TEST BANK for The Children's Thinking 5th edition By Robert Siegler, and Martha Alibali by ACADEMIAMILL

Test Bank Amber C. Wingfield

Children’s Thinking Fifth Edition Robert S. Siegler Martha W. Alibali

Table of Contents Chapter 1: An Introduction to Children’s Thinking………………………..……. 1 Chapter 2: Piaget’s Theory of Development……………………………………... 12 Chapter 3: Information–Processing Theories of Development……………….. 25 Chapter 4: Sociocultural Theories of Development…………………………….. 38 Chapter 5: Perceptual Development……………………………………………… 49 Chapter 6: Language Development……………………………………………….. 60 Chapter 7: Memory Development……………………………………………...... 72 Chapter 8: Conceptual Development…………………………………………….. 85 Chapter 9: The Development of Social Cognition……………………………... 96 Chapter 10: Problem Solving……………………………………………………

107

Chapter 11: Development of Academic Skills………………………………....

120

Chapter 12: Conclusions for the Present; Challenges for the Future………… 132

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Children’s Thinking Multiple Choice 1.

A scientist interested in cognitive development would be most likely to study ___. a. children solving math problems b. the etiology of depression c. parent-child attachment d. the effects of socioeconomic status on self-esteem Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.1: Explain the key characteristics of children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 2

The constructivist perspective of Jean Piaget argues that infants possess important ___ and ___ capabilities. a. perceptual and conceptual b. conceptual and associative c. associative and linguistic d. perceptual and motor Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 3

Professor Woo studies infants. The goal of her research is to demonstrate that infants have the ability to understand rudimentary forms of mathematics (e.g., the addition and subtraction of small numbers of objects). Professor Woo most likely subscribes to which of the following perspectives? a. associationist perspective b. constructivist perspective c. core knowledge perspective d. information-processing perspective Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 4

Research has shown that very young infants possess general learning mechanisms that help them acquire knowledge. Two of these learning mechanisms are ___ and ___. a. imitation and statistical learning b. association and distance perception c. automatization and conceptual organization d. analogy and strategy construction Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 5

The stage concept can be traced back to the ideas of a. George Berkeley b. John Locke c. John Stuart Mill d. Charles Darwin Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 5

John took two weeks to learn how to tie his shoes. His mom went over each step of the process with him day by day, and he learned one step at a time until he could tie his shoes on his own. Kathy also took two weeks to learn how to tie her shoes. However, unlike John, she did not seem to be learning any of the steps day-by-day. Then, all of a sudden, after about two weeks, she tied her shoes all by herself. John’s course of development is predicted by the ___, whereas Kathy’s course of development is predicted by the ___. a. core knowledge theorists, information-processing theorists b. constructivists, associationists c. stage theorists, information-processing theorists d. associationists, stage theorists Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 6

Professor Murphy tested a 6-year-old child, Madeline, on three conservation problems: conservation of volume, conservation of mass, and conservation of number. Madeline displayed stage 2 reasoning on the volume and mass problems, but stage 3 reasoning on the number problem. Madeline’s performance violated which of the following assumptions of the stage concept? a. abruptness assumption b. concurrence assumption c. the assumption of coherent organization d. the assumption of qualitative change Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 6

Last year, Billy solved addition problems like “4 + 3 = __” by counting on his fingers. This year, he can retrieve addition facts from memory. This is an example of a. quantitative change b. abrupt change c. qualitative change d. concurrent change Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 6

The period of development before birth is the ___ period. a. postnatal b. undeveloped c. prenatal d. induction Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 7

10.

A one-year-old child receives a stuffed cat as a present. She sees that this stuffed animal has whiskers, eyes, and feet like her family’s cat, but she also observes that this stuffed animal does not make noises like her family’s cat does. This realization sets the stage for her to later learn about what makes something alive. The child has experienced which process of cognitive change? a. assimilation b. accommodation c. generalization d. automatization Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 7

11.

What mechanism of development underlies the main differences between a novice driver and an experienced driver? a. generalization b. automatization c. synaptogenesis d. social scaffolding Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 7

12.

In a study by Professor Heath, children ages 5 and 10 were asked to complete the following pattern: μν μν μ___. Most five-year-old children answered correctly with respect to shape, but were at chance with respect to color. In other words, they were just as likely to complete the pattern with a white square as a black square. In contrast, most ten-year-old children answered correctly with respect to both shape and color (i.e., they put a black square in the blank). This example best demonstrates which of the following mechanisms of change? a. automatization b. encoding c. habituation d. statistical learning Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 7

13.

Jerry is ten years old and has an IQ of 130. Jerry’s mental age is a. 10.0 b. 10.3 c. 13.0 d. 7.7 Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 8

14.

Research has shown a relationship between habituation rate at 7 months and ___. a. IQ scores in childhood b. math test scores in childhood c. learning disabilities in childhood d. all of the above Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 9

15.

The brain has its largest increase in weight between the ages of a. 0-11 months b. 11 months – 3 years c. 3-18 years d. none of the above; the increase in weight is about the same for the age ranges listed above Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 10

16.

One brain structure that is far more developed in humans than in other primates is the ___. a. hypothalamus b. cerebral cortex c. amygdala d. medulla Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 10

17.

The cerebral cortex has ___ main lobes. a. two b. three c. four d. five Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 11

18.

In general, the left hemisphere tends to process information ___, and the right hemisphere tends to process information ___. a. analytically, holistically b. emotionally, spatially c. logically, analytically d. holistically, analytically Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 11

19.

The synaptic connections in a toddler’s brain are ___ than those in an adult’s brain. a. sparser b. denser c. faster d. shorter Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 13

20.

Synaptogenesis is a. the transmission of information from one neuron to another b. the formation of synapses between neurons c. the release of neurotransmitter into a synapse d. the period of development in which the number of synapses gradually declines Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 12

21.

In general, genes control the ___ of synapses, and experience controls the ___ of synapses. a. generation, pruning b. pruning, generation c. maintenance, firing d. firing, generation Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 13

22.

Children are better than adults at learning ___. a. chess b. physics c. social skills d. language Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 13

23.

A scientist interested in social influences on cognitive development would not be likely to study ___. a. the effects of calculators on children’s mathematical problem-solving skills b. the effects of genes on children’s language proficiency c. the effects of video game playing on children’s IQ scores d. the effects of tutors on children’s reading performance Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 14-16

24.

A toy company influences development at the level of the ___. a. exosystem b. mesosystem c. macrosystem d. microsystem Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 15

25.

Alaina got a new puzzle for her birthday. She cannot complete it on her own, but can complete it with ease when her father hands her one puzzle piece at a time. This example best describes the benefits of a. social scaffolding b. strategy construction c. cultural tools d. macrosystems Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 15

True or False 26.

_____ Baillargeon (1994) has shown that 3-month-old infants’ knowledge of object properties is identical to that of adults. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 4

27.

_____ Saffran and colleagues (1996) have shown that very young infants can detect regularities and extract sequential patterns in the linguistic sounds they hear. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 5

28.

_____ The stage concept implies gradual, quantitative changes in development. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 6

29.

_____ A child’s mental age is always higher than their chronological age. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 8

30.

_____ Habituation refers to the process by which infants becoming increasingly interested in an object after repeated exposures to that object. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 9

31.

_____ At birth, the cerebral cortex is immature relative to other parts of the brain. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 10

32.

_____ The profound development of the occipital lobe during the first few years of life is primarily responsible for the rapid advances in thinking that occur during the first few years of life. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 11

33.

_____ If a particular synapse does not fire over the first several years of life, it may be pruned. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Pages(s) in text: 13

34.

_____ Brain plasticity tends to decrease over the course of development. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 13

35.

_____ A television is an example of a cultural tool that shapes children’s thinking. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 15

Short Answer/Essay 36.

List four of the six most important questions in the study of children’s thinking. Then, choose the one that you think is most important, and defend your opinion. Answer: Any four of the following six: What capabilities are innate? Does development progress through stages? How does change occur? How do individuals differ? How do changes in the brain contribute to cognitive development? How does the social world contribute to cognitive development? Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 3

37.

Contrast the associationist perspective of John Locke and the core-knowledge perspective of Carey and Gelman. Answer: The associationist perspective argues that infants come into the world with only minimal capabilities, such as the ability to associate experiences with one another. According to this view, we must have learned everything we know from experience. In contrast, the core-knowledge perspective suggests that infants come into the world equipped with a wide range of perceptual, motor, and conceptual capabilities that allow them to see the world much like older children and adults do. According to this view, much of our knowledge is innate. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Page(s) in text: 3-5

38.

List and define two of the four implications of the stage concept, as noted by Flavell (1971). Answer: Any two of the following four: (1) qualitative change, which means that a particular skill not only gets better, but also becomes different in quality or character, (2) concurrent change, which means that changes from stage to stage occur simultaneously for many concepts at once, (3) abrupt change, which means that children switch abruptly (not gradually) from one stage to the next, and (4) coherent organization, which means that children’s behaviors and thoughts cohere as a sensible whole and are not random bits and pieces of independent units added together. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Pages(s) in text: 6-7

39.

List and define two of the four change mechanisms proposed by researchers who subscribe to the information-processing approach to cognitive development. Answer: Any two of the following four: (1) automatization, which refers to age or experience-related increases in the efficiency and automaticity of mental processing, (2) encoding, which involves identifying and mentally representing the key features in a particular problem or situation, (3) generalization, which involves transferring the knowledge and skills acquired in one context to interpret information or solve a problem in a novel context, and (4) strategy construction, which refers to the construction of a new method for solving a problem. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Pages(s) in text: 7-8 10 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40.

List three of the four layers of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model of the social context of development, and give an example of how each layer can influence the development of a child’s academic abilities. Answer: Any three of the following four: (1) macrosystem, (2) exosystem, (3) mesosystem, and (4) microsystem. The macrosystem includes cultural values, such as whether children are encouraged to focus on academics. Whether or not a child focuses on academics influences his or her academic abilities. The exosystem includes social systems, such as the school board. The school board makes decisions about a school’s curriculum, and this influences the academic abilities of a child in the school. The mesosystem includes the particular school that a child attends, which plays a large role in shaping a child’s academic abilities. Finally, the microsystem includes parents. The values, expectations, and education level of a child’s parents influence his or her academic abilities. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 1.2: Summarize different perspectives on key questions related to children’s thinking. Pages(s) in text: 14-15

Chapter 2 Piaget’s Theory of Development Multiple Choice 1.

An epistemologist studies the ___. a. biological basis of behavior b. origins of knowledge c. ability to adapt to reality d. mechanisms of developmental change Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 22

Piaget thought philosophical controversies could be resolved by ___. a. introspection b. measuring children’s intelligence c. studying Kant’s writings d. applying the scientific method Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 22

Joan, a two-year-old child, shouts “doggie!” after spotting a field of cows in the distance. Joan’s behavior illustrates the developmental process known as ___. a. accommodation b. equilibration c. evolution d. assimilation Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 23

An example of functional assimilation is a ___. a. baby continuously kicking his or her crib to make a mobile jiggle over and over again b. three-year-old progressing from one- to two-word phrases c. five-year-old pretending that a banana is a telephone d. twelve-year-old using a calculator to solve a math problem Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 24-25

Piaget compared children to ___. a. scientists solving problems b. encyclopedias filled with knowledge c. adults trying to imitate a sentence from a foreign language d. photographers capturing snapshots of reality Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 25

According to Piaget, children ___ reality over the course of development. a. internalize b. discover c. construct d. ignore Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 25

According to Piaget’s theory, humans are not born with the ability to ___. a. suck on a pacifier b. mentally represent their mother’s face c. grasp their father’s finger when it comes in contact with their hands d. turn their heads toward a shaking rattle Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 26

Enrico, a five-month-old infant, begins to cry, and shortly thereafter, his mother appears, picks him up, and soothes him. Later, when Enrico is alone in his crib, he cries again. Enrico’s latter crying episode is an example of a ___. a. reflex b. secondary circular reaction c. tertiary circular reaction d. mental representation Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 27

Jean, a one-year-old child, squeezes her rubber ducky with both hands, and it squeaks. Next, she squeezes it with one hand to make it squeak. Then, she places the rubber ducky on the ground and steps on it to make it squeak. Finally, she sits on it to make it squeak. In this example, Jean’s behavior is an example of a ___. a. primary circular reaction b. secondary circular reaction c. tertiary circular reaction d. reflex Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 28

10.

According to Piaget, one of the earliest indications of internal representations is ___. a. the coordination of secondary circular reactions b. deferred imitation c. perspective taking d. the ability to consider classes and relations together Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 30

11.

According to Piaget’s distinction between signs and symbols, a ___ is an example of a sign, and a ___ is an example of a symbol. a. pencil representing a telescope, stack of blocks representing a house b. thumbs-up gesture representing a job well done, pencil representing a telescope c. stack of blocks representing a house, numeral representing a given number of objects d. numeral representing a given number of objects, thumbs-up gesture representing a job well done Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 30

12.

Which of the following is not characteristic of children in the preoperational stage? a. egocentrism b. ability to mentally represent static objects c. tendency to focus on a single dimension to the exclusion of others d. ability to interpret events in terms of their relation to hypothetical events Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development; LO: 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 31, 39

13.

Five-year-old children’s performance on conservation problems illustrates their ___. a. inability to take perspectives other than their own b. reliance on static perceptual states c. egocentric communication skills d. inability to consider classes and relations together Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 31

14.

Christine, a five-year-old child, is presented with a number conservation problem involving two rows of checkers (row A and row B). Each row contains six checkers. After row B is spread out to appear longer than row A, Christine is likely to conclude that ___. a. row A and row B have the same number of checkers b. row A has a greater number of checkers than row B c. row B has a greater number of checkers than row A d. there are twelve checkers all together Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development; LO: 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development Page(s) in text: 31, 36 15 Copyright @2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

15.

In the concrete operational period, the central development is the acquisition of ___. a. mental representations b. abstract thought c. conservation d. operations Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 32

16.

Piaget studied children’s understanding of conservation of ___. a. number b. solid quantity c. liquid quantity d. all of the above Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 32

17.

Which of the following problems would a child in the concrete operational period be most likely to solve incorrectly? a. chemical combinations problem b. conservation of liquid quantity problem c. class inclusion problem d. three-mountains problem Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 32-33

18.

While eating lunch in her highchair, Darci, a six-month-old baby, accidentally drops her spoon. After dropping her spoon, Darci is likely to ___. a. appear unaffected b. look in her hand for the spoon c. look on the floor for the spoon, but give up looking if the spoon is not partially visible d. scan and search the floor persistently for the spoon until she finds it Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 35

19.

According to Piaget, very young infants do not search for a hidden object because they ___. a. are uncoordinated b. are not sufficiently interested in the object c. have an underdeveloped visual system d. fail to understand that the object continue to exist Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 35

20.

Piaget (1995|1937) documented the following event. Lucienne, Piaget’s one-year-old daughter, was in the garden when she spotted Piaget about three feet away. Immediately thereafter, Lucienne’s mother asked, “where is Papa?” In response, Lucienne turned and pointed toward Piaget’s office window where she was used to seeing him. In this event, Lucienne’s behavior could be viewed as a naturalistic example of ___. a. egocentric communication b. the A-not-B error c. centration d. the transformation error Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 35

21.

An experiment by Bower and Wishart (1972) involving a transparent cup ruled out which of the following accounts of object permanence? a. infants lack the necessary coordination to retrieve an object that is placed under a container b. infants do not understand that an object continues to exist when it is hidden c. infants’ representations of hidden objects are not strong enough to elicit reaching behaviors d. none of the above Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 35-36

22.

Piaget argued that infants are most likely to classify an object according to its ___. a. color b. size c. function d. essence Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 36

23.

Mariana, a six-year-old child, is playing with three red checkers and five blue checkers. Mariana’s father asks her, “are there more blue checkers, or more checkers?” Mariana is most likely to respond by saying “___.” a. more checkers b. more blue checkers c. more red checkers d. more purple checkers Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 37

24.

According to a study by Inhelder and Piaget (1964) on children’s ability to solve multiple classification problems, children acquire the ability to complete the pattern __ correctly (i.e., put a white circle in the blank) around age ___. a. five b. seven c. nine d. eleven Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 39

25.

According to Piaget’s theory, a nine-year-old child is likely to be in the ___ period of development. a. sensorimotor b. preoperational c. concrete operational d. formal operational Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 39

26.

After reading a story to her class about a caterpillar changing into a butterfly, Heather, a kindergarten teacher, summarizes the main points of the story. Then, one student, DJ, raises his hand and says “I had pancakes for breakfast this morning.” DJ’s behavior is an example of ___. a. abstract thinking b. mental imagery c. centration d. none of the above Answer: D (correct answer is egocentric communication, which is not listed as an option) Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 40

27.

Research has shown that children in non-Western societies tend to reach each of Piaget’s stages ___. a. at about the same age as children in Western societies b. at younger ages than children in Western societies c. at older ages than children in Western societies d. none of the above Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 40

28.

Research has shown that ___ adolescents exhibit formal operational reasoning. a. no b. few c. many d. all Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 40

29.

Baillargeon (1987) challenged Piaget’s account of infants’ knowledge. The study took advantage of infants’ ability to habituate to familiar events and look longer at surprising events. Results suggested that infants as young as 4 months old have a rudimentary understanding of the concept of ___. a. number conservation b. class inclusion c. object permanence d. all of the above Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 41

30.

Studies performed in the 1980s and 1990s have shown that infants possess ___. a. about the same level of cognitive competence as Piaget’s theory predicts b. greater cognitive competence than Piaget’s theory predicts c. less cognitive competence than Piaget’s theory predicts d. knowledge that changes in a stage-like fashion, just as Piaget’s theory predicts Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 42

31.

Piaget argued that preschoolers do not grasp the concept of number. However, since that time, Gelman and her colleagues have found that preschoolers can ___. a. count accurately b. understand the effects of addition and subtraction on collections of objects c. indicate which of two numbers is bigger and which is smaller d. all of the above Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 42

32.

When scientists look at children’s thinking at close view, changes in thinking appear to be ___. However, when they look at it at a more distant view, changes in thinking appear to be ___. a. abrupt, gradual b. abrupt, unpredictable c. unpredictable, gradual d. gradual, abrupt Answer: D Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 43

True or False 33.

_____ Piaget argued that basic categories of knowledge, such as space and time, are innate. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 22

34.

_____ Assimilation is never present without accommodation. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 24

35.

_____ The main difference between primary circular reactions and secondary circular reactions is that primary circular reactions are limited to actions and outcomes involving one’s own body, whereas secondary circular reactions can involve objects in the external world. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 26–27

36.

_____ Piaget’s account of infancy is based on observations of his own children. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 28

37.

