continuous cues with questions. The teacher’s continuous use of targeted questions and the students’ continuous responses with appropriate answers provide evidence of student engagement. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.4 to answer the following question: How does Ms. Kern communicate clear instructions, and how do her clear instructions affect student engagement? [Q2 Model Response] One of the guidelines for keeping students engaged states that teachers should make basic work requirements clear. Ms. Kern communicates clear work requirements and makes sure students understand what they are expected to do. She designed the project for students to follow specific steps, and she discusses each step with the students before dismissing them to their groups. As a result of Ms. Kern’s planning and clear instructions, student engagement should be optimal. Students will not wonder what to do or how to do it; they will begin following the steps and continue until their group work is complete. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.4 to answer the following question: According to the author, “When students have all the materials they need to complete a task, they tend to stay involved.” Describe specific examples that show how Ms. Kern followed this guideline and predict the level of engagement Ms. Kern might expect from her students. [Q3 Model Response] Ms. Kern provided a chart on poster board as an organization tool to guide each group. She also provided a word wall, books, pencils, markers, and paper (for the different kinds of pages). Students had all the tools they needed to create their group books. One would expect the level of student engagement to be high, because students have all the materials they need and they know what to do. Application Exercise 13.3: Dealing with Discipline Problems Learning Outcome 13.4. Identify strategies (especially penalties and alternatives, restorative justice, and student self-discipline) for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/classroommanagement/Seeking_Attention_P art_1_iPad.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 to answer the following question: In this scenario, Mr. Merkin worked with other students before talking to Tyra about her behavior. Why do you think this was a good way to deal with a discipline problem? 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q1 Model Response] Mr. Merkin helped other students refocus their attention on their group work. This was a good decision, because students had been distracted from learning and needed to return to their primary task. Classroom management is the responsibility of the teacher, and Mr. Merkin recognized that refocusing would restore the environment for learning. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 to answer the following question: Why was it important for Mr. Merkin to go to Tyra personally and reinforce her decision to pull away from the group after throwing things at peers? [Q2 Model Response] Mr. Merkin needed to re-establish a positive relationship with Tyra right away. This is an important aspect of classroom management. A student should not be ostracized or made to feel unaccepted. Mr. Merkin reinforced Tyra’s decision to pull away from her group and get herself together. He made it clear that she could rejoin her group when she was ready. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 to answer the following question: Is this scenario an example of teacher-imposed penalties or student responsibility? Explain. [Q3 Model Response] This is actually both. The student took responsibility for her actions by pulling herself away from her group and “getting herself together.” It is an example of teacher-imposed penalty in that Mr. Merkin will call Tyra’s parents and discuss Tyra’s behavior with them. Contacting parents is generally viewed as a penalty.

Chapter 13 Test Items Chapter 13 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 13.1: Relate academic learning time and student Multiple Choice: 1-3 cooperation to creating and maintaining a classroom climate conducive to academic achievement and socio-emotional wellbeing. Objective 13.2: Summarize the research on the roles of rules, Multiple Choice: 4-8 procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical Essay: 28 space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class, including the differences in requirements between inperson and remote learning. Objective 13.3: Discuss how to maintain a positive learning Multiple Choice: 9-12 environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing Essay: 29 problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. Objective 13.4: Identify strategies (especially penalties and Multiple Choice: 13-20 alternatives, restorative justice, and student self-discipline) for Essay: 30-31 preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. Objective 13.5: Characterize successful teacher–student and Multiple Choice: 21-25 student–student communication through such approaches as Essay: 32 empathetic listening, I-messages, and problem-solving. Objective 13.6: Explain the need for and approaches to Multiple Choice: 26-27 culturally relevant classroom management. Essay: 33

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Noah’s achievement in fifth grade has been remarkable. Last year in fourth grade, he had occasional problems with distractions and difficulty understanding what was expected, but this year he clearly understands expectations and appreciates his teacher’s optimism. Based on studies of factors related to student achievement, which of the following factors most likely makes the largest impact on Noah’s success? a. His teacher’s content knowledge in fifth grade subjects b. His teacher’s knowledge and skill in classroom management c. His increased interest in school d. His increased ability to follow rules and procedures 2. Ms. Tippens is a new teacher. She is nervous about the responsibilities of teaching a classroom of 23 sixth graders. She is reading current articles about classroom management and setting goals as she prepares for the school term to begin. Which of the following should be one of her top classroom management goals? a. Ensure that students have fun learning 24 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Make sure she excels in content knowledge c. Make sure students comply with rules d. Help students achieve self-management 3. Mr. Stone’s students have been completely engrossed in a physics experiment. At the end of the experiment, all students scored 100% on the follow-up quiz. This high rate of student success is one of Mr. Stone’s most effective class sessions. Such a class session illustrates which of the following? a. Engaged time or time on task b. Access to learning c. Academic learning time d. Instructional time 4. Which of the following teachers apparently did NOT establish classroom procedures? a. As Mrs. Gilbert reads aloud to the class in a favorite chapter book after lunch, several students sharpen pencils and go to the trashcan. b. Students in Mr. Carpenter’s class put their homework in the homework tray as soon as they store their personal items at their seats in the mornings. c. Ms. Lopez’s students move their desks into groups of four when she says it’s time for group activities in math class. d. The fourth-grade students in Mr. Thomas’s class talk excitedly about the upcoming field trip until he tells them to form a quiet line for lunch. 5. Based on guidelines for establishing classroom rules, which of the following statements is a good rule? a. Do not come to class late. b. As much as possible, come to class prepared. c. Listen and stay seated while others are speaking. d. Do not push, shove, or hit others. 6. In the following situations, students experienced different consequences in response to their negative behavior. Three of the students experienced natural or logical consequences. Which student experienced negative consequences or penalties? a. Margo had to apologize to Evan to make things right after she insulted him. b. Cayson’s teacher told him to reassemble his classmate’s Lego tower that he destroyed. c. The teacher required Jackie to miss recess and think about what she did and how her behavior affected others. d. The teacher told Adam to redo the assignment after he turned in a half-hearted and incomplete product. 7. Ms. Ashley wants to build cohesion among the students in her history class and encourage all students to participate in a brief brainstorming session about problems with their last simulation project. What seating arrangement is likely to be most effective in helping her achieve her goal?

a. Fishbowl b. Horizontal rows facing the front c. Clusters of four d. Horizontal rows on opposite sides facing each other 8. Mr. Neal is establishing rules and routines for remote learning. Which of his rules or routines should be OMITTED? a. For videoconferencing, dress like you are in the classroom b. Sit with your device so you can be seen during the videoconference c. Be on time and prepared with a space set up for serious work d. Feel free to engage in private conversations on the side during videoconferencing 9. Mrs. Franks is explaining a new concept in her algebra class. Some of the students are paying attention and trying to grasp the new concept, but two students flip small paper stars to each other every time Mrs. Franks turns toward the smart board. Another student tosses a big wad into the air as a distraction. Which classroom management skill does Mrs. Franks need to demonstrate in this situation? a. Group focus b. Overlapping c. Withitness d. Movement management 10. Carla is a good student, but she is trying to figure out why she finds it difficult to understand new concepts in Mr. Delgado’s class. She has noticed that he seems to read his notes to the class, and he doesn’t transition from one idea to the next very smoothly. He’s a new teacher and seems to lack the skill of: a. withitness. b. movement management. c. self-regulation. d. group focus. 11. Based on studies about teacher-student relationships, which teacher is likely to have POOR relationships with students? a. A teacher who demonstrates emotional support and caring for students b. A teacher who maintains authority by being rigid about classroom order c. A teacher who asks if something is wrong when a student seems upset d. A teacher who minimizes the use of external controls 12. Ms. Simone teaches high school freshmen who often enter the high school scene feeling disconnected and overwhelmed. She wants to create a caring community and help these freshmen feel a sense of belonging. Which of the following actions is most likely to help her achieve her goal appropriately? a. Ms. Simone might connect with her students on social media to encourage connections outside the classroom. 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. Ms. Simone should get student feedback about topics of study but not about her teaching or classroom management practices. c. Ms. Simone might conduct weekly academic skill contests that involve individual competition for the top rank in the class. d. Ms. Simone should get to know the students as individuals and learn about their academic and nonacademic interests. 13. The following teachers used recommended strategies for stopping problems quickly in the classroom. Which teacher used the most intrusive approach? a. Mr. Allen made eye contact with Sylvia and shook his head slightly to signal that she needed to stop her disruptive behavior. b. Ms. Ramos told Bart in a firm voice to stop the disruptive behavior. c. Mrs. Tilley directed a question to Alex to redirect his attention and get him to stop his disruptive behavior. d. Mr. Kim asked Kyley to state the correct procedure for inserting her opinions into the class discussion. 14. In her second-grade classroom, Ms. Camp tried subtle approaches and then more intrusive approaches to get Amelia to stay in her seat during group work and independent seatwork. Amelia typically obeys when reminded, but today she acted defiant and talked back. Ms. Camp decided to impose a penalty for Amelia’s misbehavior. Which of the following methods of imposing a penalty is likely to be LEAST effective? a. Impose the penalty privately b. Offer Amelia a choice to apologize for talking back and stop the disruptive behavior or sit apart from the group c. Deny Amelia free time to take her turn playing a computer game d. Lower Amelia’s grade on the spelling assignment the class is doing 15. Sadie and Emma got into a conflict over a singing competition. Emma won the last spot in the school’s singing group, and Sadie felt jealous and angry. The anger continued to build for almost a week. Then Sadie got on her cell phone and called friends to spread lies about Emma. Sadie dishonestly claimed that Emma cheats on everything, always copies Sadie’s homework, and lies to teachers. This is an example of: a. physical bullying b. social/relational bullying c. verbal abuse d. identity bullying 16. What should teachers do about teasing among students? a. Teach students how to cope with harmful teasing without feeling hurt or turning to adults. b. Ignore teasing among students at school. c. Teach students to read intentions of others and distinguish playful teasing from bullying. d. Forbid teasing among students at school.

17. Which student’s teasing is defined as identity bullying? a. Hillary teased DeMarcus about striking at a bad pitch. b. Barb teased Thom about going on a date with her friend Shawna. c. Danny teased Katie about having a bad hair day. d. Brandon teased Levi about being a Jew. 18. Charlie accidentally knocked Stephanie’s book off her desk as he rushed to his reading group. Stephanie reacted by getting up and shoving Charlie into the table. The teacher dealt with the conflict by helping Stephanie understand Charlie’s intentions, watching her deliver a sincere apology, and helping the two students resolve the conflict. What approach did the teacher use? a. Zero tolerance b. An anti-aggression school program c. Restorative justice d. Giving power to Stephanie 19. At what age does the greatest amount of bullying occur among students? a. Early elementary school b. Late elementary school c. Middle school d. High school 20. Damien is often described as a hotheaded high school student. In general, he does not respect women, and acts out particularly in Ms. Monroe’s class. Today he came into class arguing with Sabrina, one of the other students. She wasn’t intimidated by his threat, so he grabbed her book bag off her shoulder and shoved her toward the wall. Another student retrieved the book bag and ordered Damien to grow up. Damien pushed that student also. Ms. Monroe called Damien by name. According to recommended guidelines, what should she do as she continues to deal with this situation? a. Tell him to meet her in the hallway b. Threaten to send for the principal c. Suspend him from school immediately d. Point to Damien and reprimand him in front of others to show her authority 21. Kayla arrives late to Mr. Roper’s class after returning from a dental appointment. Mr. Roper is thinking, “She’s late again. How frustrating!” However, he manages to ask, “Why are you late?” Kayla hears the words, but believes Mr. Roper is angry and judging her. What about Mr. Roper’s communication most likely led Kayla to think Mr. Roper was angry and judging her? a. Mr. Roper probably speaks loudly. b. Most likely Mr. Roper said more to Kayla than merely asking her why she was late. c. Kayla actually misunderstood what Mr. Roper said. d. Mr. Roper’s tone of voice and other nonverbal behaviors gave clues. 28 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

22. Bethany talks to the person seated next to her and disrupts instruction during reading group, class discussions, and teacher presentations. No matter who is seated next to Bethany, she talks and interferes with learning. Her teacher is following the steps of a problem-solving model to help Bethany see that her behavior disrupts and breaks a rule. They have worked out a plan that involves Bethany’s self-monitoring. What is the most appropriate next step? a. Ask parents to impose penalties if Bethany disrupts class again b. Seat Bethany away from all other students c. Ask the class to excuse Bethany’s behavior d. Get Bethany to commit to the plan 23. Blake complains to Mrs. Parks, “We shouldn’t have to do these brutal word problems for homework. They don’t help me understand geometry at all.” Which of the following responses demonstrates empathetic listening? a. “You don’t like doing these word problems. You think they’re really hard.” b. “Let me help you. Maybe you’re missing something.” c. “Why do you say they’re brutal? We did examples like these problems during class yesterday.” d. “We’ll go over the problems in class. Maybe you’ll learn something then.” 24. Third-grade teacher Ms. Hinsley is giving instructions to the class about a new cooperative group assignment. As she speaks, Mick makes loud crashing sounds with his mouth. Which of the following confrontations delivers an “I” message to Mick? a. “I don’t like your noises while I’m giving instructions. You are showing disrespect and need to stop now.” b. “You are interfering with the lesson and disturbing the other students. I need you to stop and listen like everyone else.” c. “You’re making loud noises while I’m giving instructions. Your noises interfere with my teaching and make me feel disrespected.” d. “I’m annoyed by your noises. You have distracted the whole class, and I’d like for you to apologize.” 25. In which situation does the teacher use an assertive discipline approach to address student behavior? a. The teacher asserts her authority to ensure that the student knows who is in charge in the classroom. b. The teacher communicates that he cares too much about the students and their learning to allow inappropriate behavior. c. The teacher gives the student a chance to blow off steam and then reminds the student to think about the appropriate action. d. The teacher and student agree inappropriateness of the behavior.

disagree

about

the

appropriateness

26. Black and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students, but they do not commit more serious offenses. How are teachers using culturally responsive management to address this inequity? a. Teachers demonstrate greater leniency with Black and Latino/a American students to compensate for the inequity. b. Teachers hold other students accountable for modeling appropriate behaviors in order to bridge the culture gap. c. Teachers combine high expectations for appropriate behavior and warm teacher-student relationships. d. Teachers instruct these students in majority culture behaviors before holding them accountable for high behavioral expectations. 27. Based on studies, which of the following teachers is likely to be most effective in an urban secondary school with predominantly Black students? a. A teacher who understands the culture well enough to accommodate students who cannot complete assignments b. A teacher who is tough, unintimidated by students and their behaviors, yet caring c. A teacher who knows the culture, demands respect, and maintains professional distance from students d. A teacher who accepts students’ behaviors, their diverse ways of showing respect, and their reasons for anger

Essay Questions 28. Mr. Cicardo arranged his second-grade students in groups of four to accommodate group work for math. Students keep their desks in this arrangement at all times. During spelling tests, Mr. Cicardo reminds students to look only at their papers and demonstrate their individual ability to spell the words. Occasionally, he finds students looking at a neighbor’s paper anyway. During language arts lessons, Mr. Cicardo often sees students mouthing messages to one another in their groups, and he reminds them to pay attention to the lesson. When Mr. Cicardo works with small reading groups, the rest of the class works on independent seatwork. This is a time when students often collaborate and talk with others seated nearby. The noise is distracting to students who are working quietly, and it disturbs the reading group being conducted. So, Mr. Cicardo frequently needs to remind students that this is independent work, not group work. Describe specific changes Mr. Cicardo might make in his classroom arrangement and procedures to improve the learning environment and reduce disruptions. 29. You are beginning your second year as a ninth-grade teacher in high school. During your first year, you noticed that some of your students had difficulty transitioning from middle school to high school. They seemed lost, didn’t feel like they belonged, and struggled to adapt. Explain what you will do in your second year to help these students acclimate. 30. The sixth graders in Mrs. Marsh’s class are well aware of the rules and procedures that were established the first week of school. Now, in the fifth week of school, Mrs. Marsh expects students to comply and cooperate with minimal correction. Today her lesson involves introducing a new science concept and giving instructions for a follow-up activity. During her 30 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

presentation to the class, one student talks to her neighbor and another writes a note and passes it to his girlfriend across the room. Describe immediate steps Mrs. Marsh might take to prevent these behaviors from disrupting the lesson. 31. Justin is one of the popular boys in eighth grade. He likes attention and enjoys having the younger kids look up to him. He especially likes the reputation of being the leader of the group of guys he hangs out with. One morning two girls in Ms. Armstrong’s homeroom reported to her that Justin tweeted lies about them to the other students in class. He made sexually explicit claims about his relationship with them. Explain how Ms. Armstrong might deal with the victims and with Justin and how she might effectively approach the topic with the class. 32. Heather is a bright middle school student who usually does well in language arts. She loves to read and enjoys a wide range of authors and types of literature. However, she doesn’t like to write. She finds writing tedious and occasionally doesn’t do her best work on writing assignments. Currently the class is learning to research a topic and write informational reports, being cautious about citing sources and presenting ideas in their own words. During class, Heather becomes impatient about summarizing ideas in her own words and complains to the teacher that she hates this assignment. The teacher responds by saying, “Didn’t you learn to summarize in elementary school? If you actually read the article, you’d be able to do this in a snap. Stop complaining and get busy.” Explain why this teacher’s approach is NOT effective. Next, describe what the teacher might do to deal with the problem positively. 33. Ryan Steel considers himself a geek and a nerd. He just landed his first teaching assignment in a community that couldn’t be further from his comfort zone if he were assigned to Mars. Ryan grew up in a small, culturally homogenous midwestern farming town where everyone knows everyone else, and many of the residents are related to one or more other families in the community. Ryan’s first teaching job is in a culturally diverse middle school in an urban area in the north central part of the country. Most of the students in his school are Black or Latino/a American, though Asian American and Native American students make up significant minorities. What kinds of classroom management problems might Ryan face as a result of cultural asynchronization between his background and that of his students? What recommendations do you have for Ryan to help him approach his new teaching assignment with culturally responsive classroom management?

Chapter 13 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: His teacher’s knowledge and skill in classroom management Feedback for Correct Answer: In study after study, classroom management stands out as the variable with the largest impact on student achievement. Knowledge of and skill in classroom management are marks of expertise in teaching. Noah’s fifth-grade teacher most likely has more knowledge and skill in classroom management than his fourth-grade teacher. Text Reference: The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization

Correct Answer: Help students achieve self-management Feedback for Correct Answer: One goal of any management system is to help students become better able to manage themselves. If teachers focus on student compliance, they will spend much of the teaching/learning time monitoring and correcting. Students come to perceive the purpose of school as just following rules, not constructing deep understanding of academic knowledge. And complex learning structures such as cooperative or problem-based learning require student self-management. Compliance with rules is not enough to make these learning structures work. Text Reference: The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization

Correct Answer: Academic learning time Feedback for Correct Answer: When students are working with a high rate of success—really learning and understanding—we call the time spent academic learning time. We can estimate this to be about 80% of the time they are engaged. Text Reference: The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization

Correct Answer: As Mrs. Gilbert reads aloud to the class in a favorite chapter book after lunch, several students sharpen pencils and go to the trashcan. Feedback for Correct Answer: Mrs. Gilbert apparently did NOT establish classroom procedures for disposing of trash items and sharpening pencils. Routine procedures typically specify times for remaining seated and times for going to the trashcan and pencil sharpener in order to prevent disturbances and increase efficiency. A whole-class read-aloud obviously involves listening, not distracting. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Correct Answer: Listen and stay seated while others are speaking. Feedback for Correct Answer: Rules should be positive and observable, concrete and clear. Rules should not be vague. Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the dos and don’ts. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment 32 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Correct Answer: The teacher required Jackie to miss recess and think about what she did and how her behavior affected others. Feedback for Correct Answer: Requiring Jackie to miss recess is punishment. The other students experienced natural consequences. Instead of punishing them, their teachers asked students to redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Correct Answer: Fishbowl Feedback for Correct Answer: The fishbowl can create a feeling of group cohesion and is helpful when the teacher wants students to watch a demonstration, brainstorm on a class problem, or see a small visual aid. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Correct Answer: Feel free to engage in private conversations on the side during videoconferencing Feedback for Correct Answer: According to studies, management plays a big role in remote learning. Teachers need to set expectations, manage time, monitor students’ behavior, and handle communication and collaboration. For effective remote learning, students should not send messages or have side conversations during videoconferencing. The setting should reflect a focused approach to learning. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Correct Answer: Withitness Feedback for Correct Answer: Withitness means awareness of everything that is happening in the classroom. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in the back of their heads. These teachers are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual students, so the students know they are being monitored Text Reference: Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

10.

Correct Answer: movement management. Feedback for Correct Answer: Movement management is the management skill of keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. Mr. Delgado lacks this skill. He needs to develop the ability to present information without reading notes and remain flexible to meet students’ needs. He also needs to use smooth transitions that help students make associations between ideas rather than abrupt transitions that leave students confused. Text Reference: Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

11.

Correct Answer: A teacher who maintains authority by being rigid about classroom order Feedback for Correct Answer: Students respect teachers who maintain their authority without being rigid or harsh—teachers who are fair and honest with them, demonstrate emotional support and caring, and make 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

sure students understand the material. Text Reference: Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 12.

Correct Answer: Ms. Simone should get to know the students as individuals and learn about their academic and nonacademic interests. Feedback for Correct Answer: By getting to know her students as individuals and learning about their interests, she creates appropriate caring relationships and helps her students feel connected. She might even help students with similar interests make connections related to their interests or hobbies and help connect students’ interests to the academic content. Text Reference: Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

13.

Correct Answer: Ms. Ramos told Bart in a firm voice to stop the disruptive behavior. Feedback for Correct Answer: Asserting a direct order is more intrusive than the other strategies used to stop disruptions quickly. Making eye contact is least intrusive, followed by directing a question to the student and asking the student to state the correct procedure. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

14.

Correct Answer: Lower Amelia’s grade on the spelling assignment the class is doing Feedback for Correct Answer: Effective, caring teachers would not use low achievement status, grades, or the like as a means of discipline. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

15.

Correct Answer: social/relational bullying Feedback for Correct Answer: Social/relational bullying is intentional manipulation of people’s social lives, friendships, or reputation. Sadie is damaging friendships and trying to destroy Emma’s reputation. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

16.

Correct Answer: Teach students to read intentions of others and distinguish playful teasing from bullying. Feedback for Correct Answer: Students should not be told to ignore their feelings about harmful teasing or bullying. They need to be taught social skills that help them read body language and understand intentionality. Students need to know when to ignore teasing from a friend and when to report harmful teasing from a bully. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

17.

Correct Answer: Brandon teased Levi about being a Jew. Feedback for Correct Answer: Identity bulling includes leaving people out or treating them badly because of their racial or ethnic background, religion, or disability. Students should not engage in racist name calling or telling jokes that mock race, religion, or disability. Brandon’s teasing violates appropriateness by teasing Levi about 34 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

being a Jew. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems 18.

Correct Answer: Restorative justice Feedback for Correct Answer: Restorative justice is an approach for restoring relationships. Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims and offenders. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and stronger actions. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

19.

Correct Answer: Middle school Feedback for Correct Answer: Bullying can begin as early as preschool and generally peaks during middle school, then declines a bit by the end of high school. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

20.

Correct Answer: Tell him to meet her in the hallway Feedback for Correct Answer: In dealing with potentially explosive situations, teachers are advised to be respectful and brief, to avoid power struggles, threats, and arguments, use the student’s name, and, if possible, deal with the student privately. By telling Damien to meet her in the hallway, Ms. Monroe de-escalates the classroom situation and deals with Damien without an audience. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

21.

Correct Answer: Mr. Roper’s tone of voice and other nonverbal behaviors gave clues. Feedback for Correct Answer: In all interactions, a message is sent, and a message is received. Sometimes teachers believe they are sending one message, but their voices, body positions, choices of words, and gestures may communicate a different message. Our actions, movements, voice tone, facial expressions, and many other nonverbal behaviors send messages to our students. Many times, the messages we intend to send are not the messages our students receive. With his tone of voice and other nonverbal behaviors, Mr. Roper sent the message of frustration that he was thinking, though his words didn’t state his frustration. Text Reference: The Need for Communication

22.

Correct Answer: Get Bethany to commit to the plan Feedback for Correct Answer: After discussing the problem with the student and working out a plan, the teacher needs to ask the student to commit to the plan—to hold the student accountable and increase personal responsibility. Text Reference: The Need for Communication

23.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Empathetic listening means hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. Text Reference: The Need for Communication 24.

Correct Answer: “You’re making loud noises while I’m giving instructions. Your noises interfere with my teaching and make me feel disrespected.” Feedback for Correct Answer: An “I” message means telling a student in a straightforward, assertive, and nonjudgmental way what she or he is doing, how it affects you as a teacher, and how you feel about it. The student is then free to change voluntarily, and often does so. Text Reference: The Need for Communication

25.

Correct Answer: The teacher communicates that he cares too much about the students and their learning to allow inappropriate behavior. Feedback for Correct Answer: An assertive response communicates to the students that you care too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers calmly, firmly, and clearly state what they expect without becoming hostile. Text Reference: The Need for Communication

26.

Correct Answer: Teachers combine high expectations for appropriate behavior and warm teacher-student relationships. Feedback for Correct Answer: Black and Latino/a American students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance— words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students. Culturally responsive management combines high expectations for students’ appropriate behavior with warmth and caring for the students as individuals. Text Reference: Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management

27.

Correct Answer: A teacher who is tough, unintimidated by students and their behaviors, yet caring Feedback for Correct Answer: Effective teachers of Black students in urban secondary schools typically have high expectations for academics and behavior in their classes, yet they are perceived to be caring. The term warm demanders is used to describe this combination of “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful.” Text Reference: Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 28.

Suggested Response: Mr. Cicardo needs to change the seating arrangement for independent work. Second graders will function better with independent seatwork if they are seated in horizontal rows and have their own personal territory while the teacher conducts small reading groups. This should cut down on disruptions. Mr. Cicardo needs to work with students to establish rules that relate to listening and 36 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

not disrupting, and he needs to discuss consequences. He should establish clear expectations for independent work time and small group time and then apply consequences consistently as needed. Mr. Cicardo also needs to establish procedures for getting into group formation for math or for reading. He might establish a routine for moving the desks into group formation quickly when it’s time for math groups and rearranging desks into rows quickly after math tasks. Routines/procedures and rules should be established at the beginning of the year and revisited periodically. Text Reference: Creating a Positive Learning Environment 29.

Suggested Response: To help these students acclimate, a teacher might create caring relationships. Positive teacher relationships are particularly important at the transition to middle school for students who face academic risks. A teacher begins by getting to know the students as individuals and learning what they like, their interests, their hobbies, and their extracurricular activities. It also involves showing respect for diversity by appreciating the abilities of each student and providing opportunities for demonstration of unique talents and skills. In the second year, the teacher should continue to be professional, maintain authority without being rigid, but try to be more authentic with students and minimize the use of external controls. A teacher might use the EMR model—establish, maintain, restore. Establish by encouraging student belonging; maintain by 5-to-1 ratio of positive to negative interactions; restore by making things right again after conflict. Get student input by setting up a suggestion box in the classroom and giving students an opportunity to make anonymous suggestions about the classroom and the teaching that will help them learn. The teacher needs to be prepared to listen to input and respect it without taking it too personally. Text Reference: Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

30.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Marsh needs to use the least disruptive strategies to stop the behavior problems quickly and continue the lesson. She might make eye contact with the distracted students or approach their desks and use a gesture as a reminder that she is watching. She might embed questions in the lesson and call on one of these students to provide an answer. If possible, she should handle these minor distractions without stopping the lesson or dealing with the behavior verbally. Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems

31.

Suggested Response: •

Ms. Armstrong must take the bullying report seriously. She needs to deal with the victims first and assure them that they are not responsible for Justin’s cyberbullying behavior. She needs to deal with Justin by telling him that such behavior will not be tolerated.

•

She needs to follow school policy for reporting the bullying and seeing that the consequences for cyberbullying are carried out in this case.

•

In the classroom, she might conduct a discussion about cyberbullying, remind students of school policy, discuss definitions and examples of cyberbullying, and discuss appropriate ways to deal with cyberbullying when it occurs. She might invite a guest to teach students about protecting their accounts on social media, using it wisely, and blocking perpetrators. She might work with her students to 37 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

develop a set of rules and procedures related to the use of media, particularly social media. •

One classroom approach that has proved helpful in decreasing bullying is prevention though cooperative learning. Cooperative activities that create positive interdependence to reach mutual goals can support forming new friendships and including all students.

Text Reference: Dealing with Discipline Problems 32.

Suggested Response: The teacher’s approach is not effective because she implies accusingly that Heather didn’t read the material. She insults Heather by stating that she should have learned summarizing skills in elementary school. She also implies that Heather is not trying. In this situation, the teacher needs to use empathetic listening. She needs to hear the intent and emotions behind Heather’s statement and paraphrase the message back to Heather. In doing so, the teacher keeps the line of communication open. The teacher will then be able to learn why this is so difficult for Heather and what tips the teacher might give to help Heather take the next steps effectively. The teacher might also explain why this type of writing is important for Heather and the other students— making it relevant for them. Text Reference: The Need for Communication

33.

Suggested Response: The lack of cultural synchronization will be recognizable to Ryan and his students immediately. He likely comes into the community with biases, some of which he may not even recognize. He also comes into the community with his own assumptions about appropriate behavior and ways of doing things. Classroom management problems are likely to highlight differences between Ryan’s cultural background and the backgrounds of his students. For example, he may perceive that his students demonstrate less respect for authority and greater noncompliance with rules. Ryan may misinterpret his students’ behaviors, believing they are disrespectful when they actually mean no disrespect. Ryan’s way of responding to misbehavior may be more indirect than the approaches his students expect and understand. Recommendations for Ryan: Learn and practice the five dimensions of culturally responsive classroom management. 1) Examine and understand his own biases. In a situation like Ryan’s, a teacher cannot assume that his ways are superior or that his perceptions are always right. 2) Learn his students’ cultural backgrounds. Even before school begins, Ryan can conduct his own research and prepare himself with general knowledge about the cultural demographics of his new community. He might find ways to connect with students and their prior knowledge as he integrates the academic content with his students’ cultural backgrounds. 3) Understand the broader context of cultures in the community—patterns of discrimination and social and economic distinctions. Ryan might enter the classroom on the first day with some knowledge of the ways different groups are received within the community. 4) Learn and use culturally appropriate management strategies. Ryan likely needs to 38 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

practice strategies that involve being direct, yet caring, and without hostility. In a culturally diverse classroom, a teacher cannot assume that all students respond to directness or indirectness in the same way (contrasting African American youth and Native American youth). 5) Exhibit caring in the classroom and build caring among students. This might take the form of a warm demander—being “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful.” As a young teacher, Ryan may need to take time to grow into the warm demander role. Ryan might connect with families and partner with them in recognizing and modeling good citizenship. In this endeavor, Ryan will be learning as well as teaching. Text Reference: Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management

Chapter 13 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 13.1 Relate academic learning time and student cooperation to creating and maintaining a classroom climate conducive to academic achievement and socio-emotional well-being. Outcome 13.2 Summarize the research on the roles of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class, including the differences in requirements between in-person and remote learning. Outcome 13.3 Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. Outcome 13.4 Identify strategies (especially penalties and alternatives, restorative justice, and student self-discipline) for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. Outcome 13.5 Characterize successful teacher–student and student–student communication through such approaches as empathetic listening, I-messages, and problem solving. Outcome 13.6 Explain the need for and approaches to culturally relevant classroom management. [Q1] LO 13.2 Mr. Garcia wants to establish rules in his high school classes. According to recommended guidelines, which of the following rules is a good rule? 1. Don’t lash out at anyone 2. Respect others and their property [correct] 3. Don’t interrupt others when they are speaking in class 4. Don’t fight [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Rules are statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors. They should be positive and observable. This rule is positive and observable. [Q2] LO 13.3 Teachers often use different approaches to begin class. Which of the following teachers uses an approach that is most likely to result in the highest levels of student engagement and achievement? 1. Ms. Patel always reminds students to be prompt and get started immediately. 2. Mr. White asks students to read the learning targets silently. 3. Ms. Applegate collects homework and tells students to review notes from yesterday. 4. Mr. Watson greets each student and shows interest in them and their learning. [correct] 40 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teacher connections with students are important. Results of many studies confirm that the affective quality of teacher–student relationships, that is, whether teachers and students feel close or in conflict, is important for students’ classroom engagement, academic achievement, and social-emotional development. Mr. Watson greets students and shows interest in them. He makes connections. [Q3] LO 13.4 Which of the following strategies is recommended for handling potentially explosive situations in the classroom? 1. Walk quickly toward the student and maintain a stern expression 2. Avoid making eye contact 3. Address the issue in front of the class 4. Be respectful and maintain a reasonable distance [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] To handle potentially explosive situations in the classroom, teachers are advised to be respectful and keep a reasonable distance. The teacher should not crowd the student or speak disrespectfully. [Q4] LO 13.5 Which of the following responses is recommended for situations in which a student interferes with teaching and confrontation is required? 1. Use a “you” message 2. Use an “I” message [correct] 3. Use a hostile response 4. Use a passive response [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Jones and Jones (2016) describe an approach first developed by Thomas Gordon—sending an “I” message to intervene and change a student’s behavior. Basically, this means telling a student in a straightforward, assertive, and nonjudgmental way what she or he is doing, how it affects you as a teacher, and how you feel about it. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 13.3 Case It happened every day. Ginny Harding reprimanded the same two boys in her class. Instead of feeling like a good teacher, Ginny felt like a nag. The boys were not malicious, but their whispers and giggles were annoying. Ginny realized that if she kept responding in the same way, she would continue to get the same results. After reflection, she decided to develop more withitness. What might withitness look like in Ms. Harding’s classroom?

[Feedback for Answer 5] Withitness means communicating to students that you are aware of everything that is happening in the classroom. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in the back of their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed by distractions or interacting with only a few students, because this encourages the rest of the class to wander. In Ms. Harding’s classroom, having withitness means that she will always be scanning the room and making eye contact with individual students. The two boys who have been disruptive in the past will realize that Ms. Harding is watching them at all times. Ms. Harding will involve these boys in the lesson by asking for their comments and calling on them to answer questions. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 13.5 It happened every day. Ginny Harding reprimanded the same two boys in her class. Instead of feeling like a good teacher, Ginny felt like a nag. The boys were not malicious, but their whispers and giggles were annoying. Ginny realized that if she kept responding in the same way, she would continue to get the same results. After reflection, she decided to develop a more effective approach. If Ms. Harding used an “I” message to communicate to the two disruptive boys, what might her message say? [Feedback for Answer 6] When you whisper and giggle during the lesson, you disrupt the lesson and I feel frustrated. If you whisper and giggle when I am trying to talk, I lose my focus and have difficulty teaching effectively.

Chapter 14 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 14: Teaching Every Student Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 14: Teaching Every Student Chapter 14 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 14.1. Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates, including the role of teacher expectations and the goal of ambitious teaching. [Q1] Ms. Dumas has taught middle school math for 17 years and is quite knowledgeable about math. Students praise her for anticipating their misconceptions and helping them move forward. Ms. Dumas implements teaching strategies that encourage collaboration and help students enjoy learning math. She masterfully diagnoses students’ learning needs and provides the direction that helps every student succeed. At the end of each day, she thinks back about individual students’ struggles and considers ways to improve instruction. In this scenario, what detail or details indicate that Ms. Dumas has pedagogical content knowledge? 1. Being knowledgeable about math 2. Anticipating misconceptions and helping students move forward 3. Diagnosing students’ learning needs and providing direction 4. Anticipating misconceptions, helping students move forward, diagnosing learning needs, and providing direction [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Pedagogical content knowledge combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Being knowledgeable is only part of this combination. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Anticipating misconceptions and helping students move forward is part (but not all) of the information in this scenario that provides evidence of Ms. Dumas’s pedagogical content knowledge. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Diagnosing students’ learning needs and providing direction is part (but not all) of the information in this scenario that provides evidence of Ms. Dumas’s pedagogical content knowledge. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In this scenario, several details indicate that Ms. Dumas has pedagogical content knowledge. She anticipates students’ misconceptions and helps them move forward. She masterfully diagnoses students’ learning needs and provides the direction that helps every student succeed. By definition, pedagogical content knowledge combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences.