_____ During the early portions of the preoperational period (around age 2) children tend to use more signs than symbols. Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development. Page(s) in text: 30

38.

_____ Preschool children cannot consider both the size and the shape of an object simultaneously. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development Page(s) in text: 37

39.

_____ In general, the attempts to replicate Piaget’s observations with larger, more representative samples of children were successful. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 40 21 Copyright @2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40.

_____ When young children are tested on nonverbal versions of Piaget’s tasks, their reasoning is more advanced than Piaget’s theory predicts. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 40

41.

_____ Piaget argued that, with proper instruction, a four-year-old child could be taught how to solve a conservation of mass problem. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Pages(s) in text: 42

42.

_____ When nine-year-old children are asked to explain their reasoning on a conservation of liquid quantity problem, they are likely to say something like “this glass has more water because it is taller.” Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 44

Short Answer/Essay 43.

Suppose Sabine, a six-month-old baby, fails to realize that her crib mobile continues to exist when she is not looking at it. Describe how Sabine’s thinking on this issue might change as she progresses through the three stages of equilibration. Answer: Students’ answer to this question should focus on the progression through the three stages from (1) stability of thinking to (2) instability of thinking to (3) stability of thinking. To receive full credit, students should note that the final stage of equilibration is even more stable than the initial stage. The following is an example of a good answer: In the first stage, Sabine is stable and satisfied. She doesn’t think of the mobile at all unless it is in her field of vision—out of sight, out of mind. One day when she is playing in her crib, she may look at the mobile, turn her head away from the mobile, and then look at the mobile again. At this point, she may notice that the mobile is still in the same spot when she looks away and then looks back again. As a result, she may enter the second stage, a state of disequilibria in which she thinks of the mobile when it is out of sight, but questions whether or not it still exists when she can’t see it. After some investigation, she will enter the third stage as she develops a mental representation of the mobile and realize that it continues to exist even when it is out of sight. This way of thinking will be more stable than her original way of thinking because further observations will not call it into question (i.e., the mobile will remain constant every time she looks away and then back again). Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 24

44.

In a study by Schauble (1990), children played a computer game in which they set up races between different cars. The children’s goal was to determine which of five car features (wheels, engine, tailfin, color, and muffler) had a causal relation to speed. Describe a strategy that might be used by a child in the formal operations period to solve this problem. Contrast that strategy with a strategy that might be used by a child in the concrete operations period. Answer: Children in the formal operations period would generate all possible combinations of features. They would set up races between cars that differed according to specific features of interest, and they would interpret results appropriately. They would collect data systematically, and they would continue to collect data until they checked all possible feature combinations. In contrast, children in the concrete operations period would not generate all possible combinations of features. They might repeat combinations that they already tried, and they might stop collecting data after only a few races. They might set up a race between two cars that differ in terms of multiple features, and then conclude that all of the features that differ between the two cars influence speed. Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.1: Summarize Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development; LO: 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Page(s) in text: 23, 33-34

45.

Piaget studied children’s performance on a variety of problems, including the three-mountains problem and the class-inclusion problem. Choose either the three-mountains problem or the class-inclusion problem. Describe the features of the problem, give an example of how a child in the preoperational period might solve the problem, and discuss how Piaget interpreted preoperational children’s performance on the problem. Answer: In the three-mountains problem, an experimenter places a model of three mountains of different sizes on a table in front of child. The child’s goal is to identify which view of the mountains people sitting at different points around the table would see. Preoperational children tend to say that another person at the table would see the same view as they do, regardless of the person’s position at the table. Piaget interpreted children’s performance as evidence of their egocentrism. In the class-inclusion problem, an experimenter presents children with a set of objects that can either be grouped together as superset (e.g., 7 checkers), or be separated into two subsets (e.g., 5 blue checkers and 2 red checkers). The children’s goal is to say whether there are more objects in the larger subset (e.g., 5 blue checkers) or more objects in the superset (7 checkers). Preoperational children tend to say that there are more objects in the larger subset than in the superset. Piaget interpreted children’s performance as evidence of their tendency to focus on a single dimension to the exclusion of others. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development; LO: 2.2: Describe the major characteristics of each of Piaget’s four stages of development; LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Pages(s) in text: 31, 37, 45

46.

List the four main stages of Piaget’s theory, along with their relevant age ranges. Describe one significant limitation of children’s thinking in each of the first three stages. Answer: The sensorimotor period is from birth to two years. One significant limitation in children’s thinking is their poor understanding of object permanence. Very young infants act as if they do not understand that an object continues to exist when it is out of their sight, and even older infants demonstrate some misconceptions, such as the A-not-B error. The preoperational period is from ages 2-7. One significant limitation in children’s thinking is their inability to focus on more than one object dimension at a time. The concrete operational period is from ages 7-12. One significant limitation in children’s thinking is their inability to interpret the world in terms of hypothetical events. The formal operational period is from 12 years onward. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 2.3: Describe the child’s understanding of fundamental concepts in each stage of development. Pages(s) in text: 39

47.

A number of studies have challenged aspects of Piaget’s theory. Two examples are Diamond’s (1985) study on infants’ ability to reach for hidden objects and Gelman and colleagues’ studies on preschoolers understanding of number. Review either Diamond’s findings or Gelman’s findings, and discuss how the findings challenge an aspect of Piaget’s theory. Answer: Diamond showed that infants’ tendency to search for a hidden object is related to how long ago the object was hidden. As infants get older, they become able to search after longer and longer delays. Findings suggest that the ability to reach for hidden objects develops gradually, and they challenge Piaget’s notion that cognitive change happens abruptly, in a stage-like fashion. Gelman and colleagues have shown that preschool children understand some aspects of the concept of number (e.g., they can count accurately, they understand the effects of the addition and subtraction of objects on a set of objects, they can identify which numbers in a set of numbers are larger and which are smaller). These studies challenge Piaget’s claim that preschoolers do not understand the concept of number. More generally, they suggest that Piaget may have underestimated young children’s capabilities. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 2.4: Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Pages(s) in text: 42–43

Chapter 3 Information–Processing Theories of Development Multiple Choice 1.

What is the most fundamental assumption that all information-processing theories of development share? a. Emotions enable information process to occur. b. Thinking is information-processing. c. Adaptation is necessary for information-processing. d. Formal models best demonstrate how information is processed. Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.1: Describe basic assumptions of information-processing theories. Page(s) in text: 51

A child wants to build a bridge between two chairs for toy cars to drive over. The child tries four different ways of connecting wooden blocks before finding a method that works. The next time the child plays with the cars, the child builds a bridge in the same way that was successful the previous time. Which of the following assumptions of most information-processing approaches is this child illustrating? a. Precise analysis of change mechanisms is essential for growth. b. Change is produced by a process of continuous self-modification. c. Knowledge should be characterized in great detail. d. Thinking is limited in terms of the amount of information that can be attended to simultaneously. Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.1: Describe basic assumptions of information-processing theories. Page(s) in text: 51-52

There has been enormous growth in the use of computational models to study a. cognitive development. b. emotional development. c. social development. d. physical development. Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.1: Describe basic assumptions of information-processing theories. Page(s) in text: 52

According to the information-processing approach, the three main structural features of the cognitive system are ___. a. sensory memory, production memory, and episodic memory b. production memory, working memory, and long-term memory c. sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory d. working memory, episodic memory, and long-term memory Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 53

A seminal study by ___ (1960) documented several key characteristics of sensory memory. a. Baddeley b. Miller c. Siegler d. Sperling Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 53

A group of art students completed a drawing exercise on two consecutive days in which they reconstructed visual scenes after viewing the scenes for a few seconds each. On the first day, students reconstructed a specific quadrant of each scene immediately after the scene was removed. Under these conditions, students typically reconstructed about 80% of the objects in the quadrant. On the second day, students were not told which quadrant to reconstruct until one second after the scene was removed. Under these conditions, students typically reconstructed about 40% of the objects in the quadrant. The difference between students’ performance on the first and second days is most likely related to differences in ___. a. working memory b. sensory memory c. strategy use d. automatization Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 53

Children sometimes play a card game called “Concentration” in which all of the cards are arranged face down in rows and columns. When a child takes a turn, he or she flips over two cards. If the two cards match (e.g., both are aces), then the player gets to keep them. If the cards do not match, the player places them back in their original position face down. Whoever has the most cards at the end of the game is the winner. Whether or not a child finds a match on a given turn depends on a number of factors, including luck, strategy use, and ___. a. working memory b. sensory memory c. long-term memory d. metacognition Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 54–55

Which of the following two lists will be more easily remembered by a group of high school students: VTI MBBA SUI FM or USAI BMFBI MTV? a. VTI MBBA SUI FM b. USA IBMFBI MTV c. students will remember about the same number of letters on both lists d. there is no way to predict which list will be more easily remembered Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 54

The three main components of working memory are ___. a. verbal storage, spatial storage, and executive control b. verbal storage, spatial storage, and conceptual storage c. spatial storage, conceptual storage, and executive control d. verbal storage, conceptual storage, and executive control Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 54

10.

Older children can maintain more information in working memory than younger children because ___. a. pronunciation speed increases with age b. the amount of information stored in semantic memory increases with age c. scientific reasoning skills improve with age d. central conceptual structures become more complex with age Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 55 27 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11.

Which of the following is most likely to interfere with your ability to remember a list of words? a. having a conversation with your friend b. finding a starred location on a map c. swimming 5 laps d. imagining yourself riding a roller coaster Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 55

12.

Suppose a child is helping her father with the laundry. Her father asks her to sort the clothes into two piles: shirts and pants. After a few minutes of sorting, the child’s father realizes that he made a mistake. He points out the mistake to the child and asks her to start sorting the clothes into two different piles: dark colors and light colors. The child will start being able to perform this switch effectively around age ___. a. two b. four c. six d. eight Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 55

13.

Omar is eating lunch in the school cafeteria. After pulling a banana out of his lunch box, he remembers that he had oatmeal with bananas for breakfast that morning. This memory is an example of ___. a. semantic knowledge b. episodic knowledge c. procedural knowledge d. declarative knowledge Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56

14.

Gina can remember her new neighbor’s name because it is the same one her mother has, and the new neighbor is her mother’s age. Which basic cognitive process is Gina using to remember the neighbor’s name? a. associating b. rehearsal c. encoding d. automatization Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56 28 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

15.

Children read slowly when they first learn to read because they have to sound out each letter of a word. However, reading speed increases with practice, and children eventually become so good at reading whole words that they wouldn’t be able to inhibit the skill if they tried. This example illustrates the process of ___. a. encoding b. automatization c. metacognition d. biological maturation Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56–57

16.

When asked whether the word “man” or “fingernail” occurs more often in a typical newspaper, the average person could make an educated guess that the answer is “man” because ___. a. frequency information is processed automatically b. frequency information is explicitly memorized c. frequency information is encoded faster than other types of information d. frequency information is stored in working memory Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 57

17.

Ava, an eight-year-old child, is presented with the problem “5 + 3 + 7 = 5 + __” and asked to remember it. After the problem is taken away, Ava is given a sheet of paper and is told to write exactly what she just saw. She writes “5 + 3 + 7 + 5 = __” on the paper. Ava’s behavior is likely due to a failure in ___. a. mental imagery b. automatization c. encoding d. long-term memory Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56–57

18.

When infants learn which sounds tend to occur together and use this information to identify consistent patterns within the stream of speech, this is called ___. a. statistical learning. b. rote memorization. c. automatization. d. generalizing. Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 57

19.

Why does the length of time, when an infant stops looking at a given object, drop by more than half over the course of the first year? a. Older enfants encode objects more effectively than younger ones. b. Older enfants have more experience with automatization than younger ones. c. Older infants access prior knowledge more quickly than younger ones. d. Older infants have greater ability to store information than younger ones. Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 58

20.

The phonological loop is located in which part of the brain? a. left hemisphere b. frontal region c. occipital region d. right hemisphere Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 58

21.

According to production system models, the basic organization of the cognitive system consists of which two types of knowledge? a. procedural and emotional b. spatial and declarative c. declarative and procedural d. spatial and emotional Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 58

22.

In a production system, the ___ of each production indicates when a production should be executed. a. condition side b. action side c. cycle d. self modification Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 59

23.

If the condition side of a given production does not match the current contents of working memory, then ___. a. that production fires b. the production system continues searching and moves to the preceding production c. the production system continues searching and moves to the following production d. the system outputs an incorrect answer Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 59

24.

According to Taatgen and Anderson’s model of English-speaking children’s learning of the past tense, a child who uses words like “runned” and “beginned” is a. encoding. b. overregularizing. c. processing information. d. thinking. Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 61

25.

In Taatgen and Anderson’s model of acquisition of past tense forms, using a production system architecture called ACT-R, chunks of declarative knowledge vary in their level of ___. a. production b. modification c. activation d. utility Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 61

26.

Which of the following is one way that the performance of Taatgen and Anderson’s model parallels the performance of children as they learn past tense forms? a. The model, but not children, generally avoids overregularizing irregular verb forms except at the very beginning. b. Children and the model do not tend to use the analogy mechanism, with a high-frequency irregular form serving as the source for the analogy. c. Children and the model are less likely to overregularize high-frequency irregular forms than lowerfrequency irregular forms. d. The children, but not the model, show a consistent pattern of performance for very low frequency irregular forms. Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 63

27.

Each of the modules in Anderson’s most recent formulation of the ACT-R has production rules being implemented in the a. basal ganglia. b. occipital lobe. c. motor cortex. d. cerebellum. Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 63

28.

Connectionist models claim to be consistent with what scientists know about the brain. Assuming that this claim is valid, the recruitment of new hidden units in a connectionist model is analogous to ___. a. the formation of new synapses b. increases in the amount of information that can be held in working memory c. maturational increases in the speed of neural transmission d. the release of a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 3.4: Describe basic structures and processes within connectionist models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 64

29.

The learning mechanism implemented by traditional connectionist models is best suited for learning in the context of ___. a. reading a paragraph in a textbook b. listening to a class lecture c. quizzing oneself with flash cards d. writing notes in a notebook Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 3.4: Describe basic structures and processes within connectionist models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 66

30.

According to Clearfield and colleagues’ (2009) experiments with a cued reaching task, infants who received the low-salience cue tended to a. reach for object A, regardless of delay. b. reach for object A if there was a three-second delay. c. reach for object B, regardless of delay. d. reach for object B if there was a three-second delay. Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 68

31.

In dynamic systems theories, when children adapt their behavior depending on whether they are at school, home, or a playground, they are exhibiting a. soft assembly. b. landscape. c. attractor states. d. structures. Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 68 33 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

32.

Dynamic field theory seeks to integrate knowledge about the workings of the brain theories of a. physical development. b. emotional development. c. social development. d. behavioral development. Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 70

33.

The basic unit in dynamic field theory, called the dynamic neural field, is meant to characterize the actions of a. muscles. b. blood vessels. c. neurons. d. the basal ganglia. Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 70

True or False 34.

_____ The capacity of sensory memory decreases with development. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 54

35.

_____ It is easier to remember the list “house, tea, cake” than it is to remember the list “f, s, t, z.” Answer: T Question type: APPLCIATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 54

36.

_____ There is no limit on the amount of information that can be stored in long-term memory. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56

37.

_____ When children know how they felt when they celebrated their fourth birthday, they have procedural knowledge. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56

38.

_____ In long-term memory, the way people store knowledge is considered the all-or-none form: all the information is together in the same place. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56

39.

_____ Elisa has to concentrate closely when she is completing her tax returns. For her, completing taxes is a controlled process. Answer: T Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 56

40.

_____ Children as young as age five are as proficient as college students at retaining frequency information. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 57

41.

_____ Processes never change from controlled to automatic, even when people gain experience with them. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 57

42.

_____ Both production systems and connectionist models assume that many aspects of cognition and development can be simulated with a computer. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory. Page(s) in text: 59

43.

_____ Information-processing theories assume that we can gain insights into cognitive development by studying adult cognition. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 70

Short Answer/Essay 44.

Discuss one similarity and one difference between the information-processing theories of development and Piaget’s theory of development. Answer: Both theories seek to understand the same fundamental questions, such as “what develops?” and “how does development occur?” However, information-processing methods are designed to provide detailed data of children solving a single type of problem, whereas Piaget’s methods were designed to provide a general description of children’s thinking across a broad range of problems. Other answers would also be acceptable (see page 67 in text). Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.1: Describe basic assumptions of information-processing theories. Page(s) in text: 51-52

45.

List two of the four information-processing theories of development. What is the primary mechanism of developmental change in each of the three theories? Answer: Any three of the following: (1) Multi-store model, in which the architecture of the cognitive system is composed of three primary components (sensory, working, and long-term memory); (2) Production systems theories, in which the primary mechanisms of change are self-modification and generalization; (3) Connectionist theories in which the primary mechanisms of change is observing the discrepancy between self-generated response and correct response and generalization; (4) Theories of cognitive evolution, in which the primary mechanisms of change are variation, competition between ideas, and selection. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.2: Describe basic structures and processes within the multi-store model of human memory; LO: 3.3: Describe basic structures and processes within production system models of cognitive development; LO: 3.4: Describe basic structures and processes within connectionist models of cognitive development; LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development Page(s) in text: 53-70

46.

The learning mechanism in traditional connectionist models occurs through receiving input, generating a response, observing the discrepancy between that response and the correct answer, and then making the appropriate adjustments within the processing units. It is plausible that children learn like this in a variety of contexts. However, this learning mechanism seems less plausible in some contexts. Describe one context well suited for this type of learning mechanism and one context that may pose a problem for this type of learning mechanism. Answer: A tutor-tutee (or teacher-student, or self drilling with flash cards) context is well suited for this type of learning. In this context, the tutee can respond to questions posed by the tutor, and the tutor can correct any errors in thinking. However, a more independent learning context may pose a problem for this type of learning mechanism because there may not be a way for the learner to figure out or find the correct answer. If the learner is unable to figure out or find the correct answer, then he or she cannot observe the discrepancy between his or her way of thinking and the correct answer, and therefore, no adjustments will be made. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 3.4: Describe basic structures and processes within connectionist models of cognitive development. Pages(s) in text: 64-65

47.

How did Samuelson (2002) use connectionist modeling to test the hypothesis that young children’s bias to generalize names for solid objects by shape might arise from their detection of regularities in their early vocabulary? Answer: Samuelson set up two models. One model was trained with word-object-syntax combinations, typical of toddlers. It primarily included words for solid objects of specific shapes. The second model was trained with combinations that included an even mix of solid objects of specific shapes and non-solid objects. Once the models were trained, Samuelson presented novel “objects” to the models. Then she looked at what kind of output “words” the models produced. The model with the toddler-like vocabulary demonstrated the “shape bias” seen in toddlers. The model with the more mixed vocabulary did not demonstrate “shape bias.” Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.4: Describe basic structures and processes within connectionist models of cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 65-66

48.