[Q2] Ms. Dumas has taught middle school math for 17 years and is quite knowledgeable about math. Students praise her for anticipating their misconceptions and helping them move forward with new concepts. Ms. Dumas implements teaching strategies that encourage collaboration and help students enjoy learning math. She masterfully diagnoses students’ learning needs and provides the direction that helps every student succeed. At the end of each day, she thinks back about individual students’ struggles and considers ways to improve instruction. In this scenario, what evidence, if any, indicates that Ms. Dumas is a reflective teacher? 1. She thinks back about individual students’ struggles and ways to improve instruction [correct] 2. She is quite knowledgeable about math, but she is not reflective 3. She implements collaborative teaching strategies and helps students enjoy learning math 4. She helps students understand concepts when they struggle with misconceptions [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students. Ms. Dumas does this at the end of each day when she thinks back about individual students’ struggles and considers ways to improve instruction. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This scenario provides evidence that Ms. Dumas is not only knowledgeable about math but also reflective about her teaching. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Using collaborative teaching strategies and helping students enjoy learning math is not evidence of reflective teaching. Ms. Dumas is intentional about her reflections. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Helping students understand concepts when they struggle with misconceptions is evidence of good teaching but not evidence of reflective teaching. Ms. Dumas is intentional about her reflections. [Q3] Ms. Dumas has taught middle school math for 17 years and is quite knowledgeable about math. Students praise her for anticipating their misconceptions and helping them move forward with new concepts. One of her students, Weston, felt like a failure in math until Ms. Dumas’s high expectations and teaching strategies helped him succeed and believe in his own ability to learn math. Weston’s experience in Ms. Dumas’s class is an example of which of the following? 1. Sustaining expectation effect 2. Pedagogical reasoning 3. Self-fulfilling prophecy 4. Pygmalion effect [correct]

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A sustaining expectation effect occurs when teachers assess a student’s abilities at one level and fail to alter their expectations of that student even after the student exceeds expectations. Ms. Dumas has high expectations of her students and maintains those high expectations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Pedagogical reasoning is described as the union of thought and action by the teacher. Weston’s experience in Ms. Dumas’s class relates more to learning and performance expectations. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A self-fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. The opposite occurred with Weston’s experience in Ms. Dumas’s class. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The Pygmalion effect occurs when a student makes exceptional progress as a result of high teacher expectations for that student. This describes Weston’s experience in Ms. Dumas’s class. [Q4] Ms. Dumas has taught middle school math for 17 years and is quite knowledgeable about math. Students praise her for anticipating their misconceptions and helping them move forward with new concepts. Ms. Dumas implements teaching strategies that encourage collaboration and help students enjoy learning math. She masterfully diagnoses students’ learning needs and provides the direction that helps every student succeed. Her high expectations for her students are a critical ingredient in her ambitious teaching. What other ingredient/s might Ms. Dumas incorporate that apply to ambitious teaching? 1. Engage in daily formative assessments; conduct frequent summative assessments 2. Ask students to think critically and engage in intellectually demanding tasks [correct] 3. Ask students to assess their own work and the work of their peers 4. Involve students in planning learning activities; focus on students’ interests [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The ingredients of ambitious teaching relate more to teachers’ expectations of their students and the quality of work teachers require. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ambitious teaching (or ambitious instruction) is a relatively recent term describing an approach to teaching grounded in challenging goals, complex but engaging tasks, and high-quality discussions building on students’ ideas. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The ingredients of ambitious teaching relate more to teachers’ expectations of their students and the quality of work teachers require. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Involving students and considering (not focusing on, but considering) students’ interests are good practices, but ambitious teaching relates more to teachers’ expectations of their students and the quality of work teachers require. 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q5] Based on research about sources of teachers’ expectations, one might predict that teachers are most likely to hold the highest expectations for which one of the following students? 1. Leo practices with the baseball team after school every day [correct] 2. Brynlee does chores and takes care of her younger brothers after school 3. Nic does his homework and plays video games after school every day 4. Research does not support the notion of higher teacher expectations for any of these students [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] According to research, a student’s after-school activities can be a source of expectations. Teachers tend to hold higher expectations for students who participate in extracurricular activities than for students who do nothing after school. Leo is the only one of these students who engages in extracurricular activities after school. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to research, teachers might hold higher expectations for one of these students but not Brynlee. If anything, the information about Brynlee may suggest lower teacher expectations because she does chores and cares for younger brothers after school—perhaps an indication that she is from a low SES family. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to research, teachers might hold higher expectations for one of these students but not Nic. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] According to research, teachers might hold higher expectations for one of these students on the basis of their after-school activities. Learning Outcome 14.2. Describe the planning process, including the possibilities of lesson study and how to develop learning objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. [Q1] The Common Core Standards have not been adopted by all fifty states in the United States. Sixth-grade teacher McKenna Watts teaches in a state that developed its own standards rather than adopting the Common Core. McKenna’s teaching is aligned with her state standards. Her students take standardized tests that are based on the Common Core. What aspect of this arrangement creates a problem? 1. Testing that is based on state standards 2. Teaching that is based on state standards 3. Misalignment between teaching and testing [correct] 4. Misalignment between state standards and teaching

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Testing based on state standards is not a problem as long as the teaching aligns with the standards. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teaching based on state standards is appropriate and does not create a problem. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Misalignment between teaching and testing presents a significant problem. Students are taught one thing and tested on another. Standards, teaching, and testing should be in alignment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In this scenario, the state standards and teaching are aligned. McKenna aligns her teaching with her state standards. [Q2] In his fifth-grade class, Elliot Casey states the following learning outcome for his lesson, “I will value people of different cultures.” Based on Bloom’s taxonomy of educational outcomes, what domain is primarily targeted with this learning outcome? 1. Psychomotor 2. Cognitive 3. Analysis 4. Affective [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Bloom’s taxonomy of the psychomotor domain addresses physical ability and coordination outcomes. Valuing people of different cultures aligns with a different domain. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain addresses memory and reasoning outcomes. Valuing people of different cultures aligns with a different domain. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Analysis is one of the levels of the cognitive domain. Valuing people of different cultures fits one of the domains of Bloom’s taxonomy. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Bloom’s taxonomy of the affecive domain addresses outcomes associated with attitudes and feelings. Elliot Casey’s target specifies valuing, one of the five basic learning outcomes in the affective domain. [Q3] In his fifth-grade class, Elliot Casey informs students, “Your learning goal for the week is this: I will engage in three complex writing tasks that culminate in one final written product.” An instructional designer is likely to give Elliot Casey what feedback about this learning goal statement? 1. The statement is a good goal but it focuses on covering the topic 5 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. The statement focuses on activities and is not a goal [correct] 3. The statement represents a learning goal in the cognitive domain 4. The statement is a good goal that involves high-level cognitive skills [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An instructional designer is likely to provide feedback that the statement focuses on covering the topic but is unlikely to assess it as a good goal. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] An instructional designer is likely to provide feedback that the statement represents activityfocused teaching. Elliot Casey did not state a learning goal. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] An instructional designer is likely to suggest that Elliot Casey alter the statement and focus on what students will learn. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An instructional designer is likely to suggest that Elliot Casey alter the statement and focus on what students will learn. [Q4] Jamal Jones teaches middle school speech and developed the following learning outcomes for various lessons during his unit about informative speeches. Each statement begins, I will be able to: Summarize the key points of informative speeches presented in class. Create a graphic to support the main point of my informative speech. Operate the remote control smoothly when I present the multimedia component of my speech. Use gestures effectively during the presentation of my speech. Make eye contact with my audience during my presentation. Respond to audience questions with detailed comments that promote understanding. Which learning outcome or outcomes clearly involve learning in the psychomotor domain? 1. Summarize key points 2. Make eye contact 3. Operate the remote control smoothly 4. Make eye contact and operate remote control smoothly [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Summarizing key points of informative speeches presented in class is a learning outcome in the cognitive domain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Making eye contact with the audience is an outcome in the psychomotor domain, but it is not the only outcome that involves learning in the psychomotor domain. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Operating the remote control smoothly is an outcome in the psychomotor domain, but it is not the only outcome that involves learning in the psychomotor domain. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Making eye contact with the audience and operating the remote control smoothly both involve learning in the psychomotor domain. [Q5] According to Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK), which of the following tasks requires the most complex thinking or greatest cognitive demands? 1. Give examples of alliteration as a rhetorical device 2. Write and record your presentation based on your research [correct] 3. Identify every occurrence of figures of speech in a poem 4. Draw a timeline that represents events described in the story [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Giving examples is recognized on Webb’s DOK chart as low in complexity. It requires the learner to recall information and understand the concept well enough to provide examples. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Based on Webb’s DOK chart, writing and recording your presentation involves extended thinking—using your research to create the presentation and then record the presentation for an audience. The task requires complex planning and synthesis. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Identifying occurrences of figures of speech is fairly low in complexity according to Webb’s DOK chart. This task involves recalling information about figures of speech and understanding them well enough to identify them. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Drawing a timeline is fairly low in complexity according to Webb’s DOK chart. The learner recalls or identifies events in a story and reproduces the information in the form of a timeline. Learning Outcome 14.3. Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. [Q1] Ms. Acosta wants to challenge her students to think critically about the effects of playing violent video games. To achieve her goal, she is asking divergent questions that might include which of the following? 7 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Which of these video games rewards players for killing innocent people? 2. Why might violent video games have negative effects on players? [correct] 3. How was the lab experiment conducted in this study of the effects of video games? 4. Which study claims to correlate video games with violent behavior? [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Divergent questions have no single correct answer. This question has a factual answer—one correct answer. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Divergent questions have no single correct answer. This question asks why and engages students in critical thinking about the effects of playing violent video games. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Divergent questions have no single correct answer. This question has a factual answer. Students are responding on the basis of evidence presented in the study. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Divergent questions have no single correct answer. This question has a factual answer and requires students to recall what they have read about particular studies. [Q2] When teachers use Understanding by Design (UbD) for unit or lesson planning, what do they design first? 1. Activities 2. Assessments 3. Concept presentations 4. Goal [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When teachers use Understanding by Design (UbD) for unit or lesson planning, activities are planned after other aspects of the design are in place. The activities must be based on design components that are determined earlier in the process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] When teachers use Understanding by Design (UbD) for unit or lesson planning, they design another aspect of the lesson or unit before planning the assessments. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When teachers use Understanding by Design (UbD) for unit or lesson planning, they design other aspects of the lesson or unit before planning the concept presentations. The presentations must be based on design components that are determined earlier in the process.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Understanding by Design (UbD), or backward design, begins with the learning goal or key objectives. The goal or objectives are typically aligned with standards. After designing the goal or objectives, the teacher designs assessments and learning activities. [Q3] The National Education Association suggests a “10 minute rule” for homework. This suggestion is based in part on research that indicates which of the following? 1. Older students benefit more from homework than younger students [correct] 2. Students can focus on homework for only ten minutes at a time 3. Independent homework practice reinforces ten minutes of direct instruction 4. Ten minutes of homework should be followed by ten minutes of in-class follow-up [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Harris Cooper and his colleagues (2006, 2007) reviewed many studies of homework and concluded that there is little relationship between homework and learning for young students, but the relationship between homework and achievement grows progressively stronger for older students. This and other findings from research form the basis for the 10 minute rule. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Studies do not support a blanket conclusion that students can focus on homework for only ten minutes at a time. Students’ attention spans vary on the basis of age and other factors. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The 10 minute rule suggests an amount of time to allocate for homework on the basis of grade level. It is not a correlation between direct instruction time and homework. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The 10 minute rule suggests an amount of time to allocate for homework on the basis of grade level. It is not a correlation between time spent on homework and class time spent on follow-up. [Q4] Which of the following questions is an authentic question? 1. What is the location of the first battle in the Civil War in the United States? 2. What operation is involved in solving this math fact? 3. What metaphors might help an audience relate to this concept? [correct] 4. What steps are involved in using the SQ3R reading comprehension strategy? [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The answer to this question is factual. The teacher anticipates that students will come up with the one right answer. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The question asks about a math fact. The answer to this question is factual. The teacher anticipates that students will come up with the one right answer. 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This question is authentic. The teacher doesn’t have a ready answer in mind, and students shape the flow of discussion with their critical thinking and analytical responses. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This question calls for a specific response. There is one right answer. [Q5] Mr. Bergen wants to give his students specific historical background information on the Civil War battles in Manassas before tomorrow’s class field trip to the site of the battles. Which of the following teaching approaches would be most appropriate and efficient for his plan? 1. Convergent questions 2. Direct instruction [correct] 3. Quality talk 4. Authentic questions [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Questioning is not the most efficient approach in this situation. Questioning is more effective when students have prepared a knowledge base for answering questions. Convergent questions might be used as a review in small groups or in pairs after Mr. Bergen delivers the historical background information. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Direct instruction is the most appropriate choice for Mr. Bergen. He can communicate all the important information in a structured fashion through direct instruction. Because the field trip is tomorrow, direct instruction is also a better choice than homework, which would not allow students to receive feedback before the field trip. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Quality talk is a form of discussion based on texts and readings. It encourages students to think and talk about, around, and with the text in small groups of four to six members. This approach is not an efficient way for Mr. Bergen’s students to acquire specific historical background quickly. They would need to have read assigned materials and prepared ahead of time for such discussions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mr. Bergen wants students to acquire specific historical background knowledge. Authentic questions are more appropriate for reflection after the field trip. Authentic questions are not appropriate for delivering factual information. Learning Outcome 14.4. Define differentiated instruction and apply this approach to teaching a diverse group of students, including how to apply the guidelines of universal design for learning in your teaching. [Q1] Mr. Gilbert follows the guidelines for using flexible grouping in his math lessons. Which of the following is he most likely to do? 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Establish groups randomly and provide different tasks for the different groups 2. Allow students to choose the group with which they wish to work 3. Form groups and re-form them on the basis of students’ current performance [correct] 4. Group students who work below grade level and teach everyone else at grade level [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Flexible groups are formed on the basis of levels of performance. Mr. Gilbert does not randomly group his students. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Flexible groups are formed on the basis of levels of performance. Mr. Gilbert does not allow students to choose their groups. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] When teachers use flexible grouping, they form and re-form groups based on accurate diagnosis of students’ current performance. Mr. Gilbert forms groups on the basis of students’ current performance in the math skills for a math unit. He re-forms the groups when a student or students demonstrate a different level of performance. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Flexible grouping is based on current performance levels. Grouping students who work below grade level does not suggest that the teacher is re-forming the groups when student performance changes. [Q2] Ms. Kaine teaches an inclusive group of 21 second-grade students that includes a child with visual impairment and two children with learning disabilities. All of the following examples are forms of assistive technology Ms. Kaine might use in her classroom EXCEPT: 1. Programs that pronounce unfamiliar words aloud 2. Word processors for writing and spell checking 3. A paraprofessional to assist the child with a visual impairment [correct] 4. Software to convert text and printed pages to spoken words [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students who have trouble reading can use programs that will “speak” a word for them if they touch the unknown word. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] For the student with a learning disability whose writing is not legible, word processors produce perfect penmanship so the ideas can finally get on paper. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A paraprofessional is a person who helps in the classroom or helps students with disabilities, but a person is not an example of assistive technology.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Software can convert printed pages and typed texts to spoken words for students who are blind or others who benefit from hearing information. [Q3] Ms. Kaine teaches an inclusive group of 21 second-grade students that includes a child with visual impairment and two children with learning disabilities. Six of Ms. Kaine’s students read below grade level, three read above grade level, and the rest read on grade level. At the end of the social studies unit about fire prevention, Ms. Kaine allowed students to choose whether they wanted to demonstrate their learning by creating a poster, talking about rules of fire safety, or role playing what to do if they had a fire at home. Ms. Kaine is differentiating on what basis? 1. Lesson content 2. Products of learning [correct] 3. Readiness to learn 4. Background knowledge [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Apparently all students were taught the same content in the social studies unit about fire prevention. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ms. Kaine provided different ways for students to demonstrate their learning in the social studies unit about fire prevention. By allowing students to choose among three options, Ms. Kaine differentiated on the basis of products of learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students are allowed to choose how they want to demonstrate their learning. Ms. Kaine is not differentiating on the basis of readiness. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A teacher might differentiate the lesson content on the basis of differences in background knowledge, but Ms. Kaine is differentiating on a different basis. [Q4] Ms. Kaine teaches an inclusive group of 21 second-grade students that includes a child with visual impairment and two children with learning disabilities. Ms. Kaine begins a unit about dinosaurs by showing a short video about two kinds of dinosaurs, circulating plastic models of the two kinds of dinosaurs, and displaying big posters of both kinds of dinosaurs. By providing multiple means of engagement, Ms. Kaine is implementing which of the following? 1. Flexible grouping 2. Assistive technology 3. Universal design for learning [correct] 4. Interactional differentiation

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Kaine does not group students in this setting. She does provide multiple ways for students to engage in the learning process. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Ms. Kaine’s use of multiple means of engagement is not an example of assistive technology. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Universal design for learning follows the principles of providing strategies and structures to make learning accessible to as many students as possible in inclusive settings. Ms. Kaine provides multiple means for students to engage with the learning. For the student with a visual impairment, she provides plastic models and the sound from the video. Students with learning disabilities can benefit from the video, the models, and the big posters that allow them to engage the information using multiple senses. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Interactional differentiation refers to the differentiation that occurs on the fly to adapt during teaching. In this scenario, Ms. Kaine’s differentiation is planned. [Q5] Ms. Kaine teaches an inclusive group of 21 second-grade students that includes a child with visual impairment and two children with learning disabilities. When Ms. Kaine works with each reading group to read about dinosaurs, she uses materials that align with each group’s reading level. The students who are working below grade level read content that has more familiar vocabulary, for example. Ms. Kaine is practicing which of the following? 1. Mixed-ability grouping 2. Flexible grouping 3. Assistive technology 4. Designed differentiation [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ms. Kaine is meeting with reading groups and providing materials at their reading levels. This is an indication that her reading groups are based on ability levels. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In this scenario, we are unsure about the use of flexible grouping. If Ms. Kaine changes the group composition when student performance improves or declines, then she is using flexible grouping. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. In the scenario, Ms. Kaine is using reading materials that align with each group’s reading level. She is not using technological products or equipment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Teachers can plan for student differences in advance by designing different levels of support and scaffolding for the tasks, texts, and tools that students will encounter—called designed differentiation. Ms. Kaine plans for student differences in advance by providing different levels of text for students at different reading levels.