Discuss a frequent criticism of connectionist models. Answer: Critics say that connectionist models are not close to “brain style cognition.” Chemical activity is vital for brain functioning, but there is nothing in connectionist models that corresponds to it. In addition, the functioning of neurons is only vaguely similar to how connectionist models’ simple processing units function. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 3.5: Describe basic structures and processes within dynamic systems theories of cognitive development. Pages(s) in text: 67

Chapter 4 Sociocultural Theories of Development Multiple Choice 1.

The founder of the sociocultural theories of development was ___. a. Piaget b. Vygotsky c. Stigler d. Siegler Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 74

When Frank was first learning to brush his teeth, his mother provided verbal guidance about what to do. Over time, Frank’s mother provided less and less guidance until he was able to do it on his own. This example best illustrates the process of ___. a. proximal development b. internalization of socially shared processes c. imitative learning d. cultural comparison Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 75-76

Juanita and Portia are presented with fifteen math problems. Both girls are able to solve ten of fifteen problems correctly on their own. With the help of a teacher, Juanita is able to solve an additional four problems, and Portia is able to solve one more problem. In this example, Juanita and Portia differ in terms of their ___. a. zone of proximal development b. imitative learning skills c. cultural tools d. developmental stage Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 76

Each of the following is an example of a psychological tool except a ___. a. stapler b. calculator c. language d. wristwatch Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 77

The mechanism by which cultural tools, such as abacuses, influence cognitive development is ___. a. internalization b. intersubjectivity c. collaboration d. joint construction Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 77

Results from Stigler (1984) suggest that 11-year-old Taiwanese abacus experts ___. a. perform poorly on arithmetic problems when they are not able to use an abacus b. perform better on mental arithmetic problems than their American peers c. use a mental image of an abacus when they solve mental arithmetic problems d. count on their fingers when they solve mental arithmetic problems Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 78

In 1977, the Apple II came with 16 K of RAM. In 2004, the iBook G4 came with 256 MB of RAM. That’s a huge increase in memory capacity! This example demonstrates the evolutionary process called the ___. a. ratchet effect b. zone of proximal development c. scaffolding phenomenon d. tool mediating system Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 78-79

Vygotsky argued that ___ is the most significant cultural tool. a. the abacus b. algebra c. language d. the computer Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 79

Cultural communities differ in terms of the amount of time children spend ___. a. playing b. learning c. talking d. all of the above Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 79

10. When Maria’s father teaches her a label for an object, he looks at the object and points to it. These behaviors help establish ___, which is essential for social learning. a. emulation b. joint attention c. shared values d. goal-directed problem solving Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 80 11. Humans can learn from situations that require the learner to ___, whereas non-human primates cannot. a. emulate another individual’s behavior b. understand another individual’s goals c. establish joint attention with another individual d. all of the above Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 80

12. Quinton’s mother is trying to teach him how to load the dishwasher. She points to the different sections of the dishwasher and tells him where each item type goes. She demonstrates how to put the coffee mugs in, and then she lets him put a few in himself. They repeat this a few times over the next few days. A few days later, Quinton loads the dishwasher successfully. What type of learning experience did Quinton have? a. instructed learning b. collaborative learning c. emulation d. all of the above Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 81 13. Andrea’s little brother, Tommy, watches as Andrea takes the trash out. When Andrea is finished, her mother gives her $5. The next day, Tommy sets the table for dinner in hopes of getting a $5 reward. Tommy’s behavior is most likely due to ___. a. imitative learning b. scaffolding c. collaborative learning d. emulation Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 81 14. Two children working together to solve a story problem is an example of ___. a. imitative learning b. emulation c. instructed learning d. collaborative learning Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 81 15. Research suggests that the most effective instruction is focused at ___. a. the children’s current skill level b. one step beyond the children’s current skill level c. the teacher’s current skill level d. an expert’s skill level Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 82-83 41 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

16. A study by Göncü and Rogoff (1998) had four conditions in which adults helped children sort photos into categories. In the first condition, adults articulated category rationales for children. In the second condition, adults prompted children to articulate category rationales themselves. In the third condition, adults both articulated category rationales for children, and prompted children to articulate category rationales themselves. In the control condition, adults provided little-to-no scaffolding. Which of the following most accurately portrays the study’s results? a. children in the first condition categorized the most items correctly b. children in the second condition categorized the most items correctly c. children in the third condition categorized the most items correctly d. none of the above Answer: D (conditions 1-3 were better than control, and no there was no difference between 1-3) Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 83 17. Whether or not children learn effectively from peer collaboration depends on ___. a. the children’s age b. the relative expertise of the children c. neither a nor b d. both a and b Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 84-86 18. Angie, an eight-year-old child, is presented with the problem 3 + 4 + 5 = 3 + __ and asked to solve it. She adds up all the numbers in the problem and puts 15 in the blank. Angie is likely to change her strategy for solving the problem after collaborating with a peer who ___. Assume that Angie and her peer collaborator do not receive feedback about the correctness of their strategies. a. adds up all the numbers in the problem and puts 15 in the blank b. adds up all the numbers in the problem, but adds wrong, and puts 14 in the blank c. adds up all the numbers before the equal sign and puts 12 in the blank d. none of the above Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 86

19. Levin and Druyan (1993) suggest that the influence of task difficulty on the effectiveness of peer collaboration may be mediated by ___. a. confidence b. goals c. cultural norms d. attention Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 87 20. Evelyn lives on a farm, and each day she helps her mother feed the chickens and collect the eggs. This is an example of what Barbara Rogoff and her colleagues refer to as ___. a. scaffolding b. imitative learning c. collaborative learning d. guided participation Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 87 21. Rogoff and colleagues (1993) studied two types of communities: those in which children are typically segregated from adults’ activities and those in which children are typically included in adults’ activities. Results revealed differences in the methods used by adults in the communities to support children’s participation in various activities. Adults in the former type of community were more likely to use ___ to support children’s attempts to participate in activities, whereas adults in the latter type of community were more likely to use ___. a. explicit verbal instruction, rewards b. rewards, explicit verbal instruction c. nonverbal demonstrations, explicit verbal instruction d. explicit verbal instruction, nonverbal demonstrations Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which sociocultural interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 88

22. Which of the following might be considered a dynamic assessment? a. IQ test b. open book test c. pop quiz d. vocabulary assessment Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 93-94 23. Which of the following is a defining feature of classrooms that subscribe to the fostering communities of learners (FCL) approach? a. expertise is deliberately distributed across students b. the teacher to student ratio is about 1 to 10 c. teachers provide students with problem-solving hints d. teachers promote cultural diversity through various in-class exercises Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 94-95 24. Students in classrooms that subscribe to the fostering communities of learners (FCL) approach generally outperform traditional students on measures of ___. a. critical thinking skills b. reading comprehension c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 95 25. Miller and colleagues (1995) found that American preschoolers have more difficulty than Chinese preschoolers when it comes to ___. a. counting numbers between 1 and 10 b. counting numbers between 11 and 20 c. counting numbers between 21 and 30 d. all of the above Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 95

26. In a study by Strom and colleagues (2001), a teacher taught children mathematics by linking mathematically sophisticated ideas to ___. a. technical tools b. cultural events c. everyday language d. central conceptual structures Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 96 True or False 27.

_____ In general, Piaget focused on similarities across individuals, whereas Vygotsky focused on individual differences. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 74

28.

_____ Sociocultural theories are the only theories that acknowledge that other people play an important role in children’s cognitive development. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 75

29.

_____ On average, children living in East Asian countries make different types of errors on arithmetic problems than children living in North American countries. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 77-78

30.

_____ On average, children from middle-class families and children from working-class families who live in the same country do not differ significantly in terms of the amount of time they spend at play. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 80

31,

_____ Non-human primates are capable of some forms of social learning. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 80

32.

_____ Research by Radziszewska and Rogoff (1988, 1991) suggests that children who work with peers learn more than children who work with adults. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which social interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 84

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_____ Children as young as four years old can collaborate effectively with peers. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which social interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 84

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_____ Regardless of whether children receive feedback about the accuracy of their problem-solving strategies, they are more likely to benefit from a peer who uses a different incorrect strategy than a peer who uses the same incorrect strategy. Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which social interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 86-87

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_____ Older children are more likely than younger children to use private speech. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.2: Explain different ways in which social interactions and cultural tools are involved in development. Page(s) in text: 89

36.

_____ A study by Ferrara, Brown, and Campione (1986) showed that IQ accounts for the relationship between children’s ability to learn from social interaction and their performance on transfer problems. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 9 46 Copyright ©2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Short Answer/Essay 37.

Discuss how the sociocultural theories differ from most other theories of cognitive development (e.g., Piaget’s theory) in terms of their conceptualization of the relationship between the social environment and the developing child. Answer: Many theories of cognitive development assume that the social environment influences the developing child from the outside in. According to this view, the environment provides information for children, and it can elicit various behaviors from children. However, it is not the source of developmental change because real developmental change can only happen within the mind of the child. In contrast, sociocultural theories assume that the developing child (including the child’s mind) cannot be separated from the social environment. According to this view, the social environment is a causal mechanism of cognitive change. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 75-76

38.

Cultural tools shape cognitive development. Provide one example of a cultural tool, indicate whether the tool is a technical tool or a psychological tool, and briefly discuss how that tool may influence cognitive development. Answer: There are many possible answers to this question. For example, a calculator is a psychological tool. It can influence the development of children’s mathematical skills. Children who use calculators regularly may be less likely than children who do not use calculators regularly to memorize the basic arithmetic facts. Additionally, because calculators consistently pair the equal sign with a final answer (i.e., you press the “=” button on the calculator to get your final answer), children who use calculators on a regular basis may think that the equal sign means “the answer to a problem” instead of “two amounts are the same.” Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 77

39.

Children in the USA who participate in team sports often have fundraisers for their teams in which they sell candy or raffle tickets. Discuss how participating in fundraisers may influence children’s cognitive skills. Answer: Children need to keep track of their orders, so it may promote organizational skills. Children need to sell the product to others, so it may foster communication skills. Children need to plan their delivery route, so it may promote problem-solving skills. Children need to total buyers’ orders and make change, so it may foster mathematical skills. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.1: Describe the influence of sociocultural factors on cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 80

40.

A number of studies have supported the linguistic relativity hypothesis, as championed by Whorf (1940). Define the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Cite one study that supports the hypothesis. Describe the study’s method, and discuss how the results of the study support the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Answer: The linguistic relativity hypothesis holds that differences in language cause differences in thinking. Levinson’s (1977) study of spatial memory supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis. In the study, Levinson compared speakers of Dutch to speakers of the Guugu Yimithirr language. The two languages differ in terms of the way they encode spatial information. For example, Dutch speakers use words that mark spatial position relative to the body (e.g., left and right), whereas speakers of Guugu Yimithirr use words that mark spatial position in absolute terms (e.g., west and east). In the study, participants were seated at a table and were asked to view an arrangement of objects. Then, they were taken to another room, seated at a table facing in the opposite direction, given the original objects, and asked to arrange the objects just as they had been arranged in the first room. Dutch speakers tended to arrange the objects relative to their own bodies (e.g., if an object was on their right-hand-side in the first room, then they placed it on their right-hand-side in the second room). However, speakers of Guugu Yimithirr tended to arrange the objects in terms of absolute position (e.g., if an object was facing East in the first room, then they placed it facing East in the second room). In this example, linguistic differences led to differences in spatial memory, thus supporting the idea that differences in language are related to differences in thinking. Other possible answers include Lucy (1992) and Choi et al. (1999). Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 90-92

41.

Many educational innovations, such as dynamic assessment and FCL classrooms, have incorporated insights about learning and development from the sociocultural theories. Choose either dynamic assessment or FCL. Define your choice, and discuss how it incorporates insights about learning and development from the sociocultural theories. Answer: Dynamic assessment examines children’s potential for learning with assistance, rather than their individual ability. This incorporates Vygotsky’s insights about differences in children’s zone of proximal development. That is, two children may appear to have the same knowledge when tested on a static knowledge assessment. However, one child may be able to outperform the other when a more skilled partner is there to scaffold children’s performance. This difference reflects real cognitive differences that a static knowledge assessment would miss. FCL stands for fostering communities of learners. FCL classrooms deliberately distribute expertise across children and then require each expert to share his or her knowledge with the rest of the class. This incorporates insights from social learning that suggest that children benefit more from interactions in which they work with a more skilled or more knowledgeable peer. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 4.3: Summarize implications of sociocultural theories for educational practice. Page(s) in text: 93-95

Chapter 5 Perceptual Development Multiple Choice 1.

___ was quoted as saying that infants experience the world as a “great blooming, buzzing confusion.” a. John Locke b. George Berkeley c. William James d. Eleanor Gibson Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 100

Donald, a 7-month-old baby, reaches for a rattle that his grandmother shakes in front of him. The part of Donald’s visual system that is specialized to help him identify the object as a rattle is the ___, and the part of his visual system that is specialized to help him use the perceptual information about the rattle’s trajectory to guide his reach is the ___. a. ventral stream, dorsal stream b. lateral stream, dorsal stream c. dorsal stream, lateral stream d. dorsal stream, ventral stream Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 102

Macfarlane (1975) presented nursing newborns with two breast pads: one from their own mother and one from another mother. Two days after birth, newborns did not exhibit behavior demonstrating that they could tell the difference between the two pads. However, six days after birth, newborns turned toward their mother’s pad more often than they turned to the other pad. In this example, learning occurred through the sensory system known as ___. a. audition b. vision c. gustation d. olfaction Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 100

Natasha, a ten-year-old child, is playing a round of golf with her dad. The sun is setting as they approach the 18th hole. Because it is getting dark outside, Natasha and her father will have to rely on the photoreceptor cells known as ___ to track the trajectory of their golf balls on the 18th hole. a. cones b. rods c. fovea d. vitreous Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 102

Fantz (1961) developed a methodology for studying infants. He showed infants a series of visual stimuli, including a bull’s-eye and a solid disk, and recorded the time infants spent looking at each stimulus. The goal was to see if infants would look longer at one stimulus relative to the other. This methodology is known as the ___. a. preferential-looking paradigm b. habituation paradigm c. head-turn preference procedure d. cross-modal matching procedure Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 103

Habituation refers to the process in which infants ___. a. lose interest in an object that they have seen over and over again b. orient their attention toward a bright flash of light or a sudden loud noise c. look longer at one of two stimuli in a visual display d. increase the frequency of a behavior when they receive reinforcement for doing so Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 103

Results from Graham and colleagues (1978) show that the orienting reflex is more typically controlled by the ___. a. subcortical regions b. hippocampus c. cerebellum d. thalamus Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 104

Doug, a 1-month-old infant, is presented with picture of a square. According to work by Salapatek (1975), most of Doug’s fixations will be centered at the ___. a. top of the square b. left-hand side of the square c. corners of the square d. center of the square Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 104

Jonah, a three-month-old infant, is presented with a visual display in which a small bunny appears and disappears according to a regular pattern—top, bottom, bottom, top, bottom, bottom, etc. After the bunny disappears from the top of the screen, Jonah is most likely to look ___. a. at the top of the screen b. back and forth between the top and bottom of the screen c. at the bottom of the screen d. at the center of the screen Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 106

10.

The visual acuity of a newborn baby is ___. a. 20/20 b. 20/80 c. 20/160 d. 20/660 Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 107

11.

Walid, a 3-month-old infant, is presented with four rattles: (1) a rattle that is being shaken directly in front of him, (2) a rattle that is placed on a tray directly in front of him, (3) a rattle that is being shaken approximately 20 feet away from him, and (4) a rattle that is placed on a tray approximately 20 feet away from him. Walid will find it easier to perceive the unity of the various parts of the ___ rattle. a. first b. second c . third d. fourth Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 109

12.

Which of the following has been demonstrated to play a critical role in color perception? a. socialization b. language learning c. growing older d. biological makeup Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MODERATE LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 110

13.

When given a choice, infants prefer to look at ___. a. faces b. bull’s-eyes c. solid disks d. geometric shapes Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 110

14.

Infants and adults prefer to look at faces that are ___. a. low in attractiveness b. average in attractiveness c. high in attractiveness d. similar in attractiveness to their mothers Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 112

15.

Six-month-old infants were habituated to the following four arrows: the same infants were present with the following arrow: a. b. c. d.

, they ___.

exhibited renewed interest in the new stimulus treated the new stimulus as if it were a familiar stimulus focused their attention on the tip of the arrow none of the above

Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 113

. Subsequently, when

16.

There are at least three types of knowledge that influence object perception: configural, physical, and experiential. Results from Needham and colleagues (1997) suggest that the ability to use ___knowledge develops later than the ability to use the other two types of knowledge. a. configural b. physical c. experiential d. none of the above Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 113

17.

Each of the following is a monocular cue to depth except ___. a. motion parrallax b. occulusion c. relative size d. retinal disparity Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 114

18.

Categorical perception has been shown in the perception of all of the following except ___. a. color b. phonemes c. rise time d. fine details Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception; LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 109, 118, 120

19.

Thiessen and Saffran (2003) documented developmental differences in infants’ tendency to use stress as a cue to word boundaries. In their experiments, infants were familiarized with artificial languages in which the first or second syllable of every word was stressed. After familiarization, infants’ attention was drawn to one side of the testing room with a blinking light. When infants turned their head toward the light, a word was played continuously until the infants looked away. This methodology is known as ___. a. preferential-looking paradigm b. habituation paradigm c. head-turn preference procedure d. high amplitude sucking procedure Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 117

20.

When given a choice, infants prefer to listen to ___. a. rattles shaking b. dogs barking c. soft humming d. people talking Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 117

21.

In a study by Eimas and colleagues (1971), young infants were presented with an auditory stimulus from the ba/pa continuum over and over again until they decreased the rate at which they sucked on a pacifier. Then, infants were presented with a novel auditory stimulus that differed in voice onset time from the original auditory stimulus by a fixed amount. When the novel stimulus was on a different side of the ba/pa category boundary than the original stimulus, infants’ sucking rate ___, when the novel stimulus was within the same category as the original stimulus, infants’ sucking rate ___. a. remained constant, remained constant b. decreased, increased c. increased, decreased d. increased, remained constant Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 117-118

22.

Saffran and Griepentrog (2001) showed that infants tend to encode pitch in ___ terms, and adults tend to encode pitch in ___ terms. a. relative, absolute b. continuous, categorical c. absolute, relative d. categorical, continuous Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 120

23.

Which of the following abilities develops in a U-shaped fashion? a. perception of phonemic contrasts b. discrimination of varieties of human motion c. localization of sounds d. vision for fine detail Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 122

24.

In a study by Meltzoff and Borton (1979) infants sucked on a pacifier that had a bumpy surface. After sucking for about 90 seconds, infants were shown two pacifiers: a smooth pacifier and a bumpy pacifier. Based on results from Streri and Spelke’s (1988) study of infants’ exploration and identification of two connected rings, one would expect infants to look ___. Note: Infants in the Meltzoff and Borton study did not actually display this pattern of results. a. longer at the smooth pacifier b. longer at the bumpy pacifier c. equally long at the smooth and bumpy pacifiers d. at the space in between the smooth and bumpy pacifiers Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 5.3: Describe how information from different senses is integrated through development. Page(s) in text: 124

25.

Babies are most likely to learn how to produce a word if they ___. a. hear somebody saying the word b. see somebody saying the word c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.3: Describe how information from different senses is integrated through development. Page(s) in text: 124

26.

Sarah and her mother are playing patty cake when the phone rings. Sarah’s mother puts her down on the bed and rushes to get the phone. Sarah crawls to the edge of the bed. According to Campos and colleagues (1992) whether or not Sarah will show signs of fear, such as an accelerated heart rate, depends on ___. a. the strength of the bond between Sarah and her mother b. the number of times Sarah has been placed on the bed previously c. the number of weeks Sarah has been crawling on her own d. the amount of experience Sarah has being carried from one place to another Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.5: Explain the links between perception and action. Page(s) in text: 128

True or False 27.

_____ According to Cohen (1972), children and adults do not differ significantly in terms of which properties of stimuli grab their attention. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 104

28.

_____ Haith (1980) suggested that newborns’ visual scanning is random. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 104

29.

_____ Results from a study by Johnson, Posner, and Rothbart (1994) suggest that babies can attend to an object, even if they are not looking directly at it. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 105

30.

_____ Research suggests that infants prefer very bright objects to moderately bright objects. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 105

31.

_____ Results from Maurer and colleagues (1999) suggest that visual acuity does not develop without visual experience. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 108

32.

_____ Results from Dannemiller and Stephens (1988) suggest that 12-week-old infants do not prefer to look at faces per se, but rather prefer to look at any stimulus with thick, dark borders. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 110

33.

_____ The most attractive faces are computer-generated composites of a large number of average faces. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 112

34.

_____ Before the age of 6-7 months, infants cannot use static monocular cues to distance. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 114

35.

_____ Infants are better than adults at discriminating basic phonemes. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 118

36.

_____ Adults in a wide variety of cultures and language communities change the pitch and intonation of their speech when talking to babies. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 119

Short Answer/Essay 37.

Describe the flow of information within either the visual system or the auditory system. Answer: Visual system: light hits the eye, and goes through the cornea and pupil to the lens. The lens projects an image on the retina. The rods and the cones detect the light, and relay the information to the brain via the optic nerve. Auditory system: sound waves are collected by the pinna, and then pass through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane, which vibrates in response to the sound waves. This sets the hammer, anvil, and stirrup into motion, and the motion compresses fluid in the cochlea, which contains the basilar membrane. The motion of the basilar membrane activates hair cells, which are connected to the auditory nerve. The auditory nerve transmits the information to the brain. Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception; 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 102-103, 116

38.

Research in the area of perceptual development has led to the formulation of the moderate-discrepancy hypothesis. Define the moderate-discrepancy hypothesis. What types of educational materials would the moderate-discrepancy hypothesis predict are most likely to hold children’s attention? Is this prediction consistent with the type of instruction that research in the sociocultural tradition has shown to be most effective? Answer: The moderate-discrepancy hypothesis suggests that individuals prefer to look at stimuli that are just beyond their existing knowledge level. This predicts that children are most likely to attend to instructional materials that are just beyond their current knowledge level. This is consistent with findings of research in the sociocultural tradition, which has shown that children are most likely to benefit from instruction that is just one step beyond their current skill level. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 5.1: Describe the development visual perception. Page(s) in text: 106

39.

The development of visual skill depends on visual experience. Research on visual acuity, face perception, and stereopsis support this claim. Choose one area; discuss a finding in the area that supports the claim that visual experience is necessary for the development of visual skill. Answer: Visual acuity: Maurer and colleagues (1999) examined infants who were deprived of visual input for the first few months of life because they were born with cataracts. The cataracts were removed within the first six months of life, and infants were fitted for contacts. Immediately after the procedure, infants’ visual acuity was no better than newborns’. Thus, without the proper visual experience over the first few months of life, infants’ visual acuity does not develop. Face perception: Pascalis and colleagues (2001) found that at the age of 6 months, infants were able to distinguish new faces from faces they had seen just moments before. However, a later test by Pascalis also showed the importance of visual experience. In this test, 9-month-old infants who had not received exposure to monkey faces over a period of 3 months were unable to distinguish between different monkey faces. Stereopsis: Stereopsis typically develops around four months of age when pathways in the visual system become segregated so that some cells receive information from the left eye, some cells receive information from the right eye, and some cells receive binocular information. Stryker and Harris (1986) administered a drug that blocked the neural activity that would normally occur in response to visual experience. They found that the segregated neural pathways do not develop typically under these conditions. Thus, without the proper visual stimulation, the visual system does not develop typically.

Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 5.1: Describe the development of visual perception. Page(s) in text: 108, 112, 116 40.

Fetuses are capable of learning. This was illustrated in DeCasper and Spence’s (1986) seminal study, which involved newborns listening to a Dr. Seuss story. Describe the methods and results of DeCasper and Spence’s study, and discuss how the results support the claim that learning happens in utero. Answer: DeCasper and Spence (1986) asked expectant mothers to read a Dr. Seuss story out loud during the last six weeks of their pregnancy. After the babies were born, they listened to a tape recording of their mother reading either the familiar Seuss story, or an unfamiliar story. The newborns’ patterns of sucking indicated that their fetal experience influenced their auditory preferences after birth, thus suggesting that they had learned something about the Seuss story when they were third-trimester fetuses. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 5.2: Describe the development of auditory perception. Page(s) in text: 119

Chapter 6 Language Development Multiple Choice 1.

The system of rules through which sentences are formed is known as ___. a. phonology b. meaning c. grammar d. communication Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 132

Knowledge of ___ develops earlier than knowledge of the other aspects of language. a. phonology b. meaning c. grammar d. communication Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 132

Skinner (1957) argued that children learn language via instrumental conditioning. In contrast, ___ argued that it would be impossible for children to learn language because it is too complex. a. Saffran b. Piaget c. MacWhinney d. Chomsky Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 133

Which of the following supports the claim that language learning is special? a. Typically developing children in all cultures acquire language. b. Language is a very complex system. c. Some aspects of language are perceived categorically, not continuously. d. Language is used to communicate meaning. Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 134

A patient who has experienced brain damage is able to see colors and to list the names of colors, but unable to say which color name corresponds to which color. Which part of the patient’s brain has most likely received damage? a. between Broca’s area and the upper frontal lobe b. between Wernicke’s area and the lower occipital lobe c. between the parietal and occipital lobes d. between the lower frontal and temporal lobes Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 135

According to Jusczyk and colleagues (1999), which of the following words would be most likely to be missegmented from the speech stream by English-speaking infants? a. mother b. rainbow c. garage d. freedom Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 137

In a study by Saffran and colleagues (1996), infants were familiarized with a continuous speech stream consisting of made-up words such as bidaku, padoti, and golabu (e.g., bidakugolabugolabupadotibidaku…). After familiarization, Saffran and colleagues used the head-turn preference procedure to show that infants were able to tell the difference between words like “bidaku” and part-words like “kupado.” Infants were able to do this because they tracked the ___ of the syllables in the language. a. frequencies b. transitional probabilities c. stress patterns d. phonotactics Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 137

What factors do not help infants parse the speech stream? a. phonotactic information b. holophrases c. transitional probabilities d. stress patterns Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 137, 143

An injury to the tongue, teeth, or lips is most likely to impair the ability to pronounce ___. a. vowels b. consonants c. schwas d. diphthongs Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 138

10.

Infants typically say their first word around the age of ___. a. 6 months b. 1 year c. 1 year, 6 months d. two years Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 139

11.

When infants who are hearing impaired reach 6 months of age, they exhibit ___. a. vocal babbling b. manual babbling c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 139

12.

Which of the following sounds is a babbling infant most likely to utter? a. fa b. la c. ha d. na Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 139

13.

Based on the production difficulty of various sounds, which of the following words would be the hardest for a young child to say? a. throw b. chew c. fly d. walk Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 139-140

14.

According to Caselli and colleagues’ (1995) study of children’s early lexicons, which of the following words would an American child be most likely to have in his or her lexicon? a. give b. shoe c. go d. come Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 141-142

15.

Pepe, a one-year-old child, wants a cookie. Instead of saying, “give me a cookie,” he says, “cookie.” In this example, Pepe uses a ___. a. holophrase b. protoconversation c. babble d. replacement sequence Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 143

16.

Gary’s family has a dog, Rufus. One day, Gary sees another dog in the park, and he immediately shouts “Rufus.” In this example, Gary exhibited an ___. a. overlap b. underextension c . overextension d. accommodation Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 143

17.

In a study by Carey and Bartlett (1978), children were presented with a blue-colored tray and an olivecolored tray, and they were asked to get the “chromium” tray, not the blue one. All of the children retrieved the olive tray, thus inferring that “chromium” referred to the olive color. Later, when asked the color of the olive tray, children responded by saying “chromium.” This is an example of ___. a. semantic bootstrapping b. overlapping c. fast mapping d. overgeneralization Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 144

18.

Jeff’s mother points to a tree and says, “tree.” Jeff knows that the word “tree” refers to the tree and not to a branch or a leaf because of what Markman (1989, 1992) referred to as the ___ constraint. a. fast mapping b. mutual-exclusivity c. taxonomic d. whole-object Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 145

19.

Ulla, a three-year-old child, is shown a snake and told that it is called a “reptile.” Which of the following would Ulla be most likely to also call a reptile? a. leaf b. garden hose c. lizard d. tong Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 145

20.

Young language learners are bombarded with so many unfamiliar words. It is hard to imagine how they figure out which words are nouns, which words are verbs, and which words are adjectives. Brown (1957) proposed a solution. He said that children figure it out by using ___ cues. a. perceptual b. social c. memory d. grammatical Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 146

21.

Jackie, a two-year-old child, is looking at a butterfly flying overhead. Her mother sees a deer running in the distance and says, “A deer!” Later, when asked to find a picture of a deer, Jackie is most likely to select a picture of a ___. a. deer standing in a field b. butterfly sitting on top of a flower c. dog running d. bird flying Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 149

22.

According to Shi and Werker (2001), which of the following words would a six-month-old prefer? a. the b. its c. between d. tree Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 151

23.

Which of the following best describes the progression of language production in the first three years of life? a. babbling, holophrases, sequences, replacement sequences, sentences b. holophrases, babbling, sequences, replacement sequences, sentences c. babbling, sequences, holophrases, replacement sequences, sentences d. babbling, holophrases, replacement sequences, sequences, sentences Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds; 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words; 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge. Page(s) in text: 138, 143, 152

24.

Guan-yin is a Chinese immigrant. Before applying for college, she took the TOEFL, which a test of English proficiency. Scores on the TOEFL range from 310 to 677. Guan-yin’s score was 500, which is not quite good enough to gain college acceptance. Based on the findings of Johnson and Newport (1989), the youngest Guan-yin could have been when she came to the USA was ___ years old. a. seven b. ten c. fifteen d. twenty-two Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge. Page(s) in text: 154

25.

Pinker (1984) proposed that young language learners use their knowledge of meaning to help them produce grammatical sentences and learn grammatical rules in a process known as ___. a. semantic bootstrapping b. overregularization c. construction grammar d. holophrasing Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge. Page(s) in text: 156

26.

According to Bloom and colleagues (1987), parents should ___ when interacting with their babies if they want their babies to produce more speech-like sounds. a. use infant-directed speech b. imitate their babies’ speech-like sounds c. use holophrases d. speak as they would to an adult Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.5: Describe how children communicate through spoken and signed languages. Page(s) in text: 158

27.

When children who are hearing impaired are not exposed to sign language, they ___. a. do not communicate b. invent their own signed language that is indistinguishable from true signed languages c. invent their own signed language that is less systematic than true signed languages d. develop the ability to communicate using American Sign Language Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM Page(s) in text: 161

True or False 28.

_____ Language comprehension precedes language production for most aspects of language development. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 132

29.

_____ All of the grammars of the world’s languages are highly similar. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 134

30.

_____ Language is always localized in the left hemisphere of the brain. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 135

31.

_____ Children can recover from damage to the left hemisphere of their brain if they are one year old or younger. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.1: Describe the generality and biological basics of language acquisition. Page(s) in text: 136

32.

_____ Tincoff and Juscyk (1999) showed that when 6-month-old infants hear the word “mommy,” they look longer at their mother than at their father in a preferential-looking procedure. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 141

33.

_____ Between the ages of 18 months and 10 years, children add an average of about 5 words per day to the set of words they understand. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 144

34.

_____ Markson and Bloom (1997) showed that it was easier for young children to learn a novel word than a novel fact. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 147

35.

_____ In a study by Smith and colleagues (2002), young children who were taught to generalize novel words based on shape exhibited marked increases in their productive vocabularies. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words. Page(s) in text: 148-149

36.

_____ Shi and colleagues (1999) showed that infants cannot tell the difference between grammatical words, such as the, and content words, such as tree, until six weeks after birth. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge. Page(s) in text: 151

37.

_____ Infant-directed speech is a universal aspect of language. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.5: Describe how children communicate through spoken and signed languages. Page(s) in text: 158

Short Answer/Essay 38.

The languages of the world tend to accommodate to the abilities of infants and children in terms of the types of sounds used to represent particular meanings. Jakobson (1981) uncovered one such pattern in the sounds used by the world’s languages to represent “mother” and “father.” Describe the pattern uncovered by Jakobson, and discuss how Jakobson interpreted the pattern. Answer: Jakobson (1981) examined the sounds used in the world’s languages to represent mother and father. He found that m and n are commonly used to represent mother, but not father. He suggested that the difference was due, at least in part, to the ease with which the phonemes m and n can be produced relative to other phonemes in particular conditions. That is, m and n are the only phonemes that can be produced when an infant is nursing. Therefore, it is convenient for infants to use those sounds when referring to the person who nurses them. Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.2: Describe the development of knowledge about sounds and the ability to produce sounds. Page(s) in text: 139-140

39.

Young language learners often display a U-shaped developmental pattern in which they use terms correctly early in development, go through a period in which they make a lot of mistakes, and then use terms correctly again. Cite one area of language in which we see U-shaped development. Explain how children’s performance changes as they gain more experience with that area of language (provide specific examples when appropriate). Answer: One example of a U-shaped function is the development of children’s ability to form the past tense. When children first learn the past tense, they learn each separate case, so they are likely to use the correct form. They may say, “I went to the park.” However, after they have learned a large number of verbs, they abstract the typical past tense pattern of putting “ed” at the end. During this period, they are likely to overgeneralize the pattern. They may say, “I goed to the park.” As their experience with verbs increases even more, they eventually go back to the correct form. A second example of a U-shaped function is the development of children’s ability to use the prefix “un.” When children first learn words with the prefix “un,” they merely repeat words that they have heard adults say, so they are likely to use it correctly. They may say, “He unlocked the door.” Later, they may start using “un” incorrectly. They may say, “I don’t like that picture. I want you to undraw it.” Eventually, they figure out that “un” can only be used as a prefix in specific situations, so they start using it correctly again. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.3: Describe how young children come to understand the meanings of words and express meanings in words; 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge. Page(s) in text: 150-151, 153

40.

Lenneberg (1967) suggested that there is a critical period for language development. Evidence to support this claim has come from Johnson and Newport’s (1989) study of immigrants and Curtiss’ (1977) study of Genie. Describe the findings of either Johnson and Newport (1989), or Curtiss (1977). Discuss how the findings support the critical period hypothesis. Additionally, discuss one limitation of the findings that prevents the study from being definitive. Answer: Johnson and Newport (1989) examined the grammatical mastery of immigrants who arrived in the USA between ages 3 and 26. They found a relationship between age of arrival and mastery of the English language, such that the older the immigrants were when they arrived, the lower their degree of mastery. Many people who arrived in the USA before age 7 were indistinguishable from native speakers, whereas many people who arrived after the age of 15 performed very poorly. This supports the critical period hypothesis because it suggests that language learning is easier the younger you are. Further, it suggests that mastery is unlikely to be achieved if you start learning language after the age of 15. One limitation of the study is that it is correlational. There may be other factors related to age of arrival (e.g., amount of time spent speaking your native language after learning English) that are responsible for the finding. Curtiss (1977) studied a child named Genie who was found as a teenager after being confined to a small room for most of her life. Genie did not start learning language until she was almost 14. Although she was able to learn some aspects of the language, she was not able to acquire many of the more subtle aspects of grammar, such as passive constructions. This supports the critical period hypothesis because it provides an example of someone who was not able to master language because she did not start learning language until her teenage years. One limitation of the study is that it is a very unusual case. It is hard to make firm conclusions based on Genie’s performance because she may have had additional cognitive and/or social difficulties in addition to her language-learning difficulties. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.4: Describe the development of grammatical knowledge; 6.5: Describe how children communicate through spoken and signed language. Page(s) in text: 154-155, 159

41.

Over the course of development, young language learners become increasingly able to take their communication partners into account. Discuss two findings that illustrate how young language learners take their listener into account. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) infants tend to take conversational turns—they are quiet when adults are talking to them, and they vocalize more when adults are quiet; (2) children simplify their speech when talking to younger children; (3) children simplify their speech when talking to a doll; (4) children use more explicit speech when speaking to a listener who can’t see them than when speaking to a listener who can see them; (5) children use fewer gestures along with their speech when speaking to listeners who can’t see them than when speaking to a listener who can see them. Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 6.5: Describe how children communicate through spoken and signed language. Page(s) in text: 159-160

Chapter 7 Memory Development Multiple Choice 1.