Chapter 14 Application Exercises Application Exercise 14.1: Planning Learning Outcome 14.2. Describe the planning process, including the possibilities of lesson study, and how to develop learning objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 14.3 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/literacy/dayton/Interview_CurriculumLessonPl anning.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.3 to answer the following question: Based on Mr. Bull’s interview statements, what is the basis of his curriculum planning? [Q1 Model Response] Mr. Bull’s basis for curriculum planning is the Common Core Standards. He talks about mapping the standards and later refers to the Common Core. [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.3 to answer the following question: What indications do you find in this video that support the claim that Mr. Bull does NOT commit the “twin sins” of instructional design? [Q1 Model Response] Mr. Bull states, “I sit down at the beginning of the year…and map my standards.” He also states that he maps his curriculum. He starts with standards and then determines what texts he will use to meet specific learning targets. With this approach, he is teaching to learning targets. His teaching is not activity-focused or coverage-focused. He talks about the long-term goal of the unit he’s currently teaching. His focus is not on specific activities or content coverage. His focus is on meeting learning goals and standards. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.3 to answer the following question: Based on the content and guidelines in Chapter 14 of the Woolfolk textbook, how would you evaluate Mr. Bull’s approach to unit planning and lesson planning? [Q2 Model Response] Mr. Bull’s approach to unit planning and lesson planning is stellar. He begins with the Common Core Standards and develops plans that are centered around the standards. As stated in the textbook, “…planning transforms the available time and curriculum materials into activities, assignments, and tasks for students.” In his current unit, Mr. Bull’s goal is inferential reading and analysis of text. He focuses on this goal as he plans what materials to use and what activities to

assign. When he talks about today’s activity, he ties it directly to the short-term learning goal. His approach to planning is exemplary. Application Exercise 14.2: Direct Instruction Learning Outcome 14.3. Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 14.4 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ormrod/breaking_down_the_text_reading_les son_12.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.4 to answer the following question: Rosenshine and his colleagues (Rosenshine, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986) identified six teaching functions based on the research on effective instruction. These could serve as a checklist or framework for teaching basic skills. For each of the first five functions (listed below), tell whether the teacher performs the function in the video and provide an example. Rosenshine’s six teaching functions: 1. Review and check the previous day’s work. 2. Present new material. 3. Provide guided practice. 4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers. 5. Provide independent practice. 6. Review weekly and monthly to consolidate learning. [Q1 Model Response] 1. Review and check previous work. Yes. The teacher does review and check students’ understanding of the UNREAL mnemonic, which they have previously studied. 2. Present new material. Students are reading a new Scholastic Reader, but the video doesn’t show the presentation of new material. 3. Provide guided practice. Yes. The teacher asks students to apply the mnemonic UNREAL to new reading material. We see students underline the title and number the paragraphs. 4. Give feedback based on student answers.

Yes. The teacher frequently assesses students’ proficiency in applying the UNREAL strategy to their reading. 5. Provide independent practice. In the video, the teacher doesn’t direct students to perform independent practice, but students apparently have engaged in independent practice in the past. For example, most of the students had underlined the title of the story before they gathered in the group with the teacher. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.4 to answer the following question: Is the teacher in this video using a teacher-centered approach? Explain. [Q2 Model Response] Yes, the teacher in this video is using a teacher-centered approach to teaching. She is using direct instruction in which she explicitly and systematically guides students toward mastery of basic skills. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.4 to answer the following question: To what extent is the teacher in this video using active teaching? [Q3 Model Response] The teacher in this video uses active teaching in the entirety of the video segment. She interacts with the students, asks questions, and calls on students to respond. She supports their responses, expounds with additional comments, and asks additional questions. She is basically conducting a review of a process students learned earlier. Application Exercise 14.3: Authentic Questions Learning Outcome 14.3. Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/literacy/dayton/Classroom_GraphicOrganizer GroupDiscussion.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 to answer the following question: Charles Bull engages his students in discussion of a novel they have all read. When the video opens, students have finished working in pairs to come up with strong evidence to support strong claims about the main character’s point of view, that is, the view that another kid is a jerk. Now Mr. Bull opens discussion with one point of evidence and then asks, “What if I asked you to 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

write an essay and you had to find three or four pieces of evidence? Did anyone find another piece of evidence?” How does Mr. Bull’s authentic question give some authority to students? [Q1 Model Response] Authentic questions serve several functions. They give some authority to students to shape the flow of discussion. Mr. Bull opens the floor to students. They are in charge of making contributions and carrying the discussion. Their responses shape the discussion as they volunteer their thoughts and ideas. Mr. Bull is not prompting specific answers; he is prompting critical thinking about the question. Authentic questions make students think critically and analyze. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 to answer the following question: Charles Bull engages his students in discussion of a novel they have all read. When the video opens, students have finished working in pairs to come up with strong evidence to support strong claims about the main character’s point of view, that is, the view that another kid is a jerk. Now Mr. Bull opens discussion with one point of evidence and then asks, “What if I asked you to write an essay and you had to find three or four pieces of evidence? Did anyone find another piece of evidence?” How does this authentic question set expectations that everyone will get involved? [Q2 Model Response] Authentic questions serve several functions. They set expectations that everyone will get involved, not just the students who usually have the “right answers.” This authentic question sets the expectations that everyone will get involved because there is no single right answer. When teachers pose authentic or divergent questions, every student is encouraged to think and make contributions based on their own thinking. In Mr. Bull’s class, students are expected to think, form opinions about what they read, and support their opinions with evidence from the text. To increase the expectations, Mr. Bull asks students to discuss the question in small groups before opening discussion to the whole class. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 to answer the following question: Charles Bull engages his students in discussion of a novel they have all read. When the video opens, students have finished working in pairs to come up with strong evidence to support strong claims about the main character’s point of view, that is, the view that another kid is a jerk. Now Mr. Bull opens discussion with one point of evidence and then asks, “What if I asked you to write an essay and you had to find three or four pieces of evidence? Did anyone find another piece of evidence?” How does this authentic question make students think critically and analyze? [Q3 Model Response] Authentic questions serve several functions. They make students think critically and analyze. Mr. Bull’s question challenges students to think critically about the evidence they found in the book to support their claims. They made inferences about the main character’s point of view and 18 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

now they need to support their claims with evidence from the book. To support their claims, students must analyze the words in the text to make sure the words actually prove their claims. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 to answer the following question: Why do you think Mr. Bull asks one student, “How does your evidence prove that he’s a jerk?” [Q4 Model Response] Mr. Bull wants the student to think critically and explain how the words in the book lead to the inference the student is making. Mr. Bull doesn’t want students to make claims they can’t support and explain in their own words. He wants them to question their assumptions rather than making unfounded claims.

Chapter 14 Test Items Chapter 14 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 14.1: Identify the methods used to study teaching as Multiple Choice: 1-2 well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective Essay: 26 classroom climates, including the role of teacher expectations and the goal of ambitious teaching. Objective 14.2: Describe the planning process, including the Multiple Choice: 3-9 possibilities of lesson study, and how to develop learning Essay: 27 objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. Objective 14.3: Discuss the appropriate uses of direct Multiple Choice: 10-16 instruction, independent work, homework, questioning Essay: 28 (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. Objective 14.4: Define differentiated instruction and apply this Multiple Choice: 17-20 approach to teaching a diverse group of students, including how Essay: 29 to apply the guidelines of universal design for learning in your teaching. Objective 14.5:

Multiple Choice: 21-25 Essay: 30

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Ms. Dominguez is a middle school science teacher who consistently gets high student reviews. Her students claim they learn more in her class than in any other class. Based on research about teacher effectiveness, Ms. Dominguez most likely does which of the following? a. Make ambiguous presentations that lead students to ask questions b. Maintain caring and nurturing relationships with students c. Use sarcasm in response to students’ excuses for failure d. Develop a practice of learning content as the year unfolds 2. Mrs. Simms reviewed her class role and read the permanent files of her incoming fourth grade students before school started in August. She noticed that Casey had poor grades in several subjects last year, and his second and third grade teachers left notes in the permanent file about his bad conduct. When school started, Mrs. Simms told Casey she was happy to have him in her class and said she knew he would like fourth grade subjects and learn a lot. Throughout the year, Mrs. Simms encouraged Casey and expressed her belief in his ability to learn. In the spring, Casey scored in a higher percentile on his district’s standardized tests than he had the previous year. His gains were much higher than expected. This is an example of: a. explicit teaching. 20 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. the Pygmalion effect. c. the sustaining expectation effect. d. scripted cooperation. 3. Which of the following situations illustrates sustaining expectation effect? a. Ross made good grades in math and rarely struggled with math concepts until he got into calculus. He expected to continue making top scores without studying. b. Carmen’s third grade teacher made science exciting and fun. Carmen expected to keep loving science and said she wanted to be a scientist, but her fourth grade teacher made science seem boring. Carmen’s expectations changed. c. Mrs. Gromberg has been teaching for seven years. Her students always do well on the state tests, and she expects them to make the highest scores in the district. This year her students met her expectations. d. Megan usually makes low grades in math, but she actually understands fractions and made one of the highest scores on the test. Her teacher thought it was a fluke and wondered whether Megan cheated. Megan didn’t try very hard on the next unit. 4. Based on research about teacher expectations, which of the following high school students is likely to sustain the highest expectations from teachers? a. Madison is an African American girl. b. Lei is an Asian American boy. c. Sidney is a European American girl. d. Rafael is a Latino American boy. 5. Mr. Evans is a new teacher who wants to avoid the negative effects of teacher expectations. If he follows the guidelines of expert educators, he will do which of the following? a. Provide support and make learning easy; avoid difficult tasks b. Maintain static student groupings for academic tasks c. Reduce expectations for low-achieving students d. Call on low achievers as often as high achievers 6. Ms. Valentino could tell from the first day of school that Javier was going to be one of her struggling Latino students. He came to school wearing worn clothes. No parent accompanied him, and he acted withdrawn and shy. By the end of the first grading period, she confirmed her impressions. Javier’s grades were low. This scenario most likely illustrates: a. differentiation. b. the Pygmalion effect. c. a self-fulfilling prophecy. d. a sustaining expectation. 7. Mrs. Martinez is a new third-grade teacher. Before school started, she reviewed the entire math text and planned her approach for the year. After school started, she began moving methodically from lesson to lesson. She knows the subject of math very well and doesn’t see a need for extra planning. This week, she presented the new concept for week nine, and 21 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

students seemed to be confused. Many of her students were unable to complete the practice problems. What is most likely the problem with Mrs. Martinez’s lesson? a. She most likely over planned the lesson for week nine. b. She seems to lack understanding of instructional objectives. c. She most likely failed to plan sufficiently at the weekly and daily levels. d. She seems to lack the ability to organize the classroom for learning math. 8. Some states have adopted the Common Core Standards. What effect has this had on student achievement? a. Significant improvement in students’ achievement b. Minimal improvement in students’ achievement c. Significant improvement in teacher attitudes about testing d. Significant improvement in student attitudes about testing 9. Which of the following learning targets involves metacognitive knowledge in the cognitive domain? a. Summarize events following the Civil War, including post-war social issues. b. Describe the composition styles of Bach and Handel during the Baroque era in Europe. c. Identify the main idea of a brief passage in a non-fiction text such as science or social studies. d. Select a strategy that helps you remember which formula to use in solving comparable problems. 10. According to Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain, identify the level of the following objective: Assess the author’s skill in implementing allegory as a literary device. a. Applying b. Creating c. Evaluating d. Understanding 11. Mr. Mack presented the following objective: “Watch the video and respond to the main character’s dilemma as though you were walking in her shoes.” This objective fits the taxonomy of what domain? a. Cognitive domain b. Conceptual domain c. Affective domain d. Psychomotor domain 12. Gabriel and Sebastian created a complex design for a small rocket and then developed the rocket to demonstrate outdoors at a science exhibition. The weather was stormy on the day of the demonstration and the boys had to adjust their design to fit the new circumstances. Based on Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) system, what level of depth is involved in the design and demonstration by Gabriel and Sebastian?

a. Recall and reproduction b. Extended thinking c. Basic skill and concept application d. Strategic thinking 13. Which of the following teachers uses a constructivist approach in instructional planning? a. Mr. Hargrove reviewed several resources identified in his teacher’s manual and developed a lesson about the first walk on the moon. b. Mrs. Akita gave a pretest to determine the amount of background knowledge she needed to incorporate in her unit about two-step equations. c. Mr. Anthony and his students discussed their unit about crustaceans and decided to create centers that integrated science knowledge, writing skills, and vocabulary. d. Ms. Levi combined suggested activities from her teacher’s manual with activities suggested by peer teachers as the basis for her lesson about the different types of erosion in her state. 14. Which of the following teachers is using direct instruction? a. Mrs. Wiggins uses centers to integrate writing, science, and math. b. Ms. Canfield puts science words on a word wall to remind students to use them in their writing assignment. c. Mrs. Gomez divides students into groups to work collaboratively on a complex task in social studies. d. Mr. O’Malley presents a mini-lecture about a new concept in chemistry. 15. Which teacher is using seatwork most appropriately? a. Mrs. Wiggins gives students a worksheet to complete independently. It introduces the new concept they need to understand for their work at centers. b. Ms. Cranfield gives students a word puzzle incorporating vocabulary from the integrated reading and writing review they just finished. c. Mrs. Gomez precedes group work with a worksheet about a new kind of math problem. d. Mr. Ward gives students seatwork in their science workbooks. It asks complex questions about the material he will lecture on tomorrow. 16. During the social studies unit about poverty in the United States, Mr. Lambert presents facts and asks students to read two non-fiction articles on the topic. After students read the articles, Mr. Lambert wants to hear what they have to say about the issues surrounding people in poverty and the plight of children growing up in poverty. What teaching approach is most appropriate for his purpose? a. Group discussion b. Seatwork c. Homework d. Direct instruction

17. In her literature class, Ms. Campos wants her students to engage in divergent thinking about the book they are reading. Which of the following questions is she most likely to ask? a. What does the author say about his purpose for writing the book? b. What do you think the main character was feeling when he closed the door? c. When did the author experience the events he writes about in the book? d. How did the author use his journal in writing the book? 18. Mr. Nguyen gives the following feedback to Shawna: “I looked at the slides you created. Check your rubric to see if you have met all the criteria for the assignment.” What type of feedback did Mr. Nguyen give Shawna? a. Self-feedback b. Task feedback c. Process feedback d. Self-regulation feedback 19. Mrs. Orozco is using an approach called Quality Talk. Students complete readings and journal activities and then meet in small groups for discussions that increase their comprehension by talking about, around, and with the text. What does the teacher do after the small group discussions? a. Administer a multiple-choice test over the material b. Administer an essay test over the material c. Give feedback and check for understanding d. Move to the next topic in the curriculum 20. Which of the following scenarios provides evidence that the teacher uses backward design? a. Mr. Browning begins to develop his math unit by identifying the goal of the lesson and the big ideas students need to understand. He decides how he will assess students’ learning, and then he designs the instruction. b. Ms. Dilling wants to use cooperative groups in her upcoming unit. She chooses activities her students will enjoy and develops the curriculum around them. c. Mr. Rankin is a new teacher. He asks a senior teacher to lend him her teaching plan for the upcoming unit on persuasive writing. He alters the plan to fit his teaching style and make learning fun. d. Mrs. Hebert is beginning a new unit in French. She presents several ideas to students and allows them to vote on their favorite approach to the unit about the geography of France. She chooses activities that fit the students’ preference. 21. Ms. Boudreaux is choosing math tutorials to use in her inclusive fourth-grade classroom. Should she choose programs with universal design? Why or why not? a. Yes, universal design considers the needs of all users and works for students with disabilities. b. No, universal design applies to reading and language arts curriculum but not math. c. Yes, universal design is particularly effective with students who read slowly.

d. No, universal design is particularly effective for students with hearing impairment but is not suitable for hearing students. 22. Mr. Castillo’s second-grade class is quite diverse, and his students represent a wide range of abilities. He believes that flexible grouping is the most effective way to differentiate and reach the most students. In order to use flexible grouping effectively and follow the recommended guidelines of expert educators, Mr. Castillo should do which of the following? a. Form and re-form groups based on students’ performance in the subject. b. Group students by ability for all subjects. c. Provide the same instruction for the different groups. d. Encourage comparisons between groups of students. 23. Mrs. Kohler develops one learning outcome for the lesson about prefixes, but she teaches the lesson at a high level of depth for one group, at grade-level depth for another group, and at a lower level of depth for a group that has been performing below grade level. What approach is Mrs. Kohler using with her groups? a. Direct instruction and modeling b. Universal design c. Backward design d. Differentiated instruction 24. Mr. Morreau teaches in an inclusive setting and allows students to demonstrate their learning in different ways. Some students make presentations, some create posters, and others perform a skit. What aspect of instruction is Mr. Morreau differentiating? a. Processes b. Learning targets c. Products d. Content

Essay Questions 25. Ms. Kaplan is a new fourth grade teacher who feels passionate about helping students learn. She is teaching in a poverty-stricken area of Houston and knows that many of the students receive little academic support and encouragement at home. It’s the fourth week of school, and she feels good about the way her class is progressing, learning the routines, and meeting her expectations. Today she entered the teachers’ lounge and heard two other teachers talking about Michael, one of her Black students. When she entered, they told her they had taught Michael in second and third grades. They warned her that Michael would cause trouble, fail to complete his work, and distract other children. They described Michael’s poor academic performance and said his mom doesn’t support the teachers’ efforts. After Ms. Kaplan’s experience in the teacher’s lounge, consider the possible dilemmas that might arise regarding her expectations of Michael. Describe common negative effects that might occur and explain how Ms. Kaplan might prevent such effects. 26. Mr. Mills wrote the following statements and submitted them as the learning targets for his lesson plan about erosion. 1. Present lesson five about what erosion is. 25 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Have students answer questions about what causes erosion. What is your evaluation of his learning targets? Explain. 27. Mrs. Ash is preparing to teach a unit about Native Americans and their dwellings. She only has one week to teach the material. The unit involves a lot of factual information about the dwellings of tribes living in various geographical areas. The information can become confusing to students if it is not well organized. Explain why direct instruction is a good teaching approach for some aspects of this unit. 28. Ms. Mongue teaches 24 third graders in her inclusive classroom in an elementary school that educates a widely diverse population of students. Her students represent a range of skills. Three speak very little English, but two received top language arts scores in the district’s standardized tests last year. She also has three students with learning needs that require IEPs and two students with physical disabilities. Explain what she might do to reach all students and maintain realistically high expectations for every student.