Research in psychology has practical applications. For example, Ceci and Bruck’s (1998) study of a young boy’s memory of catching his finger in a mousetrap suggests that ___. a. young children are egocentric b. young children are naturally inclined to lie c. repeated questioning by parents or prosecutors can implant false memories d. young children are unlikely to misremember events involving their own bodies Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.1: Describe different memory systems and their neural basis. Page(s) in text: 164

Newcombe and Fox (1994) studied nine-year-old children’s memory for their preschool classmates. Results suggested that ___. a. when asked leading questions, children claim to recognize children who didn’t attend their preschool b. children who do not recognize their classmates exhibit physiological responses indicative of memory c. most children are able to recognize their preschool classmates from five years ago d. stressed children are more likely than calm children to recognize their preschool classmates Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.1: Describe different memory systems and their neural basis. Page(s) in text: 167

Nina is trying to get on her big brother’s nerves by imitating everything he says. To do this, she has to encode what he says and remember it long enough to repeat it back. The brain structure associated with this type of processing is the ___. a. cerebellum b. hypothalamus c. striatum d. prefrontal cortex Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.1: Describe different memory systems and their neural basis. Page(s) in text: 167

Eric had his birthday party yesterday. When he is asked about the party, he remembers how fun it was to open all of his presents. Eric has a ___ representation of the birthday party. a. verbatim b. recognition c. metacognitive d. gist Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 168

Nigel, a four-year-old child, has a tea party with his grandmother. The next day, his father asks him what he remembers about the tea party. Nigel is most likely to say, “___.” a. We drank tea and had a good time b. I used a blue teacup for my tea c. Grandma liked having me visit d. Grandma served tea and asked me a lot of questions Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 168

Which of the following is least likely to influence the accuracy of a child’s memory of an event? a. the age of the child b. how much time has passed since the event c. how well the child knows the person who is asking about the event d. the child’s knowledge about similar events Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 168-169

In a study by Leichtman and Ceci (1995), children exhibited false memories about Sam Stone if they ___. a. heard stories about him prior to meeting him and were asked leading questions during recall b. were blamed for getting a teddy bear dirty and tearing a page in a book c. played with him in their classroom for over an hour d. disliked the stories he told when he visited their classroom Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 169

When Jacob is four years old, he falls on the playground at preschool and cuts his knee badly. He has to have stitches for his wound. As Jacob ages and he remembers this event, he is likely to ___. a. remember details such as what he was wearing b. believe that he dreamed it c. omit important information d. resist leading questions about the event Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 169

When parents do not want their children to underreport what happened at school on a given day, they should ___. a. ask open-ended questions such as “How was school today?” b. ask specific questions such as “Did you sit by your friend, Lisa, during lunch?” c. wait for children to volunteer information about the school day on their own d. ask leading questions such as “You had fun at school today, right?” Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 169-170

10.

Carol is twelve years old. Carol’s earliest memory is most likely ___. a. coming home from the hospital a few days after being born b. taking her first steps at age one c. going on vacation with her family at age three d. going to school for the first time at age five Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 176

11.

Which of the following provides a plausible account of infantile amnesia? a. It is difficult to remember things that happened very far in the past. b. Infants are unable to form enduring memories. c. Infants do not have metacognitive knowledge. d. Infants’ frontal lobes are underdeveloped. Answer: D Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 176

12.

Mohini cries, and her mother picks her up. Later, the same thing happens again. Over time, through a process known as ___, Mohini will learn to cry to make her mother pick her up. a. association b. recognition c. recall d. generalization Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 178

13.

Spence (1996) had mothers read nursery rhymes to their young infants over the course of two weeks. Three days later, the infants were tested in an operant-learning paradigm in which their sucking rate determined which of two nursery rhymes they would hear. Infants sucked to hear the familiar nursery rhymes. These results suggest that ___ is present from a very early age. a. association b. recognition c. recall d. generalization Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 179

14.

Jimmy, a 5-month-old infant, is familiarized with a big, brown teddy bear until he habituates to it. Twentyfour hours after being shown the teddy bear, Jimmy will dishabituate to a new bear that differs from the original bear in terms of ___. a. size b. color c. shape d. texture Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 179

15.

Research by Rovee-Collier (1999) suggests that infants do not generalize the associations they make between their own kicking and a jiggling mobile when they are ___. a. tested in a novel context b. exposed to several similar mobiles prior to testing c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 180

16.

Emily wants to get a good grade on her spelling test, which is one week from today. She studied this afternoon, and she has time to study one more time before her test. Emily has a five-day time window, as defined by Rovee-Collier (1995). When should Emily study again? a. this evening b. two days from today c. five days from today d. six days from today Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 181

17.

Arun, five years old, watches a researcher put a cookie under one of six identical bowls. He is told that the researcher will move the bowls around into a different order and that he will then choose the bowl that he believes has the cookie. Which of the following ways is Arun likely to react? a. independently place a marker of some sort on the bowl that hides the cookie b. accept hints from the researcher to mark the bowl in some way c. not understand hints from the researcher to mark the bowl in some way d. refuse to participate further in the activity Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 182

18.

Leslie is trying to learn how to spell the word Mississippi. She repeats the letters to herself over and over again “M-I-S-S-I-S-S-I-P-P-I.” Leslie is using the memory strategy known as ___. a. rehearsal b. searching c. organizing d. mnemonics Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 182

19.

When mothers who are engaging in memory tasks with their children use organizational strategies more often, their children show better memory performance ___. a. at initial observation. b. one year later. c. two years later. d. a and b Answer: D Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 183

20.

Takoda is grocery shopping with her father when she realizes that they forgot the grocery list at home. She tries to remember the items on the list. First she remembers apples, lemons, and onions. Next, she remembers milk, cheese, and yogurt. Finally, she remembers bread, cereal, and pasta. In this example, Takoda uses the memory strategy known as ___. a. rehearsal b. searching c. organizing d. mnemonics Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 183

21.

Marshal, a three-year-old child, is playing a game of hide-and-go-seek with his sister. Marshal knows that his sister always hides in one of six locations. Three of the locations are in the living room and three are in the dining room. After Marshal finishes counting, his mother tells him that his sister is hiding in the living room. Based on research in the area of selective attention, Marshal is likely to look for his sister ___. a. indiscriminately in all of the hiding places b. mainly in the living room, but may peek in the dining room as well c. only in the living room d. only in the dining room Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 185

22.

Whenever Marion meets a new person for the first time, she always says, “I’ll do my best to remember your name, but I’m really bad at remembering names.” Marion’s comment demonstrates her ___. a. explicit metacognitive knowledge b. implicit metacognitive knowledge c. production deficiency d. use of mnemonics Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 186

23.

Lani, a 4-year-old child, uses infant-directed speech when talking to her baby sister. Lani’s use of infantdirected speech demonstrates her ___. a. explicit metacognitive knowledge b. implicit metacognitive knowledge c. transfer of strategies to new situations d. use of mnemonics Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 187-188

24.

Which of the following would not be used to detect implicit memories? a. differences in reaction time to familiar and unfamiliar stimuli b. different patterns of physiological responding to familiar and unfamiliar stimuli c. differences in recognition of familiar and unfamiliar stimuli d. differences in preference for familiar and unfamiliar stimuli Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 187-188

25.

Chi (1978) showed that ten-year-old chess experts ___. a. have better memories than typical adults b. have worse memories than typical adults c. have better memories than typical adults, but only for chess-related information d. have memories that are roughly equal to those of typical adults Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 190-191

26.

Robert went to a friend’s birthday party where he had pie for dessert. Later, when his mother asked him what he ate at the party he said, “pizza for dinner and cake for dessert.” Robert’s memory mistake demonstrates his reliance on ___. a. metacognitive knowledge b. selective attention c. inhibition d. scripts Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 192

27.

In a classic study by Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971), participants were shown pairs of words. Participants’ goal was to indicate whether both words were real words by pressing “yes” if they were or “no” if they were not. Participants responded faster when the two words were related in meaning (e.g., nurse and doctor) than when the two words were not related in meaning (e.g., nurse and butter). These results demonstrate an effect of content knowledge known as ___. a. encoding of distinctive features b. spreading activation c. strategy learning d. metacognition Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 194

True or False 28.

_____ Semantic memory cannot be consciously recalled, but it can be demonstrated in behavior. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.1: Describe different memory systems and their neural basis. Page(s) in text: 166-167

29.

_____ Both children and adults find recognition much easier than recall. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 170

30.

_____ Studies have shown that children whose mothers engage them in highly elaborative conversations about past events remember more than children whose mothers are less elaborative in their conversations about past events. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 172

31.

_____ Recognition memory is present from birth. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 179

32.

_____ Meltzoff and Moore (1994) suggest that 6-week-old infants can imitate adults’ mouth movements. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 179

33.

_____ By nine months of age, infants can recall and imitate 24 hours later naturally occurring actions but not arbitrary actions. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 179

34.

_____ Very young infants can associate, recognize, and recall, but not generalize. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 181

35.

_____ Contemporary research suggests that young children do not typically use memory strategies because their performance does not improve when they use memory strategies. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 184-185

36.

_____ Once children discover a new memory strategy, they use it in as many situations as possible. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 185

37.

_____ The older children are, the longer they have to study material to feel like they know it. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 187

38.

_____ Implicit memory develops earlier than explicit memory. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 187

39.

_____ When controlling for knowledge, children with high IQs and children with average IQs tend to be equally good at remembering new information. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 191

Short Answer/Essay 40.

Somebody ate all of the cookies in the cookie jar. After being questioned by her father, Jessica says that she saw her sister eat all of the cookies. Name two things you would want to know about the situation before blaming Jessica’s sister. Discuss how those two things would help you decide whether or not you should blame Jessica’s sister. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) Jessica’s age—her memories are likely to be more accurate if she is older than six; (2) how Jessica was questioned—her memories are likely to be more accurate if her father asked her specific, open-ended questions, rather than leading questions; (3) how much Jessica’s sister likes cookies—if Jessica knows that her sister likes cookies, then she may use this knowledge to incorrectly infer that her sister ate all the cookies; (4) how long it has been since the cookies disappeared—the longer the lag between disappearance and questioning, the more likely Jessica is to misremember; (5) what expectations Jessica’s father had when he questioned Jessica—if Jessica’s father believed that Jessica’s sister ate all of the cookies, then Jessica may have told him what he wanted to hear, rather than what she saw. Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 168-170

41.

Discuss the relationship between age, encoding, and knowledge, citing at least one study that has contributed to the understanding of this relationship. Answer: Younger children place greater emphasis on verbatim information when encoding rather than on gist, as shown by Brainerd and colleagues (1990). Verbatim information is forgotten more quickly than the gist of events, so younger children forget more than older children. While younger children do also encode gist, the fact that it is less emphasized means that they remember less of gist as well. In addition, younger children have less prior knowledge than older children, so their encoding of things that happen to them is less complete than that of older children, as shown by Gordon and colleagues in their 1991 study of children who were asked about a visit to a doctor. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.2: Describe how memory development is studied within the information processing and sociocultural frameworks. Page(s) in text: 168

42.

Older children typically remember more than younger children. List and describe two strategies that older children use to facilitate their memories. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) rehearsal—older children repeat items that they want to remember over and over again to themselves, (2) organization—older children organize to-be-remembered items into conceptual categories, (3) selective attention—older children focus and systematically encode only those items that they want to remember, (4) use of content knowledge—older children make links between their existing knowledge and to-be-remembered items. Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 182-185, 190-192

43.

Psychologists make a distinction between implicit and explicit processes in a number of domains, including memory and metacognitive knowledge. Describe the difference between implicit and explicit processes either in memory, or in metacognitive knowledge. Use specific examples to illustrate the difference. Answer: Explicit memories are memories that individuals are consciously aware of, and they are usually verbalizable. Implicit memories are memories that individuals are not consciously aware of. They are not verbalizable, but they can be detected with more subtle measures, such as reaction time. In a study by Newcombe and Fox (1994) nine-year-old children were asked to identify photos of their preschool classmates. Some children were able to recognize the photos; however, other children were not. Regardless of whether or not children were able to recognize the photos explicitly, they exhibited physiological responses that suggested that they implicitly recognized the photos. Thus, some children exhibited implicit recognition in the absence of explicit recognition. Explicit metacognitive knowledge is verbalizable knowledge about people’s (including one’s own) thinking and performance on tasks. For example, fifth graders can tell you that it is easier to remember the gist of a story than it is to remember a story verbatim. Implicit metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about people’s thinking and performance on tasks that is applied without conscious awareness. For example, young children automatically adjust their speech to accommodate the cognitive abilities of their listeners. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 7.1: Describe different memory systems and their neural basis; LO: 7.3: Explain the contributions to memory development of changes in basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge. Page(s) in text: 166-167, 186-189

Chapter 8 Conceptual Development Multiple Choice 1.

Bradley, a four-year-old child, is grouping photos into two piles of things that “go together.” He sees photos of the following four objects: baseball hat, barrette, boy, girl. According to Inhelder and Piaget (1964), Bradley is most likely to sort the objects into the following two piles: ___. a. (baseball hat and boy), (barrette and girl) b. (baseball hat and girl), (barrette and boy) c. (baseball hat and barrette), (girl and boy) d. (baseball hat and barrette and boy), (girl) Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 200

According to Vygotsky, children pass through three stages of conceptual development. In the first stage, they form ___ concepts; in the second stage, they form ___ concepts; and in the third stage, they form ___ concepts. a. thematic, chain, true b. chain, thematic, true c. true, chain, thematic d. thematic, true, chain Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 200

Keil and Batterman (1984) asked children whether particular items could be examples of particular concepts. For example, children were asked the following question: “One of your mommy’s brothers is so young he’s only two years old. Could that be an uncle?” Whether or not a child would be able to form a defining-features representation in this particular example would depend on the child’s ___. a. language ability b. knowledge about uncles c. working memory capacity d. strategy use Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 202

Which of the following animals has features with the lowest cue validities for its class? a. whale b. tiger c. frog d. canary Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 202

Which of the following is a basic-level category? a. Fruit b. Plant c. Dictionary d. Poodle Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 203

Young children tend to emphasize ___ when forming categories. a. conceptual features b. perceptual features c. defining features d. emotional features Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 203

Prototypes are instances of a category that have the ___. a. highest cue validities b. greatest number of abstract cues c. poorest resemblance to other instances of the category d. least number of perceptually insignificant attributes Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 204

According to Keil’s (1989, 1994) account, the most basic and useful types of relations within an informal theory are ___. a. social b. associative c. perceptual d. causal Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 206

According to Wellman and Gelman (1998), the three areas in which children are predisposed to develop core theories are ___. a. biology, chemistry, and physics b. biology, chemistry, and psychology c. biology, physics, and psychology d. chemistry, physics, and psychology Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 206

10.

Cindy, a one-year-old child, is trying to imitate the actions of her big sister, Sue. Sue touches her head and then spins around in a circle. According to Bauer (1995), Cindy will do the following when she tries to imitate Sue: ___. a. touch her head and then spin around in a circle b. spin around in a circle and then touch her head c. spin around in a circle and then stop d. touch her head and then stop Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM Page(s) in text: 209

11.

It is Valentine’s Day, and Danny, a five-year-old child, is talking to his mother about different seasonal holidays. His mother asks him whether Halloween or Thanksgiving happened more recently in the past. Danny is most likely to ___. a. answer correctly that Halloween was more recent b. answer incorrectly that Thanksgiving was more recent c. be just as likely to say Halloween as Thanksgiving d. argue that Valentine’s Day was more recent Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 209

12.

When Piaget presented children with two trains that traveled in the same direction along parallel tracks, he was trying to measure children’s understanding of ___. a. space b. distance c. time d. speed Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 210

13.

Alka’s brother asks her where his tennis racket is, and she says, “It’s in the closet right next to the vacuum.” In this example, Alka has a ___ representation of the racket’s location. a. egocentric b. landmark-based c. spatial d. logical Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 211

14.

According to Bertenthal and colleagues (1994), a baby is more likely to locate an object’s spatial position if he or she has ___. a. an allocentric representation of the object b. extensive crawling experience c. parents who score high on tests of spatial ability d. extensive experience with that particular object Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 212

15.

Some researchers have argued that the approximate number system is a biologically based core knowledge system because ___. a. its operation is observable in nonhuman animals, infants, and adults with no formal education b. infants as young as three days old have exhibited behaviors that suggest an understanding of the ANS c. as children grow, they steadily add to their object-file system of understanding quantities d. people who have experienced short-term amnesia still used the ANS without prompting Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 213-214

16.

Rieser and colleagues (1992) studied spatial representations produced by people with visual impairments and showed that ___. a. short bursts of motor activity facilitated all participants’ ability to create accurate spatial representations b. people whose impairments began later in life created more accurate spatial representations c. the cause of a person’s impairments affected the ability to produce accurate spatial representations d. the involvement of an aide positively affected participants’ ability to produce accurate spatial representations Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 213

17.

Mosi, a sixth-month-old child, is sitting in his swing. He can see three toys dangling from the mobile attached to the top of the swing. Mosi’s father removes one of the toys to clean it. Mosi ___. a. can discriminate that the number of toys is different now b. is focused on the toys as a category of items and not as a quantity c. believes that the missing toy no longer exists d. forgets about the missing toy once he can no longer see it Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 214

18.

Karl knows that 0.1 is greater than 0.09. This demonstrates Karl’s understanding of ___. a. cardinality b. ordinality c. the one-one principle d. subitizing Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 215

19.

Lynn, a three-year-old child, is counting her blocks aloud, “One, two, three, five, four, six. Six blocks!” Her mother asks her to try again, and Lynn counts aloud, “One, two, four, three, five, six. There are still six!” In this example, Lynn violates the ___ principle. a. one-one b. stable order c. cardinal d. order irrelevance Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 216

20.

Liza, a four-year-old child, is counting small plastic animals with her father. The animals are lined up in a row, and her father starts counting. He points to the animal in the middle of the row, and says “one…” Liza immediately stops him, points to the animal in the first position, and says, “No, Daddy! You have to start with this one to get the right answer.” In this example, Liza exhibits poor knowledge of the ___ principle. a. abstraction b. stable order c. cardinal d. order irrelevance Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 216

21.

Drina is seven years old. Her sister, who is eighteen months old, has a number of painted wooden blocks on the floor. Drina starts counting the blocks, beginning at the middle of the pile and counting the red blocks first, then the green, then the blue. She sees her sister is paying attention, so she decides to count the blocks in Chinese, which she has been learning at school. How is Drina’s sister most likely to react? a. She starts to repeat the Chinese words after Drina. b. She adds more blocks to the pile on the floor. c. She gets upset because she is not familiar with Chinese. d. She ignores her sister and builds with the blocks instead. Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 217

22.

Which of the following features do infants use to discriminate animate objects from inanimate objects? a. legs b. color c. sound d. eyes Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 218

23.

Candace, a five-year-old child, is asked how a cat that was raised among mice-loving animals would treat a mouse. According to Johnson and Solomon (1996), she is most likely to say that the cat would ___. a. run away from mice b. play with mice c. catch and eat mice d. ignore mice Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 219

24.

According to Kalish (1997), preschool children understand which of the following facts about illnesses? a. The causes of illness operate in a probabilistic manner. b. Physical contact with germs leads to illness. c. Illness takes time to develop. d. There are symptoms of common illnesses. Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 220

25.

According to Inagaki (1990), which of the following influences whether or not a young child is able to make accurate predictions about the behavior of an unfamiliar animal? a. the maturity of the child’s biology module b. whether or not the child has a pet c. whether or not the child has a younger sibling d. the number of perceptually salient features the animal has Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 221-222

True or False 26.

_____ Young children cannot form categories on the basis of taxonomic relations. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 201

27.

_____ Work by Behl-Chadha (1996) suggests that infants will dishabituate to a picture of a fire truck after being habituated to the following pictures: pick-up truck, four-door hatch back, school bus, and tractortrailer. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 204

28.

_____ Hirschfeld (2001) argued that children display theories about social groups. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 207

29.

_____ Legerstee (1991) showed that young infants imitate movements produced by animate objects and inanimate objects. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 207

30.

_____ Children develop an understanding of the past before they develop an understanding of the future. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 209

31.

_____ In accordance with Piaget (1969), Levin’s (1982) study of children’s comparisons of two dolls’ sleeping times showed that preoperational children lacked a logical understanding of time. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 210

32.

_____ According to Learmonth, Nadel, and Newcombe (2002), children use landmarks to guide their spatial representations in large rooms, but do not use landmarks to guide their spatial representations in small rooms. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 212

33.

_____ Results from a study by Kearins (1981) suggest that spatial memory performance is highly correlated with performance on standard tests of cognitive functioning. Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 213

34.

_____ Infants are unable to discriminate 5 objects from 15 objects. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 214

35.

_____ According to Wynn (1992), five-month-old infants are capable of calculating simple arithmetic operations, such as 1 + 1 = 2. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 215

36.

_____ Knowledge of the ordinal properties of numbers develops later than knowledge of the cardinal properties of numbers. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 216

37.

_____ According to Weissman and Kalish (1999), preschool children believe that a mother’s desire for her baby to have brown hair influences whether or not the baby will have brown hair. Answer: T Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 220

Short Answer/Essay 38.

List and describe two of the three major theories of concept representation. What is the mechanism of conceptual development in each of the two theories? Answer: Defining-features representations—mature concepts are represented in terms of their necessary and sufficient features, so conceptual development involves learning which features are necessary and sufficient for category membership. Probabilistic representations—concepts are united by family resemblance, not defining features, so development involves picking up on the cues and correlations between cues that signal category membership. Theory-based representations—concepts embody theoretical beliefs about the physical, psychological, and biological world, so development involves the construction of naïve theories about the causal relationship between objects; although, some proponents of this view argue that primitive theories are present from birth. Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.1: Explain key differences among defining features, representations, probabilistic representations, and theory-based representations of concepts. Page(s) in text: 199-208

39.

Any given spatial location can be represented egocentrically, in relation to a landmark, or allocentrically. Define these three types of spatial representations, and provide an example of each. Answer: Egocentric representations are representations of objects in relation to one’s own body. For example, my cup of water is just to the right of my hand. Landmark-based representations are representations of objects in relation to target objects in the environment. For example, my cup of water is on top of my desk. Allocentric representations are representations involving an abstract frame of reference. For example, GPS information tells me that the latitude of my cup of water is approximately 43.1 N, and its longitude is 88.8 W. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 210-212

40.

Infants’ knowledge of number is limited to small numbers. Discuss two findings that illustrate infants’ competence with small numbers and their difficulties with large numbers. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) When infants are habituated to sets of objects that had the same small number of objects, they dishabituated to new sets of objects that differed from the original sets in terms of number; however, infants are not able to discriminate among sets of objects with numerosities larger than three unless the sets differ by a large ratio; (2) after seeing one object being added to another object behind a screen, infants look longer when the screen is lifted to reveal one or three objects (instead of two); however, infants do not understand the consequences of adding or subtracting slightly larger numbers (e.g., 2 + 2); (3) after infants see a different number of crackers added to two different containers, they crawl to the container that has more crackers, but only when the comparisons involve numbers that are less than three. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 214-16

41.

Preschoolers understand a great deal about biological processes such as movement, growth, and inheritance. Discuss one thing that preschool children understand about movement, one thing that they understand about growth, and one thing that they understand about inheritance. Answer: Movement—preschoolers understand the difference between biological movement and nonbiological movement, and more specifically, they understand that biological movement is selfgenerated. Growth—any one of the following: (1) living things grow and inanimate objects do not grow, (2) biological growing happens in one direction, that is, from smaller to bigger, (3) growth causes living things to become more, rather than less, complex, (4) people’s desires do not influence growth. Inheritance—a baby will grow up to resemble adults of its species, regardless of its environment. Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 8.2: Describe the development of children’s concepts of time, space, number, and living things. Page(s) in text: 219-220

Chapter 9 The Development of Social Cognition Multiple Choice 1.

Which of the following is not true of infants’ early attention to social stimuli? a. Infants can discriminate the sounds used in all the world’s languages. b. Infants prefer face-like to non-face-like stimuli. c. Infants appear surprised when a person produces mouth movements. d. Infants imitate people, but not inanimate objects. Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 227

Sun, a five-year-old child, is not quite sure what to make of her four-month-old baby brother. She just stares at him intently. Her brother is most likely to ___. a. stare back at her b. smile and giggle c. fall asleep d. avert his gaze Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 227

Lowanna, a one-year-old child, is participating in a visual cliff experiment. She is most likely to cross over the deep side of the cliff if her mother ___. a. poses an angry expression b. sternly orders her to cross c. pleads with her to cross d. poses a joyful expression Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 228

When describing Superman, a preschool child is likely to focus on ___, and an older child is likely to focus on ___. a. his superhero outfit and cape, his muscles b. his superhero outfit and cape, his desire to help other people c. his desire to help other people, his muscles d. his desire to help other people, his superhero outfit and cape Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 228

In the process of painting a picture, Armen, a sixteen-month-old toddler, accidentally gets some paint on his cheek. Before bath time later that evening, Armen’s mother shows him his face in the bathroom mirror. Upon seeing his reflection in the mirror, Armen is most likely to ___. a. touch the cheek of the mirror image b. touch his mother’s cheek c. touch his own cheek d. clap his hands Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 230

When asked to describe herself, Desta, a three-year-old child, is likely to say, “___.” a. I’m three b. I’m smart c. I’m friendly d. I’m pretty Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 231

When asked to describe himself, Donovan says, “I am much more athletic than the other children in my class.” Donovan’s age is probably around ___ years old. a. four b. seven c. twelve d. sixteen Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 231

Which of the following scientists argues that children have a belief-desire theory of mind? a. Kohlberg b. Piaget c. Wellman d. Kalish Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 232

Kendra, an eighteen-month-old toddler, watches as her big brother crumples up wads of paper and tries to toss them through a small basketball hoop. After seeing this, Kendra is most likely to ___. a. imitate her brother’s behavior, but only if he gets some of the wads through the hoop b. imitate her brother’s behavior, but only if he does not get any of the wads through the hoop c. imitate her brother’s behavior regardless of whether or not he gets some of the wads through the hoop d. not imitate her brother’s behavior Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 234

10.

Raj, a fourteen-month-old toddler, likes the book Green Eggs and Ham, but his sister always tells him how much she likes the book Never Tease a Weasel. When Raj’s sister asks him to bring her a book, Raj is most likely to bring her ___. a. Green Eggs and Ham b. Never Tease a Weasel c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 235

11.

Ainsley, a three-year-old child, is given a rubber ball that has been painted to look like an orange. When Ainsely is asked what the object looks like, she is most likely to say “___.” When she is asked what it is really, she is most likely to say, “___.” a. an orange, an orange b. a ball, a ball c. an orange, a ball d. a ball, an orange Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 235

12.

Experimenters have tested young children’s theory of mind using various “location change” tasks. For example, consider the following story: Conan is playing with a top. He gets hungry, so he sets the top on the bookshelf and goes to find a snack. While Conan is eating, someone moves the top from the bookshelf to the closet. After hearing the story, children are typically asked where Conan will look for the top. Which of the following will not influence a child’s performance on this task? a. age of the child b. whether or not the top is visible when the child is questioned c. whether or not the child has a lot of experience playing with tops d. whether or not the child is told that the person who moved the top was playing a prank Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 235-237

13.

Tiki is able to explicitly distinguish between something that he knows and something that he has thought. Which age is he most likely to be? a. one year old b. two years old c. four years old d. seven years old Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 238

14.

Preschoolers tend to underestimate people’s amount of ___. a. imitation b. rationality c. mental activity d. collaboration Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 238

15.

Most children who celebrate Christmas believe in Santa Claus because ___. a. they do not understand the distinction between fantasy and reality b. they create imaginary characters to add richness to their social worlds c. their parents and communities support the belief d. they do not understand that pretense involves mental representations Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 242

16.

Of the following figures, parents are most likely to encourage children’s beliefs in ___. a. unicorns b. friendly ghosts c. tooth fairies d. superheroes Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 242

17.

Which of the following subgroups of children have been shown to have delays in the ability to understand the mind of others? a. children with Williams Syndrome b. typically developing children whose parents are hearing impaired c. children who are hearing impaired whose parents are not hearing impaired d. boys Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 244

18.

Mikal, an infant, has learned to imitate his mother’s mouth movements so that she smiles in return. Mikal’s imitation of his mother is a. illogical b. premature c. rational d. impulsive Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 246

19.

Simone is an infant who is being engaged in an activity modeled after Piaget’s A-not-B task. Which of the following adjustments to the task will make it less likely that Simone will commit the A-not-B error? a. watching someone hide the item at B at least three times b. seeing a photograph of the item as it looks when hidden at B c. the object being a favorite toy or stuffed animal of Simone’s d. the experimenter making eye contact and using child-directed speech Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 247

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20.

Johannes, four years old, sees in a book about trucks a picture of a vehicle that he does not recognize. He can ask either his grandmother or his grandfather what the vehicle is. In the past, his grandfather, with whom he has a close relationship, has given him incorrect answers as a way to make him laugh. His grandmother does not know much about vehicles, so she has often responded to his questions with “I don’t know.” Who is Johannes more likely to ask to identify the picture of the object in his book, and why? a. his grandmother, because he wants her to learn more about vehicles b. his grandfather, because he has a closer relationship with him c. his grandmother, because he does not trust his grandfather to answer correctly d. his grandfather, because he makes jokes Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 248

21.

Jonah and Grace are three years old. Together, they work to build a tower of painted wooden blocks. Jonah shows Grace a way to choose which color to use next, and Grace shows Jonah how to carefully add a block at the top. Jonah and Grace are learning primarily through ___. a. shared intentionality b. natural pedagogy c. selective trust d. experimentation Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 248

22.

Which of the following is not considered an ostensive cue? a. eye contact b. pointing c. written instructions d. use of infant-directed speech Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 247

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23.

Children are generally well able to engage in cooperative activities by age ___. a. nine months b. twelve months c. eighteen months d. two years Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 248

24.

According to findings from Lyons and colleagues (2007), after watching an experimenter perform actions on an object, why do children perform actions that are unnecessary even when encouraged to perform only the necessary actions? a. Children want to be just like the adults they have watched. b. Children automatically encode people’s purposeful actions as causally relevant. c. Children believe that adults know everything and would not perform irrelevant actions. d. Children do not understand the concepts of relevant and irrelevant. Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 246

25.

The concept that humans are innately adapted both to teach and to learn generalizable information from others’ teaching is called ___. a. rationality b. selective trust c. encoding d. natural pedagogy Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.3: Explain how children learn from others via imitation, instruction, collaboration, and testimony. Page(s) in text: 247

True or False 26.

_____ Infants are able to follow adults’ gaze and gestures by about two months old. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 227

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27.

_____ When three-month-old infants are shown a video of themselves and a video of a peer, they prefer to look at themselves. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 230

28.

_____ Young children can recognize their own reflection in a mirror even if they have never seen mirrors or other reflective surfaces. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 230

29.

_____ Children as young as three refer to psychological characteristics when asked to describe themselves. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of self and others during childhood. Page(s) in text: 231

30.

_____ Legerstee and colleagues (2000) found that six-month-old infants expect people to talk to people and reach toward objects, but not vice versa. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 233

31.

_____ Toddlers are just as likely to imitate an adult when the adult’s action appears accidental as when the adult’s action appears intentional. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 234

32.

_____ Children of the Baka tribe in Africa perform about the same as children living in the USA and Western Europe on false belief tasks. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 236

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33.

_____ Children as young as three years old know that inanimate objects cannot think. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 238

34.

_____ A study by Lillard (1993b) suggests that young children understand pretense in terms of action rather than in terms of mental states. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 239

35.

_____ Children as young as three years old know that inanimate objects cannot pretend. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 239

36.

_____ Up to around age 6, children often deny belief in magic but may act as if they do believe. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 240

37.

___ Most research on sources of development in understanding of the mind and mental activities has focused on four main factors: maturation, the growth of specific abilities, subject expertise, and language development. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental state and activities. Page(s) in text: 242

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Short Answer/Essay 38.

Children understand important regularities about intentional behavior from a very young age. However, even three-year-olds make some mistakes when it comes to interpreting whether or not a behavior is intentional. Describe one finding that demonstrates young children’s precocious understanding of intentional behavior and one finding that demonstrates that even three-year-old children do not have a fully developed understanding of intentional behavior. Answer: Fourteen-month-old toddlers are more likely to imitate an adults’ action if the action is marked as intentional (“There!”) than if the action is marked as unintentional (“Whoops!”). Additionally, eighteenmonth-old toddlers imitate the actions of an adult who tries to achieve something (e.g., push a button with a stick), even if they fail. However, three-year-old children often confuse mistakes or reflexes with intentional behavior. For example, after being hit with a reflex hammer and performing the reflexive kneejerk movement, three-year-old children claimed that they meant to move their leg. In general, three-yearolds often assume that an action is intentional if it leads to positive outcomes. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.1: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 234

39.

Young children often fail false belief tasks. This finding has been interpreted in a number of different ways. Describe two different interpretations of children’s poor performance on false belief tasks. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) young children lack a theory of mind that recognizes that other people’s minds include representations that may be different from one’s own representations, (2) young children lack the verbal and conversational skills to perform well on such tasks, and (3) young children lack the ability to reason with complex hierarchical rules and/or the ability to inhibit a prepotent response. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 235-237

40.

Three-year-old children tend to fail false belief tasks, whereas five-year-old children tend to pass false belief tasks. Researchers disagree about the sources of these age-related differences in performance. Discuss two different accounts of age-related differences in performance on false belief tasks. What evidence do proponents of each of the two accounts use to support their claims? Answer: Any two of the following four. Some researchers argue that maturational factors related specifically to the understanding of social information are responsible for age-related differences in performance on false belief tasks. These researchers point to the strong consistency across studies in the age at which young children start to succeed on false belief tasks. These researchers also point to a developmental disability known as autism, which is characterized by significant impairments in the ability to understand the mind of others, to show that the mechanisms that allow an understanding of the mind are controlled largely by biological factors. Other researchers argue that the development of informationprocessing skills is responsible for the age-related differences in performance on false belief tasks. These researchers suggest that false belief tasks put too much of a strain on young children’s information processing capabilities, and they point to findings that show improved performance on false belief tasks when the information-processing demands are reduced. Other researchers suggest that experience with other people is responsible for age-related differences in performance on false belief tasks. These researchers point to findings that indicate a positive relationship between number of siblings and performance on false belief tasks. Still other researchers suggest that language development contributes to age-related differences on false belief tasks. These researchers point to studies that have demonstrated positive relationships between language abilities and performance on false belief tasks.

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Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 235-237; 242-245 41.

In what ways do preschoolers think of fantasy versus reality? Discuss either magical events and processes, imaginary companions, or fantasy figures. Answer: Any one of the following three. Magical events and processes: Children tend to deny having any belief in magical events and processes, but their actions show otherwise, as an experiment by Subbotsky (1993) showed. In this experiment, children claimed to not believe that a box was magic, but when they were left alone with the box, they tried to use the box’s “magic.” This appears to be the case for children up to age six or so, though children between the ages of four and eight do still use “magic” as an explanation for phenomena that they don’t understand or can’t explain. Imaginary companions: Imaginary companions are common in childhood, with a study by Pearson and colleagues (2001) showing almost half of children between the ages of five and twelve having had an imaginary companion. These companions may be stuffed animals or dolls, or they may be invisible friends. Evidence suggests that these children realize that their friends are imaginary. Fantasy figures: Fantasy figures can be supernatural, like ghosts and monsters, or event-based, like the tooth fairy. A survey of parents of four-to-six-year-olds showed that around 40% of the children believed in supernatural figures and 80% believed in Santa Claus. Since parents and communities tend to encourage and facilitate belief in event-based figures, this percentage is not surprising. However, children as young as three have shown a clear understanding of which of the objects and figures shown to them in experiments are real or make-believe. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 9.2: Describe developmental changes in understanding of mental states and activities. Page(s) in text: 240-242

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Chapter 10 Problem Solving Multiple Choice 1.