Chapter 14 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Maintain caring and nurturing relationships with students Feedback for Correct Answer: In studies of the emotional climate of the classroom, researchers consistently find that students learn more in classes where teacher-student relationships are warm, caring, nurturing, and congenial; the teacher takes student needs and perspectives into account; and teachers are not harsh or sarcastic. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

Correct Answer: the Pygmalion effect. Feedback for Correct Answer: The Pygmalion effect occurs when a student makes exceptional progress as a result of high teacher expectations for that student. The phenomenon is named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

Correct Answer: Megan usually makes low grades in math, but she actually understands fractions and made one of the highest scores on the test. Her teacher thought it was a fluke and wondered whether Megan cheated. Megan didn’t try very hard on the next unit. Feedback for Correct Answer: Sustaining expectation effect occurs when student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements. Megan’s teacher didn’t recognize her improvement. Consequently, Megan sustained the lower performance level. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

Correct Answer: Lei is an Asian American boy. Feedback for Correct Answer: According to studies, teachers’ highest expectations are reserved for Asian American students. Studies showed that teachers held higher expectations for and directed more positive questions and encouragement toward European American students compared to African American and Latino/a students. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

Correct Answer: Call on low achievers as often as high achievers Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers should be careful about how they respond to low-achieving students during class discussions. Teachers should call on low achievers and high achievers equally, give ample praise for good answers, and provide time for students to answer. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

Correct Answer: a self-fulfilling prophecy. Feedback for Correct Answer: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. In cases of self-fulfilling prophecy, the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities 27 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. Text Reference: Research on Teaching 7.

Correct Answer: She most likely failed to plan sufficiently at the weekly and daily levels. Feedback for Correct Answer: Accomplishing the year’s plan requires breaking the work into terms, the terms into units, and the units into weeks and days. For experienced teachers, unit planning seems to be the most important level, followed by weekly and then daily planning. Mrs. Martinez prepared before the beginning of the year, but then seemed to rely on her math knowledge to teach on a weekly and daily basis. When students were confused, she repeated the same presentation. If she had prepared more thoroughly, she would have provided additional explanations, demonstrations, and examples. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

Correct Answer: Minimal improvement in students’ achievement. Feedback for Correct Answer: the troubling bottom line is that there is little evidence that simply adopting the Common Core standards has raised student achievement, and even in studies that find some gain, the improvement is small. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

Correct Answer: Select a strategy that helps you remember which formula to use in solving comparable problems. Feedback for Correct Answer: Metacognitive knowledge in the cognitive domain involves thinking about one’s thinking. Other kinds of knowledge in the cognitive domain are factual, conceptual, and procedural. When students think about the strategies that help them remember which formula to use when, they are using metacognitive knowledge. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

10.

Correct Answer: Evaluating Feedback for Correct Answer: Evaluating: Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

11.

Correct Answer: Affective domain Feedback for Correct Answer: The learning outcomes in the taxonomy of the affective domain, or domain of emotional response, focus on attitudes and feelings. They include receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization by value. Asking students to respond as though they were walking in a character’s shoes involves making an emotional response. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

12.

and Sebastian are using extended thinking, which involves complex planning, strategic thinking and problem solving, and adjusting plans to fit new circumstances. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning 13.

Correct Answer: Mr. Anthony and his students discussed their unit about crustaceans and decided to create centers that integrated science knowledge, writing skills, and vocabulary. Feedback for Correct Answer: In constructivist approaches, planning is shared and negotiated. The teacher and students together make decisions about content, activities, and approaches. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

14.

Correct Answer: Mr. O’Malley presents a mini-lecture about a new concept in chemistry. Feedback for Correct Answer: Direct instruction is teacher-led, systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

15.

Correct Answer: Ms. Cranfield gives students a word puzzle incorporating vocabulary from the integrated reading and writing review they just finished. Feedback for Correct Answer: Seatwork should follow up a lesson and give students supervised practice. It should not be the main mode of instruction. Unfortunately, many workbook pages and worksheets do little to support the learning of important goals. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

16.

Correct Answer: Group discussion Feedback for Correct Answer: Mr. Lambert wants to know what students think following his presentation of facts and the students’ reading. He needs to use a group discussion approach that encourages all students to participate, an approach in which he does not have the dominant role. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

17.

Correct Answer: What do you think the main character was feeling when he closed the door? Feedback for Correct Answer: Divergent questions are questions that have no single correct answer. Readers will have different views about the character’s feelings. The other questions have one correct answer that is based on factual information. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

18.

Correct Answer: Self-regulation feedback Feedback for Correct Answer: Self-regulation feedback helps students move toward deep understanding, mastery, and self-direction in learning. Telling the student to check the rubric is a way of holding the student accountable for regulating the quality of her own work.

Text Reference: Teaching Approaches 19.

Correct Answer: Give feedback and check for understanding Feedback for Correct Answer: After the small group discussion, the teacher gives feedback about the discussions (suggesting possible improvements in process for next time), challenges any misconceptions, and checks for understanding using appropriate assessments and activities. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

20.

Correct Answer: Mr. Browning begins to develop his math unit by identifying the goal of the lesson and the big ideas students need to understand. He decides how he will assess students’ learning, and then he designs the instruction. Feedback for Correct Answer: When teachers use backward design, they first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. Next they identify what evidence would demonstrate deep understanding (performance tasks, quizzes, informal assessments?). Then and only then do they design the learning plan—the instruction. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

21.

Correct Answer: Yes, universal design considers the needs of all users and works for students with disabilities. Feedback for Correct Answer: Universal design refers to products that consider the needs of all users in the design of new buildings, tools, learning programs, Web sites, and so on. Universal design in learning represents the principle of providing multiple ways to engage with the learning process, multiple ways to represent or present the learning materials, and multiple ways for students to act and express their understanding. Text Reference: Differentiated Instruction

22.

Correct Answer: Form and performance in the subject.

re-form

groups

based

students’

Feedback for Correct Answer: Mr. Castillo should form and re-form groups based on accurate diagnosis of students’ current performance in the subject being taught. Text Reference: Differentiated Instruction 23.

Correct Answer: Differentiated instruction Feedback for Correct Answer: Differentiated instruction takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Mrs. Kohler differentiates by using within-class grouping and presenting the lesson about prefixes at three different levels in order to reach students at their current levels of performance. Text Reference: Differentiated Instruction

24.

Correct Answer: Products Feedback for Correct Answer: Text Reference: Differentiated Instruction

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 25.

Suggested Response: Ms. Kaplan might be inclined to lower her expectations of Michael and determine that he will not be successful in her classroom. Her lower expectations might lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy for Michael. If so, Michael will live up to the lower expectations rather than continuing to do well in Ms. Kaplan’s class. To prevent such negative effects, Ms. Kaplan should disregard the information shared inappropriately in the teacher’s lounge. She should continue to provide both support and challenge for Michael and all of her students. She must make sure that she treats students equally, including Michael. She should guard against racial stereotypes and prejudice and see Michael as an individual who is capable of learning. Text Reference: Research on Teaching

26.

Suggested Response: Mr. Mills committed the “twin sins” of instructional design. His statements indicate coverage-focused teaching and activity-focused teaching. He did not state learning goals. He focused on the material he was going to cover and the activity students would do following the lesson. Learning targets state what the teacher wants students to know and be able to do. Text Reference: The First Step: Planning

27.

Suggested Response: Direct instruction is a good teaching approach for Mrs. Ash to use for some aspects of the unit for several reasons: 1. She has only one week to teach the unit. Direct instruction with teacher explanation is useful for communicating a large amount of material to many students in a short period of time. 2. The unit involves a lot of factual information, basic skill development. Direct instruction with teacher presentations is most appropriate at the lower levels of cognitive taxonomies: for remembering, understanding, applying, receiving, responding, and valuing. 3. The material needs to be well organized. Direct instruction with well-organized presentations, clear explanations, and reviews can help students construct understandings. In using direct instruction, Mrs. Ash should make sure presentations engage the learners. For example, scripted cooperation is one way of incorporating active learning into lectures. Several times during the presentation, the teacher asks students to work in pairs. Additional active learning strategies are presented in Table 14.6 in the textbook. Text Reference: Teaching Approaches

28.

Suggested Response: Ms. Mongue needs to differentiate instruction to reach all students. For reading and math, she might use ability groupings, remembering to keep groups flexible. She needs to assess students’ performance continuously and regroup students as needed to challenge them appropriately. Assessments help her identify students’ zone of proximal development and provide both timely support and 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

challenge effectively. For other subjects, such as science and social studies, she should include all students in the discussion. She might develop a system for calling on everyone equally and show that she expects everyone to participate. If she has access to technological resources, she might choose tutorials that promote the development of specific skills, being sensitive about choosing programs that feature universal design. [See Guidelines for Universal Design for Learning, Table 14.9, in the textbook.] She needs to make sure her expectations of each student are based on actual performance and not on prior test scores, grades, and notes in the permanent files. Text Reference: Differentiated Instruction

Chapter 14 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 14.1 Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates, including the role of teacher expectations and the goal of ambitious teaching. Outcome 14.2 Describe the planning process, including the possibilities of lesson study, and how to develop learning objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. Outcome 14.3 Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. Outcome 14.4 Define differentiated instruction and apply this approach to teaching a diverse group of students, including how to apply the guidelines of universal design for learning in your teaching. [Q1] LO 14.3 Direct instruction applies best to teaching which of the following? 1. Inquiries with ill-structured problems 2. Creative projects 3. Basic skills and structured knowledge [correct] 4. Critical thinking and deep learning [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Direct instruction applies best to the teaching of basic skills—clearly structured knowledge and essential skills, such as science facts, mathematics computations, reading vocabulary, and grammar rules. [Q2] LO 14.2 Todd Knight teaches second grade. His learning objective for his current lesson is, “Students will be able to summarize a short story by telling the plot, setting, and main characters.” According to Bloom’s taxonomy for the cognitive domain, what level of cognitive processing is required for students to meet this learning objective? 1. Understanding [correct] 2. Analyzing 3. Evaluating 4. Creating [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In Bloom’s taxonomy, understanding involves understanding the material without necessarily relating it to anything else. 33 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] LO 14.4 Todd Knight teaches second grade. He groups students for reading according to performance levels but changes the groups from week to week on the basis of students’ performance on skills assessments. If a student fails to demonstrate application of a new skill, the student may be placed in a group where the student receives additional instruction and practice with that skill. What method of teaching is Mr. Knight using? 1. Inquiry learning 2. Differentiation [correct] 3. Problem-based learning 4. Response to intervention [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Differentiated instruction is a flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. It takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. [Q4] LO 14.4 Todd Knight teaches second grade. He groups students for reading according to performance levels but changes the groups from week to week on the basis of students’ performance on skills assessments. If a student fails to demonstrate application of a new skill, the student may be placed in a group where the student receives additional instruction and practice with that skill. Which of the following strategies is Mr. Knight using in his reading instruction? 1. Reciprocal teaching 2. Jigsaw 3. Flexible grouping [correct] 4. Universal design for learning [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 14.2 Case Although Casey Yost had done well in her college classes, she was having a difficult time with her student teaching. Her mentor teacher continually scolded her for not correctly writing her objectives and rushing through lessons. Casey did not understand how she could both make her lessons clear and manage to cover the material necessary for the students’ upcoming standardized tests. “Casey, if your students don’t understand the material, covering the material won’t matter. Let’s review one of your objectives for the upcoming lesson. ‘Students will understand fractions.’ This objective is too general. How can you measure your students ‘understanding’? You need to select words that correspond to specific actions that you can

observe or measure. Let’s try to develop a few objectives that are more specific.” What guidelines should Casey follow in writing learning objectives? [Feedback for Answer 5] Learning objectives or targets state what we want students to know and be able to do. The following guidelines are recommended: Avoid “word magic” that uses phrases that sound important but say very little. Suit the activities to the learning outcome. Be specific about the skills students need to master. Make sure they are observable or measurable. Align tests and other assessments to the learning targets. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 14.2 Case Although Casey Yost had done well in her college classes, she was having a difficult time with her student teaching. Her mentor teacher continually scolded her for not correctly writing her objectives and rushing through lessons. Casey did not understand how she could both make her lessons clear and manage to cover the material necessary for the students’ upcoming standardized tests. “Casey, if your students don’t understand the material, covering the material won’t matter. Let’s review one of your objectives for the upcoming lesson. ‘Students will understand fractions.’ This objective is too general. How can you measure your students ‘understanding’? You need to select words that correspond to specific actions that you can observe or measure. Let’s try to develop a few objectives that are more specific.” If Casey wants her students to be able to analyze some new information, what verbs might she use in her learning objectives? [Feedback for Answer 6] Using Bloom’s taxonomy, the cognitive process of analyzing might be verbalized with words such as the following: Analyze, explain, differentiate, break into parts, prove, disprove, distinguish, find evidence, infer, dissect, conclude, make a claim.

Chapter 15 Test Item File <Raye Lakey>

<Educational Psychology> 15th Edition <Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University

Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky>

ISBN-10: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-694481-2

Table of Contents Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Learning Outcome Quizzes

Application Exercises

Test Items

Test Answer Key

Licensure Quizzes

Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Chapter 15 Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 15.1. Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. [Q1] Ms. Moreau briefly introduced the unit about sharks and then gave a quiz to assess students’ current knowledge of the subject. The quiz will help Ms. Moreau determine how much background information to include in the unit. What type of assessment did Ms. Moreau use in this scenario? 1. Summative 2. Formative [correct] 3. Interim 4. Standardized [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Summative assessments are given after instruction for the purpose of assessing student achievement. Ms. Moreau is assessing before instruction. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Formative assessments occur before or during instruction for the purpose of guiding the teacher in planning instruction or making adjustments to increase student learning. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Interim assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Ms. Moreau is determining what students know about the upcoming unit rather than measuring progress and growth. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Standardized tests are formal exams given under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures (often nationally or on a statewide basis). [Q2] As a high school statistics teacher, Mr. Hart always reviews his tests to check for reliability. Three of the following strategies should increase reliability of his teacher-made tests. Which strategy decreases reliability? 1. Allocate the appropriate amount of time for the test 2. Write questions at the students’ reading level

3. Grade according to each student’s estimated capability [correct] 4. Check each test item for clarity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Reliability is the consistency of test results. Allocating the appropriate amount of time for students to take the test eliminates one source of test error and increases reliability. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Reliability is the consistency of test results. If questions are written at the students’ reading level, the test is more reliable and one source of error is eliminated. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Reliability is the consistency of test results. Grading should be consistent and objective. If grades are based on estimations of students’ capability, objectivity is not present and test results are not reliable. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Reliability is the consistency of test results. If test items are clear and free of ambiguity, the test is more reliable and one source of error is eliminated. [Q3] Mr. Campos carefully constructs a final exam for his history class. He wants to measure student learning on all information the class covered during the semester. After writing a draft, he reviews the test to make sure every test question directly tests an important topic and that every important topic is assessed by at least one test question. During his review, Mr. Campos is looking for what type of validity? 1. Criterion-related evidence of test validity 2. Construct-related evidence of test validity 3. Content-related evidence of test validity [correct] 4. Both content-related and construct-related evidence of test validity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Criterion-related validity reflects the relation between a test score and a particular outcome. Mr. Campos is making sure test questions relate to topics he taught. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Construct-related evidence of validity is gathered over many years. It is indicated by a pattern of scores. Mr. Campos is making sure test questions relate to topics he taught. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] If the purpose of a test is to measure the skills covered in a course or unit, then we would hope to see test questions on all the important topics and not on extraneous information. If this condition is met, the test has content-related evidence of validity. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Construct-related evidence of validity is gathered over many years. It is indicated by a pattern of scores. Mr. Campos is making sure test questions relate to topics he taught. 2 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q4] On a statistics exam, Ms. Girard includes a question that makes reference to “dreadlocks.” During the exam, a student quietly tells the teacher she doesn’t know the word dreadlocks. Ms. Girard realizes that the question is biased because it does which of the following? 1. Communicates an offensive stereotype 2. Lacks procedural fairness 3. Lacks content validity 4. Unfairly penalizes students who are unfamiliar with dreadlocks [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Offensiveness occurs when a particular group might be insulted by the content of the assessment. This student is unfamiliar with dreadlocks. We have no indication she is offended. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Tests are lacking in procedural fairness if the administration of the test favors some students and is disadvantageous to others. In this scenario, there’s no indication that the testing procedure was unfair. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Without knowing the statistical concept that the question is designed to assess, or the content of the curriculum, we can’t tell whether the question has content validity (i.e., tests an important concept that students were expected to learn). [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students can’t show what they know about statistics if they can’t understand the contextual information that sets up the problem. [Q5] Mrs. Murray is designing a test for her fourth-grade students to assess their level of reading comprehension. As part of test design, Mrs. Murray should be especially careful to look for: 1. Content-related evidence of validity and offensiveness 2. Construct-related evidence of validity and unfair penalization [correct] 3. Criterion-related evidence of validity and procedural fairness 4. Content-related evidence of validity and reliability [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The content of the test should be relevant, fair, and unbiased, but ultimately Mrs. Murray is measuring comprehension, not knowledge of particular content. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Mrs. Murray needs construct-related evidence of validity to ensure that the test really measures reading comprehension. She also needs to be sure that the questions don’t unfairly penalize students who don’t have background knowledge about the content. This lack of background knowledge could lead to test scores that suggest the students have less skill at comprehending text than they actually do. 3 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Criterion-related validity reflects the relation between a test score and a particular outcome. Mrs. Murray is concerned with comprehension. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The content of the test should be relevant, fair, and unbiased, but ultimately Mrs. Murray is measuring comprehension, not knowledge of particular content. Learning Outcome 15.2. Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. [Q1] The following teachers use a variety of methods for assessing student skills and knowledge. •

Mr. Jansen asks his physical education students to do as many chin-ups as they can, and he records the number each student can do.