When playing tic-tac-toe, young children sometimes miss the need to place a mark (i.e., X or O) to block their opponent from winning. Instead, they choose to place an offensive mark that gets them closer to having three marks in a row. This approach to problem solving in which problem solvers take actions that get them closer to the desired goal is known as ___. a. means-end analysis b. task analysis c. restructuring d. deductive reasoning Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 252-253

Elenor, a six-year-old child, is eating dinner with her family. She points to her pregnant mother’s round belly and says, “Mommy, you better not eat any dessert. You’ll make it too crowded for the new baby in there.” Elenor has constructed a(n) ___ of what it means to be pregnant. a. task analysis b. syllogism c. analogy d. mental model Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 253

Damon, a seven-year-old American child, tells his mother, “I think God lives on the moon, and that’s how God can see us all here down on earth.” This mental model shows that Damon ___. a. understands analogies better than most children his age b. is trying to integrate what he has been taught of religion and of science c. needs to learn more ways to utilize scientific reasoning d. has basic problem-solving skills that should improve with age Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 253-254

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In a study of the development of scientific reasoning by Schauble (1996), children and adults set up a series of experiments in scientific domains to determine the causal structure in each of the domains. Schauble observed participants’ progress across six, forty-minute sessions that were completed across two contiguous weeks. This method of collecting data is known as the ___. a. macroscopic method b. scientific method c. microgenetic method d. time-series method Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 255

Helena, a five-year-old child, is presented with a balance scale problem in which there are three weights on the third peg from the right and three weights on the second peg from the left. Helena is likely to ___. a. say that the scale will balance b. say that the left side will go down c. say that the right side will go down d. be equally likely to say that the left and right sides will go down Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 256-257

A five-year-old child is more likely than a fifteen-year-old child to succeed on which of the following balance scale problems? a. b. c. d. Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 257-259

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The most sophisticated strategy for solving a balance-scale problem involves multiplying the weight and distance on each side to calculate torque. The side with the greatest torque goes down. In Siegler’s (1976) study, approximately ___ percent of sixteen- and seventeen-year-old children used this strategy. a. zero b. twenty c. fifty d. seventy-five Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 260

Siegler (1976) found that five-year-old children do not benefit from feedback on balance-scale conflict problems, whereas eight-year-old children do. Five-year-old children do not learn from feedback on conflict problems because they ___. a. encode distance, but not weight b. encode weight, but not distance c. misencode both weight and distance d. do not attend to feedback when they think they’ve solved a problem correctly Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 260-261

A number of factors influence the distance a car travels before stopping when the brakes are applied, including initial speed of the car, the slope of the roadway, the car’s tire tread, and the roughness of the roadway. Suppose Ginny, a five-year-old child, is given a series of problems in which she is asked to predict which of two cars will travel the greatest distance before stopping when the brakes are applied. When solving such problems, Ginny is likely to ___. a. consistently predict that the car with the greatest initial speed will travel farthest b. consider both initial speed and tire tread when predicting which car will travel farthest c. haphazardly guess which car will travel farthest on each problem d. consider all of the relevant dimensions when predicting which car will travel farthest Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 262-263

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10.

Kali, a nine-year-old girl, wants a new video game. Her parents tell her that she must create a plan for how she will earn the money for the game. Which of the following obstacles will she most likely face in planning? a. having to cooperate with other people b. being overoptimistic about not needing to plan c. wanting to buy the game immediately d. the game selling out before she can buy it Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning Page(s) in text: 263

11.

The three Humean variables, which lead people to infer that events are causally related, are ___. a. planning, precedence, and covariation b. consistency, contiguity, and covariation c. contiguity, precedence, and covariation d. planning, precedence, and consistency Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 269

12.

Suppose that a seven-month-old infant is repeatedly shown a film in which an actor, who is holding an object in his hand, opens his hand to release the object, and the object falls to the ground. After infants habituate to this event, they will dishabituate to a film in which ___. a. the actor does not open his hand, but the object falls to the ground anyway b. the object does not start falling until 3/4 of a second after the actor opens his hand c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 269

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13.

The first Humean variable to be understood by children is ___, and the last to be understood is ___. a. contiguity, covariation b. consistency, precedence c. precedence, consistency d. covariation, precedence Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 269

14.

When a three-year-old child sees a magnet move another magnet without touching it, he or she is likely to interpret the movement as having a ___ cause. a. physical b. psychological c. contiguous d. spatial Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 271

15.

Audrey, an eight-year-old child, is told that a novel animal called a crushkin has kube in its brain that makes it see very well in the dark, but very poorly in the light. Audrey is then presented with two more animals: one that has kube in its brain and cannot see very well in the dark or the light; and one that does not have kube in its brain and can see very well in the dark, but very poorly in the light. She is asked to choose which animal is also called a crushkin. Audrey is most likely to ___. a. choose the animal that has kube in its brain b. choose the animal that can see very well in the dark, but very poorly in the light c. be equally likely to choose either animal d. say that neither animal is a crushkin Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 271

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16.

Both children and adults are more likely to recognize an analogy between two problems when all of the following occur except when___. a. superficial and deep characteristics are similar across problems b. the procedures used to solve the problems are similar c. they have encountered problems with the same solution principle in the past d. the context of the second problem is in a content area with which they are unfamiliar Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 273-274

17.

A young child’s ability to draw an analogy between two problems may be hindered by ___. a. superficial perceptual dissimilarities between the two problems b. the ease with which the problems can be solved c. the number of steps it takes to solve the problems d. explicit hints given by an adult Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 274

18.

Devin, a six-year-old child, was not able to draw an appropriate analogy between a military battle plan and radiation therapy. However, Caroline, a thirteen-year-old child, was able to do so. Caroline’s analogical reasoning is better than Devin’s because Caroline ___ than Devin. a. has more knowledge b. has greater proficiency with language c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 273-275

19.

Which of the following is not an example of a problem-solving tool? a. parents b. calculator c. paper and pencil d. spoon Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific ability. Page(s) in text: 266

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20.

Ramsey, a three-year-old child, is given a three-dimensional map to help him navigate an obstacle course. Ramsey’s ability to use the map to navigate the obstacle course successfully may be hindered if ___. a. he is allowed to play with the map for several minutes before using it b. the map is much smaller than the actual obstacle course c. the obstacle course is very difficult d. he has never been to the area where the obstacle course is Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 267-268

21.

In a study by Chen and colleagues, at what age were children able to solve problems with varying superficial features after watching their parent model solve a similar problem? a. 10 months b. 8 months c. 13 months d. 16 months Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM Page(s) in text: 271-273

22.

In the domain of scientific reasoning, young children are better than adults at ___. a. designing unconfounded experiments b. conducting a sufficient number of experiments to make scientifically-based conclusions c. both a and b d. neither a nor b Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 275-276

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23.

Edward, a nine-year-old child, runs a set of experiments in which he tries to determine the causal impact of various factors on a car’s braking distance. Before performing the experiments, Edward believes that the roughness of the roadway does not influence braking distance. However, after performing a few experiments, he hypothesizes that the roughness of the roadway does influence braking distance, and he collects data to support his hypothesis. Later, when asked whether the roughness of the roadway matters or not, Edward is likely to ___. a. vacillate between saying it matters and saying it doesn’t matter b. say it matters a lot c. say it doesn’t matter d. say it matters, but not as much as initial speed Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 276

24.

In a standard function-finding problem, problem solvers need to find the function that fits a given table of values. For example, consider the following table of values: x 1 2 3 y 1 4 9 When a problem solver is given this table of values, he or she needs to detect the pattern in the data and find the function y = x2. This is an example of a(n) ___. a. deductive reasoning problem b. inductive reasoning problem c. transitive inference problem d. syllogism Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 277-278

25.

According to Halford and Andrews (1993), why does it take children so long to understand deductive reasoning, even though they reason deductively from quite young ages? a. the complexity of the inferences that are necessary for success b. the need to inhibit a response that seems likely but that is not certain c. the language demands required for successful understanding d. the amount of sustained focus needed for problem-solving Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 279

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26.

Morris and Sloutsky’s 1998 study showed that an experimental ___ curriculum helped people have greater gains in deductive reasoning than people who received more traditional instruction. a. British literature b. Chinese language c. Russian mathematics d. Greek philosophy Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 279

True or False 27.

_____ By fifth grade, close to 90% of children understand that the earth is a complete sphere. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 254

28.

_____ Once children generate or learn a more advanced problem-solving strategy, they use it consistently and rarely go back to using a less advanced strategy. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 255

29.

_____ Children often exhibit increases in the variability of their strategy use during periods of rapid changes in thinking. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 255

30.

_____ Children generate new problem-solving strategies, even when their current problem-solving strategies are successful. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 255-256

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31.

_____ Conclusions about development that are based on data from microgenetic studies cannot typically be generalized to development that occurs on broader time scales. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 256

32.

_____ After questioning the teachers of participants in his study, Siegler (1976) concluded that students who are able to predict the behavior of a pan balance can generalize their knowledge to predict the behavior of an arm balance. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 260

33.

_____ Planning can be difficult for children because it may require them to cooperate with other children. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 263

34.

_____ Chen and Siegler (2000) showed that toddlers do not attempt to use a tool on their own unless an adult demonstrates how to use it first. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 266

35.

_____ Even eleven-month-old children understand that stationary objects move farther after being hit by a big object than after being hit by a small object. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 269

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36.

_____ From about age five, children distinguish between physical causality and psychological causality. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 271

37.

_____ When conducting experiments to determine the causal structure of a set of variables, children often conduct too few experiments to draw valid scientific conclusions. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 275

38.

With appropriate instruction, even preschool children can learn the rationale for experimental comparisons that vary only one factor at a time. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 276

39.

_____ Scientific reasoning improves only marginally with age. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 276

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Short Answer/Essay 40.

How is encoding related to children’s failures in problem-solving? Discuss three ways and provide an example for each. Answer: There are three ways that children’s encoding can impede their problem-solving ability. First, they may not know what the important features of the problem are. For example, they may not know that the equal sign in a math problem is important for solving a math problem. Next, they may not comprehend the important features. If they do recognize that the equal sign is important, they may not know what it means. Finally, they may recognize an important feature, and they may know what that feature means in general, but they may not know to encode that feature efficiently. They may not know that an equal sign can be part of an equivalence problem, so they misencode it and thus solve the problem incorrectly. Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 253

41.

In a seminal study of children’s problem solving, Siegler (1976) used the rule assessment method to examine children’s performance on balance-scale problems. Define the rule assessment method, and describe one of Siegler’s key findings related to children’s performance on balance-scale problems. Answer: The rule assessment method is a method for generating experimental stimuli in problem-solving research. When using this method, an investigator systematically constructs a set of problems that can be used to differentiate between children who use different rules/strategies to solve a particular class of problems. The problems are constructed such that children who use different rules/strategies produce different patterns of responses across the problems. Using this method, Siegler documented a developmental progression in the rules/strategies that children use to solve balance-scale problems. That is, the rules/strategies that children used to solve the problems got more advanced with age. However, only 20% of adolescents used the most advanced strategy. Siegler also found that eight-year-olds, but not fiveyear-olds, benefit from feedback on conflict problems. He showed that this age-related difference was due to differences in encoding performance. Eight-year-olds encode both weight and distance accurately, whereas five-year-olds only encode weight accurately. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.1: Summarize basic themes in the development of problem-solving. Page(s) in text: 257-261

42.

Young children often fail to plan, even when doing so would facilitate their problem-solving performance. Discuss two reasons that children may fail to plan. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) planning requires inhibition of the tendency to act immediately, and the ability to inhibit prepotent actions develops slowly; (2) children think they can succeed without planning; (3) children are not good at cooperating with others. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 263

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43.

In a study by DeLoache (1987), toddlers were unable to use a miniature replica of a room to find a Snoopy doll that was hidden in a big version of the room. DeLoache hypothesized that young children are unable to view the miniature replica both as an object itself, and as a representation of the big room. Describe one finding that supports this hypothesis. Answer: In one study, DeLoache let three-year-old children, who generally succeed on the original version of the task, play with the miniature replica before being asked to use it as a representation of the big room. DeLoache hypothesized that this would lead the children to be interested in the replica in its own right, and thus, decrease their ability to use it as a representation of the big room. Results supported this hypothesis. In another study, DeLoache and colleagues led children to believe that a machine “shrunk” the big room. In this case, children do not have to view the replica as a representation of the big room because they are both the same room. She found that toddlers who failed on the original version of the task were able to find the Snoopy doll in this version of the task. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 10.2: Describe developmental changes in problem-solving processes, including planning, tool use, causal inference, analogy, and scientific reasoning. Page(s) in text: 267-268

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Chapter 11 Development of Academic Skills Multiple Choice 1.

Erma will turn five years old one month after kindergarten begins. Her parents have the option of sending her to kindergarten this year or waiting until next year. If her parents choose to send her this year, Erma will most likely perform ___ than she would have next year. a. worse in math and about the same in reading b. worse in math and worse in reading c. better in math and better in reading d. about the same in math and about the same in reading Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 281-282

Sheddon, an eighteen-year-old college student, is presented with the problem “8 + 6 = __” and draws a blank. He cannot recall the answer from memory. Which of the following is he most likely to say to himself in his head as a backup strategy? a. “ten plus six is sixteen, minus two is fourteen” b. “seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen” c. “one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight; nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen” d. “eighteen plus six is twenty-four, minus ten is fourteen” Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 283

Channing, a five-year-old child, has just learned to add and subtract single-digit numbers. She is presented with the problem “4 + 3 = __”. Which of the following is she most likely to say when solving the problem? a. “one, two, three, four; five, six, seven” b. “four, five, six, seven” c. “five, six, seven” d. “four plus four is eight, minus one is seven” Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 284

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A young child is likely to use the ___ strategy to solve the problem “1 + 1 = __” and the ___ strategy to solve the problem “7 + 8 = __”. a. retrieval, retrieval b. count from one, retrieval c. count from one, count from the larger addend d. retrieval, count from the larger addend Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 284

Assume Felicia has a confidence criterion of .70. She is given the problem “3 + 5 = __” and asked to find the answer. For Felicia, the associative strength between “3 + 5” and “8” is .75, the associative strength between “3 + 5” and 9 is .10, the associative strength between “3 + 5” and 7 is .05, and the associative strength between “3 + 5” and 15 is .10. Felicia is most likely to solve the problem by ___. a. retrieving an incorrect answer from memory b. retrieving the correct answer from memory c. using a backup strategy such as counting from the larger addend d. giving up on trying to solve it because it is unfamiliar Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 285-287

Siegler’s (1988) study of individual differences in children’s performance on single-digit arithmetic problems revealed that students could be categorized into three groups: good students, not-so-good students, and perfectionists. Results indicated that perfectionists used the retrieval strategy ___. a. more often than students in either of the other two groups b. more often than not-so-good students, but less often than good students c. about as often as students in the other two groups d. less often than students in either of the other two groups Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 288

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Which of the following does not explain why some children have mathematical disabilities? a. limited exposure to numbers in the early years b. insufficient working memory capacity c. very stringent confidence criterion d. lack of conceptual understanding of counting Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 289

A child who understands the inversion principle understands that ___. a. the two sides of an equation are equal in value b. adding and subtracting the same number leaves the original quantity unchanged c. the answer of an addition problem is the same, regardless of the order in which the addends are added d. the order of operations will determine the correct solution for a problem Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 289

Children’s solution time on the problem “4 + 5 – 5 = __” will not be the same as their solution time on the problem “4 + 12 – 12 = __” until they are in ___ grade. a. second b. third c. fourth d. fifth Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 289

10.

Elsie, a third-grade student, is asked to define the equal sign. She is likely to say that it means “___.” a. the total sum b. the two sides of an equation represent the same quantity c. equal to d. the same as Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 290

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11.

Zach and April are both asked to solve the problem “4 + 5 + 6 = __ + 7”. Zach puts “22” in the blank and says, “I added four plus five plus six plus seven to get twenty-two.” As he explains his answer, he points to the 4, 5, 6, 7, and then to the answer blank. April puts “15” in the blank and says, “Four plus five is nine, plus six is fifteen.” As she explains her answer, she points to the 4, 5, 6, 7, and then to the answer blank. Later, Zach and April receive instruction on the problems. Which of the following is most likely true of their learning? a. Zach will learn a little more from instruction than April b. April will learn more from instruction than Zach c. Zach and April will learn about the same from instruction d. Zach will learn much more from instruction than April Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 290

12.

Greta is a seven-year-old student in a rural area who has never been to a large city. As part of her math homework, she has to solve a word problem that asks students to calculate subway fare based on the distance traveled and the time of day traveled. Which part of this problem is Greta most likely to struggle with? a. the wording of the problem b. figuring out the fare for the time of day c. the urban context of the problem d. figuring out the distance Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 291

13.

Which of the following multi-digit subtraction problems is a child most likely to get wrong? a. 327 – 212 = __ b. 489 – 399 = __ c. 215 – 215 = __ d. 520 – 226 = __ Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 292

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14.

Children living in Korea are less likely than children living in the USA to make mistakes on complex arithmetic problems because their ___ gives them an advantage. a. language b. IQ c. experience with mathematics d. cultural values Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 292

15.

Given the problem “1/3 + 1/5 = __”, children are most likely to write ___ in the blank. a. 10 b. 1/8 c. 2/8 d. 1/15 Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 292-293

16.

Which of the following is a third-grade student most likely to say is larger than 0.57? a. .400 b. .50 c. .57 d. .6 Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 293

17.

Which of the following leads directly to improved reading and spelling performance in the elementary school years? a. exposing children to foreign languages beginning in preschool b. helping kindergarten children realize that words consist of separable sounds c. using songs and physical movements to teach the alphabet d. having children say letter names as they write the letters on paper Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 298

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18.

Which of the following is not a likely variable responsible for some children learning letter names earlier than other children? a. interest in print b. perceptual skills c. healthy diet d. general intelligence Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 298

19.

Hansen is reading his favorite book. He gets to the word “fantastic,” and he stops to sound it out, “Fan-tastic.” Hansen is using the word-identification strategy known as ___. a. phonological recoding b. visually based retrieval c. lexical access d. proposition integration Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 299

20.

Sophia, a sixth-grade student, is reading the sentence “Charlie was enjoying his newfound comrade.” She accidentally substitutes a different word in place of “comrade.” Which of the following words is she most likely to substitute? a. home b. friend c. companion d. courage Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 300

21.

Which of the following words is most likely to present the biggest challenge for someone with phonological dyslexia? a. have b. gorp c. save d. presentation Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 303

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22.

Which of the following words is most likely to present the biggest challenge for someone with surface dyslexia? a. have b. gorp c. save d. presentation Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 303

23.

Drake, a third-grade child, is reading the sentence, “The athletic girl played soccer and volleyball.” In comprehending the sentence, he constructs the following subunits: “There was a girl.” “The girl was athletic.” “The girl played soccer.” “The girl played volleyball.” This example illustrates the ___ component of reading comprehension. a. lexical access b. proposition assembly c. proposition integration d. text modeling Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 304

24.

Which of the following does not influence the development of reading comprehension? a. automatization of word identification b. increases in working-memory capacity c. increases in the size of the visual cortex d. increases in content knowledge Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 304-305

25.

Which of the following methods has been shown to be the most effective when it comes to promoting reading comprehension? a. phonics instruction b. whole-word instruction c. reciprocal teaching d. text modeling Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 306

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26.

Bereiter and Scardamalia (1982) asked fourth-grade students to compose essays under one of three conditions: typical writing, slow dictation, and standard dictation. In terms of the quality of students’ essays, results indicated that ___. a. the typical writing condition was better than the other two conditions b. the slow dictation condition was better than the other two conditions c. the standard dictation condition was better than the other two conditions d. the two dictation conditions were about the same, but better than the typical writing condition Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.3: Describe the development of writing and revision skills. Page(s) in text: 309-310

27.

In a study by Beal (1990), children needed to correct essays that had a variety of error types. Fourth graders detected ___ of those errors, while sixth graders detected ___ of errors. a. 25%, 60% b. 20%, 75% c. 40%, 80% d. 30%, 50% Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.3: Describe the development of writing and revision skills. Page(s) in text: 310

True or False 28.