•

Mr. Simon quizzes his second graders on a set of addition facts repeatedly until they can answer all correctly within three minutes.

•

Mr. Anders grades students’ essays by giving the five best essays in his class a grade of A, the next five best a grade of B, and so on.

•

Mr. Nilsen gives a spelling test over the week’s spelling words and bases grades on the number of words each student spells correctly.

Which teacher is clearly using norm-referenced test interpretation? 1. Mr. Jansen 2. Mr. Simon 3. Mr. Anders [correct] 4. Mr. Nilsen [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This is criterion-referenced interpretation of scores or grades. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a specific learning target or skill. In this scenario, the interpretation of a student’s grade is based on the number of chin-ups the student performs. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This is criterion-referenced interpretation of scores or grades. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a specific learning target or skill. In this case, the interpretation of a student’s grade is based on mastery of a set of addition facts. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In norm-referenced testing, scores are compared with the average performance of other students in the class or test group. The norm is the typical level of performance of the test group. Mr. Anders uses a norm-referenced test interpretation as he compares students’ essays to determine grades.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This is criterion-referenced interpretation of scores or grades. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a specific learning target or skill. In this situation, the interpretation of a student’s grade is based on the number of words the student spells correctly from the weekly spelling list. [Q2] Ms. Speck has been teaching a unit about World War II and is writing multiple-choice questions for the unit exam. Which of the following options is the best stem for a multiple-choice item? 1. World War II was 2. Which of the following was not a major factor that began World War II? 3. World War II was caused by 4. One major factor that began World War II was [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This option is vague and does not include enough information. The stem should be clear and present a single problem. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The stem should be stated in positive terms. Negative language is confusing. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This stem is too broad and unclear. Such a stem has multiple correct answers. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The stem makes it clear that the question focuses on one factor that contributed to the cause of World War II. The stem should always be stated clearly. [Q3] Ms. Roper established specific learning targets for her unit in science and created an exam that tested students’ achievement of those learning targets. She graded the exam on the percentage of correct answers. What approach to grading did Ms. Roper use? 1. Constructed response 2. A combination of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced grading 3. Norm-referenced grading 4. Criterion-referenced grading [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Constructed response is a type or category of testing. Ms. Roper likely used selected response test items, but the question asks what approach she used in grading. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ms. Roper only used one type of grading. Her test is based on specific learning targets, and her grading is based on the percentage of correct answers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ms. Roper is not comparing students’ levels of performance to determine their grades. Her test is based on specific learning targets, and her grading is based on the percentage of correct answers. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ms. Roper’s test is based on specific learning targets or specified criteria—a set of performance standards. Her grading is based on the percentage of correct answers. This approach is criterion-referenced. [Q4] Mr. Alcon is using a rubric to determine grades on an assessment in his psychology class. What type of assessment did he use? 1. Multiple-choice test 2. Fill-in-the-blank test 3. Constructed-response test [correct] 4. Selected-response test [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A rubric is not useful in grading multiple-choice tests. The answers are either correct or incorrect. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A rubric is not useful in grading multiple-choice tests. Each question has only one right answer, and the answers are either correct or incorrect. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A rubric provides a set of scoring criteria and is often used in grading constructed-response tests such as essays. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Selected-response test items have only one right answer. Teachers have no use for a rubric when they use selected-response items. [Q5] Ms. Patel is using a social studies textbook that comes with a set of unit tests written by the textbook author. To determine whether to use the test for Chapter 7, the most important question Ms. Patel should ask first is which of the following? 1. Is the language of the questions too familiar to the students? 2. Can the author be trusted to create unbiased questions? 3. Do test questions relate to what students were taught? [correct] 4. Can students make a high score by guessing the answers?

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A teacher should be concerned about the appropriateness of the level of language and terminology used in the test. However, asking if the language is too familiar is not a key question. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Checking for bias is an important concern, but this is not the first question a teacher should ask. Ms. Patel is determining whether to use the textbook test and her first question should be focused on what she expected students to learn. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The main consideration in judging the adequacy of a textbook (or standard achievement) test is the match between its test questions and what students were taught in their class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Checking the construction of the questions is important, but this is not the first concern. A teacher needs to ask questions related to content first. Learning Outcome 15.3. Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. [Q1] For their unit grade, Ms. Chan requires students to deliver an informative speech according to criteria laid out in the assignment. Their audience will be their peers and a guest observer. What type of classroom assessment is Ms. Chan using? 1. Formative 2. Standardized 3. Informal 4. Authentic [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Formative assessments are assessments for learning. They are not graded. Ms. Chan requires students to deliver informative speeches for their unit grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Standardized assessments are given under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. They are not based on a single unit of study in a single class. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Informal assessments are ungraded. Ms. Chan requires students to deliver informative speeches for their unit grade. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Authentic assessments test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Ms. Chan’s students are giving speeches as they would in an authentic, real-life setting.

[Q2] Ms. Chan teaches high school speech and requires students to deliver numerous speeches during the semester. Speeches are recorded, and each student creates a collection of the recordings of his or her speeches. At the end of the semester, students choose their five best presentations and write a self-reflection about their progress as public speakers. Their selfreflections include a personal assessment of their strengths and weaknesses and the identification of one key area they would like to improve. Based on this description, what type of assessment is Ms. Chan using? 1. Portfolios [correct] 2. Journals 3. Exit tickets 4. Selected-response testing [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Portfolios, a type of authentic assessment, are a systematic collection of the student’s work—in this case speeches. Using portfolios for assessment involves the students in the process of selecting works to include, critiquing their own work, and writing a self-reflection on the learning and progress they achieved. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Journals are used for informal assessments in which students regularly express their thoughts and ideas about the topic of study. Ms. Chan’s students are not regularly writing in journals; they write a single self-reflection about their speeches at the end of the semester. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Exit tickets are simple assessments teachers use at the end of a lesson to get students’ responses to a specific question or problem. Ms. Chan is using a semester-long process in her assessment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Selected-response testing involves the use of objective test items such as multiple-choice, fill-inthe-blank, matching, or true/false. Students in Ms. Chan’s class are not taking objective tests. [Q3] Ms. Chan teaches high school speech and requires students to deliver numerous speeches during the semester. She uses a rubric to assess the quality of each student’s performance. If Ms. Chan follows the guidelines for developing a rubric, her rubric might include which of the following? 1. Student listens attentively in class 2. Student answers questions correctly on the test 3. Student is required to practice 4. Student shows knowledge of the topic [correct]

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A rubric is a checklist or rating scale that states the skills that should be demonstrated in a successful performance. It describes different levels of quality for each skill the students should demonstrate. Listening attentively is not part of the student’s performance in giving a speech. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A rubric is a checklist or rating scale that states the skills that should be demonstrated in a successful performance. It describes different levels of quality for each skill the students should demonstrate. Answering questions correctly on a test is not part of the student’s performance during a speech. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A rubric is a checklist or rating scale that states the skills that should be demonstrated in a successful performance. It describes different levels of quality for each skill the students should demonstrate. Practicing is an expectation before the student gives a speech rather than a skill the student demonstrates during the presentation. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A rubric is a checklist or rating scale that states the skills that should be demonstrated in a successful performance. It describes different levels of quality for each skill the students should demonstrate. Exhibiting knowledge of the topic is a skill students would demonstrate during a speech. [Q4] To avoid creating unnecessary anxiety in the students about formal assessments, teachers in your school have been advised to increase their reliance on informal assessments. Which one of the following is a good example of informal assessment? 1. Giving students time to practice spelling and defining vocabulary words with a partner 2. Using a rubric for students to assess their own progress on their dioramas [correct] 3. Using a checklist of criteria to score the items in students’ portfolios 4. Using a rubric to rate students’ performance on oral book reports [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This example is a practice activity, not an informal assessment. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] When students self-assess their work, they are engaged in informal assessment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Using a checklist of criteria to score the items in students’ portfolios is a formal assessment. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Using a rubric to rate students’ performance on oral book reports is a formal assessment. [Q5] Students in Mr. Perez’s third grade class create portfolios of their writing. At the beginning of the year, students include their first story summaries. Later in the year they include their first draft 9 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

and their final version of a narrative about an exciting event. Based on the guidelines for creating portfolios, these student portfolios should do which of the following? 1. Present evidence of collaboration 2. Illustrate learning goals for the class 3. Illustrate what the teacher teaches 4. Demonstrate students’ growth [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Portfolios are collections of individual student work. They are not typically designed to represent evidence of collaboration. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Portfolios are collections of individual student work. The pieces in a portfolio should be aligned with learning goals, but the portfolios serve a different purpose. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Portfolios are collections of individual student work. The pieces in a portfolio are products of the teaching and learning process, but portfolios serve a different purpose. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Based on guidelines for creating portfolios, student portfolios should demonstrate students’ growth. Mr. Perez is using an approach that demonstrates students’ growth in writing. Learning Outcome 15.4. Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades. [Q1] Mr. Lewis is well known for giving challenging problem-solving exams in his science classes and grading them on the curve. For students who are interested in high grades, what is their goal in Mr. Lewis’s class? 1. Memorize facts 2. Memorize the learning targets 3. Perform better than other students [correct] 4. Know as much as other students know [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Memorizing facts may help to some extent, but Mr. Lewis gives problem-solving exams. A student who is interested in high grades needs to do more than memorize facts. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Memorizing the learning targets is no indication that a student can solve challenging problems on Mr. Lewis’s science tests. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Grading on the curve is one form of norm-referenced grading. The major influence on a grade is the student’s standing in comparison with others who also took the exam. A student may 10 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

actually perform poorly, demonstrate little skill in problem solving, and still make the highest score in class if other students perform poorly. In Mr. Lewis’s class, the student’s goal would be to outperform others. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Knowing as much as other students know is not enough to score better than the others and make the highest grade when a teacher grades on the curve. [Q2] Mr. Bernard is a new teacher who struggles with grading decisions. He knows he must assess students’ knowledge and skills, but he doesn’t like to assign grades. According to expert educators, what is the best reason to assign grades? 1. To identify the student’s ranking in the class 2. To motivate students to work and earn good grades 3. To determine which students cannot learn 4. To communicate the student’s achievement of learning goals [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A student’s ranking in class is rarely important—typically used for determining awards or similar purposes. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Assessments of students’ learning should support students’ motivation to learn—not their motivation to work for a good grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] All students can learn. Grades are not assigned for the purpose of determining whether a student can or cannot learn. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The best reason (maybe the only legitimate reason) to assign grades is to communicate to the students and their families about the students’ achievement of learning goals. [Q3] Teachers are usually encouraged to use criterion-referenced grades rather than normreferenced grades because criterion-referenced grades are based on which of the following? 1. A student’s standing in the class 2. A student’s level of engagement in the class 3. Completion of assigned tasks 4. Achievement of course objectives [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A student’s standing in the class is associated with norm-referenced grading.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A student’s level of engagement relates more to a student’s behavior. Such assessment is not the basis for criterion-referenced grades. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Criterion-referenced grades are based on evidence of learning rather than the completion of assigned tasks. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Criterion-referenced grades are based on assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives. [Q4] Charli, a fairly bright student in Mr. Martin’s algebra class, received a grade of “D” on her most recent test. She is clearly upset and seems shocked by her low score. Which of the following is most likely to enhance Charli’s learning after the test? 1. Corrective feedback from Mr. Martin [correct] 2. Dismissal of the low grade 3. Allowing Charli to retake the test 4. Changing the grade to match Charli’s typical performance [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] A growing body of research in cognitive and educational psychology has established that errors in low-stakes contexts enhance learning when they are followed by corrective feedback. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Dismissing the low grade does not enhance Charli’s learning. It simply keeps her average grade in the class where it was before the test. Mr. Martin and the student should be more concerned about the student’s learning than about the student’s grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Allowing Charli to retake the test doesn’t necessarily enhance her learning. It simply allows her to try again and perhaps fail to improve her grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Changing the grade is unethical and ineffective in promoting learning. [Q5] Landon’s fifth birthday is in July and his parents are considering academic red-shirting. Based on studies, what might one predict about the academic effects on Landon? 1. Landon will benefit from being redshirted 2. Results of studies are mixed [correct] 3. Landon will NOT benefit from being redshirted 4. Studies have not been conducted

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Some studies indicate that children benefit from redshirting, but other studies negate such conclusions. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Some studies have found benefits for students who have been held back by their parents, but other studies have found no benefits. The results of studies are mixed. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Some studies indicate that children do NOT benefit from redshirting, but other studies negate such conclusions. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Studies have been conducted to determine the effects of academic redshirting in kindergarten, and the results are interesting. Learning Outcome 15.5. Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches. [Q1] Studies have documented problems with high-stakes testing, and those problems include narrowing the curriculum and spending instructional time preparing for the end-of-grade tests. What do studies show about gender comparisons in high-stakes test scores? 1. Female students have an advantage based on test content 2. Male students have an advantage on multiple-choice items [correct] 3. Female students have an advantage on multiple-choice items 4. Male and female students perform equally [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Test content on all high-stakes tests should be free of bias. We don’t have evidence that content favors female students. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A study of 8 million fourth- and eighth-grade students taking state assessments in 47 states found that the test format affects the scores of girls compared to boys. Males generally do better on multiple choice items and females on essay items. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to studies, female students have an advantage on essay items. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] One gender has an advantage. A study of 8 million fourth- and eighth-grade students taking state assessments in 47 states found that one gender group has an advantage over the other on the basis of test item format.

[Q2] At the end of Chapter 4, Mrs. Estrada gave her 28 students the 50-point final exam that came with her textbook. The highest-scoring student answered 48 questions correctly, for a score of 96%. The lowest-scoring student answered 28 questions correctly and scored 56%. The median test score was 76%. Which of the following statements most accurately describes the distribution of scores on the exam? 1. On average, students got 38 questions right (76%) 2. The distribution has a small standard deviation 3. The distribution has a lot of variability [correct] 4. The scores are normally distributed [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] We can’t identify the average (mean) from the information given here. We know only the median, which indicates the middle score, with half the students scoring higher and half scoring lower. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The opposite is likely true. Given how far apart the high and low scores are, we can infer that the entire set of scores is not likely to be clustered tightly around the mean (average score). [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Variability is a measure of how spread out the scores are. Half the students correctly answered between 28 and 38 questions, and half correctly answered between 38 and 48. That is a significant range. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Without more information (e.g., the standard deviation), we can’t tell how the 28 scores are distributed. We know only 3: the high, low, and middle scores. [Q3] Different teachers made the following statements about student achievement during parent conferences: •

Marci scored in the 75th percentile on the standardized reading test, so that means she is in the top 25% of students who took the test.

•

Elena’s math scores show that she is working at the level of a tenth-grader, meaning that she is doing things from the curriculum two grade levels above her class. That’s great!

•

Esteban’s score is completely normal; you can see he’s right in the middle of this graph, which is called the normal curve.

•

Lawrence’s strengths are in the creative arts, but he has difficulty with science and math. He seems to be having trouble keeping up with his classmates.

2. Elena’s 3. Esteban’s 4. Lawrence’s [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Percentile scores are relatively easy for parents to understand, especially if they are explained accurately, as in this example. The description of Marci’s achievement score is both accurate and effective. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Grade-equivalent scores do not reflect the capacity to do higher grade-level work. Rather, they reflect how a tenth-grader would do on this eighth-grade test. Because grade-equivalent scores are misleading and are often misinterpreted, especially by parents, most educators and psychologists strongly believe they should not be used at all. Elena’s achievement is not described accurately or effectively. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] On a test in which the scores are normally distributed, most students (68%) have scores near the middle of the normal curve. However, because the term “normal” has other meanings, teachers would do better to use other language when discussing student performance. For example, a student who scores 3 standard deviations above the mean should not be described to her parents as “not normal.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This is perhaps a good place for a teacher to start the conversation about Lawrence’s achievements, but by itself it is not specific enough to be of use. Specific examples and scores would make it more meaningful for the parents. [Q4] One of your fifth-grade students, Samantha, has just received her standardized test scores, and she brings her printout to you to get your help in understanding her performance. You look at her results and see that she has received a stanine score of 5. What does this score tell you about Samantha? 1. Samantha will have a z score that is less than average. 2. Samantha performed better than only 5% of other students who took the same test 3. Samantha’s grade-equivalent score is fifth grade 4. Samantha performed at an average level on the test [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The z score is a different method of scoring standardized tests. Based on Samantha’s stanine score, her performance is not “less than average.” [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Stanine scores are whole-number scores from 1 to 9. Samantha’s stanine score is much better than the equivalent of “only 5% of other students” scoring lower.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Grade-equivalent scores use a different method of scoring standardized tests. We can’t tell what her grade-equivalent score would be, given this information. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In stanine scoring, 5 is the mean. Samantha’s performance was average. [Q5] Teacher effectiveness is often assessed on the basis of students’ scores on high-stakes tests. Compare the beginning-of-fifth-grade and end-of-fifth-grade scores of the following students in Mr. Park’s fifth-grade class. Which student demonstrated the greatest positive effect of learning according to the value-added model? 1. Ryleigh’s math scores: began at 5.1, ended at 6.2 2. Rowan’s math scores: began at 7.1, ended at 8.6 3. Natalia’s math scores: began at 2.2, ended at 4.3 [correct] 4. Zach’s math scores: began at 4.9, ended at 6.1 [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students are expected to grow one grade level every year. Ryleigh’s progress is expected. Her scores do not demonstrate the greatest positive effect of learning in fifth grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students are expected to grow one grade level every year. Rowan’s progress is better than expected, yet his scores do not demonstrate the greatest positive effect of learning in fifth grade. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Students are expected to grow one grade level every year. If the actual student achievement (end-of-year test score) is greater than predicted, then the estimate of the teacher’s effect is positive (value is added). Natalia gained two grade levels in her math skills, and her scores demonstrate the greatest positive effect of learning in fifth grade. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students are expected to grow one grade level every year. Zach’s test scores indicate that he made (and slightly exceeded) the expected progress, yet his scores do not demonstrate the greatest positive effect of learning in fifth grade.

Chapter 15 Application Exercises Application Exercise 15.1: Norm-referenced or Criterion-referenced? Learning Outcome 15.2. Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. Reference: Pearson eText Artifact 15.1 [Q1] Scenario: Austin, a senior in high school, is a dynamic teen, gifted in sports and academics, and involved in a wide array of activities. In his junior year, he was a great slugger on the baseball team, hitting the ball successfully 64 times out of 160 times at bat (64/160) for a batting average of .400. In an essay-writing contest for his school’s writing club, Austin’s essay was judged by teachers to be the best entry. As a volunteer with young children who have Down syndrome like his brother, Austin helps children prepare for the Special Olympics and was recently recognized as the children’s favorite trainer. Austin is interested in becoming a medical doctor and is in the process of completing his application for college. As part of the admissions process, he is submitting a 650-word essay about the life-changing effects of having a brother with Down syndrome. His essay will be scored by a panel of reviewers (using a rubric as a scoring guide) and then compared with the essays of many other applicants. Austin just received his SAT scores (750 in reading and writing and 780 in math) and they are in the very high range nationally. Question: In Austin’s high school activities (the first four sentences of the scenario), identify one criterionreferenced and one norm-referenced type of assessment and explain your choices. [Q1 Model Response] Austin’s baseball batting average of .400 is a criterion-referenced assessment. The score is based on statistics that represent the number of times he successfully hit the ball divided by the number of times he went up to bat. Austin’s winning essay is an example of norm-referenced assessment. The quality of his essay was compared to the quality of other essays submitted. Being recognized as the children’s favorite trainer may be viewed as competition or a test (based on a comparison of all trainers) in which a norm-referenced interpretation is used to identify the children’s favorite. [Q2] Scenario: Austin, a senior in high school, is a dynamic teen, gifted in sports and academics, and involved in a wide array of activities. In his junior year, he was a great slugger on the baseball team, hitting the ball successfully 64 times out of 160 times at bat (64/160) for a batting average of .400. In an essay-writing contest for his school’s writing club, Austin’s essay was judged by teachers to be the best entry. As a volunteer with young children who have Down syndrome like his brother, Austin helps children prepare for the Special Olympics and was recently recognized as the children’s favorite trainer. Austin is interested in becoming a medical doctor and is in the process of completing his application for college. As part of the admissions process, he is 17 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

submitting a 650-word essay about the life-changing effects of having a brother with Down syndrome. His essay will be scored by a panel of reviewers (using a rubric as a scoring guide) and then compared with the essays of many other applicants. Austin just received his SAT scores (750 in reading and writing and 780 in math) and they are in the very high range nationally. Question: Austin will submit his SAT scores as part of his application process for college admission. What kind of assessment (criterion-referenced or norm-referenced) is the SAT? Explain. [Q2 Model Response] The SAT is a norm-referenced assessment. In norm-referenced testing and grading, the people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning of a given individual’s score. Austin’s performance on the SAT was compared with the average performance of others who took the test. [Q3] Scenario: Austin, a senior in high school, is a dynamic teen, gifted in sports and academics, and involved in a wide array of activities. In his junior year, he was a great slugger on the baseball team, hitting the ball successfully 64 times out of 160 times at bat (64/160) for a batting average of .400. In an essay-writing contest for his school’s writing club, Austin’s essay was judged by teachers to be the best entry. As a volunteer with young children who have Down syndrome like his brother, Austin helps children prepare for the Special Olympics and was recently recognized as the children’s favorite trainer. Austin is interested in becoming a medical doctor and is in the process of completing his application for college. As part of the admissions process, he is submitting a 650-word essay about the life-changing effects of having a brother with Down syndrome. His essay will be scored by a panel of reviewers (using a rubric as a scoring guide) and then compared with the essays of many other applicants. Austin just received his SAT scores (750 in reading and writing and 780 in math) and they are in the very high range nationally. Question: As part of his application process for college admission, Austin is submitting an essay that will be scored by a panel of reviewers and compared with the essays of many other applicants. Explain how this is an example of norm-referenced and/or criterion-referenced assessment. [Q3 Model Response] Austin’s essay and the essays of other applicants will first be scored by a panel of reviewers using a rubric as a scoring guide. This aspect of the assessment is criterion-referenced. The rubric establishes standards or criteria for determining the quality of the essays. Later, Austin’s essay will be compared with other top essays and judged on the basis of its standing with respect to quality. This aspect of assessment is norm-referenced. In normreferenced assessments, a comparison of all products provides the norm for determining the rank of any given product or performance.

Application Exercise 15.2: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Learning Outcome 15.3. Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. Reference: Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 EDIT: Start at the beginning. End at TC 2:09 “…in any career.” URL: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/_bluetop_640x360_ccv2/ab/streaming/myeducationlab/ell/MN/RK_STEM_Interview_AssessmentEdT ech.mp4 [Q1] Use Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 to answer the following question: The high school science teacher in this video teaches in a linguistically diverse classroom. Identify the types of formative assessment she uses and explain how these formative assessment strategies inform instruction? [Q1 Model Response] This high school science teacher uses strategies such as thumbs up/thumbs down and fist of five to assess the learning climate in her classroom. She emphasizes her process of moving around the room and listening to determine how well students understand concepts and tasks. She also uses exit tickets to tell whether students met the learning objective for the lesson. These formative assessments inform instruction by telling the teacher whether to proceed or to provide additional instruction. If students have misconceptions, she recognizes those misconceptions and interjects additional teaching as needed. These formative assessments help her scaffold instruction for students particularly in a linguistically diverse classroom. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 to answer the following question: How might the teacher’s formative assessments affect students’ learning? [Q2 Model Response] Students are more likely to receive the scaffolding they need in the learning process when a teacher uses formative assessments to identify students’ levels of understanding. They are less likely to move forward with misconceptions. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 to answer the following question: What authentic assessments and activities does this teacher assign that could potentially be included in student portfolios? [Q3 Model Response] This science teacher mentions several authentic assessments including creating models and projects that demonstrate their understanding. She also mentions students’ use of new 19 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

technology to work collaboratively in creating a site to summarize information from a case. The models and projects and the web site could potentially be included in student portfolios to demonstrate learning. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 to answer the following question: Describe how this teacher might use rubrics in her summative grading processes to increase the objectivity of grades she assigns. [Q4 Model Response] This science teacher might create a rubric for grading authentic assessments such as the models students create and the projects students complete to demonstrate their learning. A rubric lists criteria that specify the quality of work required and describes gradations of quality (best, good, needs improvement, and unacceptable, for example). This high school teacher might involve students in developing the rubric to ensure that students understand the expectations. By specifying criteria and describing gradations of quality, the teacher reduces the subjectivity and increases the objectivity of grading. Objective grading processes help the students and teacher feel that grades are accurate and fair. Application Exercise 15.3: Interpreting Standardized Test Reports Learning Outcome 15.5. Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches. Reference: Figure 15.5 A Typical Score Report URL: http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ab/ab_ab_myeducationlab_1/xl/2016/woolfolk_edpsych_13e/Woo lfolk_figure_15.5_discussingtestresults.jpg [Q1] Use Pearson eText Figure 15.5 to answer the following question: Based on the section of text labeled “Guidelines: Conferences and Explaining Test Results,” what column of scores should Sally’s teacher use to explain Sally’s norm-referenced achievement test results to her parents, and what do the first scores in that column represent? [Q1 Model Response] Guidelines recommend using percentile scores because they are the easiest to understand. On Sally’s test report, the percentile scores are displayed in the column labeled National PR-S (National Percentile Rank and Stanine). The percentile scores represent the percentage of students who took the test and scored the same or lower than Sally. [Q2] Use Pearson eText Figure 15.5 to answer the following question: Identify Sally’s lowest stanine scores and explain stanines to Sally’s parents.

[Q2 Model Response] Sally scored in stanine 4 in Language, Language Expression, and Listening. Stanines are whole-number scores from 1 to 9 that each represent a wide range of raw scores. This is a more general picture of the student’s rank in comparison to peers who took the test. The mean is 5, and scores of 4 fall around the middle or average range. [Q3] Use Pearson eText Figure 15.5 to answer the following question: Explain the scores under the column heading Grade Equivalent and discuss briefly how these scores can be misleading to parents (or even to teachers). [Q3 Model Response] Grade-equivalent scores measure grade level of a student’s performance. The whole number represents the grade level and the decimal represents tenths of a year. Sally’s highest gradeequivalent for example, is 7.6 for Word Study Skills and indicates that Sally’s score is equal to what a seventh-grader would get on this test of word-study skills, not how Sally would do on a seventh-grade test of word-study skills. Grade-equivalent scores can be misleading because parents may misinterpret them to mean that their child should be promoted to work at the grade level indicated on the test report. Consequently, most educators and psychologists strongly believe they should not be used at all. Several other forms of reporting are more appropriate. [Q4] Use Pearson eText Figure 15.5 to answer the following question: Looking at scores for “Clusters” on the bottom part of Sally’s test report, explain what it means for Sally to score “Below Avg” (below average) in Language Mechanics: Usage. [Q4 Model Response] In Language Mechanics: Usage, the test included eight items. Sally attempted all eight and performed correctly on three. Among students taking the test, most students correctly responded to more than three items in this section. Since this portion of the test presented so few items, the score is less reliable than portions of the test with more items.

Chapter 15 Test Items Chapter 15 Objectives

Relevant Test Items

Objective 15.1: Describe the basics of assessment including Multiple Choice: 1-6 types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom Essay: 26 assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. Objective 15.2: Describe two kinds of test interpretations Multiple Choice: 7-11 (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use Essay: 27 selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. Objective 15.3: Explain how to use formative assessment to Multiple Choice: 12-17 improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate Essay: 28 authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. Objective 15.4: Describe the effects of grading on students and Multiple Choice: 18-20 the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to Essay: 29 parents about grades. Objective 15.5: Explain how to interpret common standardized Multiple Choice: 21-25 test scores (percentile rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale Essay: 30 score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements illustrates measurement (as defined in assessment terminology)? a. Many of Mr. Delano’s students are failing his class. b. Lynette found the solutions to most of the problems. c. Connor answered 14 out of 15 questions correctly. d. Gorge achieved one of the highest grades in his algebra class. 2. The following teachers are using various types of assessments. Which one is most likely used for formative purposes? a. Mr. McLaren’s groups are creating skits to show what they learned in their advertising unit. b. Ms. Allen is giving a pretest before she begins instruction on a new unit in geometry. c. Mrs. Goodeau uses students’ portfolios to determine their final grades in her design class. d. Mr. DeVall gives students a rubric that will be used in grading their oral presentations in his speech class. 22 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Ms. Adams administers assessments three times a year that help her to determine each student’s current reading level and use the data to differentiate reading instruction. What kind of assessment is Ms. Adams administering? a. Pretest b. Summative c. Interim d. Posttest 4. Marla took a standardized test and answered 87 of the 100 questions correctly. She took the same test a week later without extra preparation and answered 88 of the 100 questions correctly. This consistency in test scores is indicative of what test characteristic? a. Absence of bias b. Formative assessment c. Validity d. Reliability 5. Ms. Carpenter created a test to measure students’ skill in identifying subjects and verbs in sentences. All test items directly relate to the unit’s learning targets – identification of subjects and verbs in simple and compound sentences. Based on this information, Ms. Carpenter’s test may be said to have a. construct-related evidence of validity. b. reliability. c. content-related evidence of validity. d. small standard error of measurement. 6. Identify the question that contains assessment bias. a. Which President was in office at the outbreak of the Civil War? b. Which of the following Civil War leaders surrendered at Appomattox? c. Which of the following men led the Union army at the Battle of Gettysburg? d. Which of the following men is the greatest hero of the Civil War? 7. Which of the following assessments is viewed as having the most clear-cut answers in tests of students’ skills and knowledge? a. Essay test b. Exhibition c. Multiple-choice test d. Portfolio assessment 8. What is a common criticism of traditional testing? a. Traditional tests do not test knowledge as it is applied in real-world situations. b. Traditional tests cannot be designed to measure students’ knowledge. c. Traditional tests usually lack validity and/or reliability. 23 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. Traditional tests typically provide subjective measures of knowledge. 9. Traditional testing can be used effectively and efficiently to assess which of the following? a. Facts and concepts b. Problem-based learning c. Exhibits d. Presentations 10. Mrs. Ramirez is giving a test to identify the top students in her physics class. The top three or four students will be invited to participate in an event related to their unit of study at a local university. What type of comparison should she use to interpret test results? a. Criterion-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Comparison to university students taking the same test d. Comparison to national group taking the same test 11. Which of the following fill-in items follows guidelines for preparing test items? a. The ____________expedition took place before the telephone was invented. b. __________ and ___________ led an expedition west from St. Louis. c. _________________ invented the telephone. d. Who invented the telephone? ________________________________ 12. Which of the following is most likely to be identified as an authentic assessment? a. Mrs. Liu’s students are answering essay questions about the key factors that contributed to the Great Recession. b. Ms. Dupant’s students are working in groups to find information in their science text about environmental dangers to desert wildlife. c. Mr. Kuhar’s students are developing solutions to the problem of industrial toxins being dumped into their community’s drinking water source. d. Mr. Britt’s students are working in pairs to solve problems that require operations with integers, fractions, and irrational numbers. 13. Mrs. Carmike’s students are creating individual science projects that will be graded in class and also entered into the schoolwide science fair. Which of the following methods is Mrs. Carmike most likely to use to assess each student’s project and assign grades? a. Check-mark for completing the task b. Self-assessments c. Parent assessments d. Rubric 14. In his creative writing unit, Mr. Haley wants to use portfolios to collect student writings. Which of the following steps should he include in the process of creating these portfolios? a. Incorporate only perfected written works that are free of teacher feedback.

b. Involve students in selecting the writing pieces to include in their portfolios. c. Include the pieces that contain the most mistakes and require the greatest amount of student revision. d. Include the reports students wrote earlier in the semester about how to research a topic for creative writing. 15. Ms. Casella has scheduled three days for students’ persuasive speeches in her high school class. Which of the following practices is most likely to improve reliability in evaluating her students’ oral presentations? a. Rate the presentations on a 100-point scale to allow a wide range of scores. b. Use a rubric to focus attention on a few dimensions of the presentation. c. Increase variability of scoring by incorporating many criteria for the presentations. d. Invite colleagues to rate the presentations and use a different rater each day. 16. Mr. O’Dell wants to assess mastery of knowledge after teaching several lessons on the skeletal system. What assessment method aligns best with his goal? a. Multiple-choice test b. Individual journals c. Portfolio d. Presentation performance 17. When Mr. Martinez introduces new concepts, he uses exit tickets to gather information about students’ understanding. If necessary, he adjusts his teaching plan the next day to clarify misconceptions. Mr. Martinez is using which of the following? a. Standardized assessment b. Authentic assessment c. Differentiated assessment d. Informal assessment 18. Ms. Fonteneau is concerned about her French students’ motivation to learn. She creates authentic activities such as assigning tasks related to travel in French-speaking countries. She wants every student to succeed and achieve high grades. Which of the following is the most appropriate action for her to take to meet her goal? a. Provide critical feedback to help students learn. b. Avoid failing grades by adding points to student scores. c. Help students master basic French vocabulary and avoid challenges such as grammar. d. Use ungraded, formative tasks and base grades on effort. 19. Mr. Tolosa uses a variety of types of assessment in his fifth-grade class in order to get a true picture of students’ knowledge and skills. He avoids grading on the curve. His approach suggests that he wants assessments to support a. parent/guardian expectations. b. motivation to learn.

c. norm-referenced grading. d. motivation to make good grades. 20. Which of the following teachers uses norm-referenced grading? a. Mrs. Sage uses a rubric to grade her students’ final projects. b. Ms. Rodman uses a standard grading scale based on percentage of correct responses on calculus tests. c. Ms. Corrino grades students’ history projects on the basis of criteria specified on her checklist. d. Mr. O’Neal grades his chemistry exams on the curve. 21. In her seventh-grade pre-algebra class, Ms. Cornelius administered a standardized exam prepared by the district math department. She was pleased with the scores of her students. The highest score was 96; the lowest score was 70; the average score was 86; and the mode was 88. What is the mean score? a. 80 b. 90 c. 86 d. 88 22. Which one of the following examples illustrates appropriate use of high-stakes testing? a. Mrs. Dasan used high-stakes testing to make the decision to retain Donivan in kindergarten. b. Mr. Chu used high-stakes testing to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers in his district. c. Ms. Davis used high-stakes testing as the basis for recommending remedial work for students who failed in specified subjects. d. Mr. Jackson used high-stakes testing to compare his seniors to seniors in high schools in six other states. 23. You and the other fifth grade teachers at your school are preparing your students for state standardized tests. What advice should you and your colleagues follow? a. Adjust the instructions for administering the test to meet your students’ needs. b. Make sure students know how to use all test materials. c. Adjust time limits to provide sufficient time for students to complete each section of the test. d. Warn students of the significance of the test and the importance of achieving high scores. 24. Several of the students in Mr. Enzor’s class are comparing their scores on their state standardized test. They are not sure they understand how to interpret their score sheets. Which student appears to understand stanine scores and ranks the highest in terms of stanine scores? a. Mohe says his stanine score is 92. b. Alyssa says her stanine score is 114. 26 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. Darby says her stanine score is 9. d. Duke says his stanine score is 1. 25. How will value-added measures most likely help solve any problems associated with highstakes testing? a. Add points to scores of students identified as underprivileged or disadvantaged. b. Assess the actual growth a student achieved compared to some baseline of expected level of growth. c. Allow students scoring in the 25th percentile and lower to add points to their scores by taking additional versions of the test. d. Provide individualized testing opportunities for English learners to add points to their scores.