_____ College-age students use the retrieval strategy on about 95% of single-digit arithmetic problems such as “6 + 7 = __”. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 283

29.

_____ Children living in East Asian countries tend to use the retrieval strategy for solving single-digit arithmetic problems at an earlier age than children living in the USA. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 285

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30.

_____ A child whose representation of the problem “5 + 7 = __” is a peaked distribution will be likely to use the retrieval strategy on that problem. Answer: T Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 286

31.

_____ Children who are best at using the count-from-one strategy of solving single-digit arithmetic problems in first grade are likely to be the worst at using the retrieval strategy in second grade. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 287

32.

_____ Third- and fourth-grade students are likely to put “15” in the blank when they are asked to solve the problem “3 + 4 + 5 = 3 + __”. Answer: T Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 290

33.

_____ Children are more likely to interpret word problems correctly if the problems involve small numbers rather than large numbers. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 291

34.

_____ Bjorkland and Rosenblum (2002) found that children often use more advanced strategies to solve arithmetic problems when the problems are presented in the context of a game than when problems are presented in an academic context. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 291

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35.

_____ According to Chall (1979) most students do not start to use reading for learning until after fourth grade. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 297

36.

_____ Preschool children who know nursery rhymes well are more likely to be ready to read when they enter school. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 298-299

37.

_____ Phonics-based instruction has been shown to be better than whole-word instruction in helping children to succeed at reading. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 303

38.

_____ Text modeling refers to the processes by which children draw inferences and relate what they are reading to what they already know. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 304

39.

_____ Relevant content knowledge can be useful but is not necessarily essential for good reading comprehension. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 306

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40.

_____ When revising an essay, a child’s second draft is consistently better than the first draft. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.3: Describe the development of writing and revision skills. Page(s) in text: 310-311

Short Answer/Essay 41.

Context influences children’s performance in mathematics. This was illustrated in Carraher and colleagues’ (1985) classic study of Brazilian street vendors. Describe the method and results of Carraher and colleages’ study, and discuss how the results support the claim that children’s mathematical problem-solving performance depends on context. Answer: Brazilian children ages nine to fifteen, who worked as street vendors, were presented with arithmetic problems in one of three conditions: (1) in the context of the transactions that would occur at their vendor stand, (2) in the context of transactions that would occur at other types of vendor stands, and (3) in a context-free condition. Children performed very well on arithmetic problems that involved transactions that would occur at their vendor stand, and they also performed reasonably well on problems in the other sales context. However, children solved fewer than half of the context-free arithmetic problems correctly. Thus, children’s performance on arithmetic problems depended on the context in which the problems were presented. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 291

42.

A number of studies have demonstrated that students have substantial difficulties with algebra. Two examples include Koedinger and Nathan’s (2002) study of the errors middle-school students make when solving algebraic equations and Clement’s (1982) study of undergraduate’s ability to generate an equation from a simple word statement. Describe the findings of either Koedinger and Nathan, or Clement, and provide an interpretation for the results. Answer: Koedinger and Nathan showed that children sometimes use the “do the same thing to both sides” strategy incorrectly. Instead of doing the same thing to both sides of the equal sign, they may choose an arbitrary fulcrum and do the same thing to both sides of it. For example, in the problem x + 2 – 3 = 12, children may add 3 to the numbers on either side of the minus sign. This suggests that children often apply memorized procedures without understanding the concepts behind them. It also suggests that children lack a good understanding of the equal sign. In Clement’s study, undergraduates failed to write the correct equation for the statement, “There are six times as many students as professors at this university.” Instead of writing the correct equation 6p = s, students tended to write 6s = p. This suggests that it is difficult for students to translate language into algebraic notation. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.1: Describe the development of mathematical reasoning in simple arithmetic, complex arithmetic, and algebra. Page(s) in text: 295-296

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43.

There is debate about the best way to teach children how to read. Some educators endorse the whole-word approach, whereas others endorse the phonics approach. Contrast these two approaches. Cite one argument for using the whole language approach and one argument for using the phonics approach. Answer: The whole-word approach emphasizes the association between the visual form of a word and the word’s meaning. The argument is that skilled readers rely on visually based, meaning retrieval, so beginning readers should be taught to read like skilled readers. The phonics approach emphasizes the association between the visual form of a word and the word’s sound. The argument is that readers need strategies for dealing with unfamiliar words. To this end, educators should capitalize on the already well established association between a word’s sound and a word’s meaning. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 299

44.

Seidenberg and McClelland (1989) developed a connectionist model of how children learn to read. The model provides an account of how children learn associations between the various subcomponents of word identification. According to the model, children acquire associations between the meanings, sounds, and visual forms of words in a particular developmental sequence. Describe the developmental sequence (i.e., the order in which the associations are learned). Discuss why particular associations fall where they do on the developmental timeline. Answer: First, children learn the associations between sound and meaning. This is because they have years of experience with spoken language before they are introduced to reading. Next, as children are exposed to reading, they acquire the associations between visual form and sound. This is because the visual form is more closely correlated with sound than with meaning. Finally, children acquire the associations between visual form and meaning. Later in development, this path to word reading “beats out” the path from visual form to sound to meaning because it is a faster, more direct route. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 300-301

45.

Part of the process of learning how to write is learning how to revise one’s work. Discuss the two main processes that are part of revision and how children fare with them. Answer: Revision requires two processes. The first is identifying errors and weaknesses in a piece of writing. The second process is correcting those errors and weaknesses. A study by Beal (1990) showed that only 25% of fourth graders and 60% of sixth graders found errors in a text. However, a study by Bartlett (1982) showed that children are better at recognizing errors in classmates’ writing than they are at recognizing errors in their own writing. According to a study by Bereiter and Scardamalia (19812), when it comes to correcting errors, students seem to be able to correct errors quite well, provided they recognize the errors themselves. When adults point out errors to students, older students can correct them fairly well, but younger students cannot. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 11.2: Describe the development of reading skills, including word identification and comprehension. Page(s) in text: 310-311

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Chapter 12 Conclusions for the Present; Challenges for the Future Multiple Choice 1.

According to Brown and DeLoache (1978), there are four major sources of developmental change: ___. a. basic processes, strategies, content knowledge, and socialization b. basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and socialization c. basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge d. basic processes, metacognition, content knowledge, and socialization Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 12.1: Summarize current knowledge of how development occurs. Consider future issues about integration across domains. Page(s) in text: 316

A researcher who is interested in using methods that directly address processes of change to reveal the indirect paths that change often takes should use the ___. a. cognitive modeling using production systems b. cross-sectional studies c. fMRI d. microgenetic method Answer: D Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: 12.1: Summarize current knowledge of how development occurs. Consider future issues about integration across domains. Page(s) in text: 317

Campos and colleagues’ (2000) study of crawling and non-crawling infants’ ability to locate an object hidden at a new location after seeing it hidden several times at a different location demonstrates an approach that is likely to promote theoretical progress. This approach ___. a. obtains frequent samples of children’s performance as it changes over time b. examines how changes in one domain influence developments in other domains c. illustrates that children’s failures on Piagetian tasks are due to methodological artifacts d. uses neuropsycholgical evidence to corroborate behavioral findings Answer: B Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.1: Summarize current knowledge of how development occurs. Consider future issues about integration across domains. Page(s) in text: 318

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Which of the following is not synonymous with automatization? a. freeing cognitive resources b. automatic processing c. parallel processing d. serial processing Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.2: Summarize current knowledge of change processes. Consider future issues about the role of experience in mechanisms of change. Page(s) in text: 318

Induction, transfer, and analogical reasoning are ideas that overlap with the change process known as ___. a. automatization b. encoding c. generalization d. strategy construction Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.2: Summarize current knowledge of change processes. Consider future issues about the role of experience in mechanisms of change. Page(s) in text: 318

Infants have been shown to have a rudimentary understanding of ___. a. music b. analogical reasoning c. emotions d. arithmetic Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.3: Summarize current knowledge about early competence. Consider future issues about how young children engage with the physical and social world. Page(s) in text: 321

Munakata and colleagues (1997) used which of the following methods in their study of three-month-old infants’ knowledge of object permanence? a. head-turn preference procedure b. high amplitude sucking procedure c. cognitive modeling d. fMRI Answer: C Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.3: Summarize current knowledge about early competence. Consider future issues about how young children engage with the physical and social world. Page(s) in text: 323

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Munakata and colleages’ (1997) study of three-month-old infants’ knowledge of object permanence suggests that ___. a. infants understand object permanence, but do not know that they can act on one object to get another b. infants understand object permanence, but do not want to retrieve the hidden toy c. infants knowledge of object permanence is strong enough to elicit looking, but not reaching d. infants do not understand object permanence Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.3: Summarize current knowledge about early competence. Consider future issues about how young children engage with the physical and social world. Page(s) in text: 323

When asked to predict which is more likely to result from flipping a coin six times: heads, heads, heads, tails, tails, tails, or heads, heads, tails, heads, tails, tails, adults are likely to say ___. a. they are equally likely b. the former is more likely c. the later is more likely d. the former is much more likely Answer: C Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 325

10.

Preschoolers possess greater understanding of ___ than Piaget recognized. a. letters b. social cues c. numbers d. emotions Answer: C Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 324

11.

Which of the following is an example of adults’ irrational thinking according to Shaklee (1979)? a. adults who refuse to use umbrellas or coats when it is raining b. increased confidence in winning a game of chance after practicing c. the belief that a single, specific politician can solve all problems d. buying a lottery ticket every week with the hope of winning Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 325

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12.

Prior content knowledge influences what people learn as well as ___ they learn. a. where b. when c. how often d. how much Answer: D Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.5: Summarize current knowledge about effects of existing knowledge. Consider future issues about inductive inference and statistical learning mechanisms. Page(s) in text: 327

13.

Children observe patterns of association in the world, then “invert” those patterns to infer what kind of structures could have generated those patterns. What do children then do with those patterns? a. use them to make predictions about new events and instances b. store them in their short-term memory but not their long-term memory c. apply them to those same situations but not to new ones d. share them with their friends when they encounter similar situations Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.5: Summarize current knowledge about effects of existing knowledge. Consider future issues about inductive inference and statistical learning mechanisms. Page(s) in text: 328

14.

What is one hypothesis for why a child’s cortex has higher synaptic density than an adult’s? a. to allow for superior learning of language and motor skills b. to enable processing of increasingly complex emotions c. to allow children to communicate their needs to ensure survival d. to enable reception and processing of parental love and care Answer: A Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.6: Summarize current knowledge about the development of intelligence. Consider future issues about executive function and cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 329

15.

Which of the following situations demonstrates the robustness that contributes to increasingly successful adaptations to task environments? a. In one study, two-year-olds were able to use a scale model to locate objects in rooms if the model was in a glass case, but not if they handled it. Three-year-olds could use the model appropriately in either condition. b. Many three-year-olds do not make explicit judgments about others’ false beliefs, but by age 4, most children can reason in sophisticated ways about others’ beliefs and how they influence behavior. c. In one study, children who were encouraged to think about a familiar hardworking character, were able to dress up as their chosen character, and persevered longer on a repetitive task than did children who were encouraged to think about themselves. d. Girl Scout leaders who coordinate cookie sales help children acquire not only skills such as salesmanship and record keeping but also values such as politeness and promptness.

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Answer: A Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.6: Summarize current knowledge about the development of intelligence. Consider future issues about executive function and cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 329 16.

The brain of an adult weighs ___ times more than that of a newborn. a. two b. four c. six d. eight Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.6: Summarize current knowledge about the development of intelligence. Consider future issues about executive function and cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 329

17.

Which of the following is not a social influence on children’s thinking? a. parents b. other children c. the culture as a whole d. family pets Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.7: Summarize current knowledge about social influences on children’s thinking. Consider future issues about mechanisms of learning from social interaction. Page(s) in text: 332-333

18.

Which of the following is a characteristic of infant-directed speech? a. sing-song b. low volume c. limited topics d. elaborate vocabulary Answer: B Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.7: Summarize current knowledge about social influences on children’s thinking. Consider future issues about mechanisms of learning from social interaction. Page(s) in text: 332

19.

Laney, a four-year-old child, is working on a puzzle. Her father is helping her. Laney will be able to complete the puzzle better all by herself next time if her father ___ this time. a. provides as little help as possible b. is sensitive to her skill level when helping c. demonstrates how to solve the puzzle d. helps her understand how the puzzle looks

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Answer: B Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.7: Summarize current knowledge about social influences on children’s thinking. Consider future issues about mechanisms of learning from social interaction. Page(s) in text: 333 20.

Studies indicate that children as young as ___ years old can provide accurate, though incomplete testimony when asked specific questions that do not indicate what answer the questioner is seeking. a. eight b. six c. two d. four Answer: D Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.8 Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 332-333

21.

Infants’ preference for looking at ___ rather than ___ provided a means for diagnosing blindness in infancy, in a study by Dobson (1983). a. stripes, gray surfaces b. polka dots, stripes c. gray surfaces, polka dots d. gray surfaces, white surfaces Answer: A Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.8 Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 335

22.

Cognitive Tutors do all of the following but ___. a. diagnose errors in children’s thinking b. provide feedback to students c. monitor students’ performance across activities and adjust activities accordingly d. utilize connectionist models to represent the strategies students might employ Answer: D Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.8 Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 336-337

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True or False 23.

_____ The development of children’s thinking involves both progressions and regressions. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.1: Summarize current knowledge of how development occurs. Consider future issues about integration across domains. Page(s) in text: 317

24.

_____ Deficits in cognitive abilities are often accompanied by deficits in motor skill. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.1: Summarize current knowledge of how development occurs. Consider future issues about integration across domains. Page(s) in text: 318

25.

_____ Infants’ early competence is restricted to the domain of perception. Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.3: Summarize current knowledge about early competence. Consider future issues about how young children engage with the physical and social world. Page(s) in text: 321

26.

_____ Adults’ reasoning is less rational than Piaget thought. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 325

27.

_____ Most scientists agree that the initial-competence criterion is the best way to approach the question, “At what age do children understand concept X?” Answer: F Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 326

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28.

_____ Prior knowledge in a domain is always an advantage when it comes to learning new domain information. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.5: Summarize current knowledge about effects of existing knowledge. Consider future issues about inductive inference and statistical learning mechanisms. Page(s) in text: 328

29.

_____ Children typically do not have a predisposition to search for the causes of events. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.5: Summarize current knowledge about effects of existing knowledge. Consider future issues about inductive inference and statistical learning mechanisms. Page(s) in text: 328

30.

_____ Synaptic density is greater in early childhood than it is in adulthood. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.6: Summarize current knowledge about the development of intelligence. Consider future issues about executive function and cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 329

31.

_____ Three-month-olds scan only the contours of objects when they examine them. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: EASY LO: 12.6: Summarize current knowledge about the development of intelligence. Consider future issues about executive function and cognitive development. Page(s) in text: 330

32.

_____ Children who routinely participate in adult activities are more likely to pay attention to multiple events simultaneously than children who are segregated from adult activities. Answer: T Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.7 Summarize current knowledge about social influences on children’s thinking. Consider future issues about mechanisms of learning from social interaction. Page(s) in text: 334

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33.

_____ Research suggests that parents who have a baby with crossed eyes should not schedule corrective surgery until after the baby is three years old. Answer: F Question type: APPLICATION Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.8: Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 335

34.

_____ Intelligent tutoring systems have been shown to promote learning, but only for middle-income students. Answer: F Question type: FACTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.8: Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 337

Short Answer/Essay 35.

Infants are far more competent than once believed, but adolescents and adults are less competent than once believed. Describe one competency exhibited by infants and one incorrect belief held by adolescents and adults. Answer: Infants remember stories that have been read to them, as evidenced by their preference to listen to stories that they’ve heard before. Infants have a rudimentary understanding of time, space, and number. Infants detect and extract regularities in patterned input. Adults believe that when a car moves around an oval track, both doors move at the same speed. Most adolescents solve conflict-weight and conflictdistance balance-scale problems incorrectly. Adults ignore the randomness of events if one event is more representative (e.g., they are more likely to say that a couple will have “girl, boy, boy, girl, boy, girl” rather than “girl, girl, girl, boy, boy, boy”). Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.4: Summarize current knowledge about differences between age groups. Consider future issues about measurement and about the development of cognitive control. Page(s) in text: 324-325

36.

Prior knowledge sometimes interferes with perception, memory, and learning. Describe two findings that illustrate the pitfalls of prior knowledge. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) as children learn the sounds of their native language, they lose the ability to perceive the sounds in all the world’s languages, (2) as children learn the sounds, words, and grammar of their native language, they gradually lose the ability to learn the grammar of other languages, (3) children’s knowledge of what people typically eat for breakfast, lunch, and dinner leads them to reject the idea that someone could have cereal and orange juice for lunch, (4) children’s prior knowledge or beliefs about a person (e.g., stereotypes) lead them to incorrectly “remember” that person doing or saying things that are consistent with those beliefs, and (5) children’s knowledge of arithmetic leads them to have difficulties with novel math problems such as 3 + 4 + 5 = 3 + __.

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Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.5: Summarize current knowledge about effects of existing knowledge. Consider future issues about inductive inference and statistical learning mechanisms. Page(s) in text: 327 37.

Research in the area of cognitive development has practical benefits. Describe two findings in the area of cognitive development that have been applied to help children and/or society. Answer: Any two of the following: (1) infants have been shown to prefer to look at stripes rather than gray surfaces, so infants can be tested for blindness in a preferential looking paradigm with stripes versus gray surfaces; (2) children have been shown to be highly susceptible to false memories in some conditions, so individuals working within the legal system need to follow particular guidelines when eliciting testimony from children; (3) researchers have shown that a one-year difference in the age at which children start kindergarten does not influence reading or math skills in first grade, so parents do not need to be concerned with these academic issues when deciding whether or not to send their children to kindergarten; (4) studies have shown that promoting phonological awareness leads to better reading, so educators should not rely solely on the whole-word approach to teaching reading. Question type: FACTUAL + CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: MEDIUM LO: 12.8: Summarize some practical benefits of research on cognitive development. Consider future issues about how research in cognitive development can influence curriculum design and parent-child interaction. Page(s) in text: 335

38.

A number of studies have been conducted in an attempt to understand children’s thinking. As a result, we know a lot more about children’s thinking and how it develops today than we did fifty years ago. However, there is still much work to be done. What do you see as the biggest challenge for the future in the field of cognitive development? Defend your opinion. Answer: Opinion-based answer Question type: CONCEPTUAL Level of difficulty: DIFFICULT LO: All LOs for this chapter Page(s) in text: 315-338

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