Essay Questions 26. Ms. Munn is preparing for her second year of teaching in fourth grade. Last year, she was disappointed that many of her students performed poorly on language arts assessments of skills such as summarizing, making inferences, and identifying the main idea in a passage. This year, she wants her students to do better. She wants to be able to recognize students’ struggles before she gives end-of-unit assessments. Explain how you think she should approach the problem. In your answer, include the following: •

Identify the kinds of assessments she might use and when she might use them.

•

Describe types of information she might expect to gain from the assessments.

•

Explain how she might use information from the assessments to meet her goal.

27. Mrs. Bowen is a new second-grade teacher in a low-SES community, and several of her students are English learners. In order to save time, Mrs. Bowen plans to use the chapter tests that accompany the social studies text adopted by her district. What suggestions might you make to help Mrs. Bowen determine the validity and appropriateness of these tests for her students? 28. Mr. Walker teaches ninth grade speech. He uses traditional testing to assess students’ knowledge about various types of speeches and their purposes, but he wants to use authentic assessment to evaluate students’ performance when they make presentations. The upcoming speech assignment involves presenting a four-minute informative speech in which students cite three reputable sources to support their content. The speech needs to inform the audience about something in the environment that poses a risk to them and their friends and families. Describe in detail an appropriate process for creating a rubric for grading these speeches. 29. Suppose you are teaching science to a diverse group of students in a high school where the teachers traditionally use norm-referenced grading – grading on the curve. Make a case for changing to criterion-referenced grading procedures. In your arguments, point out weaknesses of grading on the curve and strengths of criterion-referenced grading. 30. Ms. Stevens has been teaching for eleven years. She has administered standardized tests every year and studied her students’ scores. Over the years she has become quite frustrated with the whole process. If she is like many other teachers who have voiced objections to the standardized testing system, what are the likely sources of her frustration with standardized testing? 27 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 15 Test Answer Key Answer Key: Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Correct Answer: Connor answered 14 out of 15 questions correctly. Feedback for Correct Answer: Measurement is quantitative—the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. Measurement tells how much, how often, or how well by providing scores, ranks, or ratings. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: Ms. Allen is giving a pretest before she begins instruction on a new unit in geometry. Feedback for Correct Answer: Formative assessment is ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Students often take a formative assessment before instruction, a pretest that helps the teacher determine what students already know. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: Interim Feedback for Correct Answer: Interim (growth or benchmark) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: Reliability Feedback for Correct Answer: Scores are reliable if a test gives a consistent and stable “reading” of a person’s ability from one occasion to the next, assuming the person’s ability remains the same. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: content-related evidence of validity. Feedback for Correct Answer: If the purpose of a test is to measure the skills covered in a course or unit, then we would hope to see test questions on all the important topics and not on extraneous information. If this condition is met, we would have content-related evidence of validity. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: Which of the following men is the greatest hero of the Civil War? Feedback for Correct Answer: The wording of this question is likely to offend. Identifying the greatest hero of a war is a matter of opinion. Assessment bias occurs when qualities of an assessment instrument offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, religion, or other characteristics. Text Reference: Basics of Assessment

Correct Answer: Multiple-choice test

Feedback for Correct Answer: Multiple-choice questions, matching exercises, true/false statements, and short-answer or fill-in items are all types of selected-response testing. The scoring of these types of items is relatively straightforward because the answers are more clear-cut than essay answers. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing 8.

Correct Answer: Traditional tests do not test knowledge as it is applied in real-world situations. Feedback for Correct Answer: Experts argue for assessments that make sense and test knowledge in ways that it is used in real-world situations. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing

Correct Answer: Facts and concepts Feedback for Correct Answer: Even though schooling is about learning to think and solve problems, it is also about knowledge. Students must have something to think about—facts, ideas, concepts, principles, theories, explanations, arguments, images, opinions. Well-designed traditional tests can evaluate students’ knowledge effectively and efficiently. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing

10.

Correct Answer: Norm-referenced Feedback for Correct Answer: Norm-referenced grading assesses students’ achievement in relation to one another. Mrs. Ramirez wants to identify the top students, and the process of comparing students’ scores achieves her goal. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing

11.

Correct Answer: Who invented the telephone? ____________________ Feedback for Correct Answer: Guidelines for fill-in items specify asking a question (rather than making a statement with a blank) and placing the blank toward the end. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing

12.

Correct Answer: Mr. Kuhar’s students are developing solutions to the problem of industrial toxins being dumped into their community’s drinking water source. Feedback for Correct Answer: Authentic assessments test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Mr. Kuhar’s students are solving a real-world problem. There may be many correct answers or viable solutions. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

13.

Correct Answer: Rubric Feedback for Correct Answer: Performances—such as creating individual science projects—are criterion-referenced. Scoring rubrics are rules that are used to determine the quality of a student performance, often on a 4-point scale from “excellent” (4) to “inadequate” (1) or on a scale that assigns 29 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

points to each category—10 points for excellent, 6 for good, and so on. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments 14.

Correct Answer: Involve students in selecting the writing pieces to include in their portfolios. Feedback for Correct Answer: A portfolio is a systematic collection of work, often including work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned. Teachers should give constructive feedback, and students should be involved in selecting the pieces to be included in the portfolio. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

15.

Correct Answer: Use a rubric to focus attention on a few dimensions of the presentation. Feedback for Correct Answer: Research shows that when raters are experienced and scoring rubrics are well developed and refined, reliability may improve. Some of this improvement in reliability occurs because a rubric focuses the raters’ attention on a few dimensions of the work and gives limited scoring levels to choose from. If scorers can give only a rating of 1, 2, 3, or 4, they are more likely to agree than if they could score based on a 100-point scale. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

16.

Correct Answer: Multiple-choice test Feedback for Correct Answer: Different learning outcomes require different assessment methods. For mastery of knowledge, selectedresponse tests such as multiple-choice, matching, and fill-in are effective in sampling mastery of elements of knowledge. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

17.

Correct Answer: Informal assessment Feedback for Correct Answer: Informal assessments are ungraded assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions. The exit ticket is a simple assessment and can even be done “on the fly” as a teacher notices students struggling. Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

18.

Correct Answer: Provide critical feedback to help students learn. Feedback for Correct Answer: Teachers must strike a balance between high standards and a reasonable chance to succeed. Ms. Fonteneau should encourage high levels of effort and provide critical, corrective feedback to help students learn. One way to encourage critical thinking and support development of robust knowledge is to ask students questions that push their understanding and even draw out mistakes or errors, then provide clear feedback. Text Reference: Grading

19.

Feedback for Correct Answer: Assessments should support students’ motivation to learn. Teachers should distinguish between motivation to learn and motivation to make good grades. Grading on the curve diminishes motivation for most students. Text Reference: Grading 20.

Correct Answer: Mr. O’Neal grades his chemistry exams on the curve. Feedback for Correct Answer: In norm-referenced grading, the major influence on a grade is the student’s standing in comparison with others who also took the course or the test. The people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning of a given individual’s score. Grading on the curve is an example of norm-referenced grading. Text Reference: Grading

21.

Correct Answer: 86 Feedback for Correct Answer: The mean score is the arithmetical average of a group of scores. Text Reference: Standardized Testing

22.

Correct Answer: Ms. Davis used high-stakes testing as the basis for recommending remedial work for students who failed in specified subjects. Feedback for Correct Answer: Appropriate use of high-stakes testing includes using scores to provide effective remediation when students fail. The goal is learning. Test results should be used for students, not against them. Making pass/fail decisions, evaluating teachers, and comparing across states is not appropriate use of high-stakes scores. Text Reference: Standardized Testing

23.

Correct Answer: Make sure students know how to use all test materials. Feedback for Correct Answer: Several days before the testing, do a few practice questions with a similar format. Demonstrate the use of the answer sheets, especially computer-scored answer sheets. Make sure students know if and when guessing is appropriate. Text Reference: Standardized Testing

24.

Correct Answer: Darby says her stanine score is 9. Feedback for Correct Answer: Stanine scores are whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores. Darby seems to understand stanine scores, and her stanine score of 9 is in the highest range. Text Reference: Standardized Testing

25.

Correct Answer: Assess the actual growth a student achieved compared to some baseline of expected level of growth. Feedback for Correct Answer: Value-added measures use statistical procedures to determine what students could be expected to learn based on student data from previous years in the subject and maybe other relevant information. If the actual student achievement is greater than 31 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

predicted, then the estimate of the teacher’s or school’s effect is positive (value is added). Text Reference: Standardized Testing

Answer Guide: Essay Questions 26.

Suggested Response: •

Ms. Munn might use various types of formative assessment. Formative assessments are ungraded tests used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis.

•

Formative assessments before instruction, such as pretests, help determine what students already know and point out the range of knowledge or skill levels in the classroom. Formative assessments during instruction identify misconceptions and weaknesses. They help teachers see who is struggling with what and direct teaching toward the problem areas, thus meeting individual and group needs.

•

Ms. Munn might use the information from formative assessments to guide teacher planning and improve learning. Formative assessments will guide Ms. Munn in providing helpful feedback to students during the learning process and improve learning before summative assessments are given.

Text Reference: Basics of Assessment 27.

Suggested Response: Mrs. Bowen needs to take into consideration a few important factors before using ready-made tests that accompany her social studies text. Several students in Mrs. Bowen’s class are English language learners. She needs to compare the reading level required on the ready-made tests with the reading level of her students. If students are not able to read the test items with understanding, testing will not be valid. Mrs. Bowen also needs to compare the learning targets for her instruction with the test items. Do the test items cover all of her learning targets? Do they match all of the content she taught? Do any of the questions ask for information or skills she didn’t teach? If Mrs. Bowen deviated from the content in the text (in order to meet the learning targets she established), her instruction will not be a perfect match to the ready-made tests, and testing will not be valid. Mrs. Bowen will also need to consider the length of the tests. To what extent are the ready-made tests appropriate in length for the attention spans of her students and the time she plans to allow for the tests? If she allows insufficient time or applies extra pressure for students to hurry, the test results will not be valid. Text Reference: Classroom Assessment: Testing

28.

Suggested Response: Mr. Walker is using authentic assessment. With authentic assessments, using rubrics is one way to make assessment more reliable and valid. •

Mr. Walker’s first step might involve presenting models of informative speeches for students to observe (online or video). Students benefit from comparing good examples and not-so-good examples.

•

Next, Mr. Walker and his students would articulate gradations of quality, perhaps four levels of quality (from excellent to poor) for each criterion. They begin by describing the best and worst levels of quality for each criterion; then fill in the middle levels.

•

Students can practice using the rubric to evaluate the model speeches they observed earlier.

•

They can also use the rubric to help them prepare their speeches.

•

If time permits, students may engage in peer assessment and self-assessment of their speeches using the rubric. With the assessment feedback, they could make revisions before the due date.

•

Mr. Walker needs to use the same rubric for grading the speeches.

Text Reference: Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments 29.

Suggested Response: Norm-referenced grading is based on a student’s standing in comparison with others in the course. This kind of grading presents the following weaknesses: •

It limits the number of good grades that will be given. Most students will be losers and motivation will suffer.

•

It doesn’t communicate what the student knows or what the student can do, which is the main reason for grading.

•

Norm-referenced tests tend to encourage competition and comparison of scores. Highly competitive classes may be particularly hard on anxious students and students who lack self-confidence.

In contrast, criterion-referenced grading represents the student’s ability to reach learning targets. This approach poses the following strengths: •

It is compatible with the goal of teaching—to teach in a way that all students learn.

•

Criteria for success are spelled out clearly to students in advance.

•

It is up to the student to earn the grade she or he wants to receive.

•

Theoretically, all students can achieve high grades if they reach the criteria.

•

Judgments about a student relate directly to the achievement of clearly defined instructional goals or standards.

Text Reference: Grading 30.

Suggested Response: Ms. Stevens is certainly not alone in feeling frustrated about high-stakes testing. Many teachers have voiced objections, and Ms. Stevens’ objections may mirror those of others. •

Test results are returned to teachers too late in the school year for them to use the results to plan instruction or remediation for their current students.

•

Teachers complain about the mismatch between their curriculum and the content and skills covered on the tests.

•

Many teachers believe their students are over-tested, and many schools feel pressure to teach to the tests.

•

Studies of the actual high-stakes tests in action show testing narrows the curriculum.

•

It seems that the test of mathematics is also a test of reading. Students with poor reading ability have trouble with the math test, especially if their first language is not English.

•

The test format affects the scores of girls compared to boys. Males generally do better on multiple choice items and females on essay items, so in states that rely more on multiple-choice items there may be a gender gap favoring boys and the opposite will be true for essay items.

•

Testing is no longer being employed merely to measure the effects of policy interventions— rather, it has itself become the intervention.

•

Many districts use test results to judge the effectiveness of schools and individual teachers.

•

Teachers feel that other tests should be included in the picture of their students’ achievement rather than placing great significance on results of a single battery of tests. Students’ abilities may be judged wrongly on the basis of these tests.

•

Test results are often used inappropriately (to make pass/fail decisions, to make state-to-state comparisons, and other inappropriate uses).

Text Reference: Standardized Testing

Chapter 15 Connect and Extend to Licensure Learning Outcomes Outcome 15.1 Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. Outcome 15.2 Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterionreferenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. Outcome 15.3 Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. Outcome 15.4 Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades. Outcome 15.5 Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches. [Q1] LO 15.1 Which of the following assessment methods provides feedback that is nonevaluative, occurs before or during instruction, and guides teachers in planning and improving instruction? 1. Formative [correct] 2. Norm referenced 3. Summative 4. Standardized [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Formative assessment is a process that occurs before or during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are to guide the teacher in planning and adjusting instruction and to provide feedback to help students improve learning. [Q2] LO 15.2 Every year Ms. Nguyen’s students take the mandated state-wide standardized tests. What type of test interpretations are used in scoring these standardized tests? 1. Benchmarks 2. Criterion-referenced 3. Norm-referenced [correct] 4. Both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In norm-referenced testing and grading, the people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning of a given individual’s score. You can think of a norm as being the typical level of performance for a particular group. By comparing the individual’s raw score (the actual number correct) to the norm, we can determine if that raw score is above, below, or around the average for that group. [Q3] LO 15.3 Mr. Wagner has been teaching a unit about persuasive speaking, and his students have learned skills in basic public speaking as well as persuasion. For an end-of-unit assignment, Mr. Wagner expects his students to write and present a persuasive speech that is designed to get peers to take a stand on a given issue. Mr. Wagner is using what type of assessment? 1. Selected response 2. Portfolio 3. Constructed response 4. Authentic [correct] [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Authentic assessments are assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. [Q4] LO 15.3 Mr. Wagner has been teaching a unit about persuasive speaking, and his students have learned skills in basic public speaking as well as persuasion. For an end-of-unit assignment, Mr. Wagner expects his students to write and present a persuasive speech that is designed to get peers to take a stand on a given issue. According to guidelines, what grading approach should Mr. Wagner use to provide objective grades and objective feedback about each student’s mastery of skills? 1. Rubric [correct] 2. Self-evaluations 3. Norm-referenced grading 4. Grading on the curve [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] A scoring rubric is a checklist or rating scale that gives specific feedback about elements of a performance. [Q5 Short Answer] LO 15.3 Case “How will you grade our oral book reports, Ms. Barns?” “I am going to grade them with each of you! We will develop what is called a rubric. It is a list of items on which you should focus while preparing and presenting your book report.” “How will we be involved?” 36 Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

“You will help me make the rubric. What are some of the things you think should be included in your oral report?” “I think we should have to have audience participation, or else it gets too boring!” “Good idea, Terry. What else?” The class continued to add to the rubric until there were six aspects on which to focus. “Class, you will also assist me in grading your performance by using the rubric. By making the rubric and using it to grade yourself, you should do very well.” “There are no surprises that way!” Lisa shouted. In addition to listing the criteria for what constitutes quality work and having students selfassess, list additional guidelines Ms. Barns should follow in developing a rubric. [Feedback for Answer 5] Make sure the skill to be assessed is important and can be taught. Show students examples of good and not-so-good work. Articulate gradations of quality. Practice on models. Use peer assessment. Revise, and then use teacher assessment. [Q6 Short Answer] LO 15.3 Case “How will you grade our oral book reports, Ms. Barns?” “I am going to grade them with each of you! We will develop what is called a rubric. It is a list of items on which you should focus while preparing and presenting your book report.” “How will we be involved?” “You will help me make the rubric. What are some of the things you think should be included in your oral report?” “I think we should have to have audience participation, or else it gets too boring!” “Good idea, Terry. What else?” The class continued to add to the rubric until there were six aspects on which to focus. “Class, you will also assist me in grading your performance by using the rubric. By making the rubric and using it to grade yourself, you should do very well.” “There are no surprises that way!” Lisa shouted. Ms. Barns is using a rubric for grading oral book reports. What other types of assessments are appropriately and effectively graded by using a rubric? [Feedback for Answer 6] Rubrics are effective in grading portfolios and performances. Examples include writing performances such as essays, projects such as science projects, performances such as public speaking, and other authentic tasks in which students demonstrate their skills.